sivas SSS Soa — SEES SUS aesapeeeeesses ees SS Tee bepptreteesldidelisistadisioiiisiistaiiti eae): edi lial hea 3& litStsbs cui Essy y DEPTS HEM Weperanre tre recess ititrenrtittre ; aia re f : Tv i aes 3 Se esse ene fied = 53D CONGRESS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. ( Mis. Doc. 184, 2d Session. ; t Part! ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION | OF THE INSTITUTION TO WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1894. FIFTY-THIRD CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. Concurrent resolution adopted by the Senate January 17, 1894, and by the House of Repre- sentatives January 18, 1894. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That there be printed of the Report of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1893, in two octavo volumes, 10,000 copies, of which 1,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 2,000 copies for the use of the House of Represent- atives, 5,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 2,000 copies for the use of the National Museum. II 1 eae FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ACCOMPANYING The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1893, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1893. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1893. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. Hon. ADLAI E. STEVENSON, President of the Senate. Hon. CHARLES F, Crisp, Speaker of the House of Representatives. ) : } IIL ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1895. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 1893. 2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1893. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1893, with statistics of exchanges, ete. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous me- moirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institu- tion, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1893, IV CLO NOE ENDS : Page. Resolution to Congress to print extra copies of the Report........--.-.----- II Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to (OM YEIRD Ngee SAS ASP oe ttc Me ceo ee eo IIE (CeneralsupyectsiotehovAnmnua ly Report sea aoe ee = 5 a ee eae ee IV Contentsrotsuneshep Ont eas ae ee nn ee Ee ee aM AE es Pe oe Vv As trOrenlas bra blOn Sheer see eee nee ee ee crs eee Soe eel ace ees Vil Moemibersieniojicio.ol thes stablishiment--=-= ss a9 = one ee ase na one eee IX Regents of the: Smithsonian Institution: — ---:-.- ---...-...-..--35.-----2-- xX JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ...---.------ xa SUAWOC! MAee bas VENUE N A, ane Biss Se ae Oe on a kmone oseoas Ses car XI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE for the year ending June 30, 1893. XIX Condibionotthesimmdlyiulycleel SO 3207 ess tepals es ee sees eet eres panne ae BRAINS AVECO Np bet Olli Op ye A aes eee eae ear cc eton ee eS SROTERG PD pendnbUnes; LORb Mes \ ean, s qactaas ay ee epee ase wee teaches joe eee BXOXG Salestan deen ay MiGs essen kare pee ays pee ea a yea Oe XOX Appropriation for International Exchanges.......-..--...------------- XaXaT Wefailsomexpenditunesioh Same =e yee eee sen eee) eee XOX Appropriations for North American Ethnology.....-........----------- XXII Details oimexpendituresiotisame sa ccs. > ys ease ae tae eee YOM Appropriavionstor the National Museums. 3. 522s26- 3-2 ee XXIII DetailssolcexpendiGuUces TO kes aI Ce eg yee a ee ee ree oe XXIII Appropriation for repairs of Smithsonian building. -.-...--...----.---- XXXIII Detaulsvofrexpenditures;of samersease nasa. = 22s ee ec eree eee XXXII Appropriation for Astro-Physical Observatory ---.--...-.------------:- XOX Metatllstotsexpenduiumes of Sameer see ee aaa ee eee See ee Se eee XXXII Appropriations for the National Zoological Park.......-.-..-.---.----- XXXKV Wetailsiotexpenditunes Of sameness cosas se se eee ia ae ae Se NEXEKUY; Generales uma aiyge rer: teres coke oe ane ee iar en eon eoniorita es Senin area ae XXXIX lintcomeraivalll ab lewors ens min oe sye alee ns ser aes eee tae eae XL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institu- tion, National Museum, etc., Fifty-second Congress, second session - -- ---- XLI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PEO MULLSONTAN UN SEIDUMTON: 21 /catiyeist nee esse sled ewe e ete, Jee eee sale eee 1 ihheststablishmentim=ssscacen sot ee = eases Sen eS BORN Saorenwe sass i RH Sr OA Guo Lees ents same oe tes ae otras apa ak eee Saeco a wos Sa aia eo 2 ANGiMIMIStrabl OM jsse ce seo ate See a eae ae Bt a ae ee oe se eetas a5 2 (RRA OS ea aes ee EE Rain fe RYE WE Tak nae. on BR a Ari eS Su Siecle 3 FES runt] Gh Sees eee ete a Nee et Oe cern, Shs eS Me oh Sele eos iayee} 5 TRIOS ANT, C library eee oe ence pate, Seer Wehr Nin WN Soy Furness easeaaietaj alee 6 Jang OCTRENSTOTIS)” cogs eet oor oe Ne Be eel ee ie eee eee 7 NDI CATONS haste Bree ree ae ar, eek wep ees Soe E A oa Sore ard Lee aa clas ae 8 AGU RRL asm are ces ata eV Pele Sorat SER ola telah NS INS a tard SoTL Sine Seyae Saas 9 ERovcl ce ketnrs stil dire e sees eee ee ers oS R= Ba ees ens oS a a RR ee 10 Wil CONTENTS. Miscellaneous: Page IER CRY aN a eo oe eee oetib ociesinnod canoe onSCoC eaedacnoeceE sCcoac 14 Sealvof the institntionessss.4-- sees eee ee ees eee eae eee 16 Lunar photooraphys see sees soe eee eee SS AnG SSO eaR EE pODS = 16 Delegates to the universities and learned societies...........------------ 17 INST Gg META HOL On ROO Sable cae ee Seas BacaeSdeamos SoS 0nesae base Gono enuseos= 17 American aistorieal eAssoclaiOleees: 526 sone ee eee eee eee 17 Stereobypeyplatesandscutss pee sees eee eee ee ea eee eee 17 Special’correspondent in sharise ses. s9= eee wee No ee eee 18 Russian Physico-Chemical: Socletys-asrasaeere ae eee eee eee 18 Correspondence 8 222 a eee Be a ae ee ae ee ee ee een ee ee eee 18 United States National Museum and the Expositions in Madrid and Chieago.. + 19 Bureau of Hthnolo gy: 22 a0. - seat ee eee Benes Som ae eee care terres Sar 22 International:exchaneés <25. S22 oss aes seen eee See Be ae oe ee eer 25 United States National Zoological Parkes -- 2-2-5 eee eee eee ea 27 Astro=Phy sical Observatory. scccas oct an eee See ee oe ee eee eer 30 INeCrOlO gy o82 F fers Bah Sa eae Ce A a eee 33 APPEND GICES bo Bo 2S oe ress A ee ee SN ores Sn 35 Appendix, Qe Theis) National Museuntessses eee eee 35 Il. Report of the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology--.---- 38 I. Report of the Curator of Eixchan cesses. ose ee eee 45 IV. Report of the acting Manager of the National Zoological Parkinson sete Moe sia a eee eae ae ere ee PO eee 54 VY. Report upon the Astro-Physical Observatory ..-.------- 60 VI. Report of the Librarian-.-.:..... Bp peas gon Seas sO: 67 Vil: Reportiof-the Pditors eos ee eee 69 GENERAL APPENDIX. The Wanderings of the North Pole, by Sir Robert Ball ...................--- 75 The-Great Lunar Crater Tyeho, by A. G. Ranyard: .._2252.. 5 5 ee 89 The Early Temple and Pyramid Builders, by J. Norman Lockyer .......-.---- 95 Wartable,Stars, by Prof.,C.Ac Young >i 225 a0 ote ee oe re see ee 107 The Luminiferous ther, by Sir George G. Stokes ..................-------- 113 Atems aud Sunbeams, by Sir Robert Ballo... 2 22>. settee eee 121 Fundamental Units of Measure, by T. C. Mendenhall................---..- Bact go Photography in the Colors of Nature, by F. E. Ives. -......2..:.-.-2s-2--2ce- 151 Photographs in Natural Colors, by Leon Warnerke ................-.2------- 163 Electric-Spark Photographs of Flying Bullets, by C. V. Boys........-..----- 165 Magnetic Properties of Liquid Oxygen, by Prof. Dewar .........-.----:----- 183 he Problem of lyme. by. Otto lulienth pe ee ee 189 Practical Experiments in Soaring, by Otto Lilienthal......................-- 195 Phenomena Connected with Cloudy Condensation, by John Aitken. .......--. 201 On’ Chemical: Energy, by Dr. iW. Ostwaldi- =. cee ese eee 231 The American Chemist, by Prof:G. 'C: Caldwelli-.-2 22.005 = see eee 239 The Highest Meteorological Station in the World, by A. Lawrence Rotch.... 253 Lhe: Mont Blane -Observatorye os 22-7 ee ene ee eee 259 Relations of Air and Water to Temperature and Life, by Gardiner G. Hubbard — 265 ‘The Ice Age'andits. Work, IsycA-R: Wallace = 52-5 -seee se ee 2717 Geologic Time as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America, by Charles D. Waleottec:os22.8k. Ghee ose ee ee ee 301 he Age of the Earth, by Clarence:King 2-2. 25 ee eee 335 The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration, by John Murray. ........--...------- 353 The North Polar Basin; by Henry Seebohin 2= .2-4-.5- ec eee 375 The Present Standpoint of Geography, by Clements R. Markham ....-...----. 395 CONTENTS. Vil Page. HowaapsraresMadesspyeWns ISL AKICs .26 4) ese ec cen Se send ces cicte cree ees 419 Biology in Relation to Other Natural Sciences, by J. 8. Burdon-Sanderson... 435 HieldiStudyvameOrnicholooy.- Dyke yDristranie es sae cece sce sae soe ne 465 The So-called Bugonia of the Ancients, and its Relation to a Bee-like Fly, Erastalissie max Uiye Oph. © SUCM SAC ke nies aera aeatae aan Senne ome ae 487 Comparative Locomotion of Different Animals, by E. J. Marey.......--...--- 501 The Marine Biological Stations of Europe, by Bashford Dean ..__........---- AO5 MiherAurandyitenDyakHennya de Warignys same. saer oes noo semen ea ace 521 IDWEEp=Se aE POSIUS Diya Acs I) AUD TE Clem = oats eels oe ype cree See 545 The Migration of the Races of Men Considered Historically, by Prof. James IBPOE! 6 Gacad BSsose Gab cee oe bse ie adube Poa pnp EE Dap OE Sonera sec es iE redeebace 567 The “Nation” as an Element in Anthropology, by Daniel G. Brinton... ...--- 589 Summary of Progress in Anthropology for the year 1893, by Otis T. Mason... 601 North American Bows, Arrows, and Quivers, by Otis T. Mason............... 631 Oriental Scholarship During the Present Century, by Prof. Frederick Max Mal- IG Sa SSSa ao Sean Bee Ce Son Seas She OBS SOO SOE Set oi es 5 a Ae erie ee 681 Stone Age Basis for Oriental Study, by Prof. bh. B. Tylor...........----..-.-- 701 Biographical Sketch of Henry Milne-Edwards, by M. Berthelot..........-.... 709 lmdexco fe tlemVioluinmesc eases Aes acres ce seciacinanc sia eee one Sea ees See 729 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SECRETARY’S REPORT: THE AGE OF THE EARTH: Group of Buffalo (plate).....--- 5 PL abeEXGVALlPe seagate ae oe 338 Map of the Spectrum (text fig). 62 PL AteRMV lee eae a ee ee ee 340 PHOTOGRAPHS OF FLYING BULLETS: Pig. 1...-..-+---+ 2-2-2 +2+2 +++ eT ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS: DEIN (SOO Rae See erat ae Reset ee 166 Dinter 369 Bl beMUIerae eens eee cite = 172 Ses SIA Fs Pe ey ek Se ER Ree Pees he ae 174 NortuH Poutar Basin: BIB Yoo non concen eet ane nn Hames eke ia me Pate rvs ee ee ee ay 176 ae ik Aaa Ef Pe latiemVilie ee. = = en cee 178 Plate XXI..---.-22-++++-+++--+- 426 (IGS Se ome 178 | Pa bOROs Mises each eet ees 428 Plater eet on eek 180 CC ION OF DIFFERENT ANI- Blateese eee eles es EN ISOs ee : late exeN Ine tape ee coe 502 JPY SG 6 Se Be a eres 182 . Bee is nies ee RN ee a 189 EKO OI DY Sosa ARSE eee Aae 504 ihe Pla teuxoxvaree Sees coe cee see 504 Liquid OXYGEN: | MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATIGNS: LE ena 27) Uf Rese a aoe eee ee ere 186 | Hig Weta eee een eed 506 THE PROBLEM OF FLYING: | PVC ODNEX: Walaa ea ee ear met 508 LOS Lee Ne ae ee eee 190 | Plate Sok Wie eee nas see ee 508 HG Oe Ps ate ett ones, soe ae 191 | FTG SO tee eet An RPS oe Bul AEM Crees eee ee aris siete, eS irs 192 | Pai SAXENA VAIL Me aay phage ew Orestes 512 SRGTO;S eA enieen segs ote cee) ee eras 193 | Pelatey XociXente asta wie ioe nee 514 BO Ose eee te pare tren ect 8 194 | lateEXXeXe ee oe Se ok oe eS EXPERIMENTS IN SOARING: | Plate Xoo fee eels Sees 518 POO Ieee ee 196 | latex XOIn ee oe eae eee ae 518 PUK SON eee ee erie 198 | Pla teCcKoaniGne seer ee eres 518 Mont BLANC OBSERVATORY: | - pret aoe Ses e wegen cciee Ss 518 spe o=q | DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS: Meee a ee ag BAGONG Vs Serre ean eee oe 566 THE IcE AGE AND ITs WORK: | Duhcae = ER Pala beCKoxexovM ss = ee aon ee oe 566 Plate XV no 2 = 22-2 = 22 ===. 296 | NorrH AMERICAN Bows, ARROWS, GEOLOGIC TIME: AND QUIVERS: LIE S01 2 ee eee emt ae 334 | Bela te SNe ka Glee en eve ie 680 ESS MEE SONTEAN ENS2fIPPUTION: MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.” (January, 1893.) ~ BENJAMIN HARRISON, President of the United States. LEVI P. MORTON, Vice-President of the United States. MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. JOHN W. FOSTER, Secretary of State. CHARLES FOSTER, Secretary of the Treasury. STEPHEN B. ELKINS, Secretary of War. BENJAMIN F. TRACY, Secretary of the Navy. JOHN WANAMAKER, Postmaster-General. WILLIAM H. H. MILLER, Attorney-General. WILLIAM E. SIMONDS, Commissioner of Patents. *A change of administration took place March 4, 1895 REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page.) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. G. BROWN GOODE, Assistant Secretary. REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LXX1I1, section 5580), ‘The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of the District of Columbia], three members of the Senate, and three mem- bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.” REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1893. The Chief-Justice of the United States : MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board Jan- uary 9, 1889. The Vice-President of the United States: LEVI P. MORTON. United States Senators: Term expires. JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed Feb. 21, 1883, and Dee. 15, 1891) .Mar. 3, 1897. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed Mar. 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1889).Mar. 3, 1895. GEORGE GRAY (appointed Dee. 20, 1892, aud Mar, 16, 1893) .----.- Mar. 3, 1899. Members of the House of Representatives: JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, and Jan. 15, 1892).. Dee. 27, 1893, HENRY CABOT LODGE (appointed January 15, 1892).-..-..--..- Dee. 27, 1893. W. C. P. BRECKINRIDGE (appointed January 15, 1892)..---....- Dee. 27, 1893. Citizens of a State: HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan. 19, 1874) .Jan, 26, 1898. JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (appointed Jan. 19, 1887, reap- pointed: Jan's: 95 L893) cic eter rare ea ae eee Jan. 19, 1899. ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1888).Feb. 15, 1894. WILLIAM P. JOHNSTON, of Louisiana (appointed Jan. 26, 1892) .Jan. 26, 1898. Citizens of Washington: JAMES C. WELLING (first appointed May 13, 1884)-.....-.....---- May 22, 1896. JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed January 26, 1892)............ Jan. 26, 1898. Executive Commitice of the Board of Regents. JAMES C. WELLING, Chairman. HENRY COPPER. /. B. HENDERSON. x JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. JANUARY 205, 1893. The annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was held to-day at 10 a.m. Present: The chancellor, Mr. Chief Justice Fuller; Vice-President L. P. Morton; the Hon. J.S. Mor- rill; the Hon. S. M. Cullom; the Hon. George Gray; the Hon. Joseph Wheeler; the Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge; the Hon. W. C. P. Breckin- ridge; Dr. J. ©. Welling; Dr. Henry Coppée; Dr. William Preston Johuston; John B. Henderson, esq., and the secretary. A letter was read from Dr. J. B. Angell, stating that his nonattend- ance was on account of important business engagements. The secretary then presented the minutes of the last annual meeting of January 27, 1892, and of the special meeting of March 29, 1892, which, at the suggestion of the chancellor, he read in abstract. Referring to the mention there of authority given by the Regents at the last regular meeting to bring the matter of an additional appropriation for admin- istrative expenses before Congress, the secretary remarked that the time had not been considered opportune and that the Regents’ authori- zation had not yet been acted upon. The minutes of both meetings were approved. The secretary then announced that the Vice-President, on December 20, 1892, appointed as Regent the Hon. George Gray, a U. 8S. Sen- ator, in place of the Hon. R. L. Gibson, deceased. Also that by joint resolution, approved by the President January 9, 1893, Dr. J. B. Angell had been reappointed a Regent to succeed himself, his term expiring January 19, 1593. The secretary announced the death of the Hon. R. L. Gibson on December 15, 1892, remarking that one who had known him longer and better than he had, would doubtless say what was fitting in this connection. Dr. Johnston then moved that a committee be appointed to draft a suitable memorial and resolutions, which was carried, and the chaneel- lor appointed Dr. Johnston, Senator Morrill, and the secretary a com- XI XII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. mittee of three to report the resolutions to the board. Dr. Johnston then presented the following memorial and resolutions, which were adopted: THE BOARD OF REGENTS: Your committee report that the Hon. Randall Lee Gibson was appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1887, and filled that office until his death, December 15, 1892. Senator Gibson brought to the performance of his duties as Regent a rare prepa- ration as student, scholar, and statesman. With inherited talents for oratory and with strong literary tendencies, he was surrounded in youth by all the influences that direct the energies of man to the public welfare. At Yale College he took a very prominent stand in a group noted for talents and enthusiasm. Foreign travel, the study of the law, the life of a planter, a distinguished military career, and long service in the Congress of the United States filled his capacious mind with a store of arich and varied experience and trained him for the highest duties. Life was to him a consecration to public duty, and the performance of that duty his highest felicity. Benevolent, brave, patient, prudent, faithful, his grace and gentleness were the rich drapery of an inflexible will and tenacious purpose. He came to the Smithsonion Institution as a servant animated by the fullest sense of his responsibilities and self-pledged to a rigid performance of them. His interest in the institution has been limited only by the conditions of his position. His death is a loss to his State and his country, in whose councils he has served for eighteen years. In view of these facts, it is— Resolved, That in the death of the Hon. Randall Lee Gibson the Smithsonian Institution has lost a zealous and useful regent, and its board a valued member whose services can ill be spared. Resolved, That we lament his loss as an acceptable colleague, a gracious gentle- man, a patriotic citizen, and a wise statesman, whose interest in the spread of knowledge among men fitted him well for his duties on this board. Resolved, That these resolutions be entered on the minutes of the board and a copy be transmitted to the family of our friend. Dr. Johnston added that Senator Gibson’s death Was a particular sorrow to him; they had been friends from boyhood with never a single cloud in their friendship. He was with Senator Gibson in his last hours and felt in his death a great personal loss, and he did not doubt that _ all who knew him personally regretted his loss to themselves and to the country. The secretary then announced the death on March 4, 1892, of Dr. Noah Porter, a former Regent. The secretary presented his report for the year ending June 30, 1892, stating that if was confined to matters of major importance, matters of detail being found in the appendix. He had endeavored to put into it only matters that might demand publicity, and had arranged the report in this form so as to permit it to be read. He had dwelt at some length on the features of the National Zoological Park. Therest of the report would speak for itself, but he might call attention to statements about the disposition of the income of that portion of Mr. Hodgkin’s gift which was Specially directed to one purpose, and to the form of some of the letters written to distinguished men all over the world in relation to it. The report was accepted. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XIII Dr. Welling, on behalf of his colleagues, presented the report of the executive committee to June 30, 1892, which was adopted. Dr. Welling also said that he would here present the usual resolu- tion relative to the income and expenditures of the institution, which was adopted, as follows: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894, be appropriated for the service of the institution, to be expended by the Secre- tary with the advice of the executive committee, upon the basis of the operations described in the last annual report of said committee, with full discretion on the part of the secretary as to items of expenditures properly falling under each of the heads embraced in the established conduct of the institution. Dr. Welling then said that at the last regular meeting, the secretary had presented a statement of the burdens imposed by the need of his personally signing ail purely routine money papers, and the boaiwl had referred a resolution on the subject to the executive committee, with power to act. He would now present the result of their action as fol- lows: WASHINGTON, D. C., April 15, 1892. Whereas a member of the Board of Regents, at their last meeting on January 27, 1892, offered the following resolution : “Resolved, That the Secretary be empowered to appoint some suitable person who, in case of need, may sign such requisitions, vouchers, abstracts of vouchers, accounts current, and indorsements of checks and drafts, as are needed in the current business of the Institution or of any of its bureaus, and are customarily signed in the bureaus of other Departments of the Government.” And whereas this was referred to the executive committee with power to act— Resolved, That the executive committee approve the resolution in the terms pro- posed, and contirm the Secretary in the powers therein mentioned. JAMES C, WELLING, HENRY COPPER, J. B. HENDERSON, Executive Committee. Dr. Welling added that the action was taken simply to relieve the Secretary of what was becoming a too heavy tax upon his time and in other ways an increasing burden, and it was to further provide that, in case of his absence, the work of the Institution should not be sus- pended; that he had now power to delegate authority to sign such routine papers. The Secretary announced the death of Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins on November 25, 1892, and read the following obituary notice: Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins, who died at Setauket, Loug Island, on November 25, 1892, was born in London, England, in 1803. His ancestors were clergymen, and belonged to the class of English gentlemen, but his father, who was in reduced cir- cumstances, was unable to keep him at Eton or Harrow, and sent him to France, where he remained for his education until he was about 15 years old. During this time his language, habits, and manners became rather French than English. He returned to England, but troubles with a stepmother made his home anbear- able, and against the urgent entreaty of his father he shipped before the mast in a trading vessel bound for Calcutta. The vessel was wrecked near the mouth of the XIV. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. Hoogly, and young Hodgkins found himself penniless and friendless in Calcutta, where he was taken ill and earried to the hospital. He has since said that it was here, and when he was a sick lad, who was told that he had not six months to live, that he made up his mind that he would live, that he would acquire a fortune, and that he would devote it to large and philanthropic ends. _ He recovered sufficiently to prepare a petition to the Governor-General of India, who was then the Marquis of Hastings, asking for aid to return to England; and he walked a long distance into the country, where the Governor-General was staying at his country seat, to deliver it. He arrived at the vice-regal residence bare footed and ill-clad, and asked an audience with the ruler of India with such persistence that the attendants, who at first refused, finally consented to present his petition. This so impressed the viceroy when he read it that he directed that the young sailor should be admitted to see him, and the interview that followed ended by his offering young Hodgkins a position in his household which any gentleman’s son might have been willing to accept, but which he refused from his overmastering wish to return to his rather. I think this curious adventure (as it may almost le called) deserves narration as an instance both of the remarkable force of Mr. Hodgkins’s character and of the evi- dence of gentle breeding his manners always bore, and of the influence both had on others even in his earliest years. After going home he went to Spain, and later, returning to England, he married, and in 1830 came to thiscountry. He immediately engaged in business, which he pursued with unremitting energy for thirty years, when he retired on what was at that time considered « handsome fortune. The fifteen years following this he spent in trav- elling over Europe and America, and in 1875 he settled down in Setauket, Long Island, upon his place ‘‘Brambletye Farm,” which he rarely left, except for an occasional visit to New York, until his death. Mr. Hodgkins was a man of remarkably self-poised mind, singularly independent in his modes of thought, and independent also of the need of social converse or of adventitious interests. His opinions were his own, and he found in the reading which confirmed them and in the care of his little farm abundant and agreeable occupation for his declining years. He was a man of keen intelligence, and by nature, perhaps, still more a thinker anda scholar than a man of affairs, though even in the latter capacity his ability was proven by his success in business. He possessed a strong will, and had deliberately formed and tenaciously held opinions of his own in relation to religious and philosophical questions. In regard to the former, it may be sufficient to say that his mind was of a devout cast, and that while he had thought much for himself, he retained to the last an absolute trust in the divine guidance as the leading motive of his life. Mr. Hodgkins had for more than thirty years made a special study of the atmos- phere in its relations to the well-being of humanity. He believed that most of the physical evils to which mankind are subject arise from the vitiation of the air which they breathe, and that the study of the atmosphere is not unimportant even with relation to man’s moral and spiritual, as well as his physical health; and though he did not point out any line of investigation likely to bear fruit in the latter direction, it was his hope that the concentration of thought upon the atmosphere and its study from every point of view, would in time lead to results which would justify his almost devout interest in the subject. In this last respect, his beliefs about the atmosphere, otherwise clear enough, were not always easy to follow, but though all those who talked to him were not sure that they here understood his full meaning, it was at least plain that he was well content to place his trust in the charge of such an institution as the Smith- sonian, and to leave it to the future to shape the result. He was very explicit, however, in his statements that it was not for sanitary sci- ence or for meteorology, or for the like branches of study alone or for those which JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XV might seem most obviously suggested by the words of his trust, to profit exclu- sively by it, for he believed that every department of philosophy (using the term in its widest sense) would be found to be finally connected with every cther, through this common bond of union; so that it was his particular desire to have such varied investigations in the atmosphere made as would aid in the knowledge of each and all of these aspects of knowledge. Mr. Hodgkins brought to all his studies, as to this, a very retentive memory, while general reading and travel had stored his mind with singularly varied infor- mation. He was a good French scholar and loved to quote from the French classics, His catholicity of mind was sufficient to include a not inconsiderable sense of humor, and his favorite quotation from Boileau pointed to his consciousness of a perhaps too imaginative indulgence in his favorite themes. He was a punctilious corres- pondent, and what it is not too much to call his real literary ability, was nevershown more happily than in his letters, which were in many respects models of epistolary ease, and even of charm, of diction. He was hospitable and enjoyed entertaining the few friends whom he admitted to his table, where his manner, as a host of the old school, was a happy one. Mr. Hodgkins had no family and no known blood relations, and, recognizing the difficulties which often arise over the settlements of large estates, he chose to be his own executor rather than leave the disposition of his affairs to those who might either misinterpret or disregard his requests when he could no longer appear as a witness in his own behalf. He therefore gave away his entire estate, amounting to about half a million dollars, to various public institutions. His funeral was unostentatious, as he requested it should be, only his intimate friends attending. Among these he (the Secretary) wasnumbered; for while he felt it his official duty to represent this Institution at the funeral of one to whom it owed so much, he desires to say, in concluding this brief notice, that he was there also from a feeling of real friendship and regard to an old man whose singular powers, whose lonely life, and whose perhaps often unmet affection had drawn the speaker to him as to a personal friend. Mr. Wheeler remarked that the gentleman who had given the Insti- tution somuch deserved some special record of his death, and he moved that the notice should be extended by the Secretary, should include a statement of the gifts he had made, and should be spread upon the records of the Board. The motion was carried. The Secretary then presented the portrait of Mr. Hodgkins, which he stated he had wished to order under the instructions of the Board during Mr. Hodgkins’s lifetime, but owing to that gentleman’s reluc- tance to be portrayed, it was not executed until after his death, and from a photograph. It was not yet finished, the artist, Mr. Robert Gordon Hardie, desiring its return in order that he might elaborate it. The Secretary added that from his knowledge of the original he consid- ered, and that the assistant secretary Dr. Goode (who was well quali- fied to judge), also considered the picture a very satisfactory likeness indeed. Dr. Welling remarked that it looked as if it could hardly be much improved as a likeness by much greater elaboration. Mr. Lodge said that while he could not, of course, speak of the likeness in case of one he had not seen, the picture bore its own evidence that it was a piece of good work. Other commendatory remarks were made. The secretary called the attention of the Regents to the action taken with regard to that portion of the Hodgkins fund which was especially XVI. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. devoted to scientific purposes. He had taken counsel with many emi- nent scientific men in Europe as well as at home, as to the best dispo- sition to make of this fund, and given the matter much thought. A portion of the results of this care was embodied in the circular which he then presented for the consideration of the board. He stated that it was the intention to send this cireular to all parts of the world, and that after eliminating from the list of the correspond- ents of the institution, those which it was not considered should receive it—about two-thirds in all—there yet remained about 8,000 to be sup- plied; and these were scattered all over the inhabited parts of the globe, including Africa, and the small islands of the Pacific. In affixing the old seal of the institution to these, the secretary had noticed that it bore no legend or indication of the institution’s pur- poses, although to the vast majority of those receiving it, these were unknown. He had been led by this to prepare a new seal in which the words of Smithson, “ For the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men” should take the place of his face. He would speak of this later. The circular was examined by the members of the board. The chan- cellor said it night be well to state on the heading of the circular that the President of the United States was ea-officio presiding officer of the institution, and the secretary stated that he would act on the sug- gestion. After reading the circular in brief, the secretary recurred to the sub- ject of the seal. He said he had consulted a number of sources for such a design, without much success, until he had finally been fortu- nate in securing one from Mr. St. Gaudens, who had made one from the secretary’s indications, which he was glad to submit to the regents. The Secretary remarked that the preparation of the circular and the announcement of the prizes and medal had been made under the instrue- tions of the board that this portion of the income should be expended in carrying out the express wishes of the donor. The circular had been varried down to Setauket and was one of the last things that had oceu- pied the attention of Mr. Hodgkins. He was personally consulted about it and approved the plan. Mr. Lodge then offered the following resolution, which was adopted; Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to procure a new seal for the institu- tion, with a suitable motto and device, to comprehend the words of Smithson, “For the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” and also the words, “Smith- sonian Institution, Washington, 1846.” The Secretary then read a portion of the will of Mr. Hodgkins where he makes the institution his residuary legatee. He wished to state that he had learned from the executor, but altogether unofficially, that the amount coming to the institution under this will, as residuary legatee, was but a few thousand dollars, Mr. Hodgkins having meant to give away as far as possible all of his property at the time of his death. He JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XVII also stated that it was, however, probable that certain bonds deposited by Mr. Hodgkins inatrust company, though forming no portion of the residuary estate, would come to the institution, and he asked the instruc- tions of the Regents as to their disposition. Dr. Welling then read the following resolution: Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to sell at the market price, any bonds or securities which may accrue to the institution as residuary legatee of the late Thomas G. Hodgkins, or from any trust instituted by him in its favor, if it is in the Secretary’s judgment desirable to do so; and should there accrue any further sum not demanding the special consideration of the Regents by its importance, that he be authorized to apply it to the general purposes of the institution. On motion of Senator Cullom, the resolution was adopted. The Secretary then brought before the board the matter of the change in the organization of the establishment, calling attention to two points for consideration : Ata meeting of the Regents on January 28, 1891, the Secretary stated that he had been authorized by the President, the Vice-President, the Chief-Justice, and other members of the establishment to ask for legis- lation to make the establishment consist of the President, Vice-Pres- ident, Chief-Justice, and all the heads of Departments. Since the Institution was established the place filled by the Commis- sioner of Patents would seem to have been taken by the creation of the Secretary of the Interior. The Secretary of Agriculture has been cre- ated, while the office of the governor of the District of Columbia no longer exists. The proposed change would be covered by the following act: Be it enacted, etc., That ‘‘An act to establish the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” approved August 10, 1846, Revised Statutes, Title Lxx111, be, and the same is hereby, amended in Section 5579 of said act by striking out the words ‘the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster-General, the Attor- ney-General, the Commissioner of the Patent-Office, and the governor of the District of Columbia, and such other persons as they may elect honorary members,” and inserting the words ‘‘the heads of Executive Departments,” so that the section will read: “Src. 5579. The President, the Vice-President, the Chief-Justice, and the heads of Executive Departments are hereby constituted an establishment by the name of the ‘Smithsonian Institution’ for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men; and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers, limitations, and restrictions hereinafter contained, and no other.” The Secretary said that he had consulted the President, the Vice- President, the Chief Justice, the Secretary of State, and those two members of the Cabinet mostly interested, and had their sanction in making this suggestion, and though it was a matter which concerns the establishment, he thought it proper to state his proposed action to the Regents, and if there were no objection on their part, he would infer their assent to this the first amendment sought. SM 93 Il XVIII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The second change proposed by the Secretary, after consultation with the Chief Justice, and after an examination of the fundamental act by Mr. H. E. Davis, was as follows: To amend Section 5591 of the Revised Statutes by the addition of these words: But this shall not operate as a limitation on the power of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to receive money or other property by gift, bequest, or devise, and to hold and dispose of the same in promotion of the purposes thereof, and as easndeds in the next section. The chancellor said, with regard to legislation concerning the funds, that section 5591 might possibly as it stood appear to operate as a limit- ation; and that, though he did not himself consider that any reason- able doubt could arise as to the right of the Regents to hold property outside of the million any more than to deposit sums within it, yet, out of abundant precaution, he bad approved of the addition of the words as read. A motion by Senator Morrill that the Secretary be authorized to draw up a bill providing for such changes in the legislation as were desir- able in sections 5579 and 5591 of the Revised Statutes, and to present the same to the Senate and House through Congressional Regents, was then put by the chancellor and carried. There being no further business to come before the board, on motion it adjourned. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FoR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1893. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institution, the U.S. National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro- Physical Obsery- atory for the year ending 30th June, 1895, and balances of former years: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 1893. The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the Treas- ury of the United States, according to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added, by authority of Congress, February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson, savings from income and other sources, to the amount of $134,831. To this also have been added a bequest from James Hamilton, of Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York, of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500, and a gift from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000, making in all, as the permanent fund, $903,000, Statement of the receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893. RECEIPTS. (CHWS one mesa hes fil bi ai els PN eee peers te Bis ree tee a ee ey ee $47, 875. 33. initenestzonetumd siliyaee92 Rae Sha eee eee = S21 090800 imberestionmiundsyannwary i NS9ses.4- = 8s 2 27, 090. 00 ———— 54, 180.00 $102, 055. 33 (Cell Reda SANS Git jOUlHIMKCA NOME sss asta scooas daseaouaaosaes 556. 58 Cashirom repayments, freight, ete... =2.---.-2--2--- =---2- 3, 235. 96 — 3, 792. 54 “TEE ELOCEN OU es Serene OE REIS Sr He ae mE a 105, 847. 87 XIX ».@.4 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. EXPENDITURES, Building: Repairs, care, and improvements...........-.- $2, 609. 94 Furniture and! fixturesseset 24. eee eee eee 688. 18 $3, 298. 12 General expenses: IGG TENS eee soy ere crete rieiaicts eiareisieielweeicieeteneeteeee 492. 00 Rostage and telegraphisj-5- cece ee eee 356. 18 SIPUICIVE Nera ca6 Goon bone, cbomaaccoojondoo coco 628. 08 General’ printing. -253 53-2. sb 5. see eee 279. 83 Incidentals) (fuel) gas ete!) sesso ee eee 3, 793. 72 library, (books;speriodicals)=sescec- ese eee 1, 655. 75 Salaries™ «oo oe sos senses, see see oee eee ee ace 18, 751. 92 25, 957. 48 Publications and researches: Smithsonian contributions’.<.--.4--5---ses~-- 2, 731. 62 Miscellaneousrcollectionsiesss- ener eaeee 6, 670. 64 REM OTUS |: os csie ws sccceisistotecsemiee ce scise eae eye cater eiebeieele 801. 60 Researches ccs cao nc ote Cee ECO eee eer 3, 010. 95 APP ALAtUss.<\-c.oe sae secs ctere Ouciee isis viewer eee 1, 808. 56 Museumy...cscrs sac sccienec ana scisicis cae etdaie seme 1, 045. 38 Hodokins funds: <2 secss ciieciereciseisie sets eraiclace 1, 912.13 —— 17, 980. 88 iteranywandiscientificvexchanges = --ee ese ee eee Ie Bnkis}, 97 —— $48, 755. 05 Balance, unexpendedsJune\3 0 GSS seen le ee eee ee eee 57, 092. 82 The cash received from the sale of publications, from repayments for freights, ete., is to be credited to the items of expenditure as follows: In cidenbalec: i265, one oe ee os ee ere OEE orn ie $12. 25 SMIthsonianicontnibublonsesneessee see e ee eee eee eee $315. 32 Miscellaneous collections -csac-m-6 ce ~ oe ciee noe ce eerie ceieeee 172. 16 LG) 0X0) enene am geae = Snancooog Cdabbd Ue0s GoSene Oood Dudes Hand sosone 69. 10 a 9D6. 5X A PPaVabUs:< 522525222 e onc ee eieceeiociaen ae eee tie ee ROC eae ee eres 148. 50 MUseUM 2 foe oe Ast wanes oe Salas Bee wide a ee eres ee ee ee ECE EEE eon eee 1, 541. 22 x Chan Peskec = jes cnc eters ee itera ee oe ayaa tet ee ieee ere 1, 483. 99 DOLVICOBs occa Sarcicte aise Se ae SES ere ee OEE Eoin See Cee 50. 00 3, 792. 54 The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1893, were therefore $44,962.51, or $3,792.54 less than the gross expendi- tures, $48,755.05, as above stated. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise are deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Secretary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks ou the Treasurer of the United States. *In addition to the above $18,751.92 paid for salaries under general expenses $6,719.81 were paid for services, viz, $141.07 charged to apparatus account, $1,500 to building account, $823.87 to library account, $2,854.05 to researches account, and $1,399.92 to Smithsonian contribution accounts. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXI Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution: INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Receipts. Appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, ‘‘for the expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés.” Sinm@hey@iiyillayers AIDS Gs CCE en ee ae as eee $12, 000. 00 Dehicrencygach eMarcheo S95 tre cre cee ee eek Se eee een 5, 000. 00 ; 17, 000. 00 Expenditures from July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893. Salaries or compensation: * eurator, 12 months, at) $2255. -2-2 5.552622 = $2, 700. 00 lclenk el 2imonuhs aul G0 secs nee sess s eee 1, 920. CO ikclerksnlZimonths ati plas see sseeleece cece eee 1, 440. 00 oleris 2 months atibeorcec- emcee eee ce nsec 1, 020. 00 ikelerk.UZamonths at f80e- ces sc sc ass acaes oe ee 960. 00 lgclenke al 2hmonbphswati plo esnesscteen eee eee 900. 00 lkclerk el 2nmonthsat $ioseesm--en cee eee 900. 00 olerkssl 2imonths. au pooneness casa ne a eee 780. 00 lkclerkcaltmonths abi p4 Seacrest ne ee 67. 50 1 clerk, 2 months, at $40, $80; 17 days, at $40, SPAS OTE ces oene Shes aioe Es tee Coen aN ae ae 102. 67 1 stenographer, 3 months, at $45...._......-.... 135. 00 1 copyist, 1 month, at $40, $40; 15 days, at $40, PUES GB SSRs een BOE eer C Ease Sea 59. 35 1 packer, 5 months, at$75, $375; 7 months, at $50 PIO ye aera foes Pe Oe ee eiow a eee een oes Se 725. 00 lpackerroemMonuhs wate same ewe see see 250. 00 iblaboreryosmonbhs vabedao see eee eee ea ee nee 175. 00 IL loaner, G2) Gen E, Bin, Gils) 2655 conc sass ecoseeee 138. 00 1 agent, 6 months, at $83.334-......-.....-.---- 500. 00 [Fagtent .OrmMonchs,ab foe -seecesscens ose o oe 300. 00 Total salaries or compensation................+...---- $13, 072. 52 General expenses: TSS UE Re Se aie eee geen ip ao ge Rar AA iL Bi, BU RAC IN CMD ORES ctaaacies shee eee role ne recto 441. 40 PMMbNe ands bINGING: 2: sesh ows sao soe 198. 60 ROB UAG rcp teres ets sae eveus 5 fe SoM ease eee t we 150. 00 Susuonenyrandesupplieseea-eeesaeees ei ce eso. 337. 68 2, 665. 25 Total expenditure from July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893............. 15, 737. 17 Balance July 1, 1893, to meet outstanding liabilities .............. 1, 262.23 *The payments of salaries for parts of months in January, March, July, August, October, and December are made on the basis of 31 days, and for the other months (except February) at 30 days. XXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, ‘for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés.” (Sundry civil act, August 5, 1892) ..............-.------ $40, 000.00 Balance July 1, 1892, as per last annual report.............--..--...---- 15, 008.06 55, 008. 06 The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the Secretary in the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the U.S. Geologi- cal Survey. Expenditures July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1593. Salaries or compensation: 1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $250 ...-.--.....------.----- $3, 000. 00 ikethnoloeist, 7 months rat ip2OO mes =e le lai ee 1, 750..00 2 ethnolorists, 12; months, at $200): 2225 e ee ee een eee 4, 800. 00 1 ethnologist, 12 mouths, at $166.66 ......--...----..----- IL GEE. S24 2. ethnolovists, 12.months, at. $150 ~~ 22226 2s 22 = 3, 600. 00 1 ethnologist, 13 months, at $133.33 - Sons ae 1, 133. 29 1 assistant ethnologist, 9 months, - “$116. 66, $1, 049. 94; 21 days, at $116.66, $87.49; 14 days, at $116.66, $54.44.. 1, 191. 87 1 assistant ethnologist, 2months, at $100, $200; 10 months, at $11666, -S151166 60s cae es aS ete cee age 1, 366. 60 1 assistant ethnologist, 2} months, at $75, $187.50; 93 MOMbHS abil OOM PISO R see ee ee ae eee eee 1, 1350 1 assistant ethnologist, 74 months, at $60 ..-........----- 452. 14 1 archzologist, 12 months, at’ $2116:66.-- 222-25. .-. =.= 22 2, 599. 92 1 assistant archeologist, 12 months, at $125 ......---...--- 1,500. 00 2 assistant archeologists, 12 months, at $100 .....--.-..--- 2, 400. 00 1 stenographer, 12 months, at $125 ............-.---...--- 1, 500. 00 isterocrapher dW monthy at G60 see ee s.r ee a 60. 00 1 draftsman, 2 months, at $183.33, $366.66; 14 days, at $I83133; ‘$8207 Ie coce oe ee eee See ee eee Seema 449. 45 1 draftsman, 2 months, at $116.66, $233.32; 14 days, at $116:66; *$52:68 Save te. See Seas sere see alee eee 286. 00 dcclerks, 12-mon ths at$l00 cece oer aie ieee eee 1, 200. 00 2 clerks, 42imonithsates60i soe eee eee eee eee 1, 440. 00 l aceite ae eee eee 122. 00 ieskilledlaborer, 40 days, ab $2 so2ss2-ss-- 22 eee Be ea teat: 80. 00 1 skilled laborer, 179 days, at $1.75........... en oe ee ae 313. 25 1 laborer, 8 months 29 days, at $40; 2 months, at $41.50............-. 440, 42 lahorerel-monthel Gidaysyratet4 Oa --iopereie oelet='aie aee eeee oee 60. 65 7, 903. 47 SpecialuserviceibyjOb OL COnbLACt esac mercies ee ele eer 91. 22 Total expenditure for salaries.......--. PAT UI) oe Mate NEB. 7,994. 69 Miscellaneous: OhISGSasan pS acsonecch eeDOHOGOSS so0nb0 co00 5OOOas SacdSbes SHE 556. 52 Dra wine sOr CaAsesis. scat sel seie aly sen tale eile oie ee ie ee eae 34.50 Draw ersss trays; DOKOS 92-6). cts homie tor ee eee ee ee ee 252. 60 Prames Stands sete: gees ss hae aes ee aay ree eee eee 16. 00 GLASS Ske So eS ow Sie rete a ate e tea ata afte) antes sft ace eye 174. 92 Hard wares: 2 eek Sod foes Mees cers sietcreret woe nie alee saree Be arte yreete 649. 50 TRO OVS yas fen oe NS ea ear rete Sete e ee EIS arta ae ee cn ay ea eee 25. 08 Clothsicottonpebe seca csc oie sees Sa eal ae eee ee 47.53 GASSI ATS: Bose se onesie ae oom ae nee oie a aera ae ee 438. 10 Bb tilts) eek eee eA naa as Sate LEN pas SOP ey aoe 501. 44 Paints Os ete ost esc somce a eee ace ete ne ete eae See 383. 35 Office -furnituress 2 2 Sets ase eee eee eee eee 48. 22 Mie tals ocak Se aisge ie eons eat eee = erate we ae eee eee ee 30. 89 Rubber ands leather: 25 32cio22 secsaccene soe Oe eee 21. 86 Apparatus: 2-55 5ccS bse aes ore eee ee eee 118. 20 Slate, sbrick ete: 2st 22 eke neces ene eee a eee eer eee 6.50 Sky-lighits 5.22 occ oie ceimereeeee eee eee eee ee Cee 160. 00 —— 4, 065. 22 Total expenditure July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893, for furniture and 17B-G TERS of an inch wide, and less than s;55 of an inch thick. Through this frail thread of metal a current of electricity is continually kept flowing. When the spectrum, visible or invisible, is thrown upon it, the thread is warmed and the current decreased by an amount corresponding to the intensity of the effect received, while novel instruments specially mounted and constructed, are in electric connection with the thread and now automatically record every minute change in this current. With late improvements these instruments are so delicate that a change of temperature of one millionth of a degree is readily detected nd even measured, and it is easy to see that as a consequence of this delicacy the greatest care must be taken in their use. Thus the labora- tory must be almost completely darkened, and closed tightly, so as to exclude all drafts and to keep it at as nearly a uniform temperature as possible, while for other reasons it must be kept under constant hygrometric conditions. The passage of wagons or carriages in the neighboring streets even is liable to cause serious trouble. Hence, the necessity for as complete isolation of the laboratory as possible, and the rigorous exclusion at all times of all whose presence is not indispensable. In addition to these difficulties there are others of specially trying character due to the nature of the work. To maintain other necessary conditions, the opening of a door or window for purposes of ventilation is forbidden, even in summer, although the temperature sometimes rises to 100° and even 110°, ren- dering the work of observing in the small, non-ventilated and darkened room very trying to the health of the observer. Frequent changes in the staff of the Observatory have been necessary for this and other reasons, and the progress of the work has been delayed in consequence. In spite of these and other difficulties, most of which are due to the very temporary and inefficient nature of the small wooden building in which the work is carried on, and its proximity to the traffic-laden streets, the expectations of last year have been largely realized, and a detailed publication of the work accompanied by charts showing several hundred new and before unknown lines, will shortly be issued. Important as these results are, they are but the beginning of what it may be hoped will be accomplished, with proper facilities. In view of what has been already accomplished, I hope that Con- gress will see fit to make provision for the needs of the Astro-phys- ical Observatory in the provision of a suitable site, the money for a small permanent building being already available through the pro- visions made by friends of the Institution whose contributions for this purpose have already been acknowledged. . REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 NECROLOGY. RANDALL LEE GIBSON. Randall Lee Gibson was born at Spring Hill near Versailles, Ky., September 10, 1832; was educated in Lexington, Ky.; in Terre Bonne Parish, La.; at Yale College, and in the law department of the Tulane University of Louisiana. During the civil war he commanded a com- pany, regiment, brigade, and division in the Confederate army. He was arepresentative in the Forty-fourth, Forty-fifth, Forty-sixth, and Forty- seventh Congress, and was clected to the Senate in 1883, and his see- ond term as Senator would have expired on March 3, 1895. Senator Gibson was appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institu- tion December 19, 1887, and was reappointed March 28, 1889, filling the office till his death, on December 15, 1892. His services as a Regent were warmly recognized in the memorial and resolutions presented at the meeting of the Board on January 25, 1895. Senator Gibson brought to the performance of his duties as Regent a rare preparation as student, scholar, and statesman. With inherited talents for oratory, and with strong literary tendencies, he was sur- rounded in youth by all the influences that direct the energies of a man to the public welfare. At Yale College he took a very prominent stand in a group noted for talent and enthusiasm. Foreign travel, the study of law, the life of a planter, a distinguished military career, and long service in the Congress of the United States, filled his capacious mind with a store of a rich and varied experience, and trained him for the highest duties. Life was to him a consecration to public duty, and the performance of that duty his highest felicity. Benevolent, brave, patient, prudeat, faithful, his grace and gentleness were the rich drapery of an inflexible will and tenacious purpose. He came to the Smithsonian Institution as a servant animated by the fullest sense of his responsibilities and self-pledged to a rigid perform- ance of them. His interest in the Institution has been limited only by the conditions of his position. His death, which occurred at Hot Springs, Ark., on December 15, 1892, is a loss to his State and his country, in whose councils he has served for eighteen years. THOMAS GEORGE HODGKINS. Thomas George Hodgkins was born in England in 1803, and his early boyhood was spent there. When about 17 years of age, led by a youth’s love of adventure, as well as by the desire to aid his family, then in somewhat reduced circumstances, he shipped on one of the East India Company’s vessels, and made a voyage to the farther east, where he narrowly escaped death by shipwreck. Consequent upon this misadventure, came confinement in a hospital in Calcutta for some months. During this period of enforced quiet and physical inaction, he formed the resolve that his life, if spared, should henceforth be devoted to advancing the welfare of his fellow men. SM 93——a 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. After recovery he returned to England, where he married. -- - 80 | San eee ase oe ene ieee 10 (CLOT TOE Tn eRe ye g te PSST IFO WEMeNrs 2 Surrey aee 8 cess eae 21 Greatibrivaimens sss eee aan soso. = Ziel SWbZeT amd seen Asse nee ee 18 (Cuubemal ieee sa saree see aa Je has MEANT al eens ese Steere ee 3 atanGieesertaes tereee Ne ees eo 2 | UK yaoscises oes Sey eS ee ee 2 ION GUPAS eee sees ss asses ees Oe) URS TA ee C RIE Be aS COM See SEHR oe 3 italy oe ceteris ete oes dhe) | WET a. = soe coco adGsanjsead cecans 2 a PAM eee a cpeen = ninja oe sce eles LPS We VAG COL a sem peters Sheena anes oe oes 9 RECAPITULATION. MotaliGovernmenti shipmentstencas «ses ese eee ea ea tear ene eae seein 168 Notalemiscelllancousishipmencspec see ee sone ee eee eee eee 710 oOtalesipmMemtSre soe sete wy yaeae ee eee aan Soe ce iecte cis ceee 878 so valeshipmentsslasbryealeccc.tom noe ne es ee © Soe oes Ao see os, See 1, 015 Wecreasoserombelastay ease aoe sa eee eae ones Sao oe ee ieee er Sok tees eee 137 W. C. WINLOCK, Curator of Exchanges. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX IV. REPORT OF THE ACTING MANAGER OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1893. Sir: ILhave the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893. By act of Congress dated August 5, 1892, the sum of $50,000 was appropriated to maintain and improve the park. As no provision was made by this act for the pur- chase of animals, calculations were made as to the cost of maintaining the collection already on hand and plans for further improvement were based upon the balance then available. The buffalo, elk, and other native wild animals have naturally received the most attention. Effort has been made to place them as far as possible in natural conditions by extending the paddocks assigned to them. While it has not been practicable to give them large ranges, many acres in extent, as was at first intended, since it is now found desirable that they be kept where they can be readily viewed by the public, yet the inclosures are of considerable size. The accompanying engraving represents a group of buffalo now in the Park. In the preceding year it was necessary to place in the large animal house the animals requiring heat, although that house was still in an unfinished state. During the present year it has been completed, except the outer cages, and a tile roof has been substituted for the temporary one. The plans for the house contem- plated additions to the main structure, and as more room was urgently needed and the available funds were insufficient for a stone addition, a frame extension has been built conforming to the original plan in size and form. A row of permanent cages occupies either side of this extension and a large tank in the middle of the room accommodates aquatic animals. By this means it has been possible to give the animals comfortable and suitable quarters where they can be easily seen by the public. It is, however, a matter of great regret that the entire structure was not built of stone and nothing but pressing necessity can excuse the erection of the present extension. On the meadow upon the right bank of the creek paddocks have been inclosed and asmall thatched barn built to shelter a small herd of amas. These animals were purchased last year in South America through the kindness of Col. W. P. Tisdel, of the Bureau of American Republics. The plan submitted by the landscape architects provided for a large pond for waterfowl and other aquatic animals at the bend of the creek below the bridge. This pond has been excavated, but fencing and shelters are needed before animals ean be put in it. The principal road through the park was last year completed only to the hill in front of the buffalo house. From this point to the park limit, near Connecticut Avenue Extended, an old wood road had been used, but it was of too steep a grade. A new road has therefore been projected and begun. This road will wind around the spurs of the hill sloping downward toward Rock Creek, bringing to view some of the most beautiful natural scenery of the park, and as it will lead by easy and gradual ascent toward the roads that connect the western. entrance with the Wood- ley road it can not fail to be a favorite and much frequented drive. There is great need of some easier access to the park than now exists. From the 54 "yIvq [BOIso[ooZ [euoyeN ‘O1vS5NgG 4O dNOu ‘ouartas soca nue snand wagrey cope emer { t | f } F REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5D5 Rock Creek Railway at either end of the park to the animal house is half a mile, and from the Fourteenth street car line a still greater distance. This is a serious inconvenience to many people, particularly the aged and infirm, who have only this means of reaching the park. For carriages the Quarry road is far too narrow and very steep, the grade being 9 per cent in some places. During the year the District authorities improved this road considerably, prop- erly grading and guttering it and building a suitable sidewalk. While this is a great improvement, the grade of the road is such that it can never be suitable for a principal avenue of access. It is possible that when the projected improvement of Kenesaw avenue is completed that some amelioration of this condition may ensue. There seems to be no reason why street cars should not find ready access to the park by this route. The unexpected number of visitors made it essential to increase the capacity of the bridge and to protect foot passengers who use it. Footways have accordingly been added to the originalstructure. These are not wideenough to properly accom- modate the public, but are as wide as is consistent with the safety of the structure. The offices of the park remain in the dilapidated house known as the Holt man- sion. When the park was first projected it was expected that the superintendent would reside on the premises, and this building seemed to offer a suitable residence. The experience of the last two years has shown that that plan was a wise one. There should undoubtedly be some one always at hand in the park to respond to any calls that may be made in an emergency. Besides this the park is never closed to the public, and ‘it is therefore desirable that the Superintendent should be always accessible. During the past year several valuable deer have been attacked by dogs during the night and either worried to death or injured so that they had to be killed. A list of the animals now in the park is herewith submitted, together with state- ments of those that have been received from various sources. A few animals have been presented, among the most notable being two fine wolf-hounds from Southern Russia by Mr. Byron G. Daniels, U.S. consul at Hull, England; an alligator over 10 feet in length by Mr. E. 8. Schmidt, of this city, and a black wolf by Mr. R. M. Middleton, jr., of South Pittsburg, Tenn. These gifts are properly appreciated, yet it is found that increases from such sources can not be depended on to keep up the collection. From the Yellowstone National Park 17 animals were received. These were kept at that park for some time before shipment, and were then transported by freight, in charge of a keeper. Unless animals can be obtained in greater numbers it will be found that this is a very expensive and precarious method of obtaining them. A few animals have been loaned, notably a tiger, by Mr. J. T. McCaddon, manager of the Adam Forepaugh shows, and a zebu by Mr. A. E. Randle, of this city. These are subject to recall by their owners. Although such animals do not become the property of the park, yet an opportunity is afforded of exhibiting them for a con- siderable time for the mere expense of their care and feeding. The provisions of the appropriation were such that no animals could be purchased during the year, and a number of fine opportunities for acquiring specimens was thus lost. A few animals were born in the park, among which were a bison, a deer, two elk, and a ama. The losses by death have been considerable, amounting to as much as 20 per cent of the entire collection. The total number of animals now on hand is 504, being an increase of 56 over the number on hand at the first of the year. 56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals in the collection June 30, 1893. Name. American bison (Bison americanus) Zebu (Bos indicus) Common goat (Capra hireus) ..-------------- Angora goat (Capra hircus angorensis) ..---- lama (CAUuchenrva Glam) a. -eciee) somes coer American elk (Cervus canadensis) ..-----.--- Virginia deer (Cervus virginianus) ....------- Mule deer {Cervus macrotis) ....-.--.-------- IPecearya( Dicotlyes tajACU)) «=== o-oo Indian elephant (lephas indicus) .--....-- -. “Himalayan” rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) Musk rat (iber zibethicus) Coypu (Myopotamus coypu) Beaver (Castor canadensis) Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) Striped ground-squirrel (Spermophilus tri- decimlineatus) Chipmunk (Tamias striatus)....-..---------- Gray squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis) ....-..--- | Albino gray squirrel (Seiwrus carolinensis) --| ted squirrel (Sciurus hudsonius) Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) Canada porcupine (Lrethizon dorsatus) Capybara (Tydrocheerus capybara) Paca (Ceelogenys paca) A gouti (Dasyprocta aguti) Acouchy (Dasyprocta acouchy) .....-..------ Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana) ..--.---- | Grivet monkey (Chlorocebus engythithea) ---. Patas monkey (Chlorocebus ruber) Kra monkey (Macacus cynomolgus) Macaque monkey (Macacus sp.)...--...------ Apella monkey (Cebus apella) Monk cebus (Cebus xanthocephalus) Black-faced coaita (A teles ater) Spider monkey (A teles grisescens) Douroucouli (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) Pinche monkey (Midas edipus)........-.---- European hedgehog (Hrinaceus europeus)-.. Wi ony (HEUsileo)ia scot. cece ae aoe ce eee eee | Murer (Helustrg7is) haa. ee ae cece eae ee eee UIA HELISICOMCOLON)) nee eterna eee | Ocelot (Felis pardalis) Wild cat (Lynx rufus maculatus) Russian wolf-hound (Canis familiaris) Black wolf (Canis occidentalis) Coyote (Canvstatrans)s-->-22s sen eeee eee eee PREG ELOXaMULDeSeT ULL DIS) eae Swatbitoxs (iar peseloe) eeeeeeee ene a eee | Gray fox (Vulpes virginianus) ......--------- Mink (Putorius vison) Ferret (Putorius furo) Kinkajou (Cereoleptes caudivolnulus) Gray coati-mundi (Nasua narica) Red coati-mundi (Nasua rufa) co bo ee) 1 ~ > Ww co OCT a a Oa Oe a eS =) hb 1 So © to eR be [or ort i We OS 2 Name. | Snowy owl (Nyctea nivea) | Barred owl (Syrnium nebuiosum) | Barn ow] (Strix pratincola) | Searlet ibis (Guara rubra) | Swan (Cygnus gibbus) _ Tiger rattlesnake (Crotalus tigris) American civet-cat (Bassaris astuta) Raccoon (Procyon lotor) American badger (Taxidea americana) -.----- Black bear (Ursus americanus) .......------- Cinnnamon bear (Ursus americanus) Grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis) Polar bear (Thalassarctos maritimus) .....--- Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) ..-.--------- Baid eagle (Halicetus lewcocephalus).--..---. Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis) Marsh hawk (Cireus hudsonius) Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) -------- Screech owl (Megascops asio) ....-..--.-- --- Yellow and blue macaw (Ara araraunea)..-.-- Red and blue macaw (Ara chloroptera) ...--- Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara macao) Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) - Green parrot (Chrysotis sp.).----------------- Mocking bird (Mimus polyglottus) Common crow (Corvus americanus) Clarke’s nuteracker (Picicorvus columbianus) Domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) varieties. - Curassow (Craa alector) Pea fowl] (Pavo cristatus) Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) Bob white (Colinus virginianus) European quail (Coturnix communis) California quail (Callipepla californica) Cariama(Comiamacristaid) =e eee eee Sand-hill crane (Grus canadensis) night (Nycticoraa Black-crowned heron NOBVUUS) oes Soe oe once BCE ae ee EE Ee Canada goose (Branta canadensis) ----------- Black swan (Chenopsis atrata) Chinese goose (Anser sp.) Herring gull (Larus argentatus) Gannebi(Sula0assand) passe = eee eee Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) ..--..--- Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Florida gopher (Testudo carolina) Mud turtle (Ohrysemys'sp:))-..-22-2--.------- ‘*Gila monster”’ (Heloderma suspectum) ----- “Chuck molly’ (Sauromalus ater) Horned toad (Phrynosoma douglassii) Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) - Confluent rattlesnake (Crotalus conjluentis) - Ground rattlesnake (Caudisona miliaris) .--- Water moccasin (Ancistrodon piscivorus)....| Leal So SS ce) co ed ) be orNnwnore = _ a 1 o nee eee Oe Sl < S S — y _ a) wom vo mae rw eS e PD REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57 Animals in the collection June 30, 1893—Continued. Name. Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortrix) Boa (Boa constrictor)....------=----- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)..-..- King snake (Ophibolus getulus) ..--- Pine snake (Pityophis sayi)--------- Black snake (Bascanion constrictor) Garter snake (Lutenia sirtalis) ...-- Water snake (Tropidonotus sipedon) | No. Name. No. —|—| | . | Bonanno eu || Hog-nosed snake (Heterodon platyrhinus) ...| 4 | . . . . | Baars esas 2 | South American frogs and toads (unidentified), 14 Seats ages - I} SUMMARY. Deere | | ; | Indigenous animals....------..-------------- 322 te ee | : . . = 5 | Foreign animals, not domesticated .----...-- 87 | | Foreign animals, usually domesticated ..---- 95 miele intaimte inte | a | eochmaans 10 WLOUEM Sasson sanecenacbdsossSssbenscososs)) OL! List of accessions. ANIMALS PRESENTED. i Num Name. Donor. | ose ot mens Marmosetiasce-eeseo-- meésO3CGhenaultNews Orleanslats.aocce cen seems eee emesis | 1 Blgclk=awolfis sscssce-cce | hk. M. Middleton, jr., South Pittsburg, Tenn-.--.-...---......--..------. i Gray fox steelers | Dr. T. M. 1B aven iA, ANORAROey WE) se cooomcsomanséessecunoebhecosgosseas= 1 WORE see) - eee 2 PE Cooperistaltord sy Stone wie epee sea aiaelereae eta cea ce letra ete | 1 DOLE HES Sieicieckiaas Volks WW, WENO IDSC) soap oo dace asocdaenocesoreanacoesees= | 1 IO) SS aeesuBacesese Jos. Schultz and F. J. Simonds, Washington, D.C ....-...--.-------- | il Coaticmund!=-2.------1- | CzO7ChenaulticNews Orleans dua, 2.20.6 2 naa sea enwees < ass semiec sera | 1 iM ere aerate cles Superintendent Rock Creek Rwy., Washington, D.C......-..--.---- 2 IBlackapearaee ase eee. Lee Kerr and Eugene Pence, Columbia Falls, Mont.-......----------- 1 Worreastss cece | Agi, J8G NI@ Clini, Ghani, NOES soosseosenennncnoobe csescconscensoose 1 RACCOON pe emnem =e =| es Saunders) Washington sD) Oj em me = neasee es a= a= =e == saessone 1 Nee Seeso SauaOce SEH eepanesonsbesce Spee eee ee eata ata te nla etelofsie Sis Selene areateya aie nia eieiainioiasieis= 1 Russian wolf-hounds -.| Hon. B. G. Daniels, U.S. consul at Hull, England ..-........--..------- 2 Goatees Torres se Hovey EhornettwAmacostlay DS Cs aisles oeei-eci=essesain sissinars eesisce= =iae'= 1 Guineampig sea. -se- =. Otto Haltenorth; Washinton, iso. ecm secs) sees eee eee pone 4 aD tie eersne: wernt | kde Obie, WiasmiVe Da WLC cssoccocosseadesSocsee ade esncopcusooece 2 Himalayan rabbit ...-. | A. Burner Washi chon iO Crise epecesee ce aeeeee eae aa eter eiineee 2 Grayasquirrel=).-- 2 - F.C. Weaver, ‘Washington, ID Cts sabes iors ese see see petee es 1 Opossum ----.--.......- | Vo 10), Mioreny, Wi/eslantoeioin; 10) (Oe coco coscnosnssoncdosssecesecsocsssaase 1 Sparrow hawk.......-- WielAtp pich) Alexandria Vater -ta\a5 ao tees ante soe cis eaecescciss 1 DOME eae saeecia ne HWE bhomas Ashton. Midi. soc oct seco acon cece seises snes sneeeisiee 1 Red-tailed hawk....-.. Ga@e Nichols; Cazenond aa Wiemcnoanioesceisin sceee e oe eees sees aeteeiers 1 Marshphawilcee.-sess-< PV aokinnersWwias hing toni) s Czcaeceeese sone scm ts seieece aoe tee 1 SHO WwiysOwilecsece = HranksBollesi@hocoraaphalls.oNegee sere cee asses eee eae eee a eee 1 Great horned owl...:..|------ CO sa5 Soe Season cile deme weenie cawcc oo cannon mace Selec ee eeR ewes 2 1D 0s Se eeememeanee CammeBrothers winymceh burs Wise -nececracs aoe ee tasaeene seats 1 Yj sssossascsssne fJniWheHrench Bris ters pure Wasaceesaceccencsisies-tericeee saaee een ee 1 Wea ca coyessebaoe Mrs) CarpenterswWiashing ton DS Ci csecsssssnen-onnoscs sesso = = 2 PBA OWill ers ee mien alat- MISSES. Gna yee h ne deniCks PULP ym Vetere er ces selieeis eee eae 1 Golden-winged wood- | M. ®. C. Sproesser, Washington D. C........--------------------=--- 1 pecker. IGtayan tS ress So eeonoe Alice Buckney and Susie Mathews, Washington, D. C...-.....------ 1 Mocking-bird.....-.... Cob in cersole Ue Shish) Commissions -.-ss-seeises = seo -eces == 1 Common crow -.--.---- Jerk Edwards ias tin obomeeD) 4 Ceeseeeete esis ae cersaeeicaeaeeeeislalststtee 1 European quail.--....- Maro oe ler Was bineton sD) 5 Onsen Aaseaae cm acne os fos oe neea sce ae 4 Virginia quail......... 15} MUIR OGRE Mus aA). Os occsse ns sosdsoosabesdacadacocqacsace 1 Ie Taal passcpocopocec Hon. Benjamin Harrison, Washington, D.C........--..------------- if 58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. List of accessions—Continued. ANIMALS PRESENTED—Continued. Num- Name. Donor. ps cof mens. (OLY) ne aSSaeeEeEeascnabos d./@- uarmer, Washington; (ONC 222250 ssccecsecece ee set eee aes 1 Long-tailed duck --.--- | (George! Schatter:-Alexand rian Viale = o2- = 26 s-5 oe aa eee ea eee 1 Canada goose ....-.--.. Wi Green- i Washinoton: Dt Cs.s-.2.0--eeee eee eee eee ese 2 Ganmnetiaes-==e ssc Taylor Brothers, Washington)! Cl lons-=sese-seeeen see eee 2 PANIC ALOY neces seas oer i. Wie Lanner} Washington sD. C--5..--.ces- see oen eee ese eee 2 DOV aero ce ncce di AC Baker aves nino ton sos Oss ae—s ase ee == aaa eee eee eae eee 1 WO: fess saeco | Toshi Wye stv IDS Ce sae soo opessesecooasanosacnde aco sSabe i a DSaseacecentnoot | Ig le OprOkiony Miecterhtsieya, 1D) (Oe sconce secassecsosnosbesoneee sen ace 3 Florida gopher-.---.--. D.C) Harrison, U..S.Geologicall’ Surveyne- 222s <= sscncne oe eae oe ere ee eee ee eee 4 lama; (-Awchenta:glamd).aosa.se ce Sot ae eee ee ee ae eo ieee 1 Reccary,CDzcotyles tajacu) 22s 5 eee ae = ie eee ee eee eee ee ee eee ee ae 5 Crestedyporcupine CHySiuT Cri staid) ee mere ae eee ee eet 1 Opossum (Didelphysvingiuntane@) pase esc eeee eee een eee ee a 6 Animals captured in the Nationai Zoological Park. Opossum (WDidelphyswinginiana) aeons. cf 2 -coo ee eee eee eee ee ae eee eee 2 Hog-nosed snake (Heterodon platyrhinus)) --=--4 -2- ss oee ee ee eee a if Water'snake (Troprdonotue'sipedon) -A.2 3-5 1e eee eee en nee eee eae 1 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 Animals obtained by purchase.* Llama (Auchenia glama), through Col. W. P. Tisdel, of the Bureau of American FER WUD OCS pare reeset eee acer ater ne aie mec nen cay Nel erai ci cicvereier ata seile Se eNO clas ee Serene icice 8 List of animals received from the Yellowstone National Park. ll el ol oe eS) Lede tome GULP CSM ILLUS) mersetm eee tan senate eel nara | aera acne See Wee RE Cimmnnnon INGE ((ORSUS CHIR OTMUID aanc seco cass sose none ceed accu Tose cdosoes coaaee Blac kahe ara (Unsusncmenricanius) meecseeteaeae cee ee eae eee ee eee oe ee Bad cers eharidearame»nicand te oem seers cae ee secre eee eae ae ioe Soae sete aoe a Minlerdeerk(Gaiacustmnacrous) Pease ce tes cree ele eee ee eee See eee Ammenicanwellka (Cer useCANnadensus) ase ste arate ene See aie te ae ee eae eee Beavers (Gastorxcanadensis sem se cee aa erase nee aioe ciate se ee eee eeeae IROLcupinelCHrethizon doreauiis) a sears ao No oe Sosa ee ose esa aetas oe anaes SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS. AIM A SypreseMbeds. s.r see ra eas ete see win le Joes Seen oleate Soc eee, cle nine 86 PAUENTUTR DLS PO AIC Clipe epee state atte ate eee eet ta Ps I eye tera ayes oe 54 AMM als receive doin exc lan LC sate co a et seas ey seas 5 aio eee eels See 4 ANTI) SF OUURO ENTE Ae soem Sat SOR ers SORE See oot ie an oe tle ene reas te 8 ANTITTEHIS lOO Tha WaKs) /AMOG aOR TAHA Ce aan aces cous sosossed Saun ac se Sas ses5 S556 80 AIM AI SICaAp LURE dsm: tne) 70 OLO orcall air kame sree eae es ere 4 Animals received from Yellowstone Natiomal Park -..-..--....--'---.-----.----- 15 dhotulvaccCesslonspss-masee Na seen oe Bese eo tees Shae gia meson same 251 Numbercoteaninial sronshandrdjume:s0 ss SO 2 eae eee eee eee eae 448 Aceessions during the year ending June/30, 1893... 222222. 2).22-- 22252-2222 see 251 HLT {jl epee caters eye ey Pe Sn yny ME SU ne A CRN 2 om ER ae NS Sh GE 699 Deduct. ID GHW NG) 53556 Seb CO SOS CORE OC eens Ce eae ee See eerie ae eee ieee eee 119 ATDTORIS CoxOl DARIEONES aaa eo Ose Gono SEs GOS Sc OSS en SCE Oe Bese Home cee ee eee 47 AMimMalssreturnedsbOLOwNersesasceecesacere ee sesh sete este =e a Sees ene 29 —— 195 JNeuTOENS, Gin INeHNGh fume) GU), ISR) soo6 Soon cogc ceco boob coos anebes sade mooS coos 504 Respectfully submitted. FRANK BAKER, Acting Manager. ~These animals were actually purchased during the fiscal year 1891—’92, but did not arrive at the Park until after the beginning of the next fiscal year. APPENDIX V. ASTRO-PHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. At present the astro-physical observatory is under the immediate direction of the Secretary, but owing to the pressure of other occupations, the conduct of the work in detail has lain largely in the hands of Mr. F, L. O. Wadsworth, who received the appointment of senior assistant on October 10, and to whose efficient aid the Secretary is pleased to acknowledge his obligation. The general work of the observatory for the year has pertained to the investiga- tion of the infra-red portion of the spectrum, briefly referred to last year, and described in general in the body of my report. It may conveniently be classified under three general heads: A. General spectro-bolographie work. B. Special spectro-bolographie work. C. Instrumental work, including manufacture of new apparatus and the perfection of old. A. The general bolographie work of the year, (which can be carried on only when the sky is unobseured by clouds or haze), is summed up as follows: (A “ Bolograph” is an automatic reproduction of the energy curve, made by the new process. ) Da ys 7 ; | available Number | for bolo- Es i Character of bolographs. Remarks. | metric < ae 2 | work. wen: 1892 Uh ienaneosseasocs 10 {i leoatioesense tonosssorsasssoccse Time mostly occupied by work on wave-length apparatus. FA CUStees ee aae 1 | 1 Taken with glass prism..-.| Observatory closed fifteen days. September......... 4 it) | sass WD) Goasondsaqnsscagsa0se Do. October ass. -ae | So) ssOre ee celisee en ee eee Be CO SE: | Observatory closed ten days. November -.--.----- 8 23' |) (Glass\ prismyeo- <2 ==is- == December ----.---- 6) 221s ae eters Gh) scocaasconosscoessoos 1893. | SANUALY psec seme =e th lle smoata acd Sansccoocoessepzoccosoessaesce | Time ocenpied with grating | work. Mebruanycs-secees 4 8 Grating eee aeeeee eee Do, Mian ehyeseeea= eae 13 24 | Glass and rock salt ..-....-.. PASprileaesise ls sceecisc 6 1a eee dO mena see eens | INES sano Sconboosess 14 40 | -o2< 55 OO bsssscccce eee JIGME) s25n50 coscoso= 5 27 | Rock-salt prism .........-.-- SUMMARY: Total number of days available (i. e., of sunshine days) for bolometric work...----.-------------- 83 Total number of bolographs taken: (ANA WENGE alspney A535 5s 50 boa naneeoneo nose saen Sen = so sep maa conaD aos aHanacwEc copeSeSaooeS 114 (2) Wiathirock-salltprismseesse care sce re ce erat ee eae neta era lare ate ietas ee ee 54 (GD) Nia a fea nb ee Sao SAGs ogc cna os ose es oaer ose seas asso aS onan Ss sancsOSs socone ooaecoorsesesocoss 8 dt) Fon ERO Sapna SO OSC adocs Hoan Ste sbeguer tebocdebtosao 202 Se sentisebonana socaogancoseco0es 176 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 Complete records of all of these bolographic curves have been kept in the book specially provided for that purpose, and from them by another automatic process are produced the linear spectra of which an illustration follows. As elsewhere stated, the result of the year’s work has been the discovery and approximate determination of position of about 150 or 200 new lines in this hitherto almost unexplored region. The accompanying illustration of one of the ‘‘rock-salt” spectra of the invisible spectrum obtained by the new process is intended to give a general, if crude, idea of the novelty, the extent, and (it may be hoped) the value, of this field of labor. The visible solar spectrum, first investigated by Sir Isaac Newton, is represented as to its length by the blank space on the left; the number .4 (i. e., the part where wave-length is four-tenths of a micron) and .8 (i. e., the part where wave-length is eighth-tenths of a micron) representing the extremities of the solar spectrum as known to hin. Below this all is invisible, and the investigations made at this Observatory by the novel bolometric methods here referred to have been chiefly instrumental in carrying the mapping of lines to 6.0 (six microns), or through nearly thirteen times the extent known to Newton. The great majority of all the lines which fill this space have been discovered and laid down by the new bolometric method, and most of them here in Washington during the last two years. B. The special bolographic work, which is carried on during the cloudy weather. during which the regular work is necessarily interrupted, includes the classification, detailed examination, and, finally, the reduction of the bolographs taken to linear representatives of the infra-red spectrum, in which the final result is a line photo- graph which is precisely similar, as far as automatic reduction processes will admit, to the line spectrum photographs of the visible part of the spectrum. Owing tothe labor involved in this reduction it has been deemed desirable to apply this process of reduction only to the best of the bolographs taken. The result of this portion of the work is briefly summed up as follows: Line spectrum photographs. Bolographs | . reduced for the | Number. Character of bolograph. Region represented. month of— 1892 Awl hy soosnecpondaccd s6oogacess ||bocucoodecan GouESeAUsueDseS Rees seneEE JNTEW is coon cesccad|esocosccas |easooc osSesoosontenerasosousocoseee SOMA roe cessed [sosonacos ||sesoosecsansochobnsccsnesanebessedar Octoberi. 2s secs as |esesss snes | ease ct on = ate yn ortnee eoiee at ais ee Wovember ......... 7 | Taken with glass prism .-.....-.... | Infra-red spectrum down to wave length A=2°5 mu. December ...--.--- Ib Er scioe GO! 25 oe ccictescaccetisccescenes Do. 1893. | VEIT RI? Sas scnono0d|acasoqcded |loSasassssnq sg gut0c6 SD OC Sa OE S0EO SOR | TREISMAN oocensecbe|sesocconen eos oocosnoasaoccodasonesoscososaeac | Infra-red spectrum down to wave | length A=2:5p. IMac Dyce see mcislers- 10 | Taken with glass prism ....-..-.. | Do. PASDY lke ieera-s sansa 3} Taken with rock salt prism ..----. Infra-red spectrum down to wave length A=5un. WERK oosadesosgceaeC Sileeeciers (it) SarigankdancqenmicacdhSaaeee Do. (PMN osessseccsoorn 6} lloskoes Gl praposc ano nO SCOSSEnCosSaneeE Do MotalefromsSlAss;PLiSM ees e aoe laces clo see setae eats = = aeleign s se Soe ce oeeins Sue cat eoedeeceeee 28 POLaletromerocks Sal baprismMleree cemice seit eas yaa isc cise ne aoc yeise aule ois nig an ce wien vous sicide es Saeeeeeceee 11 INT ETO LALO Scots cela Socise alee ee ane aces eee towceis bhremo ee ee PR SABER OSE OODOGCRCaRG “39 These represent complete line spectrum charts of the invisible portion of the spectrum down to about 2°5, for the glass and 5, for the rock salt prism. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 62 ‘tmay90ds oq Jo dep SIGS a ee ee ee 8 y 4 “70 x ¢ us 4 Th tlie ie Bae | ea ah | ai Ae | | TL 1 ae A i | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 While this number seems small in comparison with the whole number of bolo- graphs taken, it nevertheless represents even more work. In this particular work the history of the year is one of continual change and improvement and many of the bolographs of the earlier part of the year have been reduced by three different processes, each of which involves three distinct photographic steps, and in conse- quence the 39 final line spectrum photographs stand for more than 200 finished photographs, and as many more which are experimental. After a large amount of experimental work, a process has finally been perfected which is fairly satisfactory, and has been adopted provisionally as a working method. Experiments, however, are still in progress with a view to further modifi- cation and improvement. In addition to this bolometric work proper, experiments on three special methods of investigation of the infra-red spectrum, have formed a considerable portion of the year’s work: (1) Preliminary experiments on the measurement of wave-lengths in the invisible spectrum by interference methods. (2) Experiments on photographing the invisible spectrum by the aid of phos- phorescent films. (3) Preliminary experiments on bolometric investigation of the infra-red normal (grating) spectrum. I. During the month of July, 1892, a series of preliminary experiments was made on a method of measurement of wave-lengths in the invisible spectrum, with special reference to the establishment of a few datum points with great accuracy. The apparatus employed for this purpose, which was kindly lent by Clark University, was a modification of the inferential wave comparer used with so much success by Prof. Michelson, in the establishment of a wave-length standard. As the method of working was entirely new, considerable time was required to put the apparatus in working order. Some preliminary results were obtained in the region just above “ A,” by Mr. Wadsworth, in whose hands I placed it, but the work was interrupted by his departure for Paris, and has not since been resumed. The accuracy and practicability of this method of determining wave-lengths has, however, been demonstrated, and it is hoped time will be found in the near future to continue this work. IJ. During the month of October I made a number of experiments to determine the practicability of photographing the infra-red spectrum directly with the aid of phosporescent films. After considerable experimentation on the best method of working, a number of photographs of the invisible portion of the spectrum extending as far as wave-length 15 w were thus obtained. Although the detail is very much less than that obtained by the bolometer, the method is valuable in furnishing a general check on the results of the more analytical method. With greater care in the preparation of films, still better resuls could be obtained. Other films sensitive to heat rays were tried, particularly those containing a salt of mercury, but without adequate results. II. During the winter months of January and February, in which regular bolo- metric work was almost entirely interrupted by bad weather, attention was devoted to the theoretical investigation of a method of bolometrically investigating the nor- mal grating spectrum, the essential feature of which was the employment of a “lifting” prism, by the use of which the superposed spectra were to be avoided. After determination of the best instrumental conditions, provisional apparatus was constructed and installed, and a few experimental bolographs taken. The approach of good observing weather then necessitated its removal. A paper describing the method and containing the essential results of the investigation of the instrumental conditions has been prepared for publication. C. What might almost be said to have been the chief work of the Observatory for the year has been ths improvement of the apparatus and instrumental conditions of working, 64 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The lines of development have been: (1) In the increase of delicacy; (2) in the increase of stability and accuracy. With a view to increased delicacy much time has been devoted through the year to the improvement of the galvanometer. During the absence in Europe of the present senior assistant, he, by my direction, devoted two weeks exclusively to this work, and the elements of three galvanometers were constructed after his design, two by Nalder Bros. and one by Elliott Bros. After his return, the work of improvement of my earlier designs for the old galvan- ometer and of the new ones was at once begun. Pending the completion of the new galvanometers, the improvement of the three old ones already in use was undertaken, and the delicacy of each was more than doubled. Up to date only one of the new galvanometers has been completed, and this owing to the introduction of an almost unprecedentedly light, magnetic system, and through other improvements, has been found to be about 35 times more delicate than the best of these previously in use. This degree of delicacy will, it is probable, be exceeded by one of the two remain- ing forms, but lack of time has prevented further improvement at present. Indeed the conditions of use at present are such as to render only about one-tenth of this increased delicacy available, and only a new laboratory will enable the full increase of delicacy to be perfectly utilized. An abbreviated statement of the galvanometer work for the year is appended: New constant Galvanometer. Description. Old constant.* | (after improve- ment). (OSs ses saeeseoososcedeseaesSsoon5 DA TSONV alesse eee ease 0 -00000010000 00000002000 White (old) Alleghany pattern. .-.- Rhomsonbess === == eeane=e 0 -00000000150 00000000070 AES (OG) s-anncosoodeseseessoseco||sose5e Ossi sans scesssocces es 0 :00000000160 “00000000040 Elliott Bros. special design new- -.-.|------ Os, sscvecees eeeesesacleesasercecceeeeene 00000000004 Nalder Bros. special design new....| Thomson (multiple)t...----.|.-.-------.------- 00000000002 DOvevstesereeceses Bier atnaree WD Amsonivalicsoscosce see ne bees a easeeeeeeee Not finished. * Current which deflects image one millimetre at distance of 1 metre, when the time of a single vitration is 10 seconds. j Partially finished. For use in these new galyanometers, the laboratory has received during the year, alot of very fine quartz fibers, made to special order by Prof. C. C. Hutchins, and some very small, light, and accurate concave mirrors from J. A. Brashear, the use of which in the new galvanometer has been already referred to. A very considerable improvement in the mechanical steadiness of this part of the apparatus has also been effected by mounting the whole galyvanometer in a massive metal case, which rests on a series of stone blocks placed one above another and separated from each other by sheets of rubber. In spite of these precautions, the vibrations due to passing teams and wagons are at times still very troublesome. (2) The improvement in the other parts of the apparatus has been mainly in the direction of increased accuracy. The siderostat has been provided with a new elec- tric control, by means of which inaccuracies of running may be quickly compensated for from inside the building. Considerable improvement has also been effected in the minor parts of the instrument, but it still needs to be thoroughly overhauled. The changes for which there is most pressing need are the rewounting of the equatorial axis on ball bearings and the construction of a new governor for the clock. The spectro-bolometer and its accessories is that part of the train of apparatus which has undergone the most radical change. The principal changes which have been made in its construction and working during the past year are: (1) The adoption of a reflecting mirror secured to the prism and revolving with it, which has rendered it possible to fix both the spectro-bolometer slit and the bolometer itself in position, thereby avoiding the use of a long revolving arm, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 This device permits of indefinite extension of the bolometer arm, and consequently the reduction of the angular value of the bolometer strip to a very minute quantity. (2) The provision of a new adjustable tangent arm for slowly rotating the axis of the spectro-bolometer with great accuracy. (3) The adoption of a new system of clock-work for synchronously driving this tangent arm, and the photographic plate on which the galvanometer record is taken, in place of the two independent driving clocks before used. (4) The mounting of all parts of the spectro-bolometer on rigid iron or stone supports. The improvements in the method of working which have accompanied these improvements in apparatus are: (1) The substitution of glass plates for flexible tilms for the photographic records. The irregular errors due to shrinkage of the film have thus been eliminated and the subsequent photographic processes rendered much easier by reason of the greater facility of handling. (2) The reduction, and in some cases almost entire elimination, of the “drift” by the use of a water-jacket about the fixed bolometer case, together with careful attention to all the electrical details of the bolometer and galvanometer connections, and the substitution of storage battery cells for the Daniel cells, formerly used to supply the current to the bridge circuit. The ‘‘ drift,” however, still remains a source of great trouble and I expect to secure its elimination only (if at all) by the establishment of uniform temperature conditions, which it is impossible to obtain in the present laboratory (at least during the summer months). The laboratory building itself has been considerably improved during the past year. A small annex, which is used as a photographie dark room, was erected in the spring of 1895, and has greatly facilitated the photographic work of the obser- vatory. During the summer a small air-cooling plant was placed in the basement, and served not only to increase the comfort of the observers, but also to secure more favorable conditions for the work then being carried on with rock salt. During the past year the observatory also fitted up a small instrument shop for the construction and repair of its apparatus, comprising an instrument-maker’s lathe, built to my special order, a small planer from the Hendley Machine Company, and a fairly complete stock of small tools, and stock material. A dynamo, for sup- plying current to the observatory for charging the storage batteries and to the shop for power purposes, was also purchased and temporarily placed in the National Museum. Owing to the lack of suitable quarters the shop has not yet been perma- nently located, but occupies a temporary shed south of the Smithsonian building. The important pieces of apparatus acquired during the year may be divided into two general classes: (1) Physical apparatus of precision; (2) accessory apparatus. I. To the former class belongs: (1) Three new galvanometers and sets of galyanometer coils from Elliott Brothers and Nalder Brothers. (2) Resistance boxes one of 100,000 ohms and one of 1,000 ohms from Nalder Brothers. (8) A set of fine quartz fibers, from Prof. C. C. Hutchins. (4) Six fine galvanometer mirrors, from J. A. Brashear. (5) One large glass prism, from J. A. Brashear. (6) Two large glass lenses, from J. A. Brashear. (7) Two new large rock salt lenses, from M. E. Kahler. (8) A collection of valuable rock salt crystals, from Germany. (9) Three new z\;-milometer bolometers, from Grunow. (10) One large 24-inch camera, a fine Ross lens, and a complete photographic outfit, from Scoville & Co. (11) A new tangent arm for spectro-bolometer, from J. A. Brashear. (12) A new prism holder, with large glass flat, from J. A. Brashear. sm 93 5 66 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. II. Accessory apparatus: (1) A complete instrument-maker’s lathe, with outfit of tools and chucks. (2) A 30-inch hand and power planer for metal work, with chuck, etc., from the Hendley Machine Company. (3) A 40-light incandescent dynamo, with rheostats, etc., from Westing- house Electric Company. (4) A one-half horse power motor, from Akron Electric Company. (5) A one-fourth horse-power water motor and Sturtevant pressure fan, with accessory apparatus for cooling the air of the Observatory. The total value of the apparatus purchased during the year was about $3,000. MINOR WORK OF THE YEAR. In addition to Mr. Wadsworth’s work with Prof. Michelson in the establishment of the length of the standard meter in terms of the wave length of light, at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, reference to which has already been made, the following special work, which has been done during the year, may be mentioned; (1) The preparation of a complete series of line-shaded drawings of the principal pieces of apparatus in the observatory on a scale requisite to show their detailed construction. : (2) The preparation of a series of enlargements of moon photographs from the Kenwood and Lick observatories, photographs. (3) Experiments in temperature and radiation work. During the latter part of the year preliminary experiments were begun and carried on at intervals looking to the systematic preparation for another extended research, which I have proposed to soon begin to determine the physical relation between temperature and radiation. The experiments have mostly.been directed to the establishment of a satisfactory source of temperature and means of measuring the same. The various apparatus, etc., for the prosecution of this work at an early date has either been ordered or already installed. (4) Some further attempts have been made at solar photography, but, as the experience of last year conclusively showed, the atmospheric conditions here in the city are very unfavorable to any satisfactory work in this direction. PERSONNEL. The force of the Observatory consists of a Senior assistant, and an instrument- maker, and an assistant instrument-maker. During the past year the Observatory has also had at different times special assistants, among whom I wish to acknowl- edge the assistance of Mr. J. G. Hubbard, to whose photographic skill several improvements of this part of the work are due. APPENDIX VI. REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1893. Sir: I haye the honor to submit herewith a report upon the operations of the library of the Smithsonian Institution during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893. The work of recording accessions has been conducted as in the preceding years. The entry numbers in the accession book extend from 246, 110 to 268, 386. The following table shows the number of volumes, parts of volumes, pamphlets, and charts received during the year: Publications received between July 1, 1892, and June 30, 18938. : — es Quarto or | Octayvo or 7 “larger. smaller. | Total. WOES = cossdosocbososbonceoovssoor sbuDdobsas sce Sop dabeSaocobeDSee 594 1, 245 | 1, 839 IPATtSIOL VONUMES Ware ela saree ete fie cle ne ele oleae stern nyse te elias sinie cio | 16, 650 6, 299 22,949 EPETUMIGIG) sosecoosnndosu sovasenoepenouennsaoE ooagaDesdoadanasscacoe 870 3, 581 4, 451 (QUNEIAIS < sas fo Se Sh oso ceen sooo nEasgaqUDe asoeus snSSste pgoasDaDECosedeas [seeeciteereelesese seceere | 249 Mo tallisepe ie se se repecicle aieteia orci aia ase saat oracles e s\eis vl siciee = sicieie seit alaeiaie!| minslaioteeiee eaillsaeaeeiteserce | 29, 488 Of these publications, 272 volumes, 6,981 parts of volumes, and 821 pamphlets, 8,074 in all, were retained for use in the U. 8. National Museum. Nine hundred and sixty-three medical dissertations were deposited in‘ the library of the Surgeon-General U. S. Army; the remaining publications were sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday after their receipt. In carrying out the plan formulated by the Secretary for increasing the library by exchanges, 781 letters asking for publications not on our list, or askingefor num- bers to complete the series already in the library, have been written. It gives me pleasure to report that as a result of this correspondence 246 new exchanges were acquired by the Institution, while 81 defective series were completed, either wholly or as far as the publishers were able to supply missing parts. Since this plan of the Secretary was first formulated in 1887, 4,512 letters have been written with a view of increasing the number of periodicals and transactions of learned societies in the library of the Smithsonian Institution. The result of this work has been most gratifying; 1,550 new periodicals have been added to the list and 909 defective series have been either completed or filled out as far as the publishers were able to supply missing parts. The reading room is now taxed to its utmost capacity; the 494 boxes for the use of, scientific periodical literature are all filled and periodicals which it would be desirable to keep in the gencral reading room must be placed clsewhere for lack of space. The reading room no longer has sufficiont accommodations for the growing exchanges of the Institution nor for the persons desiring to consult this important collection of current scientific literature. Ever since 1890 the Secretary has called attention in his annual report to the fact that the present quarters of the library are insufficient; the natural expansion of the library has been prevented by the fact that the rooms adiacent to the library were occupied by the bureau of international exchanges. It will be possible shortly to assign other quarters to the bureau of international exchanges, and plans have been prepared for book shelves in one of the rooms made vacant. It is estimated that space will thus be secured for about 6,000 volumes. In addition to the strictly scientific literature \yhich is contained in the reading 67 68 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. room, the literary magazines are also on file and their use by the officers and employés of the Institution and the National Museum is constantly increasing. Below is a comparative statement of the operations of the library since June 30, 1890: Number of publications received. 1890-91. | 1891-’92. | 1892-’93. BVO MINOR eeistete aie a arala rai wate ete aim ete te toteta ate ol mtd = mpl) ole (eb eal mee dtel = fol m nos mr=tl=lle nln 2, 681 1, 989 1, 839 THIS De WEN oonasesoom Hesceac cop seUcane oso coUsSsoascocssacsocar 20, 525 23, 729 22, 949 Pamphilets...--- 2.2. - <= <<< ore eee omen ee en mw een 3, 769 3, 589 4,449 (ETE Cea OBS Seater Sea Se nc Sac ABE CORP OSmOAEcee doosaasaoae 319 621 249 “UG thea oapecdodd nee aoocSUcroL Goo saSRSDS SSG oedUoSs olsen Sesdase 27, 294 29, 928 29, 488 It will be observed that this comparative table shows a slight decrease in the number of publications received during the current year over the preceding year. The decrease, however, is in volumes, and is due to the fact that the limit of the possibility of completing series of publications by exchange, seems to have been reached. The number of titles for the past year shows an increase of almost 2,000 over that of the year preceding. The following table shows the number of titles received per year for the past six ycars: Number of titles received. PEAT GRS Fase Seaman see ee oe Oe Re ee ee 12, 105 ARGUS OE Jp tay Coe Se acct 3 as ances or Bh eri ey eae eo 11, 370 ISOS eee ere eee Mie RP Rae Ree ME Cte Cle PN oo Sai S 13, 474 MeuQwOlee a steak SES een So UA Ose ee eee 18, 409 ABO IOO ON a Bee fae ge Sete C1 Jase Ne ee, en ee ee 20, 523 IO RSC: ie ae pete a eee Can Aan eM REIGN ARNE SAB Ee Eos 22, 276 It will be seen from the above table that the number of titles received by the library has almost doubled since 1887, a gratifying fact, yet one which severely taxes the library force in the recording and arrangement of the material received. No fewer than 4,087 acknowledgments of publications were made by the post card and other printed forms, while many gifts were acknowledged by special letter. The following universities have sent complete sets of their academic publications, including inaugural dissertations: Basel, Greifswald, Louvain, Berlin, Halle, A.S., Lund, Bern, Heidelburg, Marburg, Bonn, Helsingfors, Strasburg, 3 Breslau, Jena, Tiibingen, Dorpat, Johns Hopkins, Utrecht, Erlangen, Kiel, Wurzburg, Freiburg, Br., Konigsberg, Zurich. Giessen, Leipzig, On July 1, 1892, Mr. J. Elfreth Watkins was appointed Assistant in charge of the library, a position which he held until the first of October. From that date until December 1, Mr. N. P. Scudder was acting Librarian. Very respectfully, yours, Cyrus ADLER, Librarian. Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX VII. REPORT OF THE EDITOR FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1893. Srr: I have the honor to submit the following report upon the publications of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1893: I, SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. Of the Volume xxvu of the quarto series of ‘‘Contributions” (having the serial No. 839 in the Smithsonian list of publications) only a part has yet been issued, namely, No. 801, ‘‘Experiments in Aerodynamics,” By 8. P. Langley. This was imcluded in last year’s list of publications. No. 840. ‘Life Histories of North American Birds, with special reference to their breeding habits, and eggs; with twelve lithographic plates.” By Charles Bendire. Quarto volume of x-+446 pages: illustrated with 12 plates of 185 chromo-lithographic figures of birds’ eggs. , No. 841. ‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Volume xxvu.” This volume is entirely occupied with the ‘‘ Life Histories of American Birds,” etc., just above described. Agreeably to the established practice of the Institution, a separate edi- tion of 250 copies of the work has been issued as No. 840, for special distribution to those more particularly interested in the subject, the principal edition of 1,000 copies being designed for deposit with the leading scientific societies and public libraries, in continuation of the series of ‘“‘ Contribution” volumes. With the extra title-page and preliminary matter this volume comprises xxi+-446 pages, illustrated with 12 chromo-lithographie plates. No. 842. “The Application of Interference Methods to Spectroscopic Measurements, with five plates.” By Albert H. Michelson. Quarto volume of 24 pages; illustrated with 5 plates. II, SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. No. 843. ‘The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere. A collection of Translations, by Cleveland Abbe.” Octavo volume of 324 pages; illustrated with 46 figures. No. 844. ‘‘Smithsonian Meteorological Tables.” Octayvo volume of lix-+-262 pages. This work will form the first part of Volume xxxv of the ‘‘ Miscellaneous Collec- tions,” which volume is not yet completed, No. 849. ‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Volume xxxty.” ‘This volume contains: Article 1, The Toner Lectures. Lecture 1x.—Mental Overwork and Prema- turé Disease among Public and Professional Men. By Charles K. Mills, M. pD., January, 1885. Article 2, Transactions of the Anthropological Society of Washing- ton, Volume 11, November 6, 1883—May 19, 1885, 1886. Article 3, Index to the Literature of Columbium, 1801-1887. By Frank W. Traphagen, PH. D., 1888. Arti- cle 4, Bibliography of Astronomy for the year 1887. By William C. Winlock, 1888. Article 5, Bibliography of Chemistry for the year 1887. By H. Carrington Bolton, 1888. Article 6, The Toner Lectures. Lecture x.—A clinical study of the skull. By Harrison Allen, M. p., March, 1890. Article 7, Index to the Literature of Ther- modynamics. By Alfred Tuckerman, PH. D., 1890. Article 8, The Correction of Sextants for Errors of Eccentricity and Graduation. By Joseph A. Rogers, 1890. Article 9, Bibliography of the Chemical Influenceof Light. By Alfred Tuckerman, PH.D., 1891. Article 10, The Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere. A collection 69 70 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of Translations, by Cleveland Abbe, 1891. The whole forms a volume of y-+1054 pages: illustrated with 69 figures. No. 850. ‘‘A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1892.” By Henry Carrington Bolton. Octavo volume of xiii+1212 pages. No. 851. ‘‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Volume xxxvi.” This volume consists of a single work: the ‘‘Select Bibliography of Chemistry” just above described, 250 copies of the bibliography having beenissued as an independent book, and 1,000 copies (with additional title page) as the 36th volume of the ‘‘ Miscella- neous” series, for libraries and societies. Octavo volume of xviii+1212 pages. No, 852. Tables of natural sines and co-sines, tangents and co-tangents, together with useful physical constants, ete. Octavo pamphlet of 8 pages. III.— SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. No. 845. ‘‘Report of 8. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the year ending June 30, 1892,” to the Regents of the Institution. Octavo pamphlet of i1i-+85 pages. Illustrated with 5 figures. No. 846. “Report of the National Museum, annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1890.” This volume comprises five sections: I. Report of the assistant secretary of the Smithsonian, G. Brown Goode, in charge of the National Museum, upon the condition and prospect of the Museum; Il. Reports of the curators of the National Museum upon the progress of work dur- ing the year; III. Papers describing and illustrating the collections in the Museum; IV. Bibliography of publications and papers relating to the Museum during the year; and VY. List of accessions to the Museum during the year. The whole forms an octavo volume of xyiii+811 pages, illustrated with 163 plates and 99 figures. No. 848, the Smithsonian report to July 1, 1891, and No. 853, the Museum report to July 1, 1891, have not yet been received from the Publie Printer. IV. REPORTS OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. No. 847. ‘Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1885, 1886:” By J. W. Powell, Director. This volume contains the introductory report of the director (27 pages), together with accom- panying papers, to wit: ‘‘ Indian Linguistic Families of America north of Mexico,” by J. W. Powell; ‘‘The Midewiwin or ‘Grand Medicine Society’ of the Ojibwa,” by W. J. Hoffman; ‘‘The sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” by James Mooney. A royal-octavo volume of xliii + 409 pages; illustrated with 39 figures in the text, and 26 plates, of which 2 are maps, and 6 are chromo-lithographs. Respectfully submitted. Wie BAGO, Editor, Mr. S. P. LANGLEY. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. GENERAL APPENDIX SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1893. ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discov- ery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collab- orators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspond. ents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law, with memoirs illustrating the more remarka ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the promi- nent features.of recent scientific progress In astronomy, geology, meteor- ology, physies, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zodlogy, and anthropol- ogy. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satistac- torily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1893. 73 THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE.* By Sir RoBERT BALL, F. R. 8. On a recent visit to Cambridge, Prof. Barnard, the discoverer of the fifth satellite of Jupiter, exhibited at the Cavendish Laboratory his most interesting collection of photographs made at the Lick Observatory. These pictures were obtained by a 6-inch photographic lens of 3 feet focus, attached to an ordinary equatorial, the telescope of which was used as a guider when it was desired to obtain a picture of the stars with a long exposure. Among the advantages of this process may be reckoned the large field that is thereby obtained, many of the plates that he exhibited being as much as 4 degrees on the edge. I am however not now going to speak of Barnard’s marvellous views of the milky way, nor of the plate on which a comet was discovered, nor of the vicissitudes of Holmes’s comet, nor of that wonderful picture in which Swift’s comet actually appears to be producing, by a process of gemmation, an off- shoot which is evidently adapted for an independent cometary exist- ence. The picture to which I wish specially to refer in connection with our immediate subject is one in which the instrument was directed towards the celestial pole. In this particular case the clock-work which 18 ordinarily employed to keep the stars acting at the same point of the plate was dispensed with. The telescope, in fact, remained fixed while the heavens rotated in obedience to the diurnal motion. Under these circumstances each star, as minute after minute passed by, produced an image on a different part of the plate, the consequence of which was that the record which the star was found to have left, when the picture was developed, was that of a long trail instead of a sharply defined point. As each star appears to describe a circle in the sky around the pole, and as, in the vicinity of the pole, these circles were small enough to be included in the plate, this polar photograph exhibits a striking spectacle. It displayed a large number of concentric circles, or rather, I should say, of portions of circles, for the exposures having lasted for about four hours, about one-sixth of each circumference was completed 75 76 THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. The effect thus produced was that of a number of circular ares of varying sizes and of different degrees of brightness. Most conspicu- ous amongst them was the trail produced by the actual polar star itself. It is well known, of course, that though the situation of the pole is conveniently marked by the fortunate circumstance that a bright star happened during the present century to le in the immedi- ate vicinity of the veritable pole, yet, of course, this star is not actually at the pole, and consequently, like all the other stars, Polaris itself must be revolving in a circle whereof the center lies at the true pole. The brighter the star the brighter is the trail which it produces, so that the circle made by Polaris is much more conspicuous than the circles produced by the other stars of inferior luster. It is however to be noted that some of the faint stars lie much closer to the pole than Polaris itself. There is indeed one very minute object so close to the pole that the cirele in which its movements are performed seems very little more than a point when represented on the screen on which the shde was projected. The interesting circumstance was noted that there appeared to be occasional interruptions to the continuity of the circwar ares. This was due to the fact that clouds had interposed during the intervals represented by the interruptions. A practical application 1s thus suggested, which has been made to render useful service at Har- vard College Observatory. Every night, and all night long, a plate is there exposed to this particular part of the sky, and the degree in which the Pole-star leaves a more or less complete trail affords an indi- sation of the clearness or cloudiness of the sky throughout the course of the night. From the positions of the parts where the trail has been interrupted it is possible not only to learn the amount of cloudiness that has prevailed, but the particular hours during which it has lasted. This interesting system of concentric polar circles affords us perhaps the most striking visual representation that could possibly be obtained of the existence of that point in the heavens which we know as the pole. The picture thus exhibited was a striking illustration of the Copernican doctrine that the diurnal stellar movement was indeed only apparent, being of course due to the rotation of the earth on its axis. Suppose that a photograph, like that I have been describing, were to be taken at intervals of a century, it would be found that the center of the system of circles, that is to say, the veritable pole itself, was gradually changing on the heavens. I do not by this mean that the stars themselves would be found to have shifted their places relatively to each other. No doubt there is some effect of this kind, but it is an insignificant one, and need not at present concern us. The essential point to be noticed is, that the stars which happen to lie in the vicinity of the pole would have a changed relation to the pole in consequence of the fact that this latter point is itself in incessant movement. At the present time the pole is advancing in such a direction that it is getting nearer to the Pole-star, so that the actual circle which the Pole- THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. alr star is describing is becoming less and less. The time will come when the circle which this star performs will have reached its lowest dimen- sions, but still the pole will be moving on its way, and then, of course, the dimensions of the circle traversed by the Pole-star will undergo a corresponding increase. As hundreds of years and thousands of years roll by the pole will retreat farther and farther from the Pole star, so that in the course of a period as far on in the future as the foundation of Rome was in the past, the pole will be no longer sufficiently near the Pole-star to enable the latter to render to astronomers the peculiar services which it does at present. Looking still farther ahead, we find that in the course of about twelve thousand years the pole will have gained a position as remote as it possibly can from that position which it now occupies. This most eriti- eal point in the heavens will then lie not far from the star Vega, the brightest point in the northern sky, and then it will commence to return, so that after the lapse of about twenty-five thousand years the pole will be found again in the same celestial neighborhood where it is to-night, having, in the meantime, traversed a mighty circle through the constellations. In all this there is no novelty; these movementssof the pole are so conspicuous that they were detected long before the intro- duction of accurate instruments. They were discovered so far back as the time of Hipparchus, and the cause of them was assigned by New- ton as one of the triumphs of his doctrine of universal gravitation. In giving the title of ‘“* The Wanderings of the North Pole” to this paper I did not however intend to discourse of the movements to which I have hitherto referred. They are so familiar that every astronomer has to attend to them practically in the reduction of almost every observa- tion of the place of the celestial body. It was however necessary to make the reference which I have done to this subject in order that the argument on which we are presently to enter should be made suffi- ciently clear. It must be noted that the expression “the North Pole” is ambiguous. It may mean either of two things, which are quite dis- tinct. In the case we have already spoken of, I understand by the North Pole that point on the celestial sphere which is the center of the system of concentric circles described by the cireumpolar stars. The other sense in which the North Pole is used is the terrestrial one; it denotes that point on this earth which has been the goal of so many expeditions, and to reach which has been the ambition of so many illus- trious navigators. We have a general notion that the terrestrial North pole lies in a desolate region of eternal ice, somewhat relieved by the circumstance that for six months of the year the frozen prospect is brightened by perpetual day, though on the other hand, during the remaining six months of the year this region is the abode of perpetual night. 7 The North Pole is that bitherto unattainable point on our globe on which, if an observer could take his station, he would find that the 7S THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. phenomena of the rising and the setting of the stars, so familiar. eise- where, were non-existent. Hach star viewed from the coign of vantage offered by the North Pole would move round and round in a horizontal circle, and the system of concentric circles would be directly overhead. In midsummer the sun would seem to revolve around, remaining prac- tically at the same elevation above the horizon for a few days, until it slowly began to wend its way downwards ina spiral. In a couple of months it would draw near the horizon, and as day after day passed by the luminary would descend lower and lower until its edge grazed the horizon all round. Thesetting-of the sun for the long winter would then be about to commence, and gradually less and less of the disk would remain perceptible. Finally the sun would disappear altogether, though for many days afterwards a twilight glow would travel round the whole hemisphere, ever getting less and less, until at last all indi- zations of the sun had vanished. The utter darkness of winter would then ensue for months, mitigated only so far as celestial luminaries were concerned by starlight or occasional moonlight. Doubtless, how- ever, the fitful gleams of the aurora would often suffice to render the surrounding desolation visible. Then as the spring drew. near, if, indeed, such a word as spring be at all applicable to an abode of utter dreariness, a faint twilight wouid be just discernible. The region thus illuminated would move round and round the horizon each twenty-four hours, gradually becoming more and more conspicuous, until at last the edge of the sun appeared. Then, by aspiral movement inverse to that with which its descent was accomplished, the great luminary would steal above the horizon, there to continue for a period of six months until the commencement of the ensuing winter. Indeed, the actual duration of apparent summer would be somewhat protracted in conse- quence of the effect of refraction in raising the sun visually above the horizon when in reality it was still below. The result would be to lengthen the summer at one end and to anticipate it at the other. Such would be the astronomical conditions of the North Pole; that anomalous point, from whence every other locality on the globe lies due south, that mysterious point which up to the present seems never to have been approached by man within.a distance less than 400 miles, unless, indeed, as is not improbably the case, the pre-glacial man who lived in the last genial period found a temperate climate and enjoyable conditions even at the latitude of 90°. For our present purpose it will be necessary to get a very clear idea as to the precise point on the earth which we mean when we speak of the North Pole. Asour knowledge of it is almost entirely derived from astronomical phenomena, it is necessary to assign the exact locality of the pole by a strict definition depending on astronomical facts. Sup- posing that Nansen does succeed in his expedition, as everyone hopes that he will, and does penetrate within that circle of 400 miles radius where the foot of civilized man has never yet trod, how is he to identify THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. et) that particular spot on this globe which is to be defined by the North Pole? It was for this purpose that at the commencement of this paper I referred to that photograph of the concentric cireles which illustrated so forcibly the position of the pole in the heavens. Imagine that your eye was placed at the center of the earth, and that you had a long slen- der tube from that center to the surface through which you could look out at the celestial sphere; if that tube be placed in such a way that, when looking from the center of the earth through this tube, your vision was directed exactly to that particular point of the heavens which is the center of the circle now described by the Pole Star and the other circumpolar stars, then that spot in which the end of the tube passes out through the surface of the earth is the North Pole. Imagine a stake to be driven into the earth at the place named, then the position of that stake is the critical spot on our globe which has been the object of so much scientific investigation aud of so much maritime enterprise. The reader must not think that I am attempting to be hyper-accurate in this definition of the North Pole; no doubt, in our ordinary language we often think of the pole as something synonymous with the polar regions, an ill-defined and most vaguely known wilderness of ice. For scientific purposes it is, however, essential to understand that the pole is a very definitely marked point, and we must assign its position aceu- rately, not merely to within miles, but even to within feet. Indeed, it is a truly extraordinary circumstance that, considering no one, with thie possible exception just referred to, has ever yet been within so many hundred miles of the pole, we should be able to locate it so precisely that we are absolutely certain of its position to within an area not larger than that covered by a small town, or even by a good-sized draw- ing reom. We have seen that the North Pole in the sky is in incessant move. ment, and that the travels which it accomplishes in the course of many centuries extend over a wide sweep of the heavens; this naturally sug: gests the question, Does the pole in the earth move about in any simi- lar manner, and if so, what is the nature and extent of its variation? Here is the point about which those modern researches have been made which it is my special object to discuss in this paper. Let us first see clearly the issue that is raised. At the time of the building of the Pyramids the pole in the heavens was in quite a different place from its present position; the Pole Star had not at that time the slightest title to be called a pole star; in fact, the point around which the heav- ens revolved lay in a wholly different constellation. It was certainly not far from the star Alpha Draconis about 3000 B. ¢., and we could indicate its position quite definitely if we had any exact knowledge as to the date of the Pyramids’ erection. It is, however, plain that the difference was so patent between the celestial pole at the time of the Pyramids and the celestial pole of later centuries, that it could not be overlooked in attentive observation of the heavens, As the North 80 THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. Pole in the sky was, therefore, so different in the time of the Pharaohs from the North Pole in the time of Victoria, it 1s proper to ask whether there was a like difference, or any difference at all, between the terres- trial pole at the time of the building of the Pyramids and that terres- trial pole in whose quest Nansen is just setting off. If Pharaoh had despatched a successful expedition to the North Pole and driven a post in there to mark it, and if Nansen were now successful, would he find that the North Pole in the earth which he was to mark oceupied the same position or a different position from that which had been discov- ered thousands of years previously? At first one might hastily say that there must be such a difference, for it will be remembered that L have defined the North Pole in the earth as that point through which the tube passes which would permit an eye placed at the center of the earth to view the North Pole in the sky. If, therefore, the North Pole in the sky had undergone a great change in its position, it might seem obvious that the tube from the earth’s center to its surface which would now conduct the vision from that centre to the north celestial pole would emerge at a different point of the earth’s crust from that which it formerly occupied. We have here to deal with the case that arises not unfrequently in astronomy, in which a fact of broad general truth requires a minute degree of qualification; indeed, it is not too much to say that itis in this qualification of broad general truths that many of the greatest discoveries in physical science have consisted. And such is the case in the present instance. There is a broad general truth and there is the qualification of it. It is the qualification that constitutes the essential discovery which it is my object herein to set forth. But before doing so it will be necessary for me to lay down the broad gen- eral truth that the North Pole of the earth as it existed in the time of the Pharaohs appears to be practically the same as the North Pole of the earth now. It seems perfectly certain that at any time within the last ten thousand years the North Pole might have been found within a region on the earth’s surface not larger than Hyde Park. Indeed, the limits might be drawn much more closely. Itis quite possible that many an edifice in London occupies an area sufficiently great to cover the holes that would be made by all the posts that might be driven to mark the precise sites of the North Pole on the earth not only for the the last five or ten thousand years, but probably for periods much more ancient still. It is very likely that the North Pole at the time of the glacial epoch was practically indistinguishable from the North Pole now; in fact, the constancy, or sensible constancy I should, per- haps, rather say, of the situation of this most critical point in our globe is one of the most astonishing facts in terrestrial physics. Let us, then, assume this broad general fact of the permanency in the position of the North Pole, and deduce the obvious consequences it implies with regard to the earth’s movement. At this point we find the convenience of the time-honored illustration in our geography books THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. 81 which likens the earth to an orange. Let us thrust a knitting needle through the orange along its shortest diameter to represent the axis about which the earth rotates. Not only does the earth perform one revolution about this axis in the space of each sidereal day, but the axis itself has a movement. If the earth’s axis always remained fixed, -or never had any motion except in a direction parallel to itself, then the point to which it was directed on the sky would never change. We have however seen that the pole in the sky is incessantly altering its position; we are therefore taught that the direction of the earth’s axis of rotation is constantly changing. To simulate the movement by the orange and knitting needle, we must imagine the orange to rotate around its axis once in that period of twenty-three hours and fifty six minutes which is well known as the length of the sidereal day; while at the same time the knitting needle, itself bearing, of course, the orange with it, performs a conical movement with such extreme slowness that not less than twenty-five thousand years is occupied in making the eir- cuit. The movement, as has often been pointed out, is like that of a peg top which rotates rapidly on its axis while at the same time the axis itself has a slow revolving motion. Thus the phenomena which are presented in the rotation of the earth demonstrate that the axis about which the earth rotates occupies what is, at all events, approx- imately a fixed position in the earth, though not a fixed position in space. We can hardly be surprised at this result; i¢ merely implies that the earth acts like a rigid body on the whole, and does not permit the axis about which it is turning to change its position. It will now be easily understood how it comes to pass that the posi- tion of the North Pole upon the earth has not appreciably changed in the course of thousands of years. The axis around which the earth rotates has retained a permanent position relative to the earth itself; it has however continuously changed, it is at this moment changing, and it will continue to change with regard to its direction in space. So far our knowledge extended up to within the last few years, but inthese modern days a closer inquiry has been made into this, as into as many other physical subjects, and the resuit has been to disclose the impor- tant fact that, though the phenomena as just described are very nearly true, they must receive a certain minute qualification. Complete exam- ination of this subject is desirable, not only on account of its natural unportance, but also because it illustrates the refinements of which modern astronomical processes are susceptible. I have stated the broad general fact that the position of the terrestrial pole undergoes no large or considerable fluctuation. But while weadmit that nolarge fluctuation is possible, it is yet very proper to consider whether there may not be asmall fluctuation. It is certain that the position of the pole as it would be marked by a post driven into the earth to-day can not differ by a mile from the position in which the same point would be marked last year or next year. But does it differ at all? Is it abso- SM 95——6 82 THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. lutely exactly the same? Would there be a difference, not indeed of miles but of yards or of feet between the precise position of the pole on the earth determined at successive intervals of time? Would it be the same if we carried out our comparisons, not merely between one year and another, but day after day, week after week, month after month? No doubt the more obvious phenomena proclaim in the most unmistak- able manner that the position of the pole is substantially invariable. If therefore there be any fluctuations in its position, those could only be disclosed by careful scrutiny of minute phenomena which were too delicate to be detected in the coarser methods of observation. There is indeed a certain presumption in favor of the notion that absolute constancy in the position of the pole need not be expected. Almost every statement of astronomical doctrine requires its qualification, and it would seem indeed unlikely that when sufficient refinement was intro- duced into the measurements the position of the polein the earth should appear to be absolutely unalterable. Until a very recent period the evidence on the subject was almost altogether negative; it was no doubt recognized that there might be some fluctuations in the position of the pole, but it was known that they would only be extremely small, and it was believed that in all probability those fluctuations must be comprised within those slender limits which are too much affected by inevitable errors of observation to afford any reliable result. Per- severance in this interesting inquiry has been at last rewarded; and as in So many similar cases we are indebted to the labors of many inde- pendent workers for the recent extension of our knowledge. We are, however, at present most interested by the labors of Mr. Chandler, a distinguished American astronomer, who hasmade an exhaustive exam- ination into the subject. The result has been to afford a conclusive proof that the terrestrial pole does undergo movement. Mr. Chandler has been so successful as to have determined the law of those polar movements, and he has found that when they are taken into consider- ation, an important improvement in certain delicate astronomical inquir- ies 18 the result. These valuable investigations merit, in the highest degree, the attention, not only of those who are specially devoted to astronomical and mathematical researches, but of that large and ever- increasing class who are anxious for general knowledge with regard to the physical phenomena of our globe. At first sight it might seem difficult indeed to conduct the investi- gation of this question. Here is a point on the earth’s surface, this wonderful North Pole, which, so far as we certainly know, has never yet been approached to within 400 miles, and yet we are so solicitous about the position of this pole and about its movement that we demand a knowledge of its whereabouts with an accuracy which at first appears wholly unattainable. It sounds almost incredible when we are told that a shift in the position of the North Pole to the extent of 20 yards, or even 20 feet, is appreciable, notwithstanding that we have never THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. 83 been able to get nearer to it than from one end of England to the other. Indeed, as a matter of fact, our knowledge of the movements of the pole are derived from observations made not alone hundreds but even many thousands of miles distant. It is in such observations as those at Greenwich or Berlin, Pulkowa or Washington, that the determina- tions have been made by which changes in the position of the pole can be ascertained with a delicacy and precision for which those would hardly be prepared who were not aware of the refinement of modern astronomical methods. I do not however imply that the observations conducting to the discoveries now about to be considered have been exclusively obtained at the observatories I have named. There are a large number of similar institutions over the globe which have been made to bear their testimony. Tens of thousands of different observa- tions have been brought together, and by discussing them it has been found possible to remove a large part of the errors by which such work is necessarily affected, and to elicit from the vast mass those grains of truth which could not have been discovered had it not been for the enormous amount of material that was available. Mr. Chandler has discussed these matters in a remarkable series of papers, and it will be necessary for me now to enter into some little detail, both as regards the kind of observations that have been made, and the results to which astronomers have been thereby conducted. Greenwich Observatory lies more than 2,000 miles from the North Pole, and yet if the pole were to shift by as much as the width of Regent street, the fact that it had done so would be quite perceptible at Greenwich. Let me endeavor to explain how such a measurement could be achieved. In finding the latitude at any locality we desire, of course, to know the distance between the locality and the equator, expressed in angular magnitude. But though this is distinctly the definition of latitude, it does not at once convey the idea as to how this element can be ascertained. How for instance would an astrono- mer at Greenwich be able to learn the angular distance of the observa- tory from the equator? The equator is not marked on the sky, and it is obvious that the observer must employ a somewhat indirect process to ascertain what he wants. Here, again, we have to invoke the aid of that celestial pole to which I have so often referred. Think of that point on the sky which is the common center of the circles exhibited on Prof. Barnard’s photograph. That point is not indeed marked by any special star, but it is completely defined by the circumstance that itis the center of the track performed by the circumpolar stars. We thus obtain a clear idea of this definite point in the sky, and the hori- zou is a perfectly definite line, at all events from any station where the sea is visible. It is not difficult to imagine that by suitable meas- urements we can ascertain the altitude of this point in the heavens above the horizon. That altitude is the latitude of the place; it is, in fact, the very angle which lies between the locality on the earth and 84 THE WANDERINGS OF THE NORTH POLE. the equator. It is quite true that as the pole is implied by these circles ‘rather than directly marked by them, the measurement of the altitude ‘an not be effected quite directly. The actual process is to take the Pole star, or some one of the other circumpolar stars, and to measure the greatest height to which it ascends above the horizon, and the lowest altitude to which it declines about twelve hours later, The former of these is as much above the pole as the latter 1s below it, so between them we are able to ascertain the altitude of the pole witha high degree of accuracy. It is true that in a fixed observatory such as Greenwich there is no visible sea horizon, and even if there were it would not provide so excellent a method as is offered by the equiv- alent process of first observing the star directly and then observing its reflection from a dish of mereury. In this way the altitude of the star above the horizon is determined with the utmost precision. The practical astronomer will however remember that of course he has to attend to the effects of atmospheric refraction, which invariably shows a star higher up than it ought to be. This can be allowed for, and in this way the latitude of the observatory is ascertained with ail needful accuracy. When the highest degree of precision is sought for, and it is only observations with a very high degree of precision which are available for our present purpose, a considerable number of stars have to be employed, and very many observations have to be taken at different seasons of the year so as to eliminate, as far as possible, all sources of casual error. When, however, due attention has been paid to those precautions which the experience of astronomers suggests, the result that is obtained is characterized by extraordinary precision. How great that precision may be I must endeavor to explan. The lati- tude of every important observatory is obtained from a large number of observations, and it would be unlikely that it was more than one or two-tenths of a second different from the actual mean value. Nowa tenth of a second on the surface of the earth corresponds to a distance of about 10 feet, and this means that the latitude of the observatory, or, as we must now speak very precisely, the latitude of the center of the meridian circle in the observatory, is known to a degree of precision represented by a few paces. It will thus be seen that with the aceu- racy attainable in our modern observations, it would often be an appre- ciable blunder to mistake the latitude of one wall of the observatory for that of the opposite wall; in other words, we know accurately to within the tenth of a second, or within not much more than the tenth of a see- ond, the distance from the center of the transit circle at Greenwich, down to the earth’s equator. But, of course, the distance from the pole to the equator is 90°, and this being so it follows that the distance from the north pole of the earth to the center of the transit cirele at Greenwich Observatory has been accurately ascertained to within one or two-tenths of a second. If any change took place in the distance between the pole and the meridian circle at Greenwich, then it must be THE WANDERINGS Ol THE NORTH POLE. 85 manifested by the changes of latitude. We shall now be able to under- stand how any movement of the pole, or rather of the position which it occupies in the earth, would be indicated at Greenwich. Suppose, for instance, that the pole actually advanced towards Great Britain, and ‘that it moved toa distance of, let us say, 50 feet, the effect of this would be to produce a diminution of the distance between the pole and Green- wich, that is to say, there must be an increase in the distance from Greenwich to the equator. This would correspond to @ change in the latitude of Greenwich; that latitude would diminish by three-tenths of a second, which is a magnitude quite large enough to be recognizable by the observations [ have already indicated as proper for the determi. nation of latitude. “USilver niitatercs..s 0-22 eee econ eee ee oe eee 3 One-half of A is added to B and the other half to C. These two solu- tions are mixed by adding the silver to the bromide. From Nature, October 5, 1893; vol. XLyitl, p. 549. THE MONT BLANC OBSERVATORY. 261 One wonders how it has been possible to transport the edifice to this altitude and fix it on the snow. However, if the conditions offered by the hard, permanent, and little mobile snows of the summit are carefully considered, it is soon recognized that the snows are able tosupport very considerable weights,* and that they will be only slightly amenable to displacements, which will render it necessary to straighten again the construction which has been fixed upon them. On my arrival I made a rapid survey, and saw that the construction had not been sunk in the snow as much as [ had stipulated of the con- tractors. I do not approve of this. My guides and myself then took possession of the largest underground room. I intended at first to fix the instruments for enabling observations to be commenced immedi- ately, and the provisions were left on the Rocher-Rouge. This cireum- stance put us in a State of perplexity, for the weather suddenly became very bad, and we had to remain two days separated from the stores. The storm lasted from Tuesday until Thursday morning. Beautiful weather then set in, and I was able to begin the observations. The observations have for their principal object the question of the presence of oxygen in the solar atmosphere. The academy knows that I worked at this important point during my ascensions to the Grands- Mulets (3,050 meters) in 1888, and at M. Vallot’s observatory in 1890. But the novelty of the-observations of 1893 lies in the fact that they have been effected on the very summit of Mount Blane, and that the instrument employed is infinitely superior to that of the two preceding ascensions. At the first, in fact, a Duboseq spectroscope, incapable of separating the B group into distinct lines, was employed, while the instrument about to be employed at the summit of Mount Blane is a grating spectroscope (the dispersive piece of which I owe to the kind- ness of Rowland), with telescopes having a focal length of 0°75 and showing all the details of the B group. This circumstance is of consid- erable importance, for it may lead to the discovery, in the constitution of the group in question, of valuable elements for measuring in some way the effects of the diminution of the action of our atmosphere as one ascends into it, and, accordingly, to determine whether this diminu- tion corresponds to total extinction at its limits. In fact, we shall learn whether or no the double lines which make up the B group dinin- ish in intensity as their refrangibilities diminish—that is, as their wave lengths inerease. This circumstance may perhaps be employed with profit, if not to measure at least to observe the diminution of the action of the selective absorption of our atmosphere. It has been ascertained that the most feeble doubles fade away one after the other as the atmosphere is ascended—that is to say, as the absorbing action is diminished. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, at the surface of our seas or upon our *See Comptes Rendus for an account of experiments made at Meudon on the resist- ance of slightly compressed snow. (Ante, p. 259.) 262 THE MONT BLANC OBSERVATORY. plains, thirteen or fourteen doubles can be seen, not reckoning that which is known as the head of B. But even at Chamonix—that is, at an altitude of 1,050 meters—the thirteenth double is very difficult to make out,and at the Grands-Mulets (3,050 meters) it is only possible to see from the tenth to the twelfth, while at the summit of Mount Blane I could hardly go beyond the eighth. It is not to be supposed that we establish a proportionality between the numerical diminution of the doubles and that of the atmospheric action. The law is evidently of a much more complex character. But this diminution, especially when considered in connection with the experiments made with tubes full of oxygen, and able to re-produce the series of atmospheric phenomena to which we have referred, is sufficient for us to conclude that the B group would totally disappear at the limits of our atmosphere. It is remarkable, however, that if we take the coefficient 0-566 that represents the diminution of atmospheric action at the summit of Mount Blane according to barometric pressures 0:76 sents the doubles clearly visible on the plain—we obtain 7:4 as the result—that is to say, very nearly the number (8) doubles that can be seen be me on the summit of Mount Blane. This result is certainly remarkable, but I repeat that, in my opinion, it is only by the comparison with tubes reproducing the same optical conditions as nearly as possible that any definite conclusions will be obtained: These comparative experiments have already been com- menced in the laboratory of Meudon Observatory, and they lead to the same result, viz, the disappearance of the groups A, Bb, and a at the limits of the atmosphere. On account of the importance of the ques- tion, however, the experiments will be repeated and completed. The question arises as to whether the high temperatures to which solar gases and vapors are subjected are not capable of modifying the power of selective absorption, -and particularly whether the absorption of oxygen which takes place in the sun’s atmosphere would not be alto- gether different from that indicated by the experiments which have been made at ordinary temperatures. J have already instituted experiments with the idea of replying to this objection. I shall give an account of them to the academy in due course, but I may say that the absorption spectrum of oxygen, either the line spectrum or the unresolvable bands, do not appear to be modi- fied in an appreciable manner when the oxygen is raised to tempera- tures of about 400 or 500 degrees. On the whole, I think that observations made on the summit of Mount Blane give a new and much sounder foundation to the study of the question of the purely tellurie origin of the oxygen groups in the solar spectrum, and lead to the conclusions previously stated. (a7 — 0°566 ) and multiply it by thirteen—the number that repre- THE MONT BLANC OBSERVATORY. 263 Independently of these observations I have also given some attention to the transparency of the atmosphere of this almost unique station, and to the atmospheric phenomena which are included in such an extensive view, and across such a great thickness. I shali speak of this on a future occasion. The observatory of course is not completed. There yet remains much to be done independently of interior arrangements and the instal- lation of the instruments; but the great difficulty has been overcome, for we are free to work, and no longer have to reckon with the snow- storms; the rest will follow in due course. T hope that the observatory will soon be able to offer a much more comfortable sojourn than I have had there; but that will depend upon the weather. Be this as it may, I regret nothing. | I strongly wished to see our work in position, and still more fervently desired to inau- gurate it by observations which are ever in my mind. I am fortunate at having been able to realize my desires in spite of some difficulties. ween: af | : | | : | | lie 3 4 a L Anite ae ‘ , in er | 10% me > 7 iy 5 . i oh } 7 igre Cia ta 2 Be conti % RELATIONS OF AIR AND WATER TO TEMPERATURE AND LIFE.* By GARDINER G. HUBBARD, President of the National Geographic Society. CIRCULATION OF AIR AND WATER. It was said in olden times, “The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth.” That which was unknown, science hathrevealed. The wind in its cur- rents is governed and directed by laws as fixed as those of the solar system. If a moisture-laden wind passes over the country it leaves the land fruitful; but a dry wind leaves it barren. The currents of air are among the most important factors in the physical geography of our earth, affecting not only soil and climate but also vegetal and animal life. The winds obtain their moisture through evaporation, which goes on everywhere and at all times; in the equatorial and polar oceans, from the rich cultivated soil and the arid desert, from the valley and the snow-clad mountain. Reclus tells us that the evaporation from the equatorial ocean is from 13 to 16 feet a year. This estimate is con- firmed by the U.S. Geological Survey, which found the evaporation from the southern Colorado River to be 102 inches, or nearly 9 feet in a year. The quantity of water evaporated from the land must be very large, as only about two-fifths of the rainfall is returned by the rivers to the ocean. a4 — 7 J F 3 : THE ICK AGE AND ITS WORK Biel. Wik AGH anaes, I ERRATIC BLOCKS AND ICE SHEETS. It is little more than fifty years ago that one of the most potent agents in modifying the surface features of our country was first recognized. Before 1840,—when Agassiz accompanied Buckland to Scotland, the Lake District, and Wales, discovering everywhere the same indications of the former presence of glaciers as are to be found so abundantly in Switzerland,—no geologist had conceived the possibility of a recent gla- cial epoch in the temperate portion of the Northern Hemisphere. From that year however a new science came into existence, and it was recog- nized that only bya careful study of existing glaciers, of the nature of the work they now do, and of the indications of the work they have done in past ages, could we explain many curious phenomena that had hitherto been vaguely regarded as indications of diluvial agency. One of the first fruits of the new science was the conversion of the author of Reliquie Diluviane—Dr. Buckland—who, having studied the work of glaciers in Switzerland in company with Agassiz, became convinced that numerous phenomena he had observed in this country could only be due to the very same causes. In November, 1840, he read a paper before the Geological Society on the “ Evidences of glaciers in Scotland and the north of England,” and from that time to the present the study of glaciers and of their work has been systematically pursued with a large amount of success. One after another crude theories have been abandoned, facts have steadily accumulated, and their logical though cautious interpretation has led to a considerable body of well-sup- ported inductions on which the new science is becoming firmly estab- lished. Some of the most important and far reaching of these indue- tions are however still denied by writers who have a wide acquaintance with modern glaciers; and as several works have recently appeared on both sides of the controversy, the time seems appropriate for a popular sketch of the progress of the glacial theory, together with a more detailed discussion of some of the most disputed points as to “Selections from article in The Fortnightly Review, November and December, 1893; vol. Liv, pp. 616-634, 749-774. aoe 211 278 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. which it seems to the present writer that sound reasoning is even more required than the further accumulation of facts.* In the last century Swedenborg, Linnwus, Pallas, De Lue, and many other eminent writers took notice of the remarkable fact that in Seandinavia, Russia, Germany, and Switzerland detached rocks or bowlders were found, often in great abundance and of immense size, and of a kind that did not exist tr situ in the same district, but which were often only to be discovered in remote localities, sometimes hun- dreds of miles away. Tbose who ventured to speculate on the origin of these travelled rocks usually had recourse to water power to account: for their removal; and, as their large size and often elevated position required some unusual force to earry them, there arose the idea of enor- mous floods sweeping over whole continents; and for a long time this diluvial theory was the only one that appeared to be available, although the difficulties of its application to explain all the phenomena became greater the more closely those phenomena were studied. Still, there yas apparently no other known or conceivable means of accounting for them, and for the enormous mounds of gravel or clay intermixed with bowlders which often accompanied them; and the efforts of geologists were therefore directed to the discovery of how the water power had acted and by what means the supposed floods could have been pro- duced. There were not wanting men who saw that no action of water alone could account for the facts. Sir James Hall pointed this out with regard to erratics on the Jura, whose source was undoubtedly in the far-distant Alps; and Mr. Grainger, in America, described some of the parallel grooves and flutings running for nearly a mile in Ohio, strongly arguing that no action of running water could have produced them, but that an agent was required, the direction of whose movement was fixed and unalterable for long distances and for a great length of time. No light was however thrown on the problem till 1822, when Venetz, a Swiss engineer, finding that existing glaciers varied in extent from year to year and that historical records showed them to have consider- ably increased during the last eight centuries, was further led to observe that long before the historical era the glaciers had been immensely more extensive, as Shown by the smooth and rounded rocks, by longitudinal scratches and grooves pointing down the valleys, and by numbers of old moraines exactly similar im form and materials to those deposited by existing glaciers. He read a paper before the Hel- vetic Society of Natural History, and urged that glaciers once stretched * The works referred to are: Do Glaciers Excavate? by Prof. T.G. Bonney, F. R. 8. (The Geographical Journal, vol. 1, No.6); The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood, by Sir H. H. Howorth, M.P., F. R.S.; Fragments of Earth Lore, by Prof. James Geikie, F. R. S.; Man and the Glacial Period, by Prof. G. F. Wright, F.G.S. A.; La Période Glaciaire, by A. Falsan; and the Glacialists’ Magazine, edited by Percy F. Kendall, I. G. 8.; from which works, and from those of Lyell, Ramsay, Geikie, and the American geolo- gists, most of the facts referred to in the prescut article are derived. a THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 219 down the Rhone Valley as far as the Jura, and there deposited the erratic blocks which had so puzzted the diluvialists to explain. Other writers soon followed the clue thus given. In 1835, Charpen- tier, after a close study of the erratic blocks and of their sources, adopted the views of Venetz. Agassiz followed, and by his strenuous advocacy did much to spread correct views as to the former extension of the Alpine glaciers, and their capability of explaining the numerous superficial phenomena which in all northern countries had been thought to afford proofs of enormous floods and of the submergence of a large part of Europe under a deep sea. He has: therefore gained the repu- tation of being the originator of the modern school of glacialists, which undoubtedly owes much to his energy, research, and powers of exposi- tion, though all the more important facts, as well as the logical con- clusions to be drawn from them, had been pointed out by previous writers. Before proceeding further, it will be well to give a brief outline of the phenomena which led to the conclusion that glaciers have formerly existed in districts and countries where even perpetual snow on the mountain tops is now unknown. ‘These may be briefly classed as (1) moraines and drifts; (2) rounded, smoothed, or planed rocks; (35) strive, grooves, and furrows on rock-surfaces; (4) erratics and perched blocks. (1) Moraines are those heapsorridges of rock and other debris which are deposited on the surface of a glacier from the precipices or moun- tain slopes which border it, and which form what are termed lateral and medial moraines while upon it, and terminal moraines when, being gradually discharged at its end, either from above or from beneath it, they form great heaps of rock and gravel corresponding in outhne and extent to that of the terminal ice-cliff. Such moraines can be seen on and near all existing glaciers, and their mode of formation and char- acteristics are perfectly well known. - - - (2) Smoothed and rounded rocks, called in Switzerland ‘“ roches moutonnées,” from their supposed resemblance at a distance to sheep lying down, are perhaps the most general of all the indications of glacial action. Every glacier carries with it, imbedded in its under surface, numbers of rocks and stones, which, during the slow but unceasing motion over its bed, crush and grind down all rocky projections, pro- ducing in the end gently rounded or almost flat surfaces even on the hardest and toughest rocks. In many of the valleys of Wales, the Lake. District, and Scotland every exposed rock has acquired this character- istic outline, and the same feature can he traced on all the rocky slopes and often on the summits of the lesser heights; and the explanation of how these forms have been produced is not a theory only, but has been observed in actual operation in the accessible portions of many glaciers. Rocks and stones are to be seen embedded in the ice and actually seratching, grooving, and grinding the rock beneath in their slow but irresistible onward motion. - -— - 280 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. On the whole, considering their abundance in all glaciated regions and the amount of information they give as to the direction and grind- ing power of ice, these rounded rocks afford one of the most instructive indications of the former presence of glaciers; and we must also agree with the conclusion of Darwin (in a paper written after studying the phenomena of ice-action in North Wales, and while fresh from his obser- vation of glaciers and icebergs in the Southern Hemisphere) that ‘ one of the best criterions between the effects produced by the passage of glaciers and of icebergs is boss or dome-shaped rocks.” (3) Striated, grooved, and tluted rocks, though closely connected with the preceding, form a distinct kind of evidence of the greatest ‘value. Most of the bosses of rock just described have been exposed to the action of the atmosphere, perhaps since the ice left them, and have thus become more or less roughened or even disintegrated; but where the rocks have been protected by a covering of drift, or even of turf, and have been recently exposed, they often exhibit numerous parallel strive, varying from the finest scratches to deep furrows a foot or more in diameter. - - - Perhaps none of the effects of ice so clearly demon- strate the action of glaciers as opposed to that of icebergs, owing to the general constancy of the direction of the striz, and the long dis- tances they may be traced up and down slopes, with a steadiness of motion and evenness of cutting power wluch no tloating mass could possibly exert. - - - (4) Erratic blocks were among the phenomena that first attracted the attention of men of science. Large masses of granite and hard meta- morphic rock, which can be traced to Scandinavia, are found scattered over the plains of Denmark, Prussia, and northern Germany, where they rest either on drift or on quite different formations of the Second- ary or Tertiary periods. One of these blocks, estimated at 1,500 tons’ weight, lay in a marshy plain near St. Petersburg, and a portion of it was used for the pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great. In parts of north Germany they are so abundant as to hide the surface of the ground, being piled up in irregular masses forming hills of granite bowlders, which are often covered with forests of pine, birch, and juniper. Far south, at Fiirstenwalde southeast of Berlin, there was a huge bleck of Swedish red granite, from one-half of which the gigan- tic basinwas wrought which stands before the New Museum in that Ciby-ue=) Go It is however in Switzerland that we find erratic blocks which fur- nish us with the most conclusive testimony to the former enormous extension of glaciers; and as these have been examined with the great- est care, and the facts, as well as the main inductions from the facts, are generally admitted by all modern writers, it will be well to consider them somewhat in detail. It will be found that they give us most valuable information both as to the depth and extension of ancient glaciers, and also as to the possibilities of motion in extensive ice- sheets. THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 281 The most important of these facts relate to the erratic blocks from the higher Alps, which are found ou the flanks of the Jura Moun- tains wholly formed of limestone, on which it is therefore easy to recog- nize the granites, slates, and metamorphic rocks of the Alpine chain. These erratic blocks extend along the Jura range for a distance of 100 miles, and up to a height of 2,015 feet above the Lake of Neufchatel. The first important point to notice is that this highest elevation is attained at a spot exactly opposite, and in the same direction as, the Rhone Valley, between Martigny and the head of the Lake of Geneva, while north or south of this point they gradually decline in elevation to about 500 feet above the lake. The blocks at the highest elevation and central point can be traced to the eastern shoulder of Mont Blane. All those to the southwest come from the left-hand side of the Lower Rhone Valley, while those to the northeast are all from the left side of the Upper Rhone Valley and its tributaries. Other rocks coming from right-hand side of the Upper Rhone Valley are found on the right- hand or Bernese side of the great valley between the Jura and the Bernese Alps.* Now, this peculiar and definite distribution, which has been worked out with the greatest care by numerous Swiss geologists, is a necessary consequence of well-known laws of glacier motion. The débris from the two sides of the main valley form lateral moraines which, however much the glacier may afterwards be contracted or spread out, keep their relative position unchanged. Each important tributary Plagier brings in other lateral moraines, and thus when the combined glacier ultimately spreads out in a great lowland valley the several moraines will also spread out, while keeping their relative position, and never crossing over to mingle with each other. So soon as this definite posi- tion of the erratics was worked out it became evident that the first explanation—of a great submergence, during which the lower Swiss valleys were arms of the sea and the Rhone glacier broke off in ice- bergs, which carried the erratics across to the Jura—was altogether untenable, and that the original explanation of Venetz and Charpen- tier was the true one. - - - We inust now consider briefly the distribution of erraties in North America, because they present some peculiar features and teach us much concerning the possibilities of glacier motion. An immense area of the Northeastern States, extending south to New York, and then westward in an irregular line to Cincinnati and St. Louis, is almost wholly covered with a deposit of drift material, in which rocks of various sizes are embedded, while other rocks, often of enormous size, lie upon the surface. These blocks have been carefully studied by the American geologists, and they present us with some very interesting facts. Not only are the distances from which they have aon tr pSported very great, but in Hae many cases they are found at A map Soeme the lines of dispersal of ate se erratics is given in Lyell’s Antiq- uity of Men, p. 344, and is reproduced in my /sland Life, p. 111. 282 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. a greater elevation than the place from which they must have come. Prof. G. F. Wright found an enormous accumulation of bowlders on a sandstone plateau in Monroe County, Pa. Many of these bowlders were granite, and must have come either from the Adirondack Moun- tains, 200 miles to the north, or from the Canadian Highlands, still farther away. This accumulation of bowlders was 70 or 80 feet high, and it extended many miles, descending into a deep valley 1,000 feet below the plateau in a nearly continuous line, forming part of the southern moraine of the great American ice sheet. On the Kentucky hills, about 12 miles south of Cincinnati, conglom- erate bowlders containing pebbles of red jasper can be traced to a limited outcrop of the same rock in Canada to the north of Lake Huron, more than 600 miles distant, and similar bowlders have been found at intervals over the whole intervening country. In both these cases the blocks must have passed over intervening valleys and_ hills, the latter as high or nearly as high as the source from whence the rocks were derived. Even more remarkable are numereus bowlders of Helderberg limestone on the summit ef the Blue Ridge,in Pennsyl- vania, which must have been brought from ledges at least 500 feet lower than the piaces upon which they now lie. The Blue Ridge itself shows remarkable signs of glacial abrasion, in a well-defined shoulder marking the southern limit of the ice (as indicated also by heaps.of drift and erratics), so that Mr. Wright concludes that several hundred feet of the ridge have been worn away by the ice. The crowning example of bowlder transportation is however afforded by the blocks of light-gray gneiss discovered by Prof. Hitchcock on the summit of Mount Washington, over 6,000 feet above sea level, and identified with Bethlehem gneiss, whose nearest outcrop is in Jeffer- son, several miles to the northwest, and 3,000 or 4,000 feet lower than Mount Washington. These varied phenomena of erratic blocks and rock striations, together with the enormous quantity of bowlder clay and glacial drift spread over the whole of the Eastern States, terminating southward in a more or less abrupt line of mounds having all the characteristics of an enormous moraine, have led American geologists to certain definite conclusions in which they all practically agree. It may be well first to give a notion of the enormous amount of the glacial débris under which a large part of the Eastern States is buried. In New England these deposits are of less thickness than farther south, averaging from 10 to 20 feet over the whole area. In Pennsylvania and New York, east of the Alleghanies, the deposits are very irregular, often 60 or 70 feet thick and sometimes more. West of the Alleghanies, in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, the thickness is much greater, being often 159 or 200 feet in the wide valleys and 40 or 50 feet on many of the uplands. Prof. Newberry calculates that in Ohio it averages 60 feet deep over an area of 25,600 square miles. — = THE ICE AGE AND. ITS WORK. 283 The direction of the striw and of the travelled bowlders, together with the form of the great terminal moraines, show that there must have been two maim centers of outflow for the ice sheet, one over Labrador, the other over the Laurentian Highlands north of Lake Superior. The southern margin of the drift may be roughly represented by portions of circles drawn from these two points as centers. The erratics on the summit of Mount Washington show that the ice sheet must have been a mile thick in its neighborhood, and much thicker at the centers of dispersion, while the masses‘of drift and erratics on plateaus 2,000 feet high near its southern boundary indicate a great thickness at the ter- mination. The Laurentian plateau is now about 2,000 feet above the sea level, but there are numerous indications from buried river chan- nels, filled with drift and far below the sea, which lead to the conclu- sion that during the Ice Age the land was much higher. That snow can accumulate to an enormous extent over land of moderate height when the conditions are favorable for such an accumulation 1s shown by the case of Greenland, the greater part of whose surface 1s a vast plateau of ice flowing outward by numerous glaciers into the sea. The center of this plateau where Dr. Nansen crossed it was over 9,000 feet above sea-level, and it may be very much higher farther north. It therefore seems probable that the great American ice sheet was at least as high, and perhaps much higher, and this would give sufficient slope for the flow to the southern border. Of course, during the sue- cessive stages of the glaciation there may have been numerous local centers from which glaciers radiated, and during the passing away of the Ice Age these local glaciers would have left striz and other indi- cations of their presence. But so much of the area covered by the drift—all in fact south of the New England mountains and the Great Lakes-—is undulating ground, hill, valley, and plateau of moderate height; that here all the phenomena seem to be due to the great con- fluent ice sheet during the various phases of its advanceand its passing away. - - - It will now be well briefly to sketch the distribution of erratic blocks in Great Britain, and the conclusions to be drawn from them as to the former existence of an ice sheet under which the greater part of our islands was buried. Every mountain group north of the Bristol Channel was a center from which, in the earlier and later phases of the Ice Age, glaciers radi- ated; but many facts prove that during its maximum development these separate glacier systems became confluent, and formed extensive ice sheets, which overflowed into the Atlantic Ocean on the west and spread far over the English lowlands on theeast and south. This is indicated partly by the great height at which glacial strive are found, reaching to 2,500 feet in the lake district and in Ireland, somewhat higher in North Wales, and in Scotland to nearly 3,500 feet; but also by the extraordi- nary distribution of erratic blocks, many of which can be traced to locali- 284 THE ICE AGE AND®*ITS WORK. ties whence they could only have been brought across the sea. The direction of the glacial striz and of the smoothed side of ice-worn rocks also indicate that the shallow seas were all filled up by ice. - - Onall sides of Ireland, except the southern coast, the ice flowed outward, but on the northeast the flow was diverted southward, and on the extreme north, westward, by the pressure of the overflowing ice sheet of Seot- land which here encountered it. In like manner, the ice marks on the east coast of Ireland and the west coast of Wales are diverted south- ward by the mutual pressure of their ice sheets, which, together with that of the west of Scotland, filled up St. George’s Channel. That such was the case is further proved by the fact that the Isle of Man is ice- bound in a general direction from north to south, and to the summit of its loftiest mountains, which rise to a height of over 2,000 feet. This could only have been done by an ice sheet flowing over it, and this view is further supported by some most remarkable facts in the dispersal of local erratics. These are always found to the south of the places where they occur in situ, never to the north; and, whatis still more noteworthy, they are often found far above the native rock. Thus bowlders of the peculiar Foxdale granite are found about 1,400 feet higher than the highest point where there is an outcrop of this rock. The Scoteh ice sheet flowed outward on all sides, but on the east it was met by the southward extension of the great Scandinavian ice sheet. On the extreme north the meeting of these two ice sheets resulted in a flow to the northwest which glaciated the Orkney Islands, while the Shetlands, much farther north, received the full impact of the Seandinavian ice alone, and are therefore glaciated from the north- east. The dividing line of the Scotch and Scandinavian ice sheets was in the North Sea, not far from the east coast of Scotland; but farther south, at Flamborough Head and Holderness, the latter impinged on our coast, bringing with it enormous quantities of Scandinavian rocks. Many years ago Prof. Sedgwick described the cliffs of bowlder clay at Holderness as containing “an ineredible number of smooth round blocks of granite, gneiss, greenstone, mica slate, etc., resembling none of the rocks of England, but resembling specimens derived from vari- ous parts of the great Scandinavian chain.” These are mixed how- ever with a number of British rocks from the north and west, indi- eating the meeting ground of the two conflicting ice sheets. Similar blocks occur all along the coast as far as the cliffs of Cromer in Norfolk, Across the peninsula of Flamborough about 2 miles westof the light- house there is a moraine ridge containing a few Scandinavian bowlders, but mainly composed of British rocks. These latter consist of numer- ous carboniferous rocks from the north and northwest, together with many of Shap granite—a peculiar rock found only on Shap Fell, in the astern side of the Lake District, together with a few of Galloway granite. ‘These facts, it will be seen, add further confirmation to the theory of great confluent ice sheets indicated by the ice-markings upon ——— —~—s THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 285 the various groups of mountains, while it is hopelessly impossible to explain them on any theory of local glaciers, even with the aid of sub- mergence and of floating ice. - - - The center of the great glacier sheet of North Wales appears to have been over the Arenig Mountains, whence erratics of a peculiar volcanic rock have been traced to the north and east, mingling with the last- described group; while a distinct train of these Welsh erratics stretches southeastward to the country west of Birmingham. In the Isle of Man are found many erratics from Galloway and afew from the Lake District. But the most remarkable are those of a very peculiar rock found only on Ailsa Craig, a small island in the Frith of Clyde, and a single bowlder of a peculiar pitechstone found only in the Isle of Arran. The Ailsa Craig rock has also been found at Moel Try- faen, on the west side of Snowdon, and more recently at Killiney County, Dublin, on the seashore.* The case of the bowlders in the Isle of Man, which have been carried nearly 800 feet above their source, has already been mentioned, but there are many other examples of this phenomenon in our islands; and as they are of great importance in regard to the general theory of glacial motion, a few of them may be noted here. So early as1818 Mr. Weaver described a granite block on the top of Cronebane, a slate hill in Ireland, and several hundred feet higher than any place where similar granite was to be found in situ; and he also noticed several deposits of lime- stone gravel in places from 300 to 400 feet higher than the beds of lime- stone rock, which are from 2 to 10 miles off. Débris of red sandstone is also found much higher than the parent rock. Bowlders of Shap gran- ite, Mr. Kendal tells us, have passed over Stainmoor by tens of thou- sands, and in doing so have been carried about 200 feet above their source; and the curious Permian rock, ‘“‘ Brockram,” has been carried in the same direction no less than 1,000 feet higher than its highest point of origin.t In Scandinavia there are still ore striking examples, erratic blocks having been found at an eievation ot 4,500 feet, which could not possibly have come from any place higher than 1,800 feet.t We thus find clear and absolute demonstration of glacier ice moving uphill and dragging with it rocks from lower levels to elevations vary- ing from 200 to 2,700 feet above their origin. In Switzerland we have proof of the same general fact in the terminal moraine of the northern branch of the Rhone glacier being about 200 feet higher than the Lake of Geneva, with very much higher intervening ground. - - - The facts thus established render it more easy for us to accept one of the Jatest conclusions of British glacialists. A great submergence of a large portion of the British Isles during the glacial period, or in the interval between successive phases of the glacial period, has long * Nature, March 16, 1895; vol. XLv1il, p. 464. t Wright’s Man and the Glacial Period, p. 154. t{ James Geikie’s Great Ice Age, 2d ed., p. 404. 286 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. been accepted by geologists, and maps have been often published showing the small group of islands to which our country was then reduced, the supposed subsidence being about 1,400 feet. The evidence for this is the occurrence at a few spots of glacial gravels containing marine shells in tolerable abundance, the most celebrated being at Moel Tryfaen, on the west side of Snowdon, at a height of more than 1,300 feet. Shell-bearing drifts have also been found near Macclesfield at a height of over 1,100 feet, and to the east of Manchester at between 500 and 600 feet elevation. Others have since been found on Gloppa,a hill near Oswestry. The fact that the shell-bearing gravels of Moel Try- faen are nearly 40 feet thick shows that, if they are due to submerg- ence, the land must have remained stationary at that level for a con- siderable period of time, and there would probably be other stationary periods at lower levels. Yet nowhere in the valleys or on the hill slopes of Wales, or the Lake District, or in the English lowlands are there any of the old beaches or sea cliffs, or marine deposits of any kind, that must have been formed during such a subsidence and which ean hardly have been everywhere cleared away by subsequentglaciation. Another difficulty is that the shells of these drifts are such as could not have lived together on one spot, some being northern species, others southern, some frequenting sandy, others muddy bottoms, some which live only below tidal water, while others are shore species. And, lastly, they are very fragmeitary, only a small percentage of entire shells being fou... ~—) o> | Ii. EROSION OF LAKE BASINS. Lakes are distributed very unequally over the various parts of the world, and they also differ much in their position in relation to other physical peculiarities of the surface. Most of the great continents have a considerable number of lakes, many of great size, situated on plateaus or in central basins; while the northern parts of Europe and North America are thickly strewn with lakes of various dimensions, some on the plains, others in sub-alpine valleys, others again high up among the mountains, these latter being of small size and usually -alled tarns. The three classes of lakes last mentioned occur in the greatest profusion in glaciated districts, while they are almost absent elsewhere; and it was this peculiarity of general distribution, together with the observation that all the valley lakes of Switzerland and of our own country occurred in the track of the old glaciers, and in situa- tions where the erosive power of the ice would tend to form rock-closed basins, that appears to have led the late Sir Andrew Ramsay to formu- late his theory of ice erosion to explain them. He was further greatly influenced by the extreme difficulty or complete inadequacy of any pos- sible alternative theory,—a difficulty which we shall see remains as great now as at the time he wrote. This question of the origin of the lake basins of the glaciated regions THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 287 is especially interesting on account of the extreme divergence of opin- ion that still prevails on the subject. While the general facts of gla- ciation, the extent and thickness of the old glaciers and ice sheets, and the work they did in distributing huge erratics many hundred miles from their sources and in covering thousands of square miles of coun- try with thick layers of bowlder clay and drift, are all admitted as beyond dispute, geologists are still divided into two hostile camps when the origin of lake basins is concerned; and the opposing forces seem to be approximately equal. Having for many years given much atten- tion to this problem, which has had for me a kind of fascination, I am convinced that the evidence in favor of glaciation has not been set forth in all its cumulative force, while many of the arguments against it seem to me to be either illogical or beside the point at issue. I have also to adduce certain considerations which have hitherto been over- looked, but which appear to me to afford very strong if not conclusive evidence for erosion as against any alternative theory yet proposed. I shall therefore first set ferth, as fully as the space at my command will allow, the general evidence in favor of the ice origin of certain classes of lakes, and the special conditions requisite for the produc- tion of lakes by this agency. The objections of the best authorities will then be considered and replied to, and the extreme difficulties of the alternative theories will be pointed out. I shall then describe cer- tain peculiarities, hitherto unnoticed, which clearly point. to erosion, as opposed to any form of subsidence and upheaval, in the formation of the lakes in question. Lastly, the special case of the Lake of Geneva will be discussed as affording a battle-ground that will be admitted to be highly favorable to the anti-glacialists, since most of them have adduced it as being entirely beyond the powers of the ancient glaciers to have produced. 1. The different kinds of lakes and their distribution.—To clear the ground at the outset, it may be well to state that the great plateau lakes of various parts of the world have no doubt been formed by some kind of earth movements occurring subsequent to the upheaval and partial denudation of the country. It is universally admitted that existing lakes can not be very ancient, geologically speaking, since they would inevitably be filled up by the sediment carried into them by the streams and by the wind. Our lakes must therefore be quite modern features of the earth’s surface. A considerable proportion of these plateau lakes are in regions of little rain-fall, and many of them have no outlet. The latter circumstance is a consequence of the for- mer, since it indicates that evaporation balances the inflow. This would have favored the formation of such lakes, since 1t would have prevented the overflow of the water from the slight hollow first formed, and the cutting of an outlet gorge which would empty the incipient lake. Capt. Dutton, in his account of the geology of the Grand Canyon district, lays stress on this fact, ‘ that the elevation of 288 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. a platform across the track of a river rarely diverts it from its course, for the stream saws its bed into the rocks as fast as the obstacle rises.” Seanty rain-fall and great evaporation seem therefore to be almost essential to the formation of the larger plateau lakes. Rarely, such lakes may have been formed in comparatively well-watered districts, but the earth movements must in these cases have been exceptionally sapid and extensive, and they are accordingly found most often in countries subject to voleanic disturbances. Such are the lakes of southern Italy, of Macedonia, of Asia Minor, and perhaps those of central Africa. Quite distinct from these are the sub-alpine lakes of those mountain groups which have been subject to extreme glaciation. These are characteristically valley lakes, occurring in the lower portions of the valleys which have been the beds of enormous glaciers, their fre- quency, their size, and their depth bearing some relation to the form and slope of the valleys and the intensity of the glaciation to which they have been subject. In our own country we have in Wales a small number of valley lakes; in the lake district, where the ice sheet can be proved to have been much thicker and to have lasted longer, we have more numerous, larger, and deeper lakes; and in Scotland, still more severely glaciated, the lakes are yet more numerous, many of those in the west opening out to the sea and forming the lochs and sounds of the western highlands. Coming to Switzerland, which, as we have seen, bears indications of glaciation on a most gigantic seale, we find a grand series of valley lakes both on the north and south, situated for the most part in the tracks of those enormous glaciers whose former existence and great development is clearly proved by the vast moraimes of northern Italy and the travelled blocks of Switzer- land and France. In Seandinavia, where the ice age reigned longest and with greatest power, lakes abound in almost all the valleys of the eastern slope, while on the west the fiords or submerged lakes are equally characteristic. In North America, to the south of the St. Lawrence River and of lakes Ontario and Erie, there are numbers of true valley lakes, as there are also in Canada, besides innumerable others scattered over the open country, especially in the North, where the ice sheet must have been thickest and have lingered longest. And in the southern hemisphere we have, in New Zealand, a reproduction of these phenomena—a grand mountain range with existing glaciers, indications that these glaciers were recently much more extensive, a series of fine valley lakes form- ing a true lake district, rivaling that of Switzerland in extent and beauty, with fiords on the southwest coast comparable with those of Norway. Besides these valley lakes there are two other kinds of lakes always found in strongly glaciated regions. These are alpine tarns—sinall lakes occurring at high elevations and very often at the heads of valleys THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 289 under lofty precipices; and small or large plateau or low level lakes which occur literally by thousands in northern Canada, in Sweden, Fin- land, Lapland, and northwestern Russia. The valley lakes and the alpine tarns are admitted by all geologists to be mostly true rock basins, while the plateau and low country lakes are many of them hollows in the drift with which much of the country is covered, though rock basins are also not unfrequent. Here then we see a remarkable association of lakes of various kinds with highly glaciated regions. The question is whether there is any relation of cause and effect in the association; and to determine this we must take a rapid survey of other mountain regions where indica- tions of ice action are comparatively slight or altogether wanting, and see whether similar lakes occur there also. The comparison will, I think, prove very instructive. Spain and Portugal are preeminently mountainous countries, there being a succession of distinct ranges and isolated mountain groups from east to west and from north to south; yet there is not a single valley lake in the whole peninsula, and but very few mountain tarns. Sar- dinia and Corsica are wholly mountainous, but they do not appear to possess a single valley lake. Nor does the whole range of the Appe- nines, though there are many large plateau lakes in southern Italy. Farther south we have the lofty Atlas Mountain, but giving rise to no subalpine valley lakes. The mnumerable mountains and valleys of Asia Minor have no lakes but those of the plateaus; neither has the grand range of the Lebanon, 100 miles long, and giving rise to an abundance of rivers. Turning to the peninsula of India we have the ranges of the Ghauts, 800 miles long, the mountain mass of the Neil- gherries and that of Ceylon, all without such lakes as we are seeking, though Ceylon has a few plateau lakes in the north. The same phe- nomenon meets us in South Africa and Madagascar—abundance of mountains and rivers, but no valley lakes. In Australia, again, the whole great range of mountains from the uplands of Victoria, through New South Wales and Queensland to the peninsula of Cape York, has not a single true valley lake. Turning now to the New World, we find no valley lakes in the southern Alleghanies, while the grand mountains of Mexico and Central America have a few plateau lakes, but none of the class we are seeking. The extremely mountainous islands of the West Indies—Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica—are equally deficient. In South America we have on the east the two great mountain systems of Guiana and Brazil, furrowed with valleys and rich in mountain streams, but none of these are adorned with lakes. And, lastly, the grand ranges of the equatorial Andes, for 10 degrees on each side of the Equator, produce only a few small lakes on the high plateaus, and a few in the great lowland river plains—probably the sites of old river channels—but no valley lakes in any way comparable with those of Switzerland or even of our own insignificant mountains. - -— - SM 93 19 290 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 2. The conditions that favor the production of lakes by ice erosion.— Those who oppose the production of lake basins by ice erosion often argue as if the size of the glacier was the only factor, and urge that because there are no lake basins in one valley where large glaciers have been at work, those which exist in another valley where the glaciers were no larger, could not have been produced by them. But this by no means follows, because the production of alake basindepends on a combination of favorable conditions. In the first place it is evi- dent that ice erosion to some extent must have taken place along the whole length of the glacier’s course, and that in many cases the result might be simply to deepen the valley all along, not quite equally, perhaps, but with no such extreme differences as to produce a lake basin. This would especially be the case if a valley had a considerable downward slope, and was not very unequal in width or in the nature of the rocks forming its floor, The first essential to lake erosion is, therefore, a differential action, caused locally either by increased thickness of the ice, a more open and level valley floor, or a more easily eroded rock, or by any combination of these. - - - It must always be remembered that glacial erosion is produced by the tremendous vertical pressure of the ice, by its lower strata being thickly loaded with hard rocks frozen into its mass, and by its slow but continuous motion. In the lower part of its course a glacier would be most charged with rocky débris in its under strata, since not only would it have been continually breaking off and absorbing, as it were, fresh material during every mile of its onward course, but more and more of its superficial moraines would be engulfed by crevasses or moulins, and be added to the grinding material below. That this was so is proved by the great quantity of stones and grit in the “till,” which is thought by Prof. James Geikie to consist, on the average, of as much stony matter as clay, sometimes one material preponderating, sometimes the other. The same thing is indicated by the enormous amount of débris often found on the lower parts of large glaciers. The end of the great Tasman glacier in New Zealand is thus com- pletely hidden for 5 miles, and most of the other glaciers descending from Mount Cook have their extremities similarly buried in débris. Dr. Diener found the Milam glacier in the Central Himalayas com- pletely covered with moraine rubbish; and Mr. W. M. Conway states that the lowest 20 miles of the Hispar glacier (40 miles long) are “entirely covered with a mantle of moraine.” If these glaciers extended to over 100 miles long, as did the Rhone glacier when it reached the lake of Geneva, much of this débris would probably have found its way to the bottom, and thus supply the necessary grinding material and the abundant stones of the “till” found everywhere in the tracks of the old glaciers. Again, although ice is viscous and can slowly change its shape to almost any extent, yet it takes a considerable time to adapt itself to _— .THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 294 continually changing outlines of the valley bottom. Hence, where great inequalities occur portions of the rocky floor might be bridged over for a considerable space, and where a valley had a narrow V-shaped bettom the sub-glacial stream might eat away so much of the ice that the glacier might rest wholly on the lateral slopes, and hardly touch the bottom at all. Ona tolerably wide and level valley bottom, however, the ice would press with its fullest intensity, and its armature of densely packed stones and rock fragments would groove and grind the rocky floor over every foot of its surface, and with a rate of motion perhaps greater than that of the existing Green- land and Alaskan glaciers, owing to the more southern latitude and therefore higher mean temperature of the soiland theice. At the same time sub-glacial streams, forced onward under great hydrostatic pres- sure, would insinuate themselves into every vacant groove and furrow as each graving tool successively passed on and the one behind it took a Slightly different position; and thus the glacial mud, the product of the erosion, would be continually washed away, finally escaping at the lower extremity of the glacier, or in some cases getting embayed in rocky hollows where it might remain permanently as masses of clayey “4711,” packed with stones and compressed by the weight of the ice to the hardness of rock itself. The continual lubrication of the whole valley tloor by water forced onward under pressure, together with the ever changing form of the under surface of the glacier as it slowly molded itself to the varying contours of the rocks beneath, would greatly facilitate the onward motion. Owing to these changes of form and the great upward pressure of the water in all the hollows to whieh it gained access, it seems probable that at any one time not more than half the entire bottom surface of the glacier would be in actual contact with the rock, thus greatly reducing the friction; while, as the process of erosion went on, the rock surfaces would become continually smoother and the inequalities less pronounced, so that even when a rock basin had been ground out to a considerable depth the onward motion might be almost as great as at the beginning of the process. - - - 3. Objections of modern writers considered.—Prof. Bonney and many other writers ask why lakes are so few, though all the chief valleys of the Alps were filled with ice; and why, for instance, there is no great lake in the Dora Baltea Valley whose glacier produced the great moraines of Ivrea opposite its outlet into the plains of Italy, and which form a chain of hills 15 miles long and 1,500 feet high? The answer, in the ‘ase of the Dora Baltea, is not difficult, since it almost certainly has had a series of lake basins at Aosta, Verrex, and other places where the broad level valley is now filled with alluvial gravel. But the more important point is the extreme narrowness of the lower part of the val- ley above Donnas and again near its entrance into the valley of the Po. The effect of this would be that the great glacier, probably 2,000 feet thick or more, would move rapidly in its upper layers, carrying out 292 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. .- its load of stones and debris to form ‘the terminal moraine, while the lower strata choked in the defiles, would move very slowly. And once out in the open valley of the Po, then a great inlet of the warm Medi- terranean Sea, the ice would rapidly melt away in the water and in the warm moist atmosphere, and therefore have no tendency to erode a lake basin. - - 4. The alternative theory and its difficulties.--There is really only one alternative theory to that of ice erosion for the origin of the class of lakes we have been discussing, viz, that they were formed before the glacial epoch, by earth movements of the same nature as those which are concerned in mountain formation; that is, by lateral pressure caus- ing folds or flexures of the surface, and where such flexures occurred across a valley a lake would be the result. - -— - As this theory is put forward with so much confidence, and by geolo- gists of such high reputation, I feel bound to devote some space to its consideration, and shall, | think, be able to show that it breaks down on close examination. In the first place, it does not attempt to explain that wonderful absence of valley lakes from all the mountain regions of the world except those which have been highly glaciated. It is no doubt true that during the time the lakes were filled with ice instead of water they would be preserved froin filling up by the influx of sediment; and this may be fairly claimed as a reason why lakes of this class should be somewhat more numerous 1n glaciated regions, but it does not in any way explain their total absence elsewhere. We are asked to believe that in the period immediately preceding the glacial epoch—say, in the newer Phocene period,—earth-movements of a nature to produce deep lakes occurred in every mountain range without exception that was about to be subject to severe glaciation, and not only so, but occurred on both sides of each range, as in the Alps, or all round a mountain range, aS in our lake district, or in every part of a complex mountain region, aS in Scotland from the Frith of Clyde to the extreme north coast—all in this very limited period of geological time. Weare further asked to believe that during the whole period, from the commencement of the ice age to our day, such earth-movements have never produced a single group of valley lakes in any one of the countless mountain ranges and hilly regions throughout the whole of the very much more extensive nonglaciated regions of the globe. This appears to me to be simply incredible. The only way to get over the difficulty is to suppose that sarth-movements of this nature occurred only at that one period, just before the ice age came on, and that the lakes produced by them in all other regions have since been filled up. But is there any evidence of this? And isit probable that all lakes so produced in non-glaciated regions, however large and deep they might be, and however little sediment was carried down by their inflowiig streams, should yet all have disappeared. The theory of the preglacial origin of these lakes thus ——— ee eee Tr 9 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 293 rests upon a series of highly improbable suppositions entirely unsup- ported by any appeal to facts. There is however another difficulty which is perhaps even greater than those just considered. Whatever may be the causes of the compression, elevation, folding, and other earth movements which have led to the formation of mountain masses, there can be no doubt that they have operated with extreme slowness; and all the evidence we have of surface movements now going on show that they are so slow as to be detected only by careful and long-continued observations. On the other hand, the action of rivers in cutting down rocky barriers is comparatively rapid, especially when, as in all moun- tainous countries, they carry in their waters large quantities of sediment, and during floods bring down also abundance of sand, gravel, and large Stones. - - - It is in fact only on account of this powerful agency that we do not find valley lakes abounding in every mountainous country, since it is quite certain that earth-movements of various kinds must have been continually taking place. But if rivers have always been able to keep their channels clear, during such movements, among the mountains of the tropics and of all warm countries, some reason must be found for their inability to do so in the Alps and in Scotland, in Cumberland, Wales, and southern New Zealand; and as no reason is alleged, or any proot offered, that sufficiently rapid and extensive earth-movements actually did occur in the sub-alpine valleys of these countries, we must decline to accept such a hypothetical and unsatisfactory explana- WOM.£ = <-.'- 5. The contours and outlines of the lakes indicate erosion rather than submergence.—W hile collecting facts for the present articles it occurred to me that the rival theories of lake formation—erosion and submerg- ence—were so different in their mode of action that they ought to pro- duce some marked difference in the result. There must be some criteria by which to distinguish the two modes of origin. Under any system of earth-movements a valley bottom will simply become submerged, and be hardly more altered than if it had been converted into a lake by build- ing an artificial dam in a convenient situation. We should find there- fore merely a submerged valley with all its usual peculiarities. If however the lake basin has been formed by glacial erosion, then some of the special valley features will have been destroyed, and we shall have a distinct set of characters which will be tolerably constant in all lakes so formed. Now I find that there are three such criteria by which we ought to be able to distinguish the two classes of lakes, and the application of these tests serves to show that most of the valley lakes of glaciated countries were not formed by submergence. The first point is that valleys in mountainous countries often have the river channel forming a ravine for a few miles, afterward opening out into a flat valley, and then agair closing, while at an elevation of a hundred or a few hundred feet, at the level of the top of the ravine, 294 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. the valley walls sloped back on each side, perhaps to be again flanked by precipices. Now, if such a valley were converted into a deep lake by any form of subsidence, these ravines would remain under water and form submerged river channels. But neither in the lakes, which have been surveyed by the Swiss Government, nor in the Atlas des Lacs Francaises of M. Delebeeque, nor in those of the German Alps by Dr. Alois Geistbeck, nor in the lakes of our own country, can I find any indications of such submerged river channels or ravines, or any other of the varied rock features that so often occur in valleys. Almost all these lakes present rather steeply sloping sides with broad, rounded, or nearly level bottoms of saucer shape, such as are certainly not characteristic of sub-aerial valley bottoms, but which are exactly what we might expect as the ultimate result of thousands of years of inces- sant ice grinding. The point is, not that the lake bottoms may not in a few cases represent the contours of a valley, but that they never present peculiarities of contour which are not unfrequent in mountain valleys, and never show submerged ravines or those jutting rocky pro- montories which are so common a feature in hilly districts. The next pot is, that alpine lake bottoms, whether large or small, frequently consist of two or more distinet basins, a feature which could not occur in Jakes due to submergence unless there were two or more points of flexure for each depression, a thing highly improbable even in the larger lakes and almost impossible in the smaller. Flexures of almost any degree of curvature are no doubt found in the rocks form- ing mountain chains; but these flexures have been produced deep down under enormous pressure of overlying strata, whereas the surface beds which are supposed to have been moved to cause lakes are free to take any upward or downward curves, and as the source of motion is certainly deep-seated those curves will usually be of very gradual cur- vature. Yet in the small lake of Annecy there are two separate basins; in Lake Bourget also two;in the small lake of Aiguebellette, in Savoy, there are three distinct basins of very different depths; and in the Lae de St. Point, about 4 miles long, there are also three separate flat basins. In Switzerland the same phenomenon is often found. The exceedingly irregular Lake of Lucerne, formed by the confluence of many valleys meeting at various angles hemmed in by precipitous mountains, has eight distinct basins, mostly separated by shallows at the narrow openings between opposing mountain ridges. This is exactly what would result from glacier action, the grinding power of which must always be at a maximum in the wider parts of valleys, where the weight of the ice could exert its full force and the motion be least impeded. On the subsidence or curvature theory, however, there is no reason why the greatest depth should occur in one part rather than in another, while separate basins in the variously diverging arms of one lake seem most improbable. - -— - The third point of difference between lakes of erosion and those of - THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 295 submersion is the most important and the most distinctive, and fur- nishes, I think, what may be termed a diagnosis character of lakes of erosion. In most river valleys through a hilly or nountainous country outside of the glaciated districts, the tributary streams entering more or less at right angles to the main valley are seen to occupy small val- leys of their own, which usually open out for a short distance at the same level before joining the main valley. Of course there are also torrents which rush down steep mountain slopes directly to the main river, but even these have usually cut ravines more or less deeply into the rock. Now if in such a valley we could mark out a contour line 200, 300, or 500 feet above the level of the main stream, we should see that line continually turning up each side valley or ravine tillit reached the given level at which to cross the tributary stream, and then turn- ing back to the main valley. The contour line would thus form a series of notches or loops of greater or less depth at every tributary stream with its entering valley or deeply cut ravine, and if the mai valley were filled with water this line would mark out the margin of the lake. As an illustration of this feature we may take the southwest coast of England, which has never been glaciated, but which has undergone a slight recent subsidence as indicated by the submerged torests which occur at several places. The result of this submergence is that the lower parts of its larger river valleys have been converted into inland tidal lakes, such as Poole Harbor, Dartmouth Harbor, Kingsbridge River, Plymouth and Devonport Harbors, and Carrick Road above Falmouth. The Dart River is an excellent example of such a sub- merged valley, and its outline at high-water mark 1s shown at (3) on the accompanying illustration (Plate xv), where the characteristic outline of such a valley is well indicated, the water running up every tributary stream as described above. The lower section (4) shows the same fea- ture by means of a map of the River Tweed, near Peebles, with the 700 feet contour line marked on it by a dotted line.* If the valley were submerged to this depth the dotted line would mark the outline of a lake, with arms running up every tributary stream just as in the case of the river Dart. Although situated in a glaciated district the val- ley here is post-glacial, all the old river channels being deeply buried in drift. It we now turn to the valley lakes in glaciated districts we shall find that they have a very different contour, as shown by the two upper outline maps on Plate xv; (1) showing the upper part of Ullswater on a scale of 1 mile to an inch, as in the Dart and Tweed maps, and (2) showing the upper part of Lake Como, taken from the Alpine Club map, on a seale of 4 miles to an inch. In both of these it will be seen that the water never forms inlets up the inflowing streams, but all of these without exception form an even junction with the lake margin, * Copied from a portion of the map at p. 144 of Geikie’s Great Ice Age, taken from the Ordnance Survey Map. 296 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. just as they would do if flowing into ariver. Exactly the same feature is present in the lower portions of these two lakes, and it is equally a characteristic of every lake in the lake district, and of all the Swiss and Italian lakes. On looking at the maps of any of these lakes one can not but see that the lake surface, not the lake bottom, represents approximately the level of the pre-glacial valley, and that the lateral streams and torrents enter the lake in the way they do because they could only erode their channels down to the level of the old valley before the ice overwhelmed it. Of course this rule does not apply to - large tributary valleys carrying separate glaciers, since these would be eroded by the ice almost as deeply as the main valley. - -— - The Lake of Geneva as a test of the rival theories—When I recently began to study this question anew I was inelined to think that the largest and deepest of the Alpine lakes, such as Geneva, Constance, Lago Maggiore, and Lago di Garda, might perhaps have originated from a combination of earth movements with ice erosion. But on fur- ther consideration it appears that all the characteristic features of ero- sion are present in theseas fully asin the smaller lakes. They are situ- ated in the largest river valleys or in positions of greatest concentra- tion of the glacier streams; their contours and outhnes are those of eroded basins; while all the difficuities in the way of an origin by earth movements are as prominent in their case as in that of any other of the lakes. I will therefore discuss, first, some of the chief objections to the erosion theory as applied to the above-named lake, and then consider the only alternative theory that has obtained the acceptance of modern writers. One of the first objections made was that the lake did not lie in the direction of the greatest action of the glacier, which was straight across to the Jura, where the highest erratic blocks are found. This was urged by Sir Charles Lyell immediately after Ramsay’s paper was read, and as it has quite recently been put forth by Prof. Bonney, it would appear to be thought to be a real difficulty. Yet a little consid- eration will show that it has not the slightest weight. No lake was eroded in the line of motion of the central and highest part of the old glacier, because that line was over an elevated and hilly plateau, which is even now from 500 to 1,000 feet above the lake, and was then still higher, since the ice sheet certainly effected some erosion. The great- est amount of erosion was of course in the broad and nearly level valley of the pre-glacial Rhone, which followed the great curve of the existing lake, and had produced so open a valley because the rocks in that direction were easily denuded. Objectors invariably forget or over- look the indisputable fact that the existence of a broad, open, tlat-bot- tomed valley in any part of a river’s course proves that the rocks were there either softer, or more friable, or more soluble, or, by some combi- nation of characters, more easily denuded. A number of favorable conditions were combined to render ice erosion easy in such a valley. a a oe a Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XV. bake “Como Peebles Pp or i/ve Ty CY LAKE FORMS DUE TO EROSION (1, 2); TO SUBMERSION (3, 4). Ata Ay em. er y : ice Batts eee sf WAU nt Oe ya: cw an Gun cls Haight ea fy Ri ie bith onli He ital ie Wa PUL anh Tao hie! ieee vale” ie ‘iinet mas Tee al abit reap ra ie a ee) vee th fis can i a inaithy is gi i , iasints! aig: cat os A tr : . m ihe i } melas ; feds! ty +; Tae ‘ ’ » i Wied r eT eK mate devi a 1 Zi ; me an ad 7 pan i \ tana — rane pe 8 i: ah ais aces - We SO dn ig *- ay Parad wi 7 an lee} i i : me te ie i on pares foes he oi) ie ba 5 rots ee an My i i tank pe ren ie a ay ve fe ; aia sf Mk aah THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 297 The rock was, as we have shown, more easy to erode; owing to the low level the ice was thicker and had greater weight there than elsewhere; owing to the flatness and openness of the valley the ice moved more freely there; owing to the long previous course of the glacier its under surface would be heavily loaded with rock and grit, which, during its whole course, would, by mere gravitation, have been slowly working its way downward to the lowest level; and, lastly, all the sub-glacial tor- rents would accumulate in this lowest valley, and as erosion went on would, under great hydrostatic pressure, wash away all the ground-out material, and so facilitate erosion. Another objection almost equally beside the real question is to ask why the deepest part of the lake is near the south or convex side, whereas a stream of water always exerts most erosive force against the concave side.* The answer is, that ice is not water, and that it moves so slowly as to act, in many respects, in quite a different manner. Its greatest action is where it is deepest, in the middle of the ice stream, while water acts least where it is deepest, and more forcibly at the side than in the middle. The lake is no doubt deepest in the line of the old river, where the valley was lowest; and that may well have been nearer the southern than the northern side of the lake. Another frequently-urged objection is, that as the glacier has not widened the narrow valley from Martigny to Bex it could not have eroded a lake nearly a thousand feet deep. This seems to me a com- plete non sequitur. Asa glacier erodes mainly by its vertical pressure and by the completeness of its grinding armature of rock, it is clear that its grinding power laterally must have been very much less than verti- cally, both on account of the smaller pressure because it would mold itself less closely to the ever-varying rocky protuberances, and mainly, perhaps, because at the almost vertical sides of the valley it would have a very small stony armature, the blocks continually working their way downward to the bottom. Thus, much of the ice in contact with the sides of narrow ravines might be free of stones, and would there fore exert hardly any grinding power. It is also quite certain that the ice in this narrow valley rose to an enormous height, and that the chief motion and also the chief erosion would be on the lateral slopes; while the lower strata, wedged in the gorge, would be almost station- ary. The most recent researches, according to M. Falsan, show that the thickness of the ice has been usually under-estimated, A terminal moraine on the Jura at Chasseron is 4,000 feet above the sea, or 2,770 feet above Geneva. In order that the upper surface of the ice should have had sufficient incline to flow onward as it did it was probably 5,000 or 6,000 feet thick below Martigny and 4,000 or 5,000 feet over the middle of the lake. It is certain, at all events, that whatever *Falsan, La Période Glaciaire, p.153. Fabre, Origine des Lacs Alpins, p.4. 298 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. thickness was necessary to cause Onward motion that thickness could not fail to be produced, since it is only by the onward motion to some outlet or lowland where the ice can be melted away as fast as it is renewed that indefinite enlargement of a glacier is avoided. The essen- tial condition for the formation of a glacier at all is that more ice should be produced annually than is melted away. So long as the quantity produced is on the average more than that melted, the glaciers will increase; and as the more extended surface of ice, up to a certain point, by forming a refrigerator, helps its own extension, a very small perma- nent annual surplus may lead to an enormous extension of the ice Hence, if at any stage in its development the end of a glacier remains stationary, either owing to some obstacle in its path or to its having reached a level plain where it is unable to move onward, the annual surplus of ice produced will go to increase the thickness of the glacier and its upper slope till motion ts produced. The ice then flows onward till it reaches a district warm enough to bring about an equilibrium between growth and dissolution. If, therefore, at any stage in the growth of a glacier, a thickness of 6,000, 7,000, or even 8,000 feet is needed to bring about this result, that thickness will inevitably be produced. - - - In view therefore of the admitted facts, all the objections alleged by the best authorities are entirely wanting in real force or validity; while the enormous size and weight of the glacier and its long duration, as indicated by the great distance to which it extended beyond the site of the lake, render the excavation by it of such a basin as easy to con- ceive as the grinding out of a small alpine tarn by ice not one-fourth as thick, and in a situation where the grinding material in its lower strata would probably be comparatively scanty. We have now to consider the theory of Desor, adopted by M. Favre, and set forth in the recent work of M. Falsan as being ‘more precise and more acceptable” than that of Ramsay. We are first made acquainted with a fact which I have not yet alluded to, and which most writers on the subject either fail to notice or attempt to explain by theories, as compared with which that of Ramsay is simple, proba- ble, and easy of comprehension. This fact is, that around Geneva at the outlet of the lake, as well as at the outlets of the other great lakes, there is spread out an old alluvium which is always found underneath the bowlder clay and other glacial deposits. This alluvium is moreover admitted to be formed in every case of materials largely derived from the great Alpine range. Now here is a fact which of itself amounts to a demonstration that the lakes did not exist before the ice age; because, in that case all the Alpine débris would be intercepted by the lake (as it is now intercepted ) and the alluvium below the glacial deposits would be, in the case of Geneva, that formed by the wash from the adjacent slopes of the Jura, while in every case it would be local not Alpine alluvium. - - - THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. 299 Summary of the evidence.-—As the subject here discussed is very complex, and the argument essentially a cumulative one, it will be well briefly to summarize its main points. In the first place, it has been shown that the valley lakes of highly glaciated districts form a distinct class, which are highly characteristic, if not altogether peculiar, since in none of the mountain ranges of the tropics or of non-glaciated regions over the whole world are any similar lakes to be found. The special conditions favorable to the erosion of lake basins and the mode of action of the ice tool are then discussed, and it is shown that these conditions have been either overlooked or ignored by the opponents of the theory of ice erosion, The objections of modern writers are then considered, and they are shown to be founded either on mistaken ideas as to the mode of erosion by glaciers, or on not taking into account results of glacieration which they themselves either admit or have not attempted to disprove. The alternative theory—that earth-movements of various kinds led to the production of lake basins in all mountain range, and that those in glaciated regions were preserved by being filled with ice—is shown to be beset with numerous difficulties, physical, geological, and geo- graphical, which its supporters have not attempted toovercome. It is also pointed out that this theory in no way explains the occurrence of the largest and deepest lakes in the largest river valleys, or in those valleys where there was the greatest concentration of glaciers, a pecu- liarity of their distribution which points directly and unmistakably to ice erosion. A crucial test of the two theories is then suggested, and it is shown that both the sub-aqueous contours of the lake basins, and the super- ficial outlines of the lakes, are exactly such as would be prodneed by ice erosion, while they could not possibly have been caused by sub- mergence due to any form of earth movements. It is submitted that we have here a positive criterion, now adduced for the first time, which is absolutely fatal to any theory of submersion. Lastly, the special case of the Lake of Geneva is discussed, and it is shown that the explanation put forth by the anti-glacialists is wholly unsupported by facts and is opposed to the known laws of glacier motion. The geologists who support it themselves furnish evidence against their owl theory in the ancient alluvium at Geneva on which the glacial deposits rest, and which is admitted to be mainly derived from the distant Alps. But as all alluvial matter is necessarily intercepted by large and deep lakes, the presence of this Alpine alluvium immediately beneath the glacial débris at the foot of the lake indicates that the lake did not exist in preglacial times, but that the river Rhone flowed from the Alps to Geneva, carry with it the old alluvium, consisting of mud, sand, and gravel, which it had brought down from the mountains. Still more conclusive however is the fact that the three special features 306 THE ICE AGE AND ITS WORK. which have been shown to indicate erosion rather than submergence are present in this lake as fally as in all other Alpine valley lakes and unmistakably point to the glacial origin of all of them. On the whele, | venture to claim that the facts and considerations set forth in-this paper show such a number of distinct lines of evidence, all converging to establish the theory of the ice erosion of the valley lakes of highly glaciated regions—a theory first advocated by the late Sir Andrew Ramsay—thai that theory must be held to be established, - at all events provisionally, as the only one by which the whole body of the facts can be explained and harmonized. GEOLOGIC TIME, AS INDICATED BY THE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF NORTH AMERICA.* By CHARLES D. WALCOTT. INTRODUCTION. Of all subjects of speculative geology few are more attractive or more uncertain in positive results than geologic time. The physicists have drawn the lines closer and closer until the geologist is told that he must bring his estimates of the age of the earth within the limit of from 10,000,000 to 30,000,000 years. The geologist masses his observa- tions and replies that more time is required, and suggests to the physi- cist that there may be an error somewhere in his data or the method of his treatment. The geologist realizes that geologic time can not be reduced to actual time in decades or centuries; there are too many par- tially recognized or altogether unknown factors; but he can approxi- mate the relative position of certain formations and, by comparison of their sediments, dimensions, and contained record of life with the esti- mated rates of denudation, sedimentation, and organic growth, form a general estimate of their relative time duration. It is my purpose to-day to take up the consideration of the evidence afforded by the sedimentary rocks of our continental area, and largeiy of a distinct basin of sedimen- tation, with a view of arriving, if possible, at an approximate time period for their deposition. Before proceeding to examine the conditions of denudation, sedimentation, etc., that enter as factors into the calcula- tion of the age of the earth on the basis of sedimentary geology,we will refer to some of the opinions that have been held by geologists on geo- logic time and the age of the earth. Soon after geology emerged from its pre-systematic stage and assumed an independent position among the inductive sciences speculations on the age of the earth were made by both geologists and physicists. Hut- ton, Werner, Smith, and Cuvier, among the former, arranged aud pub- lished their observations and those of their predecessors during the closing years of the eighteenth century, and in the three succeeding decades rapid progress was made in many lines of investigation by *Vice-presidential address before section E, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Madison, Wis., August 17, 1893. 9 301 302 GEOLOGIC TIME. numerous observers, and the literature of geology was enlarged by con- tributions dealing with nearly every phase of the subject. Hutton.—Dr. James Hutton was the founder of physical geology and the predecessor of Lyell in advocating the uniformitarian theory of geology. It is, in a great measure, true—as Lyell has well said of Hut- ton’s attempt to give fixed principles to geology—that “ too little prog- ress has been made toward furnishing the necessary data to enable any philosopher, however great his genius, to realize so noble a project.” * In his first memoir Huttont speaks of a method of measuring the dura- tion of geologic time as follows: “We are investigating the age of the present earth, from the begin- ning of that body, which was in the bottom of the sea, to the perfection of its natur e, Which we consider asin the moment of our existence; and we have necessarily another era, which is collateral, or correspondent, in the progress of those natural events. This is the time required, in the natural operations of this globe, for the destruction of a for mer earth, an earth equally perfect with the present and an earth equally productive of growing plants and living animals. Now, it must appear that if we had a measure for one of those corresponding Spel: ations we would have an equal ue ledge of the other, “The highest seria may be levelled with the plain from whence it springs without the loss of real territory in the land; but when the ocean makes encroachment on the basis of our earth, the mountain, unsupported, tumbles with its weight; and with that accession of hard bodies, movable with the agitation of the waves, gives to the sea the power ‘of undermining farther and farther into ‘the solid basis of our land. This is the operation which is to be measured; this is the mean proportional by which we are to estimate the age of worlds that have terminated, and the duration of those that are ‘but beginning.” He then discusses the data for estimating the length of time it has taken for a specific amount-of erosion, and concludes “that all the coasts of the present continents are wasted by the sea, and constantly wearing away upon the whole; but this operation is so extremely slow that we cannot find a measure of the quantity in order to form an esti- mate. Therefore, the present constituents of earth, which we consider as in a state of perfection, would, in the natural operations of the globe, require a time indefinite for their destruction.” He believed that the continents thus destroyed were formed from the ruins of pre-existing continents, and that there were records of three such periods, each of which,in our measurement of time, were of indefi- nite duration. Lyell.—In 1830 Sir Charles Lyell began to publish the results of his profound and philosophical studies of geologic phenomena. He firmly established the broad outlines of the law of anes as opposed to * Principles of ‘Gsoloay, 12th Ed., 1875, vol. 1, p. 73. tTheory of the Earth; or an ieee ane of the Laws Observable in the Compo- sition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land upon the Globe. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin- burgh, 1788, vol. 1, pp. 297, 298. t Loc. cit., p. 304. ?. SS a GEOLOGIC TIME. 303 the doctrine of geologic catastrophes and rendered possible a rough computation of the age of the earthon the principle that geologie proe- esses were the same during geologic time as at the present. Before this effort the scientist and theologian (with the exception of Hutton and his followers) vied with each other in their attempts to harmonize the Mosaic record with that of nature; they expanded the seventeenth century views of the former and contracted the inductive reasoning from geologic phenomena, and called in the aid of special creations, great catastrophes and other unusual phenomena. This was cleared away among geologists by Lyell’s work, supplemented later by the general law of evolution which, since the appearance of Darwin’s Origin ot Species, has with a few and rare exceptions controlled and directed scientific work and thought in this direction. Lyell based an argument for the age of the sedimentary rocks as known to him on the rate of modification of the species of mollusea since the beginning of the ‘‘ Cambrian period.” He divided the geo- logic series into twelve periods and estimated that 20,000,000 years were demanded for a complete change in the species of each period, or 240,000,000 years in all. This estimate excluded the Primordial of Bar- rande and the “antecedent Laurentian formations.”* Darwin.—In the chapter summing up the imperfections of the geo- logical record Darwin concludes that, if his theory of the origin of species is true, “it is indisputable that before the lowest Cambrian stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Cambrian age to the pres- ent day; and that during these vast periods the world swarmed with living creatures.” When mentioning the opinions of various authors on the duration of geologic time, he indirectly gives his own views, as follows: “Mr. Croll estimates that about 60,000,000 years have elapsed since the Cambrian period, but this, judging from the small amount of organic change since the commencement of the Glacial epoch, appears a very short time for the many and great mutations of life which have cer- tainly oceurred since the Cambrian formation; and the previous 140,000,000 years can hardly be considered as sufficient for the devel- opment of the varied forms of life which already existed during the Cambrian period. It is however probable, as Sir William Thompson insists, that the world at a very early period was subjected to more rapid and violent changes in its physical conditions than those now occurring; and such changes would have tended to induce changes at a corresponding rate in the organisms which then existed.”+ Houghton.—Rey. Samuel Houghton, in commenting on the geological calculus, states that he believes that the time during which organic life has existed on the earth is practically infinite. On the basis of the time of covling he assigns an age of 1,280,000,000 years for the Azoic period and remarks that the globe was habitable, in part at least, for a longer 3 Principles of Geology, 10th ed., 1867, vol. 1, p. 301. t Origin of Species, American ed., from 6th Eng. ed., 1882, p. 286. 304 GEOLOGIC TIME. period.* At alater date, when attempting to assign a minor limit to the duration of geologic time, he was driven to the conclusion that geologic climates are due to the combined cooling of the earth and sun. On com- paring the rates of cooling of such a body as the earth with the maxi- mum measured thickness of the several strata, there is a remarkable proportion between them, which leads toward the conclusion that the maximum thickness of the strata is proportional to the times of their formation. From the combined conclusions deduced from the rate of cooling of the earth and the time required for deposition of the sedi- mentary rocks, he gives for the whole duration of geologic time a mini- mum of 200,000,000 years.t Croll.—Dr. James Croll began his studies of denudation as a factor in estimates of geologic time in 1865, and reference is made to it in 1867.¢ Inthe following year a more elaborate paper was published, and subsequently numerous references have been made to it and other factors that are to be considered in the estimate of geologic time.§ Dr. Croll agrees with Sir W. Thompson that Prof. Tait probably under-esti- mated the time when he affirms that 10,000,000 years is about the utmost that can be allowed, from the physical point of view, for all the changes that have taken place in the earth’s surface since vegetable jife of the lowest known form was capable of existing there. He re- marks: ‘¢ And this is certainly all that ever can be expected from gravitation ; mathematical computation has demonstrated that it can give no more. The other theory, founded on motion in space—a cause as real as gravi- tation—labors under no such limitation. According to it, so far at least as regards the store of energy which may have been possessed by the sun, plant and animal life may date back, not to 10,000,000 years, but to a period indefinitely more remote. In fact, there is as yet no known limit to the amount of heat which this cause may have pro- duced; for this depended upon the velocities of the two bodies at the moment prior to collision, and what these velocities were we have no means of knowing. They might have been 500 miles a second, for anything which can be shown to the contrary. Of course, I by no means affirm that it is as much as 100,000,000 years since life began upon our earth, but I certainly do affirm that, in so far as a possible source of the sun’s energy is concerned, life may have begun at a period as remote.” || Dr. Croll considers the geological evidence relating to the age of the sun’s heat on the principle that, “in order to determine the present rate of sub-aerial denudation, we have only to ascertain the quantity of sediment annually carried down by the river systems.”* After extended consideration of the evidence he conciudes that a period of 24,000,000 * Manual of Geology, 3d ed., 1871, p. 101. t Nature, July 4, 1878, vol. Xv1II, pp. 267, 268. { Phil. Mag., Fel. 1867, vol. Xx x10, p. 130. § Phil. Mag., London, May, 1868, vol. Xxxv, pp. 363-384; Nov., 1868, vol. XxxVI, pp. 362-386. Geol. Mag., London, 1871, pp. 97-102. Climate and Time, London, 1875, pp. 329-367. Stellar Evolution and its Relations to Geological Time, 1889, pp. 39-68. || Zvolution and its Relations to Geological Time, 1889, p. 36. Wi I a ne GEOLOGIC TIME: 305 years would be required for the deposition of the known sedimentary rocks. On the theory that the present existing sedimentary rocks have on the average passed at least twice through the cycle of destrue- tion and reformation the period is multiplied by three, which results in 72,000,000 years for the time of duration since the beginning of the deposition of the sedimentary rocks. He says further, “It is impossible to tell from geological data the actual age of the stratified rocks; but this is not required. What we require is, as already stated, not their actual age but an inferior limit to that age.” Wallace.—The chapter on ‘‘ The earth’s age” contained in Sir A. R. Wallace’s Island Life, is an admirable summary of his own views and those of various geologists, naturalists, and physicists who have written on the subject. From the consideration of data bearing on the denuda- tion and deposition of strata as a measure of time he thinks that 28,000,000 years will be sufficient for the deposition of the known sedi- mentary rocks. Of the value of this estimate he says, ‘‘It is not of course supposed that the calculation here given marks any approach to accuracy, but it is believed that it does indicate the order of magni- tude of the time required. We have a certain number of data, which are not guessed, but the result of actual measurement; such are, the amount of solid matter carried down by rivers, the width of the belt within which this matter is mainly deposited, and the maximum thick- ness of the known stratified rocks.” f By adopting Croll’s theory of glacial epochs occurring at certain periods of great eccentricity, several datum points are secured by Wal- lace that are correlated with certain geologic phenomena of the Ter- tiary and Pleistocene periods and the probable date of the Miocene period. He then takes the ratio of Lyell for the duration of the geo- logic epochs and concludes that 16,000,000 years have passed since Cam- brian time. On the basis of Dana’s theory that the Tertiary is only one-fifteenth of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic combined, the result is 60,000,000 years for the same interval. Of these figures he says: ‘““The estimate arrived at for the rate of denudation and deposition (28,000,000 years) is nearly midway between these, and it is, at all events, satisfactory that the various measures result in figures of the same order of magnitude, which is all one can expect on so difficult and exceedingly speculative a subject. The only value of such esti- mates is to define our notions of geological time, and to show that the enormous periods of hundreds of millions of years, which have some- times been indicated by geologists, are neither necessary nor warranted by the facts at our command; while the present result places us more in harmony with the calculation of physicists, by leaving a very wide margin between geological time as defined by the fossiliferous rocks, and that far more extensive period which includes all possibility of life upon the earth.” ¢ * Stellar Evolution, and its Relations to Geological Time, 1889, p. 39. t Island Life, 2d ed., 1892, pp. 222, 223. t Loc. cit., pp. 235, 236. ‘ SM 93———20 306 GEOLOGIC TIME. The results obtained by Wallace are questioned by T. Mellard Reade, who states that Wallace has not allowed for the erosion and re-deposi- tion of the same sediments a number of times.* Winehell.—Dr. Alexander Winchell reviews the opinions of physicists and geologists on the age of the world or of ceitain periods, and enu-- merates the grounds for the various estimates, as follows: ““(1) The time required for the sun to contract from a nebulous con- dition or from the orbit of the earth to 1ts present limits. ‘©(2) The time which the sun will require to cool from its present con- dition to a darkened or planetary state. (3) The time required for the earth to cool from incipient incrusta- tion to its present state, based on the thermal conductivity of rock masses and the rate of increased heat toward the earth’s center. ‘“(4) Relative times required for the deposition of all the rocky sedi- ments. “(5) Calculation based on the obliteration of the rotational effects of the upheaval of a continental mass. ‘“(6) The time since the middle of the last glacial period, based on the theory that epochs of glaciation on the northern hemisphere have been caused by extreme eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. ‘‘(7) Estimates based on rates of erosions and deposition. ‘“(8) The rate of Bluff-recession and Terrace formation. ““(9) Decrease of temperature of ground covered by ice during the glacial Sane as compared with temperature of ground not chilled by the ice sheet.” Dr: AV ne was inclined to accord at least equal confidence to the later results of geologic action, such as erosion of river gorges and lakeside and seaside bluffs, as he would give to the mathematical methods of the physicist. On this basis he deduced the result that the whole incrusted age of the world would be 3,000,000 years. In con- clusion he says: “Tf our attempts to ascertain the age of the world, or the duration of any single period of its evolution, yield only uncertain results, they suffice at least to demonstrate that geological history has limits far within the wild conceptions of a certain class of geologists. They show, if we may credit the indications here regarded most tr ustworthy, a restriction of the modern epoch within limits not exceeding one-tenth or one-twentieth the duration sometimes assigned to it.” ¢ Geikie.—Sir Archibald Geikie has recently summed up the case of the geologist and physicist in a very clear statement, as follows: “In scientific as in other mundane questions there may often be two sides, and the truth may ultimately be found not to lie wholly with either. I frankly confess that the demands of the early geologists for an unlimited series of ages were extravagant, and even, for their own purposes, unnecessary, and the physicist did good service in reducing them. It may also be freely admitted that the latest conclusions from physical considerations of the extent of geological time require that the interpretation given to the reeord of the rocks should be vigorously revised, with the view of ascertaining how far that interpretation may * Geol. Mag., 1883, vol. X, pp. 309, 310. t World Life, or Comparative Geology, Chicago, 1883, pp. 355-376. t Loc. cit., p. 378. ~ ee AW ceteeti y GEOLOGIC TIME. 307 be capable of modification or amendment. But we must also remember that the geological record constitutes a voluminous body of evidence regarding the earth’s history which can not be ignored, and must be explained in accordance with ascertained natural laws. If the conelu- sions derived from the most careful study of this record ean not be recon- ciled with those drawn from physical considerations, it is surely not too much to ask that the latter should be also revised. It has been well said that the mathematical mill is an admirable piece of machinery, but that the value of what it yields depends upon the quality of what is put into it. That there must be some flaw in the physical argument, I can, for my own part, hardly doubt, though I do not pretend to be able to say where it is to be found. Some “assumption, it seems to me, has been made, or some consideration has been left out of sight, which will eventually be seen to vitiate the conclusions, and which, when duly taken into account, will allow time enough for any reasonable interpre- tation of the geological record.”* Of the rate of denudation and deposition he says: ‘The rate of deposition of new sedimentary formations, over an area of sea floor equivalent to that which has yielded the sediment, may vary from 1 foot in 730 years to 1 foot in 6,800 years. If now we take these results and apply them as measures of the length of time required for the deposition of the various sedimentary masses that form the outer part of the earth’s crust, we obtain some indication of the dura- tion of geological history. On a reasonable computation these strati- fied masses, where most fully developed, attain a united thickness of not less than 100,000 feet. If they were all laid down at the most rapid recorded rate of denudation, they would require a period of 73,000,000 years for their completion. If they were laid down at the slowest rate they would demand a period of not less than 680,000,000.” + Reade.—Mr.T. Millard Reade has been a large contributor to the litera- ture of geologic time, both directly and indirectly. His most recent con- clusion is that there appears to be a consensus of opinion that 1 foot in 3,000 years is a fair éstimate of the mean rate of such erosion over all land areas throughout all geologic time. The calculation that has elapsed since the beginning of Cambrian time, on this basis,;is stated as follows: ‘The mean area of denudation throughout post-Archean times being taken as one-third the entire land areas of the globe, the bulk of the post-Archean rocks being expressed by the land area of the globe 2 miles thick, and the rate of denudation 1 foot in 3,000 years, the time of accumulation will be 5,280 x 2x 3,000 x 3 — 95,040,000. The time that has elapsed since the commencement of the Cambrian is, therefore, in round figures, 95,000,000 years.” t Speaking of Sir Archibald Geikie’s conclusion that the earth’s age, geologically speaking, must be somewhere between 100,000,000 and 600,000,000 years, he says “This is sence margin, no doubt, but it is an important thing to * Presidential aeees Reon Sixty-second Meeting Brit. Assoe. Aen Sci., 1892, pp. 19,20. (Also Smithsonian Report for 1892, pp. 125, 126.) t Loc. cit., p. 21.—Sm. Report, 1892, p. 127. t‘‘ Measurement of geological time.” Geol. Mag., 1893, vol. x, pp 99, 100. 308 GEOLOGIC TIME. know. Different men may putdifferent value on the three factors, bulk of sediment, rate of denudation, and area of denudation; but I think a fair and impartial examination of the reasoning involved in this paper will show that the principle of the calculation is sound. “It must not be forgotten that to arrive at the earth’s age Archean time has to be added to my estimate of 95,000,000 years, which very materially increases the margin of geologic time on which we are allowed to draw.”* In an earlier paper Reade assembles much valuable data on chemical denudation,? and later reviews the results obtained by the geologist and the mathematician. ¢ M. A. de Lapparent is one of the, few European continental geologists who have written on geologic time. On the basis of mechanical denuda- tion and sedimentation he thinks that from 67,000,000 to 90,000,000 years, at the present rate of sedimentation, would account for every- thing that has been produced since the consolidation of the crust.§ Dana.—In some observations on the length of geologic time, Prof. James D. Dana says that geology has no means of substituting posi- tive lengths of time in place of the time ratios he has deduced from the relative thicknesses of the rock series pertaining to the several geo- logic ages, but that it affords facts sufficient to prove the general prop- osition that geologic “time is long.” He cites examples, such as the retreat of Niagara Falls and the recent growth of coral reefs. Accord- ing to his time ratio, if 48,000,000 years is assigned since the commence- ment of the Silurian, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic time would represent, respectively, 36,000,000, 9,000,000, and 3,000,000 years.| McGee.—In an article on comparative chronology by Mr. W J McGee, the conclusion is reached that the autiquity of the glacial deposits margined by the great terminal moraine is about 7,000 years, and of the Columbian formation and of the ice invasion to which it is ascribed, 200,000 years, and of the Lafayette formation of late Tertiary age, 10,000,000 years. On this basis the mean estimate of the age of the sarth is 15,000,000,000 years, and 7,000,000,000 years have elapsed since the beginning of Paleozoic time.{| In a subsequent ‘ Note on the Age of the Karth” Mr. McGee modifies his former statement, and gives as amean estimate of the age of the earth 6,000,000,000 years, and of the duration of time since the beginning of the Paleozoic, 2,400,000,000- years, which is based on a minimum estimate for the age of the earth of * “Measurement of Geological Time.” Geolog. Mag., 1893, vol. x, p. 100. t Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1877, vol. 111, pl. iii, pp. 211-235. } Geol. Mag., 1878, vol. v, pp. 145-164. § De la mesure du temps par les phénomenes de sédimentation. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 1890, 3d ser., vol. XVIU, pp. 351-355. Ladestinée de la terre ferme, et durée des temps géologiques. Reyue des questions scientifiques, July, 1891. Pamphlet, Bruxelles, pp. 1-38. || Manual of Geology, 2d ed., pp. 690, 591. Am. Anthropologist, 1892, vol. v, p. 340. GEOLOGIC TIME. 309 10,000,000 years and a maximum estimate of 5,000,000,000,000 [5 thou- sand million] years.* Mr. McGee, in speaking of these estimates, says: “These general estimates are indefinite, and the minima, mean, and maxima are alike unworthy of final acceptance; but they stand for a real problem and not a merely ideal one, and represent actual condi- tions of the known earth; and, so far as the science of geology is con- cerned, the maximum estimate is quite as probable as the minimum, while the mean is much more probable than either.” } Upham.—Prof. Warren Upham, after reviewing various estimates of geologic time, concludes that the ‘ probable length of Glacial and Post- Glacial time together is 30,000 or 40,030 years, more or less; but an equal or considerably longer preceding time, while the areas that became covered by ice were being uplifted to high altitudes, may per- haps with good reason be also included in the Quaternary era, which then would comprise some 100,000 years.” He then apples Prof. Dana’s time ratios and concludes that the time needed for the earth’s stratified rocks and the unfolding of its plant and animal life must be about 100,000,000 years.t Mr. Upham’s paper gives a number of ilus- trations of geologic phenomena from Tertiary and Pleistocene geology that bear upon the time duration of these epochs. From the foregoing estimates of geologic time, the only conelusion that can be drawn is that the earth is very old, and that man’s oeccupa- tion of it is but a day’s span as compared with the eons that have elapsed since the first consolidation of the rocks with which the geoi- ogist is acquainted. When I began the preparation of this paper it was my intention to carefully analyze the sedimentary rocks of the entire geologic series as exposed upon the North American continent. I soon found, however, that the time at my disposal would make this impracticable, and | decided to take up the history of the deposits that accumulated in Paleozoic time on the western side of our continent, in an area that for convenience I shall call the Cordilleran sea. This was chosen because (1) I was personally acquainted with many of its typical sections, (2) there was a broad and almost uninterrupted sedimentation during Pal- eozoic time, and (3) there was a prospect for obtaining more satisfac- tory data as a basis of calculation, since calcareous deposits are in excess of those of mechanical origin. We will now consider several points in relation to the growth or evo- lution of the North American continent, as the deposition of mechan- ical sediments depend to a considerable extent on the character of the adjoining land area, and chemical sedimentation is also influenced by it. GROWTH OF THE CONTINENT. The Algonkian sediments were deposited in interior and bordering seas that filled the depressions and extended over the margins of the * Science, June 9, 1893, vol. xx1, p. 309. t Loe. cit., p. 310, ¢ Am. Jour, Sci., 1893, vol. XLV, pp. 217, 218. 310 GEOLOGIC TIME. Archean continent. From the great thickness of mechanical sediments it was evidently a period of elevated land and rapid denudation. With the close of Algonkian time extensive orographic movements occurred that outlined the subsequent development of the continent. The lines of the Rocky mountain and Appalachian ranges were emphasized and the great basins of sedimentation west of them defined. Subsequent movements have elevated the old and formed new subparallel ranges. These movements were often of long duration and also separated by great intervals of time, as is Shown by the long continued base levels of erosion during which the great thickness of calcareous deposits accu- mulated in the Cordilleran and Appalachian seas. Since Algonkian time the growth of the continent has been by the deposition of sedi- ments in the bordering oceans and interior seas and lakes within the linits of the continental plateau; and it is considered that the relative position of the continental plateau and the deep sea have not materially changed during that period. How much the deposits on the continen- tal border have increased its area is unknown, as at present they are largely concealed beneath the waters of the ocean. During Paleozoic time the two areas of greatest known accumulation were the Appa- lachian and Cordilleran seas, where 30,000 feet or more of sediments were deposited. In the Cordilleran sea sedimentation was practically uninterrupted (except during a short interval in middle Ordovician time) until towards the close of Paleozoic time. In the northern Appalachian sea it continued without any marked unconformity, from early Cambrian to the close of Ordovician time, and, south of New York, with relatively little interruption, until the close of Paleozoic time. Certain minor disturbances occurred along the eastern border of the sea, but they were not of sufficient extent to affect a general conclusion— which is that the depression of the areas of deposition within the continental platform continued without reversal of the subsidence dur- ing Paleozoic time. During Cambrian, and,it may be, late Algonkian, time, the extended interior Mississippian region was practically leveled by denudation, the eroded material being carried into the Cordilleran and Appalachian seas and, probably, to a sea to the south. The sedimentation of the Mississippian area in Paleozoic time between the Appalachian and the Cordilleran seas was small as compared to that which accumulated in the latter. In Devonian time there does not appear to have been any sedimentation in the western portion of it west of the ninety-fourth meridian and east of the Cordilleran sea, and it was slight in the same interval in the Appalachian sea south of the thirty-seventh parallel.* There is little if any evidence in the sedi- *The non-oceurrence of Devonian sediment has not yet been fully explained. It has been suggested that the sea beyond the reach of mechanical sedimentation was too deep for the deposition of calcareous deposits. It is more probable that the sea was shallow and an area of non-deposition, or that its bed was raised to forma low, jevel land surface at a base level of erosion that was subjected to very slight degra- dation. GEOLOGIC TIME. oLl ments of Paleozoic time to show that they were deposited in the deep, open ocean; on the contrary, they were largely accumulated in partially inclosed seas or mediterraneans and on the borders of the continental plateau. The former is particularly true of the sedimentation of the Cordilleran and Appalachian seas and the broad Mississippian sea. The close of the prolonged period of Paleozoic sedimentation was brought about by what Dana has termed the “ Appalachian revolution.” The topography of the continent was more or less changed, and the conditions of sedimentation that followed were unlike those that pre- ceded. This revolution raised above the sea level a considerable por- tion of the Cordilleran and the Appalachian sea beds and also of the Mississippian sea, east of the ninety-sixth meridian and north of the thirty-fourth parallel. In its effect it may be compared to the Algon- kian revolution* that preceded the deposition of the Paleozoic sedi- ments. With the opening of new conditions the sedimentation of the Meso- zoic time began upon the Atlantic border and over large areas of the western half of the continent with the deposit of mechanical sedi- ments—sands, silts, ete.—during Jura-Trias time. They are of a char- acter that naturally follows a period of disturbance of pre-existing conditions and the formation of new basins of deposition with more or less elevated adjoining land areas. At its close orographic movements affecting the positions of the beds occurred upon the Pacific and Atlantic coasts and also, to a more limited degree, throughout the Rocky Mountain region. This does not appear to have extended over the plateau region or the central belt between the ninety-seventh and one hundred and fifth meridians. The Cretaceous formations have their greatest development between the ninety-seventh and one hundred and twelfth meridians in Mexico and the United States, in a broad belt which extends from the bound- ary of the latter to the northwest into the British possessions as far as the sixty-first parallel. They were of a marine origin until toward the close of the period when a prolonged orographic movement ele- vated a large area of the continent above sea level and locally upturned the Cretaceous strata in the Rocky Mountain area. The shoaling of the sea was followed by the formation of great inland lakes in which fresh- water deposits succeeded the marine and estuarine sediments. Over the coastal regions they were of marine origin throughout. The Tertiary sediments deposited on the Cretaceous are marine on the Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific coasts, and of fresh-water origin in the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains areas, where they were deposited in the great inland lakes outlined in the previous period. “The term ‘revolution ” is used to describe the culmination of a long series of phe- nomena that finally resulted in a distinctly marked epoch in the evolution of the con- tinent. The “Appalachian revolution” began far back in the Paleozoic and culmi- nated in the later stages of the Carboniferous, and the Algonkian revolution probably began far baek in Aigonkian time. 312 GEOLOGIC ‘TIME. GEOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS ACCOMPANYING THE DEPOSITION OF PALE- OZOIC SEDIMENTS IN THE CORDILLERAN SEA, The assumed area of the Cordilleran or Paleo-Rocky Mountain sea includes over 400,000 square miles between the thirty-fifth and fifty- fifth parallels. To the eastward, during lower and middle Cambrian time, a land area is thought to have extended from east of the one hundred and eleventh meridian across the continent to the Paleo- Appalachian sea. This land was depressed toward the close of middle Cambrian time, and the Mississippian sea expanded over the wide platean-like interior region, from the Gulf of Mexico on the south to the Lake Superior region on the north; westward it penetrated among the mountain ridges between the one hundred and fifth and one hun- dred and eleventh meridians, laying down the upper Cambrian deposits that are now found in New Mexico, Arizona, eastern Utah, the western half of Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, and still further north into Alberta and British Columbia. During Ordovician, Silu- rian, Devonian, and Carboniferous time this entire Mississippian region, except portions in Devonian time, appears to have been cov- ered by a relatively shallow sea that was co-extensive with the Appa- lachian sea and that communicated freely with the Cordilleran sea, During this same age, however, the Rocky Mountain area of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana formed a more or less well-defined boundary of ridges and islands between the Cordilleran and the interior sea up to the forty-ninth parallel. To the north of the latter the conditions appear to have been the same as on the eastern side of the continent, where the Appalachian sea communi- cated freely with the Mississippian sea. From the data that we now have [ think that the Palezoic (Mississippian) sea extended at times over nearly all of the area subsequently covered by the Cretaceous and the later formations between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic ocean. This belt is bounded almost continuously on the east and west by Paleozoic rocks that extend from the Arctic ocean to Mexico, and whether of Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, or Devonian age they carry essentially the same fauna throughout their extent. In the outerops of lower strata that rise up through this Cretaceous area the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Carboniferous rocks are found encircling the pre-Paleozoic rocks. Instances in which the Archwan rocks have been met with immediately beneath the Cretaceous in borings in Dakota and Minnesota are along the eastern border of the area, next to the Archean rocks, where it is probable that the Cretaceous over- laps the Paleozoic to the Archean. The western side of the Cordilleran sea seems to have been bounded by a land area that separated it from the Paleozoic sea, which extended through central California and the Pacific border of British Columbia and Vaneouvers Island. From the position of the Carboniferous GEOLOGIC TIME. 313 deposits of California at the present time, it appears that this land varied from 100 to 150 miles in width and was practically continuous along the western side of the Cordilleran sea. This view is further strengthened by the fact that the Carboniferous fauna of California has certain characteristics which are not found in the Carboniferous of the Cordilleran area. Our knowledge of the conditions north of the fifty- fifth parallel is limited by the want of accurate geologic data. If Cam- brian and Carboniferous rocks were not deposited in the Mackenzie River basin and also on the eastern side of the area now covered by Cretaceous strata, the inference is that during Cambrian and Car- boniferous time there was a land area to the east and north of the northern Cordilleran sea that may have been tributary to the latter. SOURCE OF SEDIMENTS DEPOSITED IN THE CORDILLERAN SEA, The sediments deposited in every sea or lake are derived from land areas either by mechanical or chemical denudation. Mechanical denudation results from the action of the waves and eur- rents along the shore and the agency of rain, frost, snow, ice, wind, heat, ete., on the land. Rain is the most important factor and the result depends mainly upon its amount and the slope or the gradient of the land. The general average of denudation for the surface of the land areas of the globe, now usually accepted, is 1 foot in 3,000 years. This varies locally, according to Sir Archibald Geikie, from 1 foot in 750 years to 1 foot in 6,000 years.* Of the rate of denudation during Paleozoic time about the Cordilleran Sea we know very little, but I think that it was relatively rapid in early Cambrian time and during the deposition of the arenaceous sediments of the Ordovician and Car- boniferous. The material forming the argillaceous shales of the Cam- brian and Devonian was supplied to the sea more slowly. These con- clusions are sustained by the slight change in the character of the faunas where interrupted by the sands and pebbles of the Ordovician and Carboniferous and the marked change between the base and summit of the argillaceous shales. Asa whole, I think we are justified in assuming a mninimum rate of mechanical denudation—of considerably less than 1 foot in 1,000 years—for the area tributary to the Cordilleran sea. Chemical denudation is the removal of material taken into solution by water. Mr. 'T. Mellard Reade has discussed this phase of denuda- tion in an admirable manner.t He came to the conclusion, from what was known of the water discharged into the ocean per year, the aver- age amount of material in chemical solution, and the area of land sur- face drained by the rivers, that an average of 100 tons of rocky matter is dissolved per English square mile per annum. Of thishesays: “If * Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., sixty-second meeting, 1892, p. 21. t Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1877, vol. 11, pt. 3; pp. 212-235. Chemical Denudation in relation to Geological Time, 1879, pp. 1-61. 314 GEOLOGIC TIME. we allot 50 tons to carbonate of lime, 20 tons to sulphate of lime, 7 to silica, 4 to carbonate of magnesia, 4 to sulphate of magnesia, 1 to perox- ide of iron, 8 to chloride of sodium, and 6 to the alkaline carbonates and sulphates, we shall probably be as near the truth as present data will allow us to come.”* By the use of the data given by Mr. John Murray, ina paper on the total annual rainfall on the land of the globe and the relation of rainfall to the discharge of rivers, t I obtain 113 tons as the total amount of matter in solution discharged into the Atlantie basin per annum from each square mile of area drained into it. Of this, 49 tons consist of carbonate of lime and 5:5 tons of sulphate and phos- phate of lime. ¢ Mechanical sediments. —With the geographic conditions described as prevailing during Paleozoic time, the source of mechanical sediments later than the Middle Cambrian must have been from the broken area on the eastern side that extended 100 to 200 miles to the eastward and toa much greater extent from the land along the western side of the sea. The enormous deposit of from 10,000 to 20,000 feet of mechan- ical sediments in early Cambrian time is explained by the assumption of favorable topographic conditions of denudation following the Algon- kian revolution and the presence of a land area over the interior por- tion of the continent, and also, in all probability, between the western side of the Cordilleran sea and the western border of the continent. During this period the conformable pre-fossiliferous strata of the Cam- brian accumulated, and about 6,000 feet of the lower fossiliferous rocks as they occur in the Eureka district of central Nevada, Following the depression of the continent, which carried down the central area and also introduced the Upper Cambrian (Mississippian) sea into the Rocky Mountain area of Colorado, ete., there were deposited of mechanical sediments in central Nevada: Feet. Ordovician sandstece reas saci-eeeee ee ae eAlerts 500 Devonianshne areilllaccous aud saqs=ee= aera 2,000 LowerCarboniferousisamds..> ase eee see eee eee 3,000 Upper Carboniferous conglomerate and sands.......-.------- 2,000 7,500 making a total of 7,500 feet of mechanical sediments, the remaining portion of the section (15,150 feet) being limestone. The following table exhibits the relative thickness of mechanical and chemical deposits in the Cordilleran sea after the Middle Cambrian subsidence: * Proc. Liverpool Geolog. Soc., 1877, vol. m1, p. 229. t Scottish Geol. Mag., 1887, vol. 111, pp. 65-77. t Total amount removed in solution per annum by rivers, 762,587 tons per cubic mile of river water. Total discharge of river water per annum into the Atlantic, 3,947 cubie miles. Area drained, 26,400,000 square miles. Amount of carbonate of line per annum, 326,710 tons per cubic mile of river water; of sulphate and phos- phate of lime, 37,274 tons. ‘ : : | , GEOLOGIC TIME. 315 heme 4, | Central | Southwest ; aan | | Wasatch. | Nevada. Nevada, | Montana. | Alberta. | at . ach a ¥ % ie Saat ' Mechanical sediment ..-.--. 10, 000 | 7, 500 2, 500 1, 000 4, 600 Chemical sediment ...-..-.-. 10, 400 15, 150 13, 000 4, 000 15, 000 JSOU00) 22 ses asec scenoseacese 4 t 3 4 | If an average is taken of the mechanical sediment deposited subse- quent to the close of Middle Cambrian time, it will be found to be about 5,000 feet for the entire area, which, I think, does away with any neces- sity for assuming an additional hypothetical land area for the source of the mechanical sediment. The fine sand composing the quartzites and the silt forming the shales, as well as the fine poneroncrate of later deposits, were jowieedl from the adjoining land areas, and, in all proba- bility, currents swept through from the ocean to the south or north, distributing the mud and sand contributed from the rivers and streams along the shores. Chemical sediments.—The present supply of the carbonate of lime, Silica, ete., contained in sea water is derived from waters poured into the sea by riversand streams. TheCordilleran sea undoubtedly received a large contribution from the adjoining land areas, but a considerable amount was possibly derived from an oceanic current that circulated through it, as the southern equatorial current of the Atlantic now sweeps through the Caribbean. Krom the vast deposits of carbonate of lime it might be assumed, « priori, that the waters of a Mississippi or Amazon were poured into it, but there is not any evidence of the existence of “such a river, although the tributary area may have been very large in Cambrian and Carboniferous time if the drainage of the country west of Hudson Bay was to the westward. Conditions of deposition.—With free communication into the open ocean on the south, and probably on the north, during most of Paleo- zoic time strong currents must have circulated through the Cordilleran sea. The broad distribution of mechanical sediments of a uniform character clearly shows this to have been the case, especially in pre- Silurian time. The present known distribution of the mechanical sedi- ments indicates that they were mainly brought into the sea from the west,* although a vast amount was derived from the land on the east- ern side in pre-Ordovician time; they were quite evenly distributed over the sea bed, except where local accumulations of silt and sand occurred near the larger sources of supply, or in the direction of pow- erful currents within the sea. The conditions of the deposition of the carbonate of lime are less clearly understood than those governing mechanical sediments, and I Shall enter upon the discussion of them at considerable length. There are three methods by which it is usually considered it aay be Cepus: Geol. Expl. Fortieth Para. 1878, Tal Teepe . 247. 316 GEOLOGIC TIME. ited: (1) agency of organisms; (2) chemical precipitation; (3) mechan- ical methods. It is the general opionion of geologists that limestone rocks are the result almost entirely of the consolidation of lime removed from the sea water through the agency of life, and that they consist of the remains of foraminifera, crinoids, corals, etc., or. their fragments, em- bedded in a more or less crystalline matrix resulting from subsequent alteration of the original deposits. This, however, has been seriously questioned. Sorby, in giving his general conclusions of an extensive microscopic examination of limestones, states that— “Hvenif it were possible to study in a detached state the finer granu- lar particles which constitute so large a part of many limestone forma- tions, it would usually be impossible to say whether they had been derived from organisms which can decay down into granules, or from other organisms which can only be worn down into granules, or from ground-down older limestone, or, in some cases, from carbonate of lime deposited chemically as granules. - - - The shape and character of the identifiable fragments do, indeed, prove that much of this must have been derived from the decayed and worn-down calcareous organ- isms; and very often we may reasonably infer that the greater part, if not the whole, was so derived; but at the same time it is impossible to prove, from the structure of the rock, whether some or how much was derived from limestones of earlier date, or was deposited chemically, as some certainly must have been.”* In their memoir on coral reefS and other carbonate-of-lime forma- tions in modern seas, Messrs. Murray and Irvine show that tempera- ture of the water has a controlling influence upon the abundance of species and individuals of lime-secreting organisms; high temperature ismore favorable to abundant secretion of carbonate of lime than high salinity. t Taking the samples of deep-sea deposits collected by the Challenger as a guide, the average percentage of carbonate of lime in the whole of the deposit covering the floor of the ocean is 36°33; of this it is esti- mated that fully 90 per cent is derived from pelagic organisms that have fallen from the surface water, the remainder of the earbonate of lime having been secreted by organisms that lay on, or were attached to, the bottom. The estimated area of the various kinds of deposits, the average depth, and the average percentage of carbonate of lime to ach are shown in the following table: * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, 1879, vol. XXxXvV, pp. 91-92. t Proc. Royal Soc., Edinburgh, 1890, vol. Xvi, p. 81. GEOLOGIC TIME. SLi Table showing the estimated area, mean depth, and mean percentage of CaCO. of the dif- ferent deposits. * Area, square | Me an depth Meas Deposit. ae cent of miles. | in fathoms. oe CaCO3. S : aes =— = (( IEG! CEN Wn an Scconncouceccececeenees 50, 289, 600 | DTH 6°70 Sen | Radiolarian ooze. ---. Wace aaes cess 2,790, 400 | 2, 894 4-01 Oceanic oozes and clays. { Diatom ooze .....--..------------- 10, 420, 600 | 1,477 22 :96 Globigerina 00ze...-..------------ 47, 752, 500 1, 996 64-53 (Geteropodess=seseee aes eee = 887, 100 ile Tas} 79 -26 ( Coral sands and muds ...------.--. 3, 219, 800 | 710 86-4 Terrigenous deposits -.- 4 Other terrigenous deposits, blue \Eeanndatetem aoeetas eee ee | 97, 899, 300 1, 016 19 -20 “ We have little knowledge as to the thickness of these deposits; still such as we have goes to show that in these organic calcareous oozes aud muds we have a vast formation greatly exceeding in bulk and extent the coral reefs of tropical seas. They are most widely distributed in equatorial regions, but some patches of Globigerina ooze are to be found even within ‘the Arctie circle, in the course of the Gulf Stream.”’t The percentage of carbonate of lime contained in deposits accumu- lating at different depths, as obtained from 231 samples collected by the Challenger, is Shown in the following tabulation: CCAR Epa EBL) ben ONE VI PaO occoombenoneedsoneedos Seaoneepooedar --. 86°04 jcases under 500 to W000) fathoms,m. p.¢-.--2----2---+-------s2-s-------- 66 "86 24 cases under 1000 to 1500 fathoms, m. p.c¢----..----.....-.-.---..------- 70°87 42 cases under 1500 to 2000 fathoms, m. p.¢ ------- Sea ee Seen ee omcia= 69°55 68 cases under 2000 to 2500 fathoms, m. p.c .....-...---------------------- 46°73 65 cases under 2500 to 3000 fathoms, m. p.¢ ------.---.-------------------- 17°36 8 cases under 3000 to 3500 fathoms, m. p. c ..-.----.---------------------- *88 2 cases under 3500 to 4000 fathoms, m. p.¢ -.--.-.-------------.---------- 0-00 iecaseunders4000) fathoms ales Costes sees ale ia alae ote Trace. The 14 samples under 500 fathoms are chiefly coral muds and sands, and the 7 samples from 500 to 1,000 fathoms contain a considerable quantity of mineral particles from continents or volcanic islands. In all the depths greater than 1,000 fathoms the carbonate of lime is mostly derived from the shells of pelagic organisms that have fallen from the surface waters, and it will be noticed that these wholly disap- pear from the greater depths. ¢ By a series of experiments Messrs. Murray and Irvine found, ‘that although sea water under certain conditions may take up a consider- able quantity of carbonate of lime in solution, yet it is unable perma- nently to retain in solution more than is usually found to be present in sea water, and it is owing to this that the amount of carbonate of lime is so constantly low. The reaction between organic matter and the sul- phates present in sea water (to which we have referred) tends also to keep the amount of carbonate of lime in solution at about one-half (0-12 grams) of what it might contain Gs 28 grams es liter). This pecu- * Loc. cit., p. 82. t Loe. Pile pp. 82, 83. Nine, can p. 84, 318 GEOLOGIC TIME. liarity of sea water in taking up a large amount of amorphous carbon- ate of lime and throwing it out in crystalline form accounts for the filling up of the interstices of massive coral with crystalline carbonate in coral islands and other calcareous formations, so that all traces may ultimately be lost of the original organic structures. * The authors explain the disappearance of shells and lime deposits in the greater depths of the ocean by their being dissolved by the carbonie acid in the water, which is present in larger quantity at great depths, and also is produced by the decomposition of the animal matter of the shell and of the various organisms living in the water and on the bot- tom. They conclude that— ‘‘On the whole, however, the quantity of carbonate of lime that is secreted by animals must exceed what is redissolved by the action of sea water, and at the present time there is a vast accumulation of the carbonate of lime going on in the ocean. It has been the same in the past, for with a few insignificant exceptions all the carbonate of lime in the geological series of rocks has been secreted from sea water and owes its origin to organisms in the same way as the carbon of the car- boniferous formations; the extent of these deposits appears to have been increased from the earliest down to the present geological period.” t in their report on deep sea deposits, collected by the Challenger expe- diticn, Messrs. Murray and Renard state that the chemical products formed in situ on the floor of the ocean nearly all originate in a sort of broth or ooze, in which the sea water is but slowly renewed. Many of thei appear to be formed at the surface of the deposit—at the line separating the ooze from the superincumbent water, where oxidation takes place. In the deeper layers of the deposit a reduction of the higher oxides frequently occurs, and at the surface of the mud or ooze there are many living animals as well as the dead remains of sur- face plants and animals.t They also conclude that practically all the carbon of marine organisms must ultimately be resolved into carbonic acid. The quantity of that acid produced in this way must be enormous, and can not but exert a great solvent action not cnly on the dead eal- eareous structure, but also on the minerals in the muds on the floor of the ocean.§ Of the effect of this destructive action they say: ‘In all cases, however, calcareous structures of all kinds are slowly removed from the bottom of the ocean on the death of the organisms, unless rap- idly covered up by the accumulating deposits, and in this way protected to a certain extent from the solvent action of the sea water. It is evi- dent from the Challenger investigations that whole classes of animals with hard, calcareous shells and skeletons, remains of which one might suppose would be preserved in modern deposits, are not there repre- * Loe. cit., pp. 94-95. t Loe. cit., p. 100: {Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger. Deep-Sea Deposits. 1891, p. 337. § Loe. cit., p. 255. GEOLOGIC TIME. 319 sented; although they are now living in immense numbers in the sur- face waters or on the deposits at the bottom in some regions, yet all traces of them have been removed by solution. A similar removal of calcareous organic structures has undoubtedly taken place in the marine formations of past geological ages.” * From the preceding statements it is evident that initially the greater part of the carbonate of lime is taken from the sea water by organic agency, but in the working over of this material in the chemical labo- ratory at the bottom of the sea a considerable portion is taken up by the sea water as amorphous carbonate of lime and thrown out in the erystalline form to form the matrix of the undissolved shells, ete. t Mr. Bailey Willis has recently studied the question of the deposi- tion of carbonate of lime, and states that ‘‘ chemists describe two con- ditions under which bicarbonate of lime may be decomposed into neutral carbonate and earbonie acid: first, by diminution of the ten- sion of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere; second, by agitation of the solution. ‘Theoretically either one of three things may occur to the neutral carbonate of lime, if it be thrown out of solution by either one of these processes. The carbonate may be redissolved, deposited as a calca- reous mud, or built into organic structures.” He studied some recent limestone deposited in the Everglades of southern Florida and found it to be formed of fragments of shells embedded in ealcite. He states that ‘“‘ under the microscope the unaltered structure of the organic frag- ments is strikingly different from that of the coarse holocrystalline matrix, in which it is apparent that the crystals developed in place. Were this a limestone of some past geologic period it would be con- cluded, on the evidence of the crystalline texture of some parts of it, that it had been metamorphosed and that the organic remains now visible had escaped the process which altered the matrix. But the observed conditions of its formation preclude the hypothesis of see- ondary crystallization.”¢ Apparently the crystalline matrix is one primary product, and the caleareous mud is another, which being pre- cipitated in the solution remains an incoherent sediment. I think we may accept the conclusion that the deposition of carbonate of lime is by both organic agency and chemical precipitation. It is not necessary to speak of deposition by mechanical methods except in rela- tion to the deposition of chemically derived granules. This probably takes place, and may be a very important factor in the formation of limestones in seas receiving a large supply of calcium from the land. Caleareous conglomerates do not enter as a prominent deposit in the Cordilleran area. * Loc. cit.,p, 277. In this connection I wish to ask the student to read Messrs. Murray and Irvine’s remarks on pp. 97-99, Proce. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, 1890, vol. xvi. t Proc, Royal Soc. Edinburgh, 1890, vol. Xvu, pp. 94, 95. ¢See Mr. Willis’s article in Journal of Geology, Chicago, July-August, 1893, 320 GEOLOGIC TIME. There is no evidence in the marine geologic formations of this conti- nent that they were deposited in the deep sea; on the contrary, they are unlike such deposits and bear positive evidence of having been laid down in relatively shallow waters. Limestones with ripple marks and sun cracks occur, and beds of ripple-marked sandstones alternate with shales and limestones. The more massive limestones, however, appear to have accumulated in deeper water. The conditions in the Cordilleran sea were, | think, more favorable for rapid deposition than in the deep open ocean, but probably not as favorable as about coral reefs and islands, ‘The limestones and often the contained fossils clearly indicate the presence of many of the same conditions of deposition as described by the authors I have quoted. More or less decomposed shells occur in nearly every limestone; and a large proportion of limestones, especially the nonmetamorphic marbles, clearly shows that they were deposited under the influence of the agencies at work in the laboratory of the sea. Willis states that this occurs in the shallow waters of the Everglades of Florida, and there is no @ priori reason why it did not occur throughout geologic time; on the contrary, there is no doubt that it did. Rate of deposit in former times.—It has frequently been assumed that in the earlier epochs the conditions were more favorable for rapid denu- dation and in consequence thereof the transportation and deposition of sediment were greater. Prof. Prestwich considers* that prior to the sedimentary rocks the land surface consisted of crystalline or igneous rocks subject to rapid decomposition owing to the composition of the atmosphere and to their inherent tendency to decay. They must have yielded to wear and removal with a facility unknown amongst mechani- eally-formed and detrital strata where erosion operates. He thus accounts for one of the factors that gave the large dimensions and thicknesses of the earlier formations. Mr. Wallace thinks that geolog- ical change was probably greater in very remote times,t stating that all telluric action increases as we go back into the past time and that all the forces that have brought about geological phenomena were greater. Dr. Woodward says on the opposite view, that in the earliest geolog- ical periods each bed of sand, clay, limestone, ete., had actually to be formed, and thatlater deposits had the older sedimentary ones to furnish * Geology, 1886, vol. 1, pp. 60, 61. t Island Life, 2d ed., 1892, pp. 223-224. tSir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) inferred from his investigations upon the cooling of the earth, that the general climate can not be sensibly affected by con- ducted heat at any time more than 10000 years after the commencement of super- ficial solidification. Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Cambridge, 1883, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 478. Of the degree of the sun’s heat we know so little that conjectures in relation to it have little force against the conditions indicated by the sedimentary rocks and their contained organic remains. GEOLOGIC TIME. 321 material, and therefore the newer deposits were laid down more rapidly.* This does not impress me strongly; but from my experience among the Paleozoic rocks I agree with Sir A. Geikie, that “we can see no proof whatever, nor even any evidence which suggests—that on the whole the rate of waste and sedimentation was more rapid during Mesozoic and Paleozoic time than it is to-day.”t Prof. Huxley, in his presidential address to the Geological Society of London in 1870, treats of the distribution of animals, and says of his hypothesis that it ‘requires no supposition that the rate of change in organic life has been either greater or less in ancient times than it is now; nor any assumption, either physical or biological, which has not its justification in analogous phenomena of existing nature.”t In the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, Arizona, there are 11,950 feet of strata of Algonkian age extending uncomtormably beneath the Cam- brian. There is nothing in this section to indicate that the conditions of deposition were unlike those of the strata of Paleozoic and Mesozoic time. The sandstones, shales, and limestones are identical in appear- ance and characteristics with those of the latter epoeh. The deposition of sulphate of lime and gypsum occurred abundantly in the upper por- tions of the series, and salt is collected by the Indians from the deposits formed by the saline waters issuing from the sandstone 8,000 feet below the summit of the series. The sandstones and shales were deposited in thin, even lamin and layers, and the sun cracks and ripple marks give evidence of slow, uniform deposition. In the upper or Chuar ter- rane, there are 235 feet of limestone. And in one of the layers of lime- stone, 2,700 feet below the summit of the Chuar terrane, I find abun- dant evidence of the presence of spicul& of sponges and what appear to be worn fragments of some small fossils. There is absolutely nothing to indicate more rapid denudation and corresponding deposition in this arly pre-Cambrian series than we find in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, or Cenozoic formations. PALEOZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE CORDILLERAN SEA. The great sections of sedimentary.rocks in Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Montana, and in Alberta, British America, all bear evidence that the sediments of which they are built up were deposited in a connected and continuous sea that extended from the vicinity of the thirty-fourth parallel, on the south, to the Arctic Ocean on the north. Judging from the data now available the width of this sea varies from 300 miles in Nevada to 500 miles on the line of the fortieth parallel, and, with inter- ruptions by mountain ridges, to 250 miles on the forty-ninth parallel. It appears to have narrowed to the northin Alberta and British Colum- * Geol. England and Wales, 2d ed., 1887, p. 23. t Rept. Sixty-second Meeting Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1892, p. 19, t Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1870, vol. XXVI, p. Lxiii, SM 93 21 ae GEOLOGIC TIME. bia. Roughly computed, it covered, south ot the fifty-fifth parallel, 400,000 square miles, exclusive of any extension westward into north- ern-central California and southwestern Oregon and to the eastward over the area subsequently covered by the great interior Cretaceous sea. There is also an addition that might be made to allow for the contrac- tion of the area by the later north-and-south faults and thrusts. Dr. G. M. Dawson estimates that in the Alberta and British Coiumbia area the width of the zone of Paleozoic rocks has probably been reduced one- half by the folding and faulting, or from 200 to 100 miles.* The area assumed for the Cordilleran Sea is on this account probably one-half less thanit was before the close of the Appalachian revolution. The Wasatch section, on the eastern side of the area under consider- ation, has 30,000 feet of strata, of which 10,400 feet are limestone.t Further to the west, 250 miles west-southwest, at Eureka, Nev., there are 30,000 feet of strata in the entire section, and of this amount 19,000 feet are referred to limestone.t In the Pahranagat range and vicinity, 200 miles south of the Eureka section,§ the limestones of the Paleo- zoic measure over 13,000 feet in a section of 15,500 feet. This section includes only 350 feet of the upper beds of the lower quartzite series, which is upwards of 11,000 feet in thickness in the Schell Creek range of eastern Nevadaa..|| On the eastern side of the area, in Montana, 300 miles north of the Wasatch section of Utah, the deposit of Paleozoic sediment is less in volume. Dr. A. ©. Peale’s section gives 3,800 feet of limestone in 5,000 feet of strata. This does not include the 6,000 feet or more of sedi- ments that occur below the fossiliferous Cambrian. I believe that the Paleozoic section will be found to be considerably thicker to the west- ward, in Idaho. Continuing to the north 450 miles, the sections meas- ured by Mr. R. G. McConnell give 29,000 feet of Paleozoic strata, including 14,000 feet of limestones.** In a “ Note on the Geological Structure of the Selkirk Range,” Dr. Geo. M. Dawson describes a sec- tion containing upwards of 40,000 feet of mechanical sediments, which he refers largely to the Cambrian.tt The Paleozoic limestones extend to the north, on the line of the east- ern Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic Ocean. In latitude 55° to 60° north, the Devonian limestones are over 2,500 feet in thickness, and there are other still lower Paleozoic rocks that have not yet been studied in detail. The Devonian limestones extend 700 miles in the valley of the Mackenzie, from Great Slave Lake to below Fort Good *Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1891, vol. 11, p. 176. tGeol. Lupl. Fortieth Parallel, 1878, vol. 1, pp. 155-156. t+ Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1892, vol. xx, p. 178. § Loe. cit., pp. 186-200. || Geol. and Geog. Surveys west of 100th Merid., vol, 111; 1875, Geology, p. 167, gq Author’s manuscript. ** Geol. and Nat. Hist, Sur., Can.; Ann. Rep., 1866, pp. 17D-30D, tt Bull, Geol, Soc, Am., 1891, yol, 11, p, 168, is GEOLOGIC TIME. 323 Hope.* No Carboniferous limestones have been described from this region. Tabulating the sections south from the Fifty-fifth parallel and allow- ing for a great thinning out of the sediments in Idaho and Montana, we obtain an approximate general average of 21,000 feet of strata, of which 6,000 feet are limestone over an area estimated to include 400,000 square miles. Hach square mile includes 27,878,400 cubic feet of limestone for each foot in thickness, and 167,270,400,000 cubic feet for a thickness of 6,000 feet, which, with an average of 12-5 cubie feet to the ton, gives 13,381,632,000 tons of limestone and impurities per square mile. The result of 10 analyses of clear limestones within the central portion of the area gives an average of 76:5 per cent of carbon- ate of lime.t Taking 75 per cent as the proportion of pure carbonate of lime (after deducting 50 per cent to allow for arenaceous and argil- laceous material in partings of strata, ete.), there remain 5,018,112,000 tons per square mile; multiplying this by 400,000 the result gives the number of tons of carbonate of lime that were deposited in what we know of the Cordilleran sea in Paleozoic time—or 2,007,244,800,000,000 tons, or two thousand trillion tons in round numbers. The following mode of presentation of the above was suggested by Mr. Willis: ‘In order to proceed with a calculation of the period required to form this thickness of 15,000 feet of mechanical sediment plus 6,000 feet of calcareous sediment, it is necessary, first, to compute the cubic volumes of the sediments; second, to estimate the area from which they were derived; and, third, to divide the cubic contents of the sediments by this land area. The result thus obtained represents the depth of ero- sion required to furnish the whole deposit, from which we may esti- mate the time under different assumptions of the rate of erosion. ‘‘ But if we express amounts in cubie feet or tons the figures pass all comprehension; therefore to simplify the statement it is well to use a mnile-foot as a unit of volume, that is, the volume of 1 mile square and 1 foot thick. (1 mile-foot=0.79 kilometer-meter.) This is equal to 223,000 tons, if 124 cubic feet of limestone equal 1 ton. “Thus stated, mechanical sediments covering 400,000 square miles and 15,000 feet thick contain 6,000,000,000 mile-feet (4,740,000,000 kilo- meter-meters); and calcareous sediments covering the same area and 6,000 feet thick correspond to 2,400,000,000 mile-feet (1,896,000,000 kilometer-meters). In the calcareous sediments a liberal allowance of one-half may be made for arenaceous and argillaceous matter in the limestone and partings, and analyses of 10 clear limestones within the central part of the area give a little more than 75 per cent of carbonate of lime. Applying these reductions we get 900,000,000 mile-feet (711,000,000 kilometer-meters) of pure carbonate of lime.” DURATION OF PALEOZOIC TIME IN THE CORDILLERAN AREA. Estimates from mechanical sedimentation.—The land area tributary to the Cordilleran sea was larger before the depression of the continent, * Rept. Expl. Yukon and Mackenzie rivers Basins, N. W., Terr., Geol. and Nat. Hist, Sur. Canada, (1888-89) 1890, vol. 1v, pp. 18D-18D. tGeol, Expl. Fortieth Par., vol. 11; Mon, U, 8, Geol, Survey, vol. xx, 324 GEOLOGIC TIME. towards the close of middle Cambrian time, than during subsequent -aleozoic time. It included a portion of the region to the eastward and probably a belt of land extending well toward the Pacifie coast of the continental plateau. The interior (Mississippian) region, west of the ninetieth meridian, probably drained into the sea to the south, forming a Cambrian Mississippi river prior to middle Cambrian time. This limits the Cambrian drainage into the Cordilleran sea to an area estimated at 1,600,000 square miles. The average thickness of iechan- ical sediments deposited before upper Cambrian time is estimated at from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Taking the minimum of 10,000 feet and the assumed drainage area of 1,600,000 square miles and the rate of denuda- tion at 1 foot in 1,000 years, it would have required 2,500,000 years to carry to the sea and distribute the 10,000 feet of sediment. This means the deposition of 0-048 of an inch per year, which is very small if the supposed conditions of denudation and transportation were as favor- able as the character and mode of occurrence of the sediments indicate. If one-fourth of an inch per year is assumed as the rate of deposition, the 10,000 feet of sediment would have accumulated in 480,000 years or, in round numbers, in 500,000 years, which increases the rate of denudation to 1 foot in 200 years.* In dealing with the post-middle Cambrian mechanical sediments we have a somewhat different problem, but, as a whole, rapid deposition is indicated. For instance, the Eureka quartzite of the upper Ordo- vician is a bed of sandstone, varying from 200 to 400 feet in thickness. distributed over a wide area, perhaps 50,000 square miles. It is made almost entirely of a white, clean sand that was deposited in so short an interval that the Trenton fauna in the limestone beneath it and in the limestones above it is essentially the same. The sand appears to have been swept rapidly into the sea and distributed by strong cur- rents. The same is true of the 3,000 feet of the lower Carboniferous * By Mr. Willis’ method (ante, p. 323) the mechanical sediments of the Paleozoic age for the area under consideration correspond to 6,000,000,000 mile-feet. Of this total the greater part, namely, two-thirds or 4,000,000,000 mile-feet, are of Cambrian age, Dividing this volume by the land area just given, 1,600,000 square miles, we get 2,500 feet as the depth of erosion during the formation of the Cambrian mechan- ical sediments. Assuming different rates of erosion we may obtain times differing as follows: Cambrian mechanical sediments. Time in years for erosion of | 2 500 feet. Rate of deposition over sea area of 490 000 Rate of erosion over land area of : ) square miles for strata 10 000 feet thick. 1,600 000 square miles. 1 foot in 3,000hyears.—- J----- =<... 25-22 .. 7,500,000 | 1 foot in 750 years, or 0°016-inch per annum. 1 foot in 1;000 years: -..------- 2. --.-- 2, 500,000 ! 1 foot in 250 years, or 0:048-inch per annum. isfootim 200i arsine ace == 500,000 1 foot in 50 years, or 0°24-inch per annum. - _ — — — In view of the evidence of rapid accumulation contained in the strata themselves the most rapid rate of deposition here stated, namely, 0°24-inch per annum, is con- sidered as the most probable, GEOLOGIC TIME. 325 sand and the 2,000 feet in the upper portion of the Carboniferous, while the shales of the upper Devonian accumulated more slowly. In this connection we must bear in mind that during the long periods in which the calcareous sediments forming the limestones were being de- posited, the tributary land areas were, in all probability, base levels of erosion, and chemical denudation was preparing a great supply of mechanical material that, on the raising of the land, was rapidly swept into the sea and distributed. In this manner the time period of actual mechanical denudation was materially shortened, yet, on account of the manifestly Slower depositions of the Devonian shales, the rate of denudation should be assumed as less than during Cambrian time. In post-Cambrian time the area of the land surface was materially reduced by subsidence, which did not, however, greatly extend the Cordilleran sea, and it may fairly be estimated at 600,000 square miles. The depth of mechanical sediments already estimated is 5,000 feet and their volume 2,000,000,000 mile-feet.. Dividing the volume by the area of erosion we get 3,500 feet as the depth of erosion required. Again, applying different rates of erosion with allowance for slow progress of degradation during Devonian time, we have: Post-Cambrian mechanical sediments. Rate of erosion over land area of ae nequined dor | Rate of deposition in sea of 400,000 600,000 square miles. | pentoval DE ah | square miles, for 5,000 fect of strata. Hitiootimys 000i yicars\-2-<-s2-.-2 1s. 5- | 9,900,000 years ..-.) 1 foot in 1,980 years, or 0, 006 inch per an- | num. HEfGOL MPN OOnveATS 2c a= nfo,n)- 2 e)=:=1s(=1a1 3,300,000 years ..-., 1 foot in 660 years, or 0.018 inch per an- num. Hetoot min 200 Wearsecc-css-pes esse ee = | 660,000 years.. ..-.| 1 foot in 132 years, or 0.09 inch per an- num. The rate of 1 foot in 200 years is assumed as the most probable and 660,000 years as the time required for the removal and deposition of the 5,000 feet of post-Cambrian mechanical sediments. There is one factor that may need to be taken into consideration in estimating the time duration of the deposition of the mechanical sedi- ments of the Cambrian and pre(?)-Cambrian of the northern portion of the Cordilleran sea that would materially lengthen the period. Dr. George M. Dawson describes the Nisconlith series, especially in the Selkirk range of British Columbia, as composed of “blackish argillite- schists and phyllites, generally calcareous with some beds of limestotie and quartzite, 15,000 feet.”* It is correlated with the Bow River series, which contains, in the upper portion, the lower Cambrian fauna. The presence of these caleareous beds indicates a slower rate of depo- Sition than we have estimated for the lower portion of the Cambrian * Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1891, vol., U1, p. 168. 326 GEOLOGIC TIME. series over the greater part of the Cordilleran sea; butas yet the corre- lation with the sediments of the Cordilleran sea is not sufficiently well established to warrant our allowing a greater time period to the Cambrian on this account. Estimates from chemical sedimentation.—We have estimated that the Paleozoic sediments of the Cordilleran sea contain 2,007,244,800,000,000 [2 thousand trillion] tons (900,000,000 mile-feet) of carbonate of lime which was derived by organie or chemical agencies from the sea water to which it was contributed by the land. If oceanic circulation could be excluded from the problem we might proceed directly to estimate the time required to obtain this amount of lime from the land area tributary to the Cordilleran sea. It may be well to make such an estimate on the basis that the area of denudation tributary to the Cordilleran sea in post- middle Cambrian time had 600,000 square miles, from which 30,000,000 tons of carbonate of lime and 12,000,000 tons of sulphate of lime were derived per annum* if we assume T. Mellard Reade’s rate of erosion— of 50 tons of carbonate of lime and 20 tons of sulphate of lime per square nile per annum. If all of the 42,000,000 tons (equal to 18-8 mile- feet) per annum were deposited within the limits of the Cordilleran sea, it would have taken 47,790,000 years for the accumulation of the carbo- nate of lime now estimated to have been deposited in the Cardilleran sea. Such a result is manifestly a maximum, based on the consideration of one set of phenomena. In addition, however, to this supply of calcium the geographic conditions appear to have been favorable to the free circulation of oceanic currents through the Cordilleran sea, and the temperature was favorable to extensive evaporation and to the devel- opment of organie life, as shown by the occurrence of corals in the Middle and Upper portions of the Paleozoic, from the Mackenzie River basin on the north to southern Nevada on the south. ‘These condi- tions would reduce the time necessary for the deposition of the carbon- ate of lime. Ocean water of the present time contains in solution 151,025,000 tons of solid matter per cubic mile, which is divided among various salts. A comparison of the matter in the sea and river water shows that the sea contains 3.85 parts of magnesium to 1 of calcium, and river water contains 3 parts of calcium to 1 of magnesium. The silica and alumina of the river water disappear in sea water, while the sodium is accu- mulated. It is from these considerations and the fact that limestones are so largely formed of carbonate of lime that I have taken the latter as a basis for estimates upon the rate of chemical sedimentation, an allowance being made for the presence of silica, alumina, and magne- sium in the limestones. *Messrs. Murray and Renard consider that organisms have the power of secreting the carbonate of lime from the sulphate of lime contained in the sea water by chem- ical reaction. For an account of the chemical action that takes place in the sea water see report of the Deep-sea Deposits of the Challenger Expedition. GEOLOGIC TIME. 827 Rate of deposition in recent deposits —Of the rate of deposition in recent deposits Messrs. Murray and Renard state, in their report on the deep-sea deposits, that— “Tt must be admitted that at the present time we have no definite knowledge as to the absolute rate of accumulation of any deep-sea deposit, although we have some information and some indications as to the relative rate of accumulation of the different types of deposits among themselves. The most rapid accumulation appears to take place in the terrigenous deposits, and especially in the Blue Muds, not far removed from the embouchures of large rivers. Here no great time would seem to have elapsed since the deposit was formed, so far at least as the materials collected by the dredge, trawl, and sounding tube are concerned. ‘* Around some coral reefs the accumulation must be rapid, for, although pelagic species with calcareous shells may be numerous in the surface waters, it is often impossible to detect more than an ocea- sional pelagic shell among the other calcareous débris of the deposits. “The pelagic deposits as a whole, having regard to the nature and condition of their organic and mineralogical constituents, evidently accumulate af a much slower rate than the terrigenous deposits, in which the materials washed down from the land play so large a part. The Pteropod and Globigerina oozes of the tropical regions, being chiefly made up of the calcareous shells of a much larger number of tropical species, must necessarily accumulate at a greater rate than the Globigerina 00zes inextra-tropical areas or other organic oozes. Diatom ooze, being composed of both calcareous and siliceous organisms, has, again, a more rapid rate of deposition than the Radiolarian ooze, while in a Red Clay there is a minimum rate of growth.”* _ Prof. James D. Dana estimates that the rate of increase of coral reef limestone formations, where all is most favorable, does not exceed per- haps a sixteenth of an inch a year, or 5 feet in 1000 years. Of this he says: * And yet such limestones probably form at a more rapid rate than those made of shells.”+ Messrs. Murray and Irvine, in their valuable paper on coral reefs and other carbonate of lime formations in modern seas, calculate the total amount of calcium in the whole ocean to be 628,340,000,000,000 [628 trillion| tons; also they estimate that 925,866,500 tons of calcium are carried into the ocean from all the rivers of the giobe annually. At this rate it would take 680,000 years for the river drainage from the land to carry down an amount of calcium equal to that at present existing in solution in the whole ocean. They say further: ‘Again, taking the Chal- lenger deposits as a guide, the amount of calcium in these deposits, if they be 22 feet thick, is equal to the total amount of calcium in solution in the whole ocean at the present time. It follows from this that if the salinity of the ocean has remained the same as at the present during the whole of this period, then it has taken 680,000 years for the deposits of the above thickness, or containing calcium in amount equal to that *Report on the scientific results of thevoyage of H. M.S. Challenger; Deep-Sea Deposits. 1891, pp. 411-412. tCorals and Coral Islands, 3d ed., 1890, pp. 396, 397. 328 GEOLOGIC TIME. - at present in solution in the ocean, to have accumulated on the floor of the ocean.”* According to this calculation the mean rate of accumu- lation over existing oceanic areas is gs235G5 Or 0000032 feet per annum. Was deposition of chemical sediments more rapid during Paleozoic time ?—It has been claimed that the quantity of lime poured into the ocean in earlier times was greater than during the later epochs of geo- logical history, this arising from the more rapid disintegration of the Archean, crystalline, and voleanic rocks. It is undoubtedly a fact that the ocean was stocked in Archean and Algonkian times with matter in solution that produced salinity, but we have no evidence from chemi- eal precipitation that more calcium was poured into it than could be retained in solution. The Laurentian limestones are crystalline, but, as has been shown, this texture is consistent with either chemical or organic origin. The unaltered limestones of the Algonkian rocks of the Colorado canyon section show traces of life in thin sections, and they may, to a great extent, be of organic origin. There is no evidence in the texture, bedding, or composition of ancient limestones to indi- sate that they were deposited under conditions of salinity or of supply differing materially from those of the present, and I do not find that we have reason to believe that the deposition of the carbonate of lime was more rapid in the Paleozoic than during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, even though the supply from the land may have been greater. Where the conditions were favorable for the deposition of lime, as in the Cretaceous sea of northern Mexico, we find evidence of an immense accumulation of calcareous sediments. Of the amount of calcareous deposits in the seas outside of the continental areas that are not open to our inspection we know nothing, but judging from the deposition that is going on to-day in the great oceans, the accumulation of calea- reous sediment has gone on in the pastas steadily and uninterruptedly as at present, subject to varying conditious of temperature, life, depth of water, etc. Area of deposition in Paleozoic time.—We have no proof that the salinity of the sea or the amount of calcium contained in it has varied from age to age since Algonkian time. If it has not, all of the cal- cium poured into the ocean during 2,000,000 years would have about equaled the amount now contained in the limestones of the Cordilleran area. We have, however, to account for the calcium deposited in the interior Mississippian sea and the seas over other portions of this con. tinent and other continental areas and on portions of the floor of the ocean that are not now accessible for observation. It is also to be con- sidered that the land areas subject to denudation in Paleozoic time were, in all probability, of no larger extent than at the present time. The area of dry land to-day is estimated to be 55,000,000 squai2 miles, and of oceans 137,200,000 square miles.t * Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, 1890, vol. XV, p. 101. +t Dr. John Murray, Scottish Geog. Mag., 1888, vol. 1v, p. 40. GEOLOGIC TIME. 329 Mr. T. Mellard Reade estimates the area of the Paleozoic formations of Kurope at 645,600 square miles in the total area of 3,720,500 square miles. His estimate of the Paleozoic area is of that which is exposed at the present time and does not include that which is concealed beneath other formations. I think it will be a minimum estimate to consider that an equal area is covered by the later formations, which, with that exposed, would give in round numbers 1,290,000 square miles, or one-third of the land area of Europe. In North America nearly one-half of the total area was covered by the Paleozoic sea; in South America it was considerably less; and we know too little of the Asiatic and African continents to place any estimate upon their Paleozoic areas. I think, however, if we take one-fourth of the present land area as the territory covered by the Paleozoic seas we shall be con- siderably within the actual amount, even if we add to the surface of the continents the margins of the continental platforms now beneath the sea. Deducting the one-fourth from the total land area, there remain 41,250,000 square miles as the land area undergoing denudation during Paleozoic time. It may be claimed that large areas in the archipelago region of the Pacific and in the Arctic ocean may have been land areas at that time. To meet this, 8,750,000 square miles may be added to the 41,250,000 giving a total of 50,000,000 square miles as the land area of Paleozoic time. The estimated areas of the various deep-sea deposits of to-day con- taining a large percentage of the carbonate of lime, are as follows: Globigerina 00ze, 49,520,000 square miles, mean percentage of carbonate of lime, 64:53; Pteropod ooze, 400,000 square miles, percentage of car- bonate of lime, 79-26; coral mud and sand, 2,556,000 square miles, mean percentage of carbonate of lime, 86:41. In addition to this, Diatom 00ze covers an area of 10,880,000 square miles, with 22-96 per- centage of carbouate of lime; and the mean percentage of carbonate of lime inthe Blue Mud and other terrigenous deposits that cover 16,050,000 square miles is 19:20. If we consider only those deposits containing over 64 per cent of carbonate of lime, we have 52,500,000 square miles, over which there is at the present time a deposition of the carbonate of lime being made. We have roughly estimated that in Paleozoic time the area of the Paleozoic sea, im which deposits were being acecumu- lated, was over 13,000,000 square miles. It does not appear that there is any good reason to suspect that the area of deposition of the car- bonate of lime in the open ocean during Paleozoic time was not fully equal to that of the present time. Adding this area of 52,500,000 to the 13,750,000, we have over 66,000,000 square miles as the probable area in which caleium was being deposited in Paleozoic time. Conditions favorable for a rapid deposition of the carbonate of lime.— The conditions most favorable for the rapid accumulation or deposition of the carbonate of lime through organie or chemical agency are warm water and a constant supply of water through circulation by currents. 330 GEOLOGIC TIME. This is shown by the immense abundance of life where the margin of the continental plateau is touched by the Gulf Stream. Another favor- able condition is the supply of carbonate of lime by river water directly into the ocean in the vicinity where the deposition of lime is going on either through organic or inorganic agenvies. This is well illustrated by the conditions produced by the Gulf Stream. The oceanic currents, passing along the northeastern coast of South America, sweep the waters of the Amazon through the Caribbean Sea into the Gulf of Mexico, where they meet the vast volume of water coming from the Mississippi. These are poured out through the narrow straits between Florida and Cuba and carried northward over the sloping margin of the continen- tal plateau. Under such favorable conditions the deposit must be much greater than in areas where there is little circulation and the supply of calcium is limited to the average which is contained in sea water. If to the preceding there be added extensive evaporation within a partially inclosed sea, the rate of deposition of matter in solution will be largely increased. Estimate from deposition of calcium derived Jrom Cordilleran sea and the outer ocean, and from the deposition of mechanical sediments.—The area over which calcareous deposition was going on during Paleozoic time we have estimated at 66,000,000 square miles, which includes the areas of the seas over the continental platforms and those of the sur- rounding oceans. As the conditions appear to have been more favor- able for the deposition of lime in the Cordilleran and Appalachian seas, we will assume that it was four times that of the open oceans.* With a land area of 50,000,000 square miles and arate of chemical denuda- tion of 70 tons per square mile per annum, the total calcium contributed to the ocean per year during Paleozoic time would be 3,500,000,000 tons, - or 3-78 times as much as that estimated per annum at the present time, which is 925,866,500 tons. This would have provided 50-7 tons for de- position per annum per square mile in the 65,000,000 square miles of ocean and seas, and 202-8 tons for deposition per annum per square mile_ in the 400,000 square miles of the Cordilleran and 600,000 square miles of similar seas. On this basis 81,120,000 tons (36-4 mile-feet) were con- tributed perannum from the ocean water to the deposit in the Cordilleran sea; adding to this the 42,000,000 tons (18-8 mile-feet) contributed per annum by the denudation of the surrounding area to the Cordilleran sea, we have 123,120,000 tons (55-2 mile-feet) as the amount available *Under Bie reduction of 50 per cent for the interbedded and infocmaacied mechan- ical sediments and 25 per cent for other material than calcium deposited from solu- tion, the apparent amount of calcium deposited in the Cordilleran sea was greatly reduced. If this same ratio of reduction is applied to other Paleozoic limestone areas I doubt if over 1,000,000 square miles will be found to contain as large an average amount of calcium per square mile as the Cordilleran area, On this account 1,090,000 square miles is the area taken for the greater rate of deposition of calcium during Paleozoic time. GEOLOGIC TIME. 331 for deposit per annum in the Cordilleran sea. At this rate it would have required 16,300,000 years to have deposited the 2,007,244,800,000,000 [2 thousand trillion] tons (900,000,000 mile-feet) of caleiwm in the Cor- dilleran sea; adding to this the 1,200,000 years estimated for the depo- sition of the mechanical sediments, we have a total of 17,500,000 years as the duration of Paleozoic time. In reviewing the preceding estimates we must consider that through- out I have increased the various factors above those usually accepted— thus for mechanical sedimentation the erosion of 1 foot in 200 years is used. If the usually accepted average of 1 foot in 3,000 years is taken the time period must be increased fifteen fold (21,000,000 years), or the area of denudation from 1,600,000 square miles to 24,000,000, or three times the present area of the North American Continent. In the estimate for the amount of chemical denudation, the largest average is taken—70 tons of calcium per square mile per annum—and the assumption made that all caleium derived from the adjoining drain- age area was deposited within the Cordilleran sea. Again, the total supply provided per annum to ocean waters of Paleozoic time is taken as 3°78 times greater than the amount annually contributed to ocean waters to-day; of this four times as much is assumed to have been taken out per annum per square mile in the Cordilleran sea as was taken by the remaining area in which calcium was being deposited. The area of the Cordilleran sea is given as 400,000 square miles, but it was probably 600,000, if not much more. It may be claimed that the area tributary to the Cordilleran sea was greater than I have estimated. The evidence, such as it is, is against sucha view. Asa whole, [ think the estimate of 17,500,000 years for the duration of Paleozoic time in the Cordilleran area is below the minimum rather than above it. If the estimated rate of the deposition of coral limestones—5 feet in 1,000 years—given by Prof. James D. Dana is correct, the 19,000 feet of Paleozoic limestone in central Nevada would have required 3,800,000 years to have accuinulated under the most favorable local conditions surrounding a coral reef. With the exception of large deposits of corals in Devonian rocks no appearance of a coral reef is recorded in the Cordilleran area. TIME RATIOS OF GEOLOGIC PERIODS. The time ratio adopted by Prof. James D. Dana for the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic periods is, 12,3, and 1, respectively.* Prof. Henry 8S. Williams applies the term geochronology, giving the standard time unit used the name geochrone. The geochrone used by him in obtaining a standard seale of geochronology is the period represented by the Eocene. His time scale gives 15 for the Paleozoic, 3 for the Mesozoic, and 1 for the Cenozoic, including the Quaternary and the Recent. t * Manual of Geology, 1875, p. 586. t Journal of Geology, Chicago, 1893, vol. I, pp. 294, 295. aon GEOLOGIC TIME. The Rev. Samuel Houghton obtained the following time ratios from the maximum thickness of strata as they occur in Europe: Scale of geological time. | | | Wy, “ai : ss om maximum | From theory of | From ma | Period. edolinciolobea thickness of SS . strata. Per cent. Per cent. HATZ OL Chee dae ee eee BO OOS OAC 33°0 34°3 PAEOZOIG 2c 5 ee eineisae coon Can eee eee 41-0 42-5 | INGOZOIC 2. ss 6 lake Soon oe oie an oe aeons 26°0 | 23 °2 Motals ce coe cae ee eatneinvels 100-0 | 100-0 | { He draws from this the principle: “ The proper relative measure of geological periods is the maximum thickness of the strata formed during those periods.” * In considering the time ratios for the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Ceno- zoic rocks of the North American continent as given by Dana and Williams, I think that a too small proportion has been given to the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. In the Mesozoic of the western central area oceur the coal deposits of the Laramie series and the great development of limestones (from 10,000 to 20,000 feet) in the Cretaceous of Mexico. The limits of this paper do not permit of a discussion of the available data bearing upon geologic time ratios; but from a comparison of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic strata and the geologic phenomena accompanying their deposition, | would increase the comparative length of the Mesozoie and Cenozoic periods so that the time ratios would be: Paleozoic, 12; Mesozoic, 5; Cenozoic, including Pleistocene, 2. DURATION OF POST-ARCHEAN GEOLOGIC TIME. Taking as a basis 17,500,000 years for Paleozoic time, and the time ratios 12, 5, and 2 for Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic (including Pleistocene), respectively, the Mesozoic is given a time duration of 7,240,000 years; the Cenozoic, of 2,900,000 years, and the entire series of fossiliferous sedimentary rocks, of 27,650,000 years. To this there is to be added the period in which all of the sediments were deposited between the basal erystalline Archean complex and the base of the Paleozoic. Notwithstanding the immense accumulation of mechanical sediments in this Algonkian time, with their unconformities, and the great differentiation of life at the beginning of Paleozoic time, I am not willing with our present information to assign a greater time period than that of the Paleozoic—or 17,500,000 years. Even this seems excessive. Adding to it the time period of the fossiliferous sedimentary rocks, the result is 45,150,000 years for post-Archean time. Of the duration of * Nature, July 4, 1878, vol. Xvi, p. 268. ————e GEOLOGIC TIME. Bays) Archean or pre-Algonkian time I have no estimate based on a study of Archean strata to offer. If we assume Houghton’s estimate of 33 per cent for the Azoie period and 67 per cent for the sedimentary rocks, Archean time would be represented by the period of 22,250,000 years. In estimating for the Archean, Houghton included a large series of strata that are now placed in the Algonkian of the Proterozoic of the U.S. Geological Survey; and I think that his estimate is more than one-half too large; if so, 10,000,000 years would be a fair estimate, or rather conjecture, for Archean time. | Period. Time duration. ae Years. Cenozoic, including Pleistocene .-.......-.-..-.- 2, 900, 000 INVES OZOIEs aoe coe eee ae ee eee ee PS A 7, 240, 000 ALEOZ 01 C ers ene es oe ER IN RY Ek he 17,500, 0¢0 | Al ponielan se eaecan ey es a sation = Serene ee 17, 500, 000 | PUR CH CANE sac roros sare seate ee se ee re te (7) 10, 000, 000 | It is easy to vary these results by assuming different values for area and rate of denudation, the rate of deposition of carbonate of lime, ete.; but there remains after each attempt I have made that was based on any reliable facts of thickness, extent, and character of strata, a result that does not pass below 25,000,000 to 30,000,000 years as a minimum and 60,000,000 to 70,000,000 years as a maximum for post-Archean geo- logic time. I have not referred to the rate of development of life, as that is virtually controlled by conditions of environment. In conclusion, geologic time is of great but not of indefinite duration. I believe that it can be measured by tens of millions, but not by single millions or hundreds of millions, of years. DESCRIPTION OF MAP. On the map (Plate xv1) the hypothetical areas of the Cordilleran, Mississippian, and Appalachian seas are clearly indicated. The land area west of the Cordilleran sea is numbered No.1, and the Californian sea and the area of Paleozoic deposits of western British Columbia, No. 10. The northern extension of the Cordilleran sea (No. 9) is con- tinued as the Paleozoic-Devonian sea to the Aretic Ocean. The early Cambrian land area (No. 2) east of the Cordilleran sea must have been more or less covered by water during later Paleozoic time. The area now covered by Mesozoic deposits, indicated by No. 3, was presumably covered by the westward and northward extension of the Paleozoie- Mississippian sea. The area east of the Appalachian sea is indicated by No. 4; and the supposed land barrier between the Hudson Bay and the Mississippian sea by No. 6; it is not improbable that during Ordo- vician or Silurian time a sea may have connected the two latter seas, 334 GEOLOGIC TIME. The region to the south, indicated by No. 5, is supposed to have been covered by the southward extension of the Appalachian, Mississippian, and Cordilleran seas. It is 1ow covered by deposits of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. A more detailed description of the map can be gained from the see- tion on the growth of the continent and on the geographic conditions accompanying the different depositions of Paleozoic sediments in the Cordilleran sea. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XVI. HYPOTHETICAL AREAS OF THE CORDILLERAN, MISSISSIPPIAN, AND APPALACHIAN SEAS. a THE AGE OF THE EARTH.* By CLARENCE KING, Aimong the various attempts to estimate geological time none has offered a more attractive field for turther development than Lord Kel- vin’s mode of limiting the earth’s age from considerations of its prob- able rate of refrigeration, published in 1862.+ At that time the conse- quences of his physical reasoning could not be fully applied to the con- ditions within the earth, so as to test the probability of his hypothet- ical case, for wantof positive knowledge of certain properties of rocks, particularly the volume changes of melted rock in approaching and experiencing congelation, and the qualitative and quantitative effects of pressure upon the fusion and freezing points. Data then lacking are for the first time available, and with them it is proposed to apply a new criterion to the gradient of Lord Kelvin and to compare with it other eases of more probable earth-temperature distribution, which should have the effect of advancing his method of determining the earth’s age to a further order of importance. Accepting the hitherto unshaken results of Kelvin and G,. A. Darwin as to the tidal effective rigidity of the earth, and the further argument for rigidity advanced by Prof. 8S. Newcomb from the data of the lately ascertained periodic variation of terrestrial latitude, as together war- ranting a firm belief in the rigid earth, it follows that solidity may be used as a criterion to test the probable truth of many cases of earth temperature distribution; at least so far as to justify the rejection of such as invoive considerable liquidity of the upper couches. In an earth of which the superficial quarter of radius is composed of mate- rials that contract from the fluid condition toward and in the act of congelation, any temperature gradient in which the downward heat augmentation exceeds the rate by which advancing pressure raises the fusion point, would obviously reach a fused couche, and all such distri- butions may be rejected as violating the requirements of rigidity. “From American Journal of Science, January, 1893, 3d series, vol. XLV, pp. 1-20. t Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Thomson & Tait, Part 2. Appendix D. ¢ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1892, vol. Lut, No. 5. BED 336 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. A recent investigation of the rock diabase in its retations to heat and pressure ctfers the formerly lacking means of testing the adinissi- bility of many cases of earth-temperature distribution from the point of view of solidity. Ten years ago in a laboratory established by me in connection with the U.S. Geological Survey, Dr. Carl Barus began a series of experimental researches tending toward the solution of some of the unknown but important points of geological physics. It has . been my privilege to indicate the direction of much of the inquiry. The understanding between us maintained his entire independence in the mode and prosecution of the investigations, and secured for him the fullest responsibility and credit for the purely physical results, many of which have at intervals appeared in this and other journals. For myself was reserved the privilege of making geological applications of the laboratory results. One of the most important of these is Dr. Barus’s lately completed determination of the latent heat of fusion, specific heats melted and solid, and volume expansion between the solid and melted state, of the rock diabase.* To him I am also very generally indebted for aid in considering the present problem. Diabase was chosen by me as fairly illustrative of the probable den- sity and composition of the surface 0-05 or 0-04 of the earth’s radius. Hor Laplace’s law of distribution, density at the surface is taken at 275 and down one-tenth of radius at 3:88, yielding a mean density of the whole tenth of 3°53 and for the upper five-hundredths of about 3. for the whole tenth a rock like the extremely heavy basalt of Baren- steint (sp. gr. 3°35) would approach closely a fair mean expression of density. Typical hornblende-andesite comes closest to the average density at the surface, but diabase (sp. gr. 2°8 to 5), nearly enough fills the conditions of the shell which this study seeks to investigate. The particular diabase under examination came from Jersey City, and was taken from the immediate vicinity of the Pennsylvania Railroad cut. The following analysis is by G. W. Hawes:t Silians sa -cSepts Sass oot aecistiocee ce Seo eee ee eee ee eee EE 53°13 Alumina: Jessa Rsk oc os Ss ects wim scloes oe ne ance eae eo eree er aeaTe Se eee eee aye TSiz7 PErrous/ ORIG: :22s Ss oscb wes ccieincatesicle slo Sas ce oe bns a ae ae toe se Se eRe 9:10 ; Wertic ORidessa5 226 Re 6 lacie eet oe oe ei ane DRE ase ee eee 1-08 NylBwrrer OUI) Cbd Omer ness ob oataonsoonacun sscenosuseusoe Goo coosc Sausages 0°43 DESVEIN CP wore sa pag hag a vw spe ow tera = oa Ste nee Ser me ete al ane it a Aaa a Pere 9-47 WIESE) oe eco cheba ne Opt r soda Goace 6 cb et soaps enc oueunsom srIScdagsg0esse 8°58 S002 sos. Se Ss ae Es omen nine ine wees Seta eet oe SO ele ere aie eee Sioa eee 2°30 Potash]. oon Bech se ee ~ Siw ee ies Sea eae ee ae BNE Reh eS OTe eee 1°08 Ton itlons sos2. 5s k etre S58 en stototesateiale oe ctere eae Steet ata ale ia oto ae one erase 0°90 99. 76 Astronomical and geodetic requirements make necessary that density should proceed downward in shells of successively greater value, but the surface density is 2-75 and the mean density of the whoie earth is * Am. Jour. Sci., December, 1891, and January, 1892. tJ. Roth, Gesteins-Analysen, 1861, p. 46, t Am, Jour. Sei. (IIL), vol. 1x. THE AGE OF THE EARTH. aot not twice that of diabase, whence it appears that no probable chemical distribution of material could result in a surface couche of 0-05 of radius having a greater specific gravity than 35: to 3:3. Waltershausen,t in his interesting scheme of chemical distribution, attempts to account for the augmentation of density chiefly by the increase of the heavy bases, but leaves the whole surface tenth of radius in silicates. Eruptions of alkaline earths or metals are unknown. In fact, with the exception of carbonates of superficial origin the whole visible body of the crust is of silicates, and the earliest rocks are seen to be made of the débris of still older ones. All that can be said is that there is absolutely no known reason why the surface tenth of radius may not be of silicates, nor why specific material of widely different thermal properties from diabase should be postulated. The two principal conditions within the interior of the earth, upon which physical state and all purely physical reactions of the specific materials depend, are the distributions from center to surface of pres- sure and heat. Secular or sudden variatious of either or both have the power, if carried sufficiently far, to disturb chemical and physical equi- librium and produce changes of volume, rigidity, viscosity, and con- ductivity, as well as changes of state from liquidity to solidity, and the reverse. Before proceeding to consider in detail some of the results of heat and pressure as existing in the surface 0-05 of radius, it is desira- ble to glance at the relations of these two great antagonistic energies in the wholeradius. Plate xvIt gives earth-pressures from Laplace’s law expressed in a gradient of which the ordinates are 100,000 atmospheres (larger divisions 1,000,000 atmospheres) and the abscissie tenths of radius. Upon the same diagram are delineated two hypothetical cases of earth temperature, the abscisse remaining as for the pressure line, tenths of radius, and the ordinates corresponding in interval to the 100,000 atmospheres lines, are taken as each 1,000° C. The left verti- cal boundary of the plate represents-the center of the earth and the right one the surface. The upper heat gradient corresponding to a tem- perature of 3,900° C. at the earth’s center is the 100 x 10° curve of Kel- vin. The lower is computed for a central temperature of 1,741° C., about the melting point of platinum, and a secular cooling in 20 x 10° years. Data for the construction of these gradients are given in the tables a few paragraphs later. The feature here called attention to is the exceedingly slight change of temperature from very near the sur- face downward to the center. In the Kelvin gradient even after the lapse of 100 x 10° years the original maximum temperature is reached within 0-05 of radius and remains thence unchanged to the center. Pressure, on the other hand, augments with one downward sweep through theentire radius. On plate xv11 its line is seen cutting both tem- perature gradients near the surface, passing the 1,741° ©. line at a pressure of 175 000 atmospheres, and the Kelvin line at 390,000 atmos- a. * “Rocks of Sicily and Iceland.” SM 93 22 338 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. pheres; thence steadily augmenting until at the center it reaches the impressive figure of 3,015,000 atmospheres. Since we are to look to heat and pressure for the keys to the physical condition of the matter of the earth, it is important to realize from the relation of these gradients, first, that the great effect of heat in oppos- ing and overcoming the resnits of pressure must be limited to superficial earth-depths not exceeding 200 miles for an earth of the Kelvin assumptions; secondly, that below this depth and onward to the center there is a complete reversal of relations and a great and continual increase of pressure available to oppose and destroy the volumetric and other molecular effects of a temperature which has ceased to increase. The empire of heat over pressure is thus seen to be purely superficial, while that of pressure over heat begins not far below the surface and extends more and more powerfully to the center. This is obviously true only for such moderate assumptions of heat and time as are given in the gradients on Plate xvit, but it will be shown later that these figures are, upon the criterion of solidity, far more probable than very hot or very old earths. Out of the infinite number of possible earth-temperature gradients to discriminate the probably true case, is of critical importance in any attempt to determine the earth’s thermal age or to delimit the period of active geological dynamics. PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE TABLES. The following tables offer figures for the construction of the pressure and some of the temperature gradients on both Plates XvIl and XVII. Data for the distribution of earth-pressure may be obtained either from the formula of Laplace or that of G. H. Darwin for radial earth density, combined with the known decrease of terrestrial gravitation from center to surface. In table 1, Laplace’s law is used as giving the most conservative values of density at great depths. For the superficial 0-2 of radius, however, the two density laws are near together, and as the thermal phenomena which determine the earth’s age are probably wholly in the surface tenth, either law might be applicable to the preseut purpose. As, however, Darwin’s law requires a surface density of 3:7, while Laplace only 2°75, the latter accords better with the average specific gravity of superficial rocks and is therefore here preferred. Tables 2, 3, and 4 give data for three temperature gradients derived by mechanical quadrature from the well known Fourier equation in the manner given by Lord Kelvin, and are considered as sufficient in num- ber and variety to indicate the character of the data; figures for the other gradients shown on Plate m1 are therefore omitted. Table 2 presents data for the Kelvin gradient, 3 900° C, initial excess, surface rate 0.03600 in degrees centigrade per meter of depth, and secu- lar cooling 100x105 years. Earth temperatures in © C, are given for depths that are expressed both in miles and fractions of radius and Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XVII. DIAGRAM BARE Prise URES AND TEMPERATURE FOR RADIUS Pe Re ea ERREE Bence Ww ey aie tk i ee nee ay oh ar PY S| die pee SE) sae ye he te Fe i THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 339 extend to 250 miles or about 0-06 of radius. Surface rate appears both in © F. and feet, and °C. and meters. Tables 6 and 4 exhibit similar data for earths of lower initial excess and shorter periods of secular cooling. Table 3 is computed for an earth of 1,740° C., 20 x 10° secular cooling, and table 4 for 1,230° C., 10 x 10° cooling. TabLe No. 1.—Estimated carth pressures (Laplace's densities), n being radial distances from the center ef the earth and p being the pressure corresponding to nu cxepressed in atmospheres. Nn. p- | nh. Pp. | nN. p- Earth Atmos- | Earth Atmos- Earth Atmos. | | radius. phere. radius. phere. radius. phere. | Pe a Ce © aa ee eae ae | ei eas ean | 000 | 0 0°94 | 116,000 0-3 | 1,680,000 | 995 | 8. 600 0-92 162,000 | O04 | 2,100, 000 ‘990 | 17, 400 0-90 199, 000 0°3 | 2.470, 000 | | 0-985 | 26,400 | 0°80 497, 000 0:2 | 2,770, 000 0-980 | 35, 600 0°70 852, 000 1 | 2,950, 000 0-960 74, 500 0°60 | 1,260, 000 0 : 3, 020, 000 | TABLE No. 2.—WHstimated carth temperatures. Initial excess of 3,900° C. years’ secular cooling with surface rate of 1° F. for 50-6 feet of depth. lion 400 feet? /year (Lord Kelvin’s case. 100,000,000 Thermal conduc- Miles | Rate in® |Rate in ° c. Tempera- Dene in deep. | F.and feet.|and meters.) ture in °C. ant | | | | | 0 | 0-01977 0-03600 | 0 | 000000 12 | 001924 | 0-03510 | 726 0 00312 DSi eOG One 003250 | 1,412 6 00625 50 0:01279 | 0-02330 | 2,543 | 0-01250 75 000742 | 0-01350 3.275 0 01875 100 0-00346 | 000630 3,658 | 002500 | 125 0 -00129 0 (00236 3,825 | 0 03125 150 0 -00039 0-00071 | 3,881 | 0-03750 175 0 00009 0 00017 3, 897 0 -04375 200 0-00002 | 0 -00003 3,901 | 005000 225 0 00000 000001 | 3.902 | 005625 250 0 -GO0G0 000000 | 3,902 | 906250 | | | TABLE No. 3.—Estimated earth temperatures Initial excess 1,741° C. (about melting point of platinwm) 20,000,000 years’ secular cooling with surface rate of 1° F. to 50-6 feet of depth. Thermal conduction 400 feet? / year. Miles | Rate ° F. | Tempera- | peeuean deep. | and feet. ture °C. | =i. H | | 0 | 001797 0 000000. | (iy OT eee 359 0:00156 | 12 | 001726 693 0 00312 25 0 -01147 1,218 | 0-00625 37 000581 | 1, 534 0 -00937 50 =| 0 -00224 1,675 | 0-01250 62 0:00066 | 1,725 0 -01562 75 000015 | 1,738 | 0-01875 | 87 0:00002 | 1,741 | 0:02187 | 100 0-00000 | 1,741 | 0-02500 340 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. TABLE No. 4.—LZstimated earth temperatures. Initial excess 1,280° C. 10,000,000 years’ secular cooling with surface rate of 1° F. to 50°6 feet of depth. Thermal conduction 400 feet? /year. Depth in Miles Rate ° F. | Tempera earth deep. and feet. ture ° C. adinice o | o-01977_| 0 | 0-00000 | 12} 001506 662 000312 | 2% | 0:00665 | 1,063 | 0-00625 37 0:00171 | 1.198 | 0-00987 50 | 000025 1, 297 0 -01250 Wo | “00002 | 1, 230 0 01562 15 Cee a doa 6 -01875 87 0 | 1, 231 i 40802787) 7] | 100 0 1,231 0 -02500 | 1 TaBLe No. 5.—EHstimated melting point and depth for the rock diabase expressed in radial earth distance, pressure and melting temperature. Nn. p. pret: p- A | Earth Atmos- oc Earth Atmos- ot. H | radius. phere. | radius. | phere. | | 1-000 0 | 1,170 | 0-920 | 162,000] 5,210 0-995 | 8,600 | 1,380 | 0-900 | — 199,000 5, 100 0-990 | 17,400 | 1,600 | 08 | 497, 000 | 14, 000 0-985 26, 400 1,830 | 0-6 | 1,260,000 | 33,000 0-980 | 35, 600 2,060 | 0-4 | 2,100, 000 | 54,000 0-960 | 74,500 3,030 | 02 | 2,770,000 | 71,000 0-940 | 116,400 | 4,080 | 0-0 | 3,020 000 | 76, G00 Table 5 contains a prolongation of Barus’s line of melting point and depth for the rock diabase, expressed in radial earth distance n, pres- sure p (Laplace’s densities), and melting temperatures, 4n- THE CHART. The chart constituting Plate xvii is constructed to present the pas- sage of certain hypothetical temperature gradients through the upper- most 0.08 of the earth’s radius, and the position in the same field of Barus’s line marking the melting point in depth of diabase, thus defining the relations of the various distributions of earth-temperature to liq- uidity. The value of the ordinates is each 1,000° C. the abscisse, which are platted as equal in length to the ordinates, represent hundredths of radius counting downward from the surface which is indicated by the right vertical boundary of the chart. Kelvin’s application of the Fourier equation involves an assumed ini- tial excess of temperature, and assigned value of rock conductivity, a given period of secular cooling, and the surface rate of augmentation of earth-temperature. As thus applied to the case of the cooling earth, it is obvious that while the body was of uniform initial heat there would be no augmentation of temperature from the surface downward; or other- PLATE XVIII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. a — — — — - -— - -s WELT “AN BAY Se Jo Ares own Ve Psdze2ind 1M STUMpeIn ‘d,101 RY 0S JO Pra soWLMs tim puodsaii0s 507” SytatpeID | Puyjooo rejnoas jo Brean -y (e.mreiedway) ssecco reniuy-g SNIGVY JO BO IVIDIS¥3dNS IHL wos S3Svavid 40 SLNIOd ONILI3W anv SYNLVYIdDWIL-H1LYVI JO NOILNEIYLSIA 201 OOP. .09Sz THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 341 wise expressed, the surface rate would be «; but the moment refrige- ration began a finite rate of downward increment would be established. Since the earth’s surface is represented on the chart by the right vertical boundary, that line would be the thermal distribution for the rate ow. A complete process of refrigeration would cause the rate to decline until the earth reaches the temperature of space and the line of initial tangency coincides with radius, and the rate 0. The angular relation of the initial tangent of the present as compared with that of the rate ~ is determined from observed surface augmentation. The value of the integral and the surtace rate for any gradient does not change if conductivity and age vary reciprocally, and the surface rate does not change if the initial excess of temperature varies at the same rate as the square root of the product of conductivity and the time of secular cooling. If the square root of the product of condue- tivity and age be increased any number of times, and the depth also be increased the same number of times, temperature remains unchanged if the initial excess 1s unchanged, but if the initial excess changes, temperature will change in the same ratio. Upon the chart are delineated two families of temperature distri- butions. Those in continuous lines, lettered a to f, are calculated in accordance with the maximum surface rate of 50.6 feet to 1° F., being the generally accepted rate at the time Kelvin’s curve was published. Those in dotted line, and lettered g to 7, are constructed for the rate of 75 feet to 1° F., the smallest of the observed inland rates. It is the value given by Hallock * for the recently completed boring near Wheeling, W. Va. The last published value as reduced from all avail- able data by the B. A. committee is 64 feet to 1° F. It is therefore extremely probable that unless some general but unrecognized cause, like a variation of temperature due to the chemical action of hot water and progressive downward either with heat or pressure, tends to raise or lower the mean rate, the true surface distribution falls between the values of 50.6 and 75 feet per ° F. upon which the two families of gradients are based. The diabase line for melting temperature and depth D D is traced from its superficial fusion point, 1,170° C. downward, according to the law established by Dr. Barus and expressed in table 5, This is the special point of interest in the chart and in ‘the conelusions to which it gives rise. In passing from this surface value of 1,170° C. through 0.1 of the \ . radius, the fusion temperature is raised to 6,139° C.; continuing thence to the center of the earth it reaches the surprising value of 76,200° C. In consequence in an earth all of diabase any temperature gradient having an initial excess of less than the above central value must in reaching the surface either intersect the line D D twice or fall wholly beneath it. Since this line represents melting temperature, any point 342 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. the melting temperature for the same depth, and hence in fusion. Con- versely, any pomt below the diabase line, being below the melting tem- perature for that pressure and depth, falls into solidity. Thus the chart is divided into two areas by the line, that above it representing fluidity, and that below, solidity. For a diabase earth to have been wholly melted an initial excess of 76,200° C. would be required. Obviously any earth having an initial excess of less than the surface melting point 1,170° ©. woutd have been always completely solid. Any initial excess above that figure and below 76,200° C. requires, at the moment before refrigeration began, a solid nucleus and a fused zone above it extend- ing to the surface, and the lower the initial excess the larger the solid nucleus of compression and shallower the initial couche of surface fusion. Knowing the law of the rise of the fusion-point it is a simple matter of computation to determine, for any assumed initial excess, exactly the radial value of the original solid nucleus and of the original supernatant fluid couche. For the region covered by the chart these values may be directly scaled off. Fourier’s equation enables us to go further and assuming that refrig- eration is the result of conduction alone, to determine the temperature distribution for any given period of refrigeration, and what is of particu- lar geological interest—the rate at which the fused couche is encroached upon by an overlying superficial crust of congelation, and the exist- ence, depth, temperature, and pressure differences of any residual fluid couche between the upper and lower solids. The relation therefore of any temperature gradient to the diabase line offers an immediate test of its admissibility as a probable case. Any temperature gradient that in passing across the area of the chart from below to the surface intersects the diabase line must in reaching the low temperatures of the surface intersect it again, and the zone included between the pair of points of intersection being above the line, and hence for that inter- val of radius above the fusion temperatures, must be a melted shell, and as on the eriterion of solidity the existence of any considerable fusion is precluded, such a ease of temperature distribution may be rejected. I will now trace the several temperature distributions upon the chart, and note their relations to time and solidity, beginning with the family delineated in continuous lines (surface rate 50.6 feet to 1° F.). Line 3, the gradient ef Kelvin, 3,900° C. initial excess, 100 x 10° years secular cooling, is seen to enter the chart from the lower regions, maintaining even to the shallow depth of 226 miles from the surface, practically, its original maximum temperature. From the center of the earth up to this point it has remained in the initial solid of compression. At the depth noted it intersects the diabase line and passes into fusion. Since almost the full initial temperature is maintained up to its inter- section, it follows that that depth nearly marks the original surface of the solid nucleus and that the distance of 226 miles thence to the sur- THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 343 face measures the depth of the original couche of fusion. Following the gradient toward the surface, it is seen (after describing its great convexity in the fluid region) to intersect the diabase line a second time and enter a congealed shell or crust formed by cooling a surface portion of the initial fused couche, and leaving between the nucleus and crust a residual present shell of fusion of 200 miles from the top to the bot- tom. The obvious tidal instability of a 26-mile crust resting upon 200 miles of truly fluid magma is sufficient basis for the rejection of this particular case of temperature distribution. To fulfill the require- ments of rigidity either the time of cooling must be vastly greater to admit of entire congelation, or the mitial excess materially less. As an illustration of the first of these alternatives, gradient e with the same initial excess as } (3,900° ©.) has been developed to complete solidity, which on computation proves to have required about 600 x 10° years, at which time it has but just reached tangency with the diabase line. Yet we are absolutely precluded from accepting it as a probable ease and assigning 600 x 10° years as the age of the earth, because the temperature values of its emergence at the surface fall below even the 75 feet to 1° F. surface rate. Its emergence is at a rate of 0-0081° F. per foot (124 feet per © F.), which is far less than the (Hallock) rate used in the dotted gradients, itself much less than the accepted mean rate of the British Association committee. Gradient d, 1,950° C, initial excess, and 15 x 10° years secular cooling, falls still some millions of years short of solidity. The initially fused surface couche was about 66 miles in depth, the present crust 33 miles thick, and the present residual fluidity of 53 miles depth from top to bottom. Here again the liquid zone involves tidal instability and requires the rejection of the line. Gradient e offers more satisfactory conditions: With an initial excess of 1,750° C., about the normal melting point of platinum, and an age of 20x 10° years, a condition is reached which throws the convexity of the gradient below the diabase line in complete solidity and fulfills all the conditions. Here then is a possible age for an earth of diabase. Its initial surface couche of fusion would have been about 55 miles, and is now wholly cooled into solid crust and united with the original solid nucleus of compression. Gradient /, initial excess 1,230° C. and ae years secular cooling, would in its first stage have shown only about 5 or 6 miles of surface fusion, which would very shortly have cooled into solidity. For those whose interest centers in earths of great age and high temperature, gradient @ 1s given, initial excess 7,800° © and 400 x 10° years secular cooling. This has not been projected to the deep, but would not reach solidity until over 1,500 x 10° years, a truly uniformi- tarian specimen. Turning now to the family of three gradients in dotted line, com- puted to conform to the surface rate of 75 feet to 1° F., the first, g, is 344 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. seen to be of the same initial excess as the Kelvin 5,900° C, line. In spite of its long cooling even after 237 x10" years it is still very far from solidity. Of the original fluid couche of 226 miles, only about 60 miles has been congealed into crust, 166 miles remaining fused. Gradient h, initial excess 2,560° C., and a 100 x 10° years refrigera- tion has an original fluid couche of 120 miles with a present crust of 56 miles and an existing residual couche of fusion of 64 miles, a case also inadmissible from the point of view of instability. Gradient 7, initial excess 1,760° C. (platinum melting point), and 46 10° years of cooling, had originally a 53-mile surface couche of fusion which has long since passed into solidity. The following table swus up the condition of all the gradients as to initial excess, initial depth of surface fusion, time of cooling, thickness of crust congealed, and present residual couche of fusion: TABLE 6.—Liquid solid conditions for diabase earth. A.—Gradients having the surface rate of 50°6 to 1° F. Initial | Initial depthof | Time of Eilek nese Residue | 2xXCeSS surface cooling. EEA REE ES | i, eRe oe 5 congealed. fusion. — | fusion. "Kio a | ee =a jars Of Miles. Years. | Miles. | Miles. | 3, 900 226 100 10° 26 200 1,950 | 66} 15108 | 32 | 33 | 1,741 | 53 2010° crustand nucleusunited 0 1, 230 6 | 10108 crust and nucleus united 0 B.— Gradients having the surface rate of 75 feet to 1° F. i] | | | | | 3, 900 226 237 x 106 | 50 166 | | 2, 560 120 100108 | 56 64 | 1, 741 53 | 46108 crust and nucleus united 0 Comparison of gradients of equal initial excess and successively longer periods of secular cooling shows the ratio of their retreat from right to left across the chart or from lower to higher values of depth and time. With each augmentation of age the initial tangent defining the sur- face rate is seen to have declined further and further from the original rate ©, coinciding with and passing first the maximum, then the mini- mum rate thence declining into the region of inadmissible rates. The probable conditions of the true gradient are as to initial excess and age such as fall below the diabase line into solidity and emerge at the surface with a rate which has not declined below the mean (B A) rate of 64 feet to1° F. From the point of view of solidity no gradient of initial excess above 2,000° C, is admissible; that of 2,560° C., even after 100 x 10° years cooling, still shows a deep shell of fusion (64 miles THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 345 from top to bottom), and since it emerges on the minimum rate it has already fallen below the admissible tangent. Gradient d, 1,950° C. and 15 x 10° years, just cooled to the maximum surface rate, has still an inadmissible fluid shell, but if refrigeration had been continued for 7 x 10° to 9x 10° years more the line would have fallen below the solidity line and its surface rate would not have passed the mean value. Hence a 1,950° 24x 10° year earth is possible and marks about the superior limit admissible for initial excess. From the point of view of age no greater time of cooling is allowable than enough to bring the gradient for any initial excess to the mean surface rate. Thus the condition for excess and age exclude a line of over 2,000° C. and 24x 10° years. Conductivity remaining of the value used, any higher excess involves fluidity, and any greater age an inad- missible surface rate. To the extent, therefore, that solidity is a valid criterion and so far as the melting temperature of diabase may be supposed to apply to the depth examined, there is no escape from an earth of the low age and temperature given except by impugning the rate of surface augmenta- tion and the value of rock conductivity here employed. Whoever has examined the Bb. A. committee’s reports and summaries on underground temperatures must have realized the obstacles to the evaluation of a true mean rate. The range of observations is wide, from high rates due to residual vulcanism to low ones produced by neighboring bodies of cold water, such as are described by Wheeler from mines near Lake Superior.* It is not however likely that by rejecting anomalies and assigning probable weight to further observa- tions the present value will be moved to an important extent. We have seen that all probable distributions of earth temperature involve in the initial stage a great solid nucleus, practically the whole body of the earth, with a shallow surface shell of fusion. In the case of the 1,741° C., 20 x 10° year earth there was an initial melted shell of 53 miles. Obviously it can not be correct to apply the rock-conduc- tivity value obtained at air temperatures and normal pressure to even so young and cool an earth with its couche of an initial temperature of 1,741° C. and a pressure difference between the top and bottom of 22,000 atmospheres. The probable method of cooling the couche into solidity, involves three corrections of the accepted rate of refrigeration : a, acceleration of the process by possible convection; b, the direct effect of heat and pressure upon conductivity, and ec, the relative con- ductivity of matter at the some temperature, liquid and solid. a. Convection. Leaving out of present consideration possible poly- merization of the magma, or the descent of solid bodies of crust, ver- tical transfers of the liquid matter in the fused couche depend upon differences of density and this upon the ratio of the rates at which density is raised by pressure and lowered by heat. Isometries of melted -* Am. Jour. Sci., 1886, vol. XXXII. 346 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. rock under high pressure are of course beyond the reach of experimen- tation, hence we are forced to look to those of the available materials. Tsometrics from high-pressure observations have been found to slope as follows: Atmosphere per °C. Hthen) 4 o-/s2 eee ese oe ae ee oe eee eee 8:7 MMUCONMO] a2 es oe vn, a eee aes 2 ce Oe ane e, eee 10°5 Bhim oles se 26:. casos ease once eee Ss ee ee eee eee ee eee 13°9 IDK AMINO NETTING. Gos S boenda sansnuondess sodcts Heoessopsess 15-4 Paratolwidine: 222640 ees a ee eee 13 9 ' ‘ ' ‘ ’ ‘ . ' ’ =— j=) So Glass, computed Since ether boils at 34° C. and dyphenylamine at 310° C., the range here given is wide. It is reasonable, therefore, to take the mean value, 12-5 atmospheres per © C., as an index of the slope sought for. In the Kelvin earth this rate oceurs between 0-010 and 0-015 of radius, the crust being 0:0065 of radius thick. In so far therefore as the isomet- rics can be regarded as parallel straight lines with a slope of the order of the value given above, convection can only have taken place in the first 52 miles of the initial couche of fusion, and in the present resid- ual couche of 200 miles only the upper 26 miles would be subject to convection. In younger earths the above value per © C. will be found much nearer the surface, so that in them convection would be confined to a shell, which is shallow in proportion as the earth is young. Ini- tially when the whole earth was at one temperature there could have been no conyection, since the change of temperature in depth was nil, but the change of density due to pressure was always pronounced. In the case of the 1,741° C. earth the zone of convection would have early been covered and extinguished by the thickening crust, and therefore would have played no very important part in accelerating the loss of heat, and thus for this particular initial excess is of small effect in shortening the estimate of earth’s age. b. The direct effects of heat and pressure upon the conductivity of matter under such high temperature and pressures are also beyond lab- oratory investigation, and again we are driven to use the determined conductivity value unmodified, or seek for some other property which may be considersd as its approximate measure. Such anindex is found in viscosity, which if not of high quantitative significance in defining the changing values of terrestrial conductivity in depth, nevertheless affords data applicable at least for determining the sign of an import- aut correction. Dr. Barus has lately determined that at least 200 atmospheres of pressure are required per 1° ©. in order that viscosity may remain con- stant. Examining several temperature distributions of the chart and applying the computed augmentation of earth pressure, it appears that the required relation (200 atmospheres to 1° C.) is found at successively lower depths for successively higher values of initial excess and age- In the 1,741° ©. case the relation after 20x 10° years’ cooling is found at about 016 of radius counting from the surface, where the vertical THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 347 broken line v v of the chart intersects the gradient and marks the locus of stationary viscosity. As above this point temperature relatively to pressure has augmented more rapidly than the ratio required for con- stant viscosity, it follows that viscosity has been diminished by temper- ature more than it has been raised by pressure. Below the stationary point, on the other hand, an excess of pressure above the required ratio is available for increase of viscosity. For the gradient of 3,900° C, excess the transitional depth is ind1- cated by the intersection of the broken line V V. In both cases the transitional points occupy positions in their respective gradients not far below their full initial temperatures, and pressure having been most stationary the transitional points have moved but little during the whole period of secular cooling, and the earth shells passing through them have divided radius into a lower solid of higher viscosity and a surface couche, partly liquid, partly solid of lower viscosity. So far therefore as viscosity indicates the behavior of conductivity, that also should have been systematically diminished (relatively to the surface value obtained at normal pressure and temperatures and used in the construction of the gradients) from the surface downward for a small fraction of radius, till at the appropriate depth for 4 each excess and age of cooling it reaches a transitional value and thence increases. How this correction, of at present unknown value, affects the coordinatesof a given gra- dient qualitatively, is shown by the following figure, in which are given the diabase melting point and pressure R line, D) D, gradient b of 3,900° C. excess and 100x10° years’ cooling, with the viscosity transitional line V V intersecting it, also a dotted line c, indicating the position of the b gradient corrected for diminished conductivity (viscosity). Lagging to the right of the uneorrected gradient, obviously the dotted line would require longer refrigeration to reach the state of solidity, and it is equally important to note that its position requires its emer- gence at the surface with a higher rate than the uncorrected line, and thus extends the time of cooling down to the mean rate which marks for all gradients the present limit of the process. e. Liquid-solid conductivity. Closely involved in the above heat- pressure-viscosity correction is the change of conductivity on passing 348 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. isothermally from solid to liquid. Here again the results of Dr. Barus* throw important light. The relatively higher thermometric conductivity of the solid over the liquid of equal temperature indicates an additional plus correction for time values. 3oth the minus correction due to convection, and the plus corrections based upon conductivity diminished below the Everett figures, sink in importance as we pass from earths of higher to those of lower initial excess, So that until some approximate quantitative values can be given them we have no warrant for extending the earth’s age beyond 24,000,000 years. That the application of the criterion of solidity here made to Kel- vin’s method is open to the objection of being based on the physical relations of an extremely superficial fraction of radius is obviously true. Ignorance of the deeper interior distribution of specific materials and of their relations to the degree ot heat and the range of pressure to which they are subjected forbids the construction of a generalized line of melting temperatures for the whole of radius. It might therefore be contended that a reversal of the diabase con- ditions is possible, and the deeper materials may possess the property of ice fusion, their melting temperatures suffering depression instead of elevation. The high densities required in lower earth depths have constantly suggested the concentration there of heavy metals and the examples of meteorites has further influenced the idea of a metallic nucleus chiefly of iron. And as iron at normal pressure unmistakably exhibits ice fusion, any great iron mass at the center might be sup- posed to exist as a liquid in spite of the enormous pressure there exerted. The distribution of materials and of “state” under this assumption involves a metallic (iron) nucleus, liquid from ice fusion, overlaid by less dense couches which at some unassignable depth pass into sili- sates of the diabase type, solid from compression under the law shown for diabase, and solid to the surface as required by tidal effective rigid- ity. Ice fusion however is an exceptional phenomenon, nor have we any but the most limited data as to its range as regards temperature and pressure. lron is conceded to contract in the act of fusion, but cold iron is more dense than the substance either just above or just below the fusion point. Itis not beyond the range of probability that exces- sive pressures night bring about the same density in iron that cooling does, and thus isothermally convert ice fusion into the normal type and produce a solid nucleus. However that may be, tidal effective rigidity excludes fusion of either type for at least 0-2 of radius. *The change of heat conductivity on passing isothermally from solid to liquid. C. Barus, 4m. Jour. Sci., July, 1892. THE AGE OF THE EARTH. 349 Other methods have been used for obtaining a measure of the earth’s age, or for some definite portion of geological time. EARTH AGE FROM TIDAL RETARDATION. Kelvin’s comparison of the earth’s present figure with that of a thousand millions of years ago, when the terrestrial day would have been only half its present length, is one of the most interesting. The earth, if then plastic, would have yielded to four times the present cen- trifugal force at the equator and shown a correspondingly greater flat- tening at the poles and bulging at the equator, and “therefore,” as Tait expresses it, ‘as its rate of rotation is undoubtedly becoming slower and slower it cannot have been many millions of years back when it became solid, else it would have solidified very much flatter than we find it.” This implies that because a computed earlier and greater value of ellipticity does not now exist it could never have existed, in other words, that terrestrial rigidity has been and is of such value that a form taken in the remote past by the solid earth would not be mod- ified by the tidal retardation of rotation and its attendant change of centrifugal force. There is in modern geology a growing body of evidence which is believed to prove the very general plasticity of the lithosphere, by which it may experience important deformations from very slowly applied stresses. So strongly has this belief taken root that many American geologists accept “isostasy” and consider it to be an expression of a fluid equilibrium for the earth. From abundant geological observation plasticity must be admitted for Slow deformations enormously in excess of the small change of fig- ure which the stress of tidal attraction would produce but for elastic resistance. Although rigidity prevents a sudden tidal deformation of 5 feet, it does not prevent a slow radial deformation of 5 miles of the surface matter. How, then, can it be supposed to resist the slow change of stress due to tidal retardation of rotation? The excess of the equa- torial over the polar axis is now roughly 25 miles, while the radial range of surface inequalities of the lithosphere is about 12 miles, of which a large part dates from this side of the beginning of Tertiary time. If past plasticity equals present values, the earth’s figure could never have been a survival from some assumed earlier epoch when centrifu- gal force was greater, but must always have been a function of the slowly diminishing rate of rotation. If the conclusions of the earlier portion of this paper are true they go further and exclude the idea of a formerly fluid earth and any epoch of solidification. With any admissible assumption of initial excess nearly the whole earth must have been solid from the date of the first collocation of its matter. To whatever radial depth plasticity may descend, what is enough for 350 THE AGE OF THE BARTH. geologically recent superficial inequalities is sufficient for asljusting the figure of the earth to existing forces of rotation. The same coast lines which remain stationary under tidal stress are slowly rising and falling in a hundred places under the slow applica- tion of subterranean energy. It therefore appears that no time measure can be deduced from the supposed fixing of the present ellipticity at some past date. ASTRONOMICAL MEASURE OF EARTH TIME. Croll’s hypothesis from which it was proposed to fix dates by secular variations of eccentricity and to correlate the climatic effects of those variations with geological operations, and thus measure certain inter- vals of geological time, required so much questionable physical geogra- phy and left so many physical doubts that few have been found to accept the excessively complex chain of effects lying between eccentricity data and geological facts. The objections of Prof. Newcomb, noticed rather than answered, left Croll’s doctrine where it was permissible to believe that there was something in it, but not necessarily that definite sequence of climates which is the core of the idea. The gap in Croll’s scheme seems to have been successtully stopped by Sir Robert Ball, whose interesting proof of the seasonal inequality of the thermal element in climate due to position of the equinoxes and. its intensification in periods of high eccentricity offers a new hope for the accurate dating of at least very modern geological climates. From this point of view late geological history requires re-examination, and if it should appear that a sequence of climates has existed closely par- allelling the thermal variations which the astronomical values seem to afford, an extremely probable case will have been made out. And this case would be practically substantiated if the hypothesis of H. Blytt should yield the contirmation for which he hopes. Blytt* proposes and has already attempted to correlate the secular attractional changes due to varying eccentricity and precession with the observed succes- sive shifting of beach lines. So far as he has proceeded it is of interest to note that his time esti- mates are more in harmony with the physical than the stratigraphical figures. Periodic changes in the figure of the hydrosphere relatively to the solid earth, due to alterations of attraction, might be predicted with some confidence if it were clear that the lithosphere would under the slow stresses involved continue to exercise a degree of rigid resistance comparable with that it opposes to the tidal stress, but there is no proof that it would. Since we find the solid earth undergoing slow deformations to-day * The probable cause of the displacement of beach lines, H. Blytt— 1889, Chris- tiania Videnskabs Fordhandlinger No. 1—Additional note 1889—second additional note 1889, (Smithsonian Report for 1889, p. 353.) THE AGE OF THE EARTH. Jo which are relatively permanent, while its effective elastic resistance to tidal stress is sufficient to permit a water tide, it appears that either the purely telluric stresses are greater than the moon’s attraction, or that there is for the time rate of application of equal stress a transi- tional value above which the elastic resistance of the earth-solid is enough to conserve figure, and below which plastic deformationis easy— a relation of properties such as Kelvin suggests for the «ther. Under the former alternative, deformations due to purely tellurie forces might by upheaval or subsidence at any time mask or counteract astronomical beach shifting. Inthe latter case, to make use of the astronomical data for displacement of beaches, it is required to ascertain the time rate of terrestrial plasticity accurately enough to know that relatively to the duration of eccentricity and precession cycles and their correlative attractional variations, the reaction of the lithosphere would differ enough from that of the hydrosphere to allow of the beach shifting sought. Beyond the most modern geological dates the grander earth deforma- tions have carried ancient beach lines out of all recognizable radial relations with each other and the several oceans of which they mark the shores, or else, as is frequently the case with rising continents, they have been wholly effaced by erosion. Evidently the Croll-Blytt time measure, interesting as it may prove to be for recent dates, is at present inapplicable to any general determination of the earth’s age. EARTH-AGE MEASURED BY SUN-AGE. Since the incrustment of the earth would be almost immediately fol- lowed by a climate controlled wholly by the sun’s heat, re-distribution of the crust by water necessitates a sun heat received upon the earth’s surface sufficient at least to maintain the temperature above that of permanent freezing. Newcomb * remarks: “If we reflect that a diminution of the solar heat by less than one- fourth its amount would probably mean an earth so cold that ail the water on its surface would freeze, while an increase of much more than one-half would probably boil all the water away, it must be admitted that the balance of cause which would result in the sun radiating heat just fast enough to preserve the earth in its present state has probably not existed more than 10,000,000 years.” All we know of the earlier strata indicates a water mechanism for the denudation, comminution, and deposition of rock. Exactly the division of this work between tidal and river forces we may never know, but all evidences confirm the conviction that life was continuous from its earliest, or at least an early, appearance, and hence climate must have been continuously suitable for the circulation of continental waters. The range of temperature for the time since the beginning of the Huro- nian must have been well within Neweomb’s limits. So that unless the a a i a EEL *Popular Astronomy, p. 511. 304 THE AGE OF THE EARTH. selective absorption of either the sun’s atmosphere or the earth’s, or both, have varied reciprocally or concurrently with radiation, solar emission can not have had a wide range of either secuiar or paroxys- mal change. Nevertheless, the age assigned to the sun by Helmholtz and Kelvin (15 x 10° or 20 x 10° years) communicated a shock from which geologists have never recovered. The thermo-dynamic reasoning on which the brevity of the sun’s life is reached stands undisturbed, yet so powerful is the influence of the old uniformation method of estimating the age of the total stratified crust, that to many geologists it has seemed easier to reject the physical conclusions than to seek a source of error in our own very vulnerable methods. If, as I hold, Kelvin’s suggestions as to ellipticity and tidal retarda- tion do not apply to an earth readily deformable by slow stress,as this one evidently is, there remain but three earth-ages to be weighed— Kelvin’s value from terrestrial refrigeration, which this paper seeks to advance to a new precision; Helmholtz and Kelvin’s age of the sun, which must sharply limit the date of the re-distributed earth crust; and the old stratigraphical method. From this point of view the conelu- sions of the earlier part of this paper become of interest. ‘The earth’s age, about twenty-four millions of years, accords with the fifteen or twenty millions found for the sun. Inso far as future investigation shall prove a secular augumentation of the sun’s emission from early to present time in contormity with Lane’s law, his age nay be lengthened, and further study of terrestrial conductivity will probably extend that of the earth. Yet the concordance of results between the ages of sun and earth, certainly strengthens the physical case and throws the burden of proof upon those who hold to the vaguely vast age derived from sedimentary geology. THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.* By JOHN MurRRAyY, LL.D., Of the “ Challenger” Expedition. When we cast a retrospective glance at the history of knowledge concerning our planet, we find that nearly all the great advances in geography took place among commercial—and ina very special manner among maritime—peoples. Whenever primitive races commenced to look upon the ocean, not as a terrible barrier separating lands, but rather as a means of communication between distant countries, they soon acquired increased wealth and power, and beheld the dawn of new ideas and great discoveries, Down even to our own day the power and progress of nations may, in a sense, be measured by the extent to which their seamen have been able to brave the many perils, and their learned men have been able to unravel the many riddles, of the great ocean. The history of civilization runs parallel with the history of navigation in all its wider aspects. Horace and many other poets have sung the praises of the sailor who ‘first put forth on cruel ocean, in the frail rude bark.” But in navigation, as in all other branches of human activity, there has been a Slow, gradual, and laborious development from the construction and management of the simple raft by the river side up to the ironclad and Atlantie greyhound of our own day. Many active and original minds, many stout and brave hearts, have contributed to these final results. The tempest-tossed sea is now no obstacle and no terror for the instructed mariner with a well-found ship. The ‘severance of the sea” has disappeared along with the ideas associated with the expres- sion. Not only so, but the most profound depths of the wide myste- rious ocean have in our own time been forced to yield up their hidden treasures to the persistent efforts of the modern investigator. Is the last great piece of ma-vitime exploration on the surface of our earth to be undertaken by Britons, or is it to be left to those who may * Paper read at the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, November 27, 1893. (From The Geographical Journal, London, vol. 11, pp. 1-27.) SM 93——23 39 DOA: THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. be destined to succeed or supplant us on the ocean? That is a ques- tion which this generation must answer. The civilized nations at the birth of navigation were most probably in the same phase of development as the Pacific Islanders of the pres- ent day. Yet it is a most remarkable fact that at the very dawn of history we find a commercial people who were able to conduct voyages which rival those of the fifteenth century. Long before the oldest Hebrew and Greek records, the Phenicians had settled all over the Mediterranean; they were in the 2gean fourteen—and at Gades on the Atlantic eleven—centuries before the Christian era; they made long voyages in the Erythriean Sea or Indian Ocean, as well as on the Atlantic beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Herodotus tells us that, about six hundred years before Christ, Phenician sailors reported that, in rounding Africa to the south, they had the sun on their right hand. “This, for my part,” says Heordotus, “I do not believe; but others may.” This observation as to the position of the sun is however good evidence that the expedition of Necho really took place. At all events this is the first hint to be found in literature of a visit to the Southern Hemisphere, and we do not meet with any more definite and satisfactory information till the time of the Renaissance, For all practical purposes, the views of the later Greek philosophers, with reference to the figure and position of the earth, did not differ from those of the modern geographer, except in the difference between the geocentric and heliocentric standpoints. Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the earth at 25,000 miles, a very remarkable approximation to the truth, and we find him speculating, eighteen centuries before Columbus and Magellan, on the possibility of cireuin- navigating the globe. The ancients divided the surface of the earth into five zones. The torrid zone was uninhabitable from heat; the two frigid zones toward the poles were uninhabitable from cold, and in the Southern Hemisphere there was a temperate zone similar to that of the Northern Hemisphere in which the known world was situated. Aris- totle does not say that the southern temperate zone is inhabited, but Strabo admits that there may be other worlds inhabited by a different race of men. Pomponius Mela, who lived in the first century of our era, speaks as an undoubted fact of the existence of the autochthones inhabiting continental land in the Southern Hemisphere, although this land was inaccessible owing to the heat of the intervening torrid zone. Mela held (like most of his predecessors) that the habitable world of Kurope, Asia, and Africa formed a single island surrounded by the all encircling sea. Marinus of Tyre, who lived in the second century, rejected this view, and returned to the less correct notion of Hippar- chus, who had maintained that the known continents were united to other similar masses of land still unknown, and that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans were separated from each other, thus forming great inclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, Ptolemy adopted the views On THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 30 of Marinus, and consequently in his maps united the eastern coast of Africa by unknown lands or Southern Ethiopia to the Chinese coast.* The science and learning of antiquity were swept away by the destrue- tive incursions of the barbarians, and there 1s retrogression rather than progress to record during the dark and middle ages. The Portuguese voyages along the west coast of Africa, initiated by Prince Henry, the navigator, must be regarded as among the first fruits _of the Renaissance, and the prelude to the great maritime discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. The views of Mela prevailed in Portu- gal, whereas those of Ptolemy were elsewhere supreme. By the time of Prince Henry’s death in 1460, the Portuguese had reconnoitered the coast of Africa for 1,700 miles, and Bartholomew Diaz reached and doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, This most successful voyage produced an immense sensation. A deathblow was given to Ptolemy’s view that the Indian Ocean was an inclosed sea; the fiery zone of the ancients had been crossed; the southern temperate zone of Aristotle, Strabo, and Mela had been reached, and it was inhabited. The air was filled with the noise of discovery. A few years later Columbus made his ever famous voyage across the Atlantic; Vespucel announced the discovery of a new world in the Southern Hemisphere, @ fourth part unknown to the ancients. The Portuguese sailed to India, the Spice Islands, and even China by way of the cape. From a peak in Darien, Balboa beheld a boundless ocean beyond the new-found lands in the west, and in 1520 Magellan passed into and crossed this great ocean, which he called the Pacifie, thus completing the first circumnayvigation of the world. These great voyages doubled at a single bound all that was previously known of the earth’s surface. The sphericity of the earth, the existence of antipodes, were no longer scientific theories, but demonstrated facts. The loss or gain of a day in sailing round the world, together with a multitude of other unfamiliar and bewildering facts, struck the imagination, and altogether the effect of these startling events was without parallel in the history of the world. The solid immovable earth beneath men’s feet was replaced by the mental picture of the great floating globe swung in space, supported by some unseen power. This grand conception can be traced in the literature of the succeeding century. Bacon and Milton had the image of the huge spinning globe continually before them, and Shakespeare’s spirit seemed 4 “* To reside In thrilling region of thick-ribbed ice; To be imprison’d in the viewless winds And blown with restless violence round about The pendent world,” Although many voyages were soon undertaken to the Arctic, centu- ries passed away before maritime exploration was directed toward the * See Murray, ‘‘The Discovery of America by Columbus,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., 1893, vol. 1x, p. 561. 356 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. Antarctic regions. The unknown lands of Ptolemy and other geégra- phers, though now cut off from the northern continents, still retained their place on charts down to the second voyage of James Cook, under the names of Southern Ethiopia, the Austral Continent, Magellanica, Regio Brasilio, and Regio Patalis. On a globe dated 1534, which I lately examined at Weimar, mountains, lakes, and rivers are shown on a large extent of land in the Pacific, stretching toward the South Pole. In 1642 Tasman showed that Australia and Van Dieman’s Land were surrounded by the ocean to the south, but the west coast of New Zea- land, which he visited, was beheved to be a part of the great southern continent, and this was held by some geographers of the eighteenth century to extend as far east as the island of Juan Fernandez, to be greater in extent than the whole civilized part of Asia, and to contain 50,000,000 inhabitants. Here is a part of the dedication of a collec- tion of voyages, published in 1770 by a former hydrographer of the Navy: ‘Not to hin—who infatuated with female blandishments, forgot for what he went abroad and hastened back to amuse the European world with stories of enchantment in the New-Cytheria; BUT to—the man— who emulous of Magalhanes, and the heroes of former times, wrdeteri’d by difficulties, and wrseduc’d by pleasure, shall persist through every obstacle, and not by chance, but bv virtue and good conduct sweceed tn establishing an intercourse with a southern continent, this historical collection of former discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean is presenied by Alexander Dalrymple.” About this time a French navigator reported the discovery of land to the southeast of the Cape of Good Hope, and a French expedition under M. de Kerguelen was sent out in 1772 to explore it. Kerguelen sighted land with high mountains in latitude 49° south and longitude 69° east, sent a boat on shore, and rather precipitately concluded that he had discovered the great southern continent. On his return to France he was hauled as a second Columbus, but on being sent out a second time to complete his discovery, the supposed southern continent turned out to be the almost barren island which now bears Kerguelen’s name. During his first expedition James Cook showed that New Zealand was an island, and that there was no southern continent in the Pacifie north of the parallel of 40° south. Cook’s second expedition in 1772 was undertaken with the express purpose of settling once for all this question of a southern continent, and he crossed the whole southern ocean in such a manner as to leave no room for doubt that, if sucha continent did exist, it must be situated within the Antarctic Circle, and must be covered with perpetual snow and ice. Cook reached latitude 71° 10’ south, in longitude 106° 54’ west, and here he probably saw the ice-barrier and mountains beyond. He believed there was a tract of land toward the South Pole extending THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. aD7 farther north in the Atlantic and Indian oceans than elsewhere, and says: > ‘Tt is true however that the greatest part of this southern continent (Supposing there is one) must lie within the Polar Circle, where the sea is so pestered with ice that the land is thereby inaccessible. ‘The risque one runs in exploring a coast in these unknown and icy seas is so very great that I can be bold enough to say that no man will ever venture farther than I have done, and that the lands which may lie to the south will never be explored. Thick fogs, snowstorms, intense cold, and every other thing that can render navigation dangerous, must be encountered, and these difficulties are greatly he ightened by thie inex- pressibly horrid aspect of the country, a country doomed by nature never once to feel the warmth of the sun’s rays, but to lie buried in everlasting snow and ice. ‘The ports which may be on the coast are, in a manner, wholly filled up with frozen snow of vast thickness; but if any Should be so far open as to invite a ship into it, she would run a risque of being fixed there for ever, or of coming out in an ice island. The islands and floats on the coast, the great falls from the ice-cliffs in the port, or a heavy snowstorm attended with a sharp frost, would be equally fatal.” Two navigators have however ventured farther than Cook. Wed- gon in 1823 penetrated to 74° south, but saw no land. Sir James Clark oss in 1841 and 1842 reached the seventy-eighth parallel, and discov- er ai Victoria Land. These three explorers, Cook, Weddell, and Ross, are the only ones who have passed beyond the seventieth parallel of south latitude. A great many expeditions have sailed between the sixtieth and sey- entieth parallels, and nearly all of them have discovered land in these southern latitudes. In 1819 Smith discovered the South Shetlands to the south of Cape Horn, and soon afterward a brisk seal fishery among English and American sealers sprang up in these waters, the seal skins bringing a high price in China. Bellingshausen discovered the islands of Alex cander and Peter the Great; D’Urville discovered Adélie Land; the United States exploring expedition discovered Wilkes’ Land; Powell discovered the South Orkneys; Biscoe discovered Enderby’s Land; Balleny discovered the Balleny Islands and Sabine Land, and Dallman more recently discovered Kaiser Wilhelm Islands and Bis- marck Strait to the north of Graham’s Land. The greatest, the most successful and most important expedition to the Antarctic was, however, that of Sir James Clark Ross, just referred to, between the years of 1839 and 1843. He has furnished more trust- worthy information than all the preceding and succeeding expeditions put together. The chief object of the expedition was to make magnetic observations, and these were carried out with marked success. Ross, who had previously planted the flag of his country on the north mag- netic pole, even sailed within 160 miles of the south magnetic pole. During the expedition Ross threw a flood of new light on the physical and biological conditions of the Antarctic. He discussed his meteoro- logical observations, and pointed out the permanently low atmospheric 358 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. pressure of the Southern Hemisphere; he took surface and deep-sea temperatures with much regularity; he became a pioneer in accurate deep-sea sounding and deep-sea dredging; he recognized that the ani- mals from deep water were almost identical with those found at similar depths by his uncle in the Arctic, and he prophesied that a nearly uniform low temperature would ultimately be found everywhere in deep water, and that living animals would be found at the greater depths all over the floor of the ocean. In the account of his voyage we find the best expression of all the anxieties, the dangers, the suffer- ings, the charms and fascination, which accompany work in these bit- ter, appalling, and magnificent realms of ice, where snow-storins, fogs, and gales alternate with brilliant sunshine. In January, 1841, after passing heavy pack ice far to the south of New Zealand, Ross discovered Victoria Land, consisting of mountain ranges from 7,000 to 12,000 and 15,000 feet in height. To the east he found open navigable water with off-lying islands, on two of which— Possession and Franklin islands—he landed. This bold coast was traced for 500 miles to the south, where 1t terminated, in latitude 78° south, in the voleanic cones of Mounts Erebus and Terror, Mount Ere- bus at the time vomiting forth flame and lava from an elevation or 12,000 feet. Glaciers descending from the mountain summits filled the valleys and bays of the coast, and projected several miles into the sea. It was impossible to enter any of the indentations or breaks on the coast, where, in other lands, harbors usually occur. On some days the sun shone forth with great brilliancy from a perfectly serene and clear sky of a most intense indigo blue, and the members of the expedition gazed with feelings of indescribable delight upon a scene of grandeur and magnificence beyond anything they had before seen or could have conceived. From the eastern foot of Mount Terror, Ross found a perpendicular wall of ice from 150 to 200 feet in height, extending away to the east, through which, as he says, there was no more chance of sailing than through the cliffs of Dover. He traced this ice barrier in an east and west direction for 300 miles; and within a mile of it he obtained a depth of 260 fathoms, with a fine soft mud at the bottom. In the fol- lowing season Ross was not so successful; for weeks he was a prisoner in the pack ice. Still, he reached the ice barrier again in latitude 78° 10’ south, a little to the east of his position in the previous year, but no new land was discovered. In the third season Ross made explora- tions among the islands to the south of Cape Horn, landing on Cock- burn Island, but his attempts to follow in the track of Weddell were unsuccessful, owing to the heavy pack ice encountered throughout the season. It must be remembered that Ross was the only Antarctic explorer provided with ships properly strengthened and fortified, and this probably accounts for his remarkable performances in the pack ice, THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 359 The oftener I read the account of this maguificent expedition, the more do i wish that another such commander, and another such expedition, might be sent ont from this country, provided with steam power and all the appliances for investigation which the experience of the past fifty years would be able to suggest. With the same amount of good luck, priceless additions would certainly be made to human knowledge, The Challenger was the first, and up to the present time the only steam vessel which has crossed the Antarctic Circle. She was wholly unprotected for ice work. Her contributions towards the solution of Antarctic problems belong for the most part to the deeper regions of the Antarctic Ocean. During last year, some interesting observations have been furnished by the Scotch and Norwegian whalers, who visited the seas and islands immediately to the south of Cape Horn. After this brief review of Antarctic exploration we may ask: What is the nature of the snow and ice-covered land observed at so many points towards the South Pole? Is there a sixth continent within the Antarctic Circle, or is the land nucleus, on which the massive ice cap rests, merely a group of lofty voleanic hills? This is a question still asked and answered differently by naturalists and physical geographers. Tomy mind there seems to be abundant evidence that there exists in this region a vast extent of true continental land, the area of which is greater than that of Australia, or nearly 4,009 080 square miles. Of all the bold southern explorers Ross and D’Urville are the only two who have set foot on land within the Antaretie Cirele. I can find no record of any ship having come to anchor within the Antarctic area, or indeed south of the latitude of 60° south, although Ross met with shallow enough soundings off Possession Island, and Wilkes found 19 fathoms in Piner’s Bay, Adélie Land. Ross reports the rocks of Possession, Franklin, and Cockburn Islands, on which he landed, to be of voleanie origin, and in his dredgings to the east of Victoria Land in depths from 200 to 400 fathoms, he like- wise procured many volcanic rocks along with some fragments of a gray granite.* All explorers report the islands to the south of Cape Horn to be composed of voleanie rocks, but the recent soundings in this vicinity by Mr. Bruce indicate the presence of metamorphic and even sedimentary rocks, and Dr. Donald has brought home some inter- esting tertiary fossils collected last year on Seymeur Island by a Nor- wegian whaler.t We have thus very good reasons for assuming that *McCormick compares the mountains of Victoria Land to those of Auvergne in France. His sketches are very different from those of Davis, in showing much more geological structure and much less snow and ice. See R. MeCormick, ‘‘ Voyages of Discovery in Arctic and Antarctic Seas;” London, 1884, vol, 1. 1 Messrs. G. Sharman and E. T. Newton, F. R. S., palzeontologists to the Geological Survey, state that the nine fossils from Seymour Island are of much interest from a geological point of view. They are weathered and somewhat denuded, indicating, probably, a long exposure upon aseashore. They belong to the following well-known forms: Five to Cucullwa, one to Cytherea, one to Natica, and two are pieces of conif- 360 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. in the Antarctic, facing the great Pacific Ocean, there is a chain of active and extinct voleanic cones, rising in Mounts Erebus and Mel- bourne to 12,000 and 15,000 feet, similar to, or rather a continuation of, that vast chain of voleanoes which more or less completely surrounds the whole Pacifie, facing, so to speax, the circle of continental land looking out on that great ocean basin. : When we remember that their ships were wholly unprotected for ice, the voyages of D’Urville and Wilkes to the Antarctic Circle south of Australia must be regarded as plucky in the extreme. At Adélie Land D’Urville passed through the vast tabular icebergs and reached open water within a few miles of the land, which at that point rose to a height of 2,000 and 3,000 feet. Here the members of the expedition landed on asmall island about 600 yards from the mainland. The rocks are described as granite and gneiss, and from the description of their hard- ness there can be little doubt that che fundamental gneiss so character- istic of continental land was here exposed. Wilkes was unable to reach land, but in the same locality he found very shallow water, and landed on an iceberg covered with clay, mud, gravel, stones, and Jarge boulders of red sandstone and basalt, 5 or 6 feet in diameter. There is another way in which a great deal may be learned concerning the nature of Antaretie land. During the Challenger expedition, trans- ported fragments of continental rocks were never found toward the central portions of the great ocean basins in tropical and sub-tropical regions. The only rocks dredged from these areas were fragments of pumice or angwar rock fragments of volcanic origin. In the Cen- tral Pacifie, however, as the fortieth parallel of south latitude was approached—therefore just beyond the limit to which Antaretie icebergs have been observed to drift—a few rounded fragments of granite and quartz were dredged from the bottom of the sea; similar fragments were obtained in the South Atlantic in high latitudes, and as the Chal- lenger proceeded toward the Antarctie Circle in the South Indian Ocean these fragments of continental rocks increased in number till, at the most southerly points reached, they, along with the mineral particles and muddy matter derived from continental land, ade up by far the larger part of the deposit. These fragments consisted of granites, quartziferous diorites, schistoid diorites, amphibolites, mica schists, grained quartzites, sandstone, a few fragments of compact limestone, and partially decomposed earthly shales. These lithological types are distinetly indicative of continental land, and remembering what has just been said as to their distribution, it seems wholly unnecessary to refute the suggestion that these fragments may have been transported from the northern continents. erous wood. All these genera have a wide distribution in time, and consequently tell little as to the age of the fossils; but some of the shells present so close a resem- blance tospecies known to oceur in Lower Tertiary beds in Britain, and to others of about the same age, recorded by Darwin and Baker, from Patagonia, as to make it luighly probable that these Antarctic fossils are likewise of Lower Tertiary age. THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 361 Glauconite is another mineral which was procured in the blue muds near Antaretie land. This mineral fills the shells of foraminifera and other caleareous organisms, and has been found in the muds along nearly all continental shores where the débris of continental rocks makes up the greater part of the deposit. Glauconite is now in process of formation in all these positions, but it is apparently wholly absent from the pelagic deposits of the great ocean basins far from continental land, as well as from the deposits around voleanic islands. Its presence in the blue muds of the far south is therefore most suggestive of an Antare- tic continent. When we come to estimate the extent of this sixth continental area, greater difficulties are presented. A knowledge of the depths of the surrounding ocean would enable the outlines to be drawn with great exactitude, but unfortunately the positions where accurate soundings have been taken are few and far between. In the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and South Indian oceans, between the latitudes of 30° and 50° south, we have most excellent lines of soundings right round the world and in these latitudes the average depth of the ocean is over 2,300 fathoms, or about 25 miles.* Between the latitudes of 50° and 65° south, the indications we possess appear to show a gradual shoal- ing, with an average depth of about 1,700 fathoms, or nearly 2 imiles. I have been criticised for showing on bathymetrical charts a great depth in the Southern Ocean to the southwest of south Georgia. This has been done because of a sounding by Ross, who paid out 4,000 fathoms of Jine at this spot without finding bottom. Ross knew perfectly well how to take deep-sea soundings, and his observation seems to show that the ocean is here deeper than 4,000 fathoms, and this may well be accepted till disproved by more trustworthy results; besides the temperature of the deep water to the east of South America points to a great depth in this region. The depths obtained by the Challenger in the neighbor- hood of the Antarctic Circle were 1,675, 1,500, and 1,300 fathoms, and judging from the nature of the deposits I think all these were within 100 or 200 miles from land. Wilkes obtained depths of 500 and S00 fathoms about 20 or 30 miles from the shore of Adelie Land, and Ross obtained many soundings of from 100 to 500 fathoms allovera great bank extending 209 miles to the east of Vietoria Land; similar depths have been found to extend to some distance to the east of Joinville Land to the south of Cape Horn. We have no trustworthy indications of ridges, barriers, or banks extending far northwards from Antaretica. It is, therefore, most probable that the northern continents are everywhere cut off from the Antarctic land mass by a depth approaching to, if not exceeding, 2 miles. Taking all these indications into consideration I have shown on the map what I believe to be the probable position and extent of Antarctica. Like other continents it would appear to have mountain ranges with voleanoes facing one ocean, and lower hills and “See accompanying map ef South Polar area. 362 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. great lowland plains stretching toward the other ocean basins. In order to account for the distribution of terrestrial organisms in the Southern Hemisphere, some naturalists believe that there must have been in recent geological times a great extension of Antarctica towards the tropies. However this may be, all will agree that a very necessary preliminary to any profitable discussion of so difficult a subject must be a fuller knowledge of the present conditions that prevail through- out the Southern Hemisphere, such as a new expedition alone can be expected to supply. All observers agree in representing the great Antaretic land mass to be buried beneath a heavy capping of perpetual ice and snow. The nucleus of rock is only revealed in off-lying islands, or on the face of high and bold escarpments. The outlines and larger features of the mountain ranges are not obliterated in the highland near the coasts at all events, for peak after peak with varied contours are seen to rise, one behind the other, towards the interior. The snow and ice which descend from the steep seaward face of the Admiralty and Prinee Albert ranges of Victoria Land, while filling up the valleys and bays, do not present an inaccessible face of ice at all parts of the coast, although this is often stated to be the case. Ross himself says: ‘*Had it been possible to have found a place of security (for the ships) upon any part of this coast, where we might have wintered in sight of the briluant burning mountain, and so short a distance from the magnetic pole, both of these interesting spots might easily have been reached by travelling parties in the following spring.” McCormick, a member of Ross’s expedition, recommends Maemurdo Bay, at the foot of Mount Erebus, as a place where winter quarters might be found,and hints that there would be no difficulty in ascending and travelling over the land. The ice and snow however which form on the slopes of the mountain ranges facing the interior of Victoria Land descend to the lower reaches of the continent, where they accumulate in vast undulating fields and plains, hundreds of feet in thickness, and ultimately this great glacier or ice cap is pushed out over all the lowlands into the ocean, forming there the true ice barrier,a solid perpendicular wall of ice, probably from 1,200 to 1,500 feet in thickness, rising from 150 to 200 feet above, and sinking 1.100 to 1,400 feet below the level of the sea. When the foretronts of this great creeping glacierare pushed into depths of about 300 or 400 fathoms, large stretches are broken off and float away as the oft-described, perpendicular-faced, herizontally-stratified, table-topped icebergs of the Antaretic and Southern oceans, which may be miles in length, and usually float from 150 to 200 feet in height above the sea surface.* *A floating iceberg will have 89°6 per cent of its volume immersed if it have the same temperature and consistency throughout. The upper layers of these ice islands are however much less dense than the deep-blue lower layers, and therefore it is Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XIX. 30° Z ; 20 are 2440 : R A 30 | . See ie \ I 4 g a ext: \— EX a puss q =4 ; = / _ 9009 09 — mS) z ss 9 jOMPSOM 1, S Hi ye 5 RI NCE EDWARD 70. 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Aq | Fee7. v 1440- 2546 s ( Nimnoo EMERALD I; \ Group * 7 D> ave no hy alee ? ; bp Xi] f', Hobar, SS “a ay ce ANTIPODES 1, Wc, TA al Vas 9 BOUNTY 10), ae Va \ \ ey Me: Bourne ‘unedjne “x farsyo/ \> / DE ay ? 8 Pee CN EW. : “Seo Nhe ROYAL Compy, (MARIA THERESA REEF ~ 236 ~)' o he | fig IN t = 1100, 2300 11005 975 2600 + 721 $2300 an ding ‘ / “Mt. Sea i/ > ‘ano | View } 150 ‘ | YY | \ A. a , il . RayMeT KERWADEC 18, ( | | @oTIBUAL oR aoe pS) |__— | | ‘D augrrac ig. Ba ROEKS i (3, Z)NORFORK “t, ! ae 170 SSnesue | 70_S- Moss Eng.Co., N. ¥. SOUTH POLAR REGIONS, SHOWING ROUTES OF PRINCIPAL EXPLORERS. (Section reproduced from the Geographical Journal, London, Vol. ITI.) a y a) faz THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 363 No sooner do these great ice islands—these majestic and sublime sen- tinel outposts—of Antarctica sail forth on their new career, than they collide the one with the other; the fragments of impact are scattered over the surface of the ocean, and, with similar fragments derived from the steeper land slopes, with salt-water ice, and accumulations of snow, they form what is known as the pack. This pack, when heavy and closely set, has been erroneously called by Wilkes and other writers the ice barrier—a name which should only be used to designate the solid continuous ice wall that is pushed into the sea from the central regions of the continent, such as that along which Ross sailed for 300 miles. Waves dash against the vertical faces of the floating ice-islands as against a rocky shore, so that at the sea level they are first eut into ledges and gullies, and then into caves and caverns of the most heavenly blue,* from out of which comes the resounding roar of the ocean, and into which the snow-white and other petrels may be seen to wing their way through guards of soldier-like penguins stationed at the entrances. As these ice islands are slowly drifted by wind and current to the north, they tilt, turn, and sometimes capsize, and then submerged prongs and spits are thrown high into the air, producing irregular pinnacled bergs higher, possibly, than the original table-shaped mass. As decay pro- ceeds, the imprisoned bowlders, stones, and earth are deposited over the ocean’s floor as far as sub-tropical regions. The late Mr. Croll used to speak of an accumulation of ice and snow at the South Pole 10 and even 20 miles in thickness; but from all we know of the properties of ice, and the relation of its melting or freez- ing point to temperature and pressure, it is highly improbable that such a thickness of ice will be found on any part of the Antarctic continent. If the snow cap rests on rock of a temperature half a degree below the freezing point, then the greatest thickness of ice formed on the conti- nent would not likely exceed 1,600 or 1,800 feet, and this appears to be just a little more than the greatest thickness of the great ice barrier when it is floated off into the ocean as ice islands. This may possibly represent the greatest thickness that can be formed under existing con- most probable that the height above water is about one-seventh of the total thick- ness of the berg.—See Murray, ‘‘ The Exploration of the Antaretic Regions,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., 1886, vol. 11, p. 553. *The deep blue color is due to the fact that all the air has been expelled from the deeper parts of the ice cap by the constant melting and regelation which takes place throughout the whole mass as it moves over the land. When a cannon ball was fired into this azure-blue ice the ball did not penetrate, but large masses of ice fell away, the fractures having a conchoidal appearance like glass. When a ball was fired into the upper areolar white layers of a table berg it penetrated without pro- ducing any visible effect. Fragments of the white areolar layers were subjected to pressure and impact on board ship, and it was observed that these fragments could be easily deformed, while fragments of the transparent azure-blue ice behaved quite differently under the same tests, resembling a purely crystalline substance, 364 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. ditions.* A party of well-equipped observers—who should spend a winter on the Antarctic continent— would doubtless bring back valua- ble information for the discussion of this interesting problem, such as serial temperatures from borings in the ice cap, both vertically and hort zoutally, the temperature of the earth’s surface beneath the ice, whether or not water runs away from under the glaciers, as well as observations concerning the appearance of the upper surface of the ice fields and the motion of the ice over the land. Our knowledge of the meteorology of the Antarctic regions is limited to a few observations during the summer months in very restricted localities, and is therefore most imperfect. One of the most remarka- ble features in the meteorology of the globe is the low atmospheric pressure, maintained in all seasons, in the Southern Hemisphere south of latitude 40° south, with its inevitable attendant of strong westerly winds, large rain and snow-fall, all round the globe in these latitudes. The observations hitherto made point to the existence over certain parts of these latitudes of a mean pressure of 29:00 inches and under,—as for example to the southeast of the Falkland Islands and to the south- east of New Zealand. On the other hand, in the Aretic regions there is in the winter months no such system of low pressure in similar latitudes, but instead there are two systems of low pressure, having a mean of 29°50 inches, which are absolutely restricted to the northern portions of the Atlantie and Pacific oceans. Over the rest of the Aretic regions proper the mean atmospheric pressure exceeds 30-00 inches, being, roughly speaking, about the same as the mean pressure of London. in aecordance with this distribution of pressure, observations show that vortherly winds immensely preponderate over Aretic and sub-Arctie regions. The large number of meteorological observations made during the present century in the igh latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere place these facts in the clearest light, and they are admirably represented by Dr. Buehan in his new isobaric charts which accompany the Challenger report. Inthe Northern Hemisphere the land almost completety surrounds the ~« ~See Murray op. cit., p.535: 1886. Vhe motion of glaciers is often compared to that of rivers and of viscons bodies; but these comparisons are not strictly correct, and may sometimes be misleading. The peculiarity of ice motion and its erosive power appear to be largely due to the fact that its melting or freezing point varies with temperature and pressure. The pressure being uuequally distributed through- out the glacier, minute crystals of ice are melted where the pressure is greatest; the resulting water occupying less space, regelation at once takes place, and where the ice 1s wholly compact and crystalline pressure is exerted in all directions, motion taking place in the path of least resistance. The immense thickness of ice some- times invoked does not seem neeessary to account for the erosive effects produced by glaciers. The stratified appearance of the southern icebergs is evidently due to the constant melting and regelation which go on throughout the ice cap; in the deeper parts of the bergs these layers are not thicker than wafers, and where the ice is wholly erystalline the layers disappear altogether. THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 365 Aretie Ocean; in the Southern Hemisphere the open ocean completely surrounds the Antarctic continent, and this open ocean carries with it the low barometric pressure all round. Now, if the low pressure still further deepened with increase of latitude towards the South Pole, it is certain that the prevailing winds over all these high latitudes would be northwesterly and northerly. But the observations made by Ross, the Challenger, and more recently, in latitudes higher than 60° south, by the Dundee whalers and others, quite unanimously tell us that in these high southern latitudes the predominating winds are southerly and southeasterly. Thus, during the winter of 159293, in latitudes higher than 60° south, halfof the whole winds recorded by the Diana were south, southeast, and east, being directions opposite to the winds which would certainly prevail if pressure diminished steadily to the South Pole. Such surface currents as have been observed in the Antarctic Ocean come also from south and southeast. All the teaching of meteorology therefore indicates that a large anti-cyelone witha higher pressure than prevails over the open ocean to northwards overspreads the Antarctic continent. While this anti-ey- clonic region may not be characterized by an absolutely high pressure at all seasons, if must be high relatively to the very low pressure which prevails to the northward. The southerly outflowing winds which accompany this anti-cyclone will be dry winds and attended by a small precipitation. It is probable that about 74° south the belt of excessive precipitation has been passed, and it 1s even conceivable that at the pole precipitation might be very little in excess of, or indeed not more than equal to, the evaporation. Even one year’s observations at two points on the Antarctic continent might settle this point, and enable us to form a tolerably complete idea of the annual snow-fall and evapora- tion over the whole continent. An approximate estimate might then be given of the annual discharge from the solid glacier rivers into the surrounding ocean. Indeed it is impossible to over-estimate the value of Antarctic observations for the right understanding of the general meteorology of the globe. Not less interesting than the meteorology of the land area is that of the ocean in southern latitudes. In the neighborhood of the Antarctic Circle the temperature of the air and sea surface is, even in summer, at or below the freezing point of fresh water. A sensible rise takes place about the sixtieth parallel, and a temperature of 58° FE’. has been recorded in that latitude in March for both the air and sea surface. The general result of all the sea temperatures observed by Cook, Wilkes, Ross, and tie Challenger in the Antaretie Ocean shows that a layer of cold water underlies in summer a thin warm surface stratum and overlies another warm but deeper stratum towards the bottom. Thecold stratum extends like a wedge northwards for about 12°, At depths between 50 and 300 fathoms at the southern thick end of the wedge the temperature is 28° F,, and at the northern thin end of the wedge it increases to about 32°59 366 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. at 80 fathoms. The surface layer ranges from 29° in the south to 38° in the north, and the deeper bottom layers range from 32° to 35°, Mr. Buchanan found that the density of the cold layer, and indeed of all the deeper waters, was higher than that of the surface, and his admirable researches on the effects produced by freezing sea water, appear to give a satisfactory explanation of the effect of these phenomena on the distribution of temperature in this ocean. It has been found that sea water on freezing is divided into two saliniferous parts, one solid, which is richer in sulphates, and one liquid, which contains pro- portionally more chlorides than the parent sea water.* The liquid brine thus produced 1s denser, and sinks into the underlying water, thus rendering the deeper water more saline and at the same time lowering its temperature. In a basin isolated from general oceanic circwation, like the Norwegian basin of the Arctic regions, there is produced in this way an uniform temperature of about 29° I. in all the deeper waters, but no trace of this state of matters is found in the Antarctic. On the contrary, at the greater depths a temperature is found somewhere between 32° and 34° F. as far south as the Antaretie circle, and not therefore very different from the temperature of the deepest bottom water of the tropical regions of the ocean. The presence of this relatively warm water in the deeper parts of the Antarctic Ocean may be explained by a consideration of general oceanic circulation. The warm tropical waters which are driven southwards along the eastern coasts of South America, Africa, and Australia, into the great all-encireling Southern Ocean, there become cooled as they are driven to the east by the strong westerly winds. These waters on account of their high salinity, can suffer much dilution with Antarctie water, and still be denser than water from these higher latitudes at the same temperature. Here again, the density observations indicate that the cold water found at the greater depths of the ocean probably leaves the surface and sinks toward the bottom in the Southern Ocean between the latitudes of 45° and 56° south. These deeper, but not necessarily bottom, layers are then drawn slowly northward toward the tropics to supply the deficiencies there produced by evaporation and southward- flowing surface currents, and these deeper layers of relatively warm water appear likewise to be slowly drawn southwards to the Antarctic area to suppiy the place of the ice-cold currents of surface water drifted to the north. This warm underlying water is evidently a potent factor in the melting and destruction of the huge table-topped icebergs of the southern hemisphere. While these views as to circulation appear to be well established, still a fuller examination of these waters is most * Petterssen has shown that sea ice expands irregularly with heat, and that the latent heat is abnormal, being less than that of pure ice. He also found that the chemical composition of the brines formed in Arctic seas by the freezing of ice out of alimited quantity of water is different from that of sea water itself. There is, however, no certainty that this behavior of the ice and free sea water is due to the formation of the hypothetical cryohydrates of Guthrie. : THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 367 desirable at different seasons of the year, with improved thermometers and other instruments. Here, again, anew Antarctic expedition would supply the knowledge essential to a correct solution of many problems in Oceanography. Ross describes a strong tidal current and rip between Possession Island and the mainland of Victoria, but on the whole, we have very little information concerning the tides and surface currents in the Antarctic. No land animal, and no trace of vegetation, not even a lichen or a piece of seaweed, has been found on land within the Antarctic cirele. On Cockburn Island, in latitude 64° south, Hooker collected twenty cryptogamic species, three of them seaweeds, and this may be regarded as not far from the southern limit of terrestrial vegetation. The fossils and fossiliferous beds above referred to distinetly indicate the existence of more genial conditions within the Antarctic in past geological times, and should be fully explored. When we turn to the waters of the Antarctic Ocean, we find at the present time a great profusion of life, both animal and vegetable. Dur- ing the Challenger expedition, myriads of minute spherical tetraspore were observed to give the sea a peculiar green color over large areas. Diatoms were frequently in such enormous abundance, that the tow nets were filled to the brim with a yellow-brown slimy mass, with a distress- ing odor, through which various crustaceans, annelids, and other animals wriggled. As these marine alge are the primary source of food in the sea, their great development in the Antarctic Ocean leads to a corresponding abundance of animals. Occasionally vast quantities of Copepods Amphipods, and Schizopods were observed to give the ocean a dull red color, and the more delicate tow nets were at such times so filled with these animals, that they oecasionally burst on being hauled on board ship. These small crustaceans are in turn the chief food of the fishes, penguins, seals, and whales, which abound in the waters of the Great Southern Ocean. Organisms such as the diatoms and radiolaria, which secrete silica, and the foraminifera and pteropods, which secrete carbonate of line, are, on account of their distribution, the most interesting of all the pelagic creatures captured in the surface and sub-surface waters of the ocean. Near Antarctic land the deposits at the bottom of the sea are, as already stated, mostly made up of rock fragments and detritus from the snow-clad Antarctic continent. -- — = = 43 — Tatitider Sistine: Depth in Number of Number of Number of Number of fathoms. specimens. species. jnewspecies.. new genera. ——————— —| - : = = (| 146 1,375 200 | 78 66 17 | q 147 1, 600 200 89 73 28 Between 43° and 50° south... { a a g Y | 159 2,150 20 10 i 4 | 160 | 2, 600 50 30 25 | 10 § 157 1, 950 150 79 69 25 Between 50° and 60° south _ « ae 3 - ] 158 | 1, 800 70 45 | 33 13 3 5 152 1, 260 20 12) 10 4 Between 60° asd 65° south.. ; an | al | r 156 1,975 100 37 32 13 South of 65° south ----...-..-- | 153 1, 675 20) 18 1] | 5 fe cain nae oleay wate 830 | 398 | 326 | 119 | | : ~ One bundred and sixty-two new peace and 30 new genera were not obtained outside this Ant- arctic area during the cruise. It is most probable, indeed almost certain, that the floor of the ocean, as well as all pelagic waters, have been peopled from the shallow waters surrounding continental land; and here in the deep waters of the Ant- aretie we appear to have very clear indications of the existence of the descendants of animals that once inhabited the shallow water along the shores of Antarctica, while in other regions of the ocean the descend- ants of the shallow water organisms of the northern continents prevail. This is a subject of great interest to all biologists, and can best be studied by a more efficient exploration of these southern latitudes. This rapid review of the present state of our knowledge concerning the Antaretic should, if in any way suecessful, have at the same time furnished distinct indications as to the great extent of our ignorance concerning all that obtains within the South Polar regions. It should likewise have enabled you to appreciate the great advantages which would flow from successful exploration in the immediate future. Within the past few months I have been in communication with geographers and scientific men in many parts of the world, and among them there is complete unanimity as to the desirability, nay, necessity, for South Polar exploration, and wonder is expressed that an expedition has not long since been fitted out to undertake investigations which, it is admitted on all sides, would be of the greatest value in the progress of so many branches of natural knowledge. Prof. Neumayer, who has so long advocated South Polar exploration, says: “It is certain that without an examination and a survey of the magnetic properties of the Antarctic regions, it is utterly hopeless to strive, with prospects of. suc- cess, at the advancement of the theory of the eurth’s magnetism.” Other eminent geographers and scientific men urge the advantages which would accrue to other branches of science.* *Prof. Alexander Agassiz writes: “I wish you the best suecess with your pro- posed Antarctic expedition. What you propose doing is the right thing to do, and the results ought to be most interesting, judging from the little we know of the few SM 93 24 370 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. To determine the nature and extent of the Antarctic continent; to penetrate into the interior; to ascertain the depth and nature of the ice-cap; to observe the character of the underlying rocks and their fossils; to take magnetical and meteorological observations both at sea islands which have been hastily visited. Your scheme of having the ships kept at work, sounding, dredging, etc., while the land parties are exploring the land, is the most practical and economical way of carrying on suchan expedition. It has always seemed to me such a waste of time and money to have the ships and their crews wait on thelandsmen.” Prof. Ernest Haeckel writes:* ‘‘I have heard with great interest that England has the design of setting on foot a great scientific expedition for the exploration of the Antarctic Ocean. The task is in fact as interesting as it is pressing and impor- tant. Itis remarkable how much money and how many lives have been offered by Europe and North America for North Polar expeditions, while the much less known South Pole has seemed almost forgotten since Ross’s time. And how many great and important problems avait solution there! The British nation seems to me called - upon before all others to carry out this great task, and to send a ship for several years (including wintering at a station) to the South Polar Sea. The fruits of such an expedition would certainly form a worthy sequel to those which you have attained through the incomparable Challenger expedition with its wealth of results, It would lay the foundation for all time. I hope and wish from my heart that the English Government views it in this light, and will grant the large supplies necessary for this expedition. I send you my best wishes for the speedy completion of the con- cluding volume of the great Challenger work. This ‘standard work’ will remain for all time the foundation for all biological and thalassographical investigations, in relation to Plankton and Benthos alike, especially of the deep sea. ‘The thorough investigation of the Antarctic Ocean with its fauna and flora seems to me a necessary supplement to the Challenger work.” Prof. F. E. Schultze writes:* ‘‘ You wish for my opinion on the subject of a more extensive exploration of the Antarctic region. I believe I shall be in agreement, not only with all representatives of physical geography, but especially with all the biologists in the world, when I say that there is no region of the surface of our globe which is so little known, but so much deserves a thorough investigation as precisely this of the Antarctic. Allow me also to call your attention to the fact that, of all the oceans, the southern and central part of the Indian Ocean has hitherto been, least explored, and that therefore it might be advisable, if opportunity offered—say, during a winter—to make an excursion to the central part of the Indian Ocean. In the hope that to the great Challenger expedition may be added one similar and equally rich in results for the exploration of the Antarctic, I wish success to this important under- taking from my heart.” Prof. J. Thoulet writes: * ‘There is only one way in which to answer the letter you have been so good as to write to me, namely to send you my warmest encour- agement to continue the great and noble task of discovering the secrets of the Ant- arctic regions. May you succeed in accomplishing this glorious work, which is not ouly scientific but also humanitarian. - - - All who are occupied on science in the whole world earnestly wish for your success. To tell you the truth, I have never been very enamoured of Arctic expeditions; the North Pole is continental, and is in consequence the domain of irregularity, and in my opinion its conquest is not worth the efiorts which it has already cost. But itis quite otherwise with the Antarctic regions, which are oceanic, and therefore subject to rule. The Arctic phenomena are complications or exceptions; the Antarctic are general phenomena, and their discovery is bound to conduce to the formulation of natural laws—the final aim of science.” ~ Translation. THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 371 and on land; to observe the temperature of the ocean at all depths and seasons of the year; to take pendulum observations on land, and possi- bly also to make gravity observations at great depths in the ocean; to bore through the deposits on the floor of the ocean at certain points to ascertain the condition of the deeper layers;* to sound, trawl, and dredge, and study the character and distribution of marine organisms. All this should be the work of a modern Antarctic expedition. Ee> the more definite determination of the distribution of land and water on our planet; for the solution of many problems concerning tie ice age; for the better determination of the internal constitution and superficial form of the earth; for a moire complete knowledge of the laws which govern the motions of the atmosphere and hydrosphere; for more trustworthy indications as to the origin of terrestrial and marine plants and animals, all these observations are earnestly demanded by the science of our day. How then, and by whom, is this great work to be undertaken? I can never forget my sensations when once inthe Arctie 1 was for several hours lost in a small boat in a fog, and at one time there seemed little chance that [ would ever regain the ship. Nor again can I forget one night inthe Antarctic when, with much anxiety, Capt. Nares, his officers, and men, piloted the Challenger during a gale through blinding snow, ice, icebergs, darkness, and an angry sea. The remembrance of these experiences makes one almost fear to encourage good and brave men to penetrate these forbidden regions. But it is not all gloom and depression beyond the Polar circles. Sunshine and lively hope soon return. A few months ago I bade good-bye to Nansen and said, I expected within two years to welcome lim on his return from the Arctic; but I expressed some doubt if I should again see the Fram. ‘1 think you are wrong,” was the reply; ‘‘I believe you will welcome ine on this very deck, and, after my return from the Arctic, I will go to the South Pole, and then my life’s work will be finished.” This is a spirit we must all admire. We feel it deserves, and is most likely to command, success. All honor to those who venture into the far north or far south with slender resources and bring back with them a burden of new obserya- tions. A dash at the South Pole is not however what I now advocate, nor do I believe that is what British science, at the present time, desires. It demands rather a steady, continuous, laborious, and systematic exploration of the whole southern region with all the appliances of the modern investigator. This exploration should be undertaken by the Royal Navy. Two ships, not exceeding 1,000 tons, should, it seems to me, be fitted out *It is believed that gravity determinations might be made, as well as the deposits bored into by specially constructed instruments let down to the bottom from the ships. 31123 THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. for a whole commission, so as to extend over three summers and two winters. Early in the first season a wintering party of about ten men should be landed somewhere to the south of Cape Horn, probably about Bismarck Strait at Graham’s Land. The expedition should then pro- ceed to Victoria Land, where a second similar party should winter, probably in Maemurdo Bay, near Mount Erebus. The ships should not become frozen in, nor attempt to winter in the far south, but should return toward the north, conducting observations of various kinds along the outer margins of the ice. After the needful rest and outfit at the Falklands or Australia, the position of the ice and the temperature of the ocean should be observed in the early spring, and later the wintering parties should be communicated with, and, if neces- sary, reinforced with men and supplhes for another winter. During the second winter the deep-sea observations should be continued north- ward, and in the third season the wintering parties should be picked up and the expedition return to England. The wintering parties might largely be composed of civilians, and one or two civilians might be attached to each ship; this plan worked admirably during the Challenger expedition. What, it may be asked, would be the advantages to trade and com- merce of such an expedition? It must be confessed that no definite or very encouraging answer ean be given. We know of no extensive fisheries in these regions. For a long time seal and sea-elephant fish- eries have been carried on about the islands of the Southern Ocean, but we have no indication of large herds or rookeries within the Ant- arctie Circle. A whale fishery was at one time carried on in the neigh- borhood of Kerguelen, but this right whale, if distinct from or identical with Balena australis, appears to have become nearly, if not quite, extinet. Some expressions of Ross would lead one to suppose that a whale corresponding to the Greenland right whale inhabits the seas within the Antarctic ice, but we have no definite knowledge of the existence of such a species. Although ‘ sulphur bottoms” (Balwnop- tera musculus), ‘finbacks” (Balenoptera sibbaldii), and “humpbacks” (Megaptera boops) are undoubtedly abundant, they do not repay cap- ture. Ross and McCormick report the sperm whale within the Antarctie ice, but there is some doubt on this point. Though penguins exist in countless numbers they are at present ofno commercial value. Deposits of guano are notlikely to be of any great extent. But it is impossible to speak with confidence on the commercial aspects of such an expedi- tion—the unexpected may quite well happen in the way of discovery. With great confidence, however, it may be stated that the results of a well-organized expedition would be of capital importance to British science. We are often told how much more foreign governments do for science than our own. It is asserted that we are being outstripped by foreigners in the cultivation of almost all departments of scientific work. But in the practical study of all that concerns the ocean this is THE RENEWAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. oe certainly not the case, for however closely we may now be pressed by some foreign nations, we have had up to the present time to acknowl- edge neither superiors, nor even equals in this branch of investigation, and, if we be a wise and progressive people, British science will always lead the way in this direction. When Queen Victoria ascended the throne we were in profound ignorance as to the condition of all the deeper parts of the great ocean basins; now we have a very accurate knowledge of the conditions which obtain over the three-fourths of the earth’s surface covered by the waters of the ocean. This—the most splendid addition to earth-knowledge since the circumnavigation of the world—is largely due to the work and exertions of the Royal Navy in the Challenger and other deep-sea expeditions, and the mercantile navy in our telegraph ships. This country has frequently sent forth expeditions, the primary object of which was the acquisition of new knowledge,—such were the expeditions of Cook, Ross, and the Challenger; and the nation as a whole as always approved such action and has been proud of the results, although they yielded no immediate return. Shall it be said that there is to be no successor to these great expeditions? The pres- tige of the navy does not alone consist in its powers of defense and attack. It has in times of peace made glorious conquests over the powers of nature, and we ask that the officers and men of the present generation be afforded the same opportunities as their predecessors There should be no observations, no experiments, no investigations, no work of any kind, no knowledge of any kind, with reference to the ocean, of which the navy has not had practical experience. And what better training for officer and man than in an expedition such as that now advocated? A preliminary responsibility rests on the geographers and represent- atives of science in this country. It is necessary to show that we have clear ideas as to what is wanted, to show that a good, workable scheme can be drawn up. When this has been done it should be presented to the Government with the unanimous voice of all our scientific corpora- tions. Then, 1] have little doubt that a minister will be found sufficiently alive to the spirit of the times, and with sufficient courage to add a few thousand pounds to the navy vote for three successive years, in order to earry through an undertaking worthy of the maritime position and the scientific reputation of this great Empire. 4 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN.* By HENRY SEEBOHM, F.L.58., F. Z. 5S. reography, the child of Mathematics and Astronomy, stands in the relation of mother to half a dozen other sciences, which have long ago left the parental roof to establish sections of their own. Like every other science, geography is so closely connected with, and dependent on, its allied sciences that it is impossible to treat of the one without invading the province of the others. No one supposes that the mak- ing of maps is the whole duty of the geographer. The accurate delin- eation of the trend of coast lines, the courses of rivers, the heights of mountains, the depths of seas, or the position of towns is only the skel- eton which underlies the real science of geography. The study of geography may be divided into various sections, but it must always be remembered that they dovetail into each other, as well as into the allied sciences, to such an extent that no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between them. The object of dividing so comprehensive a section as that of geography into sub-sections is more practical than scientific. The classification of facts is an important aid to memory, and introduces order into what might otherwise seem to be a chaos of knowledge. The foundation of ali geography is exploration; but before the tray- eller can do good geographical work he must acquire the necessary knowledge embraced in the science of cartography. This includes a practical acquaintance with the various instruments used in making a survey, the necessary mathematical and astronomical knowledge required for their use, and a familiarity with the accepted mode of expressing the geographical facts that may be acquired on a chart or map. Exploration may then be undertaken with some chance of ulti- “Inate success, but the object of exploration must be something more than the filling up of blanks in our maps. Many other subjects must receive attention, subjects which are collectively included in the term physical geography, but which require treatment under different heads. * Address to the geographical section of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, at Nottingham, by the president of the section; Sept., 1893. (The Geographical Journal, London, October, 1893; vol. 11, pp. 331-346. ) 376 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. Of these the most obvious is the geographical distribution of light and heat, as well as the more fitful alterations of wind and rain with calm and drouth; in other words, the numerous causes which combine to produce climate. Meteorology or climatology, the geography of the air, is a most important branch of geography in general; and when we come to inguire into the changes which have taken place im the climate of different parts of the earth’s surface, especially those which have affected the Polar Basin, we enter upon a subject which has claimed a large share of the attention of geologists, who have also made a pro- found study of the geographical distribution of the various kinds of rock which are found on the crust of the earth. Another sub-section of great importance is the geographical distribution of organic life. The geographical ranges of the species and genera, both of plants and animals, have become a subject of vastly increased importance since so much attention has been directed to the theory of evolution; and the paramount importance of the human race is so great that ethnological geography may fairly claim to be treated as a sub-section, apart from the study of the rest of the fauna of a country. Inasmuch as a.map with the towns left out is only half a map, the geographer can not afford to neglect the races of men with which he comes in contact, nor the remains (architectural or otherwise) which existing nations have produced, or past races have left behind them. I propose, on the present occasion, to elaborate these subjects at greater detail, and, with your permission, to take the Polar Basin as an example. EXPLORATION OF THE POLAR BASIN. There is only one Polar Basin; the relative distribution of land and water and the geographical distribution of light and heat in the Arctic region are absolutely unique. In no other part of the world is a similar climate to be found. The distribution of land and water round the South Pole is almost the converse of that round the North Pole. In the one we havea mountain of snow and ice covering—it may be a continent, it may be an archipelago, but in any case a lofty mass of congealed water surrounded by an ocean stretching away with very little interruption from land to the confines of the tropics. In the other we havea basin of water surrounding a comparatively flat plain of pack ice, some of: which is probably permanent, but most of which is driven hither and thither in summer by winds and currents and is walled in by continental and island barriers broken only by the nar. row outlets of Bering Strait and Baffins Bay and the broader gulf which leads to the Atlantic Ocean, and even that interrupted by Ice- land, Spitzbergen, and Franz Josef Land. When we further remem- ber that this gulf is constantly conveying the hot water of the tropics to the Arctic Ocean, and that every summer gigantic rivers are pour- ing volumes of comparatively warm water into this ocean, we can not THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 377 but admit that the climatic conditions near the two poles differ widely from each other. In looking at a map of the Polar Basin one can not help remarking the curious fact that the North Pole is so very nearly central, and a glance at the Southern Hemisphere also shows a rough sort of symmetry in the distribution of land and water round the South Pole. It is a curious coincidence, if this be only accident. The history of the exploration of the Polar Basin is a very long and a very tragic story. Much has been done, but much remains to do. The unexplored regions of the Polar Basin may be estimated at 1,000 000 square miles. No part of the world presents greater difficulties to the explorer. Many brave men have perished in the enterprise, and more have only just succeeded in passing through the ordeal of hunger and cold with their lives. For the most part the heroic enduraice of the tortures of famine has shown a marvel of discipline, though oceasion- ally the commanders of the expeditions have had to enforce obedience to the verge of cruelty, both in the case of men and of dogs. There are indeed a few ghastly stories, but the records of Aretic explora- tion are records of which any nation might be proud. . Of recent years there has been but little done to explore the unknown parts of the Polar Basin. Adventurous journeys in Central Africa and Central Asia have somewhat eclipsed the exploration of the Arctic regions. ‘Two visits to Greenland can not however be entirely passed by in silence. In the summer of last year an expedition went to the north of Greenland under the command of Lieut. Peary; succeeded in reaching latitude 82°, and added material evidence to prove that Greenland is anisland. The expedition sailed on June 6, 1891, steained up Baffins Bay and Smiths Sound, and on July 25 dismissed the ship and established themselves in winter quarters in McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murehison Sound, in latitude 78°, They laid ina stock of game for the winter, guillemots and reindeer. A most inter- sting proof of the successful organization of the expedition is the fact that Mrs. Peary was one of the party, and was able to accompany her husband on his sledge trip, which started on the 18th of the following: April. It took the party a week in their dog sledges to round Inglefield Gulf, during which they discovered 30 glaciers, 10 of them of the first mag- nitude. During the next three months they explored the north coast of Greenland, as far east as longitude 34° west, when a great bay was reached, which they named Independence Bay, as they discovered it on July 4. The northern shore of this bay was free from snow and ice. On August 6 they regained their winter quarters in McCormick Bay. On the Sth the steamer arrived, and on the 24th they started for home, reaching Philadelphia on September 23. During the sledge journey they traveled for a fortnight at an average elevation of 8,000 feet above the sea. Besides their important additions to the map of Greenland, 378 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. the suggestive fact that the thermometer can rise to 41° F., and _ tor- rents of rain can fallin the middle of February as far north as latitude 78°, must be'regarded as a valuable discovery. It was hardly to be expected that so successful a journey should not be followed by a second attempt in order to follow up the discoveries of the first. Peary has started for the north of Greenland with a more varefully organized staff for a longer expedition, and has already reached his winter quarters. They expect to be absent two years or more. In March they hope to start for Independence Bay, which was discovered on the previous expedition, and there the party will divide, with the object of completing the survey of the coast-line of Greenland by reach- ing Cape Bismarck, if possible, and at the same time to explore the northern coast-line of Independence Bay, hoping that it may land them farther north than the highest point yet reached by any Aretie traveler. In the summer of 1888 Dr. Nansen was bold enough to eross the con- tinent of Greenland about latitude 64°, reaching an altitude of 9,000 feet, and he told his story to this section in his own simple words on his return. The distance across was about 10 degrees, and the highest point was about one-third of the way across from the east coast. If the scientific results were necessarily somewhat meager, Dr. Nansen established a reputation for bravery and physical endurance, which he hopes to increase by an attempt to reach the North Pole. The Fram has already started from Hammerfest, and was telegraphed afew weeks ago from Waigatz Island. ‘The intention is to enter the Kara Sea and to push northward and eastward, hoping that the warm currents caused by the great Siberian rivers will enable them to get well into the ice before winter begins. Once frozen into the pack ice, Nansen hopes to be carried by the currents somewhere near the North Pole, and, after drifting for two or three years, he hopes finally to emerge from his. ice prison somewhere on the east coast of Greenland. Foolhardy as the expedition appears, it is nevertheless planned with great skill, and its chances of success are supposed to be based upon a sufficiently accurate knowledge of the ocean currents of the Polar Basin. These currents, so far as they are known, are very interesting. The Mackenzie and the great Siberian rivers flow into the Polar Basin, and the current through Bering Strait is supposed to do the same; but both these sources of supply can only be regarded as of minor import- ance. Between Spitzbergen and Finmark, however, the Gulf Stream enters the Polar Basin 500 or 400 miles wide. To compensate for these inward currents, there are two outward currents, one on each side of Greenland, which, coming from the center of cold, do their best to intensify the rigors of that mountainous island. Nansen hopes that the current which carried the Jeannette from Her- ald Island, north of Bering Strait, in a northwesterly direction for 500 or 600 miles, is the same current that flows down the east coast of THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. S75) Greenland, and he bases his hopes upon three facts. First, that many articles from the wreck of the Jeannette were found on an ice-floe off the south coast of Greenland three years afterward; second, that a harpoon-thrower of a pattern unknown except in Alaska was picked up on the southwest coast of Greenland; and, third, that driftwood supposed to be of Siberian origin is stranded regularly mn consider- able quantity on the coasts of Greenland. The Norwegian at Hammer- fest, about latitude 70°, is dependent for his firewood upon the Gulf Stream, which brings him an ample supply from the Gulf of Mexico, whilst the Eskimo on the Greenland coast, in the same latitude, trusts to a current from the opposite direction to bring him his necessary store of wood from the Siberian forests. We can only hope that Nansen will find the currents as favorable to his needs, and that so much bravery may be supported by good luck. THE RIVER SYSTEMS. By no means the least important physical feature of the Polar Basin is its gigantic river systens. The rivers which flow into the Arctie Ocean are some of them amongst the greatest in the world. Some idea of the relative sizes of the drainage areas of a few of the best known rivers may be learned from the following table,in which the Thames, with a drainage area of 6,000 square miles, is the unit: GO) “UPN, oo Gdaces Boeaou usasacesoces = It lle (Gee OO. e JIGS oes G peeeeg Saones cae cose Seas — 1 Pechora (108,000), DP ECHOLAS ere as oe oe eee —=1 Danube (270,000), al) aNWDeS peste = ae sees aoe tee See —=1 Mackenzie (540,000) Jee MackenziGsss acc qssc.cs 6 sea oscicee = = 1 Yenisei (1,080,000). Tee VOUS CIS peters Ae eee ree eee __=1 Amazon (2,160,000). Perhaps a more scientific classification of rivers would be to eall those with a drainage area between 2,560 000 and 1,280 000 square miles rivers of the first magnitude, a category which contains the Amazon alone. There are ten rivers of the second magnitude, with drainage areas between 1,280,000 and 640,000 square miles (Ob, Congo, Missis- sippi, La Plata, Yenisei, Nile, Lena, Niger, Amur, Yangtse). There are twelve rivers of the third magnitude, with drainage areas between 640,000 and 520,000 square iniles (Mackenzie, Volga, Murray, Zambesi, Saskatchewan, Ganges, St. Lawrence, Orange, Orinoco, Hoang Ho, Indus, and Bramaputra). There are more than a dozen rivers of the fourth magnitude, with drainage areas between 320,000, and 160,000 Square mniles, but none of them empties itself imto the Arctic Ocean. They include the Danube, Euphrates, and several of the African and South American rivers. Of the numerous rivers which are of the fifth magnitude, with drainage areas between 160,000 and 80,000 square miles, the Pechora belongs to the Polar Basin. The number of rivers 380 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. of lesser magnitude is legion, and it is only necessary to quote one of each as an example. Sixth magnitude (80,000 to 40,000), Rhine. Seventh magnitude (40,000 to 20,000), Rhone. Lighth magnitude (20,000 to 10,000), Garonne, Ninth magnitude (10,000 to 5,000), Thames. _ There is nothing that makes a greater impression upon the Arctic traveller than the enormous width of the rivers. The Pechora is only a river of the fifth magnitude, but it is moré than 1 mile wide for sev- eral hundred miles of its course. The Yenisei is more than 3 miles wide for at least 1,000 miles, and 1 mile wide for nearly another thousand, Whymper describes the Yukon as varying from 1 mile to 4 miles in width for 300 or 400 miles of its length. The Mackenzie is deseribed as averaging 1 mile in width for more than 1,000 miles, with occasional expansions for long distances to twice that size. The drainage area does not measure the size of the Arctic rivers at all adequately. Though the rainfall of many of them is comparatively small, the size of the rivers is relatively very large, owing to the sud- den melting of the winter’s accumulation of snow, which causes an annual flood of great magnitude, like the rising of the Nile. Even on the Amur in eastern Siberia and on the Yukon in Alaska the annual flood is important enough, but on the rivers which flow north into the Polar Sea the damming up of the mouths by the accumulations of ice produces an annual deluge, frequently extending over thousands of square miles,—a catastrophe the effects of which have been much under- rated and never adequately described. If we assume that the unknown regions are principally sea, then the Polar Basin, including the area drained by all rivers flowing into the Arctic Sea, may be roughly estimated to contain about 14,000,000 square miles, of which half is land and half water. In the coldest part of the basin the land is either glacier or tundra, and in the warmer parts it is either forest or steppe. GREENLAND GLACIERS. Greenland, the home of the glacier and the ..other of the icebergs of the Northern Atlantic, rises 9,000 or 10,000 feet above sea level, whilst the sea between that lofty plateau and Scandinavia is the deepest known in the Polar Basin, though it is separated from the rest of the Atlantie by a broad belt or submarine plateau connecting Greenland across Iceland and the Faroes with the British islands and Europe. Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Novaya-Zemlia, the latter a continuation of the Urals, are all mountainous and full of glaciers. The glaciers of southern Alaska are some of the largest in the world. The glaciers and the icebergs have a literature of their own, and we must pass them by to say a word or two about the tundra. THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 381 THE TUNDRA. The Aretic Sea, which lies at the bottom of the Polar Basin, is fringed with a belt of bare country, sometimes steep and rocky, descending in more or less abrupt cliffs and piles of precipices to the sea, but more often sloping gently down in mud banks and sand hills representing the accumulated spoils of countless ages of annual floods, which tear up the banks of the rivers and deposit shoals of detritus at their mouths, compelling them to make deltas in their efforts to force a passage to the sea. In Norway this belt of bare country is called the fjeld, in Russia it is known as the tundra, and in America its technical name is the barren grounds. In the language of science, it is the country beyond the limit of forest growth. In exposed situations, especially in the higher latitudes, the tundra does really merit its American name of barren ground, being little else than gravel beds interspersed with bare patches of peat or clay, and with scarcely a rush or a sedge to break the monotony. In Siberia, at least, this is very exceptional. By far the greater part of the tundra, both east and west of the Ural Mountains, is a gently undulating plain, full of lakes, rivers, Swamps, and bogs. The lakes are diversified with patches of green water plants, amongst which ducks and swans float and dive; the little rivers flow between banks of rush and sedge; the swamps are masses of tall rushes and sedges of various species, where phalaropes and ruffs breed, and the bogs are brilliant with the white fluffy seeds of the cotton grass. The groundwork of all this variegated scenery is more beautiful and varied still,—lichens and moss of almost every conceivable color, from the cream-colored reindeer moss to the searlet-cupped trumpet moss, interspersed with a brilliant alpine flora, gentians, anemones, saxifrages, and hundreds of plants, each a picture in itself, the tall aconites, both the blue and yellow species, the beautiful cloudberry, with its gay white blossom and amber fruit, the fragrant Ledum palustre, and the delicate pink Andromeda polifolia. In the sheltered valleys and deep water courses a few stunted birches, and sometimes large patches of willow scrub, survive the long severe win- ter, and serve as cover for willow grouse or ptarmigan. The Lapland bunting and red-throated pipit are everywhere to be seen, and certain favored places are the breeding-grounds of plovers and sandpipers of many species. So far from meriting the name of barren ground, the tundra is for the most part a veritable paradise in summer. But it has one almost fatal drawback—it swarms with millions of mosquitoes. ARCTIC FORESTS. The tundra melts away insensibly into the forest, but isolated trees are rare, and in Siberia there is an absence of young wood on the con- fines of the tundra. The limit of forest growth appears to be retiring southward, if we may judge from the number of dead and dying stumps; 382 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. but this may be a temporary or local variation caused by exceptionally severe winters. The limit of forest growth does not coincide with the isotherms of mean annual temperature, nor with the mean temperature for January nearly so closely as it does with the mean temperature for July. It may be said to approximate very nearly to the July isotherm of 53° F. We may therefore assume that a 6-foot blanket of snow pre- vents the winter frosts from killmg the trees so long as they can be revivified by a couple of months of summer heat above 50° F. The limit of forest growth is thus directly determined by geograph- ical causes. In Alaska and in the Mackenzie Basin it extends about 200 miles above the Aretic Circle, but in eastern Canada the depres- sion of Hudson Bay acts as a vast ice-house, and the forest line falls 500 miles below the Arctie Circle, whilst on the east coast of Labrador the Arctic current from Baffins Bay sends it down nearly as far again. On the other side of the Atlantic the limit of forest growth begins on the Norwegian coast on the Arctic Circle, gradually rises until it reaches 200 miles farther north in Lapland, is depressed again by the ice-house of the White Sea, but has recovered its position in the valley of the Pechora, which is rather more than maintained until a second vast ice-house, the Sea of Okotsk, combined with Arctic currents, repeats the depression of Labrador in Chuski Land and Kamchatka, There are no trees on Novaya-Zemlia. Two or three species of wil- low grow there, but they are dwarfs, seldom attaining a height of 3 inches. Novaya-Zemlia enjoys a comparatively mild winter, the mean temperature of January, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream, being 15° F. above zero in the south and only 5° F. below zero in the north. The absence of trees 1s due to the cold summers, the mean tein- perature of July not reaching higher than 45° F. in the south, whilst in the north it only reaches 38° F. The Indians of Canada have discovered that when they want to find water in winter it is easiest reached under thick snow, the thinnest ice on the river or lake being found under the thickest blanket of snow. On the same principle the tree roots defy the severe winters protected by their snow shields; but they must have a certain temperature (above 50° F.) to hold their own in summer. The influence of the snow blanket is very marked in determining the depths to which the frost penetrates beneath it. Thus we find that a Norwegian writer, alluding to latitude 62°, remarks * that the ground is frozen from 1 to 24 feet in winter, but this depends upon how soon the snow falls. Higher up the mountains the ground Is scarcely frozen at all, owing to the snow falling sooner, and in faet if the snow falls very early lower down it is scarcely frozen to any depth.” Similar facts have been recorded from Canada in latitude 53°, “On this prairie land, when there is a good fall of snow when the winter sets in, the frost does not penetrate so deep as when there 1s no snow till late.” Another writer a little farther south, in latitude 51°, says: ‘‘I am safe THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 383 in Saying that the frost penetrates here to an average of 5 feet, except when we have had a great depth of snow in the beginning of winter, in which case it does not penetrate nearly so far.” THE STEPPE REGIONS. It is not so easy to explain the boundary line between the forest and the steppe. There are two great steppe regions in the Polar Basin, one in Asia and the other in America. The great Barabinski Steppe in southwest Siberia stretches with but slight interruptions across southern Russia into Bulgaria. The great prairie region of Minnesota and Manitoba reaches the McKenzie Basin, and outlying plains are found almost up to the Great Slave Lake. The cause of the treeless condition of the steppes or prairies has given rise to much controversy. My own experience in Siberia convinced me that the forests were rocky and the steppes covered with a deep layer of loose earth, and I came to the conclusion that on the rocky ground the roots of the trees were able to establish themselves firmly so as to defy the strongest gales, which tore them up when they were planted in light soil. Other trav- ellers have formed other opinions. Some suppose that the prairies were once covered with trees, which have been gradually destroyed by fires. Others suggest that the earth on the treeless plains contains too much salt or too little organic matter to be favorable to the growth of trees. No one, so far as | know, has suggested a climatic explanation of the circumstance. Want of drainage may produce a swamp and the defi- ciency of rainfall may cause a desert, both conditions being fatal to forest growth, but no one can mistake either of these treeless districts for a steppe or prairie. ARCTIC ANTHROPOLOGY. The anthropology of the Polar Basin presents many points of inter- est. On the American coasts of the Arctic Ocean the Eskimo lives a very similar life to the Lapp in Norway and the Samoyede in the tun- dras of Siberia. These races of men resemble each other very much in their personal appearance, and. still more so in their habits. Their straight black hair, with little or no beard, their dark and obliquely set eyes, their high cheek bones and flat noses, and their small hands and feet, testify to their Mongoloid origin. They are all indebted to the reindeer for some of their winter dress and for much of their food, and they all have dogs; but the Eskimo travels only with dogs, and the Lapp only with reindeer, whilst the Samoyede uses both dog sledges and reindeer sledges. They all lead a nomadic life, trapping fur-bearing animals in winter and fishing in summer; they resemble each other in many other customs and beliefs, but they are neverthe- less supposed to have emigrated to the Aretic regions from independ- ent sources, and many characters in which they resemble each other are supposed to have been independently acquired. 284 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. The various races which inhabit the Polar Basin below the limit of forest growth are too numerous to be considered in detail. ARCTIC ZOOLOGY. Most zoologists divide the Polar Basin into two zoological regions, or, to be strictly accurate, they include the Old World half of the Polar Basin in what they call the Palearctic region, and the New World half in the Nearetic region; but recent investigations have shown that these divisions are unnatural and can not be maintained. Some writers unite the two regions together under the name of the Holarctie region, whilst others recognize a cireumpolar Arctic region above the limit of forest growth, and unite in a second region the temperate por- tions of the Northern Hemisphere. In the opinion of the last-mentioned writers the cireumpolar Arctic region differs more trom the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere than the American portion of the latter does from the Eurasian portion. The fact is that life areas, or zoo-geographical regions, are more or less fanciful generalizations. The geographical distribution of animals, and probably also that of plants, is almost entirely dependent upon two factors, climate and isolation, the one playing quite as important a part as the other. The climate varies in respect of rain-fall and tempera- ture, and species are isolated from each other by seas and mountain ranges. The geographical facts which govern the zoological provinces consequently range themselves under these four heads. It is at once obvious that the influences which determine the geographical distribu- tion of fishes must be quite different from those which determine the distribution of mammals, since the geographical features which isolate the species in the one case are totally different from those which form impassable barriersin the other. [is equally obvious that the climate conditions which influence the geographical range of mammals must include the winter cold as well as the summer heat, whilst those which determine the geographical distribution of birds (most of which are Inigratory in the Arctic regions) are entirely independent of any amount of cold which may descend upon their breeding grounds during the months which they spend in their tropic or sub-tropie winter quarters. Hence ail attempts to divide the Polar Basin into zoological regions or provinces are futile. Nearly every group of animals has zoological regions of its own, determined by geographical features peculiar to itself, and any generalizations from these different regions can be little more than a curiosity of science. The mean temperature or distribu- tion of heat can be easily ascertained. It is easy to generalize so as to arrive at an average between the summer heat and the winter cold, because they can be both expressed in the same terms. When how- ever we seek to generalize upon the distribution of animal or vegetable life, how is it possible to arrive at a mean geographical distribution of THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 385 animals? How many genera of mollusks are equal to a genus of mammals, or how many butterflies are equal to a bird? If there be any region of the world with any claim to be a life area, it is that part of the Polar Basin which lies between the July isotherm of 50° or 53° F. and the northern limit of organic life. The former corresponds very nearly with the northern limit of forest growth, and they comprise between them the barren grounds of America and the tundras of Arctic Europe and Siberia. . The fauna and flora of this cireumpolar belt is practically homo- geneous; many species of both plants and animals range throughout its whole extent. It constitutes a cireumpolar Arctic region, and can not consistently be separated at Bering Strait into two parts of suifi- cient importance to rank even as sub-regions. Animals recognize facts and are governed by them in the extension of their ranges; they care little or nothing about generalizations. The mean temperature of a province is a matter of indifference to some plants and to most animals. The facts which govern their distribution are various, and vary according to the needs of the plant or animal concerned. To a migratory bird the mean annual temperature is a matter of supreme indifference. To a resident bird the question is equally beside the mark. The facts which govern the geographical distribution of birds are the extremes of temperature, not the means. Arctic birds are nearly all migratory. Their distribution during the breeding season depends primarily on the temperature of July, which must range between 53° and 35° F. It is very important however to remember that it is actual temperature that governs them, not iso- therms corrected to sea level. If an Arctic bird ean find a correct iso- therm below the Arctic Circle by ascending to an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the level of the sea, it avails itself of the opportunity. Thus the region of the Dovrefeld above the limit of forest growth is the breeding place of many absolutely Arctic birds; but this is not nearly so much the case on the Alps, because the cold nights vary too much from the hot days to come within the range of the birds’ breed- ing grounds. Here, again, the mean daily temperature is of no impor- tance. It is the extreme of cold which is the most potent factor in this case, and no extreme of heat can counter-balance its effect. POLAR ISOTHERMALS. Tn estimating the influence of elevation upon temperature it has been ascertained that it is necessary to deduct about 3° F. for every thou- sand feet. The isothermal lines are very eccentric in the Polar Basin, The mean temperature of summer is quite independent of that of winter. The isothermal lines of July are regulated by geographical causes which do not affect those of December or operate in a contrary direction. The Gulf Stream raises the mean temperature of Iceland during winter to the highest point which it reaches in the Polar Basin, SM 93 20 386 _ ‘THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. viz, 30° to 35° F., whilst in summer it prevents it from rising above 45° and 50° F., a range of only 15°. In the valley of the Lena, in the same latitude, the mean temperature of January is 55° to 50° F. below zero, Whilst that of July is 69° to 65° F. above zero, a range 115°. The close proximity of the Pacific Ocean has a much less effect on the mean temperature at Bering Strait, which is in the same latitude as the north of Iceland. The mean temperature for January is zero, whilst that for July is 40° F. The mean temperature for January in the same latitude in the valley of the Mackenzie is 25° below zero, whilst that for July is 55° IF’. In this case the contrast of the ranges is 40 and 80, which compared with 15 and 1151s small, but the geo. graphical conditions are not the same. Bering Sea 1s so protected by the Aleutian chain of islands that very little of the warm current from Japan reaches the straits. It is deflected southward, so the Aleutian Islands form a better basis for comparison. Their mean tem- perature for January is 35° F., whilst that for July is 50° F., precisely the same difference as that to be found in Iceland. The influence of geographical causes upon climate being at present so great, it is easy to imagine that changes in the distribution of land and water may have had an equally important influence upon the eli- mate of the Polar Basin during the recent cold age, which geologists call the Pleistocene period. It is impossible for the traveler to over. look the evidences of this so-called Glacial period in the Polar Basin; and whether we seek an explanation of the geographical phenomena from the astronomer or the geologist, or both, it is impossible to ignore the geographical interest of the subject. ARCTIC GEOLOGY. No sciences can be more intimately connected than geography and geology. A knowledge of geography is absolutely essental to the geol- ogist. To discriminate between one kind of rock and another is a comparatively small part of the work of the geologist. To ascertain the geographical distribution of the various rocks is a study of pro- found interest. If the gevlogist owes much to the geographer, the lat- ter is also largely indebted to the labors of the former. The geology of a mountain range or an extended plain is as important to the physical geographer as the knowledge of anatomy is to the figure painter. The geology of the Polar Basin is not very accurately known, and the subject is one too vast to be more than mentioned on an occasion like the present; but the evidences of a comparatively recent ice age in eastern America and western Europe are too important to be passed by without a word. In the sub-arectic regions of the world there is much evidence to show that the climate has in comparatively recent times been Arctic. The present glaciers of Central Europe were once much greater than THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 387 they are now, and even in the British Islands glaciers existed during what has been called the ice age, and the evidence of their existence in the form of rocks, upon which they have left their scratches, and heaps of stones which they have deposited in their retreat, are so obvious that he whoruns may read. Similar evidence of an ice age is found in North America, and to a limited extent in the Himalayas, but in the alluvial plains of Siberia and North Alaska, as might be expected, no trace of an ice age can be found. Croll’s hypothesis that an ice age is produced when the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is unusually great, has been generally accepted as the most plausible explanation of the facts. It is assumed that during the months of summer perihelion evaporation is extreme, and that during the months of winter aphelion the snow-fall is considerably increased. The effect of the last period of high eccentricity is supposed to have been much increased by geographical changes. The elevation of the shallow sea which connects Iceland with Greenland on the one hand, and the south of Norway and the British Islands on the other, would greatly increase the accumulation of snow and ice in those parts of the Polar Basin where evidence of a recent ice age is now to be found; whilst the depression of the lowlands on either side of the Ural Mountains so as to admit the waters of the Mediterranean through the Black and Caspian Seas, might prevent any glaciation in those parts of the Polar Basin where no evidence of such a condition is now dis- coverable. But this is a question that must be left to the geologist to decide. The extreme views of the early advocates of the theory of an ice age have been to a large extent abandoned. No one now helieves in the former existence of a Polar ice cap, and possibly, when the irresistible force of ice-dammed rivers has been fully realized, the estimated area of glaciation may be considerably reduced. The so-called great ice age may have been a great snow age, with local centers of glaciation on the higher grounds. The zoological evidence as to the nature, extent, and duration of the ice age has never been carefully collected. The attention of zoologists has unfortunately been too exclusively devoted to the almost hopeless task of theorizing upon the causes of evolution, instead of patiently cataloguing its effects. There is a mass of evidence bearing directly upon the recent changes in the climate of the Polar Basin to be found in the study of the present geographical distribution of birds. The absence of certain common British forest birds (some of them of circumpolar range sub- generically, if not specifically) from Ireland and the north of Scotland is strong confirmation of the theory that the latter countries were rot very long ago outside the limit of forest growth. The presence of species belonging to Arctic and sub-Arctic general on many of the South Pacitic islands is strong evidence that they were 388 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. compelled to emigrate in search of food by some great catastrophe, such as an abnormally heavy snow-fall, and the fact that no island contains more than one species is strong evidence that this great catastrophe has only occurred once in recent times. The occurrence of a well ree- ognized line of migration from Greenland across Iceland, the Taroes, and the British Islands to Europe is strongly suggestive of a recent elevation of the land where the more shallow sea now extends in this locality. The extraordinary similarity of the fauna and flora of the Arctic regions of the Old and the New Worlds can only be found else- where in continuous areas, and had it not been for the unfortunate division of the Arctic region into two halves, Palearctic and Nearctie, would have attracted much more attention than it has hitherto received. ARCTIC CLIMATE. The rain-fall of the Polar Basin is small compared to that with which we are familiar, but its visible effects are enormous. In Arctic Europe and Siberia it is supposed to average about 13 inches per annum; in Arctic America not more than 9 inches. The secret of its power is that about a third of the rain-fall descends in the form of snow, which melts with great suddenness. The stealthy approach of winter on the confines of the Polar Basin is in strong contrast to the catastrophe which accompanies the sudden onrush of summer. One by one the flowers fade, and go to seed if they have been fortunate enough to attract by their brilliancy a bee or other suitable pollen-bearing visitor. The birds gradually collect into flocks and prepare to wing their way to southern climes. Strange to say, it is the young birdsof each species that set the example. They are not many weeks old. They have no personal experience of migration, but nature has endowed them with an inherited impulse to leave the land of their birth before their parents. Probably they inherit the impulse to migrate without inheriting any knowledge of where their winter quarters are to be found, and by what route they are to be sought. They are sometimes, if not always, accompanied by one or two adults; it may be barren birds, or birds whose eggs or young have been destroyed, or who may therefore get over their autumn molt earlier than usual, or molt slowly as they travel southward. Of most species the adult males are the next to leave, to be followed perhaps a week later by the adult females. One by one the various migratory species disappear, until only the few resi- dent birds are left, and the Arctic forest and tundra resume the silence so conspicuous in winter. As the nights get longer the frosts bring down the leaves from the birch and the larch trees. Summer. gently falls asleep, and winter as gently steals a march upon her, with no wind * and no snow, until the frost silently lays its iron grip upon the river, which, after a few impotent struggles, yields to its fate. The first, and mayhap the second ice is broken up, and when the starrester of the THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 389 village sallies forth to peg out with rows of birch trees the winter road down the river to the next village, for which he is responsible, he has frequently to deviate widely from the direct course in his efforts to choose the smoothest ice, and find a channel between the hummoecks that continually block the way. The date upon which winter resumes his sway varies greatly in differ- ent localities, and probably the margin between an early and a late season 1s considerable. In 1876, Capt. Wiggins was frozen up in winter quarters on the Yenisei, in latitude 664°, on October 17. In. 1878 Capt. Palander was frozen up on the coast 120 miles west of Bering Strait, in latitude 673°, on September 28. The sudden arrival of summer on the Aretic Circle appears to occur nearly at the same date in all the great river basins, but the number of recorded observations is so small that the slight variation may pos- sibly be seasonal and not local. The ice on the Mackenzie River is stated by one authority to have broken up on May 13, in latitude 62°, and by another on May 9 in latitude 67°. If the Mackenzie breaks up as fast as the Yenisei—that is to say at the rate of a degree a day, an assumption which 1s supported by what little evidence can be found— then the difference between these two seasons would be nine days. My own experience has been that the ice of the Pechora breaks up ten days before that of the Yenisei, but as I have only witnessed one such event in each valley, too much importance must not be attached to the dates. According to the Challenger tables of isothermal lines, the mean temperatures of January and July on the Arctic Circle in the valleys of the Mackenzie and the Yenisei scarcely differ, the summer tempera- ture in each case being about 55° F., and that of winter —25° F., a dif- ference of 80° F. On the American side of the Polar Basin summer comes almost as sud- denly as it does on the Asiatic side, but the change appears to be less of the nature of acatastrophe. The geographical causes which produce this result are the smaller areaof the river basins and the less amount of rain-fall. There is only one large river which empties itself into the Arctic Ocean on the American side, the Mackenzie, with which may be associated the Saskatchewan, which discharges into Hudson Bay far away to the south. The basin of the Mackenzie is estimated at 590,000 square miles, whilst that of the Yenisei is supposed to be exactly twice that area. The comparative dimensions of the two summer floods are still more diminished by the difference in the quantity of snow. The snow in the Mackenzie basin is said to be from 2 to 3 feet deep, whilst that in the Yenisei. basin is from 5 to 6 feet deep, so that the spring flood in the latter river must be about five times as large as that of the former. Another feature in which the basin of the Mackenzie differs from those of the rivers in the Arctic regions of the Old World is the number of rapids and lakes contained in it. The ice in the large lakes attains 390 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. a thickness at least twice as great as that of the rapid stream, and con- sequently breaks up much later. In the Great Slave Lake theiceattains a depth of 6 to 7 feet, and even in the Athabaska Lake, in latitude 589, it reaches 4 feet. The rapids between these two lakes extend for 15 miles. The ice on the river breaks up a month before that on the lakes, so that the drainage area of the first summer flood is much restricted. The arrival of summer in the Arctic regions happens so late that the inexperienced traveller may be excused for sometimes doubting whether it really is going to come at all. When continuous night has become continuous day without any perceptible approach to spring, an Alpine traveller naturally asks whether he has not reached the limit of perpet- ual snow. Itis true that here and there a few bare patches are to be found on the steepest slopes where most of the snowthas been blown away by the wind, especially if these slopes face the south, where even an Aretic sun has more potency than it has elsewhere. It is also true that small flocks of little birds—at first snow buntings and mealy red- poles, and latershorelarks and Lapland buntings—may beobserved to flit from one of these bare places to another looking for seeds or some other kind of food, but after all, evidently finding most of it in the droppings of the peasants’ horses on the hard snow-covered roads. The appearance of these little birds does not however give the same confidence in the eventual coming of summer to the Arctic naturalist as the arrival of the swallow or the cuckoo does to his brethren in the, sub-arctie and sub- tropic climates. The four little birds just mentioned are only gipsy migrants that are perpetually flitting to and fro on the confines of the frost, continually being driven south by snow-storms, but ever ready to take advantage of the slightest thaw to press northward again to their favorite Aretic home. They are all circumpolar in their distributions, are as common in Siberia as in Lapland, and range across Canada to Alaska, as well as to Greenland. In sub-aretic climates we see them only in winter, so that their appearance does not in the least degree suggest the arrival of summer to the traveller from the south, The gradual rise in the level of the river inspires no more confidence in the final melting away of the snow and the disruption of the ice which supports it. In Siberia the rivers are so enormous that a rise of 5 or 6 teet is scarcely perceptible, The Yenisei is 5 miles wide at the Arctic Circle, and as fast as it rises the open water at the margin freezes up again and is soon covered with the drifting snow. During the summer which I spent in the valley of the Yenisei we had 6 feet of snow on the ground until the Ist of June. To all intents and purposes it was mid-winter, illuminated for the nonce with what amounted to con- tinuous daylight. The light was a little duller at midnight, but not so much so as during the occasional snowstorms that swept through the forest and drifted up the broad river bed. During the month of May there were a few signs of the possibility of some mitigation of the rigors of winter. Now and then there was a little rain, but it was THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 391 always followed by frost. If it thawed one day, it froze the next, and little or no impression was made on the snow. The most tangible sign of coming summer was an increase in the number of birds, but they were nearly all forest birds, which could enjoy the sunshine in the pines and birches, and which were by no means dependent on the melt- ing away of the snow for their supply of food. Between May 16 and 30 we had more definite evidence of our being within bird flight of bare grass or open water. Migratory flocks of wild geese passed over our winter quarters, but if they were flying north one day they were flying south the next, proving beyond all doubt that their migration was premature. The geese evidently agreed with us that it ought to be summer, but it was as clear to the geese as to us that it really was winter. We. afterward learned that during the last ten days of May a tre- mendous battle had been raging 609 miles, as the crow flies, to the southward of our position on the Arctic Circle. Summer in league with the sun had been fighting winter and the north wind all along the line, and had been as hopelessly beaten everywhere as we were witnesses that it had been in our part of the river. At length, when the final victory of summer looked the most hopeless, a change was made in the command of the forces. Summer entered into an alliance with the south wind. The sun retired in dudgeon to his tent behind the clouds; mists obscured the landscape; a soft south wind played gently on the snow, which melted under its all-powerful influence like butter upon hot toast; the tide of battle was suddenly turned; the armies of winter soon vanished into thin water and beat a hasty retreat toward the pole. Theeffect on the great river was magical. Its thick armor of ice cracked with a loud noise like the rattling of thunder; every twenty-four hours it was lifted up a fathom above its former level, broken up, first into ice floes and then into pack ice, and marched downstream at least 100 miles. Even at this great speed it was more than a fortnight before the last straggling ice blocks passed our post of observation on the Arctic Circle; but during that time the river had risen 70 feet above its winter level, although it was 5 miles wide and we were in the middle of a blazing hot summer, picking flowers of a hundred different kinds and feasting upon wild ducks’ eggs of various species. Birds abounded to an incredible extent. Between May 29 and June 18 I identified sixty-four species which I had not seen before the break-up of the ice. Some of them stopped to breed and already had eggs, but many of them followed the retreating ice to the tundra, and we saw them no more until, many weeks afterward, we had sailed down the river beyond the limit of forest growth. The victory of the south wind was absolute, but not entirely unin- terrupted. Occasionally the winter made a desperate stand against the sudden onrush of summer. The north wind rallied its beaten forces for days together, the clouds and the rain were driven back, and 392 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. the half-melted snow frozen on the surface. But it was too late; there were nany large patches of dark ground which rapidly absorbed the sun’s heat, the snow melted under the frozen crust, and its final col- lapse was as rapid as it was complete. In the basin of the Yenisei the average thickness of the snow at the end of winter is about 5 feet. The sudden transformation of this immense continent of snow, which lies as gently on the earth as an eider-down quilt upon a bed, into an ocean of water rushing madly down to the sea, tearing everything up that comes into its way, is a gigantie display of power, compared with which an earthquake sinks into insignificance. It is difficult to imagine the chaos of water which must have deluged the country before the river beds were worn wide enough and deep enough to carry the water away as quickly as is the vase now. If we take the Lower Yenisei as an example, it may be pos- sible to form some conception of the work which has already been done. At Yeniseisk the channel is about a mile wide; 800 miles lower down (measuring the windings of the river), at the village of Kureika, it is about 3 miles wide; and following the mighty stream for about another 800 miles down to the Brekoffsky Islands, it is nearly 6 miles wide, The depth of the channel varies from 50 to 100 feet above the winter level of the ice. This ice is about 3 feet thick, covered with 6 feet of show, which becomes flooded shortly before the break-up and con- verted into about 3 feet of ice, white as marble, which lies above the winter blue ice. When the final erash comes, this field of thick ice is shattered like glass. The irresistible force of the flood behind tears it up at an average rate of 4 miles an hour, or about 100 miles a day, and drives it down to the sea in the form of ice floes and pack ice. Occasionally a narrow part of the channel or a sharp bend of the river eauses a temporary check; but the pressure from behind is irresistible, the pack ice is piled into heaps, and the ice floes are doubled up into little mountains, which rapidly freeze together into icebergs, which float off the banks as the water rises. Meanwhile, other ice floes come up behind; some are driven into the forests, where the largest trees are mown down by them like grass, whilst others press on until the barrier gives way and the waters, suddenly let loose, rush along at double speed, carrying the icebergs with them with irresistible force, the pent-up dam which has accumulated in the rear often covering hun- dreds of square miles. In very little more than a week the ice on the 800 miles, from Yeniseisk to the Kureika, is completely broken up, and in little more than another week the second 800 miles, from the Kureika to the Brekoffsky Islands, is in the same condition. During the glacial epoch the annual fight between winter and the sun nearly always ended in the victory of the former. Even now the fight is a very desperate one within the Polar Circle and is subject to much geographical variation. The sun alone has little or no chance. The armies of winter are clad in white armor, absolutely proof against THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. 393 the sun’s darts, which glance harmlessly on 6 feet of snow. In these high latitudes the angle of incidence is yery small, even at midday in midsummer. The sun’s rays are reflected back into the dry air with as little effect as a shell which strikes obliquely against an armor plate. But the sun does not fight his battle alone. He has allies which, like the arrival of the Prussians on the field of Waterloo, finally determine the issue of the battle in his favor. The tide of victory turns earliest in Norway, although the Scandinavian Fjeld forms a magnificent for- tress, in which the-forces of winter intrench themselves in vain. This fortress looks as impregnable as that on the opposite coast, and would doubtless prove so were it not for the fact that in this part of the Polar Basin the sun has a most potent ally in the Gulf Stream, which soon routs the armies of winter and compels the fortress to capitulate. The suddenness of the arrival of summer in Siberia is probably largely due to the geographical features of the country. In consequence of the vastness of the area which is drained by the great rivers, and the immense volume of water which they have to carry to the sea, the break up of the ice in their lower valleys precedes, instead of being caused by, the melting of the snow toward the limit of forest growth. The ice on the effluents either breaks up after that on the main river, or is broken up by irresistible currents from it which flow up stream,— an anomaly for which the pioneer voyager is seldom prepared; and when the captain bas escaped the danger of battling against an attack of pack ice and ice floes from a quarter whence it was entirely unex- pected, he may be suddenly called upon to face a second army of more formidahle ice floes and pack ice from the great river itself, and if his ship survive the second attack a third danger awaits him in the alter- nate rise and fall of the tributary as each successive barrier where the ice gets jammed in its march down the main stream below the junction of the river accumulates until the pressure from behind becomes irre- sistible, when it suddenly gives way. This alternate advance and retreat of the beaten armies of winter continued for about ten days during the battle between summer and winter of which I was a witness in the valley of the Yenisei. On one occasion I caleulated that at least 50,000 acres of pack ice and ice floes had been marched up the Kureika. The marvel is what became of it. To all appearance half of it never came back. Some of it no doubt melted away during the ten days’ marches and countermarches; some drifted away from the river on the flooded places, which are often many square miles in extent; some got lost in the adjoining forests, and was doubtless stranded among the trees when the flood subsided; and some were piled up in layers one upon the top of the other, which more or less imperfectly froze together and formed icebergs of various shapes and sizes. Some of the icebergs which we saw going down the main stream were of great size, and as ‘nearly as we could estimate stood from 20 to 30 feet above the surface of the water. These immense blocks appeared to be moving at the rate of from 10 to 20 miles an hour. The grinding together of the 394 THE NORTH POLAR BASIN. Sharp edges of the innumerable masses of ice as they were driven down stream by the irresistible pressure from behind produced a shrill rustling sound that could be heard a mile from the river. The alternate marching of this immense quantity of-ice up and down the Kureika was a most curious phenomenon. To see a strong current up streain for many hours is so contrary to all previous experience of the behavior of rivers that one can not help feeling continuous aston- ishinent at the novel sight. The monotony which might otherwise have intervened in a ten days’ march past of 1ce was continually broken by complete changes in the scene. Sometimes tie current was up stream, sometimes it was down, and occasionally there was no current at all. Frequently the pack ice and ice floes were so closely jammed together that there was no apparent difficulty in scrambling across them, and occasionally the river was free from ice for a short time. At other times the river was thinly sprinkled over with ice blocks and little ice- bergs, which occasionally “calved” as they travelled on, with much commotion and splashing. The phenomenon technically called ‘ caly- ing” is curious, and sometimes quite startling. It takes place when a number of scattered ice blocks are quetly floating down stream. All attonce a loud splash is heard as a huge lump of ice rises out of the water, evidently from a considerable depth, like a young whale coming up to breathe, noisily beats back the waves that the sudden upheavel has caused, and rocks to and fro for some time before it finally settles down to its floating level. There can be httle doubt that what looks like a comparatively small ice block floating innocently along is really the top of a formidable iceberg, the greater part of which is a sub- merged mass of layers of ice piled one on the top of the other, and in many places very imperfectly frozen together. By some accident, per- haps by grounding on a hidden sandbank, perhaps by the water get- ting between the layers and thawing the few places where they are frozen together, the bottom layer becomes detached, escapes to the surtace, and loudly asserts its commencement of an independent exist- ence with the commotion in the water which generally proclaims the fact that an iceberg has calved. Finally comes the last march-past of the beaten forces of winter, the ragtag and bobtail of the great Arctic army that comesstraggling down the river when the campaign is all over—worn and weather-beaten lit- tle icebergs, dirty ice floes that look like floating sandbanks, and strag- gling pack ice in the last stages of consumption that looks strangely out of place under a burning sun between banks gay with the gayest flowers, amidst the buzz of mosquitoes, the musie of song birds, and the harsh ery of gulls, divers, ducks, and sandpipers of various species. I have been thus diffuse in describing these scenes, in the first place, because they are very grand; in the second place, because they have so important a bearing upon climate, one of the great factors which determine the geographical distribution of animals and plants; and in the third place, because they have never been sufficiently emphasized. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XX. 3f 170° Fox Is Wa ats ey NO N con End Pra ay ete aul > Sound yan. Land, AROTIC 5 AG oy an aM Bathurst I. yrinnell Lil. ARCHITELAGO Cy. Cory wall__ FC.Wi pene a Gulf of — V Vimkw TA ‘ UNEXPLORED t AC. Columbia . Dr.Nansen's Projected Route 20° Lintoln Sea Jaton) iis ip L% / as Anadyr. Ay, 2 or ¢ 4p Fea es Peg == SS, recta alain ‘ 4 , i NORTII POLE es ‘ en ais Wr ven ®\ \ / u U / Petermann Ld. m=) € a — nN 2 ie Pr.Rudolph Ld. > SS Witz atta. CG. Murine Been th es Lee Clintock ig King Oscar Ld.~ Zichy Ld. Gilles~ T., a +e ye: NS 3e/ /80° STinloven Str, ee 7 Cahindng: . . “"% » ES Se ap Se AS x Pe White Pay? yen bY Awe % Y eae iN Repwina) i Lofolens 1 pe S rota cAizey / ‘ Tron spree pe! The Nax Alerdeen g |NORTH mene: Pena Cope ae oy New capil ‘SEA \Hult ne pool ENCE: ND . Lembat g ARCTIC REGIONS. (Reproduced from Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1892.) Moss Eng. Co. N.', Witte. Fle : ie es : ? 7? ie iF. hae -* ios « oS Ce fae ed = + es x pid een ae As t i a tees a aa « > 1 5 he — Po wae ? ay v2 a4 oy i a? 2*0 ee 7 7 By mee Gir Co os it 1! ig a a 5) Bare i, See ee er ee es om My oi cae A Me iy ee ee Py THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY + By CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F. R.S. The work of geographical discovery, during living memory, has pro- ceeded with such rapidity that many of us have been half inclined to think that there 1s little left to be done. Brilliantly successful expedi- tions have traversed the unknown parts of the great continents, blank ‘es on our maps have been filled up year after year, entrancing nar- ratives of perilous adventure have held us in rapt attention during each succeeding session, until we are tempted to believe that the glori- ous tale is nearly told. But this is very far indeed from being the case. There are still wide tracts, in all the great divisions of the earth, which are unknown to us, and which will furnish work to explorers for many years to come, while the examination ef ocean depths is an important task which has but lately been commenced. Moreover, there are regions of vast extent which are only very partially known to us, the more detailed examination of which will enable explorers to collect geo- graphical information of the highest value and of the greatest interest. It is from the methodical study of limited areas that science derives the most satisfactory results. When such investigations are commenced it is found how meager and inaccurate previous knowledge derived from the cursory information, picked up during some rapid march, had been. A detailed scientific monograph on a little known region of comparatively small extent supplies work of absorbing interest to the explorer, while he has the satisfaction of knowing that his labors will be of lasting value and utility. There is sufficient work of this less ambitious, but not less serviceable kind to occupy a whole army of field geographers for many decades. Exact delineation, by trigonometrical measurement, is our crowning work. It is barely commenced. With the exception of countries in Europe, British India, the coast of the United States, and a small part of its interior, the whole world is still unmapped. Supposing that the surface of the earth does not undergo changes, our work will be completed centuries hence, when all the regions of the earth have been discovered, have been explored in detail, ~Opening address of the president, delivered at the meeting of the Royal Geo- graphical Society, November 13, 1893. (The Geographical Journal, London, vol. 1, pp. 481-504. ) 395 396 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY and have been scientifically mapped. As the earth’s surface is in con- stant process of change, our work will never be completed, and we must as arace of men labor at it without ceasing. We of this generation have received the torch of geographical knowledge from our fathers. It is for us to diffuse its light over a wider and wider circle while we live, and to hand it on, still burning brightly, to our descendants. All of us, all the Fellows of this great Society, ought to work in our several lines and capacities, for all can help in the diffusion of the light of knowledge, some in one way, some in another. I have thought, therefore, that we might usefully set apart the opening night of our present session for taking a survey; it must necessarily be a rough and incomplete survey, but still a general survey of some of the work that is before us; of the regions that are still unknown and await discov- ery, of the tracts that seem most to need more detailed exploration, and of the principal geographical problems that remain to be solved. We may also glance at the ways in which our society has furnished in. the past, and may still more in the future furnish aid toward further- ing and helping in the great work that is always before us. The Polar areas contain by far the most extensive unknown tracts on the globe. Explorers and geographers have been occupied with the Arctic regions for the last three centuries, and more especially during the Jast century. Their labors have added a very bright page to the story of British maritime achievement. The expeditions have brought back abundant valuable results in all branches of science, and by open- ing the way to lucrative fisheries have increased the wealth of the nation. But their great use has been that to which Lord Beaconsfield referred in 1874, ‘“‘the importance of encouraging that spirit of enter- prise which has ever distinguished the English people.” At present it is our watch below as regards the Arctic regions. We have taken a back seat, from which we look on while others do the work. Mr. Peary, after a very perilous and adventurous reconnaissance last year, is now preparing, amidst all the hardships of an Arctic winter, for a supreme effort to solve one of the great remaining geographical problems, the insularity of Greenland. Our gallant friend Nansen is engaged upon a still more heroic enterprise. I believe that the argument on which his proceedings are based is sound. I know that if thorough knowledge, mature reflection, courage of the highest order, indomitable persever- anee, and the faculty for command can secure success Nansen is the man to achieve it. But the natural obstacles are very great, and it may well be beyond human power to overcome them. We can only give these gallant men our warmest sympathy, and resolve that our welcome on their return shall be hearty and cordial. But even when the great geographical problems with which Nansen and Peary are now grappling have been fully solved there will still be a vast unknown area within the Aretie Cirele and much important work to be done. For several reasons I believe that there is land between Prince THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 397 Patrick Island and Siberia which ought to be discovered. The extent of the ancient ice ought to be ascertained by an expedition up Jones Sound. Franz Josef Land, particularly the coasts and islands on its northern face, offer materials of peculiar interest to the explorer. Mr. Jackson, who left last suminer to explore the Yalmal Peninsula, has proposed to lead an expedition in this direction. The difficulties will be formidable and ought not to be disguised, but the value of the scien- tific results to be attained are well worth the unavoidable risk. Another direction for research is the area immediately to the north of Cape Chelyuskin, in Siberia, where Lieut. Hovgaard, on plausible grounds, believes that there is extensive land. it will occupy at least five sue- cessive Arctic expeditions, all entirely successful, to complete our knowl- edge of the North Polar area, and this society ought never to rest satis- fied until the work is thoroughly done. For it must be borne in mind that this work will not only unfold to us the varied phenomena of the unknown regions. The -earth’s surface is a connected whole and its phenomena are inter-dependent. For example, the climate of Europe, as was pointed out in 18735, in no small degree depends on the atmos- pheric conditions of the Polar area. For the satisfactory appreciation of these phenomena a precise acquaintance with the distribution of land and water north of the Arctic Cirele is quite necessary, and of that our knowledge is still very unlimited, If a vast extent of the North Polar area is still unknown, and if, as is undoubtedly the case, its complete examination is a scientific desideratum, how much more is this the case within the South Polar area? The Antarctic regions, with millions of unknown square miles full of geographical work, and teeming with the most interesting scientific problems, have been totally neglected by us for half a century. It is not necessary that I should say more, because at our next meeting Dr. John Murray will address us fully on the important results to be derived from Antarctic discovery, and stir up our enthusiasm as geog- raphers and our patriotism as Britons so that we may all combine in a hearty effort to procure the renewal of Antarctic research. Certainly fifty years is a long time for us to have totally neglected so vast and so important a field for geographical discovery. We may now look forward to a most interesting Antarctic meeting on November 27, and, mean- while, we will continue our survey of the other parts of the world, which either need further exploration or are entirely unknown. There is plenty of interesting work even in our quarter of the globe, although thereare now no discoveries to bemade. Eveninourownislands some of the lakes are unsurveyed and were not systematically sounded until our accomplished librarian began the useful work in Cumberland this year. The topography of the Alps may be considered to be fairly complete, but there are still physical inquiries of great interest which commend themselves to scientific Alpine travelers, such as the extent and action of ice, the oscillations of glaciers, the origin of the Fohn 398 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. wind, and the effects of the destruction of forests. The historical geogra- phy of the Alps is also in process of elucidation, and in this department our associate, the Rey. W. B. Coolidge, of Magdalen College, Oxford, is one of the most industrious workers, but much remains to be done. It will be remembered too that our secretary, Mr. Douglas Freshfield, has written a paper on the long-disputed passage of the Alps by Han- nmibal, and, although his solution of the question has not been univer- sally accepted, it is adopted in the latest edition of Arnold’s ‘* Rome.” Beyond the Alps there is need of a fuller description of the Cantabrian Highlands along the north of Spain, but it is the Balkan Peninsula which offers the best new ground in Europe for mountain travelers. This year our Oxford travelling scholar, Mr. Cozens-Hardy, has been investigating one of the least-explored and worst-mapped regions in Europe, that on the frontiers of Montenegro. The value of his work is best shown by the fact that the intelligence department has under- taken the production of a map based on his observations. On the border-land of Europe and Asia the Caucasus has been revealed to us, and we have been made familiar with the splendor of its forests and frozen crests within the last quarter of a century, thanks to our gold medallist, Dr. Radde, and other Alpine climbers. In this region Signor W. Sella, our honorary associate, M. de Deeby, and Mr. H. Woolley have conspicuously proved what photography can do to present a living picture of the physical features and of the inhabitants of a hitherto little known country. Recently the Russian Government has under- taken a survey of the Caucasus, and the results, as far as they are available, reflect the highest credit on the officers employed; but the range is of great extent, and here there is plenty of room for mountain travelers to break new ground, The regions not yet traversed by explorers on the continent of Africa have shrunk very considerably since | became a fellow of this society. Barth and Vogel were then at work in the direction of Timbuctoo and Lake Chad, Dr. Baikie was on the Niger, Dr. Livingstone was making his way to the coast at Loando, and Mr. Galton’s companion, Anderssen, had reached Lake Ngami; Burton had just proposed his expedition to Harar. Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza, and Nyasa, the falls of the Zambesi, the heights of Kilimanjaro and Kenia had not been heard of. In those days almost every expedition that was sent into Africa revealed to us some geographical feature of commanding importance corroborat- ing or refuting the theories and speculations of students. At present there are only three regions, in Africa, of considerable area which offer opportunities for discovery on a large scale, namely, the Sahara, the region adjoining it to the south, and extending across Wadai to the watersheds of the Congo and Nile, and the region to the eastof the Upper Nile, stretching south of Abyssinia, through the lands of the Gallas and Somalis, to the eastern seaboard of the continent. THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 399 In the Sahara there are more especially two districts which would reward an enterprising explorer. One has for its center the highlands of Tibesti, for our knowledge of which we are solely dependent on the reports of Nachtigal and Gerhard Rohlfs. The other is the highland of Ahaggar. Col. Flatters lost his life in an attempt to explore it in 1881, yet the difficulties can not be insurmountable. Great interest attaches to a thorough examination of the Atlas Mountains, but they are still rendered inaccessible in some parts by fanatical tribes. The second large unknown African region includes Wadai and the districts lying between the scene of Junker’s exploration in the east and the route recently taken by M. Maistre, in his journey from the Ubangi to the Shari. Wadai has only been visited by three Europeans. Dr. Vogel was murdered at Wara in 1856, and his diaries have never been recovered. Nachtigal crossed the country from west to east in 1873. Lieut. Masari did so in the opposite direction in 1880, A Euro- pean traveller would doubtless meet with considerable difficulties in an exploration of Wadai proper, but the outlying districts of this region certainly deserve attention, and they are now much more easily acces- sible from the Ubagni- Welle, or the upper Benue, than they were some years ago. Far more interesting, however, is the vast region, the greater part of which is unexplored, which stretches from the Upper Nile to the Indian Ocean. It includes not only the territories of the Galla and Somali, but also those highlands to the south of Abyssinia, where little progress has been made since the visit of D’Abbadie to Kaffa in 1845. There are commercial as well as geographical motives for opening up these almost unknown highlands. When I was at Senafe, in Abyssinia, a merchant arrived from Kaffa or Enarea with donkeys laden with coffee. Thad an interesting conversation with him, Dr. Krapf acting as my interpreter. The man said that he had crossed the whole of Abyssinia to find a market for his goods, and that he was on his way to Massawa. We afterward heard that he was robbed and murdered in the Dagonta Pass; so that he never reached his market. This incident has always given me a special interest in the highlands south of Abyssinia; and parts of them have recently been visited by Italian travellers. Chiarini and Ceechi made their way from Shoa to Kaffa, Soleillet reached Kaffa in 1882, Borelli explored the sources of the Hawash in 1888, and reached the Omo flowing to Lake Rudolf, and Dr. Traversi examined the upper Hawash, and Dr. Stecker reached Lake Zuway. The inter- esting lake district to the south of Shoa is probably most accessible from the north. But assaults should be made on the southern extremity of the great Abyssinian Mountain plateau. from the east or the south, by expeditions starting from Kisimayu or Lake Rudolf. Mr, Chanler, with Lieut. H6hnel and Capt. Bottego,, who are at present in the field, may possibly solve the problem of the sources of the Jub, but even if 400 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. they do succeed there will still remain splendid opportunities for future expeditions.* The Italians have recently made great efforts to ascertain the geo- graphical features of the Somali country. Signor Bricchetti-Robecchi, especially, has travelled along the whole coast from Mukadisho to Allula, and has also crossed the Somali country from Obbia on the shore of the Indian Ocean to Berbera on the Gulf of Aden. We had the pleasure of welcoming this ardent explorer in the autumn. He had previously written a charming book describing his visit to the oasis of Jupiter Ammon. The country west of the Jub lies within the British sphere of influ- ence, and the interests of geography, no less than those of commerce, make it desirable that its exploration should be undertaken by British travelers. As soon as friendly relations can be established with the Somali and Galla living at the back of Kisimayu, an expedition into the country of the Borana Galla ought not to meet with insuperable difficulties. Camels, horses, and donkeys are procurable there, so that the work of explorers would be much facilitated. A depot might be established on or near Lake Rudolf, a district which is said to be rich in ivory, and relations might then be established with the tribes inter- vening between that lake and the highlands south of Abyssinia, includ- ing Kaffa and Enarea. Exploring journeys both from the Shoa coun- try to the south, or northward from Lake Rudolf, would lead toa region which, although the last to be taken in hand, is certainly one of the most interesting in the interior of Africa. Outside the regions just referred to we may be said to have obtained a fair knowledge of the general geographical features of the African continent. Much detail remains to be filled in, and much of the work, executed in a hasty and superficial manner, requires to be done over again. There are also regions of great interest which have been visited, but which will well repay detailed examination. The moun- tains of Ruwenzori were discovered by Stanley, and have since been passed on the west side by Stuhimann. Capt. Lugard, whom you had the pleasure of welcoming from Uganda in the last session, was the first to pass them on the eastern side. These mountains and the coun- try between them and Lake Tanganyika comprise a piece of work which Mr. Scott Elliot has just set out with the intention of carefully exe euting. Most valuable results may, I think, be anticipated from hit labors. ag Excellent work of the same character has just been completed by our correspondent, Dr. Gregory, on Mount Kenia, and we anticipate a most interesting paper from this accomplished explorer in the course of the session. Many of the itineraries which crowd and fill up our maps are based —— ae * Capt, Bottego has since returned to Europe. THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 401 upon very imperfect materials. Mr. Ravenstein, whose unrivalled knowledge of all that concerns the mapping of Africa is well known, has pointed out to me the want of reliable scientific observations even on routes which have been traversed several times. It is not pos- sible to lay them down on a map with confidence in consequence of these deficiencies. The Victoria lalls of the Zambesi, for instance, have been visited by scores of travellers, but their exact geographical position is still uncertain. Careful astronomical observations have never been taken there. Then, again, the statements as to the height of Lake Ngami above the sea actually vary between 2,260 and 3,700 feet. The Tioge, which enters that lake on the north, has been repeatedly ascended, but observations for latitude have never been taken. Sim- ilar instances of opportunities neglected might be adduced from all parts of Africa, the most deplorable one being that of the now aban- doned Egyptian Sudan, where an extensive net of telegraphic wires was never utilized for determining the longitudes of Khartoom and other places of importance. On the other hand, we must remember the admirable work done by our distinguished gold-medallist, Mr. O’Neili, in fixing the position of Blantyre. Equally careful observations have been taken by the Belgian officers in the basin of the Congo and on the shoresof Lake Tanganyika, Nor must I fail to record the good work of the members of the Anglo. Portuguese, Anglo-French, and Anglo-German boundary commissions, and of the officers of the Royal Engineers who carried out the surveys for a proposed Mombasa-Victoria railway. We must recognize estab- lished facts. It is the work of scientific and carefully trained explorers that we now need in Africa. The time for desultory exploring expe- ditions is past. Some parts of Africa, including Algeria and Tunis, Cape Colony, Natal, and Eritrea are now actually being surveyed. An extension of such surveys, on the system proposed by Col. Trotter at the Cardiff meeting of the British Association, to other districts already occupied by Europeans is much to be desired. In the end they would prove cheaper than repeated expeditions yielding imperfect or unrelia- ble materials for the map-maker. Their extension over the greater part of Africa can not of course be thought of for many years to come. But I believe that it would be quite possible to drive certain carefully selected trunk lines across the continent which would serve as bases for all future exploration, and which would enable us to utilize existing materials far more efficiently than can be done at present. The positions of the main stations on these trunk lines would be carefully fixed by astronomical observations, and there should be a number of meteorological stations supplied with standard barometers, so that we may be able to compute our aneroid observations with some confidence in the results. Such isthe work of the future as regards the African continent. There are two great areas of the Sahara to be discovered. There 1s Wadai SM 93 26 402 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. to be explored. We hope that a well-equipped English expedition will, before very long, set out from a base on Lake Rudolf and penetrate the highland regions south of Abyssinia. Wealso hope to receive much valuable geographical information from the contemplated work of the Hausa Association. There are numerous pieces of local exploration, such as the work undertaken by Mr. Scott Elhot in the Ruwenzori, which are both interesting and important. Lastly, there is the estab- lishment of lines of fixed positions and of meteorological stations which ought to be kept steadily in view by us and pushed forward as opportunity offers. This is the pioneer work which will keep well in: advance of the regular surveys. The pace of African discovery, during my time, has been fast and furious. Hereafter it will be more steady and the work will be more scientific. We are proud, as a nation, of the illustrious men who, in the face of appalling sufferings and hardships, and in spite of what might well appear insuperable difficulties, have | supplied us, in a comparatively short number of years, with a general knowledge of the interior of Africa. We shall have to ask for equally high qualifications as travellers from those who will, in the future, emulate the examples of Livingstone aud Burton, of Speke and Grant, of Cameron and Stanley, and also for scientific attainments of a high order. That the right men will come to the front, who can doubt? Some, indeed, are already in the field. We must not, however, forget the warning voice of my illustrious predecessor, Sir Bartle Frere. ‘No country,” he said, ‘‘ possesses the best raw material in such perfection as Great Britain. The strong physical constitution, the buoyant energy, the keen power of observation, the good-humored indifference to opposition and danger, the determination not to be beaten, aremore common among our youth, more lasting among our seniors, than in. most other races. But this very abundance of natural gifts is apt to give us a dangerous contempt for artificial culture. How often have our working geographers lamented the neglect of systematic training by some of our most enterprising travellers.” These wise words were addressed to you twenty years ago, and I believe they were taken to heart. Our young explorers now pay much more attention to their scientific training than they did formerly. There is plenty of important work and plenty of very hard work in Africa still, and I am confident that Britain will produce the right men to do it, and to doit well. If there are sucking Wellingtons and Nelsons among us, there are also sucking Burtons and Livingstones. The magnificent raw material sur- rounds us, and the men who possess the physical advantages enumer- ated by Sir Bartle Frere will surely add to them the needful scientifie knowledge when they tind that they must qualify to become good explorers. As our country has produced great African travellers in the past, so she will send them forth in the future. As long as there is work to be done, I say again that there will be no lack of volunteers. In the continent of Asia British geographers have been very active THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 403 during the present century. They have made a trigonometrical survey of India, and we know what those few words signify, what high scientific attainments were required, what hardships and dangers had to be encountered, what heavy loss of life was entailed, and we also know how fruitful were the results. The names of Rennell, of Everest, of Waugh, of Montgomerie, and of our eminent colleagues Gens. James T. Walker and Sir Henry Thuillier, will forever occupy very honorable niches in our geographical temple. British explorers have also surveyed and mapped Mesopotamia and Syria, Persia and Afghanistan; they have navigated the Chinese rivers, penetrated over the passes of the Hima- laya, traversed the deserts of Manchuria and Turkistan, and discovered the source of the Oxus. Still they have left a great deal for their sue- cessors to do. Perhaps the most interesting and important unknown Asiatic region is the southern part of Arabia, from Yemen on the west to Oman on the east, and between the sea coast and the states of Nejd in the interior. This unknown region is upward of 450 miles in extent, both in length and breadth. Hadramaut, with its lofty mountains and cultivated ravines, its settled population and historic past, is almost a sealed book to us. The little we know is derived from the narrative of journeys made by Baron von Wrede in 1843, and from the more recent excursion of Col. Milesin 1870. Wrede’s stories of Himyaritie inserip- tions, wild mountain passes, mysterious quicksands, and terraced cul- tivation only quicken our longing to know more. Hadramaut, like the Antarctic continent, has been totally neglected by us for halfa century. I am happy to be able to announce to you that our accomplished asso- ciates, Mr. and Mrs. Bent, accompanied by a Mohammedan surveyor from India and other assistants, are about to undertake the explora- tion of this practically unknown region. The excellent work they have already accomplished gives us the assurance that when we welcome their return we shall find that they have brought back a rich store of valuable and interesting information. Leaving Arabia and Syria, we find much work yet to be done in Asia Minor. The most important unexplored field includes the upper valley of the Euphrates and Eastern Cappadocia, and toward this part of the work our society has already made a liberal contribution. Next, turning our attention to Persia, we come to a country which has been explored and reported upon by many of our countrymen since the days of Sir John Malcolm, and which has now, thanks to our colleague, Mr. Curzon, been admirably mapped. Yet even here, as I am informed by Mr. Curzon, plenty of useful geographical work remains to be done; while a good deal of information that has been collected by officers dispatched by the intelligence department at Simla continues to be * secret and confidential.” Thus there are several gaps which it is in the power of private travelers to fill in, so that Persia still affords an interesting and far from exhausted field for geographers. 404 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. Entering from the west, although the frontier province of Azerbaijan has, in its northern half, been systematically explored and mapped by Russian surveyors, in its southern parts and on the Turkish border attention might usefully be paid to the Persian Kurds, both nomad and sendentary, the former mostly in the mountains, the latter in the triangle of which the three points are Suj-Bulah, Bijar, and Sinna. Farther south, Luristan still remains unexplored in many parts, espe- cially in the western subdivision called Pusht-i-Kuh, the home of the Feili Lurs. Since Sir Henry Rawlinson and Sir A. Layard were there fifty years ago these regions have been almost unvisited. Again, to the west of the route, from Tehran to Ispahan, there is a number of small districts which are very imperfectly known; while west of the road from Ispahan to Shiraz there is an absolute blank on the thirty- third parallel, between Kumishahand Yezd. Farther south, the Basha- kerd province and Persian Baluchistan are very little known and largely unexplored, and in Luristan there is a blank space on the maps between the coast range and the caravan route from Faizabad to Lar. So that it will be seen that there is a great deal to which a young geographer might devote his energies in Persia. The same may be said of Balu- chistan, where, between Kharan and the Mekran coast, except along the old Kafilah route from Lus-Bela to Panjgur (which was traversed by Sir R. Sandeman in 1890), the map 1s almost a blank. Parts of Afghanistan are very dangerous for Europeans to be employed in, and our knowledge of the mountain ranges between Kabul and Herat, which are occupied by the Hazara and other tribes, is most inadequate. Ourignorance of Kafiristanis complete. Westill know nothing whatever of that interesting country, and its explora- tion is very desirable. Officers have been on its frontier—Col. Tanner on the side of the Kunar River, my old friend, Sir William Lockhart, on the north, and the late Mr. MeNair from the side of Chitral. But the country itself, from the passes of the Hindu Kush to the banks of the Kunar, is unknown. Its exploration is one of the great geograph- ical achievements that remain to be done in Asia. The results would be important both from a political, a geographical, and possibly acom- mercial point of view, and there could be few nobler ambitions for a young aspirant than to be the first explorer of Kafiristan. In south- ern Afghanistan much also remains to be done, as, for instance, inthe tracts to the west of the British frontier, between the Zhob and Kur- ram valleys. The Pamir table-land has been largely explored by several European travelers; but there is plenty of room tor further work, and a sys- tematic survey of the whole region would be a valuable contribution to geography. Farther to the east the plains of Turkistan have been elaborately explored, and are sufficiently well known. The mountains and hills to the south, however, being spurs from the Mustagh-Hima- layan ranges, are very imperfectly understood. It 1s doubtful, for THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 405 instance, whether the Yarkand River, which rises in those ranges, flows some distance westward before it enters the plain, or whether it breaks through the mountains 20 or 40 miles to the east and proceeds direct to Yarkand. A fairly accurate survey of the northern slopes of the Himalayan Ranges and the adjoining portions of eastern Turkistan is much needed, although a great deal of good work has quite recently been executed in the loftier parts of those ranges, The recent journey of Mr. Conway among the glaciers and higher passes of the Mustagh-Himalayas is an example of what the courage and skill of an able private explorer may do under the most difficult circumstances. Starting from Hunza and Nagar, he surveyed a con- siderable area of country at great altitudes, and he has been able to correct and add to the survey of this region, which was executed by Col. Godwin Austen. Fellows of the society have already listened to Mr. Conway’s graphic narratives, and before long his painstaking and minutely accurate map of one of the most remarkable portions of the Himalayan glacier region will be in your hands. In the same region, but still farther north, officers of the Indian Survey are pushing their observations, and we may hope in due time to be furnished with the results. Another surveyor, Mr. Senior, has done much valuable work under circumstances of unusual difficulty, among the higher ranges of Kula and Lahaul. His merits have been recognized by our ‘council, and he has been awarded our Murchison Grant. “Farther to the east, along the Himalayan chains, the kingdom of Nepal covers a tract of country about 500 miles long and 100 miles broad, lying between the crests of the mountains and the British fron- tier. This is still almost a blank upon our maps. Europeans, except a few officers at the capital, are debarred by treaty from entering Nepal so that the country is very imperfectly known. The passes from Nepal into Tibet have a special interest for us, because the only great army that has invaded India since the commencement of British rule in Bengal marched through one of them, the Kirong Pass, and so descended from the valley of the Tsanpo into Nepal. It has never, I believe, been visited by any European. Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, has never been visited by any English- man since the days of Manning. Thereis also a vast and wholly unex- plored region of Tibet on the northwest, between the paralleis of 34° and 36° and the meridians of 82° and 90°. It lies between the explo- rations of Capt. Bower on the south side and those of Col. Pevtsof and M. Bogdanovich on the north. In southwest Tibet there are also great belts of unknown country between the routes of Pandit Nain Sing from Ladak to Lhasa, and his route along the upper course of the Yaro- Tsanpo River; also between that river and the crests of the Himalayan ranges, which form the border of Western Nepal. The course of the Tsanpo and the adjoining country on both banks are well known as far as the meridian of 93°, and fairly well, but with some uncertainty, to 406 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 94° 10’. But from that point down toits entrance into the Assam Val- ley, under the name of the Dihong River, it is wholly unknown. So also is the country eastward up to the meridian of 97°—a region which is probably the basin of the tributaries of the Dibong River, which flows into the Lohit-Brahmaputra a few miles above the point where the latter river joins the Dihong or ‘'sanpo. The great rivers of central and eastern Tibet—the Giama-Nu-Chu, the Lantsan, and the Di-Chu—are fairly well known in parts; but there are considerable portions of the first river, more particularly, which need further exploration. There is considerable uncertainty whether, below where there is a ferry on the road from Dayul to Kima, the Giama-Nu-Chu tlows southward as the source of the Salwin, or south- westward and is the principal source of the Irawadi. This is a geo- graphical problem of great interest, and offers a splendid oppor- tunity for ambitious young explorers to win their spurs. This whole region of complicated mountain and river systems, which still conceals the sources of the great Burmese streams, urgently calls for bold and hardy explorers to disentangle it. It is the borderland of several races, mostly broken up into minute tribal divisions, which present the same interest to the anthropologist as their country does to the geogra- pher. In Burma itself much information is still needed to complete our knowledge of its geography; but this desideratum is being system- atically attended to by the Indian survey department. In Siam Mr. McCarthy has recently constructed a map, and the trade routes between Chieng Mai and the Upper Mekong have been traversed by Holt Hal- lett, Carl Boch, Archer, and others. But the region lying to the south, between the Menam Valley and the lower Mekong, 1s almost unknown to Englishmen. A thorough acquaintance with the country on the western side of the Mekong is very desirable: such as the cis-Mekong parts of Luang Prabong and of Nan, and the parts intended to be opened up by the projected railway from Bangkok to Korat. I may here mention that a valuable communication has just been received from Mr. H. Warington Smyth, describing his voyage up the Menam and his journeys in the mountainous country to the west of the Mekong. Our young correspondent is a son of our former colleague, the late Sir Warington Smyth, and a grandson of our President Admiral Smyth, to whom the society owes so much, and was one of our seven founders. Mr. Warington Smyth’s narrative is of geographical value and 1; charmingly written, and it is pleasant to find that in this instance the — geographical mantle of my distinguished predecessor has so worthily descended on his grandson. In the Malay Peninsula there is also much to be done; and Mr. Lake has just brought home some good sur- veying work of previously unexplored country in the territory of Johore. 3ut we have to deplore the death of Mr. Becher, who unfortunately lost his life in a river in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula just THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 407 after he had entered upon what promised to be a useful piece of geo- graphical work. Passing over the great Empire of China, which has been traversed in numerous directions, and the geography of which is tolerably well understood, we come to Korea. In this peninsula, which until lately had searcely been visited, the pack roads between the principal towns are now pretty well known, but there remain a number of routes on the western side, from Seoul down to the south coast, and on the east side between Gensan and Fusan, which Mr. Cuzron informs me have either not been traversed in modern times or are wholly unexplored. There iS very great need of a survey and map of Korea, and, apart from the pack roads, the mountainous parts of the country are quite unknown. There is thus very considerable scope for geographical enterprise in this great peninsula, which may be looked upon as one of the numerous allurements which the unknown parts of the world present to the explorer. Leaving the great Asiatic continent, and turning our attention to the mass of islands to the south, and stretching away eastward to the Pacific, we shall find that the most important future work will have to be done by the hydrographer rather than by the geographer. Doubt- less there are many unreported reefS and shoals, and others whose recorded positions require verification. Yet when we think of the splendid work of Mr. Wallace in the Malay Archipelago, and of the lonely residence of Mr. Forbes on Timor Laut, there can be no doubt that much is also left for the explorer to do on land among those lovely islands. Sir William Macgregor will steadily proceed with the exam. ination of British New Guinea, and will encourage all well-conceived schemes of discovery. Mr. Woodford tells me that, in his opinion, a properly equipped expedition would have little difficulty in passing from the headwaters of the Fly to those of the Empress Augusta tiver, and so crossing New Guinea in its broadest part. Meanwhile the interior of Dutch New Guinea is a complete blank—another of the vast tracts which await discovery. Here there is an extensive range marked on the maps as the Charles Louis Mountains, and attaining a height of 16,000 feet. The particular exploration of this range would offer work for geographers and naturalists for many years to come. Another interesting piece of work for a young explorer to undertake would be a definite solution of the question whether a passage exists right through the supposed isthmus from Maclhire Gulf to Geelvink Bay, as has been reported. More knowledge of the islands to the north of New Guinea is also needed, where the natives present the chief obstacle to exploration. In the Solomon Islands, Mr. Woodford was successful in visiting the interior of Guadaleanal, but Bougainville Island is still absolutely virgin ground, and Ll am informed by Mr. Woodford that there is a most interesting elevated coral lagoon to the north of the island of New Georgia, which has hitherto been unde- 408 . THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. scribed; while Rennell and Bellona Islands, to the south of the Solo- mon group, are said to be elevated about 400 feet above the sea, yet exclusively of coral formation. The natives are Polynesian, not of Melanesian race, and they would certainly well repay a visit. The whole question of the mingling of Polynesian and Melanesian types on these groups of islands calls for careful investigation, as well as further study of the formation of coral reefs. Mr. Woodford suggests that it would be desirable, if funds could be obtained for the purpose, to make an experimental bore with a diamond drill upon some island of purely oral formation, situated in very deep water, and as far removed as pos- sible from any highland. He thinks one of the islands of the Gilbert or Ellice groups would be suitable for the experiment. It is unlikely that there are now any undiscovered islands in the Pacific, although I well remember the time when we fully expected that there might be, and when we were ordered to enter in the deck log, during our watches, the visibility of distant objects. Thus our tracks formed belts varying from 10 to 15 miles wide, within which no new islands were to be found. Australia has now been explored in its whole extent. The work was vatched with the deepest interest and sympathy by our society; and no less than twelve Australian explorers have received our gold medal. Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia proper are thoroughly well known; but in western Australia there are still large isolated tracts of the country in the interior which are unex- plored. The most important lies east of the one hundred and twen- tieth meridian and between about 21° and 24° south. Mr. Ernest Favene points out that the important geographical fact to be deter- mined by an examination of this tract would be the settlement of the question whether Sturt’s Creek again reformed, after having been fora time lost. Probably some patches of pastoral country and some uncon- nected water-channels and saline swamps would also be found. Mr. Favene considers that the geographical problem to be worked out in Australia, during the ensuing years, is the evolution of a last river system, which will fill up the gap between the heads of the west coast rivers and the Lake Eyre system. It is not likely that such a system will exist in anything more than a fragmentary form, but certain fixed drainage rules peculiar to that region may be found to exist which would dispel the present notion that the creeks there run at random to all points of the compass. The northern coast regions are now well known and fairly well settled throughout by sheep farmers; and the gold discoveries in the southwest of the continent are extending inland and may reach the unexplored space, as belts of auriferous country are known to exist across the interior. In New Zealand, as Mr. Douglas Freshfield has recently pointed out, a glorious field is open for the mountaineer, for the so-called Southern Alps have the glaciers of the Alps, the forests of the Caucasus, and the THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 409 fjords and waterfalls of Norway all brought into close juxtaposition. Stirred by the success of Mr. Green’s ascent of Mount Cook, the young New Zealanders have formed an Alpine club, under the presidency of Mr. Harper. The proper line of exploration would be to continue establishing huts on both sides of the range, so that the relation and divergences between the west and the east flanks may be fully investi- gated. Hitherto the east side has been principally explored. Australia now has geographical societies of her own, active and learned bodies, which are doing good work. It has been suggested by Baron Sir Ferd. von Mueller, and his idea has been adopted by his col- leagues in Australia, that, with the object of establishing close affilia- tion between the parent society and all the branches, our council might annually elaborate a series of questions for transmission to our colonial and provincial colleagues. Such questions might refer to tidal obser- vations, oceanic currents, the most important spots for additional hyp- sometrical data, accurate determination of longitudes, and the settle- ment of new projects for exploration. I am quite of opinion that this suggestion is well worthy of the consideration of our council. The New World, including the two continents of North and South America, has been in process of discovery for the last four centuries. The nearer parts had to be settled before the more distant parts could be explored. The whole of the coasts, indeed, have been surveyed with more or less completeness, and the U. 8. Coast Survey is a monument of rigorous accuracy. But much of the interior is still unknown or very partially explored. This is certainly the case in the Dominion of Canada, and Dr. George M. Dawson recently said that we are far from having acquired even a good general knowledge of fertile lands with a rigorous climate which will only yield hardy crops, although ecompara- tively little of the region capable of producing wheat is now altogether unknown. Then there arevast tracts of unknown country where possi- ble mineral wealth would be the only material incentive for their explor- ation. Within the Arctic Circle there is an unknown area covering 9,500 square miles between the eastern boundary of Alaska, the Poreupine River, and the northern coast. Another area of 32,000 square miles of considerable interest, and probably containing the head waters of the White and Tanana rivers, lies west of the Lewes and Yukon, and extends to the Alaska frontier. There is an unknown tract of 27,000 square miles between the Lewes, Pelly, and Stikine rivers, which lies on the direct line of the metalliferous belt of the Cordillera. Between the Pelly and Mackenzie rivers there are 100,000 unknown square miles, including nearly 600 miles in length of the main range of the Rocky Mountains. Our back grant testimonialist, the Abbé Petitot, has made a short journey into the northern part of this area from the Mackenzie River, but otherwise no published information exists respecting it. Another Arctic area, between the Great Bear Lake and the northern 410 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. coast, covering 50,000 square miles, is also unknown, and yet another of 35,000 square miles southof the Great Bear Lake, except for the journeys of the Abbé Petitot and Mr. Macfarlane. Farther south there is an unknown tract of 81,000 square miles between the Stikine and Liard rivers to the north and the Skeena and Peace rivers to the south, and another of 7,500 square miles between the Peace, Athabasca, and Loon rivers. An unexplored area south of the Athabasca Lake is 35,000 square miles in extent. Turning again to the Arctic regions, there is an area of 7,500 square miles east of the Coppermine and west of Bathurst Inlet, and another of 31,000 square miles between the Back River and the Arctic coast. I quote Dr. Dawson’s figures, but I do not forget the work that has been done by Mr. Warburton Pike from the love of adventure, sometimes living on cariboo, at others on musk oxen, at others on cachés formed when game was abundant, and at others suffering from starvation. With no companions, save a few Indians, he has crossed and re-crossed the barren lands of America. Wenextcome to the vast unknown tract of 178,000 square miles between the Back River and the west coast of Hudson Bay, part of which was wandered over but not mapped or explored by Hearne in 1869-1872, and I believe it has also been traversed by Mr. Pike. There are smaller unknown areas to the south of Hudson Bay, while the whole interior of Labrador, covering 289,000 square miles, is entirely unknown beyond the short routes of Prof. Hind, Mr. Low and Mr. Holme, and Pére Lacasse. This tract is believed to be more or less wooded, and in some parts with timber of large growth, but the prae- tical utility of its future exploration will probably be derived froim its metalliferous ores. Dr. Dawson sums up his enumeration of unknown areas with the calculation that out of the 3,470,287 square miles which form the area of the Dominion of Canada, 954,000 square miles, at the very least, are entirely unknown. In looking forward to the future examination of these areas, Dr. Dawson remarks that the explorers should be possessed of scientifie training and be able to make intelligent and accurate observations. The work of Mr. Green and Mr. Topham in the Selkirk range of British Columbia has been excellent, and it has brought to our notice a region of the greatest orographic and geological interest, part of which is still unmapped and unvisited. In the United States there is much that remains to be done in Alaska, although the labors of Mr. Fred. Whymper, Seton-Karr, Topham, Nel- son, and Ogilvie have thrown light on the alpine regions with their extensive glaciers, which culminate at Mount St. Elias and on the basin of the Yukon. Inthe vast territory of the Union itself surveying work of a more exact and rigorous character is making progress, and the admirable coast survey from the Bay of Fundy to the mouth of the Rio Grande on the east side and from the Strait of Juan de Fuea to San Diego on the Pacific side is completed. Its merits were cordially recognized by this society when our gold medal was conferred upon THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. All Prof. Bache in 1858. Inland topography however owes most to the geologists, for Powell in the Rocky Mountains region, Hayden in the territories, and Clarence King on the fortieth parallel have been obliged to make their maps as they proceeded with their geological investiga- tions. The triangulation in theinterior of the States was commenced late and its progress has been slow. There is a great deal of work for an explorer in Central America, where our associate, Mr. Maudslay, has done so much excellent service, and where we are also indebted to the researches of officers from British Honduras. But it is in South America that the most extensive unexplored regions are still awaiting the visits of scientific travelers. Many parts of the Columbian Andes need exploration, as well as the basins of the great rivers Japura and Putumayo and some of the smaller affluents of the Amazon, such as the Pastasa, Morona, San- tiago, Napo,and Tigre. There is anenormous tract in Colombia, bounded by the slopes of the Andes on the west, by the Orinoco and Rio Negro on the east, on the north by the Meta, and on the south by the Uaupes and Japura, which is practically unknown. I have called attention to this region on previous occasions in the hope that some one would undertake its exploration. For it was here that the old conquerors of the sixteenth century, without watch or compass, sought for El Dorado. Another unknown region lies letween Guiana and the Amazon, while the rivers Jurus, Jutay, and Teffe are unexplored. The admirable sur- vey of the great River Purus and its main tributary secured for Mr. Chandless the gold medal of our society, but many of the affluents of the Beni, flowing from the Andes of Cuzco, still require scientific exploration. The mighty Cordilleras of the Andes have only been very partially examined. From Mr. Whymper’s delightful book, with its superb illus- trations, we learnt much about the famous peaks of Ecuador, and some of our ideas received correction; while the surveying labors of Mr, Wolf in the same region have led to the examination of the little known provinces between the Andes and the Pacific and to the pro- duction of a most valuable map of Ecuador. In Peru the learned presi- dent of the Lima Geographical Society, our honorary associate, Dr. Luis Carranza, has admirably described the geography of some of the provinces of the Andes. Still there is an undescribed Andean region, comprised in the provinces of Lucanas, Parinacochas, Cangallo, Ayma- raes, and Cotabamba, and in the coast valleys and deserts between Nasca and Lajes. Forbes, Minchin, and Weiner have ascended Hli- mani and Ilampu, but the mountains of the coast range farther south are almost unknown, and the great peaks of Sajama and Pallahuari are still unmeasured. Indeed, the whole orography of western South America 1s very imper- fectly understood, and would well repay further scientific examination. The great rivers of the Gran Chacu, flowing from the Bolivian Andes 412 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT. OF GEOGRAPHY. to the Paraguay, are still incompletely explored, especially the more northern streams. Capt. Page read a most interesting paper on the subject at our meeting on January 28, 1889. In the discussion which followed I mentioned that the Gran Chacu was one of those regions to which geographers might point when they were tauntingly asked what was left for them to discover. Capt. Page has since lost his life—a martyr to science and to duty. His work will be taken up by others where he has left it. The exploration of these streams, especially of the Utuquis, and the region through which they pass, must needs be completed; for some day they will form great fluvial highways of com- merce. Farther south there are tracts needing examination, especially along both sides of the dividing line between Chile and the Argentine Republic, as well as in Patagonia. The government of Neuquen is one of these, a region with mountain slopes covered with beech (Fagus Ant- arctica) and pine (Araucaria Brasiliensis) forests and with active vol- canoes along its summits, while its rocks abound in fossil shells and wood and send forth thermal springs. The belief that in this district the Collon-cua (called in its upper part the Mumini), flowing to the Atlantic, has its source in the same lake as the Rio Bio, flowing to the Pacific, would be an interesting point for an explorer to clear up. I rejoice to find, from an interesting memorandum furnished me by Capt. Don Benjamin Garcia Aparicio, of the Argentine corps of engineers, that exploration is being zealously promoted and encouraged by our sister geographic society at Buenos Ayres. We have now made a general survey of the unexplored and undis- covered lands of our globe. But the work of geographers is by no means confined to the land. It is nearly forty years since Maury published the first edition of his “ Physical Geography of the Sea.” He was the founder of a new and most interesting branch of our science, which treats of the ocean depths, of the currents and temperatures of the sea, of its biology, and of the surface of the ocean bottoms. In 1855 this was a new field of research, when the Avretic and the Cyclops were running their first lines of sound- ings across the North Atlantic, and when Brooke and Wallich were inventing the first apparatus for bringing up samples from great depths. Since then, through the labors of scientific officers of several nationalities, the gates of this new field have been opened wider and wider. Theresult is due to the invention of improved appliances and to the persevering work of deep-sea soundings and dredgings as well in narrow seas as in the great oceans. This of course is not work for individual explorers, but rather for the governments of maritime nations. Yet I would urge upon theattention of naval officers, ef officers of the naval reserve, and of the mercantile marine that they all have frequent opportunities of adding to our knowledge, and of doing useful work in forwarding the examinations of the depths of the sea and in contributing to our knowledge of meteorology. THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 413 An immense mass of work remains to be done to enable us to have even a rough and general knowledge of the ocean depths. Additional lines of soundings are needed in all directions, especially in the Southern Ocean and in the central Pacific, to bring out their general configuration. We now have a rough idea of the areas of greatest depths, the greatest of all having been obtained off the coast of Japan by the Tuscarora in 4,655 fathoms; but the soundings of the Challenger between St. Thomas and Bermuda and of the Egeria in the Pacific come very near to it. The discovery of the very greatest ocean depth will be most interesting, but it would be still more so to discover and map the submarine ranges and peaks to within, say, 500 fathoms of the surface. I remember that when the Valorous ran a line of soundings across the North Atlantic in August, 1875, we got 1,860 fathoms on one day, 1,450 on the next, and only 690 on the next, bringing up pieces of black vol- canic stone. On the two following days the depth increased to 1,250 and 1,485 fathoms. Here there was clearly either a volcanic peak or a ridge; and wherever these are known to occur I think that it would be very desirable to explore the surrounding ocean bed and ascertain their extent and character. We want also the establishment of a more complete study of the system of ocean currents by a very extensive use of floats adapted to swim at various depths, and also a fuller inves- tigation of the temperature and density of the water surrounding the shores of all the continents. The work hitherto done in the North Sea and the neighboring Atlantic is practically confined to the summer months, and a detailed examination at all seasons is needed. Such work is now being done under the auspices of Profs. Petterssen, of Sweden, and Mohn, of Christiania, Kriimmel, of Kiel, and the fishery board of Scotland. We also require a determination of the isotherms and isobars on land and sea at all seasons, which will primarily involve prolonged observations in the South Polar region, and a more complete knowledge of the variation of atmospheric pressure with height, and its independent variation in different horizontal planes. Such an investigation embraces the whole question of the use of the barometer or boiling-point thermometer in measuring heights. This will conclude my enumeration of the geographical desiderata in the field. It is a long and formidable list, affording work for many decades of years to come. But.many of my associates know very well, and the rest must now clearly understand, that it is by no means an exhaustive list, but only such an enumeration as our limited time will admit of our making, merely a rough general survey of the work in the field that remains to be done. The work of explorers is co-ordinated and rendered useful in many ways by geographical students, whose valuable labors desire equal attention and encouragement. There are many geographical problems which must be solved as well by the examination and intercomparison of the work of numerous explorers in different regions as by the care- Al4 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. ful study and application of the achievements of the devotees of our science in past centuries. The advance and extension of geography depends as much upon its students and scholars as upon its discoverers and explorers. Comparative geography is indeed one of the highest branches of our science. By identifying sites, comparing descriptions written long ago with the actual surface of the ground, and by demon- strating the changes which have taken place within historical times, it Is an indispensable auxiliary to physical geography. We shall, [ am sure, all be glad to receive the results of the investigations of our Oxtord travelling scholar, Mr. Grundy, who has compared the narrative of Herodotus with the actual ground where the battle of Platiea was fought. Comparative geography also enables us to comprehend the gradual evolution of our science through the discoveries and lifelong studies of a long series of devoted men during a succession of ages, Such knowledge is of the deepest interest. We therefore welcomed, in 1891, Dr. Schlichter’s ably reasoned paper on Ptolemy’s topography of eastern equatorial Africa, and we shall be glad to receive further results of his researches. Mr. Ryland’s long and careful bibliographi- eal and mathematical study of Ptolemy and his laborious corrections and verifications have also resulted in an important addition to Ptole- mnaic literature. The spirit in which geographical students enter upon their researches and the methods they adopt have a special interest at a time when the educational efforts of the society justify the expectation that their num- bers wili soon increase. Dr. H. S. Sehlichter, who has already com- municated the most interesting paper on Ptolemy’s geography of Africa—to which I have just alluded—has explained to me his system of investigation. He not only uses history for the solution of physical phenomena, but also resorts to physical facts and observations for solving questions of historical geography. By looking at the problem under consideration in all its bearings and the various ways which seem to lead to its solution an insight is obtained into the nature of the questions we have to deal with and into the trustworthiness of the sources.of our information. Such studies lead from one problem to another. Theyopen up ew questions and lines of research, and not only connect physical and historical facts of all times and ages, but also join our own minds and thoughts with those of men who lived and worked centuries before us. Hardly any branch of science is of greater inter- est in this respect than comparative geography, because wherever we turn we discover links which connect the development of our race with the changes on the surface of our planet. Dr. Sehlichter is now engaged in studying the desiccation of parts of Africa, and he has, with great labor and research, drawn a series of sections across that continent. The subjects, in physical geography, which offer themselves for the investigation of the student are, indeed, as numerous as they are fascinating. The process of denudation of THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 415 erosion aad of transportation may be studied and compared; while, as Prof. Lapworth has pointed out, the agencies which rule in the pro- cesses of upheaval and depression are still almost untirely unknown to us. The professor’s address, delivered at Edinburgh last year, on the erests and troughs which sueceed each other on the earth’s surface in endless sequence, of every gradation of size, of every degree of com- plexity, offers much matter for reflection to the student of geography. The geological fold, as described in Prof. Lapworth’s address, should receive the attention of physical geographers who can take advantage of their great opportunities as explorers and as students, by investi- gating_as well the simple fold, often under altered conditions caused by erosion, as the tangential pressures and other influences that have been at work on it. Thus we should combine with geologists in work- ing out nature’s problems while we study the eartl’s past history in order to understand its present condition; for, although the limits between the sciences of geography and geology have been clearly defined, the difference between our studies consists rather in our methods and objects than in the materials on which we work. We are therefore prepared to give a cordial welcome to Mr. Oldham’s promised paper on the present condition of the surface of British India, as explained by its former geological history. If a competent acquaintance with geology is required for an accom. plished geographical explorer, a knowledge of biology 1s equally desira- ble. For instance, the study of the fauna of inland lakes and rivers has been pointed out by Darwin and Peschel as important in connee- tion with many problems in physical geography. It is two thousand years ago since Hratosthenes, who presided over geographical science at Alexandria, drew scientific conclusions from the fact that certain shells were found near the oasis of Jupiter Ammon. It was by the study of the fauna of large lakes in North America and in Asia that their marine origin was established, while we deduce the former exist- ence of lands now submerged from the comparison of fossil animals. Plants have acted an equally important part, both in effecting the condition of the earth’s surface and in revealing to us its former his- tory. | I anticipate that such investigations will occupy some of our present and future students and explorers as they have occupied their prede- cessors; but they will, I trust, always bear in mind that the basis of all geographical work, if it is to be really valuable, is the fixing of positions astronomically. Accuracy and reliability can alone make their work permanently useful. Much attention ought therefore to be given to the handling and adjustment of instruments and to their improvement.” Experience in the field often leads to suggestions which bear fruit when they are carefully thought out. Thus there have been several forms of range-ftinders invented in recent years which might be used in making rough surveys. Both Sir George Airy and Mr. Merri- 416 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. field have introduced new methods of computing lunars, and a method of semiazimuths, invented by a yachtsman, is now under discussion. Dr. Schlichter has recommended the use of an apparatus for photo- graphing moon and stars for lunars which is described in the Novem- ber number of our Journal, and Col. Stewart invented another appa- ratus for surveying by photography. Improvements are sure to sug- gest themselves to intelligent workers. Maj. Watkin has improved on the aneroid. Several attempts have been made to improve the arti- ficial horizon. Maj. Verner has invented a compass to be used for travelling at night. Photography now occupies an important place in relation to geog- raphy, and a photographie camera should form part of the equipment of all explorers engaged 1n original geographical work, It is to be regretted that travellers have not taken more advantage of the facilities afforded by the society, as the use of an instrument should be thor- oughly mastered before a traveller proceeds on a journey. In pho- tometry it is necessary that objects represented on the plate should be clear and well-defined to facilitate the taking of measurements from them; and this has now become specially important since the invention of the new method of taking lunars. It is in the direction of the improvement of instruments, cameras, and other appliances used by the traveller, and of methods of observing and computing, that experienced and ingenious men should continue to turn their inventive faculties. Very often an improvement occurs to an observer while using an instrument in the field, which after- wards, by following up the train of thought, leads to the perfection of a practically useful invention. This has been the case from the days of Martin Behaim to those of Leigh Smith. Many of the rising generation of geographers, whose talents lie in that direction, will also, it is to be hoped, master the beautiful and most useful art of the cartographer, including the work of the compiler and of the draftsman. At present there are none too many in this country. When we reflect on the exquisite specimens of Italian and Catalan portolani which are preserved in the British Museum, and on the great geographical interest attaching to early examples of cartog- raphy, it is impossible not to regret that we are unable to produce an atlas such as the Berlin Geographical Society brought out last year. There are as yet no adequate opportunities in this country for devel- oping the latent powers of the potential Kretschmers who doubtless exist among our young English geographers, but I trust that every encouragement will be given to those who, in the future, give their attention to this branch of our work. Turning once more to the qualifications of an explorer, Mr. Galton has suggested to me that the art of geographical description is a very needful one. It is seldom that a country resembles what the visitor has been led to expect from reading recent descriptions of it. It is not THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. 417 the so-called “word painting,” now so elaborately employed, that con- veys the most correct picture; but rather pithy epithets and sharp, clear touches. The old writers were often excellent in doing this, with their forcible homely language; and they should be read until some echo of their pure vigorous style has been caught. The necessity for cultivating the describing faculty, and for studying the general principles underlying all good description should be inculeated by those who train men as geographical explorers; for a traveller is of no use if, when he comes back, he fails to convey to others a correct idea of what he has seen. The various subjects to which a geographical student or explorer can give his attention are as fascinating as they are humerous; and whether he devotes his talents to the improvement of instruments, or to the work of the draftsman and map-maker, or to the manifold phases of physical geography, or to discovery in distant lands, or to the elucida- tion and illustration of the history and progress of our science, he will alike be furthering and advancing our objects and will have a right to claim our assistance and our sympathy. We do not invite geographers to enter upon any of these difficult undertakings without being prepared to supply them with a suitable training, and to give them all the sympathy and encouragement in our power. This was not always the case. I well remember that a young officer in command of the Hausa police force came to me for advice, just twenty years ago. He wanted to learn the use of the sextant and artificial horizon. At first I had no answer to give him; but afterward 1 found out that a widow named Janet Taylor gave the required instruc- tion in the Minories to mates of merchant ships. It was this dearth of the means of learning the work of an explorer that forced my attention on the duty of finding aremedy. Mrs. Taylor was an efficient teacher, i believe, but the Minories are far off, and her single efforts could not supply what was needed. It was then that I submitted proposals that the society should appoint an instructor and furnish the necessary facil- ities for enabling explorers to learn their work. Our council saw the importance of supplying a great need, and Mr. Coles was appointed to instruct intending travelers in practical astronomy and surveying. My proposal included instruction in geology and biology, and now arrange- ments are made for teaching what an explorer would need in these branches of knowledge also, as well asin photography. I look upon this as the most successful measure that has been adopted by this society in recent years and the one which has done most to advance the interests of geography. Since Mr. Coles began to give instruction in surveying ° and nautical astronomy, he has taught 239 pupils, including officers in the army and navy, in the consular and#olonial services, missionaries, civil engineers, and private travellers. These instructed explorers have done valuable geographical work in all parts of the world—in Africa, Asia, North and South America, the Malay Archipelago and Pacifi¢ SM 93 27 A18 THE PRESENT STANDPOINT OF GEOGRAPHY. Islands, and in the Arctic regions. Of the 289 pupils, 20 have studied photography, 18 botany, and 40 geology, in addition to surveying and nautical astronomy. It is of the utmost importance that explorers should be thoroughly trained for their work, and their instruction is consequently one of the most indispensable duties of our society. In this imperfeet survey of our geographical desiderata I have endeay- ored to draw the attention of my associates, not only to the extent of unknown country to be discovered and explored, and to the numerous problems and questions of interest which await solution, but also to the duty that is laid upon us—each one of us—to take his share of the task, some by useful advice and co-operation, some by encouragement, all by a hearty determination to work together for one great end—the usefulness and prosperity of our society. HOW MAPS ARE MADE.* By, W...B. BEAKIE, The subject on which I am deputed to address you to-night is what, in the slang of the day, may be describedas “a very large order.” Though the title seems simple enough, the subject itself is so large and it spreads and ramifies itself through so many arts and. sciences, that the temptation to go off from the distinct line of my subject into the different branches that introduce themselves is great, and all these branches are to me so interesting, that I have found great difficulty in confining myself strictly to the story of how a map is made. I have forced myself, however, to stay on the center line of map-making, and I hope, before the evening is over, to give you a clear and distinet idea of the principles on which a map 1s made, for the subject of my paper is not ** How maps are drawn,” but ‘* How maps are made;” and I will attempt to show you the naked machinery of the process. I have often been amazed at the popular ignorance of what would seem to be the very first principles of geography and oi map-making, and this has induced me to begin at the very A BC of the subject. I intend throughout this paper to avoid technical phrases and mathe- matical terms. I have nothing new to tell you; much that I am about to say is known to every person here present, and I ask you to bear with me if occasionally I seem childish in my descriptions. One thing more I should like to premise, and that is, that in this paper I do not propose to go into any great detail, or to confuse any- one here with the numberless scientific corrections and modifications that have to be made in all scientific calculations. I will speak only on general principles; those who know the science thoroughly will understand the modifications necessary, while those who have not the same advantage will, I trust, be able to grasp the principles of what is shown. My intention to-night is to show (1) how a spectator finds his position on the earth’s surface; (2) how he defines and records that position; (3) how he makes a map from the information he has found; (4) how he fills up the details of that map; and (5) brietly to describe how the map reads at meee of Pine. Bee al Scottish Gane eal Society in E dinburgh ¢ a Glasgow, April, 1891 (Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1891; vol. vu, pp. 419, 434). 419 420 HOW MAPS ARE MADE. so made is drawn and printed, and incidentally to show the use of the various tools and instruments employed in these operations. I assume that we all know that the earth is (roughly speaking) a sphere, spinning round on its axis once in twenty-four hours. Now, if we take up a sphere, like this ball, and mark a spot on it, there is noth- Ing whatever to define its position; no north, no south; nothing to guide us. One point on this sphere is the same as any other point, until we find some reference spot to measure from; but we have assumed that we know that the earth spins round on its axis, and here we at once discover something we can measure from. The ends of the axis of the ball, which we call the poles, are, we see, at rest compared with the rest of the surface of the spinning ball. Now, this so-called polarity gives us at once two points of reference. Although no one has ever been at either of the poles, the study of the subject for hundreds of years has proved their existence as surely as if the poles had been visited and been discovered marked with upstand- ing posts. Between these two points, which we eall the poles, | can mark a point half-way, which, by spinning the ball in contact with the pencil, I convert into a line called the equator, the equal divider, popularly theline. You will observe that this middle line, this equator, is also the largest possible circle on this sphere, and it is from this circle that all measurements and references north and south are made. We see on the globe and on maps a number of other circles parallel to the equator to the north and south of it, and drawn at equal distances, These are called the parallels of latitude (or wideness), and they mark certain degrees of angular divergence from the equator. Consider for a moment what this means. In the first conception of them these lines have no specific distance apart, because they really are angular measurements, and it is this conception of them I wish to get hold of. A degree of latitude is not necessarily a number of miles, and until we know the actual diameter of the earth we can not tell what the length of a degree is. It is a proportion of the cireumference of a circle, a fractional measurement of it. We may speak of a half, a quar- ter, of anything, but, until we say what it is a half or a quarter of, the phrase conveys no idea of magnitude. It might be half a mile, or half a kingdom, or half an inch, or half a crown. Similarly, a degree of a circle means nothing so far as length is concerned, until you know the size of the circle, when you can at once calculate, with the proper mathematical knowledge, the numerical value of a degree at the earth’s circumference. Now, having marked these lines on the surface of the earth, we have certain marks on our globe to which we can refer any and every point. It may be said, ‘* Why mark these lines on the map? They do not exist; they are only imaginary.” Quite true! But then the first prin- ciple of all map-making is to begin with imaginary lines, from which to measure the position of every place on that map; and all such imag- HOW MAPS ARE MADE 421 inary lines are carefully recorded, as we shall see later on, so that they ‘an be accurately laid down at any moment by those who know how to find them, We find them a great convenience, an absolute necessity, indeed, so we leave them drawn on the globe. Imagine a street—any street will do, but for a good analogy imagine a street built, like Moray Place, ina circle. We can say, speaking of, say, a water plug, or any point in that street, that it is on the center line of the street, or the line of the lamp-posts, or so many feet to one side or either of these lines. There is no visibly marked center line or line of lamp-posts, but it can be filled up ina moment by human intelligence, and if there were to be frequent references to them these lines would be marked ona plan for constant use. The parallels of latitude are similar lines drawn for convenience or reference. The circumference of the earth, like any other cirele, is divisible into 360 degrees, and we number the parallels by the number of degrees of angular divergence; only, instead of beginning at a pole and going right round, we, for convenience sake, begin at the equator and then number 90 Gegrees towards the North Pole and 90 degrees towards the South Pole. But one set of reference lines is not enough; we must have another set, and we get them in the meridians of longitude. We draw these through the poles at right angles to the equator. They are all “ great circles ;” that is, each circle is concentric with the globe. The equator being a circle, we divide it as before into 360 degrees, and the meridians through the points of section from a second system of lines of reference. But, unlike the parallels of latitude, they are all the same size. Oneis the same as another. How are they to be numbered? Go back for a moment to Moray Place, and remember the lines we drew—the center of the street, and the line of the lamp-posts. How are we to define a spot on one of these lines?) They are cireular, and consequently have no beginning and no end. What we should do would be to mark a con- venient spot with a flag, vr a peg, or a stone, and say “That is the beginning; measure from that.” This is exactly what we must do in longitude. We must mark a starting line on the earth, and call it zero; and as all nations have a free choice they have not chosen the same. We have chosen the meri- dian of Greenwich, the French that of Paris, the Americans Washing- ton, and the Russians Pulkova and the Germans used to use Ferro; but for all English maps, and now for most foreign ones, the meridian of Greenwich is the starting line, the zero of longitude. The custom bere again is not to reckon 360 degrees round the cirele, but to reckon 180 degrees east and 180 degrees west. We saw that latitude was angular divergence from the equator; but what are these degrees of longitude? Look at a ball spinning round opposite a candle. We assumed a knowledge that the earth spun round its axis in twenty- four hours. Every part of it comes in turn opposite a heavenly body 422 HOW MAPS ARE MADE. (say the sun) once in twenty-four hours, just as every part of this ball comes opposite the candle once in each revolution. Longitude is, then, angular divergence measured by the difference of time in coming oppo- site a heavenly body. what an explorer should take with him, I may mention Livingstone’s 428 HOW MAPS ARE MADE. actual equipment: A 6-inch sextant, an artificial horizon, a pocket chronometer, a prismatic compass, and a pocket compass; two boiling- point thermometers and twocommon thermometers; aneroid barometer, a Nautical Almanac, and a book of mathematical tables. The sextant, as we have seen, is for taking astronomical as well as terrestrial angles; the thermometer and barometer for taking heights. The principle on which the latter are calculated is the pressure of the atmosphere. The aneroid everybody knows; the boiling-point ther. mometer is considered better and more accurate, though I observe from Livingstone’s notes, who was the most painstaking and thorough ob- server, and who always observed with both, that there was little prac- tical difference in the readings. Roughly speaking, water boils atsea- level at 212°F., and the barometer stands at 30 inches, while at 5,000 feet altitude water boils at 202-69, and the barometer falls to 24-7 inches. The traveller in unexplored parts generally estimates his distances from the time taken at the average rate of marching, just as on board ship distances covered are roughly taken from the average rate of the ship indicated by the log. He takes compass bearings as he goes, and keeps an itinerary, recording all useful information gathered on the march. He corrects his reckoning by taking daily latitudes, and at ereater intervals, say once a fortnight, longitudes from moon observa- tions if he can. He notes heights, gets reports from natives of esti- mated distances,and in fact gathers all the information he can on every subject—rain-fall, botany, zoology, anthropology, and so forth. Living- stone did all these, and did them thoroughly. A whole lecture could be written on these maps I hold in my hand. Here is one of his notes: “Kight days up this river 96 miles, then cross and go three days, say 36 miles, to stone houses 132 miles—course southwest Lobula, comes to northeast, has dark water.” A traveller with his wits about himcan do much with very rough imstruments, or even with none at all. Hecan train himself to use his fingers for rough angular measurements, and he can improvise in many ways. My own old chief, the late Col. W. B. Holmes, RK. E., used to make wonderful surveys with his watch alone. One great geographical problem—where does the huge river Sangpo, which flows in Tibet at the back of the Himalaya, discharge its waters ?— yas solved by a native surveyor, A. K., sent out by the Government of India, who was obliged to conceal all his observations. I quote from the official account: ‘For linear measurement A. K. trusted entirely to his own pace or step, which, as hereafter shown, is convertible into the unit of a foot, or any other unit desired; and notwithstanding thatin Mongolia he was looked down upon as a particularly inferior individual, because, unlike the Mongols, he persisted in walking instead of following the universal custom of the country, which enjoins riding a horse on all possible occa- sions, he yet manfully strode along his travels, pleading poverty, or Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XXII. 4. STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION. 5. CONICAL PROJECTION. HOW MAPS ARE MADE. 429 otherwise, until at last, on his return journey along the eastern flank of his route, the Lama with whom he had taken service insisted on his riding, if only to promote flight from robbers, especially the mounted bands of Chiamo-Goloks, of whom travellersare in constant dread. Thus compelled, A. K. mounted a horse, but here also he proved equal to the occasion, for he at once set to work counting the beast’s paces as indicated by his stepping with the right foreleg. In this way he reck- oned his distances for nearly 250 miles, between Barong Chaidam (lati- tude 36° 5’, longitude 97° 3’), and Thuden Gomba (latitude 33° 17/, longitude 96° 43’), and the results do credit alike to the explorer’s ingenuity and to the horse’s equability of pace.” An account of his journey will be found in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for 1885, p. 352. After the explorer comes the surveyor. His business is to produce a detailed survey or map of the country. The operations of a cadastral* survey ona grand scale, generally made by the Government, are divided into two parts: (1) the great triangular survey, and (2) the topograph- ical part, or the filling in of the details required for civil information. Before we go further we should gain a thorough idea of the principles of triangulation, because on it are founded all the conditions of an aceu- rate map. The great property of a triangle is this, that of all plane geometrical figures it is the only one ot which the form can not be altered if the sides remain constant, and that the three angles of a tri- angle are together equal to two right angles, so that if we know two of the angles of any triangle we can at once calculate the third angle by subtracting the number of degrees in the two known angles from 180 degrees, which is the sum of two right angles. If also we know the length of one of the sides of the triangle as well as the number of degrees in the angles, a very simple mathematical formula enables us to caleulate the length of the other sides. Now this is exactly what is done in the great trigonometrical survey made in this country by the Ordnance Survey: The surveyor measures what is called a base line. He purposely selects an absolutely horizon- tal plane otherwise conveniently situated for the purpose of measure- ment. The base line is seldom more than 5 or 6 iniles long, but it is measured with ‘every refinement which ingenuity can devise or expense command.” In the Ordnance Survey of the British Isles—to give an idea of the care with which such base lines are measured—the original base line, which wason Hounslow Heath, was measured in 1791, first with a steel chain, then with deal rods, next glass tubes, and lastly, again with the chain; and was over 5 miles long. Another line was subse- quently measured 7 miles long, on Salisbury Plain, in 1794, which is the base of the existing triangulation. The verification line at Lough *A cadastral survey is properly and etymologically a survey by a government for fiscal purposes, the word being derived from the low Latin capitastrum, a register for a poll tax. As such a survey was naturally carried out with the utmost com- pleteness, the term ‘‘Cadastral Survey” came to be used equally with the term “Ordnance Survey” for the great Government survey of Great Britain and Ireland. 430 HOW MAPS ARE MADE. Foyle, which was 7 miles long, was measured with specially designed compound metal rods of brass and iron, 10 feet long, compensating like the balance and spring of a chronometer, so as to be independent of expansion and contraction, and their contact adjusted with microscopes. From this base once fixed, its latitude and longitude being most care- fully taken, the surveyor measures the angles of suitably laid out tri- angles, and computes the length of their sides. Each of these sides in its turn becomes the base of a new triangle. The surveyor plants his instrument on the spot fixed on and measures new triangles, and gradually covers the surface of his island with a network of great triangles. The length of these sides are all calculated from the angles not measured, but, as a matter of fact, the lengths of these sides so computed from angular measurements are infinitely more accurate than if they were actually measured with a chain. So accurate, indeed, was the triangulation of this country that when the ordnance surveys verified their calculations thirty-three years after, in 1827, by actually measuring the check base on Lough Foyle, as already described, the greatest possible error was found to be less than 5 inches. This, be it remembered, was calculated from the base in Salis- bury Plain, only 7 miles long, at a distance of over 300 miles. The mean length of the sides of the triangles was 35 miles, and the longest side was111 miles. The history of the triangulation is quite a romance, but Sir Charles Wilson referred to all this at length last month.* The instrument with which the angles are measured is the theodolite. This network of triangles so laid down is the backbone of all details of map-making. All these imaginary sides of triangles are, like the par- allels of latitudes and meridians on large maps, the lines to which all filling in of detail is referred. Every point on this network is abso- lutely fixed,and from these points, as from the line of lamp-posts we considered at the beginning, all details are measured. The great trian- gwlation in the Ordnance Survey being complete, the officers then lay off from the great triangles what are called secondary triangles, the sides of which are about 5 miles in length, and where necessary, ter- tiary triangles, with sides of about 1 mile in length, and from them the surveyor breaks up the interior of the triangle with a network of cross lines, all self-cheecking when laid on the paper, and this is the begin- ning of ordinaty land survey. Land surveying.—The filling in of a survey is like writing a book, Men work differently. No two surveyors use exactly the same method of working, and it very much depends on the nature of the ground, the extent of his resources, and the accuracy of detail required what method the surveyor employs. In a theoretically perfect survey the triangular system would be pursued throughout, but in practice this 1s not neces- sary, nor is it done. *The Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. vu, p. 248. An admirable popular account of the operations of the Ordnance Survey will be found in The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom, by Lieut. Col. T. P. White, R, E. (Blackwood, 1886.) HOW MAPS ARE MADE. 431 Of the methods of filling up, which are several, I will brietly describe two or three of the principal: Traversing with the chain and theodolite—A. traverse is defined as a circuitous route performed on leaving any place on the earth’s surface by stages in different directions and of various lengths with a view of arriving at any other place. The angles which the stages (or station lines) form with the meridian (7. e., the north and south line) are ealled bearings. In other words, it is a walking from point to point in straight lines, always recording your distance and your direction. These traverse lines are measured with the chain. They are gener- ally laid out round the country to be surveyed, and are as multifarious as the necessities of the ground require. The bearings in a good per- manent survey are measured with the theodolite, and when the traverse is complete it should be closed where begun, when, if no error is made, the bearing of the first line will read on the theodolite exactly as it read in the beginning. Cross checks and connecting lines are con- stantly taken to test the accuracy of the work, and while the survey is going on the measurements of all the features of the country are set down in what is called the field book. Where the line does not cross the natural features perpendiculars, called offsets, are set off and meas- ured trom the traverse line to the bends and angles of all surface details, bends of streams, fences, houses, roads, and so on, and so the map gets filled in bit by bit. Either it is set off at the beginning from the ord- nance triangulation or subsequently joined to it by trigonometrical measurements. Such detail may be made piecemeal and fitted in like a Chinese puzzle to the main map of the country and altered or more minutely surveyed, according to requirements. For rapid and not very accurate purposes exactly the same methods may be adopted as for a mnilitary reconnoissance or sketch map by pacing the traverse lines and taking the bearings with the prismatic compass, and this is what is gen- erally done in military sketches. All these operations and measure- ments are noted in a field book and are afterwards taken to the office and “ plotted” on a sheet or sheets of paper. There is also a contrivance for filling in a survey, with which no field book is used, but by which very fairly accurate work may be obtained. It is very little used in this country except for military pur- poses, and then generally in a modified form shortly to be noticed; but it is much used for topographical work in India and on the continent and the United States. This instrument is the plane table. It serves itself as a theodolite, and the plan actually grows on the ground with- out after office work. Contour lines.—A very important part of cadastral survey is the plotting on the map of contour lines, or lines of equal height. This is done after the features of the surface have beenmapped. To draw the contour lines we must have a starting point, or, as it is called, a datum level. In our Ordnance Survey this is the level of the mean tide at Liverpool. 432 HOW MAPS ARE MADE. From the datum great lines and cross lines of levels are run all over the country, covering it with a network; and at all convenient spots the heights are permanently recorded by the well-known broad arrow, and called bench marks. Wherever the broad arrow is found engraved on the ground its height from the datum line will be found in the ord- nance map of that part of the ground. A very common spot to find an ordnance bench mark is the keystone of the arch of a bridge, which would naturally be the last thing to be removed. These levels are got by spirit levelling. When the main levelling operations have been completed the surveyor fixes at what intervals of height his contours are to be drawn. The surveyor starts, let us say, to determine the line at 100 feet above datum, He goes to the nearest bench mark he has to this height, say itis 105 feet. He levels down until ke finds a point 5 feet below this bench mark. There he leaves a flag or a peg and goes on finding point after point at the same levei; that is, he must read the same figure on the leveling staff. These points he then surveys as he would any natural feature, and permanently marks the imaginary lines join- ing them on the map, thereby showing a line of equal heights. Military sketch or reconnoissance is a form of map which ought not to pass entirely undescribed. The object of a staff officer in making ; sketch is to give such a representation of the nature of the ground as will give useful information to his general. It may take any amount of elaboration, may be as complete as a cadastral survey taken with instruments of precision, or it may be merely the roughest indication of the nature of the ground, taken with such instruments as may be carried in the pocket, or even improvised without instruments, and be a mere eye sketch of the features of the ground. As the military infor- mation generally desired is the nature of the ground, whether suitable for maneuvering, for artillery, for cavalry, the nature of the roads, of the hills, of the rivers, should all be looked to, and rough contouring and hill shading is a very important part of the officer’s work. He must also get information of defensible spots, of the water supplies, the food supplies, and the resources of the country, and this should be inodified as much as possible on the plan or on the report attached to it. Though any degree of elaborateness may be used, any instruments of precision employed, the typical military sketch is made with a sketch- ing ease, which is merely an improvised plane table. The main lines or traverses are taken from the bearings of the prismatic compass laid down on the sketch itself. The lines are generally paced or guessed, distant objects fixed by bearings from the station points, and the con- touring measured angularly by Abney’s level, or sketch by the eye. The shading of the hills shows steepness by the lines used to indicate them being drawn closer or farther apart. Cartographer.—The plans and maps having been drawn, and all notes made of information, they reach the cartographer or atlas-maker. His duty is first to compare all new information with what is already HOW MAPS’ ARE MADE. ASA known; to eliminate manifest errors, to reduce to scaie and to projee- tion uniform with his great maps of the same part of the world, and generally to make everything ship-shape for publication. Atlas-making.—I do not here refer to the Ordnance Survey maps, drawings, and prints, which were described with the utmost detail and precision by Sir Charles Wilson, but to the general atlases, such as Johnston’s and Bartholomew’s. With the information so gleaned the cartographer is able to make those beautiful orographical maps, which are now so common, showing different levels. In our diagram I have colored the island orographically, which is done by drawing the contour lines and washing over the areas so marked with different variations of tint. But I shall not go far into this subject. Imagine the map drawn. It may be then engraved, like any other picture or line engraving, on a copper plate, and either printed from that plate or from lithographic stones, to which an im- pression of the plate has been transferred. In the Ordnance Survey printing office, instead of lithographie stone, the maps are printed from sheets of zine, which has much the same property of absorbing greasy ink. By this time we have got into the printing office, and to deseribe it in detail would be beyond my province. This part of the subject though very interesting, really embraces the whole art of the engraver, the lithographer, and the printer. But there is one process I desire to show before closing. You see daily in books and newspapers, and in our own journal, maps printed in black along with the type. There are numberless processes for their production; one only I shall briefly note. It is in the type- process of Messrs. Walker & Boutall, who have kindly sent me a speci- men in course of manufacture. On a brass plate a coating of a waxy composition is laid; the outlines of the map are either drawn on this coating or photographically trans- ferred to it. The engraver then scratches through the wax down to the brass with a needle. He next takes suitable types and stamps in the names also down through the wax to the brass, and completes the matrix with the necessary amount of detail, which may be great or little. After verification and correction the matrix is ready for electro- typing. You who know the appearance of stereotype molds will see that this resembles the mold of an ordinary stereotype or electrotype page. The mold is next covered with black lead and an electrotype taken from it, when all the punctures that have been made through the wax to the level brass plate come out level—the scratches as lines and the typeas lettering. Itis then mounted on wood, and is ready to insert among type and be printed along with it. I have tried to give you very roughly an outline of how maps are made from the beginning to the end, in almost the same form that actual necessity forced me to learn it for practical use. SM 93 28 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES.* By J. S. BURDON-SANDERSON, F. R. S. We are assembled this evening as representatives of the sciences— men and women who seek to advance knowledge by scientific methods. The common ground on which we stand is that of belief in the para- mount value of the end for which we are striving, of its inherent power to make men wiser, happier, and better; and our common purpose is to strengthen and encourage one another in our efforts for its attainment. We have come to learn what progress has been made in departments of knowledge which lie outside of our own special scientific interests and occupations, to widen our views, and to correct whatever miscon- ceptions may have arisen from the necessity which limits each of us to his own field of study; and, above all, we are here for the purpose of bringing our divided energies into effectual and combined action. Probably few of the members of the association are fully aware of the influence which it has exercised during the last half century and more in furthering the scientific development of this country. Wide as is the range of its activity, there has been no great question in the field of scientific inquiry which it has failed to discuss; no important line of investigation which it has not promoted; no great discovery which it has not welcomed. After more than sixty years of existence it still finds itself in the energy of middle life, looking back with satisfaction to what it has accomplished in its youth, and forward to an even more efficient future. One of the first of the national associations which exist in different countries for the advancement of science, its influence has been more felt than that of its successors, because it is more wanted. The wealthiest country in the world, which has profited more, vastly more, by science than any other, England stands alone in the discredit of refusing the necessary expenditure for its development, and cares not that other nations should reap the harvest for which her own sons have labored. It is surely our duty not to rest satisfied with the reflection that England in the past has accomplished so much, but rather to unite *Inaugural Presidential address before British Association, for the Advancement of Science; at Notingham, September 13, 1893. (Nature, Sept. 14, 1893; vol. xLvu, pp. 464-472. ) 435 436 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. and agitate in the confidence of eventuai success. It is not the fault of governments, but of the nation, that the claims of science are not recognized. We have against us an overwhelming majority of the community, not merely of the ignorant, but of those who regard them- selves as educated, who value science only in so far as it can be turned into money; for we are still in great measure, in greater measure than any other, a nation of shop-keepers. Let us who are of the minority— the remnant who believe that truth is in itself of supreme value, and the knowledge of it of supreme utility—do all that we can to bring public opinion to our side, so that the century which has given Young, Faraday, Lyell, Darwin, Maxwell, and Thompson to England may, before it closes, see us prepared to take our part with other countries in combined action for the full development of natural knowledge. Last year the necessity of an imperial observatory for physical sei- ence was, as no doubt many are aware, the subject of a discussion in Section A, which derived its interest from the number of leading physi- cists who took part init, and especially from the presence and active participation of the distinguished man who is at the head of the National Physical Laboratory at Berlin. The equally pressing neces- sity for a central institution for chemistry, on a scale commensurate with the practical importance of that science, has been insisted upon in this association and elsewhere by. distinguished chemists. As regards biology, I shall have a word to say in the same direction this evening. Of these three requirements it may be that the first is the most pressing. If so, let us all, whatever branch of science we repre: sent, unite our efforts to realize it, in the assurance that if once the claim of science to liberal public support is admitted the rest will follow. In selecting a subject on which to address you this evening, I have followed the example of my predecessors in limiting myself to matters more or less connected with my own scientific occupations, believing that in discussing what most interests myself I should have the best chance of interesting you. The circumstance that at the last meeting of the British Association in this town, Section D assumed for the first time the title which it has since held, that of the Section of Biology, suggested to me that I might take the word ‘“ biology” as my starting point, giving you some account of its origin and first use, and of the relations which subsist between biology and other branches of natural science. ORIGIN AND MEANING OF THE TERM “ BIOLOGY.” The term ‘“ biology,” which is now so familiar as comprising the sum of the knowledge which has as yet been acquired concerning living nature, was unknown until after the beginning of the present century. The term was first employed by Treviranus, who proposed to himself as a life-task the development of a new science, the aim of which should BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 437 be to study the forms and phenomena of life, its origin, and the condi- tions and laws ofits existence, and embodied what was known on these subjects in a book of seven volumes, which he entitled Biology, or the Philosophy of Living Nature. For its construction the material was very scanty, and was chiefly derived from the anatomists and physiolo- gists. I’or botanists were entirely occupied in completing the work which Linnzeus had begun, and the scope of zoology was in like man- ner limited to the description and classification of animals. It was a new thing to regard the study of living nature as a science by itself, worthy to occupy a place by the side of natural philosophy, and it was therefore necessary to vindicate its claim to such a position. Trevira- nus declined to found this claim on its useful applications to the arts of agriculture and medicine, considering that to regard any subject of study in relation to our bodily wants—in other words, to utility—was to narrow it, but dwelt rather on its value as a discipline and on its sur- passing interest. Hecommends biology to his readers as a study which, above all others, ‘‘ nourishes and maintains the taste for simplicity and nobleness; which affords to the intellect ever new material for reflee- tion, and to the imagination an inexhaustible source of attractive images.” Being himself a mathematician as well as a naturalist, he approaches the subject both from the side-of natural philosophy and from that of natural history, and desires to found the new science on the funda- mental distinction between living and non-living materials. In discuss- ing this distinction, he takes as his point of departure the constaney with which the activities which manifest themselves in the universe are balanced, emphasizing the impossibility of excluding from that balance the vital activities of plants and animals. The difference between vital and physical processes he accordingly finds, not in the nature of the processes themselves, but in their co-ordination; that is, in their adapt- edness to a given purpose, and to the peculiar and special relation in which the organism stands to the external world. All of this is expressed in a proposition difficult to translate into English, in which he defines life as consisting in the reaction of the organism to external influences, and contrasts the uniformity of vital reactions with the variety of their exciting causes.* The purpose which I have in view in taking you back as I have done to the begining of the century is not merely to commemorate the work done by the wonderfully acute writer to whom we owe the first scien- tific conception of the science of life as a whole, but to show that this conception, as expressed in the definition I have given you as its founda- tion, can still be accepted as true. It suggests the idea of organism as that to which all other biological ideas must relate. It also suggests, Oe *“QLeben besteht in der Gleichformigkeit der Reaktionen bei ungleichférmigen Einwirkungen der Aussenwelt.’’—Treviranus, Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur, Gottengen, 1802, vol. 1, p. 83. 438 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. although perhaps it does not express it, that action is not an attribute to the organism but of its essence—that if, on the other hand, proto- plasm is the basis of life, life is the basis of protoplasm. Their rela- tions to each other are rareeeal: We think of the visible structure only in connection with the invisible process. The definition is also of value as indicating at once the two lines of inquiry into which the set- ° ence has divided by the natural evolution of knowledge. These two lines may be easily educed from the general principle from which Tre- viranus started, according to which it is the fundamental characteristic of the organism that all that goes on in it is to the advantage of the whole. I need scarcely say that this fundamental conception of organ- ism has at all times presented itself to the minds of those who have sought to understand the distinction between living and non-living. Without going back to the true father and founder of biology, Aris- totle, we may recall with interest the language employed in relation to it by the physiologists of three hundred years ago. It was at that time expressed by the term consensus partium—which was defined as the concurrence of parts in action, of such a nature that each does quod suum est, all combining to bring about one effect ‘‘as if they had been in secret council,” but at the same time constanti quadam nature lege* Prof. Huxley has made familiar to us how a century later Descartes imagined to himself a mechanism to carry out this consensus, based on such scanty knowledge as was then available of the structure of the nervous system. The discoveries of the early part of the present cen- tury relating to the reflex action and the functions of sensory and motor nerves, served to realize in a wonderful way his anticipations as to the channels of influence, afferent and efferent, by which the consen- sus is maintained; and in recent times (as we hope to learn from Prof. Horsley’s lecture on the physiology of the nervous system) these channels have been investigated with extraordinary minuteness and success. Whether with the old writers we speak about consensus, with Trevi- ‘anus about adaptation, or are content to take organism as our point of departure, it means that, ae tris ga plant or an animal as an organ- ism, we concern ourselves primarily with its activities, or, to use the word which best expresses it, its energies. Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning to think about the activities of an organism is that they are naturally distinguishable into two kinds, according as we consider the action of the whole organism in its relation to the external world or to other organisms, or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each other. The distinction to which we are thus led between the internal and external relations of plants and animals has of course always existed, but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides pile siete more or less comple into two camps—on *Bausner, De Consensu Partium Enea Conn Amst., 1556, Pref. ad lectorem, p. 4. BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 439 the one hand those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who interest themselves rather in considering the piace which each organism oceupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of natiire. It is apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate to what the organism does, rather than to what it ¢s, and therefore both have equal right to be included in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Prof. Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate the study of organisms with reference to their place in nature under the designation of ‘“ccology,” defining it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal to its organic as well as to its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes into direct contact.”* Whether this term expresses it or not, the distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with the wcologist we regard the organism in relation to the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful complex of vital energies, the two branches have this in common, that both studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals, butterflies in cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant body—all of which relate to the framework of life—but on life itself. The conception of biology which was developed by Treviranus as far as the knowledge of plants and animals which then existed rendered possible, seems to me still to express the scope of the science. I should have liked, had it been within my power, to present to you both aspects of the subject in equal fulness; but I feel that I shall best profit by the present opportunity if [ derive my illustrations chiefly from the division of biology to which I am attached—that which concerns the internat relations of the organism, it being my object not to specialize in either direction, but as Treviranus desired to do, to regard it as part—surely a very important part—of the great science of nature. The origin of life, the first transition from non-living to living, is a riddle which lies outside of our scope. No seriously-minded person however doubts that organized nature as it now presents itself to us has become what it is by a process of gradual perfecting or advance- ment, brought about by the elimination of those organisms which failed to obey the fundamental principle of adaptation which Treviranus ind1- cated. Each step therefore in this evolution is a reaction to external influences, the motive of which is essentially the same as that by which *These he identifies with ‘‘those complicated mutual relations which Darwin designates as conditions of the struggle for existence.” Along with chorology—the distribution of animals—ccology constitutes what he calls Relations-physiologie. Haeckel, ‘“‘Entwickelungsgang u. Aufgaben der Zoologie,” Jenaisehe Zeitschr. 1869, VOle Ve Prooo. 440 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. from moment to moment the organism governs itself. And the whole process is a necessary outcome of the fact that those organisms are most prosperous which look best after their own welfare. As in that part of biology which deals with the internal relations of the organism, the interest of the individual is in like manner the sole motive by which every energy is guided. We may take what Treviranus called selfish adaptation—Zweckmissigkeit fiir sich selber—as a connecting link between the two branches of biological study. Out of this relation springs another which I need not say was not recognized until after the Darwinian epoch—that, 1 mean, which subsists between the two evolutions, that of the race and that of the individual. Treviranus, no less distinctly than his great. contemporary Lamarck, was well aware that the affinities of plants and animals must be estimated according to their developmental value, and consequently that classification must be founded on development; but it occurred to no one what the real link was between descent and development; nor was it indeed until several years after the publication of the “Origin” that Haeckel enun- ciated that ‘biogenetic law,” according to which the development of any individual organism is but a memory, a recapitulation by the indi- vidual of the development of the race—of the process for which Fritz Miiller had coined the excellent word “‘phylogenesis;” and that each stage of the former is but a transitory re-appearance of a bygone epoch in its ancestral history. If therefore we are right in regarding onto- genesis as dependent on phylogenesis, the origin of the former must correspond with that of the latter; that is, on the power which the race or the organism at every stage of its existence possesses of profiting by every condition or circumstance for its own advancement. From the short summary of the connection between different parts of our science you will see that biology naturally falls into three divi- sions, and these are even more sharply distinguished by their methods than by their subjects, namely, physiology, of which the methods are entirely experimental; morphology, the science which deals with the forms and structure of plants and animals, and of which it may be said that the body is anatomy, the soul, development; and finally, wcology, which uses all the knowledge it can obtain from the other two, but chiefly rests on the exploration of the endless varied phenomeéna of ani- mal and plant life as they manifest themselves under natural conditions. This last branch of biology—the science which concerns itself with the external relations of plants and animals to each other, and to the past aud present conditions of their existence—is by far the most attractive. In it those qualities of mind which especially distinguish the naturalist find their highest exercise, and it represents more than any other branch of the subject what Treviranus termed the “ philosophy of living nature.” Notwithstanding the very general interest which several of its problems excite at the present moment I do not propose to discuss any of them, but rather to limit nyself to the humbler task of showing that the fun- BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 441 damental idea which finds one form of expression in the world of living beings regarded as a whole—the prevalence of the best—manifests itself with equal distinctness, and plays an equally essential part in the internal relations of the organism in the great science which treats of them—physiology. “ORIGIN AND SCOPE OF MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. Just as there was no true philosophy of living nature until Darwin, - we may with almost equal truth say that physiology did not exist as a science before Johannes Miiller. For although the sum of his numerous achievements in comparative anatomy and physiology, notwithstand- ing their extraordinary number and importance, could not be compared for merit and fruitfulness with the one discovery which furnished the key to so many riddles, he, no less than Darwin, by his influence on his successors, was the beginner of a new era. Miiller taught in Berlin from 1833 to 1857. During that time a grad- ual change was in progress in the way in which biologists regarded the fundamental problem of life. Miller himself, in common with Trevira- nus and all the biological teachers of his time, was a vitalist, 7. e. he regarded what was then called the vis vitalis—the Lebenskraft—as something capable of being correlated with the physical forces; and as a necessary consequence held that phenomena should be classified or distinguished, according to the forces which produced them, as vital or physicai, and that all those processes—that is, groups or series of phe- nomena in living organisms—for which, in the then very impertect knowledge which existed, no obvious physical explanation could be found, were sufficiently explained when they were stated to be depen- dent on so-called vital laws. But during the period of Miiller’s great- est activity times were changing, and he was changing with them. During his long career as professor at Berlin he became more and more objective in his tendencies, and exercised an influence in the same direc- tion on the men of the next generation, teaching them that it was bet- ter and more useful to observe than to philosophize; so that, although he himself is truly regarded as the last of the vitalists—for he was a Vitalist to the last—his successors were adherents of what has been very inadequately designated the mechanistic view of the phenomena of life. The change thus brought about just before the middle of this century was a revolution. It was not a substitution of one point of view for another, but simply a frank abandonment of theory for fact, of speculation for experiment. Physiologists ceased to theorize because they found something better to do. May I try to give you a sketch of this era of progress? Great discoveries as to the structure of plants and animals had been made in the course of the previous decade, those especially which had resulted from the introduction of the microscope as an instrument of research. By its aid Schwann had been able to show that all organ- 442 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. ized structures are built up of those particles of living substance which we now Call cells, and recognize as the seats and sources of every kind of vital activity. Hugo Mohl, working in another direction, had given the name “protoplasm” to a certain hyaline substance which forms the lining of the cells of plants, though no one as yet knew that it was the essential constituent of all living struectures—the basis of life no less in animals than in plants. And, finally, a new branch of study, histology, founded on observations which the microscope had for the first time rendered possible, had come into existence. Bowman, one of the earliest and most successful cultivators of this new science, cailed it physiological anatomy,* and justified the title by the very important inferences as to the secreting function of epithelial cells and as to the nature of muscular contraction, which he deduced from his admirable anatomical researches. From structure to function, from microscopical observation to physiological experiment, the transition was natural. Anatomy was able to answer some questions, but asked many more. Fifty years ago physiologists had microscopes but had no laboratories. English physiologists, Bowman, Paget, Sharpey, were at the same time anatomists, and in Berlin, Johannes Miiller, along with anatomy and physiology, taught comparative anatomy and pathology. But soon that specialization which, however much we may regret its necessity, is an essential concomitant of progress, became more and more inevitable. The structural conditions on which the processes of life depend had become, if not known, at least accessible to investigation; but very little indeed had been ascertained of the nature of the processes them- selves, so little indeed, that if at this moment we could blot from the records of physiology the whole of the information which had been acquired, say in 1840, the loss would be difticult to trace, not that the previously-known facts were of little value, but because every fact of moment has since been subjected to experimental verification. It is for this reason that, without any hesitation, we accord to Miiller and to his successors, Briicke, du Bois-Reymond, Helmholtz, who were his pupils, and Ludwig, in Germany, and to Claude Bernard ¢ in France, the title of founders of our science. For it is the work which they began at that remarkable time (1845-1855), and which is now being carried on by their pupils or their pupils’ pupils in England, America, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, and even in that youngest contribu- tor to the advancement of science, Japan, that physiology has been gradually built up to whatever completeness it has at present attained. What were the conditions that brought about this great advance which coincided with the middle ot the century? There is but little *The first part of the Physiological Anatomy appeared in 1843. It was concluded in 1856. tIt is worthy of note that these five distinguished men were merely contempora- ries; Ludwig graduated in 1839; Bernard in 1843; the other three between those dates. ‘Three survive—Helmholtz, Ludwig, du Bois-Reymond. BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 443 difficulty in answering the question. I have already said that the change was not one of doctrine, but of method. There was however a leading idea in the minds of those who were chiefly concerned in bringing it about. That leading notion was that however complicated may be the conditions under which vital energies manifest themselves, they can be split into processes which are identical in nature with those of the non-living world, and, as a corollary to this, that the analyzing of a vital process into its physical and chemical constituents, so as to bring these constituents into measurable relation with physical or chem- ical standards, is the only mode of investigating them which can lead to satisfactory results. There were several circumstances which at that time tended to make the younger physiologists (and all of the men to whom I have just referred were then young) sanguine—perhaps too sanguine, in the hope that the application of experimental methods derived from the exact sciences would aftord solutions of many physiological problems. One of these was the progress which had been made in the science of chem- istry, and particularly the discovery that many of the compounds which before had been regarded as special products of vital processes, could be produced in the laboratory, and the more complete knowledge which had been thereby acquired of their chemical constitutions and rela- tions. In like manner the new school profited by the advances which had been made in physics, partly by borrowing from the physical lab- oratory various improved methods of observing the phenomena of liv- ing beings, but chiefly in consequence ot the direct bearing of the crowning discovery of that epoch (that of the conservation of energy) on the discussions which then took place as to the relations between vital and physical forces; in connection with which it may be noted that two of those who (along with Mr. Joule and your president at the last Nottingham meeting) took a prominent part in that discovery— Helmholtz and J. R. Mayer—were physiologists as much as they were physicists. 1 will not attempt even to enumerate the achievements of that epoch of progress. I may however without risk of wearying you, indicate the lines along which research at first proceeded, and draw your attention to the contrast between then and now. At present a young observer who is zealous to engage in research finds himself pro- vided with the most elaborate means of investigation, the chief obsta- cle to his success being that the problems which have been left over by his predecessors are of extreme difficulty, all of the easier questions having been worked out. There were then also difficulties, but of an entirely different kind. The work to be done was in itself easier, but the means for doing it were wanting, and every investigator had to depend on his own resources. Consequently the successful men were those who, in addition to scientific training, possessed the ingenuity to devise and the skill to carry out methods for themselves. The work by which du Bois-Reymond laid the foundation of animal electricity would 444 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. not have been possible had not its author, besides being a trained phys- icist, known how to do as good work in a Small room in the upper floor of the old university building at Berlin as any which is now done in his splendid laboratory. Had Ludwig not possessed mechanical apti- tude, in addition to scientific knowledge, he would have been unable to devise the apparatus by which he measured and recorded the varia- tions of arterial pressure (1848), and verified the principles which Young had laid down thirty years before as to the mechanics of the circulation. Nor, lastly, could Helmholtz, had he not been a great — deal more than a mere physiologist, have made those measurements of the time relations of muscular and nervous responses to stimulation, which not only afford a solid foundation for all that has been done since in the same direction, but has served as models of physiological experiment, and as evidence that perfect work was possible and was done by capable men, even when there were no physiological labora- tories. Kach of these examples relates to work done within a year or two of the middle of the century.* If it were possible to enter more fully on the scientific history of the time, we should, I think, find the clearest evidence, first, that the foundation was laid in anatomical discoveries, in which it is gratifying to remember that English anatomists (Allen, Thomson, Bowman, Goodsir, Sharpey) took considerable share; sec- ondly, that progress was rendered possible by the rapid advances which, during the previous decade, had been made in physics and chemistry, and the participation of physiology in the general awakening of the scientific spirit which these discoveries produced. I venture however to think that notwithstanding the operation of these two causes, or ‘ather combinations of causes, the development of our science would have been delayed had it not been for the exceptional endowments of the four or five young experimenters whose names I have mentioned, each of whom was capable of becoming a master in his own branch, and of guiding the future progress of inquiry. Just as the affinities of an organism can be best learned from its development, so the scope of a science may be most easily judged of by the tendencies which it exhibits in its origin. I wish now to com- plete the sketch I have endeavored to give of the way in which physi- ology entered on the career it has since followed for the last half century, by a few words as to the influence exercised on general physi- ological theory by the progress of research. We have seen that no real advance was made until it became possible to investigate the phe- nomena of life by methods which approached more or less closely to those of the physicist, in exactitude. The methods of investigation “The ‘“ Untersuchungen iiber thierische Electricitit” appeared in 1848; Ludwig’s researches on the circulation, which included the first description of the ‘‘ kymo- graph” and served as the foundation ef the ‘ graphic method” in 1847; Helmholtz’s research on the propagation in motor nerves in 1851. ® BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 445 being physical or chemical, the organism itself naturally came to be considered as a complex of such processes, and nothing more. And in particular the idea of adaptation, which, as I have endeavored to show, is not a consequence of organism, but its essence, was in great measure lost sight of. Not, 1 think, because it was any more possible than before to conceive of the organism otherwise than as a working together of parts for the good of the whole, but rather that, if I may soexpress it, the minds of men were so occupied with new facts that they had not time to elaborate theories. The old meaning of the term “ adaptation” as the equivalent of “design” had been abandoned, and no new mean- ing had yet been given to it, and consequently the word “ mechanism” came to be employed as the equivalent of “ process,” as if the constant concomitance or sequence of two events was in itself a sufficient reason for assuming a mechanical relation between them. As in daily life so also in science, the misuse of words leads to misconceptions. To assert that the link between a and 0 is mechanical, for no better reason than that b always follows a,is an error of statement, which is apt to lead the incautious reader or hearer to imagine that the relation between a and 0} is understood, when in fact its nature may be wholly unknown. Whether or not at the time which we are considering some physiolog- ical writers showed a tendency to commit this error, I do not think that it found expression in any generally accepted theory of life. It may however be admitted that the rapid progress of experimental investi- gation led to too confident anticipations, and that to some enthusiastic minds it appeared as if we were approaching within measurable dis- tance of the end of knowledge. Such a tendency is, I think, a natural result of every signal advance. In an eloquent -Harveian oration, delivered last autumn by Dr. Bridges, it was indicated how, after Har- vey’s great discovery of the circulation, men were too apt to found upon it explanations of all phenomena whether of health or disease, to such an extent that the practice of medicine was even prejudicially affected by it. In respect of its scientific importance the epoch we are consid- ering may well be compared with that of Harvey, and may have been followed by an undue preference of the new as compared with the old, but no more permanent unfavorable results have shown themselves. As regards the science of medicine, we need only remember that it was during the years between 1845 and 1860, that Virchow made those researches by which he brought the processes of disease into imme- diate relation with the normal processes of cell development and growth, and so, by making pathology a part of physiology, secured its subsequent progress and its influence on practical medicine. Similarly in physiology, the achievement of those years led on without any inter- ruption or drawback to those of the following generation; while in general biology the revolution in the mode of regarding the internal processes of the animal or plant organism which resulted from these achievements, prepared the way for the acceptance of the still greater 446 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. revolution which the Darwinian epoch brought about in the views entertained by naturalists of the relations of plants and animals to each other and to their surroundings. It has been said that every science of observation begins by going out botanizing, by which, I suppose, is meant that collecting and record- ing observations is the first thing to be done in entering on a new field of inquiry. Theremark would scarcely be true of physiology, even at the earliest stage of its development, for the most elementary of its facts could seareely be picked up as one gathers flowers in a wood. Each of the processes which go to make up the complex of life requires separate investigation, and in each case the investigation must consist in first splitting up the process into its constituent phenomena, and then determining their relation to each other, to the process of which they form part, and to the conditions under which they manifest them- selves. It will, I think, be found that even in the simplest inquiry into the nature of vital processes some such order as this is followed. Thus, for example, if muscular contraction be the subject on which we seek information, it is obvious that, in order to measure its duration, the mechanical work it accomplishes, the heat wasted in doing it, the elec- tro-motive forces which it develops, and the changes of form associated with these phenomena, special modes of observation must be used for each of them, that each measurement must be in the first instance separately made, under special conditions, and by methods specially adapted to the required purpose. In the synthetic part of the inquiry the guidance of experiment must again be sought for the purpose of discriminating between apparent and real causes, and of determining the order in which the phenomena occur. Even the simplest experi- mental investigations of vital processes are beset with difficulties. For, in addition to the extreme complexity of the phenomena to be examined and the uncertainties which arise from the relative inconstancy of the conditions of all that goes on in the living organism, there is this addi- tional drawback, that, whereas in the exact sciences experiment is guided by well-ascertained laws, here the only principle of universal application is that of adaptation, and that even this can not, like a law of physics, be taken as a basis for deductions, but only as a sum- mary expression of that relation between external exciting causes and the reactions to which they give rise, which, in accordance with Tre- viranus’ definition, is the essential character of vital activity. THE SPECIFIC ENERGIES OF THE ORGANISM. When, in 1826, J. Miiller was engaged in investigating the physiology of vision and hearing, he introduced into the discussion a term, ‘ spe- cific energy,” the use of which by Helmholtz* in his physiological writ- * « Tandb. der physiologischen Optik,” 1886, p. 283. Helmholtz uses the word in ihe plural, the ‘energies of the nerves of special sense,” BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. 447 ings has rendered it familiar to all students. Both writers mean by the word energy, not the “ capacity of doing work,” but simply activity, using it in its old-fashioned meaning, that of the Greek word from which itis derived. With the qualification “specific,” it serves, per- haps, better than any other expression to indicate the way in which adaptation manifests itself. In this more extended sense the ‘“ specific energy” of a part or organ—whether that part be a secreting cell, a motor cell of the brain or spinal cord, or one of the photogenous cells which produce the light of the glowworm, or the protoplasmic plate which generates the discharge of the torpedo—is simply the special action which it normally performs, its norma or rule of action being in each instance the interest of the organism as a whole of which it forms part, and the exciting cause some influence outside of the excited strue- ture, technically called a stimulus. It thus stands for a characteristic of living structures which seems to be universal. The apparent excep- tions are to’ be found in those bodily activities which, following Bichat, we call vegetative, because they go on, so to speak, as a matter of course; but the more closely we look into them the more does it appear that they form no exception to the general rule, that every link in the chain of living action, however uniform that action may be, is a response to an antecedent influence. Nor ean it well be doubted that, as every living cell or tissue is called upon to act in the interest of the whole, the organism must be capable of influencing every part so as to regu- late its action. For, although there are some instances in which the channels of this influence are as yet unknown, the tendency of recent investigations has been to diminish the number of such instances. In general there is no difficulty in determining both the nature of the cen- tral influence exercised and the relation between it and the normal function. It may help to illustrate this relation to refer to the express- ive word Auslésung, by which it has for many years been designated by German writers. This word stands for the performance of function by the “letting off” of “ specific energies.” Carrying out the notion of “letting off” as expressing the link between action and reaction, we might compare the whole process to the mode of working to a repeating clock (or other similar mechanism), in which case the pressure of the finger on the button would represent the external influence or stimulus, the striking of the clock, the normal reaction. And now may I ask you to consider in detail one or two illustrations of physiological reaction—of the letting off of specific energy ? The repeater may serve as a good example, inasmuch as it is, in bio- logical language, a highly differentiated structure, to which a single function is assigned. So also in the living organism, we find the best examples of specific energy where Miiller found them, namely, in the most differentiated, or, as we are apt to call them, the highest structures. The retina, with the part of the brain which belongs to it, together con- stitute such a structure, and will afford us therefore the illustration we 448 BIOLOGY IN RELATION TO OTHER NATURAL SCIENCES. want, with this advantage for our present purpose, that the phenomena are such as we all have it in our power to observe in ourselves. In the visual apparatus the principle of normality of reaction is fully exem- plified. In the physical sense the word “ light” stands for ether vibra- tions, but in the sensuous or subjective sense for sensations. The swings are the stimulus, the sensations are the reaction. Between the two comes the link, the “letting off,” which itis our business to understand. Here let us remember that the man who first recognized this distinction between the physical and the physiological was not a biologist, but a physicist. It was Young who first made clear (though his doctrine fell on nnappreciative ears) that, although in vision the external influences which give rise to the sensation of light are infinitely varied, the responses need not be more than three in number, each being in Miiller’s Janguage, a “specific energy ” of some part of the visual apparatus. We speak of the organ of vision as highly differentiated, an expression which carries with it the suggestion of a distinction of rank between different vital processes. The suggestion is a true one, for.it would be possible to arrange all those parts or organs of which the bodies of the higher animals consist in a series, placing at the lower end of the series those of which the functions are continuous, and therefore called vege- tative; at the other, those highly specialized structures, as e. g., those, in the brain, which in response to physical light produce physiological, that is subjective, ight; or, to take another instance, the so-called motor cells of the surface of the brain, which in response to astimulus of much greater complexity produce voluntary motion. And just as in civilized society an individual is valued according to his power of doing one thing well, so the high rank which is assigned to the structure, or rather to the “specific energy ” which it represents, belongs to it by virtue of its specialization. And if it be asked how this conformity is manifested, the answer is, by the quality, intensity, duration, and exten- sion of the response, in all which respects vision serves as so good an an example, that we can readily understand how it happened that it was in this field that the relation between response and stimulus was first clearly recognized. I need scarcely say that, however interesting it might be to follow out the lines of inquiry thus indicated, we can not attempt it this evening. to fall into the sea and become disintegrated, it will be easy for us to understand that such globules would be disengaged. The metallic globules resemble wholly, in exterior appearance, those which are produced when bits of iron at white heat fly into the air, such for instance as are produced by the blow of the hammer on the anvil. Similar ones are doubtiess produced when meteorites throw off sparks in traversing the atmosphere with great rapidity heated to incandescence. Messrs. Murray and Renard consider themselves, there- fore, authorized to designate the metallic dusts, as well as the stony globules, as cosmic dusts. It appears from a great number of examples that the cosmic dusts are found specially in the red clay which occupies the great depths of the Pacific, far from all continental land. Under these conditions the deposit seems to be of slight thickness and to be effected with extreme slowness. Facts which we witness daily render it easy to understand a cosmic co-operation in the building up of sub-marine deposts. Every one has noticed the abundance of dust contained in the atmos- phere that a ray of sun entering a dark room suffices to reveal. Such dust is still more apparent in the layer which settles upon all the objects in an uninhabited place, and even in the open country where the air is comparatively tranquil. It is more and more the unanimous opinion that the atmosphere is no less active a vehicle than water in the forma- tion of sedimentary deposits. 558 DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. Many observers have catalogued the substances contained in atmos- pheric dusts. We need not mention here the organic and organized particles, among which, as Mr. Pasteur and his pupils have shown us, microbes occupy such a preponderant place. What interests us is that the mineral grains are also prodigiously abundant. This mineral por- tion consists principally in very minute débris of terrestrial rocks, which, in spite of their extremely small dimensions, can be exactly determined by the microscope—such as quartz, limestone, the voleanic silicates, and oxide of iron, which are easily diagnosed. In the course of these microscopic examinations, minute substances have been found differing entirely by their spherical form from the small fragments produced by the crushing of rocks. The substances in question resemble exactly the hollow globules or vesicles of oxide which the quick combustion of metallic iron gives for example, when the old-fashioned tinder box is used or when a horse’s shoe strikes sparks from the pavement. It is legitimate, however, not to consider all these globules as having an artificial origin. Two classes of considerations may be appealed to on this subject. First, it is demonstrated that lumps formed of metallic iron or containing granules of that metal, reach us from celestial space and undergo in the higher regions of the atmosphere an artificial combus- tion. The latter fact is manifested by the long trains of smoke, often persistent, which accompany the meteorites. They contain very prob- ably globules analogous to those produced from horse-shoes on the pavement. In several circumstances the enormous volume of the dust in question has been ascertained from the clouds or trails which have accompanied the fall of celestial bodies. By reason of the importance of the fact, we will cite several examples. . At the time of the fall of the holosiderite, or iron of Hraschina, near Agram (May 26, 1731), there was perceived, after the explosion, a black cloud which lasted, it is said, for three hours and a half after the fall. At the moment of the fall of the iron of Braunau, in Hungary, which took place July 14, 1847, many persons, warned by two violent reports, remarked a small black cloud which appeared horizontally, with the accompaniment of violent reports; two globes of fire, which issued from the cloud, fell upon the ground. The cloud became gray and then disappeared. The mass from which, on the 14th of May, 1863, chondritie meteorites fell in the environs of Orgueil (Tarn et Garonne), gave forth a jet of sparks; then left behind ita trail, which was at first luminous, and then changed to a cloud, lasting from eight to ten minutes. Before the explosion of the meteorite to which we owe the aéro- lites which fell on the 9th of December, 1858, at Ausson and at Clarac, near Montrejeau (Haute Garonne), a considerable jet of incandescent smoke was seen to escape from the nucleus, A cloud of whitish DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 559 vapor formed in the center of the explosion, and a trail of the same vapor lasted with this cloud over the whole line followed by the meteor. The fall at Aigle, May 26, 1803, according to the circumstantial nar- ative of Biot, was announced by a flaming globe accompanied by a violent explosion which lasted five or six minutes; it was at first like four cannon shots, then a discharge resembling a volley of mus- ketry. This noise came from a small, very high cloud of a rectangular shape which seemed motionless all the time the phenomena lasted. Beside the fall of meteorites, properly so-called, it is certain that cosmic dusts also fall. They have not attracted as much atten- tion as they should, for it is difficult to distinguish them from those of terrestrial origin, which are incomparably the most numerous. They are recognized however, when preceded by the remarkable phenomena of light and noise which we have just mentioned. The catalogue pub- lished by Chladni in 1824 informs us of several examples, aniong which is the following: In 1819, in Montreal, Canada, a black rain was observed, accompanied by an extraordinary darkening of the sky, and reports like those from artillery, and very brilliant lights. At first it was supposed to be a fire in a neighboring forest, coinciding with a violent storm. But the whole phenomenon and the examination of the matter which fell proved that it was due to the arrival in the atmos- phere of substances foreign to our globe. There fell at Laebau, in Saxony, January 13, 1835, a powder formed of magnetic oxide. This fall followed the explosion of a bolide which moved, it was said, with extraordinary swiftness, and the flashes from which seemed to burn in passing through the atmosphere. The chondritic meteorites of Orgueil, the appearance of which in the atmosphere has been mentioned, and which are so interesting from many points of view, were very instructive with regard to the existence of meteoric dust. They are friable to such a degree that several speci- mens were reduced to powder by simple pressure between the fingers. It is a matter of astonishment that they reached the surface of the globe whole. Perhaps this fact may be explained by presenting the two follow- ing circumstances: At firsteach fragment was enveloped at the moment of fall with a vitrified crust more solid than the rest of the mass. Also, the various portions of the substance are cemented by alkaline salts. Water in dissolving this cement brings about the complete disin- tegration of the meteorite, which turns to powder of the most extreme tenuity. So that if on the 14th of May, 1864, the sky, instead of being perfectly clear had been rainy, or merely covered with clouds through which the stones would have had to pass, nothing could have been gathered up but a viscous mud, the fall of which has been observed on several occasions. In addition to the facts derived from contemporary phenomena, a second argument for belief in the cosmic origin of certain ferruginous 560 DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. globules collected in atmospheric dust arises from the discovery that has been made of quite similar globules in sediments anterior to the existence of man, several of which date even from very remote geolog- ical periods. To limit our examples, we will mention, according to Messrs. G. Tissandier and Stanilas Meunier,* the abundance of the small bodies in question in the green sand and the clays under the sheet of bubbling water of the artesian wells of Paris. This cosmic origin makes it clear how similar dust would abound in regions far removed from any inhabited place. At the summit of the highest mountains, upon Mont Blanc, for example, the melted snow water gives a sediment in which the globules we speak of are not wanting. The presence of nickel in certain dust seems to confirm their extra- terrestrial origin. Such was the case with those which Mr. Albert Tissandier collected on the col des Tours at 2,710 meters of altitude, on the occasion of his ascension in 1877. From the limited number of falling meteorites, the products of which are collected each year, a very incomplete idea is formed of their fre- quency. The enormous majority necessarily escapes the most eager search even in the midst of the densest populations, either being dis- guised in the vegetation, on account of their usual smallness of size, or else because they enter the soil. The largest number also fall in unin- habited or savage countries and specially in the basin of the seas. It is thus recognized a priori that cosmic dusts must exist not only on the surface of continents, but also on the basin of oceans. Without diminishing the incontestable importance of the facts just set forth, there must also be taken into account certain geological phenomena to which the mineral globules may owe their birth. Such is the opening of vertical canals like voleanic chimneys, which under the names of diatremes traverse the terrestrial crust, the production of which I have recently realized by the experimental method.t The perforation of different rocks, traversed by currents of gas which has at the same time a very strong pressure, a great swiftness. and a high temperature must have produced dusts, the spheroidal grains of which, often hollow, are very abundant. CHEMICAL AND MINERALOGICAL PRODU‘ TIONS FORMED ON THE GREAT OCEAN BOTTOMS. We see every day on the continents rocks of very different kinds chemically modified under the mere action of air and water, and thus giving birth to new substances. In the same way the deposits formed in the depths of the sea have not escaped certain chemical actions, in spite of the temperature near zero which reigns there. A state of * Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences; 1878; vol. LXXXVI, p. 450. {Experiments upon the possible effects of subterranean gases, Comptes Rendus of the dcademy of Sciences, 1891; vols. Cxi and CXII, DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 561 extreme fineness renders them all the more susceptible of influence. The mineral substances which sea water holds in solution contribute no doubt actively in these modifications. Before the expedition of the Chalienger the results of these reactions and the mineral species produced therefrom were, for the most part, unknown, although such species occupy a large portion of the ocean bed. The exact study which has been made of them by the Challenger constitutes for geologists and mineralogists perhaps the most interest- ing part of the exploration. We will review in succession the species which have been ascertained. Red clay.-—Of all marine sediments the type most widely spread over the deep seas has received the name of red clay. It is essentially a hydrated silicate of alumina, the color of which is due to an intimate mixture of peroxide of iron; sometimes also it takes a brown color from the oxide of manganese. Plastic, like most of the clays, greasy to the touch, it can be molded in the fingers. When dry it adheres in a cohe- rent mass, and subjected to the blow-pipe, it is fused into a black, mag- netic globule. In spite of its homogeneous appearance it is rare that red clay is not mixed with very small fragments of pumice and other voleanic produe- tions. When they are not recognizable by the naked eye this débris reveals its granular nature to the touch. Accidentally red clay may also contain detritus of continental origin, drifted by floating ice or carried far by winds. All this débris is very fine, and it rarely exceeds one-twentieth of a millimeter. Usually red clay is associated with calcareous and siliceous débris, coming from organisms of a microscopic size, which have been men- tioned above. These organisms are mixed in variable proportions, and sometimes predominate so as to greatly modify their aspect. Hence the names globigerina ooze and radiolarian ooze, according as one or the other of those beings characterize it. Hach of these categories of deposits in the great bottoms occupies vast extents. (The area of the radiolarian ooze extends specially between latitudes 20 degrees north and 10 degrees south; the globigerina oozes occupy nearly 110 degrees of latitude, and attain sometimes 5,000 meters in depth. Both disap- pear hear the polar regions.) The terrigenous deposits represent only 14 per cent of the superficies of sea bottoms, the red clay occupies 38 per cent, and the globigerina mud 36 per cent. The diatomacea, a sort of algve with a siliceous skeleton, specially abound toward the polar regions. Thus, as we have said, these various organisms have lived for the most part in the waters of the surface, whence their solid débris have fallen after death into the depths. Vast regions of the Pacific, of the Atlantic, and of the Indian Ocean are occupied with red clay, associated with microscopic organisms. According to a numerous Series of soundings, as the depth is greater, the calcareous shell of various organisms disappears gradually from the slimy sediment, so SM 93 30 562 DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. that finally, far from the surface nothing is found but the red clay, entirely without lime, under organized form. The shells of pteropods disappear first, then the envelopes of the foraminifers, which a coating of organic matter seemed to protect. It seems probable that this elimi- nation of carbonate of lime is due to the action of carbonic acid dis- solved in the deep layers of oceanic waters, where its chemical activity is reinforced by the enormous pressure that reigns. The silica of the organisms resists the best, and it is thus that their skeletons, spicules, and other siliceous vestiges accumulate on the bottom. Everything seems to indicate that the formation of red clay is essen- tially due, like that of most of the other minerals which are to come under our notice, to the decomposition of the incoherent and very tenuous volcanic productions which abound on all the great ocean beds. in the regions where red clay shows its most distinct characteristics this transformation of the voleanic rocks into clayey matter may be followed through its successive phases. The clayey matter is the direct product of a chemical decomposition, specially of the silicates, which are basic and in part represented by the pumice and the voleanie glasses. Ebelmen,* so prematurely taken away from science, which he endowed with discoveries full of genius, was the first to show how the aluminous silicate rocks, principally those of eruptive origin, so frequent at the surface of the globe, are decomposed by the mere action of the atmosphere; their protoxides, such as lime and magnesia, are car- ried off in a state of carbonate, while the alumina is concentrated with the silica, so as to form a hydrated silicate of the clay family. The same slow reactions seem to take placeupon the ocean bottom at the expense of the volcanic silicates, aided perhaps by the chemical action of the sea water. Certain fusible muds contain, very probably, portions still undecomposed, but in such fine dust that they may be confounded with the clay. It has been so with the muds that I have obtained by experiments upon the trituration of feldspar; they are so finely divided that they are soft as clay to the touch and possess the same plasticity. Zeolites.—Notwithstanding the very low temperature which prevails at the ocean bed, the chemical reactions seem to produce sharply-crys- talized minerals, the most remarkable of which, without doubt, belongs to the double hydrated silicates, known under the name of zeolites. These zeolites are met with in great abundance under the form of small isolated crystals; simple or grouped geometrically, often in spherules of hardly a half millimeter in diameter, and in all cases con- fused with the clay. Crystallographic and chemical analyses show that they must belong to the species called christianite or philippsite. This discovery was made in the center of the Pacific. It was repeated “See the article by Mr, Cheyreul inthe Journal des Savants, 1884, p. 104, DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 563 in the Indian Ocean. It might have been thought that these innu- merable crystals of christianite came from the simple disintegra- tion of voleanic rocks, with the paste of which they would have been associated; but the foraminifers brought up from the deeps by the dredge are completely enveloped with crystalline coverings of this mineral, which proves the fact not to be so. The formation of the zeolite is posterior to the deposit of the sediments engendered by the transformation of volcanic substances which cover the bed of the sea. Glauconite—Among the mineral deposits found on the sea bottoms is another hydrated silicate, known under the name of glauconite, which has for its bases aluminium, protoxide of iron, and other metals. Its mode of formation as well as the great extents on which it is found, specially call attention to it. It takes the form of small grains of a green color, and completely similar in form, dimension, and appearance, to the particles of the same mineral which abound in various geological periods of the series of stratified rocks from the most ancient times to the most recent. Glauconite thus plays an important part in space as well as in time. The formation of this mineral in the great sea deeps, brought to notice forty years ago by Bailey and Pourtales, has been the object of many investigations, specially by Ehrenberg. Hydrated oxide of manganese (wad); hydrated oxide of iron (limonite).— Two other species to be mentioned, which submarine chemistry has pro- duced, and no doubt is still producing, are the hydrated oxides of man- ganese and of iron, which are specially observed in nodules. These sub- stances are disseminated over the whole surface of the sea-bottom, but specially in the red clay area. It is easy to understand this associatiun ; the voleanic rocks from which these clays are obtained containing abundance of iron and manganese in their mineral constituents, peri- dot, pyroxen, and others. In consequence of their decomposition the oxides are liberated in conformity with the reactions so ably demon- strated by Ebelmen.* Among the organic and inorganic débris which in the red clay regions serve as center to the ferro-manganiferous concretions, the remains of vertebrates have been frequently found. The bones thus found are the most enduring portions of the skeleton, such as the tympanic bones of the cetacea and the teeth of the shark. Just as we see the calcare- ous organisms eliminated at great depths, so also it is found that, except these massive portions, all bones of vertebrates are missing in the deep sediments. Some of these remains of vertebrates belong to extinct species. Phosphate of lime.—Ott the cape of Good Hope, the dredge brought up from various depths of between 200 and 4,000 meters, quartzy and glauconitic muds, charged with the remains of various organisms, some *In an appendix Mr. Gibson points out, by the aid of spectroscopic analysis, in tne manganese nodules, traces of various elements, barium, strontium, lithium, titanium, vanadium, and thallium. 564 DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. of a calcareous nature, like the foraminifers, others of a siliceous nature, like the spicule of sponges, the radiolaria, and the diatomacea. In these muds are found solid concretions from 1 to 4 centimeters in diameter and embedding all the organic and inorganic elements of the sediment. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the cement of these concretions consists principally of phosphate of lime. The sediments with the phosphatic nodules present the greatest resemblance to certain well-known strata belonging to various stages of certain series, especially of the cretaceous period, viz, the green sandstone, the glauconitic sandstone, the white chalk. The resem- blance, which is not only in the nodules, but also in the sediments which contain them, is such that there is evident similarity in their mode of formation. In regard to the origin of this phosphate of lime, the simplest idea and the one that everything confirms is that it is derived immediately from the decomposition of animal débris buried in the sediment after death. Their form is destroyed by the effect of the reactions of the sea water upon them. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The expedition of the Challenger deserves the gratitude of science, not alone because it has shed light upon important facts in the province of physical geography, and because it has furnished many new ideas of the animal and vegetable life that people the abysses of the ocean. The nature of the bed of those abysses, vast areas whose depth exceeds 4,000 meters and sometimes attain more than 8,000 meters, was, but a short time ago, hardly known to us. Deposits formed from the terra firma observable not far from continents do not continue in the abys- mal regions, where the motions of the sea, to which marginal deposits owe their origin, exert no influence. In those regions, mineral particles upon which the mechanical action of the water has left an imprint are not to be found, but instead vol- cani¢ and pulverized matter, as well as clayey substances produced by their chemical decomposition, the whole mixed with remains of micro- scopic organisms. Such are the deposits which cover the largest part of the sub-marine crust of the globe. We see for the first time the principal outlines of a geological map of the sea bottom, showing the manner in which the different types of deposits are distributed upon the great ocean beds. This map is annexed tothe volume; it contains, in synoptic form and in convention- alized colors, the results of more than two thousand soundings made at depths greater than 2,000 meters.* Among other facts which appear from the map in question, the first to attract the attention is how much the abyssal deposits exceed the 400 in the Pacific. DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 565 marginal deposits in extent. The great predominance of red clay and globigerina-mud ooze is noticed at first sight both in the Atlantic and in the Pacific. In regard to the diatom ooze, it is seen to abound in the Antarctic Ocean beyond 50 degrees of latitude. The deposits in the abyssal regions are in complete contrast not only with the present deposits of seas less deep, but also in a marked way with those formed in the seas in ancient geological periods and which, laid down for a depth of thousands of meters, constitute the series of stratified rocks. In these ancient formations the sediments of abyssal nature seem to be lacking, or to be at least very rare. Hence the conclusion that the parts of the sea where sedimentary earths are successively formed are not, as to conditions of depth, comparable to those where the abyssal regions of the Atlantic and Pacific are found. (They were not very far from the emerged portions or continents, and did not attain to very great depths. : We are therefore led to the conclusion that from the most remote epochs the continental elevations have occupied very nearly the same parts of the globe. The prominences have been gradually modified by general upheavals, as has happened on asmail scale, for example, in the formation of the Alpine chain. The great depressions then go back to a great antiquity and the general configuration of the terrestrial sphe- roid, with its vast and deep depressions as we now know them, must have been outlined from the most ancient epochs of its history. This is the confirmation of an idea which has been previously reached from other considerations. Agassiz formulated it in 1872, in discuss- ing the observations made by Pourtalés upon the deeps of the Atlantic, and in remarking that no vestiges of stratified earth, either ancient or modern, were to be found there. Various facts lead us to think that the clay which covers the bottom of the oceanic basins was deposited with extreme slowness. The deposit seems not to have been thick and seems to go back, at least in certain parts, to very remote periods. This explains the relative abundance with which the cosmic dusts, as well as the more enduring of the cetaceous remains, are found there. The terrigenous deposits accumulate upon an entirely different scale of rapidity. Now that we know the mode of formation of the deposits in the great deeps of the sea, and the chemical reactions producing the various species of minerals, new horizons are opened to us with regard to phe- nomena of which we formerly. had no idea, and which nevertheless has for its stage more than half the solid crust of our planet. The examination of the beautiful work under our notice shows how numerous are the facts upon which the conclusions of the authors are based. It proves also the conscientious care which was bestowed upon the specimens procured which were examined by all the methods known to science. 566 DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. Let us do honor then to the men who organized the expedition of the Challenger, to those men who carried it out with so much courage, energy, and skill, and Jet us render no less worthy homage to the two scientists Mr. John Murray and Mr. A. F. Renard, the important results of whose labors we have endeavored to set forth. Smithsonian Report, 1893, PLATE XXXV. vertical lines, Globi- Jiatom ooze; two areas marked VY ew white spaces, Pteropod ooze. nous deposits; ge,’’ March 1, 1893.) . : ey v : } e } i } ; oe , ex v i ay ‘ , 1 a e ir « ; i 7 | A J . 7 y 3 ‘ ; ; : fe 7 4 ; ; J THE MIGRATIONS OF THE RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY.* By Prof. JAMES BRYCE. There are two senses in which we may claim for geography that it is a meeting point of the sciences. : All the departments of research which deal with external nature touch one another in and through it—geology, botany, zoology, meteorology, as well as, though less directly, the various branches of physics. There is no one of these whose data are not, to a greater or less extent, also within the province of geography; none whose conclusions have not a material bearing on geographical prob- lems; and geography is also the point of contact between the sciences of Nature, taken all together, and the branches of inquiry which deal with man and his institutions. Geography gathers up the results which the geologist, the botanist, the zoologist, and the meteorologist have obtained, and presents them to the student of history, of economics, of politics—we might, perhaps, add of law, of philology, and of architee- ture—as an important part of the data from which he must start, and of the materials to which he will have to refer at many points in the progress of his researches. It is with this second point of contact, this aspect of geography as the basis for history, that we are to occupy our- selves to-night. Understanding that the Scottish Geographical Society desires not merely to present a current history of discovery, but to bring into prominence the economic, social, and political aspects of the science, and to inculcate its significance for those who devote them- selves to the presently urgent problems which civilized man is called to deal with, I have chosen, as not unsuitable to an inaugural address, a subject which belongs almost equally to physical and descriptive geog- raphy on the one side, to history and economics on the other. The movements of the races and tribes of mankind over the surface of our planet are in the first instance determined mainly by the physical con- ditions of its surface and its atmosphere, but they become themselves a part, and, indeed, a great part, of history; they create nations and build up states; they determine the extension of languages and laws; *Read at the inaugural meeting of the London branch of the Royal Scottish Geo- graphical Society, April, 1892. (The Scottish Geographical Magazine, August, 1892; vol. vill, pp. 400-421.) 567 568 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. they bring wealth to some regions and leave others neglected; they mark out the routes of commerce and affect the economic relations of differ- ent countries. No line of historical inquiry sets before us more clearly at every stage the connection between man as an associative being—toiling, trading, warring, ruling, legislating—and that physical environment whose influ- ence over his development is none the less potent and constant because he has learned in obeying it to rule it and to make it yield to him con- stantly increasing benefits. The topic is so large and branches off into so many other cognate inquiries that you will not expect me, within the narrow limits of an address, to do more than draw its outlines, enumerate the principal causes whose action it sets before us, touch upon the successive epochs which its history presents, and refer to a few out of the many problems its consideration raises. The migrations of peoples have been among the most potent factors in making the world of to-day different from the world of thirty centuries ago. If they continue they will be scarcely less potent in their influence on the future of the race; if they pass into new phases, those phases will be the expression of new conditions of society; if they cease, that cessa- tion willitself be a fact of the highest economic and social significance. I.—FORMS OF DIFFUSION. At the outset it is convenient to distinguish the different forms which movements of population have taken. These forms may be grouped under three heads, which I propose to call by the names of Transfer- ence, Dispersion, and Permeation—names which need a tew words of illustration. 1. By Transference I mean that form of migration in which the whole, or a large majority, of a race or tribe quits its ancient seats in a body and moves into some other region. Such migrations seldom occur except in the case of nomad peoples who are little attached to any par- ticular piece of soil; but we may almost class among the nomads tribes who, like our own remote Teutonic ancestors, although they cultivate the soil, put no capital into it in the way of permanent improvements, and build no dwellings of brick or stone. The prehistoric migrations usu- ally belonged to this form, and so did that great series of movements which brought the northern races into the Roman Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries of our era. In modern times we find few instances of Transference, because such nomad races as remain are now shut up within narrow limits by the settled States that surround them, which have possessed, since the invention of gunpowder and of standing armies, enormously superior defensive strength.* We should however have had an interesting case to point to had the Dutch, when pressed by the power of Philip II, embraced the offer that came to them from *In 1771 a great Kalmuk horde moved en masse from the steppes of the Caspian to the frontiers of China, losing more than half its numbers on the way. MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 569 England to migrate in a body and establish themselves, their dairying, their flax culture, and their linen manufacture, in the rich pastures and humid air of Ireland. 2. Under the head of migrations by Dispersion I include those cases in which a tribe or race, while retaining its ancient seats, overflows into new lands, whether vacant or already occupied; in the latter event sometimes ejecting the original inhabitants, sometimes fusing with them, sometimes dwelling among them, but remaining distinct. Examples are furnished by the case of the Norsemen, who found Ice- land practically vacant, while in England they became easily, in Ire- land and Gaul more slowly, mingled with the previous inhabitants. When our own ancestors came from the Frisian coast they slew or drove out the bulk of the Celtic population of Eastern Britain; when the Franks entered Gaul they became commingled with it. It is by sueha process of dispersion that the British race has spread itself out over North America and Australasia. In much smaller numbers the Span- iards diffused themselves over southern North America, and the north- ern and western parts of South America; and by a similar process the Russians have for two centuries been very slowly filling the better parts of Siberia. Whether in any case of dispersion the migrating popula- tion becomes fused with that which it finds, depends chiefly on the dif- ference between the level of civilization of the two races. Between the English settlers in North America and the native Indians there has been hardly any mixture of blood; between the French in Canada and the Indians there was a little more; between the Spaniards and the less barbarous inhabitants of Mexico there has been so much that the present Mexican nation is a mixed one, the native blood doubtless pre- dominating. Something however also depends on the relative num- bers of the two races; and sometimes religion keeps a dispersed people from commingling with those among whom it dwells, as has happened in the case of the Jews, the Armenians, and the Parsees. These last are a remarkable instance of an extremely small nation—for there are not 80,000 of them all told—who, without any political organization, have, by virtue of their religion, preserved their identity for more than a thousand years. Dispersion has been the most widely operative form of migration in modern times which have enabled remote parts of our large world, separated by broad and stormy seas, to be colonized more easily than in the tiny world of ancient or medieval times was possible either by land or by sea. 3. The third form, which we may call Permeation or Assimilation, is not in strictness a form of migration at all, because it may exist where the number of persons changing their dwelling-place is extremely small ; but it deserves to be reckoned with the other two forms because it produces effects closely resembling theirs in altering the char- acter of a population. I use the term Permeation to cover those instances, both numerous and important, in which one race or nation 570 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. so spreads over another race or nation its language, its literature, its religion, its institutions, its customs, or some one or more of these sources of influence, as to impart its own character to the nation so influenced, and thus to substitute its own for the original type. In such a process the infusion of new blood from the stronger people to the weaker may be comparatively slight, yet, if sufficient time be allowed, the process may end by a virtual identification of the two. Of course, when there is much intermarriage, not only does the change proceed faster, but it tells on the permeating as well as on the perme- ated race. The earliest recorded instance of this diffusion of a civiliza- tion with little immixture of blood is to be found in the action of the Greek language, ideas, and manners upon the countries round the east- ern half of the Mediterranean, and particularly upon Asia Minor. The native languages, to some extent, held their ground for a while in the wilder parts of the interior, but the upper classes and the whole type of culture became everywhere Hellenic. In the same way the Romans Romanized Gaul and Spain and the more fertile regions of North Africa.- In the same way the Arabs, in the centuries immedi- ately after Mohammed, Arabized not only Egypt and Syria, but the whole of North Africa down to and including the maritime parts of Morocco, and have in later times, though to a far smaller extent, estab- lished the influence of their language and religion on the coasts of East Africa and in parts of the East Indian Archipelago. There is reason to believe, though our data are scanty, that in somewhat simi- lar way the Aryan tribes, who entered India at a very remote time, dif- fused their language, religion, and customs over northern Hindustan as far as the Bay of Bengal, changing to some extent the dark races whom they found in possession of the country, but being also so com- mingled with those more numerous races as to Jose much of their own character. Hinduism and languages derived from Sanskrit came to prevail from the Indus to the Brahmaputra, although it would seem that to the east of the Jumna the proportion of Aryan intruders was very small. We ourselves in India are giving to the educated and wealthier class so much that is English in the way of ideas and litera- ture, that if the process continues for another century, our tongue may have become the lingua franca of India, and our type of civilization have extinguished all others. Yet if this happens it will happen with no mixture of blood between the European and the native races, possi- bly with little social intimacy between them. The instances just men- tioned show in what different ways and varying degrees assimilation may take place. In some of them the assimilated race still retains a distinct national character. The Moor of Morocco, for instance, differs from the Arab much as the Greek-speaking Syrian and the Latin-speak- ing Lusitanian differed from a Greek of Attica or a Roman of Latium. But the Finnish tribes of northern and eastern Russia, Voguis, Tchere- misses, Tchuvasses, and Mordvins, who have been gradually Russified MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 571 during the last two centuries, are on their way to become practically undistinguishable from the true Slavonic Russians of Kieff. And, to come nearer home, the Celts of Cornwall have been anglicized, and those of the Highlands of Scotland have in many districts become assimilated to the Lowland Scotch, with no great intermixture of blood. It isworth while to be exact in distinguishing this process of Permea- tion from cases of Dispersion, because the two often go together—that is to say, the migration of a certain, though perhaps a small, number of persons of a vigorous and masterful race intoa territory inhabited by another race of less force, or perhaps on a lower level of culture, is apt to be followed by a predominance of the stronger type, or at any rate by such a changein the character of the whole population as leads men in later times to assume that the number of migrating persons must have been large. The cases of the Greeks in Western Asia and the Spaniards in the New World are in point. We talk of Asia Minor as if it had become a Greek country under Alexander’s successors, of Mexico and Peru as Spanish countries after the sixteenth century, yet in both instances the native population must have largely preponder- ated. If therefore, we were to look only at the changes which the speech, the customs, the ideas, and institutions of nations have under- gone, we might be disposed to attribute too much to the mere move- ment of races, too little to the influences which force of character, fertility of intellect, and command of scientific resource have exercised, and are still exercising, as the leading races become more and more the owners and rulers of the backward regions of the world. II.—CAUSES OF MIGRATION. We may now proceed to inquire what have been the main causes to which an outflow or an overflow of population from one region to another is due. Omitting, for the present, the cases of small colonies founded for special purposes, these causes may be reduced to three. They are food, war, and labor. ‘These three correspond in a sort of a rough way to three stages in the progress of mankind, the first belong- ing especially to his savage and semi-civilized conditions, the second to that in which he organizes himselfin political communities, and uses his organization to prey upon or reduce to servitude his weaker neighbors; the third to that wherein industry and commerce have become the rul- ing factors in his society and wealth the main object of hisefforts. The correspondence however is far from exact, because the need of subsist- ence remains through the combative and industrial periods a potent cause of migration, while the love of war and plunder, active even among savages, is by no means extinet in the mature civilization of to-day. 1. In speaking of food, or rather the want of food, as a cause, we must inelude several sets of cases. One is that in which sheer hunger, due perhaps to a drought or a hard winter, drives a tribe to move to some 572 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. new region where the beasts of chase are more numerous, or the pas- tures are not exhausted, or a more copious rain-fall favors agriculture.* Another is that of a tribe increasing so fast that the pre-existing means of subsistence no longer suffice for its wants. Anda thirdisthat where, whether or not famine be present to spur its action, a people conceives the desire for life in a richer soil or a more genial climate. To one or other of these cases we may refer nearly all the movements of popula- tions in primitive times, the best known of which are those which brought the Teutonic and Slavonic tribes into the Roman Empire. They had a hard life in northern and eastern Europe; their natural growth exceeded the resources which their pastoral or village area sup- plied, and when once one or two had begun to press upon their neigh- bors, the disturbance was felt by each in succession until some, pushed up against the very gates of the Empire, found those gates undefended, entered the tempting countries thatlay towards the Mediterranean and the ocean, and drew otherson to follow. Ofmodern instances the most remarkable is the stream of emigration which began to swell out of Ire- land after the great famine of 184647, and which has not yet ceased to flow. Among civilized peoples the same force is felt in a slhghtly differ- entform. As population increases the competition for the means of livelihood becomes more intense, while at thesametime the standard of comfort tends to rise. Hence, those on whom the pressure falls heav- iest (if they are not too shiftless to move), and those who have the keenest wish to better their condition, forsake their homes for lands that lie under another sun. It is thus that the Russian peasantry have been steadily moving from the north to the south of European Russia, till they have now occupied the soil down to the very foot of the Cau- casus tor some 500 miles from the point they had reached a century and ahaifago. It is thus that, on asmaller scale, the Greek-speaking pop- ulation of the west coast of Asia Minor is creeping eastward up the river valleys, and beginning to re-colonize the interior of that once pros- perous region. Itis thus that North America and Australasia have been filled by the overflow of Europe during the last sixty years, for before that time the growthof the United States and of Canada had been mainly a home growth from the small seeds planted two hundred years earlier. That the mere spirit of enterprise, apart from the increase of population, counts for little as a cause of migration, Seems to be shown not only by the slight outflow from Europe during last century, but by the fact that France, where the population is practically stationary, sends out no emigrants save a few to Algeria, while the steady move- ment from Norway and Sweden does little more than relieve the natural growth of the population of those countries. As regards European * A succession of dry seasons, which may merely diminish the harvests of those who inhabit tolerably humid regions, will produce such a famine in the inner parts of a continent like Asia as to force the people to seek some better dwelling-place. "MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 573 emigration to America, it is worth noting that during the last thirty years it has been steadily extending, not only eastward toward the inland parts of Europe, but also downward in the scale of civilization, tapping, so to speak, lower and lower strata. Between 1840 and 1850 the flow toward America was chiefly from the British Isles. From 1849 onward, it began to be considerable from Germany also, and very shortly afterward from Scandinavia, reaching a figure of hundreds of thousands from the European continent in each year. From Germany the migratory tendency spread into Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, and the other Slavonic regions of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, as well as into Italy. To-day the people of the United States, who had welcomed industrious Germans and hardy Scandinavians because both made good citizens, become daily more restive under the ignorant and semi-civil- ized masses whom Central Europe flings upon their shores. At the other end of the world, the vast emigration from China is partly attrib- utable to the need of food; but to this I shall recur presently when we come to speak of labor. 2. The second of our causes is war. In early times, or among the ruae. peoples, it is rather to be called plunder, for most of their wars were undertaken less for permanent conquest than for booty. The invasions of Britain by the English, of Gaul by the Franks, of England and Scot- land by the Norsemen and Danes, all began with mere piratical or raid- ing expeditions, though ending in considerable transfers of population. The same may be said of the conquest of Pegu and Arakan by the Bur- mese in the last century, and (to a smaller extent) of that southward movement of the wild Chin and Kachin tribes whom our present rulers of Burmah find so troublesome. It was in war raids that the movement of the Bantu races to the southernmost parts of South Africa, where they have so largely displaced the yellowish Hottentot race, seems to have begun. Sothe conquests of Egypt and Persia by the first successors of the Prophet, so the conquests of Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards, though tinged with religious propagandism, were primarily expeditions in search of plunder. This character, indeed, belongs all through to theSpanish migrations to the New World. Apparently few people went from Spain meaning, like our colonists a century later, to make a living by their own labor from the soil or from commerce, which, indeed, the climate of Central and South America would have rendered a more dif- ficult task. They went to enrich themselves by robbing the natives or y getting the precious metals from the toil of natives in the mines, a form of commercial enterprise whose methods made it scarcely distin- euishable from rapine. In modern times the discovery of the precious metals has helped to swell the stream of immigration, as when gold was discovered in California in 1846 and in Australia alittle later; but in these instances, though enrichment is the object, rapine is no longer the means. There are, however, other senses in which we may call war a source of movements of races. It was military policy which planted the Saxons in Transylvania and the French in Lower Canada, and the 574 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. Scotch and English settlers in the lower and more fertile parts of Ulster; it is military policy which has settled Russian colonies, sometimes armed, sometimes of agricultural dissenters, along the Trans-caucasian frontiers and on the farther shore of the Caspian. It was military policy which led Shalmaneser and Nebuchadnezzar to carry off large parts of the people of Israel and Judah to settle them in the cities of the Medes or by the waters of Babylon.* As regards the more regular conquests made by civilized states in modern times, such as those of Finland, Poland, Transcaucasia, and Transeaspia by Russia, of Bosniaand Herzegovina by Austria, of India and Cape Colony by Great Britain, of Cochin China and Annam by France, it may be said that they seldom result in any considerable trans- fer of population. Such effects as they have are rather due to that process of Permeation which we have already considered. 3. Labor (7. e., the need for labor) becomes a potent cause of migrations in this way—that the necessity for having in particular parts of the world men who can undertake a given kind of toil under given climatic conditions draws such men to those countries from their previous dwell- ing place. This setof cases differs from the cases of migrations in search of subsistence, because the migrating population may have been tolera- bly welloff at home. As the food migrations have been described as an outflow from countries overstocked with inhabitants, so in these cases of labor migration what we remark is the inflow of masses of men to fill a vacuum—that is, to supply the absence in the country to which they move of the sort of workpeople it requires. However, it often happens that the two phenomena coincide, the vacuum in one country helping to determine the direction of the influx from those other countries whose population is already superabundant. This has happened in the case of the most remarkable of such recent overflows, that of the Chinese over the coasts and islands of the Pacific. Theneed of Western America for cheap labor to make railways and to cultivate large areas just brought under tillage, as well as to supply domestic service, drew the Chinese to California and Oregon, and but for the stringent prohibitions of recent legislation would have brought many thousands of them into the Mississippi Valley. Similar conditions were drawing them in great numbers to Australia, and especially to North Queensland, whose cli- mate is too hot for whites to work in the fields; but here, also, the influx has been stopped by law. Ten or twelve years ago they were beginning to form so considerable a proportion of the population of the Hawaiian Isles that public opinion there compelled the sugar-planters to cease importing them, and, in order to balance them, Portuguese labor was brought from the Azores, and Japanese from Japan. Into Siam and the Malay Peninsula, and over the Eastern Archipelago, Chinese migra- * So the Siamese, after their conquest of Tenasserim, carried off many of the Talain population and settled them near Bangkok, where they remain as a distinct popula- tion to this day, MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 575 tion goes on steadily; and it seems not improbable that in time this element may be the prevailing one in the whole of the Indo-China and the adjoining islands, for the Chinese are not only a more prolific but altogether a stronger and hardier stock than either their relatives the Shans, Burmese, and Annamese, or their less immediate neighbors the Malays. If in the distant future there comes to be a time in which the weaker races having been trodden down or absorbed by the more vigorous, few are left to strive for the mastery of the world, the Chinese will be one of those few. None has a greater tenacity of life. Not unlike these Chinese migrations, but on a smaller scale, is that of Santhals to Assam, and of South Indian coolies to Ceylon (where the native population was comparatively indolent), and latterly to the isles and coasts of the Carribbean Sea. Here there has been a deliberate importation of laborers by those who needed their labor; and, although the laborers have intended to return home after a few years’ service, and are indeed under British regulations, supplied with return passage tickets, permanent settlements are likely to result, for the planters of Guiana, for instance, have little prospect of supplying themselves in any other way with the means of working their estates. The coolies would doubtless be brought to tropical Australia also, but for the dis- like of the colonists to the regulations insisted on by the Indian Govern- ment; soinstead of them we see that importation of Pacific islandersinto North Queensland which is now a matter of so much controversy. Under very different conditions we find the more spontaneous immigration of French Canadians into the northern United States, where they obtain employment in the factories, and are now becoming permanently resi- dent. At first they came only to work till they had earned something wherewith to live better at home; but it constantly happens that such temporary migration is the prelude to permanent occupation. So the Trish reapers used to come to England and Scotland before the migra- tion from Ireland to the English and Scottish towns swelled to great pro- portions in 1847. The Italians who now go to the Argentine Republic less frequently return than did their predecessors of twenty years ago. In all these instances the transfer of population due to a demand for labor has been, or at least has purported to be, a voluntary transfer. But by far the largest of all such transfers, now happily at an end, was involuntary—I mean that of Africans carried to America to cultivate the soil there for the benefit of white proprietors.* From early in the *~I do not dwell on the slave trade in ancient times, because we have no trust- worthy data as to its extent; but there can be no doubt that vast numbers of bar- barians from the west, north, and east of Italy and Greece were brought in during five or six centuries, and they must have sensibly changed the character of the population of the countries round the Adriatic and Augean. Here of course there Was no question of climate, but slaves were caught because their captors did not wish to work themselves. The slave trade practiced by the merchants of Bristol before the Norman Conquest and that practiced by the Turkoman, recently, resem- ble these ancient forms of the practice. 576 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. sixteenth century, when the destruction of the native Indians by their Spanish taskmasters in the Antilles started the slave trade,* down to our own times, when slavers still occasionally landed their cargoes in Brazil, the number of negroes carried from Africa to America must be reckoned by many millions. In 1791 it was estimated that 60,000 were carried annually to the West Indies alone. The change effected may be measured by the fact that along the southern coasts of North America, in the West India islands, and in some districts of Brazil the negroes form the largest part of the population. Their total num- ber, which in the United States alone exceeds 7,000,000, can not be less than from 13,000,000 to 16,000,000. They increase rapidly in South Carolina and the Gulf States of the Union, are stationary in Mexico and Peru, and in Central America seem to diminish. Though some have suggested their re-migration to Africa, there is not the slightest reason to think that this will take place to any appreciableextent. On the other hand, it is not likely that they will, except, perhaps, in the unsettled tropical interior of the less elevated parts of South America, spread beyond the area which they now occupy. The slave trade is unfortunately not yet extinct on the east coast of Africa, but it has caused so comparatively slight a transfer of population from that con- tinent to Arabia, the Turkish dominions, and Persia as not to require discussion here. Before quitting this part of the subject a passing reference may be made to two other causes of migration, which, though their effects have been comparatively small, are not without interest—religion and the love of freedom. Religion has operated in two ways. Sometimes it has led to the removal of persons of a particular faith, as in the case of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic, an event which affected not only Spain but Europe gen- erally, by sending many capable Spanish Jews to Holland and others to the Turkish East. Similar motives led Philip III to expel the Moris- coes in A. D. 1609. The present Jewish emigration from Russia is also partially, though only partially, traceable to this cause. In another class of cases religion has been one of the motive forces in prompting war and conquest, as when the Arabs overthrew the dominions of the Sassanid kings, overran the eastern part of the East Roman Empire, subjugated North Africa and Spain; and also in the case of the Spanish conquests in America, where the missionary spirit went hand in hand with, and was not felt to be incompatible with, the greed of gold and the harshest means of satisfying it. The latest American instance «The first negroes were brought from Morocco to Portugal in 1442, soon after which they began to be brought in large numbers from the Guinea coasts. There were already some in Hispaniola in 1502; and after 1517 the trade from Africa seems to have set in regularly, though it did not become large till a still later date. Las Casas lived to bitterly repent the qualified approval he had given to it, in the interests of the aborigines of the Antilles, whom labor in the mines was swiftly destroying; but it is a complete error toascribe its origin to him, _ i MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 577 may be found in the occupation and government of Paraguay by the Jesuits. Finally, we sometimes find religious feeling the cause of peaceful emigrations. The case which has proved of most historical significance is that of the Puritan settlement in Massachusetts and Connecticut; among those of less note may be reckoned the flight of the Persian fire worshippers to Western India; the Huguenot set- tlements in Brazil and on the southeastern coast of North America, destroyed soon after their foundation by the Portuguese and Spaniards, and the later flight of the French Protestants after the revocation of the edict of Nantes; the emigration of the U)ster Presbyterians to the United States in last century; the foundation of various German colonies at Tiflis and other places in the Russian dominions.* Nor ought we to forget one striking instance of expatriation for the sake of freedom—that of the petty chieftains of Western Norway, who set- tled Iceland in the ninth century to escape the growing power of King Harold the Fairhaired. IIIl.—CHANNELS OF MIGRATION. From this political side of our subject we return to its physical aspects in considering the lines which migration has tended to follow. These have usually been the lines of least resistance, 7. e., those in which the fewest natural obstacles in the way of mountains, deserts, seas, and dense forests have had to be encountered. The march of yarlike tribes in early times and the movements of groups of emi- erants by land in modern times have generally been along river valleys and across the lowest and easiest passes in mountain ranges. The valley of the lower Danube has for this reason, from the fourth century to the tenth, an immense historical importance, for it was along its levels that the Huns, Avars, and Magyars, besides several of the Slavonic tribes, moved in to occupy the countries between the Adriatic and the Theiss. While the impassable barrier of the Himalaya has at all times prevented any movements of population from Tibet and Bastern Turkistan, the passes to the west of the Indus, and especially the Khaiber and the Bolan, have given access to many invading or immigrating masses, from the days of the primitive Aryans to those of Ahmed Shah Durani in last century. So in Europe, the Alpine passes have had much to do with directing the course of streams of invaders to Italy. So in North America, while the northern line of settlement was indicated by the valley of St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, the chief among the more southerly lines was that from Vir- ginia into Tennessee and Kentucky over the Cumberland Gap, long the only practicable route across the middle Alleghanies. *The Tiflis Germans left Wiirtemberg in order to avoid the use of an obnoxious hymn book. The Mennonites went to Southern Russia to escape military service, but the promise made to them by Catherine II has recently been broken, and they have lately been departing to America lest they should be compelled to serve in the Russian army. SM 93——37 7 578 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. Of migrations by sea it has already been remarked that owing to improvements in navigation, they have now become practically inde- pendent of distance or any other obstacle. In earlier times also they played aconsiderable part, but only in the case of such seafaring peoples as the Phenicians, the Greeks, and the Northmen,—instances in which the number of persons transferred must have been comparatively small, though the historical results were profound. Those which most nearly approach the character of national movements were the transfer of a vigorous Phenician shoot to Carthage, of amass of Greeks to South Italy and Sicily, and of the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles to Britain. The most important physical factor in determining lines of movement has, however, been climate. Speaking broadly, migration follows the parallels of latitude, or more precisely, the lines of equal mean tem- perature, and not so much, | think, of mean annual heat as of mean winter heat. Although the inhabitants of cold climates often evince a desire to move into warmer ones, they seem never to transter themselves directly to one differing greatly from that to which they are accustomed ; while no people of the tropics has ever, so far as I know, settled in any part of the temperate zone. There is one instance of a north European race establishing itself on the southern shores of the Mediterranean— the Vandals in North Africa; and the Bulgariaus came to the banks of the lower Danube from the still sterner winters of the middle Volga. But in the few cases of northward movement, as in that of the Lapps, the cause lies in the irresistible pressure of stronger neighbors; and probably a similar pressure drove the Fuegians into their inhospitable isle. The tendency to retain similar climatic conditions is illustrated by the colonization of North America. The Spaniards and Portuguese took the tropical and sub-tropical regions, neglecting the cooler parts. The French and the English settled in the temperate zone; and it was not till this century that the country toward the Gulf of Mexico began to be occupied by incomers from the Carolinas and northern Georgia. When the Scandinavian immigration began, it flowed to the northwest, and has filled the States. of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Dakota. And when the Icelanders sought homes in the New World, they chose the northernmost place they could find by the shores of Lake Winnipeg, in Manitoba. So the internal movements of population within the United States have been along the parallels of latitude. The men of New England have gone west into New York, Ohio, and Michigan, whence their children have gone still farther west to Illinois, lowa, Oregon, and Washington. Similarly the overflow of Virginia poured into Kentucky and Tennessee, and thence into southern Illinois and Missouri; while it is chiefly from the Carolinas that Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi. Arkansas, and Texas have been settled. The present negro emigration from the eastern States of the South is into Arkansas and Texas. Oregon is the only Northern State that has received any con- MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 579 siderable number of immigrants from the old slave States; and western Oregon enjoys, in respect of its maritime position, an equable climate, with winters milder than those of Missouri. IV.—THE LARGER SERIES OF MIGRATIONS. Without attempting to present a chronological view of the prin- cipal migrations by which the population of the world has been shifted, I will attempt to indicate very briefly the main epochs at which these have been most frequent or most important. They may be classed in five groups, corresponding to five periods in the history of those parts of the world of which we possess ahistory. The first epoch covers pre- historic times, times known’ to us only by faint traditions and by the results of philological and archeological inquiry. We are able to say that certain movements of races did take place before the date of our earliest written records, but unable to fix these movements to any point of time. Thus there is reason to believe that the Celtic races advanced from east to west, partly forcing into corners, partly fusing with, that earlier population of Gaul and Britain which is usually called Iberian, and of which the Basques are supposed to be representatives. Thus the Etruscans descended from the Alps into middle Italy, as the ances- tors of the Latins and Sabellians would appear to have done at an earlier date. It seems probable that the Slavs and Letts came to the Oder and the Vistula from the southeast. Recent philological research lends weight to the view that the Phrygians and the Armenians, both races of the Indo-European family, were originally settled in south. eastern Europe, and crossed the Bosphorus into the seats where authen- tic history finds them. At some remote but quite undetermined time Aryan invaders entered northwestern India, and slowly spread to the south and east from the Punjab; while, at a still earlier epoch, another race coming from the west passed through Beluchistan (where it has left a trace of its passage in the language spoken by the Brahuis) and moved southeastward into the Dekkan and southern India, in which its four great allied tongues, those we call Dravidian,* are now spoken by nearly 30,000,000 people. Nor have we any materials for ascertain- ing the time at which the Polynesian Islands were occupied by the two races, the brown and the black or negroid, which now inhabit them, and both of which seem to have come from the East Indian Archipelago, passing from isle to isle in their canoes against the trade winds that blow from the American coast. Finally, it is to prehistoric and prob- ably to very remote times that belongs the settlement of the two American continents by immigrants from Asia, immigrants who appear to have crossed Bering Straits, or made their way along the line of the Aleutian Isles,t and thence to have slowly drifted southward from *Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, and Malayalam. +tSome recent writers would refer the entrance of the present American races into their continent to a period so remote as that in which Asia was joined by dry land to America, 580 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. That the process of settling these vast areas must have taken an enormous space of time is proved, not only by the archeological evidence drawn from human bones and other relics of primitive man, but also by the great differences, both physical and linguistic, between the various American races—difterences, however, which are nowise incompatible with the doctrine of a common Asiatic origin. The first migrations of which we have distinct historical evidence, besides those of the Phenicians and Israelites, are the movement of the Dorians into Peloponnesus and of the Aolians and Ionians to the west coast of Asia Minor. Somewhat later, in the seventh century, B.C., collisions seemed to have occurred among the nomad tribes to the north of the Black and Caspian seas, which led to the irruption of a people called Cimmerians, who advanced as far as Ephesus, and part of whom seem to have permanently settled on the south coast of the Euxine, and of a host of Scythians who ravaged Western Asia for many years, and were bought off by King Psammetichus on the fron- tiers of Egypt. Whether any permanent settlements followed these irruptions does not appear, but they are interesting as the first of the many instances in which the roving people of the steppe have descended on the settled States to the south, carrying slaughter and rapine in their train. Passing over such minor disturbances of population as the Celtie oceupation of North Italy and of that part of Asia Minor which from them took the name of Galatia, and passing over also the premature descent of the Cimbri and the Teutones into the Roman world in the days of Marius, who slaughtered them at Aix (in Provence) and Vercelli, we arrive at the third great epoch of movement—that which the Germans ‘all par excellence the wandering of the peoples (Volkerwanderung). The usual account describes this movement to have begun from the nomads of Mongolia, living near the Great Wall of China, one tribe ageressing on or propelling another, until those who dwelt westward near the Caspian precipitated themselves on the Goths, then oceupy- ing the plains of the Dnieper and Dniester, and drove them across the Danube into the Roman Empire. Whether this was the originating cause, or whether it is rather to be sought in a lack of food and the natural increase of the tribes between the Baltic and the Euxine, there certainly did begin with the crossing of the Danube by the Goths, in A.D. 377, an era of unrest and displacement among all the peoples from the Caspian to the Atlantic, which did not end till the destruction of the Seandinavian power in Ireland at Clontarf, in 1014, and the rolling back of the great Norwegian invasion of England, at Stamford Bridge, in 1066. The Goths, the Vandals, Suabians, Burgundians, Franks, Saxons, Lombards settled in various provinces of the Roman Empire and founded great kingdoms. Minor tribes, such as the Alans, Rugians, and Herulians, moved hither and thither, without effecting MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 581 any distinct and permanent settlement. A vast multitude of Huns ranged across Central Hurope, carrying destruction as far as the Seine. Various Slavonic tribes occupied the countries along the Danube and the east coast of the Adriatic; they even filled the isles lying off the Dalmatian coast (where only Slavonic is now spoken), and descended into Greece, in the modern population of which they form a large ele- ment. The Bulgarians, a Finnish people from the Volga, settled among the Danubian Slavs and adopted their language, while the Avars, penetrating farther west, held the great Hungarian plain for two cen- turies. Last of all, at the end of the ninth century, came the Magyars, another Finnish tribe, who retained their old language and have played a brilliant part in history. A century before they entered Hungary, the Norsemen and Danes had begun those piratical expeditions which ultimately turned into migrations, largely changing the population of eastern Britain and of northern France. At one moment the North- men of Iceland seemed on the point of spreading from their settlement on the coast of East Greenland into North America, where they made descents at points the most southern of which have been plausibly conjectured to le in Massachusetts or Long Island. These expeditions met with so much resistance from the natives that the idea of perma- nent settlement, apparently for a time entertained, was abandoned. The Norsemen had not, like the Spaniards five centuries later, and the English of the seventeenth century, the advantage of firearms, and they came from a very small nation, which could not afford to waste its men; so this case has to be added to that list of attempted coloniza- tions which might, like the settlement of the Phoezans in Corsica and the Huguenots in Brazil, have changed the course of history had they but prospered. These seven centuries of unrest left no population in Europe unchanged, and gave birth not only to the states and nations of the middle ages and the modern world, but to modern civilization as a whole, creating new tongues and new types of culture from the mix- ture of the intruding races with the provincial subjects of Rome. The fourth group of migrations overlaps in time that which we have just been considering, and in three countries overlaps it also in space— viz, in North Africa, in Spain, and in the Thraco-Danubian lands. But its origin was wholly distinct and its character different. It begins with the outbreak of the Arabs from their remote peninsula imme- diately after the death of Mohammed—we may date it from the first defeats of the Romans in Syria in A. D, 632, and of the Persian in A. D. 635—and it did not quite end till the cession of Podolia to the Turks, ten centuries later, in A. D. 1695. It changed the face of Western and Southern Asia, as the V6lkerwanderung changed that of Europe, yet it involved far less transfer of population, and worked more by way of permeative conquest than of migration proper. The Arabs spread over Irak, Egypt, Syria, North Africa, Sicily, and the Iberian penin- sula; twice they laid their grasp on the southeastern corners of Gaul. 582 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. Their new religion gave an Arab tinge to the literature and habits of Persia and Western Turkistan; its influence is strong to-day in the East Indian Archipelago and on the coasts of East Africa, as well as in the vast inland region from Timbuctoo to Somali Land. After their conquering foree had fully spent itself, the initiative passed to the Turks, and an infusion of Turkoman blood and Musselman ideas helped to transmute the former subjects of the East Roman Empire in Asia and Europe into the so-called Ottomans of to-day. The wave has for two centuries been visibly receding. Since 1878 we have seen the Mohammedan Beys retiring from Bosnia as they retired thirty years ago from Servia; the Circassians, and still more recently, some of the tribes of Daghestan, have gone forth from their mountain homes; the Pomaks are beginning to leave Bulgaria; it is probable that in forty years more hardly a Musselman will be left on European soil, unless the jealousies of European powers should still keep the barbarian enthroned in Constantinople. Not less remarkable than the movement of the Arabs to the Oxus and the Tagus, and of the Turk from the Oxus to the Adriatic, was the movement of the races from beyond the Indus and the Hindu Kush into India. The irruptions which begin with the expedition of Mahmud of Ghazni in the eleventh century brought some of the mixed Central Asiatic races, who passed as Moeuls, and a probably greater number of Pathans (Afghans) into Upper India, in parts of which they sensibly affected the character of the population. Here too, more was done in the way of assimilative influence than by an infusion of blood, for the Musselman bands car- ried their religion to the shores of the Bay of Bengal and far into the Dekkan; they introduced a new and splendid style of building and an exquisite richness of decoration; their deeds were recorded by the first regular chroniclers of India. In a fourth region, that of the countries north of the Black Sea, the irruptions of Zinghis Khan and his sons brought about some permanent changes. But it is doubtful how far the presence of such Tartar and Mongolic tribes as still remain in the ‘rimea and along the Volgo is due to those invasions; and since, whatever their consequerces may have been, they are not due to Islam, for the Mongols were heathen, they do not fall within the group of migrations we are now considering. The fifth group begins with the discovery of America in 1492, if we ought not rather to date it from the first long voyages of the Portu- guese, opening with the passage of Cape Bojador in 1435 (under an English captain) and culminating in the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and opening of the sea route to India, by Bartholomew Diaz in 1486, followed by Vasco de Gama’s voyage to Malabar twelve years later. | Four great eras of settlements belong to this group. The first is that of the Spaniards and Portuguese in tropical America; the sec- ond is that which brings the negroes from Africa to America; the MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 583 third is the colonization of the temperate parts of the North American coast by the English, Freneh, and Dutch in the seventeenth century; the fourth is the immense outflow from Europe, not only to Americ: but also to Australasia, and—in a much smaller degree—to South Africa, anoverflow mainly due to the progress of physical science; firstly, in intro- ducing the use of steam for ocean voyages, and, secondly, in so acceler- ating the growth of population in EKurope that the impulse toward less crowded lands became stronger than ever before. The scale of this outflow of the last seventy years has been far larger than that of any previous time, and has indeed become possible only because ocean transit is now so swift, safe, and cheap. The export of Chinese to America, and of Indian coolies to and fro in the tropics, is in like man- ner attributable to the cheapness with which they can now be carried for long distances, as well as (in the case of the coolies) to the increased demand for tropical products which the growth of population and of wealth in the north temperate zone has created. V.—THE CORRELATIONS OF MIGRATION. Among the many questions suggested by the facts we have noted, I will advert to two or three only. One of these bears on the analogy between the migrations of man- kind and those of other animals and of plants. If the majority of our geologists are right in holding that man existed in those very remote times in which great changes of climate were still taking place, the analogy must then have been close. Races of men may, in paleolithic times, have moved northward or southward, according to the recession or advance of the great ice sheet that once covered the northern part of the north temperate zone, just as we know that animals moved, and just as we find that certain species of plants have, in our latitude, sometimes occupied the low country, ‘and sometimes retired to sub- arctic regions or ascended to the tops of the loftiest mountains. It has been lately maintained that the Eskimo of Arctic America are the descendants of the Cave men of Britain and France, driven north many thousands of years ago by the growing mildness of the climate, We know that changes in the level of the sea have produced revolu- tions in the fauna and flora of countries, not only by affecting the course of ocean currents, and thereby the climate, but also by bringing, when lands formerly separated became parts of the same continent, species from one land to another, where the incomers overpowered or expelled the old inhabitants, or became, under new conditions and through the struggle between competing species, themselves so modi- fied as to pass into new forms. If man existed at atime so distant as that wherein Bering Straits and the North Sea and part of the Medi- terranean were dry land, we may conjecture, from the influence of these physical changes upon the animal and vegetable world, what their 584 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. influence may have been upon him in causing tribes to move from place to place, and in bringing about alterations of racial types. The geological record supplies ample evidence how greatly the species of animals and plants have transferred themselves from one dwelling place to another in distant ages. The horse, in his earlier forms, was abundant in America, but he vanished there, and had been long extinct when the Spaniards of Cortez wou Mexico by the terror he inspired. The camel, it appears, was originally a New World beast, and the gigantic Sequoia, of California, a European tree. But it is seldom that we are able to fix the causes which have brought about these transfer- ences. And even with regard to those comparatively few migrations of animals which haveoccurred within recent times itis seldom that any pal- pably operative ground canbeassigned. The latest instance of any con- siderable migration, apart, of course, trom the agency of man, is theinva- sion of Europe by the brown rat, a native, it seems, of East Central Asia, which has practically expelled the black rat from Europe, just as the latter has been ejecting weaker rodents from South America. In prehistoric times the movements of animals must have frequently told upon man. It appears that some centuries before our colonists entered North America the buffalo had begun to move eastward from the prairie highlands in and near the Rocky Mountains toward the Mississippi; and inorder to tempt him still farther eastward the Indians began to burn the forests which covered its banks and those of the Ohio River in what are now the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ken- tucky. The abundance of animal food thus brought within their reach seems to have checked the progress of the tribes in the arts of seden- tary life, throwing them back into the stage of hunters. Since man, in his advaneing civilization, has begun to domesticate animals and to understand how to improve the soil and make full use of its capacities, the chief transfers of animals and plants to new regions have been due to his action. He has peopled the New World and Australasia with the horses, cattle, and sheep of Europe, turning to account tracts which might otherwise have remained a wilderness. The trees he has brought from distant regions have sometimes grown to for- ests and changed the aspect of whole countries. Thus, the tops of the Neilgherry hills in Southern India have nearly lost their beautiful ancient woods, and are now, since the English took them in hand, cov- ered with the somber Hucalyptus and Acacia melanoxylon from Austra- lia, or with plantations of tea from China, or of quinine from Paraguay. The landscape of Egypt, as we see it, must be quite different from that which Moses or Herodotus saw; for most of the trees belong to species which were then unknown on the Nile. Many creatures and many plants have also followed man without his will. The rats which our ships carry, and the mosquitoes whose eggs lurk in the water barrels, find their way to land and plague new countries; the English sparrow is now a nuisance in North America, though less pernicious than the MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 585 English rabbit in Australia. Species of shrubs and herbaceous plants, the seeds of most of them brought accidentally from America or Asia, have thrice overrun the Hawaiian Islands, so that the present vegeta- tion of the group is largely different from that which Cook found little more than a century ago. Thus the migrations of men, which nature once governed, have now come to be followed by those of other crea- tures, and are the source of many a change upon the face of nature herself. VI.—INFLUENCES RESULTING FROM MIGRATION. If we ask what has been the result of the changes we have been considering on the political organizations of mankind, and on the types of human culture, the answer must unquestionably be that they have become fewer and fewer. From the beginning of authentic history the process of reducing the number of tribes, of languages, of independent political communities, of forms of barbarism or of civilization, has gone on steadily, and indeed with growing speed. For many parts of the world our data do not go far back. But if we take the part for which the data are most complete, the basin of the Mediterranean, we find that now there are only nine, or at the most ten, languages (excluding mere dialects) spoken on its coasts, while the number of States, count- ing Montenegro, Egypt, Malta, and Morocco as States, is ten. In the time of Herodotus there must have been at least 30 languages, while the independent or semi-independent tribes, cities, and kingdoms were beyond all comparison more numerous. The result of migrations has been to overwheln the small tribes and merge them in larger aggre- gates, while the process of permeation, usually, though not always, a sequel of conquest, has assimilated even those among whom no consid- erable number of intruders came. Sometimes the mere contiguity of the new and stronger race extinguishes the weak one, as in the case of the Tasmanian aborigines.* But more frequently the weaker is simply absorbed into and accepts the language and general type of the stronger, which is not necessarily the more gifted or the more civilized; and thus Britain has become Anglicized, the Celtic population retain- ing its languages aid some of its distinctive marks only in western and mountainous corners; thus the Wends of North Germany have been Germanized, thus the Laps of the extreme north of Europe are being absorbed by the Norwegians, Finns, and Russians; thus some of the Albanian clans are being Hellenized; thus the Talains of Pegu are becoming merged in the Burmese, as possibly the latter may ultimately be in the Chinese. The remarkable thing is that neither this blending of races, nor the transfer of races to new climatic and economic condi- tions, tends to develop new types to anything like the same extent as ~So the Guanches of Tenerife soon disappeared as a distinct race, though some of their blood remains; so the Maories and native Hawaiians have become greatly reduced in numbers, and are likely to become before long extinct. 586 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. it destroys the old ones. The Crown is allowed to create one new Irish peerage for every three that die out. Nature uses her prerogative far more sparingly; she does not produce a new type for ten that vanish. Since the nations of modern Europe took their present distinct charae- ters with their languages and their local seats between the sixth and the eleventh centuries, no new nation has appeared in Europe, nor is there now the least likelihood that any will. Neither has the settle- ment of European man in the New World wrought any marked changes in national types even when there has been a blood-mingling on a great scale. The average Mexican, who is by extraction more than half an Indian, is for most practical purposes, religious, social, and ethical, a Spaniard. The man of Pennsylvania or Ohio is still more palpably an Englishman, nor does the immense infusion of Irish and German blood seem likely to affect the Anglo-American type as it fixed itself a cen- tury ago. Nothing shows more clearly the strength which a well-estab- lished racial character has than the fact that the climatic and economic conditions of America have so little altered the English settlers in body, so comparatively little even in mind. Nothing better illustrates the assimilative power of a vigorous community than the way in which the immigrants into the United States melt like sugar in a cup of tea, and see their children grow up no longer Germans or Norwegians, or even Irish or Italians or Czechs, but Anglo-Americans. With the negroes, on the other hand, there is practically no admixture; and so far as can be foreseen they will remain, at least in the sub-tropical parts of the South, distinctly African in their physical and mental character- istics for centuries to come. The same remark holds true of the white and black races in South Africa, where the process of blood mixture, which went on to some extent between the Dutch and the Hottentots, has all but stopped. Will this process of extinguishing and assimilating the weaker nationalities and their types of culture continue into a distant future? Have those movements of population which have been hitherto so powerful a factor in that process nearly reached their limit? Since a time long before the dawn of history the various races seem to have been always in an unstable equilibrium, some constantly pressing upon others, or seeking to escape from crowded into vacant, from cold or sterile into more genial or more fertile, lands. Is the time near at hand when they will have settled down in a permanent fashion, just as our globe itself has from a gaseous state solidified by the combination of its elements into its present stable form? Over large parts of the earth this time seems already within a measurable distance. Nearly all of the north temperate zone, except parts of southwestern and southeastern Siberia (especially along the lower Amour), and parts of Western Canada, is now occupied, and most of it pretty thickly occupied. Districts there are which may be more closely packed: the Western United States, for instance, though MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. 587 all the best Jand has already been taken up, can support a far larger population than they now have, and the same may be said of large tracts along the Alleghanies. But the attractions to emigrants become daily slighter as the conditions of agriculture grow less favor- able through the interior quality of the untouched land and the approach- ing exhaustion of that which has been tilled for two or three decades, not to speak of that vast natural increase of the population already on the spot, which intensifies the competition for employment. We may conjecture that within the lifetime of persons now living the outflow from Europe to North America will have practically stopped. A some- what longer time will be required to fill not only the far less attractive parts of Northern Asia I have mentioned, but also such scantily inhabited though once flourishing regions as Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Persia, because a more torrid sun, and atrocious misgovernment, keep these regions, so to speak, out of the market. In the Southern Hemisphere, whose land area is far smaller, there are the temperate districts of Australia and South Africa, of which, so far as our present knowledge extends, no very large part has moisture enough to be available for tillage; while in South America there are La Plata, northern Patagonia, and the highlands of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador.* The elevation above the sea of these latter tracts gives them a tolera- ble climate, but their wealth lies chiefly in minerals, and the parts which are both healthy and fit for agriculture are of comparatively small extent. There remain the tropics. Vast regions of the tropics are at present scantily peopled. Most of equatorial South America is a forest wilderness. Much of tropical Africa—where itis not condemned to sterility by the want of water—seems to have a population far below what it could support, owing not merely to the wars and slave raids which devastate the country, but also to the fact that peoples unskilled in tillage can not make the soil yield anything like its full return of crops. The same remark applies to Borneo, Celebes, New Guinea, Luzon, and some of the other isles of the Eastern Archipelago, among which only Java has as yet seen its resources duly developed. That there will be considerable migrations and shiftings of population among the races that now inhabit the tropics is probable enough. India (except the central provinces and Assam) and China are both filled to overflowing, and will doubtless continue to send out streams of emigrants which may in time fill up the vacant spaces in the Eastern Archipelago, perhaps in South America, perhaps even in Africa, unless some of its indigenous races should ripen mto a greater capacity for patient and steady toil than any, except the Egyptian, has yet shown. But none of these tropical peoples, save the Chinese—for Japan hes outside the tropics—has a native civilization, or is fitted to play any part in history either as a coderne or as a thinking force, or in any *The Bieeaea parts of equi Higcell Africa are mue aa smaller, though possibly ieee enough to support a European population of some few millions. 588 MIGRATIONS OF RACES OF MEN CONSIDERED HISTORICALLY. way, save as producers by physical labor of material wealth. None is likely to develop toward any higher condition than that in whieh it now stands, save under the tutelage, and by adopting so much as it can of the culture, of the five or six European peoples which have practically appropriated the torrid zone, and are dividing its resources between them. Yet the vast numbers to which, under the conjoint stimuli of science and peace, these inferior black and yellow races may grow, coupled with the capacity some of them evince for assimilating the material side of European civilization, may enable them to play a larger part in the future of the world than they have played in the past. It is, of course, possible that the great European peoples, or some of them, may, after a few generations, acquire the power of thriving in the tropics, of resisting malarial fevers, and of rearing an offspring which need not be sent home to a cold climate during the years of boy- hood. We may eall it possible, because our experience is still too short to justify us in calling it impossible. But it seems so far from probable that in considering the future of the leading and ruling races of the world we must practically leave their permanent settlement in the tropics out of the question, and restrict our view to the two tem- perate zones. In these, as has been said, there is no longer room and verge for any great further removal of masses of men from one country to another. If, indeed, we were merely to look at a map indicating the comparative density of population in Northern Asia, Europe, and America, and see how inuch denser it is in the agricultural parts of France or Germany, for instance, than in Southwestern Siberia or the no:thwest of the United States and Canada, we might fancy the space remaining to be sufficient for many centuries to come. But if we were to compare such a map of to-day with a similar map of the world in 1780, and note how much of what would then have been marked as empty space, including all the vast area between the Alleghanies and the Pacific, has now been occupied, we shall realize the immense advance that has been made towards the establishment of an equilib- rium of population and the relative shortness of the future during which we can look to emigration as a remedy for the evils which afflict the toiling masses of Europe. In this respect, as in many others, the world seems to be entering on a new era, whose phenomena will prove unlike any that have gone before. It may be thought that as migrations have been a frequent cause of war in the past, the establishment of such an equilibrium will make for peace. But it must also be remembered that the pressure of each nation on its neighbors, and of the members of each nation on one another, tends to grow more severe with that severer struggle for sub- sistence which increasing numbers involve, and which, after a few more generations, the outlets that now still remain will no longer relieve. THE “NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY.* By DANIEL G. BRINTON. The subject which I bring before you is one which I have selected in order to impress upon you forcibly the true breadth and full meaning of the science toward the cultivation of which we have assembled at this time. There is no other word which so thoroughly expresses the purpose of this branch of learning as that which we have adopted—Anthropology, the science of man, the study of the nature of man, the search for and correct expression of those laws, and all the laws, which govern the birth, growth, development, and decay of all his traits, powers, and faculties. Anthropology means this, and nothme less than this. Its motto is that of the character in the Terentian drama “4 me nullum humanum alienum puto.” It embraces everything and excludes nothing which pertains to humanity, whether in the individual or in his various aggregations. It ‘omits no part or function of him as unworthy of its notice; it admits the existence of none so superior or sacred as to be beyond the pale of its investigations. The field which it goes forth to reap is the world, and its harvest season covers all time since man first set foot upon it. It is signally unfortunate that the full connotation of the term has not been constantly present in the minds of those who have pursued the science. We should not then have witnessed the cheerless spee- tacle of one school of anthropologists claiming that man is nothing more than the highest mammal, and that the study of his anatomical and physiological relations exhausts the definition of their science, and that those who go beyond these are merely ‘“ historians and men of letters;” or that of another school, which, disregarding the incalculable potency of man’s physical conditions, seeks to erect the science exclu- Sively on the basis of the products of the mental faculties, his arts, institutions, religions, and languages. *Presidential address before the International Congress of Anthropology at Chicago, 1893. (From proceedings of the congress, pp. 19-34.) 589 93 590 tar “NATION AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Jach is equally in error. No correct and comprehensive idea can be formed of the various elements which have rendered man what he is, or any race or stock of men what it is, unless all these phenomena receive due consideration, and the various agencies which influence them are weighed with impartial fairness. The historian must become an anatomist, the anatomist a linguist, if he would reach positive results in this study. You observe that the programme of this congress includes physical anthropology, archeology, ethnology, folk-lore, religions, and linguis- tics. It would be an epoch in the history of the science, a notable era in its development, if the labors we are about to enter upon should lastingly impress on all who pursue this branch that every one of these departments is equally important, that not one of them ean be neglected or overlooked, that the richest in results is still but primus inter pares, a brother among brethren, To illustrate how closely the multitudinous influences which they represent are woven together, and how each bears upon the whole nature of man, I shall consider with brevity in what manner that entity which we call a‘ uation” appears as an element in anthropology. I have been partly, though by no means wholly, led to make this selec- tion because this particular question has been much misunderstood in some quarters and its bearings misconceived. As late as at the con- eress at Moscow last year, a distinguished writer in our branch of science said, ‘* Nationality has nothing to do with anthropology. It is a product of history and concerns history only.” So far from this being correct, I shall endeavor to show that nation- ality has ever been and is to-day an agent more powerful in modifying both the physical and the psychical elements of man than either race, climate, religion, or culture; and therefore that it must constantly occupy the attention of the anthropologist, whether his researches are in the purely physical or in the intellectual fields. I desire to emphasize the fact that the anthropologist will never fully comprehend the science which he professes to follow, will never attain the preception of its whole significance, if he omits from its study, as not pertaining strictly to it, any influence whatever which bears upon and modifies in any direction the evolution of the human species. This the nation does with a directness and a potency which ean not be misunderstood or called in question. Let us inquire what it is we mean by the expression ‘a people ” or “a nation,” when we use these terms as synonymous. I can find no more profound and true definition than that given by the most philo- sophie English poet of this century, Robert Browning, in these words: ‘“A people is but the attempt of many To rise to the completer life of one.” The incompleteness and imperfectness of the life of the isolated individual, and his conscious or unconscious aspirations for completion THE ‘‘NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 591 and perfection, are the motives which have ever urged man to establish those relations with his fellows which result in what we call social ties or bonds. Although to the superficial observer these seem to have been most heterogeneous and fortuitous, a comprehensive analysis reduces them to a very few so far as their guiding principles are concerned. Here as elsewhere in ethnology we are impressed with the paucity, yes, | may even say the poverty, of the resources which have been utilized by man in his upward march to conscious culture. Wherever we find men united together under some form of social compact, we shall find also that this compact will fall under one of three categories. Itis based upon community, either real or theoretical, of blood, of territorial area, or of purpose. These three forms are mutually incompatible; they are exclusive of and in sharp contrast with one another; they react very differently upon the individual and the race; and they belong markedly to different periods in the history of a people, to different stages of its advancement in culture. It may be laid down as a rule with few or no exceptions that the earliest form of the social bond is one of blood, of kinship, of con- sanguinity and affinity. The unit of the primitive horde is the family; the one cohesive principle which it recognizes as socially binding is purity of descent, the maintenance of the integrity of the stock, as its members understand it. Here then we see a mighty influence at work to preserve in primitive times and conditions the unity of the physical type. The visible aim of communities in the lower stages of culture is to preserve at all costs the characteristics of the race to which they belong, and the particular traits of the variety of that race as inherited from their ancestors. This is the guiding principle of what is known as matriarchy and the custom of tracing the genealogical line through the maternal and not through the paternal ancestry. Positive certainty as to parentage must in every case be limited to the mother, and for that reason the female line always insures a higher probability of purity of descent. Of course the degree with which the conservation of the type was really maintained under this system depended on the local laws or customs regarding marriage and the fidelity required of married women. It is true that in both these respects there is considerable divergence in early conditions. In some places exogamous marriages prevailed; that is, the wife must not be an acknowledged relation of the husband; more frequently, marriages must be endogamous, that is, she must be of his recognized kin; though often this again is limited, as that she must not be an offspring of the same mother, or not be within certain degrees of kinship. Reminiscences of these restrictions stil: prevail in civilized communities, in the laws prohibiting the marriage of near relations, or, aS in England, prohibiting marriage with a deceased wife’s sister. 592 THE “NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. In spite of these limitations, which differ widely in different tribes, the general influence of the principle of consanguinity as the basis of the social compact unquestionably aided through countless ages to individualize the physical types of the human species, and thus te develop and render permanent its races and varieties as we now know them. So powerful was this prejudice in favor of the ancestral type, that it was a general custom in primitive times to destroy at or shortly after birth any aberrant types, and to bring all into accord with the tribal] idea. For instance, in certain parts of Mexico there is a tendency to congenital albinism in the native population; and before the conquest all children displaying this tendency were sacrificed to the gods before the age of puberty. Among the Papuans, when a child is born of a lighter color than the average of the tribe, it is assiduously held in the smoke of green branches until it is tanned to the proper hue. Indeed, whenever there was any material variation from the received type, the infant was sure not to live to that period of life when he or she could transmit it to offspring; and thus a potent factor in the evolution of the species toward modified forms was absent throughout all the childhood of the human race, owing to the conditions of the prevailing social compact. The somatologist will object to this, that in the very earliest times and within limited areas we find that a wide diversity of type prevailed. For instance, I suppose the oldest remains of the human race found up to the present have been unearthed in Western Europe. But these venerable relics show the existence there in remotest times and at no ereat distance apart (not more than a few days’ walk of an active pedestrian), of men with broad heads, and others with narrow heads, with narrow faces and with wide faces, with expanded flat noses and with narrow aquiline noses, of stature below the medium and others above the medium; and we may reasonably conclude from their descend- ants that some were blonds with yellow hair, while others were swarthy brunettes with locks like the raven’s wing. So that Prof. ollmann, who has made this subject a special study, can not see his way clear to admit less than four different races struggling for the soil of Western Kurope in pre-historic times. Yet if we may judge from some historic data and all analogy, these ancient peoples, like all others, strove to retain in its purity the type of their ancestors by a social organization looking to that end. Two customs prevail everywhere in primitive life which largely counteract the result of consanguine marriages; the one is adoption, the other concubinage. Usually, in their unceasing wars, the males of conquered tribes were killed and the women taken as captives, thus introducing through the females of another line the peculiarities of their variety or race. In some instances however, the males were in part preserved and a! THE ‘‘ NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 593 adopted into the clans of the conquering tribe, either as members or as slaves. In either case they led to a modification of the ascendant type. So varied were and are the customs and rules of primitive peoples in all these respects that it would be vain to attempt to establish a formula representing the degree in which the integrity of the racial or ethnic type was maintained; but the aim of their institutions being always and definitely this, we may be sure that they tended very positively to pre- serving the lineage undefiled, and to perpetuating the physical and mental traits of each community. When this did not oceur, it was in contradiction to the theory of the social compact, and arose from igno- rance of the natural conditions which insure perpetuity of type, or their disregard, owing to the cravings of individual appetite. In entire contrast to all this are both the theory and the practice which we find in the next higher step in social relations, that which has for its basis a geographical or territorial concept. In this, it is not the notion of kinship but that of country-which is pre- dominant. The patriot of this epoch fights no longer for his lineage, but for his land, not for his relations, but for the realm. fe expresses in this the sentiment which actuates the nation, properly so called. Consanguine governments are tribal governments; with the birth of a genuine nationality, the family, the gens, the tribe, are all doomed to disappear, and with them the modifying influences they exerted on the race. The intervening step between the tribe and the nation is usually said to be the federation, in which several tribes agree to forget their jeal- ousies and unite in defense or offense. ‘This condition is transitory, and IT shall pass it by, in order to consider the direct influence of nationality on those elements of human nature which are the peculiar topies of anthropologic science. The first object of nationality is unity, and this in the fullest sense of the term and in all the relations of national life. Almost the very first of its aims is physical unity. A visible contrast between the inhabitants of different areas under one rule is suggestive to the legislator of a lack of harmony in other respects. The influence of a court, or of centralization generally, has ever been to disseminate throughout the realm one standard of physical beauty, as also one of costume and deportment; and this irrespective of how many discrepant varieties go to make up the body of the nation. In this, as in all other respects, the chief efforts of the nation through its rulers are directed toward destroying those individual and tribal traits which forms of government based on consanguinity make it their chief end to cherish. This contrast presents itself early. We find for instance that the native rulers of ancient Peru, the Incas, were accustomed, as soon as they had subjugated a new province, to deport large numbers of its SM 93 38 594 THE “NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. inhabitants to distant parts of their empire and supply their places with inhabitants of other tribes who had been long subject to their rule. This plan of partial deportation and colonization was familiar to the Carthaginians, Romans, and other enterprising nations of the Mediter- ranean Basin, and explains to a large extent the constant blending of extreme pliysical types which the somatologist discovers in the remains from the oldest cemeteries around that great interior sea. We know by history and tradition that the ‘‘ blond Libyans,” the light-haired, blue-eyed natives of Northern Africa, tall and dolichocephalic, were transported in large numbers across the sea to the north, and settled among the smaller, swarthy, and brachycephalic tribes, whom we vaguely hear of under the names of Ligurians, Aquitanians, and Iberians. Another physical lever which the nation, as distinct from the tribe, brings to bear on the physical traits of the species within its limit is its military organization. This is no longer classified by clans, or eentes, but is an army, with its soldiers drawn indiscriminately from all parts of its territory, and moving indifferently into all parts as occasion calls for. In earlier and more disturbed times, when social ethics were less regarded than to-day, the presence of large numbers of men can- toned and quartered upon the inhabitants, often exercising over them a brutal authority, led to constant commingling of race types and the gradual extinction of local peculiarities. The influence which the nation as an anthropologic element exerts on language is one which demands our special attention. When it is rightly understood, much of that contest which has been going on for years between ethnographers, as to the worth or worthlessness of lan- euage as a guide in ethnography, will appear in a different light. It is obvious that it would be consonant with the spirit of a gentile or consanguine society to preserve pertinaciously its.own inherited speech, and to oppose any changes in it. But it is just as much in its spirit to desire to confine its own tongue to its own members and to look with jealousy on others than those of the true blood making use of it. Professional linguists in the American field are well acquainted with the prevailing unwillingness of the natives to give much informa- tion about their languages. They regard with suspicion and distrust inquirers into their own peculiar dialects; it is in the nature of a tres- pass upon private property. The federations of tribes never go so far as to attempt to establish linguistic or dialectic unity. Only incident- ally and accidentally does one tongue partly encroach upon another one in this stage of society. For this reason the linguistic classification in ethnography is a truly valuable one in all conditions of life where the consanguine rule prevails. The language is then a trustworthy guide of affiliation, both exclusively and inelusively, and the instances are extremely rare, if any indeed THE ‘‘NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 595 exist, where one tribe had deliberately torced another to change its language as the condition of entering into an alliance. The so-called ** Empire of Anahuac,” in Mexico, the organization of which had not wholly emerged from the consanguine condition, held as conquered and tributary many tribes of different speech, but had made no effort to impose upon any of them its own sonorous and beautiful language. On the other hand, Peru, which had reached a condition of national existente, exerted constant and strong pressure, as its histo- rian, Garcilaso de la Vega, assures us, to crush and extirpate all other tongues throughout its domains than the Kechua, that spoken by the Incas and their congeners. It was declared to be the official language, and there was no hope for promotion for one not familiar with it. In this respect, those enlightened rulers of the Peruvian state displayed an insight into what constitutes the very strongest bond of national unity, which we here in the United States appreciate yet but imper- fectly. It is within my own memory that the acts of assembly of my own State were issued in two languages, thus encouraging a long- existing linguistic discrepancy between the citizens of that common- wealth. Linguistic unity is the indispensable basis of national unity. When, as is the case with one of the present European empires, we hear of thirty-six different languages being current under one rule, we may be sure there is no real coherence in the nation. The recognition of this fact, and the steady efforts directed toward the extermination of subordinate tongues and the substitution of a general or national one in their place, has led to the phenomenon of peoples of the same descent speaking different idioms, and those of alien origin expressing themselves through one and the same medium. It remains true nevertheless—and this is an important point too often lost sight of in the discussion—that this substitution of one lan- guage for another never takes place without an extensive admixture of blood; for there is no more potent and prompt method of attacking the integrity of a language than by inter-marriage. Indeed, except in cases of slavery, we may almost establish the formula that the adinix- ture of blood under such circumstances bears the fixed relation of one- half to one; that is, that when a language has superseded another, one-half of the marriages in the latter have been with members of the former. Of course, by marriages in this relation we mean continued sexual unions, not necessarily legal ceremonies. Whatever the national form of government adopted, the principal maxims of jurisprudence and the ethical principles upon which they repose are profoundly modified by the substitution of the national in place of the tribal idea. I will illustrate this contrast by an example familiar to the students of the early history of this country. The European settlers in the colonies of Pennsylvania and New York could not understand why, when in time of peace an Indian murdered 596 THE ‘“‘NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. a white man, they could obtain no redress from the tribal government with whom they had treaty relations. They regarded such indolence a breach of faith and proof of evil intention. It was nothing of the kind. A crime of blood was something which concerned the consanguine gens only; it was a family matter with which the tribal council had no concern and about which it could take no action; it was in no sense a crime against the commonwealth. This view of the case was something wholly incomprehensible to the Europeans, who belonged to states where a felony or a breach of the peace is an attack on the community. In other words, ethnic jurispru- dence is something quite different when the nation appears on the stage of history from what it is in the tribal condition. This contrast runs through the whole of ethics. In a thoughtful article, published some years ago in the Zeitschrift fir Ethnologie, Dr, Kulischer pointed out that in primitive conditions ethics presents a dualistic aspect: It demands the cultivation of kindness, protection, assistance, love, and peace to our friends, but quite as much does it prescribe hatred, enmity, robbery, murder, and deception toward our enemy. The nation breaks down the walls of narrow tribal animosi- ties; it increases the number of those whose patriotic interests are in common, and thus widens the area of duty and the conceptions of ethies; but who dares say that our own conceptions of ethies are much beyond the primitive stage when still the greatest hero among us is the most skillful in murdering men—the most expert military commander? Anything like a categorical imperative in ethics, a prescription of duty which should be the law of everyone toward all men would be out of the question in a society based on relationship or on narrow territorial considerations. Nowhere does this ethical contrast become more apparent than in the relations of the one to the many, of the individual to the mass, a feature in ethnic jurisprudence admirably brought out in his recent masterly work on the subject by Dr. Albert Hermann Post. In the tribal, totemic. or consanguine condition of government the individual is not regarded as an independent unit. The obligations he has to fulfill are those of his gens, and his actions are regarded, not as his own, but as those of a member of his gens. If he robs or murders, the punishment falls, not on him personally, but on the gens; and if blood money or other compensation is demanded, it is not from him that it is required, but from the gens. He in turn is liable for any crime his fellow-clansmen may commit; and in this vicarious expiation he sees nothing in conflict with the principles of abstract justice. He has not yet reached to the conscious- ness of himself as an individual. He accepts the obligations of his clan as his own, and is scarcely aware that he suffers any diminution because he can create no obligations himself otherwise than in his posi- tion as a representative of the clan or gens. THE ‘' NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 597 This is also true of his civil rights and those which refer to prop- erty. Wherever the consanguine theory isin force, the communal idea of property is also active. The land belongs in part or in whole to the kith and kin, in the nature of common land, or is sublet by the heads of the community on longer or shorter tenures. Personal property is so only in the sense that it belongs to the members of an immediate family or subgens, not to an individual, and in many instances passes in the female line. It is obvious that in such a condition of society no idea of independ- ent personal duty or individual morality could rise in the mind; and should any such enter through foreign instigation, it would be con- demned as false, destructive, and treasonable. Permit me to dwell on this point with some detail because of its prime importance. Those considerations which establish in a commu- nity its moral code, its ideal standard of what is right, of conscience, and of duty, pronounce the final sentence on the fate of that commnu- nity. In all earlier conditions the preservation of the gens or tribe rested more on measures of destruction than of protection. Hence, toward the alien and the stranger justice and mercy were out of place and actually prohibited. Cvesar tells us of the ancient Germans, (and Nordenskjéld repeats the same of the modern Tchuktches of Siberia,) that they respected no iaw of honesty in dealing with strangers or those alien to their tribe. To cheat such in trade, to deceive and to plunder them, was actually meritorious. In such communities the stranger has no rights, and can claim no protection as a fellow human being. He can only attain such through some rite of adoption into the tribe, or through some ceremony by which he can claim the privileges of hospitality—what German writers call the Gastrecht. The gens, the clan, the tribe, is an isolated unit, in natural antagonism to the race at large, and recognizes no sort of soli- darity with its other members, nay, regards them as foes. How different is all this in the developed system of the state? There the individual man is held accountable for his own actions. He is con- sidered responsible for the deeds he commits and, therefore, feels that he is answerable to himself for the opinions and ethical theories which lie at the basis of his life and direct his conduct. For the first time in the history of the race he learns the meaning of personality, the highest lesson which advancing civilization can impress on humanity. He sees that by himself he must either stand or fall; that no vicarious expiation can meet the demands of what is eternally right; that his responsibility does not belong to another, nor can it be involved by the actions of another, but ever centers in his own thoughts and actions. Thus is he gradually emancipated from that condition of tutelage and hereditary bondage in which he was so long kept by the consanguine theory of government. J can not too strongly impress upon you that this concept of person- 598 THE “NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. ality is a totally different condition from that of the isolated primitive man. We may imagine such an one, living alone with his one wife, his children around him, his household goods and gods all within his lonely lodge. That man’s monogamy, his sense of property, his feelings of duty and responsibility, of association and independence, can in no way be assimilated to those of the man who is the free product of the state, developed through countless generations of gradual culture. To the scientific anthropologist the one is the complete contrast to the other; they have nothing in common but their external membership of the same species and a vague resemblance of external conditions. The individual is indeed the true purpose of the state. Its aim dis- tinctly is that he, or she, as an individual, shall be provided with, and protected in, the greatest possible amount of personal liberty; in this being in the utmost contrast to consanguine governments, where the individual is nothing, the tribe everything. The value of personal liberty is as a means toward the acquisition of personal happiness, and hence we are willing to accept the definition of the modern idea of justice as advanced by the eminent French anthro- pologist, André Lefevre—that it is the respect for every interest which contributes to the highest general happiness of humanity; and we can not refuse to accept the definition of morality which Hovelaeque and Hervé offer, as the only one which anthropologists can recognize; that it is the principle of organization for the purpose of satisfying the phys- ical and intellectual needs of all men; a principle which they justly add, can only be carried out successfully by guaranteeing to the indi- vidual the highest degree of personal liberty in every direction, limited by no other barrier than the enjoyment of similar liberty by every other individual. It is obvious on very slight reflection that the state as an element in anthropology has by no means worked out its full destiny in modifying the physical and psychical nature of man. As a form of government it is far from covering the whole of the earth’s surface, and where it is nominally present it is still further in many instances from that per- fected condition in which it has thrown aside the clogs and fetters of the consanguine system to which it succeeded. Take the vast Empire of China forinstance. It is ruled by a foreign dynasty on general principles of statecraft. But throughout all the really Chinese portions of the empire the details of the family system are retained with wonderful tenacity. But we need not go so far for examples. Wherever we find a system of castes or of privileged classes, an hereditary nobility, or a state church, a transmissible community of property, whether real or personal, any inequality in the rights and responsibilities of sane adnlt individuals before the law, any concessions which relieve classes, or persons, or sects, or societies, or sexes of their full measure of liability, or confer upon them privileges or deny them rights enjoyed by others, there we THE “‘NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 599 are in the presence of a form of government still clinging in these respects to the primitive theories of human society. The student of ethnological jurisprudence will class it to this extent with the totemic and gentile systems of the lower and earlier strata of human develop- ment. Let me illustrate this by the relative position of woman in a tribe and in an enlightened State. I could not touch upon a weightier question to the somatologist, for none other so intimately relates to physical anthropology. In spite of the matriarchal system, woman in all lower conditions of society is treated as inferior to man and is deprived of many rights which he enjoys. The exceptions to this are extremely rare, if any really exist. The cause of her inferiority is solely her less physical powers; it has ever been because she is bodily the weaker. The forms of marriage have made no difference. Whether a man could legally take to himself a multitude of wives, or whether, as in Thibet to-day, a woman could legally take a multitude of husbands; whether she was bought openly in the matrimonial market, or whether, as in this coun- try, she could pick and choose at will from all her admirers; whether polygamy or monogamy prevails she has ever been treated as man’s inferior, disallowed equal rights, prevented from equal liberty. So it remains to-day, though with some improvement. At first she was but a slave and a beast of burden; at present, so far as the enjoyment of civic rights in modern states is concerned, she has risen to be classed among idiots and children. Surely we may hope that she has not yet attained the acme of her evolution. A peculiar interest is attached to the development of this inquiry by the fact that it was originally an American contribution to our science. The first who clearly pointed out the distinction between gentile and political conditions of society, that is, between the tribe and the state, was the late Mr. Lewis H. Morgan; and, although we have been obliged materially to modify many of his opinions, to him belongs the credit of being the earliest to present in scientific form this important truth in anthropology. He did not perceive very clearly its bearings on physical anthropology, to which I have referred above, but he was fully awake to the potent agency of the state, as distinguished from the tribe, on the psychical nature of man. The following sentence from his chapter on the evolution of Greek culture will show this: “That remarkable development of genius and intelligence which raised the Athenians to the highest eminence among the historical nations of mankind occurred after they had adopted democratic insti- tutions, and these gave its inspiration.” By “democratic institutions” Mr, Morgan meant the substitution of a national for a tribal life. But it would be an error to consider the state as we now know it, even in its best examples, as the final form which this element will 600 THE ‘‘NATION” AS AN ELEMENT IN ANTHROPOLOGY. take in molding the body and the mind of man, his aspirations and his ethical instincts. Already there are evident signs that at no very distant future the human race will outgrow the limits of nationality and will demand and find some guiding principle which will break down the barriers which the nation, under present conditions, must perforce erect around itself; which will do away with the latent hos- tility which now requires the maintenance of enormous military estab- lishments, and will successfully solve the problem of absolutely con- serving the rights of the individual without impairing the efficiency of the organization. It is easy to prédict from what direction and under what impulses this desirable result will be brought about. Every year is making it clearer to the eye of the attentive observer; and never anywhere or at any time has there been in the history of humanity a grander example of its growth and potency than here, at this moment, we have spread. before our admiring gaze. It is by means of international action, through associations and organizations formed for international pur- poses, that the highest and ultimate efficiency of government will be reached; and then it will be discovered to be one with anthropology, the science of man, the discovery of the laws which will lead him to the utmost symmetrical development of all his faculties, to his maxi- mum efficiency, to his highest happiness. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 3y Oris TUFTON MASON. GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY. Comprehensive works.—No great work appeared in 1893 in which a distinguished anthropologist summed up the results of his studies upon the whole subject of the natural history of man. The annual address of the president of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Treland brings together the work done by that society in an orderly manner, and a lecture bureau course of instruction was given by spe- cialists through the United Kingdom under its auspices. The Anthropological Society in Washington conducted successfully twelve Saturday lectures by distinguished specialists, covering the ground of the whole science. Dr. Brinton, in Philadelphia, also con- tinued his comprehensive course. In most German universities there is some one professor who delivers an encyclopedic series of lectures on anthropology. During the year the program of the Eeole d’Anthropologie in Paris was as follows: Medical geography. M. Bordier. Anthropogeny and human embryology. M. Duval. Ethnology. Georges Hervé. Linguistics and ethnography. André Lefévre. History of civilizations. Ch. Letourneau. Zodlogical anthropology. P.G. Mahoudeau. Physiological anthropology. LL. Manouvrier. Comparative ethnography. A. de Mortillet. Prehistoric anthrepology. G. de Mortillet. Geographic anthropology. Fr. Schrader. These lectures are of the highest order, and are recognized by the minister of public instruction as of general utility. In the New Standard Dictionary just issuing by Funk & Wagnalls, of New York, as much attention is paid to words in this department of knowledge as in any other, Cassell, Johnston, the old reliable diction- aries, in their new editions, at last recognize the importance of this science. The classification of anthropology in the British Association’s Notes and Queries into anthropography and ethnology takes the last-named term out of the realm of biological anthropology and places it at the head of all the functional sciences of man. 601 602 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Societies. —The name of societies organized for the study of man alone is legion. Add to this the sections of academies and institutes of general science that have for their aim the study of whatever con- cerns man, and with this combine the work of other special societies that bear in some fashion upon this latest of sciences, and the general student becomes bewildered. These societies publish journals, bulle- tins, proceedings, memoirs, and even periodicals. Not satisfied with home societies, students in every enlightened country combine in stated assemblies. Of these the chief are: hiter- national Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology, held in 1893 in Moscow; Society of Americanists; Congress of Anthropology at the World’s Columbian Exposition, aud the German Society of Anthropology, held annually. Furthermore, each national association for the advancement of science has a section of anthropology. To these belong Section H, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Section of Anthropology in the British Association; Section of Anthropology in the German Society of Naturalists and Physicians; Section of Anthro- pology in the French Association for the Advancement of Science. And, of especial interest, the colonies of Germany, France, and Eng- land have organized associations in the Orient based on those at home. At the American Association for the Advancement of Science the chief contributions to anthropology were as follows: The Biloxi Indians ot Louisiana, vice-presidential address by the Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, showing them to belong to the Siouan stock: The lecture of Dr. Brin- ton upon “ Early man,” assigning to the human race as its birth-place the mountainous zone extending from the western foot-slopes of the Alps through the Himalayas nearly to the borders of the Yellow Sea: The paper by Prof. W. H. Holmes on ‘“ Primal shaping arts;” the phenomena of the shaping arts are classified by materials, processes, function of the product, culture stage of the artist, by order of develop- ment, and by peoples or races. The shaping art is set forth as follows: a. Breaking. b. Splitting. c. Flaking. d. Chipping. a. Bruising. (hb. Peeking. (er Grinding. 3. Abrading processes.... 2b. Rubbing. da Polishing. 1. Fracturme processes -. 2. Battering processes .. . a, Cutting. b. Scraping. c. Picking. {. Incising processes ...- | d. Piercing or boring. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 603 These processes and the order of evolution of the processes involved were shown indiagrams. The mostexcited discussion was with reference to the paleolithic problems. Other important communications were: Navajo songs of sequence. Dr. W. Matthews, U.S. A. Argillite quarries near Delaware River. H.C. Mercer. Indian migrations. C, Staniland Wake. Sense of taste among Indians. E. H.S. Baily. Caches of the Saginaw Valley. H. I. Smith. Is polysynthesis characteristic of American languages? I. N. B. Hewitt. Psychology at the World’s Fair. J. Jastrow. Evidence of glacial man in America. G. F. Wright. Antiquity of man in America. W. J. McGee. Sheet copper designs, Hopewell group. W. K. Moorehead. Mexican calendar system. D. G. Brinton. Necropolis of Ancon, Peru. G. A. Dorsey. Indian names of Four Winds. J. O. Dorsey. Ceremony of the Quichua Indians. G. A. Dorsey. The French Association met at Besancon. In the section of anthro- pology the following papers were of general scope: Proportional weight of the cerebellum, the isthmus, and of the bulb. L. Manouvrier. Prehistoric Algiers. P. Pallary. Ancient and modern weapons of South American Indians. Felix Regnault. The highest and the lowest natality in France; natality and masculinity; endogamy in rural districts. M.A. Dumont. On the Ligurians. M. Ploix. In June, 1895, the Societa Romana di Antropologia was organized in Rome, with one hundred founders. The society will devote itself to the science of man in all of its branches. Prof. Guiseppe Sergei, author of Principles and methods of classifying the human race, and Sys- tematic catalogue of the varieties of man in Russia, was made presi- dent. Florence boasts still of the most efficient anthropological society in Italy. At Moscow, during the first three weeks in August, the scientific people gave themselves to entertaining congresses, to wit: The Inter- national Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology, eleventh session, and The International Congress of Zoology, second session. Even in the last-named, papers were read that were of interest to an- thropologists, such as Psychophysical study on the memory of sensa- tion, by N. Savélier, and study of the repartition of animals in vertical contours. Before the Congress of Anthropology many communications of gen- eral interest were made. Prehistoric researches in Spain. L. Siret. The populations of the Caucasus. E. Chantre. Changes in the problems before the Congress. Kk. Virchow. Sculpture in France in the stone age. Baron A. de Baye. Kourgans of the Kirghiz Steppes. Ph. Nevedoy. Oriental origin of the Cloissonnée jewelry and its introduction into the West by the Goths. Baron A. de Baye. 604 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Anthropological types of Great Russia. N. Zograf. Anthropometry on the living as practised in Russia. N. Zograf. Influence of race and hygienic and social conditions on the physical develop- ment of man. E, Dementeer. Anthropometry of Transcaucasian peoples (3 pls.). E. Chantre. Temperament, from a psychologic and anthropologic point of view. N. Zée- land. : Two anthropological types of the family; a study in heredity (8 pls.). I. Orchansky. The Mongoloids of Siberia, their actual condition and their aptitude for civili- zation. N. Iadrintsef. The primitive inhabitants of the Mediterranean. G. Sergi. Cannibalism and human sacifice among the ancestors of the eastern Fins. I, Smirnoy. The World’s Fair Congress of Anthropology at Chicago was opened with an address by the president, Dr. Brinton, on *‘the nation as an element in anthropology.”* Papers on physical anthropology were read by Franz Boas, Gerald M. West, and Manuel A. Muniz; on ethnology communications were made by Dr. Brinton, Walter Hough, Miss Fletcher, Carl Lumholz, and O. T. Mason. Dr. Brinton affirmed that no good evidence exists of contact between America and Asia in pre- Columbian times, but this was denied by Prof. Mason. Miss Fletcher’s essay on Omaha music was a defense of the opinion that the musical seales of civilization are found in savagery in an undeveloped state. Mr. Mason’s paper was a résumé of American aboriginal tools, uses of natural power, metric apparatus, mechanics, engineering, and machinery. In archeology, the leading paper was by Mrs. Zelia Nuttall on the Mexican calendar system, elaborately set forth in a series of charts. Communications on folk-lore and religion were made by W. W. Newell, Franz Boas, J. Walter Fewkes, G. F. Kunz, Morris Jastrow, Mrs Sara Y. Stevenson, and Mrs. Matilda C. Stephenson. One of the most instructive performances at the Congress was the explanation of exhibits and visits paid by invitation to the various parts of the grounds. The Columbian Historical Exposition in Madrid was so far a suecess that there was brought together in the new national library and museum building the greatest collection of Americana ever under one roof. ‘The Smithsonian Institution and many bureaus of the Government in Washington, the great museums of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Cambridge, ang especially the Hemenway expedition, were well represented. Besides, all the Latin American States sent their treasures to complete the exhibition. Most of the valuable collections appeared again in Chicago. Museums.—The museum idea was prominent in the minds and the publications of the World’s Columbian Exposition during its entire progress. Prof. fF. W. Putnam, who was appointed general manager of the department of anthropology, made most extended collections with this end in view. The result was most gratifying. Not only was * This paper is printed in the present volume. — ; SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 605 provision made for a museum at the new University of Chicago, but the citizens, led by Mr. Field with the munificent gift of $2,000 000, pro- vided for a great museum in Jackson Park. To this will be attached a department of anthropology, including arts, paysical anthropology, ethnology, and archeology. The material is greater than that upon which any other institution of the kind was ever founded. Other museums in the United States were greatly helped by the Exposition, the Peabody Museum in Cambridge, the Natural History Museum in New York, especially with the Emmons colleetion from southeast Alaska, the National Museum in Washington, and the collections in Philadel- phia. There were also many private cabinets formed and enriched from the same source. It is fair to say that anthropology in America has never before had its activities so stimulated and increased. The development of laboratories for anthropological study, research, and instruction is slow. Physical anthropological apparatus will be noted further on. But, there could scarcely be said to exist in the world prior to 1893 a single building or institution where the material had been set out to teach the whole history of mankind or the whole round of anthropological science. Therefore the assemblage of objects to illus- trate anthropology toward which the eyes of students turned in 1893, ~was the World’s Columbian Exposition. The material of the science manifested itself there in the following forms: (1) Representatives of living races in native garb and activities. (2) Things or objects connected with every phase of human life. (3) Pictorial representations of apparatus of life in action and repose. (4) Books and descriptive publications, throwing light on man and of his inventions. These exhibits were under the following auspices: (1) The exposition authorities, under the lead specially of Prof. F. W. Putnam, aided by Prof. Sargent, Dr. Franz Boas, Dr. C. 8S. Wake, Miss Alice Fletcher, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, Mr. Stuart Culin, Mr. W. K. Moore- head, Dr. West, Mr. G. A. Dorsey, and a large corps of army and navy and civilian assistants who travelled especially over the countries involved in the Columbian period. (2) The Government of the United States, in the Government build- ing especially installed by the Smithsonian Institution through the National Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, and other Departments. (3) Foreign and home exhibitors, im. the foreign government build- ings, in the exhibits from abroad and from home through all the great public structures. (4) Concessionaires in the Midway Plaisance and also in the bazaars everywhere throughout the grounds. Indeed, it would not be too much to say that the World’s Columbian Exposition was one vast anthropological revelation. Not all mankind were there, but either in persons or pictures their representatives were. 606 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Every technical, artistic, industrial thought that had ever entered human minds could be seen in their primitive or in their most eloquent expression, From the rude human habitations about the anthropo- logical building to the results of co-operative architectural dreams which constituted the White City, was a long way on the road of evolution in the builder’s art. The same would be true of the arts of dress, adorn- ment, food, rest, transportation, manipulation, and manufacture, com- meree and exchange, heating and illumination, mechanies and mechan- ical forces. The forlorn savage woman depicted on the doorway of the Transpor- tation building at one end of a series of weary burden bearers was in strange contrast with the spirituelle paintings of angels on the walls above her head. But this was only one of a series of transformations which made the Chicago Exposition the most imposing anthropological exhibit the world has ever seen. The financial panic that seized the world prevented many thousands of scholars from studying the exposi- tion and put back the science of man quite as much asit did his mate- rial progress. Professor Putnam’s department of the Exposition included all sub- divisions of anthropology. Itembraced (1) the ethnographical exhibition of native American peoples living in their native habitations on the grounds; (2) a general ethnographic exhibit in the building; (3) an archeological exhibit in the building and casts of ruins in Yueatan shown outside; (4) exhibit of ancient religions, folk-lore, and games; (5) anthropological laboratories devoted to physical anthropology, erimi- nal anthropology, psychology, and neurology with apparatus and dia- grams; (6) an anthropological library in all branches of the science. The anthropological exhibit of the Government was devoted (1) espe- cially to showing the relation of the material activities of North America to the linguistic classification that had been recently completed; (2) to the exposition of the recent explorations made by Prof. William H. Holmes in quarry sites of the aborigines in various portions of the Union. This was done in a most creditable manner; (5) a synoptical view of the early history of mankind from the earliest stone age to the first iron age, set out by Professor Thomas Wilson. Of great public interest among the foreign exhibits were the armor in the German village, the gold work from Colombia, the Turkish and the Cairene bazaar, the Java village, the Samoan village, the Dahomey village, the Japanese and the Hindoo bazaars. Indeed, only an ex- tended catalogue wili reveal the riches of the material. Current literature.—Very frequent inquiries are made by those who wish to look up some special question or to begin some new study in anthropology. It is no longer possible to prepare for this summary ¢ creditable bibliography in the space assigned; but it is also not necessary. Students who have access to the following publications —eo SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 607 do not need any further help in following up the literature of the science: (1) The American Anthropologist, Washington; quarterly; Judd & Detweiler. Extended bibliography on all studies relating to man. (2) The Index Medicus and the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon-Gen- eral’s Office, Washington, especially thorough in anthropo-biology. (3) The catalogues of the Literary Bureau, Boston. (4) Archiv fur Anthropologie, Braunschweig; quarterly. Most exhaustive lists, with short digests of books and papers. (0) Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Full bibliographies. (6) Annuaire des Journaux, etc., Paris, 1892. Mr. G. W. Bloxam has placed anthropologists under lasting obliga- tions to him by his printing a complete index to the publications of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1843-1891), This ineludes also the journal and transactions of the Ethnological Society of London (1843-1871), the journal and memoirs of the Anthro- pological Society of London (1863-1871), the Anthropological Review, and the journal of the Anthropological Institute (1871-1891). Generalliterature.—The literature of the world has become impregnated with anthropology. Science, The American Naturalist, and especially The Popular Science Monthly, in America, give a large share of their pages to this topic. Nature, The Academy, The Atheneum, and all the great quarterlies of London; Revue Scientifique in Paris; Globus anda host of other journals in Germany, are common carriers of the best kind which send weekly, monthly, and quarterly cargoes of information to intelligent readers. The gallery of anthropology is still in the future. At the World’s Columbian Exposition, as mentioned, groups of lower races in costume were well set up, and photography was efficient in putting life into accounts of peoples inaccessible to the most of us. Gabriel de Mortillet has advocated the extension of the work of the camera, and im Thurn makes a good argument for its use in South America. There is no good guide to anthropological studies published in America. The reprint of the British Notes and Queries was a timely piece of work by the British association. ANTHROPO-BIOLOGY. The sourees of information concerning the biology of man are, first of all, the organs of the anthropological societies. In Germany and France far more attention is paid to craniology, measurement of the other parts of the body, the teeth, comparative anatomy of man and the lower animals, and greater stress is laid upon the importance of these studies. In England and the United States craniological meas- urements are discounted. All the literature of this branch of the science may be sought im the bibliographies of Surgeon-General’s 608 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Index-Catalogue and the Index-Medicus, Washington; the American Anthropologist, Washington; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Braunschweig ; Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wein. Dr. Brinton, in Science (February 24), enters a vigorous protest against the multiplication of jaw-breaking compounds of Greek roots to repre- sent different cranial measurements and indexes. Craniologists have differed in opinion concerning the orientation of the skull for the purposes of measurement, All agree that it should be set as in life where the owner is looking straight abead. To set up the skull after death in the position of the living head gazing at the horizon is the problem. Dr. Eugene Hirtz to this end has utilized the cadaver as an intermediary between the living and the skeleton, since the eye remains fixed in its orbit after death. The paresis of the mus- cular system is then complete—the eyes are immobile. The problem is to compare the visual axis of the cadaver with the plane of the cranium as used by the experimenter and with the gaze of the living fixed on- the horizon. The conclusion is that the ‘orbital axis” of Broca is nearly parallel to the plane of the visual axes, or the so-called horizon- tal plane of the living. (Bull. Soc. @Anthrop. de Paris, 4 8., TV, 386-389.) Dr. Manouvrier, who has devoted years to the study of the long bones of the human body, communicated to the Paris Anthropological Society a memoir on the morphological variations of the body of the femur in the human species. The conclusion reached is that platyenemy, retro- version of the head of the tibia, and platymetry, seen in prehistorie remains, in savages, and among modern Europeans, do not represent anatomical survivals through atavism, but are all derived through physiological causes, allied to the kind of life and different external con- ditions susceptible of exaggeration or modification. (bull. Soc, d’An- throp. de Paris, 4 s8., Iv, 111-144.) MM. Azoulay and Regnault have made a comparison in the compar- ative form of the incisors of apes and the various races of men. In the apes the outer enameled surface is wide and shaped like a hoe, of the uncivilized races the edges are more nearly parallel, and in the civilized races they are quite so. Measures were taken of the length of the free border and of the side of the enamel and the difference noted. The order of suecession, as regards the elongation and rectan- gular form of the enamel, is: apes (chimpanzee and gorilla), negroes, New Caledonians, Australians, Polynesians, Javanese, Annamites and Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Bengalese. (Bull. Soc. d@Anthrop. de Paris, 4s., 1V, 267-269.) Prof. Cope some years since affirmed that the tubercular forms usual in the cusps of human molars point to a reversion to the lemurian dentition. In Anatomischer Anzeiger (No. 24, 1892), Dr. H. F. Osborn, of Columbia College, presents the result of his own researches, with a suinmary of other work, since Cope. The primitive mammalian molar is a single cone, to which other cusps have been added, as SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 609 many as six appearing in some primates. The human molar, there- fore, is a reversion to the lemurine type. Brinton affirms that the study of these traits in racial anatomy has no definite result, Two essays in the Contemporary Review, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, on the insufficiency of ‘natural selection,” were the occasion of many papers by anthropologists representing a variety of points of view. Notable among these should be read Cattell on Survival of the Fittest and Sensation Areas. Prof. Hartmann published the second part of his second volume on the anthropological material in the Royal University at Berlin (A ppen- dix to Arch. f. Anthrop., XXII, pt. 3). The classes treated are: Old Egyptian skulls; Guanches, of Teneriffe; Nigritians; modern Egyp- tians; Bantu, Kaffirs and Bechuana; Khoi-Khoi, or Hottentots; San, or Bushmen; Germans from the interior of Austria; Sloven; Finns. Upon the question of the color-sense among aborigines the experi- ments of Blake and Franklin among American Indians are valuable. It has been frequently affirmed that Indians do not know colors by name, but Gatschet’s researches contradict this. At Haskel Institute four hundred and eighteen Indians of different tribes were tested, and only three cases of color blindness found to exist—two for red and one for green. These were males and all full blooded. This ratio of seven- tenths of 1 per cent as compared with 5°36 per cent in Switzerland and 4-12 in Germany would seem to argue the diminution of the faculty of color in civilization. (Science, New York, June 2.) Dr. J. Ambialet has studied with great care the artificial deformation of the head called Toulousian and published his results in L’anthropologie (Paris, tv, 11- 27.) The paper is illustrated with many cuts, which add greatly to the clearness of the text. The people of Toulouse bandage the heads of their babies, and that compels the brain to grow out in other lines. These Toulousians are naturally short-headed, but by the effects of the constrictions nentioned they come to be dolichocephalie or long- headed and the skulls to be elongated, oval, pitched up at the occiput, trapezoidal, bilobie, ete. The disastrous decrease of population in France has given rise to a national association termed ‘Congres de la repopulation de la France.” This society held its session the current year in Paris, under the prest- dency of Dr. Gustav Lagneau. Questions discussed were, assistance to poor children; protection to women with child; modifications of fiscal laws looking to increase of population; change of laws respecting illegitimates, ete. Resolutions denouncing war and advocating dis- armament were passed. The Marquis de Nadaillac has published a short paper (Science, Jan- tary 27) on the extremes of heat and cold endured by man. The fol- lowing records in centigrade are quoted :— English and Russian officers, Maruchak, Afghanistan, —20° C. Prince Henry, Central Asia, —40° C. SM 93 39 610 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Captain Back, Fort Reliance, Canada, —56° C. Captain Dawson, Fort Rae, —67" C. Abbe Petitot, Fort Good Hope, —35° to 42° C, M. Martin, E. Siberia, —63° C. Gen. Greely, Discovery Bay, —66° F.” Gilder, Northeast Canada, —71° C. 3uveyvier, Tuare Country, +68° C. A differenee of nearly 250° F. PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. In the International Congress of Experimental Psychology, of 1892, reported in Mind, 1893, 11, 42-53, is printed a paper by Prof. A. Bain, on the respective spheres and mutual helps of introspection and psycho- physical experiment in psychology. The author still holds that intro- spection, or the self-consciousness of each individual working apart must still remain at the head of the resources for imparting to psychol- ogy a Scientific character. A few of the researches where both methods are applicable are: (1) The muscular mechanism, the primary instrument of our activ- ities for all purposes whatever. (2) The theory of the intellect as expressed by such terms as mem- ory, retentiveness, association, reproduction, and the like. (3) The momentary fluctuations of ideas in and out of consciousness, Many phrases have come into use in connection with it, such as “threshold” of consciousness, recency of impressions, area of con- sciousness, lapses of attention, ete. (4) The determination of the condition of permanent association or enduring memory, as against temporary or so-called “cram.” Among tle great issues now awaiting solution Prof. Bain places in the foreground plurality of simultaneous impressions in every one of the senses. Attached to it is the question of the operative power of impressions while momentarily standing aside from the conscious area. For these problems introspection needs to be helped out by experi- mentation, while the delicacy of tact in the self-conscious observer is also of the utmost importanee. One of the most pregnant issues in the whole field of psychology is the swaying of the will by motives outside of pleasure and pain, otherwise called the “ fixed idea.” Until there is a more general agreement than at present on the analysis of the fundamentals of the intellect, it is premature to recom- mend a searching investigation into the working of similarity in diver- sity, on which hangs the inventive powers of the mind, just as much as simple memory reposes the adhesion of conjunctions in time. For the present there is abundant scope for introspection in roaming over the accessible facts of psychical life. By the nature of the case the initiative in the more fruitful inquiries will be most frequently taken by introspection, which also by its powers of analysis will still open the path to the highest generalities of our science. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 611 Prof. Sully published an appeal to parents relative to studying the child-mind, of which the following is a brief: 1. Attention and observation.—Early attention and interest (in looking, touching, etc.) and gradually widening observation. Exact as well as hasty observation. 2. Memory.—LKarliest recognition of persons. What is remembered best. Out-of- the-way facts, insignificant details, ete. Strength of verbal memory, new words introduced into a familiar story, and the like. 3. Imagination and funey.—Anthropomorphic fancy, child-myth, personifications of nature. How the unknown in space and time is filled. Child-lies. Imagination interfering with observation and producing ‘‘ illusions of sense.” 4. Reasoning.—First curiosity about the origin of things, himself, of the Deity, ete. Childish puzzles, things that seem strange and inspire thinking. Childish explanation. How it translates our explanations of things, puts its meaning into our words. 5. First use of articulate sounds, characteristic omissions, alterations and trans- positions of sounds in repeating words. Order of acquiring sounds. Invention of new word-sounds. Original applications of common words. ~ 6. Pleasure and pain.—First manifestation of pleasure and displeasure (smiling, frowning, ete.). Instinctive and acquired likes and dishkes. Favorite amusements. 7. Fear.—First manifestation of fear—of the dark, of animals, of big moving things. Are they due to instinct or to experience or suggestion ? 8. Self-fecling.—Self-pity, self-caressing, vanity, jealousy, property in toys, ete. 9. Sympathy, affection.—Early feelings toward animals and human beings as bear- ing on the question of innate sympathy. Cruelty of children. 10. Artistic taste.—Special preferences for colors, forms, rhythms, melodies, ete. Ideas of prettiness, grandeur, etc. First signs of laughter, or of a sense of the comical or ludicrous. 11. Moral and religious feeling.—Earliest signs of respect for authority. First exercise of judicial function by the child in scolding or commanding others or him- self. First conception of right and wrong. Illustrations of feelings of justice in little children, of moral sensibility and of callousness. 2. Volition.—Imitation of others in words, gestures, etc. Effect of other’s verbal suggestion on childish action. Examples of self-will, of defiance of commands. Hesitation in acting and self-restraint. 13. Artistic productions.—Spontaneous dramatic invention (make-believe) in play. Original manual construction (building, etc.). Invention of stories. First drawing of animals, men, ete. (Preserve examples.) Noticeable grades of progress in these. Prof. Scripture contributes sound advice to those who would take graduate instruction in psychology (Science, New York, July 28). The student must begin with knowing the methods of making experiments; this should be followed by careful work in the theory of measurements, treating of the probability integral, the mean variation, etc. One of the great differences between psychological and physical measurements is that the conditions can not be controlled as in physics; mean varia- tions are thus greater and the deductions from the results not the same. Psychological experiments resemble those taken once on each of a number of persons. The study of the methods of statistics has also to be made for the sake of mental statistics. The making of measure- ments brings in the study of fundamental and derived units and the construction of apparatus. The subject’s touch, sight, hearing, ete., require a knowledge of the physical processes used in stimulation. 612 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Hearing lectures will never make a psychologist; the fundamental course for all special instruction is the laboratory work. The student must be trained by repeated exercises in making the measurements explained in the lectures, including exercises on touch, temperature, hearing, sight, in the graphic method, chronometry, dynamometry, audiometry, photometry, colorimetry, ete. This should be followed by work in the construction of apparatus, elements of mechanical drawing, use of tools. Journals specially devoted to psychic studies are: The American Journal of Psychology. Worcester, Mass., Vol. v in 1893. The Philosophical Review. Vol.1, in 1893. Révue des Sciences Psychologiques. Paris. Vol. 1v. Journal of Morphology. Vol. vitt in 1893-94. Revue Philosophique. 18™° année in 1893, Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane. Bda.v in 1893. Vierteljahrsschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Philosophie. Bd.Xvit in 1893. Philosophische Monatshefte. Bd.XXviit in 1895. Zeitschrift fiir Philosophie und Philosophische Kritik. Bad. crt in 1893. Philosophische Studien. Vol. 1X in 1895. Mind. A quarterly Review. London,n.s. Vol. 11 in 1893, Revue internationale de Sociviogie. Vol.1 in 1893. Rivista internazionale di Scienze sociale e Discipline ausiliare. Vol.t in 1893. Philosophisches Jahrbuch. Bd.v in 1893. Rivista Italiana di Filosofia. Anno vitt in 1893. Brain. London. Parts 61 and 62 in 1893. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research. Vol. 1x in 1893; also Journal. Revue de Métaphysique et de la Morale. Premiere année in 1898, THE RACES OF MEN. In the United States the chief sources of publication on ethnological topics are: The reports and papers of the Peabody Museum, in Cam- bridge; the journals of the Hemenway Southwestern Expedition; the transactions of the American Philosophical Society; but, most extended of all, the reports and bulletins of the Bureau of Ethnology, and the pub- lications of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum. Abroad the study is stimulated in a multitude of ways. The Anthropological Tnstitute of Great Britain and Ireland is specially strong in this line of study through its colonial attachments. Besides this society, the Colonial Museum, the British Museum, the Royal Asiatic Society, flood the world with good literature, especially con- cerning the Eastern Hemisphere. Branches of these great societies are established in Bombay, Calcutta, Hongkong, Shanghai, Sydney, Wellington, publishing also literature on ethnology. Interest in the study of ethnology is kept alive in France partly by bringing to the city of Paris families and groups of colonial natives. In the Palais des Arts liberaux, Champs de Mars, was opened in 1893 an exposition of colonial African ethnology. Besides one hundred and thirty Dahomoans, representatives of the Ogowé, Whydah, Godomé, SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 613 Cotonou, Porto Novo, Allada, Savi, and Abomey peoples, were exhibited in native dress and habitations, working at their national trades. The chief source of information is 17? Anthropologie, Paris, in which excellent reviews of the literature of the subject will be found. Every German city has an ethnographic museum. In Berlin, Dr. Bastian, with a competent force, has charge of the great Museum fiir Volkerkunde and in Dresden Dr, A. B. Meyer has his home. The Zeitschrift fiir Hthnologie, Berlin, isa kind of diary or merchant’s blotter, giving information concerning ethnological material as it comes to hand, to be journalized and posted up later on. The publications of the Dres- den Museum on the Melanesian islanders are works of great merit. In Holland the Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnologie is published at great expense by J. D. EK. Schmelz, with colored lithographic plates. The work of Italian ethnologists must not be overlooked, especially in Central Africa. The Archivio per V Antropologia di Firenze, organ of the Societa di Antropologia, is the medium of publication. Interest in the study of Etruscan origins still continues. Apropos of Dr. Brinton’s suggestion that this people are to be classed with the Libyans, Prof. Giuseppe Sergi, of Rome, announces in Nuova Anto- logia, September, 1893, that from the side of physical anthropology this is true. In this connection should be read Dr. Kleinschmidt’s refer- ence of the Etruscans to the Aryan stock, nearest to Lithuanian and Lettish and Gaetano Polari’s comparison of the same language with the dasque. Dr. Zograf has studied the people of Great and Little Russia. They are not homogeneous, but result from the mixing of Slavo-Lithuanians and Uralo-Altaic elements. The people of Little Russia differ slightly from province to province in costume and manners. The region of the steppes which extend between the Carpathian and the Don has been peopled by colonies from diverse sources, by Great and Little Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Moldavians, and Germans. The Nogais Tartars are cantoned in the Crimea. (L’ Anthropologie, Paris, Iv, 228.) Dr. Braislin has studied the human nasal canal as an ethnological characteristic with reference to the viability of the white and negro race in the same area. He thinks that the wider, shorter, and shallower canals in the negroes account for their being more subject to pulmonary diseases and that they present characteristics specially adapted for pre- paring the inspired air of a tropical climate for reception into the lung structures. (Science, New York, March 31.) Dr. Felix von Luschan, of Berlin, finds in the modern Jews, descend. ants of three different races, the Hittites, the Aryan Amorites, and the Semitic nomads, who immigrated into Syria about the time of Abraham. (Science, New York, January 12.) The Veddahs of Ceylon were the subject of an exhaustive study by the brothers Sarasin. The census of the island gives 2,760,000 persons. Singhalese (ERodyias, 25000). --. -.-.-. =... -2-..--.-- 1, 847,000 amils1(430; 000) sedentary) pe acnes ssa | sa l= 687,000 614 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Indo=Arabyloormen, 168:000)Peaeses ee sss eeee eee 187,000 URaStaMs 5,2 sees ee eee ee eee 18,000 MaRS eae ire ta apa res ees ee tae OT ee 9,000 Afohans eAralbs ob en Oalese n= sts see ee ae eee 7,000 ULV) uy atin e \cyeeee pe Pee fee wee een ee eo ees 5,000 Veddahs (males ahii(etem alesse 051) see ee 2,228 An excellent review of this work is in Archiv f. Anthropologie (XX11, 316-327). The Khmers, of Cambodia, have been studied by Dr. Maurel, and the results of his investigations are made known in one of the Mémoires dela Société W@W Anthropologie de Paris. They are the easternmost branch of the Aryan stock arriving from India with their native culture and have become mixed with various other strains. The publishers of L’ Anthropologie have brought together the papers of Dr. Eitel upon the Hak-ka (Paris, 1v, 129-181), the general title of the Chinese inhabiting the province of Canton. These people have spread themselves throughout Indo-China. With diverse elements that are mutually antagonistic, they seem to be bound together by a common interest. The population of Canton is as mixed as was that of England after the Norman conquest. The Miao-tse aborigines have been corralled in the mountainous districts to the northwest by a migrating people, who came to occupy the entire province and who entitled themselves the Aborigines (Pun-ti). Later, these had to defend themselves successively against two other invaders of different race. These last are the Hak-ka and the Tchao-Teheow or Hok-lo. The last named prefer the water and the Hak-ka the land. Both peo- ples came from the northwest, one following the waters, the other the mountains. The monograph of Dr. Eitel is devoted to the Hak-ka, their ethnography and history. Dr. Michaut has published a work on the Ainos. As was often pointed out, these people are neither Mongol nor Japanese, but approach astonishingly the Russian Moujik and are probably an aber- rant branch of the white race. They areremarkably pure in blood, and may foreshadow the coming of the Russian to the Pacific coast to claim their own. The language is absolutely special, but approaches the Mantchoo in phrase and syntax. (Bull. Soc. d@’ Anthrop. de Paris, 4. 8.. IV, 259-263.) The greatest interest now centers in the ethnology of northeastern Asia outside the question of the identity of the present peoples with those of America. The Kamchatkans, Ghiliaks, Koriaks, Yukaghirs, and others are supposed to be the remnants of the aborigines of north- ern Asia and even of the Japanese Isles. The studies of Schlegel in Chinese, of Morse in the shell heaps of Japan are thought to be con- firmatory of this. The arts of these small people agree in many respects with those of the Hyperborean Americans. New light is thrown upon the African pigmies by the researches of Stuhlmann, an associate of Emin Bey. In stature they average 1:25 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 615 meters. They are very prognathic and brachycephalic and the color is brown or reddish yellow rather than black. Stuhlnann looks upon the pigmies as relics of a peculiar variety of our species that once extended over Africa and parts of Asia. Dr. Brinton however, in a lecture before the Washington Anthropological Society affirmed that the size of these people had been brought about through degeneration. Mr. G. F. Scott Elliot, at the end of his notes on native West African customs, has the good judgment to give a catalogue of the tribes on the upper Zambesi, with names, geographical locations, and definite posi- tion by latitude and longitude. (J. Anthrop. Inst., XX111, 85.) Dr. Karl Sapper publishes in Petermann’s Mittheilungen a short account of the ethnography of Guatemala. The languages at present spoken or formerly used are: . 1. The Pipil of Salama. 11. Aguacatec. 2. The Pipil of Comapa. 12. Jacalteca. 3. The Pupulea. 1s} alle 4. The Carib. 14. Quiché. 5. Sinca. 15. Cakchiquel. 6. The language of Yupiltepec. 16. Jutuhil. 7. The Maya. 17. Uspanteca. 8. Language of the Chujes. 18. Pokomam. 9. The Chorti. 19. Pokomchi. 10. Mame or Mam. 20. Kelechi. The second part of the paper relates to culture, and especial attention is given to the varieties of habitations,* and an excellent map accom- panies, showing in color the location and spread of each language. The Tierra del Fuegians received more than their share of attention in a monograph published in the Archiv fiir Anthropologie (Braun- schweig, XXII, 155-218, figs. and tables). These islanders are given under three stocks. (1) Ona (Wua; Jacana-Kunny of Fitzroy; Aonik of Brinton) in the east. (2) Jahgan (Jagan or Japoos or Tekenika of Fitz Roy) in the south. (3) Alakaluf (Alekoolip) in the southwest. In every kind of cranial measurement these peoplessare compared with one another and with the rest of mankind. The author comes to the long deferred conclusion that the Fuegians resemble Europeans most and came from that continent. The Polynesian Society of Wellington, New Zealand, takes up the problem of the Oceanic races with great vigor, publishing a quarterly journal. Necessarily the great majority of papers are in the graphic rather than in the logic stage, as should be. Papers of general value are: On Savage Island, E. Tregear and J. M. Ossmond; Asiatic origin of Oceanic numerals, E. Best; Asiatic gods in the Pacific, E. Tregear; Relationship of Malayan languages, T. L. Stevens, and many communi- cations on the Maories. * Peterm. Mittheil., Gotha, 1893, xxx1x, 1-14. 616 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. The Solomon islanders are in the midst of a series of archipelagoes whose population is often called melanoid or negroid. The studies of Hagen lead to the conclusion that there is not here an unique type (Anthropologie, Paris, Iv, 215). Emigrants from the west, Malays and Polynesians, or Malayo—Polynesians, according to the linguists, have continually arrived there, following the currents and the winds, and have profoundly modisied the older elements, creating really a Melano- Polynesian type. GLOSSOLOGY, In the American Anthropologist (VI, 381-407) Messrs. Hewitt and Dorsey attack Duponceau’s theory of polysynthesis in the Indian lan- guages. Mr. Hewittis alearned Iroquois, and Dr. Dorsey is as familiar with Siouan languages as with his own. The former says: ‘‘ The materials of the language of the Iroquois consists of notional words— nouns, verbs, adjectives; representative words—prefixive and inde- pendent pronouns; relational words—adverbs, conjunctions, and suffix- ive prepositions; and derivative elements, formatives and flexions.” The distinctive nature and characteristic functions of these elements can not be changed at will by any speaker. In the category of notional words noun stems may not indifferently assume the functions of verb stems or adjective stems. The compound stems of word sentences may become parts of speech when the linguistic sense has come to regard the separate meanings of the elements thus combined. This is para- synthesis. In the Iroquoian speech all the developments of the lan- guage expressed by the terms, word-sentence, stem-formation, and inflection are based primarily on the well-known principle of juxtaposti- tion and a more or less intimate fusion of elements, but the living and traditional usage of the language has established the following mor- phothetic canons: (1) The simple or compound stem of a notional word or of a word- sentence may not be employed isolatedly without a prefixed simple or complex personal pronoun or a gender sign or flexion. (2) Only two notional stems may be combined in the same word- sentence, and they must be of the same part of speech. (5) The stem of a verb or adjective may be combined with the stem of a noun, and the stem of the verb or adjective must be placed after and never before the noun stem. (4) An adjective stem may not be combined with a verb stem, butit may unite with the formative auxiliary tha’, to cause or make, and with the inchoative ¢. (5) A qualificative or other word or element may not be interposed between the two combined stems of notional words, nor between the simple or compound notional stem and its simple or complex pronominal prefix, derivative and formative change being effected only by prefixing SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 617 or suffixing suitable flexions and formatives to the forms fixed by the foregoing canons. Dr. Washington Matthews, reviewing the new edition of the Riggs Dakota dictionary, published by the Smithsonian Institution as Vol. Iv of Contributions to Knowledge, pays a just tribute to the original work and its author. Great and worthy praise is bestowed upon the Rey. J. Owen Dorsey for the editorial supervision of the new volume, and the reviewer says that the improvements are largely dialectic. This shows how thoroughly the pioneer members of the Dakota mission did their scholarly work (Am. Anthrop., Wash., V1, 96). The question of the phoneticism of the Maya is reviewed by Cyrus Thomas in the American Anthropologist (Washington, V1, 241-270), who says that their ideographic character is maintained by Forstemann, Schellhas, Seler, and Valentini; their phonetic character by Charency, de Rosny, and Thomas, and an intermediate ground is assumed by 3srinton, who gives to them the name ikonomatic. A substantial contribution to the extension of ethnology through linguistics has been made by Rey. J. Owen Dorsey in a paper before the Madison meeting of the American Association proving that the Biloxis, a tribe on the southern border of Louisiana, belong to the Siouan or Dakotan linguistic stock. This family is now traced along the western side of the Mississippi River from the gulf to its source, through- out the entire drainage of the Missouri and the Arkansas and along the eastern slopes of the Appalachians from Washington city to central South Carolina. Upon the study of American native languages abroad, Dr. Brinton draws attention to a report on American linguistics made at a conter- ence in Madrid by Don Francisco de Fernandez y Gonzalez and printed by the Atheneum. In the Anales de la Universidad, of Santiago, Chile, is a paper entitled, ‘‘ La linguistica Americana, su historia y su estado actuai,” by Diego Barros Arana and Rodolfo Lenz. Avaluable addition to the resources of Mexican archeology is Dr, Seler’s publication with textual explanation of Humboldt’s collection of maguey paintings. In the city of Mexico, in 1803, Humboldt purchased sixteen hieroglyphic paintings collected by Boturini Benadueci, 1740, confiscated by the Government and placed in the hand of Leon da Gama to study. In 1806 these paintings were presented to the Ber- lin Royal Library and there they remained until in 1888, they were exhibited to the Congress of Americanists. Photographic facsimiles were published by the Royal Library as a gift to the Columbus Cen- tennial. But the remainder of Boturini’s collections were scattered and lost sight of nearly a hundred years, until M. Aubin, 1830-1840, with assid- uous care gathered them and took them to Paris. Tifty years longer they were kept with miserly circumspection from inquisitive eyes until M. Eugene Goupil bought them and placed them in the hands of M. Boban to catalogue. Already a volume has appeared entitled, 618 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. Documents pour servir a UHistoire du Mexique, published by Leroux, Dr. Brinton furnishes in Science (March 10) a good account of the mate- rial, and says that all that has been previously written about Mexico has no more importance than the histories of Egypt, composed before the decipherment of the hieroglyphics. In Science Dr. Cresson shows the method pursued by him in his attempt to analyze the Maya hieratic and demotie script by the pho- netic elements of which it is composed. The Maya graphic system seems to be based upon a primitive ideographism, the elements derived from natural and artificial motives. These symbols received phonetie meanings. This representation of ideas or words by pictures, whole or abbreviated, Dr. Brinton calls the iconomatic stage of writing. Both Mexican and Maya were of this character. The Maya especially had gotten beyond it toward the higher stage. (Science, New York, December 15.) Canon Isaac Taylor, reviewing a paper of von der Gabelentz on the probable connection between Basque and Berber speech, says: “We may adhere to the old conclusion that in the more essential points the affinities of the Basque are with the languages of the Ural-Altaie class, which are totally different from the Berber languages, which belong rather to the Hamitic fam ily. (Acad., 1893, July 29.) Since the appearance of Horatio Hale’s paper on the possibility of inventing language, much has been written on child language, Clark University, at Worcester, has taken up the matter seriously of making a collection of the secret languages of children, of which the old time “hog Latin” is only one example. TECHNOLOGY. The divisions of primitive technology, out of which all useful human enterprises spring, are the following: (1) The study of materials, their qualities and geographical distribu: tion. (2) The study of the forces of nature, power of man, beast, wind, water, elasticity of rigid substances and gases, electricity,—as they have been subdued and put to work by man. (3) Tools, utensils, apparatus, the study of their working parts, their manual and operative parts, their attachments and consequent machines. (4) Mechanies, the gradual working out of the inclined plane, lever roller, wheel and axle, pully, screw, and the like, for the conversion of time, direction of motion, resistance, one into another. (5) The processes of work, the manner in which the operations of an industry have been carried on from beginning to end. (6) The products of the arts in their designs, structures, functions, and influence on the whole body of human industry. The round through which all these activities go is: SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 619 (1) Exploitation of the earth for raw material in its three kingdoms; and in the case of plants and animals, increasing the supply through domestication and cultivation. (2) The appheation of tools and power to these substances so as to convert them into forms to gratify luiman desire or to meet human needs. (3) The transfer of the material in any stage of its manipulation from place to place, on men, beasts, wagons, ships or trains, called trans- portation and travel. (4) The buying and selling of commodities involving weighing, meas- uring, and valuing, or weights, measures, and money, the development of the middle man, the wholesale merchant, the retail merchant, the broker, the banker, ete. (5) The consumption of the ultimate product and all the utensils and customs involved therein. Each one of these operations in its historie elaboration involves the growth of the areas involved from the smallest territory occupied by a self-supporting tribe to the occupation of the entire earth as a single- culture area. It also includes the differentiation of labor among men, giving to every man a greater diversity of thought and action in each operation, and requiring at the same time the cooperation of a greater number of men as specialists to accomplish the same kind of work. To unfold all arts of all peoples in all time and gather them into a single system of technic life is the purpose of technologie science. The effect of the earth on arts is techno-geography ; the effect of races on arts is ethno-technography, and from each point of view that gives a different motive to studying man, the arts of life are classified on difter- erent concepts. Nowadays every trade has its journal, and the publishers never lose an opportunity to explain and illustrate the evolution of their craft. The Journal of the Society of Arts, London, is the first publication to consult upon this topic. Mr. E. H. Man gives an account of the technique of the Nicobar pot- tery (J. Anthrop. Inst., xxi, 21-27). The manufacture is confined to one small island named Chorora, and the entire work of preparing the clay and molding and firing the pots has to devolve on the women of the community. It is related that a Chorora woman, while visiting another island, attempted to make a cooking pot, but she paid the pen- alty with her life. Clay at Chorora having been exhausted, material must be had from other islands, demanding a sea trip of a few miles. The duty of procuring the clay and the sale of the finished articles devolves on the men. (Compare Holmes and Cushing, 6 An. Rep. Bur. Ethnol.) Having prepared a quantity of clay by freeing it from small stones and other extraneous matter, and having kneaded it with fine sand until of a proper consistency, the operator seated herself on the ground and placed before her a piece of board on which she laid a ring or hoop 620 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. about 8 inches in diameter made of cocoanut leaves neatly bound together. This served as a stand for a shallow dish, in which was placed a circular piece of plantain leaf to facilitate the handling of the clay and preventing its adhesion to the unsized platter. With one or more handfuls of clay, according to the size of the pot, the base of the utensil was roughly shaped on the dish; then rolls of clay of the required thickness and previously prepared were built up layer after layer until the proper dimensions had been attained; the operator, the while turning the pot round and round, shaping it with her eye and hand. The vessels are set aside on a raised platform to dry for one or two days, according to the size of the pot and the state of the weather. When dry it is taken from the platform, superfluous clay on the inside scraped off with a Cyrena shell, and the excess of material on the outside removed by means of a fine strip of bamboo moistened. The hands of the potter moistened are gently passed over the inner and outer surfaces of the vessel to smooth them. The rin is finished off with the bamboo strip. For firing a primitive kiln is prepared in some open space near the hut, and bits of broken pottery are stuck in the grounda few inches apart to serve asastand. Under the pot a layer of fine wood ashes and a quantity of cocoanut shells and seraps of firewood are heaped up and a wheel-like object larger than the pot is laid on its upturned base; against this are laid branches and firewood, which are to be lighted outside the vessel but are not to come in contact with it. The fuel is kindled and the flame fanned, if necessary, by two or three women, Who, armed with sticks in both hands, act as stokers until the vessel is baked. It 1s removed with the sticks and left to cool upon a bed of fine sand, where it receives the necessary black stripes. The painting is accomplished by means of strips of unripe cocoanut husk 1 to 2 inches broad, laid on the pot while hot. The stain produced by the acid juice turns black in a moment. To save her fingers from being burnt the artist keeps the pot in position by means of a cocoa- nut-shell cup. The entire surface is then rubved with moist strips of husk to give a light copper color to the whole surface. Makers’ marks are added and the whole is completed. The study of maize is the study of a large number of American Indian tribes. Ethnologists will therefore be grateful to Dr. J. W. Harshberger for his monograph on the origin and distributiou of maize in America. The origin of the plant is sought in the highlands of Mexico, south of the twenty-second degree of north latitude. From this source it got into the United States by two routes, through northern Mexico and through the West Indian Islands. It was carried to South America by the Isthmus of Panama, extending, according to Brinton, along the great Andean system until it reached the Gran Chaco, where we find the native tribes, no way related to the Kechuas of Peru, bor- rowing its name from these people. South American words for maize SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 621 extended all over the West Indian Islands, showing that it was intro- duced to this archipelago from the southern continent. Even in our day the Mexicans excel in feather mosaics, some beauti- ful examples of which are to be seen at the National Museum. But in pre-Columbian times more attention still was paid to such matters. Of this we have evidence in the beautiful examples lately brought to light. Mrs. Nuttall, at the World’s Congress of Archeology, presented colored sketches of a great number, and Dr. Seler resumed the subject. (Ztschr. f. Hthnol., Berlin, xxv, 44.) M. Adrien Mortillet, in a classification of weapons of offense, bases his subdivisions upon the relation of the action to the hand, (1) held in the hand, (2) working by means of something held in the hand, or (3) thrown from the hand. Each one of the classes of bruising, slashing, and piercing weapons may again be thus subdivided. The Africans have developed the slashing projectile in two forms, the bladed arrow and the thrown knife or trumbash. M. Dybowski read a paper before the Paris Anthropological. Society upon the last-named weapon. (Bull. Soe. @ Anthrop. de Paris, 4. s., 1v, 97-100.) Mr. J. D. McGuire, in the American Anthropologist (Washington, VI, 307-320), attacks the division of the stone age into paleolithic and neo- lithic from a new point of view. Unwittingly archeologists have got- ten into the habit of calling chipped stone by the former and battered and ground stone by the latter title. Mr. MeGuire clearly shows that battering store 1s easier and therefore may be older than the chipping art. He shows that among the best-known writers there is no unanim- ity of opinion as to the status of the chipped-stone age, and avers that the weight of authority is against the existence of any considerable period of time in which man lived either in Europe or America, when his only implements were those that were chipped. The evidences of extensive prehistoric irrigation are found in Ari- zona. Mr. Ff. Webb Hodge brings them together in the American Anthropologist (Washington, V1, 323-330). In the valleys of the Sal- ado and the Gila, in southern Arizona, the ancient inhabitants engaged in agriculture by artificial irrigation to a vast extent. The principal zanals constructed and used by the ancient inhabitants of the Salado Valley controlled the irrigation of at least 250,000 acres. The outlines of at least 150 miles of ancient main irrigating ditches may be readily traced, some of which meander southward from the river a distance of 14 miles. From many hundreds of scattered sources Dr. Max Bartels has gath- ered the iiterature of the world upon the history of medicine among primitive peoples. It is not generally noticed that savages have a practice of medicine and surgery, notwithstanding their theory refers every disease to spirit influences. Indeed, there are in most tribes, besides the medicine man, wise women and men who give themselves to the cure of disease by medicine and wounds by treatment. The 622 SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. work of Bartels treats, first, of the medicine man and his diagnoses and then discusses separately: (1) The phenomena and means of sickness; (2) the physician and his social standing; (3) diagnosis and names of dis- eases; (4) medicines and their applications; (5) forms of medical pre- scription; (6) water cure, by bathing, sweating, and drinking; (7) mas- sage as such and in sorcery; (8) diet and other hygienic measures; (9) the methods of sorcery in healing; (10) special diseases, eye, ear, epi- lepsy, etc.; (11) the prevention of diseases, epidemics; (12) surgery, small and gross. The indexes and bibliography of the work are most useful to further study. Upon the question of the settlement of America the author of this summary at the World’s Congress of Anthropology in Chicago took the ground that the peopling of the American Continent from Asia is the only hypothesis tenable upon present data. There never was known to history a day in which commerce was not going on. Asiatic species of animals have migrated in the present epoch. A series of land- locked seas lie on a great circle from the Indian Ocean to Vancouver Island. These seas abound in the best food products of the world. Winds are favorable, oceanic movements are favorabie, climate is favorable. It is easier now to follow the currents of the ocean and the trade winds than it is to oppose them. Indeed, one of the advanced movements of civilization was in sodoing. But the first migrants did not venture into the great aerial and oceanic currents. They remained on the shallow and land-locked water, where the food was most abundant and the danger least. Migration could have derived much momentum from the vis a tergo, applied by hostile men or favoring winds and currents. But we must look for the strongest motive in the active desires for food, defense, shelter, adventure, ete. JESTHOLOGY OR THE SCIENCE OF BEAUTY. The arts of pleasure are now studied on the side of technical evolu- tion or elaboration. The forms and colors of art objects are derived from natural objects or from other art objects of a simpler culture stage. The departures from the lines of nature are referred to the want of Skill in the artist, the want of vision or imagination, and the technical limitations or least-resistance lines of the material. | As in the evolution of the industrial arts, the invention, the inventor, and the public want grow and are dwarfed co-ordinately, so in the fine arts. The best illustration of the union of minds in one complicated esthetic effect the world has ever seen was the buildings of the Chicago Exposition. The union of the plans of a dozen geniuses of structure and decoration formed a kind of artist trust or combine, the last step in the synthesis of the beautiful. The charm of this artistic climax was enhanced by the presence on the grounds and in the buildings of all forms of art—textile, fictile, coloring, graphic, glyphic, tonic, landscape, and architectural. These SUMMARY OF PROGRESS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. 623 represented the progress of taste—national taste, savage taste, barbarie taste, historic taste, woven together like a beautiful tapestry. In a former summary was given the tabulated form of weapons and tools adopted by M. Adrién de Mortillet in his lectures before the Ecole @ Anthropologie. The course in 1893 was devoted to dress and adorn- ment, their history and diversities, considered in relation to parts of the body. Adornment followed the parts of the body, as follows: Jewelry of the head—crowns, diadems, and frontlets. Jewelry of the ears—drops, pendants, and studs. Nose jewels, inserted in the septum or alae. Labrets, péléle, botoque, bezote, and labrets. Teeth jewelry. Neck jewelry, neck rings, collars, torques. Shoulder and breast jewelry, epaulets and gorgets. Waist decoration, bands flexible and rigid. Decoration of the lower part of the body. Arm jewels, armlets, bracelets. Finger jewelry. Leg decorations, leglets and ank- lets. Foot jewelry. Jewelry of theclothing. (Rev. Mensuelle, U1, 96.) No journal or magazine is devoted to this kind of study of compara- tive art and the natural history of art. The work of Henry Balfour on the evolution of decorative art and the papers of Holmes in the reports of the Bureau of Ethnology may be taken as text-books. SOCIOLOGY, The comparative history of society is nowadays studied in the fol- lowing aspects: (1) The family group, or really the groups of human beings that stand around the mother and child, their number and duration. (2) The governmental group, involving the structure and actions of hordes, tribes, confederacies, states, nations, and international agree- ments. ; (5) The industrial group, commonly called guilds, unions, boards of trade, chambers, for mutual offense and defense in business. (4) Social groups, for mutual entertainment, help, culture, ete. (5) Religious groups, studied in the comparative science of religions. The United States in addition to its governmental assemblies under- takes the study of the combinations of men as laborers and as business men. Every university has a school of political and social science, and in Philadelphia is published the journal devoted to that subjeet with extended bibliographers. The Johns Hopkins University school issues series of studies of great value. 6. The method of inserting the foreshaft into the end of the shaft. and the union of the stone head with the barb piece of bone attached to the foreshaft. The laying on of the feathering in one example having what is called the ‘‘yifling” of the arrow. . The foreshaft before the head is attached, showing especially the neat man- ner of its union with the shaft. . The painted bands or ribands of the shaftment, called by a variety of names. The relation of the nock to the pithy wood of the shaft. Smithsonian Report 1893 PLATE XL. { Ailidta ath U8 THE PARTS OF AN ARROW. JOSIP DCI AEAM COUN ON Ie AV ICIS) SIG IL, ARROWS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AND ARIZONA. Fic. 1. SHart of reed. Foreshaft, a rod of hard wood inserted into the end of the shaft, which is tapered down and seized with sinew. Head, of jasper inserted into a deep notch in the end of the foreshaft and held in place by diagonal lashings of sinew and mesquite gum. Feathers, three, seized at the ends with sinew. Shaft, 261 inches; foreshaft, 74 inches. Cat. No. 11783, U.S. N. M. Moki Indians, Arizona, Collected by Bureau of Eth- nology. - Nore.—The Moki Indians are of Shoshonean stock, live in pueblos, and use the Mohave type of arrows. Fic. 2. Suarr, of reed. Foreshaft, a rod of hard wood inserted into the end of the shaft and seized withsinew. Headof chalcedouy, triangular, inserted into a “‘saw cut” at the end of the foreshaft, and held in place by mesquit gum laid on so as to form an unbroken surface between the foreshaft and the head. The endof the foreshaft is seized with sinew. Shaftment ornamented with a band of red and a spiral band in black. Nock, cylindrical. Notch, U-shaped. Feathers, three, seized with untwisted sinew. Length, 37 inches. Cat. No. 1796, U. S. N. M. Mohave Indians, southern California. Collected by Edward Palmer. Nore.—To the right of this example is shown a shorter type of feathering and ornamented shaftment by the same tribe. Fic. 3. SHart, rod of hard wood. Head made from a piece of an old pair of scissors inserted into the split end of the shaft. Feathers, three, lashed at the ends withsinew. Nock spreading, and notch a long deep incision. Length of arrow, 25 inches. Mohave Indians. Notr.—This arrow, though accredited to the Mohave Indians, belongs to a much more northern type, and if properly labeled by the collector shows the effect of com- merce and migration. Fic. 4. SHAFT, a rod of hard wood. Shaftment daubed with bands of red paint. Feathers, three, fastened at the ends with sinew. The nock is cylindrical. The notch, parallel sided. Foreshaft short, of hard wood, inserted neatly into the end of the shaft and daubed with brown paint. Head, of bottle- glass, inserted slightly into the foreshaft and held in place by a diagonal seizing of sinew. Total length, 344 inches. Cat. No. 128431, U.S. N. M. Yuma Indians. Collected by Col. James Stevensen. Fic. 5. Snarr, of reed. The shaftment is ornamented with two bands of red paint connected by longitudinal stripes. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Nock, cylindrical. The sides of the notch are made parallel by cutting into the reed on either side and splitting out alittle piece. The pointand foreshaft of this arrow are one, made of a piece of hard \ood inserted into the reed-shaft and seized with sinew, and at the other extremity sharpened to a long tapering point. Length of shaft, 2 feet 1% inches; foreshaft, 12 inches. Cat. No. 76176, U.S.N.M. Cocopa Indians, Mexico. Collected by Edward Palmer. Fig. 6, Suart, of reed. Foreshaft, square bit of mesquite wood inserted into the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. Feathers, three, lashed with sinew at the ends. Shaftment ornamented with a band of red. This specimen is rudely made, showing a degenerate art. Length of shaft, 28 inches; foreshaft, 10 inches. Cat. No. 9072, U.S. N.M. Yaquis Indians. Collected by Edward Palmer. PLATE XLI. Smithsonian Report, 1893. SS MRR NSS ARROWS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AND ARIZONA. BXOP EA NATIONS OFF Sb AaB dels ARROWS OF THE PUEBLO REGION AND SOUTHWESYERN UNITED STAaATEs. Fic. 1. SHAFT, a small stem or twig, with very shallow and sinuous shaft streaks. Feathers, three, Joosely held on and seized at either end with sinew. At the edges of the shaftment are bands of brown and biack. The nock is slightly spreading. The notch is U-shaped. Point, of iron, leaf-shaped and slender, the tang inserted in a notch at the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. This arrow, hke most of those collected from this tribe, is very coarsely made. Total length of shaft, 243 inches. Cat. No. 75678, U. S. N.M. Zuni Indians. Collected by James Stevenson. Fic. 2. Swart, of reed. Foreshaft, a twig, perhaps of greasewood set into the end of the reed of the shaft and seized with sinew. The stone head is sagittate, let into the head of the foreshaft, and fastened first with sinew and then covered with gum. The whole foreshaft is covered with dark gum. Feathers, three, seized at the ends with sinew and trimmed down along the margins. It is possible that these reed arrows of the Oraibi are derived from the Mohave or Apache further south. Length, shaft, 24 inches; foreshaft, 12 inches. Cat. No. 11780, U.S. N.M. Hopi or Moki pueblo of Oraibi (Shoshonean) Arizona. Collected by J. W. Powell. Fic. 3. Saari, of twig; shaft streaks very wavy and crowded. In comparison with the size of the arrow the feathers are very wide and conspicuous. They are laid close to the shaftment and are seized with sinew. ‘The nock is slightly expanding. Notch, angular; head of jasper, small, inserted into the end of the shaft and seized with a diagonal lashing of sinew, which passes also once transversely. Total length, 26 inches. Especial attention is called to the existence of the reed arrow (fig. 2) and the sim- ple arrow in the same pueblo. Cat. No. 22594, U. S. N. M. Hopi or Moki Indians, Arizona. Collected by Maj. J. W. Powell. Fic. 4. SHAFT, a single rod bluntly pointed at the head and seized with sinew. Feathers, three, neatly seized with sinew at the fore end and by seven narrow bands of sinew behind. The feathers are far from the nock, which is also bound with sinew. This type of feathering is rare in America. Length, 30 inches. Cat. No. 165573, U. S. N. M. Pima Indians, Salado Valley, Arizona. Collected by F. Webb Hodge. Fic. 5. This arrow is similar to that shown in fig. 4, but differing from it in having a small stone head wrapped crosswise, in having the feathers nearer ihe nock, and in the omission of the intervening wrappings of sinew on the feather. Cat. No. 76021, U.S. N. M. Pimo Indians. Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer. PLATE XLII. 1893, Smithsonian Report LZ Eg, ti 4 Gil ff — ee Fe LODZ DL ha Laila SSS SS = ARROWS OF THE PUEBLO REGION AND SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. ae a ae i ee em ie ee 1 Li) = ree ie se " * ‘ ¢ Se ee EXPLANATION OF PEATE Selah. ARROWS OF APACHE TRIBES, SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. Fig. 1. The shaft is of osier, with shaft streaks nearly straight. Shaftment taper- ing backwards and banded with red and green paint. Nock, swallow-tail shaped. Feathers, three, seized at their ends with sinew and extending off from the shaft at the middle. The front part of the feathering is orna- mented with tufts of down. The delicate blade of iron forming the head is inserted into a ‘‘saw ent” in the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. “Total length, 254 inches. Cat. No. 6964, U.S. N.M. Comanche Indians, of Texas. Collected by Dr. E. Palmer, U.S. Army. Fic. 2. Suart, of reed. The shaftment is ornamented with bands of red and black. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Notch, parallel-sided. The foreshaft, of hard wood, fits into the end of the reed shaft and is seized with sinew. It is daubed with brown paint. Head, of jasper, incurved at the base and notched on the sides. It is inserted into the end of the foreshaft and fast- ened by a diagonal seizing of sinew and further secured by mesquite gum, Total length of shaft, 374 inches. Cat. No. 5519, U.S. N. M. Apache Indians, of Arizona. Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer. Fic. 3. SHAFT, of rhus, painted red. Feathers, three, seized with sinew, standing off from the shaftment. The nock is cylindrical and the notch is reetan- gular. Head, of old hoop iron, inserted in a notch in the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. ‘This specimen is very roughly made. The total length of the shaft is 25 inches. Cat. No. 25512, U. S. N. M. Apache Indians. Collected by Dr. J.B. White, U.S. Army. = Fie. 4. Suart, of hard wood. Iron head let in at the end of the shaft. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Shaft painted blue. Shaftment bound with yellow, blue, and red streaks. Length, shaft, 2 feet 4 inches. Cat. No. 130307, U. S. N. M. Apache Indians, Athapascan stock, Arizona. Col- lected by Dr. T. C. Scantling, U.S. Army. Fic. 5. SHarr, of osier. Has three shaft streaks, two nearly straight and one a wavy line. The shaftmentisornamented with bands of redand blue. Feathers, three, attached at their ends by a seizing of sinew and glued to the shaft. Near the seizing is a bunch of downy feathers, left for the purpose of orna- mentation. Nock, widely spread. Notch, angular. The head is a taper- ing blade of iron, a portion of which, with the tang, is inserted into a “saw cut” and neatly seized with sinew. Total length, 27 inches. Fic. 6. This arrow is similar to No. 5 A, excepting a little ornamentation on the front of the shaft. Total length, 244 inches. Nore.—Both of these arrows are perfect of their kind. It is difficult to conceive how a more deadly missile could be made. Cat. No. A and B 150450, U.S. N. M. Navajo Indians. Collected by Dr. Washing- ton Matthews, U.S. Army. PLATE XLIII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Wy MMW ET == aa Wt, ———— SS www We — ——— NONE TRETNRETIT TRSS ARR A AD SGA RG MAE SS + — m > ee LL ARROWS OF APACHE TRIBES, SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. al 101 = S 4! FP La, ; ee : os mel A ; coco alia 7 as, _ i i ; _ i wi 7 _ ie oe 7 : | | . ; | ees 3 er i a ae RSX Pa AGN ACI ON O7R Pala Aue xelasleaver ARROWS FROM VARIOUS TRIBES OF THE GREAT INTERIOR BASIN. Fig, 1. SuHarr, of rhus. Shaftment painted with red and brown paint. Feathers, three, laid on close to the shaftment and neatly seized with sinew. The nock is cylindrical and the notch U-shaped. Head, of chalcedony, in- serted into a shallow notch at the end of the shaftment, seized with sinew, and afterward cemented with mesquite gum. This is a beautifully made specimen. ‘Total length of shaft, 27 inches. Cat. No. 14699, U.S. N. M. Piute Indians. Collected by Major J. W. Powell. Fig. 2. SHart, of hard wood, trimmeddown. Head, of hoop iron, fastened on with lashing of thread. Feathers, three, seized with sinew, glued down and trimmed along the margins. Nock, swallow-tailed, and the feathering extends beyond the nock. Length, shaft, 2 feet 3 inches. Cat. No. 131238, U.S. N. M. Shoshonean. Collected by G. Brown Goode. Fic. 3. Gambling arrow of the Apache Indians. Shaft, painted blue; three tolerably straight blood streaks. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Nock in form of swallow’s tail. Notch, acute angular. The point of wood is a continua- tion of the shart, triangular in cross-section. The ornamentation on the point consists of lozenge-shaped cavities and furrows filled with red and blue paint. In a series of these arrows no two are ornamented exactly alike. Used in divination and gambling. Mr. Frank H. Cushing connects the divination by throwing a bunch of these arrows with the position of the arrows 1n the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions. Cat. No. 73268, U.S. N. M. Apache Indians. Coilected by G. H. Leigh. Fic. 4. A rude unfinished arrow with shaft unstraightened. Three feathers loosely attached to the shaft with sinew, the whole showing the degeneration of the art of arrow-making in ceremonial usages. Cat. No. 1496, U. S. N. M. Fig. 5. SuHarr, of rhus. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Nock, cylindrical; notch, angular. There is no head. Length, 254 inches. Cat. No. 22287, U.S. N. M. Bannock Indians, Idaho. Collected by W. H. Danilson. Fic. 6. SHAFT, of osier. Blood streaks, slightly wavy. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. It is difficult to say whether they were formerly glued to the shaft- ment or not. Shaftment, cylindrical. Notch, angular. Head of iron in- serted into the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. In other speci- meus from the same tribe stone heads are found fastened on with a diagonal lashing of sinew. Total length, 26 inches. Cat, No. 9048, U.S. N. M. Snake Indians, Idaho. Collected by Dr. C. Moffat. PLATE XLIV. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Se ie les ae ee ZZ AG ¢ cy FSW = Ro c ARROWS FROM VARIOUS TRIBES OF THE GREAT INTERIOR BASIN. XCR a PAGNGAMIN It OsN= TORR Swe aI PACs any ae Neola ARROWS OF CADDOAN TRIBES, TEXAS AND NORTHWARD. Fic. 1. A simple rod or twig from which the arrow shaft is made. It was collected from one of the Indian tribes in the buffalo-hunting regions, and might have been the groundwork of any of the arrows upon this and the pre- ceding plate. Fic, 2. THe sHarr of this arrow is a twig of osier; the shaft streaks two, straight. The shaftment is banded with blue, green, red, and yellow. Feathers three, laid on flat and seized with sinew at the ends. The edges are shorn, . so as to give the arrows a neat appearance. The nock is spreading; notch, angular. Head, leaf-shaped, of hoop iron, inserted into a deep notch at the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. Total length of shaft, 274 inches. Cat. No. 8461, U.S. N. M. Tonkawa Indians, Texas. Collected by Dr. McElderry, U.S. Army. Fic. 3. SHAFT, a slender rod of hard wood. Feathers, three, held in place by seiz- ing with sinew and trimmed straight on the edge. Nock expanding and blood streaks straight and zigzag. Length, 2 feet 1 inch. Cat. No. 6965, U. S. N. M. Wichita Indians, Caddoan stock. Collected by E. Palmer. Fic. 4. Siar, of hard wood; head let into the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. Feathers, three, long, and glued down and seized smoothly at the ends with sinew. Nock, fish-tail. Shaft streaks, three in number, deep and sinuous. Length of shaft, 2 feet 1 inch. Cat. No. 180795, U.S. N. M. Pawnee Indians, Caddoan stock, Nebraska. Collected by E. F. Bernard. Fie. 5. Suarr, a delicate twig, with blood streaks consisting of wavy rurrows. Feathers, three, seized down with sinew and glued to the shaftment. Edges trimmed so as to form parallel lines. The front of the shaftment is ornamented with broad green bands. The shaftment is trimmed away at its extremity so as to leave the nock a cylindrical bulb. The notch is U- shaped. The head is a blade of iron inserted into a ‘‘saw cut” at the end of the shaft. The tang isserrated along the barb, securing the more effec- tual fastening of the head. Total length of shaft, 25 inches. Cat. No. 129873, U.S.N.M. Pawnee Indians. Collected by H. M. Creel. PLATE XLV. Smithsonian Report, 1893. ¥ Q A 4% Sanne - TPIT ATT a” ——Y it ig A A = ee 5 ; MOD OND OMT iggy ——<$—$— GM UMMC 4 me CS q See HK Ce {| = SSS SSS SS SSESEEES DinuneeveNiuateNOLEREURDOUORATVOGENEOTISDEDSDENO NTO OEDIRREAT Lit = u Vere (LG ALE a F MDs PS + SS SSS SSS SSS SSS Se Se wee = mrs ith maaan PP NTN NNT SSS SSE SSS SSE SEEM ME SS ARROWS OF CADDOAN TRIBES, TEXAS AND NORTHWARD. oy oe ede ac FIG. Fic. FiG FIG. IETGa oe HX. Pa rAG NPAT ON Osa AC eH me XG ein Vilas Srouan ARROWS, DakoTa TRIBES. Suart, of osier. Shaftment, banded with red. Feathers, three, seized with sinew at the end and shorn neatly on the outer edges. Near the nock of the arrow is an ornamental feather in the feathering, produced by leaving the plume on both sides of the rib of the feather for about an inch, so that the arrow at this point appears to have six feathers. The nock is slightly spreading; notch, U-shaped. No head. Total length of shaft, 27} inches. Cat. No. 21286, U. S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Minnesota. Collected by Rey. Geo. Ainslie. On this arrow a pyramidal piece of bone serves for a head, and the shaftment is striped with blue and red. ‘This specimen is figured for the purpose of showing oddities of form since the adoption of the rifle. Neither of these arrows, probably, was ever used. Among the Plains Indians the iron arrowhead was introduced many years ago, and samples with stone heads are extremely rare and quite open to suspicion. Length, 24 inches. Cat. No. 8439, U.S. N.M. Sioux Indians, Fort Berthold. Collected by Drs. Gray and Matthews, U.S. Army. . 3. SuHarr, a rod of osier; blood streaks, very jagged. Feathers, three, seized with sinew, loosely wrapped, glued to the shaftment, and there are streaks of blue paint drawn between the featherings. The nock is bulbous; the notch is widely angular. Head, of chalcedony, notched on the sides and glued into a notch in the end of the shaft. The seizing is gone from this arrow, but the notches in the side of the head, as well as the clean appear- ance of the shaft, indicate that it was once present. 4. SHAFTMENT, a delicate rod of osier; bloodstreaks, wavy. Shaftment tapering toward the nock. Feathers, three, seized at the end with sinew and stand- ing off from the shaftment. Nock, slightly expanding; notch, swallow- tail-shaped. Head, a piece of wire driven into the end of the shaft, very neatly seized with sinew, and sharpened at the point. Length, 26 inches. Cat. No. 2466, U.S. N. M. Sioux Indians. Collected by Dr. Washington Matthews, U.S. Army. Suart, of osier. Shaftment, banded with red. Feathers, three, seized at each end with sinew and glued. The nock is swallowtail-shaped; notch, angular, In the arrows of the Sioux the nock is usually very much widened out at the extremity, giving the warrior a firm grip in releasing. Head, of obsidian, rudely chipped and inserted into the notch in the end of the shaft. In the companion to this arrow the blood streaks are slightly jagged. The head is of white jasper and the feather is 10} inches long, Length, 24 inches. Length of feathers, 10 inches. Cat. No. 8439, U.S. N. M. Sioux Indians. Collected by Gray and Matthews, U.S. Army. PLATE XLVI. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Ya SS Ss — ; sisi — Se Ey, aed oe LL LEE" . GOR LT Cae ALL = a ate parte nf eFUa4 CSE SUOCN NECECTOASTLETEUE DFayoaa are guaseTuteroda NS FLSeveMnUMVUUALUUUE VAT LF GS (7 = eee RSS a TE RRR KCRG RSKEGEKKK E are MMMM a Lite I So celts — Sate = ~ re 4 ME ec lll Z, aX Hin | 1 Teen x = Za eee 1 COOOTTREE: mn SS NN SIOUAN ARROWS, DAKOTA TRIBES. pe: ie FIG. FIG. F1G. Fia. FiG. EXPLANATION OF (PLA Da aye S1ouaN ARROWS, NEBRASKA AND DAKOTA. 1. SHart, of osier. The shaftment is decorated with alternate bands of red, blue, and yellow. The shaftment is cut away at the outer end so as to leave the nock a projecting cylinder and give a better grip to the fingers in discharging the arrow. Notch, U-shaped. The head, a slender blade of iron let into a ‘“‘saw cut” in the end of the shaft, the two lips of this cut being shaved down neatly so as to form no impediment to the progress of the arrow. This isa very delicate and effective weapon. The iron blade is slightly barbed at the base. Length of shaft, 26 inches. Cat. No. 76831, U. 8S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Nebraska. Collected by Governor Furness. 2. SHAFT, of hard wood. Shaftment ornamented with yellow and red bands. Feathers, seized with sinew, held on spirally, and glued to the shaftment. It is difficult to say whether this spiral arrangement was designed to make the arrow spin through the air. Authorities differ on this point, and the object of direct flight at close range would be more than canceled by the disadvantage of untangling a revolving arrowhead in the hair of the buffalo or deer. ‘The nock is bulbous; notch, angular. Head, a diamond-shaped blade of sheet iron, inserted into the end of the shaft, and seized with sinew. Length of feathers, 74 inches; total length of shaft, 26 inches. Cat. No. 1381356, U.S. N. M. Collected by Mrs. A. C. Jackson. 3. SHAFT, of hard wood; point of iron, long triangle, inserted into the saw cut in the head and seized with sinew. Feathers, three, glued on, seized at the ends with sinew and trimmed down. The shaftment is ornamented with a blue band. The nock is fish-tail pattern. Shaftstreaks sinuous. Other arrows from this same tribe have different colored bands in the shaftment. Length of shaft, 2 feet 3 inches. Cat. No. 8418, U.S. N. M. Gros Ventres, Siouan stock. Collected by Dr. Matthews, U.S. Army. 4. Blood streaks, quite straight. Feathers, three, glued to the shaft, and seized with sinew. The strips of sinew with which the Sioux Indians lash their featherings are much broader than those used by the West Coast Indians, and very often are laid on like an open spiral or coil. The feathers are shorn. Nock,spreading; notch, shallow. Head, diamond-shaped, the mar- gins of the inner half being filed like asaw. The head is inserted in the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. ‘Total length of shaft, 25 inches. Cat. No. 23736, U.S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Devil’s Lake. Collected by. Paul Beck- with. 5. Example of arrows from the Sioux Indians by the U. 8. Weather Bureau. This large number of arrows promiscuously gathered affords an excellent opportunity for studying the lines within which the bands and tribes of the same family vary their arrows. The shafts are all slender, made of hard wood. Some have shaft streaks, others none. They vary also in the number of streaks on the shaft and their form, whether straight, sinuous, or zigzag. These arrows differ also in the length and form of the points, in the length, attachment, and ornamentation of the feather, but all have the wide fish-tail nock, and this seems to be an unvarying quality in Sioux arrows. ; Cat. No. 154016, U. S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Siouan stock. Collected by M. M. Hazen. PLATE XLVI. aes “ttt” —& At A acetetet =e ———— WMG QQ GGA SS 8 nn aa LOTTE ETT DOD eee ZEAE LT Vl Li. ane LG EMSS SS : 5 : § 8 ; oe Z : 2 LY A LE eee 3 ZZ 2G mM SOC, ees — —— — ill : U ‘ S we mm, SIOUAN ARROWS, NEBRASKA AND DAKOTA. all ipo : y res Pe ee 1Dpp-€ 122) Dy NIN AN I MCOS ENON IP IGN DIDS oe WAIL Ee ARROWS OF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA AND OREGON Fiac. 1. SHAFT, beautifully smoothed. Shaftment painted deep red. Feathers, three, glued on, and delicately seized at either end with sinew. The ends of the feathers project at least an inch beyond the notch. The nock is cylin- drical; notch, U-shaped. Head, of obsidian, leaf-shaped, with notches near the base, let into a notch at the end of the shaft, seized with sinew and transparent glue. Total length of shaft, 314 inches. Cat. No. 2807, U.S. N.M. Oregon Indians. Collected by Lieut. Wilkes, U.S. Navy. Fig. 2. SHAFT, of rhus. Shaftment, striped with black, red,and brown. Feathers, seized at the end with sinew, standing off from the shaftment, and shorn quite close to the midrib. Nock, cylindrical; notch, U-shaped. Foreshaft, of hard wood, painted red, sharpened, inserted into the end of the shaft, and seized with sinew. Head, an extremely delicate point of obsidian, triangular, inserted into a notch in the end of the shaft, and seized with sinew diagonally laid on notches on the sides of the arrowhead. Total length of shaft, 30 inches. Cat. No. 15127, U.S. N. M. Northern California. Collected by Wm. Rich. Fic. 3. SHAFT, a slender twig of rhus, striped with red and blue at its upper extrem- ity. The shaftnent is ornamented with zigzag lines in the same colors. Feathers, three, glued to the shaftment and seized at either end with sinew. Nock, cylindrical; notch, very slight. Head, of obsidian, slender, sagittate in form; the tang inserted in a slit at the extremity of the shaft and seized with sinew. Thisshaft has a barb of very narrow regular grooves around the upper extremity, as though produced by a lathe. This feature is com- mon to many California arrows. Total length of shaft, 29 inches. Cat. No. 126517, U.S. N. M. Hupa Indians, California. Collected by Capt. P. H. Ray, U. 8. Army. Fie. 4. SHart, a rod. Shaftment, striped with green. Feathers, three, seized at the ends with sinew and laid flat on the shaftment. Nock, cylindrical; notch, U-shaped. Head, of gray chert, long, and delicately inserted in the end of the shaft by a seizing which passes around the deep notches at the sides. Total length, 34 inches. The shafts of the California arrows are of wild currant, rhus, willow, and other straight twig-like stalks. Cat. No. 131110, U.S.N. M. Pitt Indians, California. Collected by N. J. Purcell. Fic. 5. SHAFT, a rod; striped with narrow bands of blue and red and the natural color of the wood. Feathers, three, neatly shorn, seized with sinew and glued fast to the shaftment. The sinew is colored with a red paint resembling shellac. Nock, cylindrical; notch, shallow. Foreshaft, of hard wood, painted blue, inserted in the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. In many of the California arrows the foreshafts have been revolved between two coarse pieces of sandstone, or by means of a file cut so as to give the appearance of being neatly seized with very fine thread. It also confers a suspicion of machinery on some of these later examples. The head is of jasper, triangular, delicate, tapering, deeply notched on the side, and held in place by a diagonal lashing of sinew. Other specimens from the same quiver have heads of chalcedony, the edges of which are beautifully ser- rated. Total length, 31 inches. Cat. No. 126517, U.S. N. M. Hupa Indians, California. Collected by P. H. Ray. Fic. 6. This figure shows the variety of arrow points in use among the Indians of Upper California. Glass, obsidian, steel, iron points, and wooden foreshaft sharpened, together with others in the same plate, give an understand- ing of the various ways of attaching the arrowhead to the shaft and fore- shaft. PLATE XLVIII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. SSS SSS ARROWS OF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA AND OREGON. wi . ‘ F a “i, - : % P. ' a igi i ‘ : an | Fig. 1. BiG 2: Fig. 3. Fig. 4. re. b. Fic. 6. Be Pi ANA PON (OoR PAB ex lle xe. ARROWS OF PACIFIC STATES, FROM CALIFORNIA TO WASHINGTON. THE SHAFT is spindle-shaped, tapering to the nock. Feathers, two, held on flat and seized with pack thread. Nock, expanding; notch, angular. Head, a bit of iron wire, inserted in the end of the shaft, which has been pointed for the purpose, and expanded at the end into a leaf-shaped blade. In some samples the barbs have been cut into this leaf shape partly by means of a filing, to enable the hunter to retrieve his game the better. The total length of the shaft is 28 inches. Cat. No. 127872, U.S. N. M. Quinaielt Indians, Stateof Washington. Collected by C. Willoughby. Similar to fig. 1 in every respect, excepting the point. There are endless varieties in these. STEM, a single rod ortwig. Pointof brown bottle glass inserted into a notch in the end of the shaft and held in place by a broad band of sinew. Feath- ers, three, seized at the end with sinew. Shaftment painted red. The notch similar to those of the Chinese arrows. Length of arrow, 313 inches. Cat. No. 76021, U.S. N. M. Tribe unknown, probably Central California. SHAFT, of spruce. Feathers, three, seized with sinew. Nock, cylindrical; notch, angular. The point is a slender spindle of hard wood inserted into the end of the shaft, seized with sinew, and sharpened at the point. This is a very delicate and effective weapon. Total length, 25 inches. Cat. No. 649, U.S.N.M. Klamath Indians, California. Collected by George Gibbs. SuHaFt, of twig. Shaftment striped with narrow bands of red and blue. Feathers, three, glued to the shaftment. Nock, cylindrical; notch, very shallow. The head consists of a stone blade and a barb piece of bone. The barb piece is inserted in the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. The barbs are ? of aninch long. The stone blade, of red jasper, is fastened to the bone barb piece by a diagonal lashing of sinew. This device is for the purpose of retrieving. If shot into a fish it enables the hunter to secure the animal and free the arrow. If shot at a burrowing animal and the creature escapes into its hole the hunter has a means of recovering the game. ‘Total length of shaft, 30 inches. The adjoining figure on the left is of the same type with different ribbon. Cat. Nos. 21353, 126576, U.S. N. M. Uroe Indians. Collected by Stephen Powers. SHAFT, of reed. Shaftment painted white. Feathers, three, 4? inches long, seized with sinew. The notch, a shallow cut. Foreshaft, of hard wood. Head, of obsidian, let into the end of the foreshaft and neatly fastened with gum, which is molded to conform to the lines of the arrowhead and to impede as little as possible its flight. This arrow is very neatly made. Length of shaft, 33 inches. Cat. No. 19709, U.S.N.M. Indians, of Tule River, California. Collected by Stephen Powers. PLATE XLIX. Smithsonian Report, 1893. ppp OBL SSS UN Wis == —— Ze, Gia ARROWS OF PAciFic STATES, FROM CALIFORNIA TO WASHINGTON. EXPLANATION OF PLATE L. ARROWS OF TRIBES ABOUT PUGET SOUND, WASHINGTON, AND BRITISH COLUMBIA, Fig. 1. SHarr, of cedar. Nofeathers. Head, a triangular piece of hoop iron inserted into the end of the shaft and seized with twisted sinew. ‘The shaft is ornamented with a spiral band of black. Length of shaft, 32} inches. Cat. No. 650, U. S. N. M. Makah Indians, Cape Flattery. Collected by J. G. Swan. Fig. 2. Suarr, of spruce. Head, of iron, inserted into splitend of the shaft. Seized with sinew cord. Feathers, three, lashed on with sinew thread. Nock, expanding. Length of arrow, 30 inches. Cat. No. 650, U. Ss. N. M. Makah Indians, Cape Flattery. Collected by George. Gibbs. Fic. 3. Suarr, of cedar, tapering both ways from the middle. Seized at the front end with birch bark. Into this end is driven one or more barbed points, of brass or iron wire, pounded flat at the point. One or two barbs filed upon the edges. Feathers, two, laid on flat and seized in place by spruce or birch bark. The nock expands gradually from the feather to the end, where it is spread conspicuously. The noticeable features of this arrow are the following: First, the barbed metallic points taking the place of the ancient bone barbs of Wilkes’s time; second, the seizing by means of nar- row ribbons of spruce or birch bark; third, the feathers laid on flat, after the fashion of the Eskimo; fourth, exaggerated widening of the butt of the arrow at the nock. There are many specimens of this type in the National Museum. Length: shaft, 2 feet 11 inches; foreshaft, 64 inches. Cat. No. 72656, U.S. N. M. Makah Indians, Wakashan stock, Washington. Col- lected by J. G. Swan. Fic. 4. Similar to fig. 3, with difference in shape of metal point. Fic. 5. SHAFT, spindle-shaped. Feathers, two, laid flat, after the manner of the Eskimo, and seized with narrow stripsof bark. Nock, angular, long; orna- mented with a wrapping of red flannel, the end of the feather being at least two inches from the end of the arrow. It widens out very rapidly toward the end. Notch, angular. The point, a long spindle of bone with its shallow barbs on one side inserted in a cavity at the end of the shaft and neatly seized with bark. Total length of shaft, 28 inches. Cat. No. 76295, U.S. N. M. Makah Indians, Wakashan stock. Collected by J. G. Swan. Fig. 6. SHarr, of cedar. Feathers, three, 10 inches long, closely shorn, seized with strips of bark and a bird’s feather nicely laid on. The shaft of the arrow is thickest in the middle and tapers in both directions toward the nock where it is smallest, widening out toward the end. Nock, angular. Two points of wood are fastened to the end of the shaft with a neat seizing of bark. In this sample one point is much longer than in the other and the barbs are on the outside. Length, 30 inches. Fic. 7. SHart, similar to that of fig. 6, but there is a single point of bone with barbs on one side. Feathers, two, laid on flat at their ends. Feathering and nock have a separate seizing of bark. Length, 27 inches. Other samples in the same quiver are quite similar in characteristics, with yvaria- tions in the barbs. Cat. No. 2790, U. 8S. N. M. State of Washington. Collected by Capt. Charles Wilkes, Explanation of Plate T—Continued. Fic. 8. Quite similar to fig. 6 in general form, but the two feathers are laid on flat and spirally. The nock, however, is much ruder, and the point is a long delicate piece of bone, with small barbs on both sides, inserted into the split end of the shaft and seized with bark. Length, 324 inches. Cat. No. 2787, U. 8. N. M. Columbia River, Oreg. Collected by Capt. Charles Wilkes. PLATE L. Smithsonian Report, 1893. = SSS oe ARROWS OF TRIBES ABOUT PUGET SOUND, WASHINGTON AND BRITISH COLUMBIA. > A Re PX PAN AST LON [Oi eas Aen mine. ARROWS OF SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA AND WESTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA. Figs. 1 and 2. Four examples of Tlingit arrowheads, three of them with barbed pieces to which the metal heads are riveted. ‘These arrowheads have two fune- tions—that of retrieving the game and that of parting easily from the shaft and rankling in the victim until it dies. These should be compared care- fully with stone heads in Old World specimes having very long barbs Fic. 3. All in one piece; which widens out into a large cone to forma head; slightly 3 expanding at the nock. The notch is formed by cutting off the end of the arrow into an expanding wedge and then making a very shallow incision across the edge. Painted brown and streaked with red. Length, 38 inches. Cat. No. 63551, U.S. N.M. Sitka, Alaska. Collected by J.J. McLean. Fic. 4. Suart, of cedar, tapering in two directions. The head is formed of a piece of wire sharpened at one end and driven into the shaft. The other end is flattened and filed to a barb on one side. Similar to fig. 4, Pl. 1. Cat. No. 73547, U. S. N.M. Haidas, Queen Charlotte Islands. Collected »y J. G. Swan. Fic. 5, Similar to fig. 6, excepting the point is of shell. Fic. 6. Suarr, of cedar. Foreshaft let in with a wedge-shaped dowel. Head, a thin sheet of bone, sagittate. Feathers, three, fastened at the ends with sinew covered with glue. Nock somewhat flat, as in the Eskimo arrow. The noticeable features of this arrow are the thin head of bone, the fore- shaft, let into the shaft and the flattening nock. Length ofshaft, 21 inches; foreshaft, 6 inches. Cat. No. 20694, U.S. N.M. Bella Coola Indians, Salishan stock, B.C. Collected by J.G. Swan. Fic. 7. SHart, of cedar, tapering both ways from the middle. Shaftment painted black. Feathers, three, seized at each end with sinew and glued fast to the shaftment. Nock, bulbous; notch, U-shaped. Foreshaft, of hard wood neatly doweled into the end of the cedar shaft, seized with sinew, and painted black. The head is a minutely-barbed thin blade of iron, inserted into the foreshaft and seized with sinew. These are the smallest metal arrow-heads found on any arrow in the world. This arrow was found in Mr. Catlin’s collection, after his death, without the name of the tribe; but the wood and the delicate finish point to Oregon as its source. Total length, 32 inches. Not numbered. Oregon. Collected by Mr. Catlin. PLATE LI. Smithsonian Report, 1893. La HY; YY ye ARROWS OF SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA AND WESTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA. IB ICIP TEN IS, ANDI COUN Ge IRN IIe, BARBED AND HARPOON ARROWS OF THE ESKIMO ABOUT THE ALASKAN PENINSULA. Fig. 1. SHart, of cedar, 234 inches long and 4 inch thick. BIRD BOLTS OF NORTHWESTERN ESKIMO. Geriyise ‘Ab ae ' ‘a ; Cuma dein. pay hd, es a A aay On : u 4 nae TA) URE Cee ‘ 7 a) a er, ° Sonne a ee an Py OC TPE AUIN IN RIL) COD MIG AI IB AY OL Compounpr EskIMO ARROWS, WITH TWO FEATHERS, OR NONE, AND FLAT NOCKS. Fic. 1. Suart, cylindrical. No feathers. Nock, flat; notch, large and U-shaped. The bead consists of along shank of bone, in the end of which an iron blade is inserted and held in place by an iron rivet. The arrow shaft is cut wedge-shaped and fitted into an angular notch in the bone shank, held in place by wooden rivets, and seized with sinew. Total length, 264 inches. Fic. 3 is similar to fig. 1. Cat. No 2529,U.S.N M. Asiat‘e Eskimo. Collected by Commodore Rodgers, U. S. Navy. Fic. 2. Suart, short and rudely made. Head is in two parts; the long shank of iron, on the outer end of which a blade of iron is riveted. Feathers, two, laid on flat and held in place by sinew. AI] of the specimens from this region are very poor, owing to the lack of wood, aud they are also much modified by contact with the whites (thanks to the early appearance in this region of whale ships). Compare fig. 4. Length, shaft, 2 feet 2 inches; foreshaft, 6 inches. Cat. No. 30016, U.S. N M. Eskimo of Cumberland Gulf. Collected by W. A. Min. ster, U.S. Navy. Fic. 4. THE SHAFT is of pine. The head consists of two parts, a shank of bone and Fia. a blade of iron let into the saw cut and riveted in place. The shank is spliced onto the shaft and seized with sinew twine. Feathers, two, laid on nat and held in place by a rough wrapping of sinew. Nock, flat. In this same number are other specimens differing from the one described in minute particulars. One specimen has a common nail for the head, with a piece of nail let in transversely as a stop. Other examples are unfin- ished. Length of shaft, 2 feet 1 inch. Cat. No. 90138, U. S. N. M. Whale River Indians, Eskimo stock, Labrador. Col- lected by Lucien Turner. 5. The type is fully described and figured in Pl. Lx. PLATE LVIII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. YAMUNA Ez ld =< eS S QS (iil POOLED BEAMS MNN dae hae SEES SQN SENS SEED | NAY idly Le . P91; 9) COMPOUND ESKIMO ARROWS, WITH TWO FEATHERS OR NONE AND FLAT NOCkS. i. _ > 7 ne Wey 5 Wi. J eh a anes tif “¢ ii ba ae SA ; wee en fii i bem pe i ; : vant : 7 ¥ @ \ : : - t * =5 nS 4 TD eas : SP yeor eel oT Dar Linus ere: - Sasi hee m | hela ae a 2) : - a 4 Shae bh” iy : ae 7] ui? . ; § a eat a - ES : y erated Clee Rs 14 — 4 uri : ial etd : oi i fas a : i x anes a ' F re fl ; : ct time 7 Tt fai { ty y , 4 ~~ ray i meaty iy pee Py lies 1 i a ri’ iy Ny api as fe | ; DA eae tha = Hes M Sac Om iE TU) en een ; b Fa Oe j Ci Ld ef ars i id ae ad & ol ni is i TIVES i aie ae : hs : ; = = Sure ie | Tal 4] rane, ai gp sr, vi afer Oy, Shay. € . i nal og Xe PAGN PAW OON SO) Re ThvACe Ey esa Nee THE DISSECTION OF A SEA-OTTER ARROW, COOk’s INLET. This is the most elaborate and ingenious arrow known, and all of its parts, in every specimen, are most delicately finished. Such a weapon may well have been used in hunting the most costly of fur-bearing animals—the otter. The shaft is of spruce, gently tapering toward the nock, which is large and bell shape. Into the end of this shaft is inserted a foreshaft of bone, and into the end of this fits the barb. Feathers, three, symmetrically trimmed and seized at both ends with delicately-twisted sinew thread. The barbed head is perforated, and through these perforations is attached a braided line at least ten feet long. The other end of the line is attached to two points on the shaft by a martingale. When not in use, the line is coiled neatly on the shaft and the barb is put in place in the foreshaft. When the arrow is shot, the barb enters the flesh of the otter, the loose fastening is undone, the line unrolled, the foreshaft drops into the arrow; the shaft acts us a drag and the feathers as a buoy to aid the hunter in tracing the animal. See fig. 4., Pl. Lu. : Fic. 1. Arrow with line unrolled showing relation of parts. Fic. 2. Theshaftment. Attention isdrawn to the delcate seizing with sinew thread, the natty trimming of the feather, the most efficient nock. Fic. 3. The lines and knots. Notice is given of the elegance of the braid, the efficient manner of ‘‘ doing up” the line, the peculiar knot for the mar- tingale. ; Fic. 4. The arrow ready to be shot. This form of arrow with its southern type of sinew-backed bow is found also on the Keniles, where these were taken by Alents, carried over by the Russians to hunt sea otter, PLATE LIX. Smithsonian Report, 1893. THE DISSECTION OF A SEA OTTER ARROW, COOk’s INLET. WO 26 Ve IG ZINE A AU IUOING COIN IGM NID) bec ARROWS WITH STOPS, RETRIEVING BARBS, OR COMPOUND PILE. Fig. 1. Made of pine wood; the shaft, head, and point cut out of one piece. Feathers, three, 44 inches long, laid on flat in the following manner: The three feathers were first attached to the butt of the arrow by a coiled wrapping of sinew, their other extremities pointed backward; then they were doubled backward and the ends seized with sinew. This makes a very secure fastening for the featber. The coiled wrapping is continued over the nock and fastened off in the notch. Nock, flat; notch, U-shaped. The head, bulbous. The point is cut out of this by whittling away the wood so as to leave a long projection like a nail or spike. Total length, 314 inches. Cat. No. 90123, U.S.N.M. Eskimo, Ungava. Collected by L. M. Turner. Fic. 2- Very rudely made. Shaft, of spruce. Shaftment, flat. Feathers, two, laid on flat, seized with sinew. The nock is flat and the notch angular. Head, a common cutnail, driven into the end of the shaft and seized with sinew. At the inner part of this seizing a piece of nail is lashed on crosswise so as to prevent the arrow going more than two inches into the body of the the game. Total length of shaft, 25 inches. Cat. No. 90138, U.S. N.M. Whale River, Hudson Bay. Collected by Lucien Turner. Fic. 3. THE suart, of osier. There is no feather. The nock is tightly seized with sinew cord; notch, U-shaped. The peculiarity of this arrow is that the point, of iron or bone, is lashed to the beveled end of the shaft and the tang is projected backwards into a long barb. This arrow is used in shooting prairie dogs. It is said that the Navahoe uses now a little bit of mirror with which to throw the sunlight into the eyes of the prairie dog until he can get near enough to drive one of these arrows into his body. Upon the least alarm or injury the creatures dive into their holes and this arrow enables the hunter, if he strikes one of them, to retrieve his game. The action of this arrow is very similar to that of the vermin hook used by the Ute Indians, and also to those of the northwest coast. Total length of shaft, 35 inches (324 inches). Cat. No. 126740, U.S. N. M. Navahoe Indians. Collected by Thomas Keam. Fic. 4. THe sHAFT is of spruce wood, ornamented here and there with band of red paint, cylindrical. Shaftment, flat. Feathers, three, seized at their ends with twisted sinew thread. One feather is in the middle of one of the flat sides; the other two feathers are at the round corners of the other side. The flat nock flares a little upward, and the notch is angular. This is a bident or double-pointed arrow, having two barbs of bone inserted into the end of the shaft, so as to give them a spread of three- fourths of an inch at their points, one of which is a little longer than the other. They are held to the shaft by a wrapping of sinew cord. The barbs face inward. Total length of shaft, 26 inches. Cat. No. 76705, U.S. N.M. Eskimo, Bristol Bay; Fort Alexandra, Alaska. Collected by J. W. Johnson. Explanation of Plate LX—Continued. ~ Fic. 5. SHAFT, of spruce, painted red, Feathers, three, roughly seized with sinew. Nock, flat; notch, U-shaped. The three barbs of the trident are inserted in the end of the shaft so as to be about an inch apart at the outer point. The barbs, of bone, are serrated on the inside. They are held in place by a wrapping of sinew cord at their lower extremities, a curious braid of the same cord attaching them to the tip of the shaft and holding them in place. Length of shaft, 35 inches. Cat. No. 72413, U.S. N.M. Southern Alaska. Collected by Charles McKay. Fic. 6. SuHart, of spruce wood. The lower end has been broken off. The upper portion of this weapon deserves especial study. A little band of ivory, fitted over the shaft, 14 inches from the upper end. Precisely similar bands are frequently labeled ornaments. Into the extremity of the shaft is inserted a delicate point of walrus ivory, triangular in cross section. Two of the edges are finely barbed. Three larger barbs, also triangular in section, have their lower ends driven into the shaft under the ivory band, and the edges lie along in grooves extending to the end of the shaft. The barbs of these three points are on the inside. Just at theend of the shaft each of these outer barbs is perforated, and sinew thread attaches them together and also to the central barb, and is also wrapped around the bases of these barbs just above the ivory band. Length of outer barbs, 6 inches. This arrow represents a type Cat. No. 48342, U.S.N. M. Nunivak Island. Col- lected by E. W. Nelson. PLATE LX. Smithsonian Report, 1893 { a | AL oe La li MA LM SS S “WD at 8 QQ N ~ WSS ‘N NS “~ SS WA tes ast Se Te ARROWS WITH STOPS, RETRIEVING BARBS, OR COMPOUND PILé. 2X Pan ASNC AT WON SOU aE eS ES ols PLain Bows FROM FHE SOUTHWEST, AND SINEW-LINED, NARROW TYPE. Fic. 1. Bow, of hard wood, rudely whittied out of a pole, showing bark and knots on the back, Length, 4 feet 6 inches. Notice that bows equally rude are found at Tierra del Fuego. Cat. No. 1976, U.S. N. M. Dieguenos Indians, San Diego, California. Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer. Fic. 2. Bow, of mesquit wood. Reetangular in cross section, tapering from the grip; single curve. Low string of two-ply sinew cord. Length, 3 feet 6 inches. Cat. No. 126643, U.S. N. M. Tarabumara, Chihualina, Mexico, Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer. Fic. 3. Bow, of cotton wood, cut out of a rod leaving the back untrimmed; single curve. Bow string of sinew cord, two-ply. Length, 4 feet 6 inches, Cat. No. 76021, U. S. N. M. Pima Indians, Arizona. Collected by Dr. Palmer. It should be remarked that these plain bows with rounded and rectangular cross section represent the whole area southward to Cape Horn. Fic. 4. StNew-Linrp Bow made of hard wood. Back lined with sinew and laid on with glue; reenforced by fifteen transverse bands of sinew. The grip wrapped with buckskin string. The bow string of sinew cord, two-ply. Length, 5 feet 8 inches. Cat. No. 75156, U.S. N. M. Navajo Indians, New Mexico. Collected by Bureau of Ethnology. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXlI. PLAIN BOWS FROM THE SOUTHWEST, AND SINEW-LINED Bow, NARROW TYPE. - a a nm Pay a (s IE eXS PA PACN ACT I OUN Ow ea pA CR alee Xer Toles PLAIN, SINEW-LINED, AND COMPOUND BOWS, THE LAST NAMED ALSO SINEW-LINED. Fig. 1. Bow of hard wood, ovoid in section, single curve; string of sinew cord. Length, 4 feet 1 inch. Cat. No. 130616, U.S. N. M. Crow Indians, Montana. Collected by Maj. C. S. Ben- dire, U.S. Army. Fic. 2. Bow, made of hickory, with adouble curve—the lower curve larger than the other. The back neatly lmed with sinew, and the ends wrapped for two or three inches with shredded sinew. Grip bound with buckskin string. Bowstring, three-ply sinew cord, back painted white. Length, 3 feet 5 inches. Cat. No. 8418, U.S. N. M. Gros Ventres, Dakota. Collected by Dr. Washington Mathews, U.S. Amry. FIG. 3. COMPOUND Bow, made of two sections of cow’s horn, spliced together in the middle and held by three rivets. Lined on the back with sinew, which covers also the nocks. Curved in shape of Cupid’s bow, bound at the grip and the curve of the limbs with bands of red flannel, which is held in place by seizings of buckskin string wrapped here and there with broad qnill, dyed yellow. The horns are also wrapped with shredded sinew. Bow- string, a three-ply sinew cord End of the bow ornamented with tufts of horsehair and fur. Length, 3 feet. Cat. No. 154015, U.S. N.M. Sioux Indians, Montana. Collected by Gen. Hazen, U. S. Army. Special attention is called to the union of the compound and sinew lined bow in one specimen. Fig. 4. Similar to No. 3, but was collected long ago from the Gros Ventres, Upper Missouri, by Dr. Washington Mathews, who spenta number of years among these people. Contact with the Great Interior Basin is shown by the union of the compound bow and the Shoshonean type of sinew-lined bow. Length, 36 inches. Plate LXIl. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLAIN, SINEW-LINED, AND COMPOUND Bows, THE LAST NAMED ALSO SINEW-LINED. eel r a Beko RG ANAT ONE tOFR ORAL ASI ae Xole lene SINEW-LINED BOWS, BROAD TYPE. ONE BOW PLAIN. Fic. 1. Bow, made of yew. This is a bow with a single curve on the back, double curve on the inside, broad and flat. Constricted at the grip and narrow- ing toward the nocks. Along the inside is a little furrow. The grip is ornamented with a tuft of long hair seized in place by a band of birch bark. This bow is exactly of the form of the sinew-lined bows farther south and inland. Perhaps the cold and dampness of the coast regions are unfavorable, affecting the glue. The bowstring is a single mbbon of sinew twist. Length, 3 feet 10 inches. Cat. No. 72656, U. S. N. M. Makah Indians, Cape Flattery. Collected by J. G. Swap. Fic. 2. Bow, made of yew and lined along the back with sinew, shredded and mixed with glue, which is wrapped around the horns of the bow and molded to form the nocks. Single curve, excepting at the ends where the limbs turn gracefully backward. The grip and horns are wrapped with buckskin string. Bowstring, sinew cord, three-ply. Length, 3 feet 5 inches. Cat. No. 2058, U.S. N.M. Tejon Indians, California. Collected by John Xantbus. Fic. 3. Bow, made of yew wood. Broad and thin at the grip, tapering in width and thickness toward the nocks, which are turned outward. The back of the bow is lined with shredded sinew, laid on closely like the bark ona tree, and painted green and decorated with tufts of otter skin and strips of dressed hide, seized with sinew. The grip is covered with a seizing of buckskin string. The horns of the bow turn outward. The bowstring is made of twisted sinew. Length, 3 feet 10 inches. Cat. No. 19322, U.S. N. M. MeCloud River Indians, Copehan stock, California. Collected by Livingston Stone. Fic, 4. SINEW-LINED BOW, made of yew. Broad and flat, lined on the back with sinew laid on in glue and ornamented with figures painted green. Narrowed somewhat at the grip and bound with buckskin string. Azvound the horns buckskin is glued and bands of sinew wrapped and the nocks ornamented with tufts of fur. Bowstring is a loose twine of sinew cord. Length, 3 feet 8 inches. Cat. No. 131110, U.S. N. M. Pitt River Indians, Northern California. Collected by N. J. Purcell. PLaTe LXIll. Smithsonian Report, 1893. mre Be, ONE Bow PLAIN. SINEW-LINED BOWS, BROAD TYPE. Set oe To ee DEXG Ra PAUNGAC iO RN ORE ey Ate Dasha oe Xcel leny ee Prain Bows. ONE EXAMPLE COMPOUND WITH SINEW CABLE BACKING. Fig. 1. Bow, of hickory. Rectangular in cross-section. Double curve, tapering toward theends. Bowstring of very thick three-ply sinew cord. Length, 4 feet. Cat. No. 129873, U.S. N.M. Arapaho Indians, Nebraska. Collected by H. M. Creel. Fic. 2. Bow, of willow: oval in section, tapering toward the ends slightly, double curve. Chief characteristic is a piece of wood on the inside of the grip, fastened like the bridge of a violin, and held in place by a buckskin cord to catch the blow of the string in relaxing. The bowstring is a tough one of rawhide. Length, 4 feet 5 inches. Cat. No. 75455, U.S.N.M. Kutchin, Inland Alaska. Collected by J.J. McLean. Fig.3. Bow, of willow; similarto75455. Evidently untinished. Itisa weak weapon, and the bowstring is made of cotton thread. Length, 4 feet 1 inch. Cat. No. 68552, U.S. N. M. Kutchin Indians, Inland Alaska. Collected by J.J. McLean. Fic. 4. COMPOUND Bow, made of three pieces of bone. The foundation is the grip or middle piece, to which the limbs are spliced and riveted. The back of this bow is slightly reenforced by five double strands of braided sinew or sennit, passing along the back trom nock to nock, and held in place by a cross wrapping at the naddle of the grip. Bowstring is made of four strands of sennit. The ends of this string are attached to loops of raw- hide, which pass over the nocks. Length, 2 feet 8 inches. Cat. No. 34055, U. S. N. M. Eskimo, Cumberland Gulf. Collected by Ludwig Kumlien. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXIV. PLAIN Bows. ONE EXAMPLE COMPOUND WITH SINEW CABLE BACKING. Xe aeAGN PAG EOIN Oe seal yAG hb selena SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO. Fic. 1. Compound bow, made of reindeer antler and backed with sinew. The spec- imen is from Cumberland Gulf, the farthest point east at which sinew- backed bows have been found. Thisis an interesting specimen also because it exhibits the method of making the compound bow after the advent of the whalers. The grip piece is spliced and riveted to the limbs. In the old régime these three pieces were fastened together by lashings of sinew cord or braid, very strongly at the points where the upper and lower seizing occur in this bow. Two views given. Murdoch says of this type: ‘The main part of the reenforcement or backing consists of a continuous piece of stout twine made of sinew, generally a 3-strand braid, but sometimes a twisted cord, and often very long (sometimes 40 or 50 yards in length). One end of this is spliced or knotted into an eye, which is slipped round one ‘nock’ of the bow, usually the upper one. The strands then pass up and down the back and round the nocks. A comparatively short bow, having along its back some dozen or twenty such plain strands, and finished off by knotting the end about the ‘handle,’ appears to have been the origi- nal pattern. The bow from Cumberland Gulf (fig. 1) is such a one, in which the strands have been given two or three turns of twine from the middle. They are kept from untwisting by a ‘stop’ round the handle, which passes between and around the strands.” Cat. No. 34053, U.S. N. M. Collected by L. Kumlien. Fic. 2. Southern type of sinew-backed bows of Murdoch. The essential features of these southern bows are— First. The substitution of a columnar for a breaking strain upon the wood secured by winding a great many yards of sinew twine or braid backward and forward along the back of the bow, from nock to nock. Second. The addition of strands in the cable inserted by means of half-hitches at various points, laid on as shown in the following plate. Third. Holding the strands together in a eable by a coiled twine running from end to end. Cat. No. 36032, U. S. N. M., Cape Romanzoff, collected by E. W. Nelson. Straight bow with the simplest form of southern backing. PLATE LXV. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Va et COMPOUND AND SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO. (After Murdoch.) eX TAIN AGI IcQENG MOI Sean eAcl sy eel en Vallee SINEW-BackkED Bows oF ESKIMO. SOUTHERN 'TYPr. Fig. 2a. One end of fig. 2 in the last plate, showing the form of the nock, the char- acter of the braid of sinew, the method in which the cable is built up, the half hitches made about the bow, and the coil laid about the cable. Cat. No. 36032, U.S. N. M. Eskimo of Cape Romanzott. Collected by E. W. Nelson. (After Murdoch.) - Fig. 3. Straight bow, with Murdoch’s southern type of backing. The peculiarity of this bow is shown in fig. 3a. After nearly all the filaments in the cable have been passed from nock to nock, the bowyer, stopped with his braid at a certain point, made two half hitches, and then added a strand to the cable by going to an equidistant point on the other side of the grip. This was repeated three times on this bow and the braid fastened off in the middle. The mark at the side of the bow denotes inches. Cat. No. 72408, U.S. N.M. Bristol Bay. Collected by C. L.. McKay. PLATE LXVI. Smithsonian Report, 1893. SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO, SOUTHERN TYPE. (After Murdoch.) XR TANGA ON OPP rAST Ry la Rovenlolie SINEW-BACKED Bows or ESkK MO. PLATE LXVIL represents four examples of sinew-backed bows of Murdoch’s southern types. The following characteristics are to be noted: First, in ali of them the backing extends from nock to nock with here and there extra strands let into the cable by means of any number of half hitches passing around the bow and into the cable. These have the additional value of keeping the wood from cracking. In the third example in the plate is exhibited the characteristics of the bent or Tatar pattern. The bow has really three curves, the great one in the middle and two shorter ones near the end. The bends where the small curves meet the larger one are strengthened with bridges of wood and seizing of sinew. In three specimens on the page the cable or backing has been twisted by means of anivory lever described in the text and held thus by a seizing which is rove through one-half of the strands holding the whole in place. The twisting of the sinew serves to tighten the bow. In figures 4, 5, 7 the bow is shown with a device for keeping the cable from untwisting. Jn all examples except figure 6 one-half of the bow is shown. In the order in which they appear upon the plate the bows are numbered Cat. No. 7972, U.S. N. M., from Bristol Bay, collected by Dr. Minor; No. 15651, Nuniviak Island, collected by W. H.Dall; No. 36028, Kuskoquim, colleeted by FE. W. Nel. son; No. 36034, collected by E. W. Nelson. PLATE LXVII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. teh at pe TT TE TWN VA WY VV I POY a al ee eg Lae ssi E : aml aie poner : UW if a = — Te eee ais PE es EPEC a FS === N= SINEW-BACKED BOWS OF ESKIMO, SOUTHERN TYPES. (After Murdoch.) Sate) nanan ate > > : Se cal rf ny ve + v& io BY XGP TL PASN-ACE MONG OsE: Sha laAsohs) slo pkenvenlelale. SINEW-BACKED Bows Or ESKIMO. Plate showing Murdoch’s Arctic type of bow. The noteworthy features are— First. These bows are much shorter than those of southern type and are said by Murdoch to be of very graceful shape. In some examples the ends are bound up as in some of the southern bows and the hack reenforced with a short rounded splint of wood or antler in the bend. Second. The backing of these bows is always ‘“‘of a very complicated and perfect pattern, usually very thoroughly incorporated with the bow by means of hitches and a very complete seizing of many turns running nearly the whole length of the bow and serving to equalize the distribution of the strain and thus prevent cracking.” Third. Another notable feature is in some examples the division of the backing into two cables in which the twist runs in opposite directions so that when the two cables are sewed together neither one can untwist. The examples shown in the plate are numbered as follows: First. Cat. No. 1972, U.S.N.M. Arctic bow from the Mackenzie region, back and side view. Collected by Ross. Second. Cat. No. 89245, U.S. N. M., from Point Barrow, collected by the U.S. Inter- national Polar Expedition. The wood is in shape of a Tatar bow. Figures 12 and 13 show the left-handed and right-handed ‘soldier's hitch.” PLATE LXVIII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. er a as SINEW-BACKED Bows oF ESKIMO, ARCTIC TYPES. (After Murdoch. ) we, aay i *) an aio! * al oar 7 2 or ‘us ee base —s >» ey akg, 7 Hk AUN VAS DON SOUS (Pa PAw re hime: xe looker SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO, ARCTIC TYPEs. This plate exhibits the great variety of ways in which the sinew braid is admin- istered upon the bow in the Arctic type for the purpose of minimizing the chances of breaking the very brittle wood of which they are made. The numbers upon the sides of the figures refer to descriptions by Murdoch, in the Report of the U. S. Na- tional Museum for 1884. ‘ The first bow upon the plate, Fig. 10, is Cat. No. 89245, U.S. N. M., and the second figure is Cat. No. 72771, U.S. N. M., from Wainwright’s Inlet. Collected by U.S. International Polar Expedition. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXIX. > een Ei SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO, ARCTIC TYPE. (After Murdoch.) gets 4 ¢ ee — + - = —_= q 5 ¥ ae i ws Ws rp 7 a ta i r { i > - 5 ! & 7 ‘ J : a Oe ‘ ‘ i Bary , ia ~ "Fat - * ' ¥ ’ iW é y ; is ~~ ¥ i Sie ' ’ 4 . ; : . ' 1 J i. rT fics : ° 3 WF A J ; mye a a; LS ale be 4 he A , EC od ” . tcaee A y wa ‘ ice & os ‘ Aree) we é a , ts Fae Fe ae b . 7 rh . > ~ r ma <5 “y ‘ Pig a f a i ue es ie acer i ; = wf. “ “1 eel - : a i) + 7 ‘ * DF + = r = ; ot ae : sv ' ‘ = i 4 Ty 1/ t , } ‘ae Pi ct < > i * « ip 2 mi , rey i ' ‘ i } * ae % . ee Gh i: i i i A tt ; f r a] < i Pabe 1 a = a i ? ¥ *) o @ me Pe ; ’ _ oe / Mu = a A 7e e Dy ny cae ao HEXS Pal AGN ALINE O UN, tO sk SPA PAU By aipxoxe: SINEW-BACKED Bows or ESKIMO, ARCTIC AND SOUTHERN TYPES. Upon this plate are represented, first, a section of the Arctic bow to show the method in which short strands at the angles of the bow are administered in order to relieve the strain from the wood, . First figure shows section of Arctic bow 1970, U. S. N. M., from Mackenzie region, collected by B. R. Ross. The other figure (15), showing back and side, is a bow of the southern type coming from the Yukon Deita and exhibits therefore some of the Arctic characteristics, such as the splint along the grip and the precautions against splitting. Cat. No. 33867, U.S. N. M. Collected by E. W. Nelson on the delta of the Yukon River. PLaTE LXX. Smithsonian Report, 1893 —“<—% SN oN st — rarer 1 , sss aaw ante ien: Eton eS a eel I Pos [SRSA AVA AY G0. FA) BOE, PAIN AAA aT VY MEA Wire Sa SSS ee (After Murdoch.) SINEW-BACKED BOWS OF ESKIMO, ARCTIC AND SOUTHERN TYPES. BE xoR IAN AT EON Ome Pal AUB liexoxcue SINEW-BACKED Bows or ESKIMO. The first two figures upon this plate, 16 and 17, illustrate a bow in which the south- ern type of wood has administered upon it the backing of the Arctic type. The method of administering the short strands by means of half hitches to prevent the splitting of the wood is exhibited in the second drawing, figure 17. The last two figures upon this plate belong to what Murdoch calls the Western type. Perhaps it might be called the Chukchi type. The most noticeable feature is that the backing does not pass around the nocks at the ends of the bow, but the whole cable is held upon the back by means of a series of half hitches. The wood of the bow is either straight or of Tatar shape. These examples are Cat. Nos. 8822, from Yukon Delta, figures 16 and 17, collected by W.H. Dall, and 2505 from Siberia, figure 18, collected by the North Pacific Explor- ing Expedition, U.S. N. M. PLATE LXXI. NS | A es A 2 ey | ee : —\\ ANA = INS pape : = = NAA AAR BY, ”, —_— = (Da \ \ WAN Smithsonian Report, 1893. 18 (After Murdoch.) SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO, SOUTHERN AND WESTERN TYPE. Py epi man ee eae ey i I eX ASN AVI OIN 4 Oh sarA si) al xoxo ulus SINEW-BACKED Bows Or ESKIMO, WESTERN TYPE. The peculiarities of the bow shown in the last plate and illustrated further on this plate are— The extensions of their cables, one reaching nearly the whole length of the bow and attached close to the nocks, a second one further down upon the limbs, and a third one from the middle of the limbs. Between these two last-named points all the three cables are united into one passing across the grip. ‘Lhis figure shows a portion of the jirst cable (the longest cable), the passing in strauds of the second and third cables, and the union of all three into one. The second figure upon this plate (fig. 21) is a straight bow upon which the backing has upward of seventy strands twisted into three cables of Aretie bye. In this exam- ple also, the longest cable passes around the nocks. Section of Cat. No. 2505, U.S. N. M., and 2508, Eastern Siberia, collected by North Pacific Exploring Expedition. PLATE LXXII. Smithsonian Report, 1893. SINEW-BACKED Bows oF ESKIMO, WESTERN TYPE. (After Murdoch. ) Say i Oe anal t ae = >. u 7 x Par rk i Li ee ae ee 6 o ts a Ls 7 om i a | ) WK 1% Pal : 4 =~ a7 a ae » fad ‘ all S as cam — - ~ Y Retote Serre bi tine ae . * . . " e i | Ls ‘ 4} £ a oe EXPLANATION OF [PLATE took DLE SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMOS, MIXED TYPEs. The first figure upon this plate exhibits the methods of seizing and the variety of attachments in passing the braided cord from the function of wrapping the bow on to the function of strand in the treble cable on the back. With a little patience it is easy to trace with the eye each braid strand from one function to the other. The last two figures upon this plate represent a bow in which the backing is of the Arctic type and the shape of the bow approaches the Western type. The first figure is Cat. No. 2505, U.S. N.M. Second, Cat. No. 2506, E. Siberia. Collected by Northern Pacific Exploring Expe- dition. PLATE LXXIIl. \ ) \ } cl ao SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO, MIXED TYPES. (After Murdoch.) Smithsonian Report, 1893. “ ha \ KZ NA CAME Bus it ar Yo SAS , ERA) NS \ Re ee ol os JAR TS mrm etnies vie ey Ate San aeet cecilia eae oremremeern! s & - : 5 z ae i i & 2 f E fe z at be +t 7 my 4 My a dis bh Se g r ‘ t on =, : ay ‘ - & 7 t : Bet AS Le a) 1 Se i ae eee! ’ Pe eteseeayevics dh oven neous os ai eae Saw, ora) . eed Ms | x arrest tee = —— > ee Be lisncar= o C4 ~ ’ ee w He Fat pl 1 Xe TavACINE ATE ONS OsR We yACreB, Si excpne aver SINEW-BackED Bows or ESKIMO. The principal figure upon this plate shows the administration of the braided line just at the point where the third cable coming from the nock crosses the bend in the bow. It is at this point that the greatest strain occurs and there is more pressing need for additional protection. Of this bow Murdoch says that ‘‘it approaches very close to the Arctic type, but shows traces of the Western model in having the ends of the long strands stretched across the bend and one single short strand returning to the tip from beyond the bend, while a fourth is precisely of the Arctic type, with a very large number of strands.” The ivory levers shown upon the plate have been described, and are used in Cat. Nos. 2506 and 89466, U.S. N. M. Figures 25 and 26 illustrate a peculiar ‘‘clove hiteh” and ‘‘soldier’s hitch” em- ployed in this example. Point Barrow. Collected by U.S. International Polar Expedition. PLATE LXXIV, Smithsonian Report, 1893. -. Por ry : = . ==. Dae yess <7 xh zi Sr ot wt a 4 —— LIF Fo 5, AS ‘ REN = : < i LV ‘g q eae j fi ZZ AIT SF a Soe FY = ee AS, ae SAE J # ess (After Murdoch.) SINEW-BACKED Bows oF ESKIMO, MIXED TYPE ea Eeane - ee a eEXGPaVAGNGA di @OruNG@ ©) Runs ai vAtea Hele Nee Xoay are TWISTING LEVERS FOR SINEW-BACKED Bows OF ESKIMO. This plate shows the manner in which the ivory levers are used in winding up the double cable on the back of an Eskimo bow. It will be seen that each lever has a hook at each end, but on alternate sides. The end of each lever is thrust through the middle of 2 loose cable, hook side downward. It is then revolved through half a circle, as far as it will go, then pushed its entire length, which brings the hook at the other end in place for another half turn, andsoon. A rawhide string is passed through both cables, wrapped about the grip and made fast. This prevents the cables from unwinding while the bow is in use. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Plate LXXV. TWISTING LEVERS FOR SINEW-BACKED BowWS OF ESKIMO. (After Murdoch. ) FE XOR SL VAGNCAUTEOIN) COMP AIGBAGIE ART mE RXGEXe nV alae A Map To ILLUSTRATE THE DISTRIBUTION OF ESKIMO Bows. Prepared by John Murdoch to show the distribution of the three types of bows in Alaska. In ‘A Study of the Eskimo Bows in the U. S. National Museum,” Report of the U. 8. National Museum, 1884. In the plan— A. stands for Arctic type. S. stands for Southern type. W. stands for Western type. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXVI. Ancr1e OCKHAN. Pt, Barrow, A Wam wigle tslnlet_A yes : Vi f Bering Sew = Se te Seal lds, & toe kim e Be ws “ A. Avetic Type = S. Souther Type Wo Western Type. aie a Wnt hdl iy _ EXPLANATION OF PLATE LXXVII. APACHE ARROW CASE AND ARROW. Fic. 1. QUIVER, deerskin, smoke-tanned; bow case wanting. Arrow case, long tapering sack, stiffened at the back by means of a rod of wood sewed on with buckskin string. Decorated along the back and around the margins with scallops cut in red flannel and skin. A narrow band of exactly the same pattern is painted down the outside, directly opposite and around the upper margin. Bandolier, simple string of buckskin attached to stiffener. Filled with typical reed-shaft arrows, with hardwood twig foreshafts and iron points, as shown on the right of the quiver. Length, 35 inches. Cat. No. 21515, U.S. N.M. Apaehe Indians, Athapascan stock, Arizona. Collected by J.B, White, U.S. Army. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Noh Ras AY 0 Ws APACHE ARROW-CASE AND ARROW. PLATE LXXVII. EXPLANATION OF PLATE DX X Vill. APACHE ARROW CASE AND ARROW. Fic. 1. QUIVER, deerskin. Bow case, none. Arrow case, bag witha stiffener of wood attached by means of strings along the seam. About the middle of the quiver is a band of smoked deerskin leather, with a fringe characteristic of the tribe, in which the scallop before mentioned appears. The bando- lier is a strip of cotton cloth and blue flannel. Length of quiver, 34 inches. Cat. No, 17331, U.S.N.M. Apache Indians, Athapascan stock, Arizona. Collected by Dr. H.C. Yarrow, U.S. Army. NotTr.—The arrows accompanying this quiver, of which an example is given, are of the characteristic Apache type, shaft of reed, foreshaft of hardwood, points of iron. The extra length of the quiver is due to the fact that the reed arrows are longer than those with shafts of hard wood. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLate LXXVIII. APACHE ARROW-CASE AND ARROW. Xe i AGN PACE DOIN OB SPs AEs. oi exepnellexers NavaJO QUIVER, SINEW-LINED Bow AND ARROW, ALL OF NORTHERN TYPE. Fic. 1. QUIVER, mountain lion skin. Bow case made with hair side inward; arrow case, hair side outward. There is also between the two, where they are joined, a stiffener of wood, which belongs especially to the arrow case, showing that the bow case is an afterthought. For decoration the ends of the bow case are adorned with a fringe of lion skin, and from the top of the arrow case the tail of the lion depends. Length: bow case, 44 inches; arrow case, 28 inches. Cat. No. 76684, U.S. N. M. Navajo Indians, Athapasecan stock, Arizona. Col- lected by Dr. Washington Matthews, U. S. Army. Fic. 2. Bow, made of mesquit wood, rounded on the back and oval in form, lined with sinew, which is strengthened by three bands of sinew. The grip is seized with a delicate wrapping of buckskin string. The ends of the horns of the bow are wrapped with sinew and there is no especial modifi- cation of the ends for receiving the string. The bowstring is of two-ply twine, sinew cord. Length, 3 feet 11 inches. ‘The Tacullies or Carriers of British Columbia, the Hupa of northern California, and the Navajo of Arizona, all Athapscans, use the sinew-lined bow. Cat. No. 76684, U. S. N. M. Navajo Indians, Athapascan stock, Arizona. Col- lected’ by Dr. Matthews. PLATE LXXIX. Smithsonian Report, 1893 (4é ——= Ls Sys ALIS a SJ == US Sa 17 ly ore = Se ASS NN SSF . NAVAJO QUIVER, SINEW-LINED BOW AND ARROW, ALL OF NORTHERN TYPE. Aitirayeitt DY abe ay ictd 7 ; babes © tT ACT Ten Be, BD) XoPITPAUN, Ave ON ORE SE PAVE ele XON@NGs CHEYENNE QUIVER, SELF Bow AND ARROW, WITH SHAFT GROOVES. Fic. 1. QUIVER, mountain lion skin. Bow case and arrow case separate. Both made with hair outward, and ornamented with fringes. From the bottom of the bow case depends one of the feet of the lion with claws. At the bottom is another foot of the lion wrapped with a red flannel cloth and slightly decorated with beads. Arrow case fringed at the top and bottom with strips of hide, and withalong pendant from the upper border made of the lion’s tail, faced with red flannel and decorated with beadwork and ribbon. A unique attachment to this quiver is a streamer consisting of one and a half yards of red and black calico sewed to the inner lining of the arrow case. Bandolier, of lion skin faced with tent cloth (cotton duck). The bow shown in the plate with its arrow is of the form common throughout the Plains of the Great West. It is made of ash, and has a slight double curve. Length: bow case, 40 inches; arrow case, 25 inches. Cat. No. 129873, U.S.N.M. Cheyenne Indians, Algonquian stock. Collected by H. M. Creel, U.S. Army. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXX. POA Dig — A Wie, i scalihiles Le Why hes) LES Axe Ly CHEYENNE QUIVER, SELF BOW AND ARROW WITH SHAFT GROOVES. EXP AGN Ae GOREN ©) Besley Awan) ail Now xoexcn lar CHIPPEWA SELF Bow, ARROW, AND QUIVER. Fic. 1. Bow, nearly rectangular in section, tapering toward the end; slightly double curve. One notch at each end and both on the same side of the bow for receiving the string, which is a 2-ply twine. Length: 3 feet 9 inches. Cat. No. 9063, U.S. N.M. Chippewa Indian Algonquian, Dakota. Collected by Dr. W. H. Gardner, U.S. Army Fic. 2. QUIVER, dressed buffalo hide. Bow case isa long narrow sack, fitting bow; arrow case, wide bag tapering toward the bottom. Both ornamented slightly with fringe of rawhide, beads, and red flannel. The bandolier is a narrow band of buffalo skin with the hair on. Length: bow case, 38 inches; arrow case, 24 inches. Cat. No. 9063, U.S. N. M. Chippewa, Algonquian stock, Dakota. Collected by U. S. War Department. Norre.—The Chippewa Indians are more civilized than their neighbors, and this specimen shows a degenerate style of doing their own work, and much borrowing from the whites. Thearrow is of the common Plains type. PLATE LXXXI. Smithsonian Report, 1893. SS = CHIPPEWA SELF Bow, ARROW, AND QUIVER. 7. ee a a | < ra. 7 = » id 4 iw 1 a + : - A a ' ; : * £ a § ' 1 = i UPA y “s 4 ; i im i + ee | i ha : A I ; « = ts eare » tam od + ims find a ers ee i ar. ae { i Pie J “Se shite salt Tageed ; Sara paid aatety sable fiteial cov KXPLANATION OF PLATE (Lx Xoei ; KIOWA QUIVER CONTAINING BOWS AND ARROWS IN THEIR CASES, FIRE BAG, AND AWL CASE. Fig. 1. QUIVER, harness leather. The bow case is a long slender bag just fitting the bow; the arrow case is a broad bag—both fringed at the bottom by cut- ting pieces of leather into strings. The two pieces are attached at the margins with buckskin strings. Bandolier is a broad strip of rawhide. The bottoms and upper margins of the bow case and quiver, the awl case, the end of the bandolier, and the bottom of the tool bag are decorated with leather cut in fringes. Length of the bow case, 44 inches; arrow case, 20 inches. Cat. No. 152895, U.S. N. M. Kiowa Indians, Kiowan stock. Collected by James Mooney. = Fic. 2. Bow, made of Osage orange. It is rounded on the back and inside, and square on the sides. Largest at the grip and tapering along the limbs toward the ends. The notches for the bowstring are cut in on alternate sides near the end. The bowstring is made of 4-ply sinew cord. Double curve. Length: 4 feet 4 inches. Cat. No. 152895, U.S. N. M. Kiowa Indians, Kiowan stock, Indian Territory. Col- lected by Jas. Mooney. This is a complete archery outfit. The bow case, arrow case, tool bag, and awl case are separate. The bow is made of Osage orange. The bowstring is of 4-ply twine or sinew cord; the arrows are of the original Plains type. Shaft of hard wood, worked down with straight shaft streaks. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXXII. KIOWA QUIVER CONTAINING BOW AND ARROWS IN THEIR CASES FIRE BAG AND AWL CASE. ty ws J ‘ Reb INR CUN DED SMR BlawO RGHTAT eo A TA WR DMA TOs NaN AWOIAL EE OXeP PAIN ACT lO mUNl ORs ee VyAS UB elu pxce ce Neale ie DAKOTA QUIVER, SELF BOW AND ARROW, WITH SHAFT GROOVES. Fic. 1. Bow, hickory, rectangular in section, double curve, tapering toward the ends. Two notches at one end, and one at the other for receiving the string, which is a 2-ply twine of sinew. Length: 3 feet 7 inches. Cat. No. 131356, U.S. N.M. Sioux Indians, Siouan stock, Dakota. Collected by Mrs. A.C. Jackson. Fig. 2. QuivER, made of dressed buffalo hide. Bow case and arrow case separate. The former, a long narrow bag; the latter, a short sack, slightly tapering toward the bottom. Both are ornamented with rings of bird quill whipped on closely; the upper borders and the ends ornamented with finely-cut fringe. The bow case and outside sacks, top and bottom, decorated with patternsin beadwork. Length: bow case, 38 inches; arrow case, 24 inches, Cat. No. 131356, U.S. N.M. Sioux Indians, Siouan stock, Upper Missouri. Collected by Mrs. A. C. Jackson. The noticeable points on the arrow are the sinuous shaft streaks, the dainty feath- ering projecting behind the nock and the flaring nock, which gives a perfect grip for the thumb and forefinger in the shooting by primary or secondary release. PLATE LXXXIll. Smithsonian Report, 1893. DAKOTA QUIVER, SELF BOW, AND ARROW WITH SHAFT GROOVES. var sce: ay EXPLANATION OF PEATE LXXXIV. S1ouX QUIVER, MADE OF COW SKIN, ARROW AND Bow. Fic. 1. QUIVER, mottled cow skin. Bow case and arrow case are made after the usual pattern, ornamented at the top and bottom with fringes of hide with the hair on, and joined together by their margins. Bandolier of a strip of hide with fringes at the end. Length of bow case, 43 inches; arrow case, 26 inches. Cat. No. 154016, U.S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Siouan stock, Dakota. Collected by Gen. Hazen, U.S. Army. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXXIV SIOUX QUIVER, MADE OF COWSKIN, ARROW, AND Bow. eee ev i aS rg ao OEE Sry Se t LA en) ue oe 1 Coe, ap Aer Deny hy ‘ any WoO 7 a - TEX AGN CA TW ON Ni @)E = sPilia Acs ieee le NuD Seo Xe Vaan DAKOTA QUIVER, SELF BOW AND ARROW, WITH STRAIGHT SHAFT GROOVE. Fig. 1. QUIVER, of buffalo skin; bow case and arrow case separate. Bow case, a nar- row bag just fitting the bow. Arrow case, a wide sack tapering toward the bottom. Both cases adorned at upper and lower margins with long fringes of buekskin, at the head of which is a band of red flannel decorated with ““white-man’s ” patterns in beadwork. Bandolier is astrip of buffalo skin with hair left on. The bow and arrows are of the universal Siouan type. ~ Length of bow case, 42 inches; arrow case, 26 inches. Cat. No. 23735, U.S. N. M. Sioux Indians, Siouan stock, Dakota. Collected by Paul Beckwith. PLATE LXXXYV., Smithsonian Report, 1893. exe | proce DAKOTAN QUIVER, SELF BOW, AND ARROW WITH STRAIGHT SHAFT GROOVE. - ‘ : : 7 ' r RR ee DL Lt ka Bax PL ACNGASE TONS OWE ParAC able NGeNG Non Va ee TONKAWA, Fig. 1. QuIVER, made of cow skin; bow case of mottled cow skin with the lair left on, forming a long close sack. The arrow case is a short, wide sack. Bandolier, broad strip of cow skin. From the ends of bow case, arrow ease, and bandolier fringes of cut skin depend. The bow ease and arrow case are sewed together at the margins or raw edges so that in the com- pleted quiver the seams turn inward and are largely concealed. The tvol bag is of rawhide and, singularly enough, contains a flint and steel and a powder charger made of the tep of a buffalo horn. Length of bow case, 48 inches; arrow case, 28 inches. Cat. No. 8448. U.S.N.M. Tonkawa Indians, Tonkawan stock, Texas. Collected by H. McElderry, U.S. Army. Notr.—After the Government entered into a treaty with the Indian tribes, among the annuities were cattle, and from that time cow skin very largely took the place of other hides in the making of quivers along the Plains of the great West, where but- falo and decr were less abundant. Numbers of Siouan, Caddoan, Kiowan, Algon- quian, Shoshouean, and Tonkawan tribes, all made their quivers of cow skin, either with the hair left on or tanned. The bow case and the arrow case were made after the general plan of the example here described. Fig. 2. Bow, hard wood, hickory, the natural surface of the wood on the back. Section nearly square, tapering slightly toward either end. Notch single on alternate sides. Bowstring of 4-ply twine. Bow has a single curve. Leneth: 3 feet 11 inches. The arrow is of the Plains type, showing that region and g.me override social and other anthropological distinctions. Cat. No. 8448, U.S.N.M. Tonkawa-Indians, Caddoan stock, Texas. Collected by H. Meklderry. U.S. Army. Smithsonian Report, 1893 PLATE LXXXVI. TONKAWA. ByeXC PALFACN VAC ION ORES PTaeACHIE Es elie Ncpoo Non \alelere SHOSHONEAN QUIVER, PLAIN ARROW WITH SHAFT GROOVES, AND SINEW-LINED Bow OF CALIFORNIA TYPE. Fie. 1. Quiver, black bear skin, with hair left on; bow casc and arrow case sepa- rate. The ornaments are tassels of ermine skin hanging from the ends of the bandolier, and long flaps of bearskin, lined on the ontside with green cloth and decorated with beadwork, ribbon, and gull feathers. The pat- terns on the green cloth are copied from those of the whites. Length of bow ease, 41 inches; arrow case, 27 inches. Cat. No. 9044, ULS.N.M. Snake Indians, Shoshonean stock, Idaho. Collected by Dr. S. Wagner. Fic. 2. Bow, said to be Snake Indian bow from Idaho, but it belongs to the broad variety of sinew-lined bows of California. If used by the Snake Indians it has been introduced as a matter of trade. The nocks are simply taper- ing at the ends and no provisions for the bowstring, which is simply caught over the tapering ends. Same as 19322. Length: 3 feet 4 inches. Cat. No. 9044, U.S. N. M. Snake Indians, Shoshoneau stock, Idaho. Collected by Dr. C. Wagner, U.S. Army. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXXVII. SHOSHONEAN QUIVER, PLAIN ARROW WITH SHAFT GROOVES, AND SINEW-LINED BOW OF CALIFORNIAN TYPE. Satan a rs hei! : d 4 a = ae F ‘ th " a 1 ri Kies 5 J © it - = ; sj . ' ' t fos ; ey nl A ' 5 YY = ae . “ E ee J iy i sale ree: + > 5 F * . « b > | { on am ay ype A es : jeu 7 i ae WAY a fa uy Tis eae 74 ‘ : it f WA Dae fia Bias ef XP AN ACERT O No OLR SRA Ton SL xXexexe Velo: NEZ PERCE QUIVER AND Row. Fic. 1. QUIVER, of beaver skin; bow case and arrow case made separately of beaver skin with the hair side out. Ornamented at the bottom with tassels ot strips of skin, bird feathers and little bells, and with bands of beadwork, and at the top with rings of beadwork and long flaps of beaver skin, lined with red flannel and decorated with beadwork. Bandolier missing. Length of bow case, 33 inches; arrow-case, 27 inches. Cat. No. 23843, U.S. N.M. Nez Pereé Indians, Shahaptian stock, Idaho. Collected by J. B. Monteith. Note.—Tribes of the Shahaptian stock displayed a great deal of taste in all o° their work, and some of the quivers from that region which are accredited to the Shoshonean and Salishan tribes have undoubtedly been made under the influence of these Indians. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXXVIII. a, ARM s NN SSRIS . .) y AN tA ras Nez PERCE QUIVER AND Bow. BexXOP a ANAT LON JOR PalvA TSE ie xox Neel exe UTE OR SHOSHONEAN QUIVER, Bow, AND ARROW. QUIVER, deerskin; bow case, arrow case, and bandolier made of the same material, with the fur side outward. Adorned with fringes of the samé skin cut in strips and with tufts of split feathersin which the stiff mid-rib has been removed. Length: bow case, 34 inches; arrow case, 28 inches. Cat. No. 19848, U.S. N. M. Ute Indians, Shoshonean stock, Utah. Collected by Maj. J. W. Powell. NoTre.—There is no tool bag, but depending from the top of the arrow case is a brush made of porcupine skin with the bristles left on. The bow is not sinew-lined, the arrow is of the universal Shoshonean type, and resembles those of the eastern Rocky Mountain tribes. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE LXXXIX. UTE OR SHOSHONEAN QUIVER, Bow, AND ARROW. Hi Xr PSIGsAVNGAGT 1 ONE s ORE early Atta amen Ces NrEZ PERCE OR SHAHAPTIAN QUIVER, BOw, AND ARROW, WITH SINUOUS SHAFT GROOVE. Fic. 1. Quiver, otter skin; bow case and arrow case separate. Each of these is a narrow bag with the fur side of the bazontward. The bottom of the bow case has a broad band of buckskin with red flannel borders. The surface of the buckskin is covered with red, blue, green, and white beads in beau- tiful patterns. The bandolier is also of otter skin with a broad border of red flannel. On either side of the bandolier, and from the lower end of the bow case and arrow case, are long fringes made of strips of otter skin. The fringe of the bandolier is also adorned with a band of beadwork simi- lar to that on the bow case. The upper border of the bow case and the arrow case are also decorated with beadwork, and long flaps of rawhide entirely covered with beaded patterns. This is a very beautiful object. Length of bow case, 20inches; arrow case, 30inches. Length of bandolier, 8 feet. Cat. No. 29886, U.S. N.M. Rocky Mountain Indians, tribe unknown. Collectec. by Dr. Fred. Kober. Notr.—A great many of the most beautiful objects in the National Museum were gathered by Army officers, who did not always know the exact tribe from which specimens were obtained. Quivers of this type are made by the Algonquian Siouan, Shoshonean, Salishan, and Shabaptian tribes of Montana. Smithsonian Report NEZ PERCE OR SHALAPTIAN QUIVER, BOW, AND ARROW WITH SINUOUS SHAFT GROOVES. 1893, ' NN "hat cater Tees Ue pees: S Amero SST = deans perrrn Pi TPIT Be 2 SSS Ae REE AO raw IE SS = PLATE XC. ; nip me = > wre Be i hen “ es 2 Ps) =. 19 ve a is tee af a : a Poe OR :) a i Belfe <2 = BOP LANA TON: OF EL Ar XC McCLoup RIVER (CAL.) QUIVER, SINEW-LINED Bow, AND FORESHAFTED ARROW. Fic. 1. QUIVER, made of a whole deerskin with hair side inward. The skin of the legs has been left onand serve as pendants. The mouth issewed up with buckskin strings and the ears protrude from the outside. There is no distinction between the bow case and arrow case. The whole forms a hide sack in which the bows and arrows are kept together. The bando- lier is a mere strip of buckskin attached to the upper border and the mid- dle of the quiver, Length: 40 inches. Cat. No. 19322, U.S.N.M. McCloud River Indians, Copehan stock, Central Califor- mia. Collected by Livingston Stone. From this point southward the compound quiver disappears. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XCl. MCCLOUD RIVER (CAL.) QUIVER, SINEW-LINED Bow, AND FORESHAFTED ARROW. Hi Xe PE AINGAGI EOIN OPP la Aci Heexe@ lal: Bow, ARROWS, AND QUIVER OF THE HUPA INDIANS, OF CALIFORNIA. Bow made of yew, broad and thin in the middle and tapering toward the ends, which are turned back, The nocks are wrapped with buckskin and trimmed with strips of otter skin. The back of the bow is lined with shredded sinew, laid on in glue and painted. The arrows have been described in the plate devoted to Califor- nia types. : The quiver is made of the skin of the coyote, and is used asa bag for holding the bows and arrows. Yhe methad of finishing off the sinew at the end of the bow to constitute the nock and of fastening the bowstring is shown in the plate. Smithsonian Report, 1893. PLATE XCIl. am) HN “Wy ay 4 Mh i \ i ; Ai ( ( N/A i} Bow, ARROWS, AND QUIVER OF HUPA INDIANS. i cei ele ee TE OXG Pe -AGN AST IO NESOFE woke dic AV Bese ke Oploleles CUMBERLAND GULF ESKIMO QUIVER, SINEW-BACKED Bow, AND TWo-FLAT-FEATH- a ? ERED ARROW. Fic. 1. QUIVER, made of seal skin deprived of hair. The bow case and arrow case are separate. Owing to exigencies of the sinew-backed bow the bow case is very large, while the arrow case is very short. To the stiffener on the back, by means of two thongs of rawhide, is attached a wire handle, probably taken from an old pail. The bow case has a hood for inclosing the bow. Length: bow case, 37 inches; arrow case, 25 inches. Cat. No. 30015, U. S. N. M. Eskimo, Cumberland Gulf. Collected by W. A. Mintzer. It will be remembered that Mr. Murdoch calis attention to the greater simplicity of the eastern Eskimo bows. Notice also the purely typical Eskimo flat feathers, one on each side of the flat nock, made for the Mediterranean release. PLATE XCIll. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Dineen MD ies Tinga ti Lip A ey Go CUMBERLAND GULF ESKIMO QUIVER, SINEW-BACKED Bow, AND TWO-FLAT-FEATHERED ARROW. 4 ry Od sh, Ly | ; Rite tty T) Lute: Ey, Owe 2 Mae i gi a a eX Po ANCA TO INS OE PisAC IE Gale Vee Forr ANDERSON ESKIMO QUIVER, SINEW-BACKED Kow, AND TWo-FEATHER BARBED ARROW. ’ Fig. 1. QuIVER (model); bag of deerskin without the hair. Made in the shape of an ordinary arrow case with a hood. Along the short margin is a stiffener of wood. Along the outeror longer margin are decorations made by suspend- ing the false hoofs of the deer to short thongs of buckskin. Bandolier, simple string of rawhide attached to the stiffener. Leneth, 20 inches. Cat. No. 7481, U. S.N. M. Eskimo, Fort Anderson, Canada. Collected by Robt. MeFarlane. Notr.—This model of a quiver contains also miniature sinew-backed bow and arrows, but they areall correctly made in imitation of originals. Amongthe Eskimo, quivers of this form are very common and are long enough to contain the arrows and the bow within the hood. PLATE XCIV. Smithsonian Report, 1893. Fort ANDERSON ESKIMO QuivER, SINEW-BACKED Bow, AND TWO-FEATHER BARBED ARROV’. ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CEN- POR YE* By Prof. FREDERICK Max MOLLER. - - - When we wish to express something removed from us as far as it can be, we use the expression ‘So far as the East is from the West.” Now what we who are assembled here are aiming at, what may be called our real raison @étre, is to bring the East, which seems so far from us, so distant from us, nay, often so strange and indifferent to many of us, as near as possible—near to our thoughts, near toour hearts. It seems strange indeed that there should ever have been a frontier line to sep- erate the East from the West, nor is it easy to see at what time that line was first drawn, or whether there were any physical conditions which necessitated such a line of demareation. The sun moves in unbroken continuity from East to West, there is no break in his triumphant prog- ress. Why should there ever have been a break in the triumphant progress of the human race from East to West, and how could that break have been brought about? It is quite true that as long as we know anything that deserves the name of history, that break exists. The Mediterranean with the Black Sea, the Caspian with the Ural Moun- tains may be looked upon as the physical boundary that separates the East from the West. The whole history of the West seems so strongly determined by the Mediterranean, that Ewald was inclined to include all Aryan nations under the name of Mediterranean. But the Mediter- ranean ought to have formed not only the barrier, but likewise the connecting-link between Asia and Europe. Without that high-road leading to all the emporia of the world, without the pure and refresh- ing breezes, without the infinite laughter of the Mediterranean, there would never have been an Athens, a Rome; there would never have been that spirited and never-resting Europe, so different from the solid and slowly-changing Asiatic continent. Northern Africa, however, Egypt, Palestine, Phenicia, and Arabia, though in close proximity to the Mediterranean, belong in their history to the East, quite as much as * Extracts from inaugural address by the president of the International Congress of Orientalists, London, 1892. (Transactions of the Congress, vol. 1.) 681 682 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. Babylon, Assyria, Media, Persia, and India. Even Asia Minor formed only a temporary bridge between Kast and West, which was drawn up again when it had served its purpose. We ourselves have grown up so entirely in the atmosphere of Greek thought that we hardly feel sur- prised when we see nations such as the Phenicians and Persians, looked upon by the Greeks as strangers and barbarians, though in ancient times the former were far more advanced in civilization than the Greeks, and though the latter spoke a language closely allied to the language of Homer, and possessed a religion far more pure and elevated than that of the Homeric Greeks. The Romans were the heirs of the Greeks, and the whole of Europe succeeded afterwards to the intellectual inherit- ance of Rome and Greece. Nor can we disguise the fact that we our- selves have inherited from them something of that feeling of strange- ness between the West and the East, between the white and the dark man, between the Aryan and the Semite, which ought never to have arisen, and which is a disgrace to everybody who harbors it. No one in these Darwinian days would venture to doubt the homogeneous- ness of the human species, the brotherhood of the whole human race; but there remains the fact that, as in ancient so in modern times, nem- bers of that one human species, brothers of that one human family, look upon each other, not as brothers, but as strangers, if not as enemies, divided not only by language and religion, but also by what people call blood, whatever they may mean by that term. I wish to point out that it constitutes one of the greatest achievements of Oriental scholarship to have proved by irrefragable evidence that the complete break between East and West did not exist from the begin- ning; that in prehistoric times language formed really a bond of union between the ancestors of many of the Eastern and Western nations, while more recent discoveries have proved that in historic times also, language, which seemed to separate the great nations of antiquity, never separated the most important among them so completely as to make all intellectual commerce and exchange between them impossible. These two discoveriés seem to me to form the highest glory of Oriental scholarship during the present century. - -— - I begin with the prehistoric world which has actually been brought to light for the first time by Oriental scholarship. I contess I do not like the expression prehistoric. Itis a vague term, and almost withdraws itself from definition. If real history begins only with the events of which we possess contemporaneous witnesses, then, no doubt, the whole period of which we are now speaking, and many later periods also would have to be called prehistoric. But if history means, as it did originally, research and knowledge of real events based on such research, then the events of which we are going to speak are as real and as truly historical as the battle of Waterloo. It is often supposed that students of Oriental languages and of the Scieuce of Lan- guage deal with words only. We have learned by this time that there ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 683 is no such thing as ‘‘words only,” that every new word represented really a most momentous event in the development of our race. What people call ** mere words” are in truth the monuments of the fiercest intellectual battles, triumphal arches of the grandest victories won by the intellect of man. When man had formed names for body and soul, for father and mother, and not till then did the first act of human his- tory begin. Not till there were names for right and wrong, for God and man, could there be anything worthy of the name of human society. Every new word was a discovery, and these early discoveries, if but properly understood, are more important to us than the greatest con- quests of the kings of Egypt and Babylon. Not one of our greatest explorers has unearthed with his spade or pick-axe more splendid palaces and temples, whether in Egypt or in Babylon, than the etymologist. Every word is the palace of a human thought; and in scientific etymology we possess the charm with which to call these ancient thoughts back to life. It is the study of words, it is the Science of Language, that has withdrawn the curtain which formerly concealed these ancient times and their intellectual struggles from the sight of historians. Even now, when scholars speak of lan- guages, and families of languages, they often forget that languages mean speakers of languages, and families of speech pre-suppose real families, or classes, or powerful confederacies, which have struggled for their existence and held their ground against all enemies. Lan- guages, aS we read in the book of Daniel, are the same as nations that dwell on all the earth. If, therefore, Greeks and Romans, Celts, Ger- mans, Slavs, Persians, and Indians, speaking different languages, and each forming a separate nationality, constitute, as long as we know them, a real historical fact, there is another fact equally real and _his- torical, though we may refer it to a prehistoric period, namely, that there was a time when the ancestors of all these nations and languages formed oue compact body, speaking one and the same language, a lan- guage so real, so truly historical, that without it thereswwould never have been a real Greek, a real Latin language; never a Greek republic, never a Roman empire; there would have been no Sanskrit, no Vedas, no Avesta, no Plato, no Greek New Testament. We know with the Same certainty that other nations and languages, also, which in histor- ical times stand before us so isolated as Phenician, Hebrew, Babylon- ian, and Arabic, pre-suppose a pre-historic, that is, an antecedent powerful Semitic confederacy, held together by the bonds of a common language, possibly by the same laws, and by a belief in the same gods. Unless the ancestors of these nations and languages had once lived and worked together there would have been no common arsenal from which the leading nations of Semitic history could have taken their armor and their swords, the armor and swords which they wielded in their intellectual struggles, and many of which we are still wielding ourselves in our wars of liberation from error and in our conquests of 684 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. truth. These are stern, immovable facts, just as Mont Blane is a stern, irremovable fact, though from a distance we must often be satis- fied with seeing its gigantic outline only, not ail its glaciers and all its crevasses. What I mean is that we must not attempt to discover too much of what happened thousands of years ago, or strain our sight to see what, from this distance in time, we can not see. - - - Nothing has shaken the belief, for I do not call it more, that the old- est home of the Aryas was in the East. All theories in favor of other localities, of which we have heard so much of late, whether in favor of Scandinavia, Russia, or Germany, rest on evidence far more precarious than that which was collected by the founders of Comparative Philology. Only we must remember, what is so often forgotten, that when we say Aryas we predicate nothing—we can predicate nothing—but language. We know, of course, that languages pre-suppose speakers, but when we say Aryas we say nothing about skulls, or hair, or eyes, or skin, as little as when we say Christians or Mohammedans, English or Americans. All that has been said and written about the golden hair, the blue eyes, and the noble profile of the Aryas, is pure invention, unless we are pre- pared to say that Socrates, the wisest of the Greeks, was not an Arya, but a Mongolian. We ought, in fact, when we speak of Aryas, to shut our eyes most carefully against skulls, whether dolichocephalic, or brachycephalie, or mesocephalic, whether orthognathic, prognathic, or mesognathic. Weare completely agnostic as to all that, and we gladly leave it to others to discover, if they can, whether the ancestors of the Aryan speakers rejoiced in a Neanderthal or any other kind of skull that has been discovered in Europe or Asia. ‘Till people will learn this simple lesson, which has been inculeated for years by such high authori- ties as Horatio Hale, Powell, and Brinton, all discussions on the original home of the Aryas are so much waste of time and temper. There is the same difference of opinion as to the original home of the Semites, but all Semitic scholars agree that it was ‘‘somewherein Asia.” The idea that the Semites proceeded from Armenia has, hardly any defenders left, though it is founded on an ancient tradition preserved in Genesis. Aneminentscholar, who at the last moment was prevented by domestic affliction from attending our Congress, Prof. Guidi,* holds that the: Semites came probably from the Lower Euphrates. Other scholars, particularly Dr. Sprenger, placed the Semitie cradle in Arabia. Prof. N6ldeke takes much the same view with regard to the home of the Semites, which I take with regard to the home of the Aryas. We can not with certainty fix on any particular spot, but thatit was ‘ some- where in Asia” no scholar would ever doubt. It is well known also that some high authorities, Dr. Hommel, for instance, and Prof. Schmidt, hold that the ancestors of the Semites and Aryas must for a time have lived in close proximity, which would be a * Della sede primitiva dei Popoli, Semitici, ‘Proceedings of the Accademia dei lincei,” 1878—79. ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 685 new confirmation of the Asiatic origin of the Aryas. But we hardly want that additional support. Benfey’s arguments in favor of a Euro- pean origin of the Aryas were, no doubt, very ingenious. But, as his objections have now been answered by one,* the old arguments for an Asiatic home seem to me to have considerably gained in strength. I, at all events, can no longer join in the jubilant chorus that, like all good things, our noble ancestors, the Aryas, came from Germany. Dr. Schrader, who is often quoted as a decided supporter of a European origin of the Aryas, is far too conscientious a scholar to say more than that all he has written on the subject should be considered ‘ as purely tentative.” (Preface, p. vi.) With regard to time, our difficulties are greater still, and to attempt to solve difficulties which can not be solved, seems to me no better than the old attempt to square the circle. If people are satisfied with approximate estimates, such as we are accustomed to in geology, they may say that some of the Aryan languages, such as Sanskrit in India, Zend in Media, must have been finished and used metrical form about 2000 B. c. Greek followed soon after. And when it is said that these languages were finished 2000 B. ¢., that means simply that they had become independent varieties of that typical Aryan language which had itself reached a highly finished state long before it was broken up into these dialects. This typical language has been called the Proto- Aryan language. We are often asked why it should be impossible to salculate how many centuries it must have taken before that Proto- Aryan language could have become so differentiated and so widely diver- gent as Sanskrit is from Greek, or Latin from Gothic. If argued geologically, we might say, no doubt, that it took a thousand years to produce so small a divergence as that between Italian and French, and that therefore many thousands of years would not suffice to account for such a divergence as that between Sanskrit and Greek. We might, therefore, boldly place the first divergence of the Aryan languages at 5000 B. c., and refer the united Aryan period to the time before 5000 B.c. That period again would require many thousands of years, if we are to account for all that had already become dead and purely formal in the Proto-Aryan language before it began to break up into its six ethnic varieties, that is, into Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic, Greek, Latin, and Indo-Hranic. - - - If then we must follow the example of geology and fix chronological limits for the growth of the Proto-Aryan language previous to the con- solidation of the six national languages 10,000 B.C. would by no means be too distant as to the probable limit of what I should eali our his- torical knowledge of the existence of Aryan speakers somewhere in Asia. And what applies to those Aryan speakers applies with even greater force to the Semitic, because the earliest monuments of Semitic speech, —— — —-= = = es *«‘Three lectures on the science of language,” pp. 60 et seq. 686 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. differentiated as Babylonian, Phenician, Hebrew, and Arabic, go back, as we are told, far.beyond the earliest documents of Sanskrit or Greek. Here also we must admit a long period previous to the formation of the great national languages, because thus only can the fact be accounted for that on many points, so modern a language as Arabic is more primi- tivethan Hebrew, while, in other grammatical formations Hebrew is more primitive than Arabic.* Whether it is possible that these two linguistic consolidations, the Aryan and Semitic, came originally from a common source is a question which scholars do not like to ask, because they know that it does not admit of a scholar-like answer. No scholar would deny the possibility of an original community between the two during their radical period, and previous to the development of any grammatical forms. But the handling of this kind of linguistic protoplasm is not congenial to the student of language, and must be left to other hands. Still, such an attempt should not be discouraged altogether, and if they are carried out in the same spirit in which in the last number of the “Journal of the Ger- man Oriental Society,” Prof. Erman has tried to prove a close relation- ship between Semitic and Egyptian, they deserve the highest credit. - Another question also which carries us back still further into unknown antiquity—whether it is possible to account for the origin of languages, or rather of human speech in general—is one which scholars eschew, because it is one to be handled by philosophers rather than by students of language. I must confess, the deeper we delve, the farther the solu- tion of this problem seems to recede from our grasp; and we may here too learn the old lesson that our mind was not made to grasp begin- nings. We know the beginnings of nothing in this world, and the prob- lem of the origin of language, which is but another name for the origin of thought, evades our comprehension quite as much as the problem of the origin of our planet and of the life upon it, or the origin of space and time, whether without or within us. History can dig very deep, but, like the shafts of our mines, it is always arrested before it has reached the very lowest stratum. Students of language, and particu- larly students of Oriental languages, have solved the problem of the origin of species in language, and they had done so long before the days of Darwin; but hike Darwin, they have to accept certain original germs as given, and they do not venture to pierce into the deepest mysteries of actual creation or cosmic beginnings. And yet, though accepting this limitation of their labors as the com- mon fate of all human knowledge, Oriental scholars have not altogether labored in vain. No history of the world can in future be written without its introductory chapter on the great consolidations of the ancient Aryan and Semitic speakers. That chapter may be called prehistoric, but the facts with which it deals are thoroughly historical, and I say once moie, in the eyes of the student of language, they are *See Driver, Hebrew Tenses, p, 182, ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 687 as real as the battle of Waterloo. They form the solid foundation of all later history. They determine the course of the principal nations of ancient history as the mountains determine the course of rivers. Try only to realize what is meant by the fact that there was a time and there was a place where the ancestors of the poets of the Veda and of the prophets of the Zend Avesta shook hands and conversed freely with the ancestors of Homer, nay, with our own linguistic ancestors, and you will see what a shifting of scenery, what a real transformation scene Oriental students have produced on the historical stage of the world. They have brought together the most valuable and yet the least expensive museum of antiquities, namely, the words which date from the time of an undivided Aryan and an undivided Semitic broth- erhood; relics older than all Babylonian tablets or Egyptian papyri; relics of their common thoughts, their common religion, their common mythology, their common folk-lore, nay, as las lately been shown by Leist, Kohler, and others, relics of their common jurisprudence also. -=- + - At the present moment, when the whole world is preparing for the celebration of the discovery of America, or what is called the New World, let us not forget that the discoverers of that old, that prehis- toric world of which I have been speaking, deserve our gratitude as much as Columbus and hiscompanions. The disccveries of Sir William Jones, Schlegel, Humboldt, and of my own masters and fellow-workers, 30pp, Pott, Burnouf, Benfey, Kuhn, and Curtius, will forever remain a landmark in the studies devoted to the history, that is, the knowl- edge of our race, and, in the end, the knowledge of ourselves. If others have followed in their footsteps and have proved that these bold discoverers have sometimes been on a wrong track let them have full credit for what they have added, for what they have corrected, and what they have rejected; but a Moses who fights his way through the wilderness, though he dies before he enters on the full possession of the promised land, is greater than all the Joshuas that cross the Jor- dan and divide the land. Many travellers now find their way easily to Africa and back; but the first who toiled alone to discover the sources of the Nile, men such as Burton, Speke, and Livingstone, required often greater faith and greater pluck than those who actually dis- covered them. As long as i live I shall protest against all attempts to belittle the true founders of the Science of Language. Their very mistakes often display more genius than the corrections of their Epigoni. It may be said that this great discovery of a whole act in the drama of the world, the very existence of which was unknown to our fore- fathers, was due to the study of the Science of Language rather than to Oriental scholarship. But where would the Science of Language have been without the students of Sanskrit and Zend, of Hebrew and Arabic? At a Congress of Orientalists we have a right to claim what is due to 688 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. them, and I doubt whether anybody here present would deny that it is due in the first place to Oriental scholars, such as Sir W. Jones, Cole- brooke, Schlegel, Bopp, Burnouf, Lassen, and Kuhn, if we now have a whole period added to the history of the world, if we now can prove that long before we knew anything of Homeric Greece, of Vedie India, of Persia, Greece, Italy, and all the rest of Europe, there was a real historical community formed by the speakers of Aryan tongues, that they were closely held together by the bonds of a common speech and common thoughts. It is equally due to the industry and genius of Oriental scholars, such as De Sacy, Gesenius, Ewald, and my friend the late Prof. Wright, if it can no longer be doubted that the ancestors of the speakers of Babylonian and Assyrian, Syriac, Hebrew, Pheni- cian, and Arabie formed once one consolidated brotherhood of Semitic speech, and that however different they are when they appear for the first time in their national costumes on the stage of history they could onee understand their common words and common thoughts like mem- bers of one and the same family. Surely this is an achievement on which Oriental scholarship has a right to take pride, when it is chal- lenged to produce its title to the gratitude of the world at large. If we now turn our attention to another field of Orieutal scholarship which has been fruitful of results of the greatest importance to the student of history, and to the world at large, we shall be able to show, not indeed that Oriental scholars have created a whole period of his- tory, as in the case of the Aryas and Semites, before their respective separation, but that they have inspired the oldest period in the history of the world with a new life and meaning. Instead of learning by heart the unmeaning names of kings and the dates of their battles, whether in Egypt, or Babylon, in Syria and Palestine, we have been enabled, chiefly through the marvellous discoveries of Oriental scholars, to watch their most secret thoughts, to comprehend their motives, to listen to their prayers, to read even their private and confidential letters. Think only what ancient Egypt was to us a hundred years ago! A Sphinx buried in a desert, with hardly any human features left. And now, not only do we read the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and demotie inscriptions, not only do we know the right names of kings and queens 4000 or 5000 years B. C., but we know their gods, their worship; we know their laws and their poetry; we know their folk-lore and even their novels. Their prayers are full of those touches which make the whole world feel akin. Here is the true Isis, here is Human Nature, unveiled. The prayers of Babylon are more formal; still, how much more living is the picture they give us of the humanity of Babylon and Nineveh, than all the palaces, temples, and halls! And as to India, think what India was to the scholars of the last century! A name and not much more. And now! Not only have the ancient inhabitants ceased to be mere idolaters or niggers; they have been recognized as our brothers in language and thought, ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 689 The Veda has revealed to us the earliest phases in the history of natural religion, and has placed in our hands the only safe key to the secrets of Aryan mythology. Nay, I do not hesitate to say that there are rays of light in the Upanishads and in the ancient philosophy of the Vedauta which will throw new light, even to-day, on some of the problems nearest to our own hearts. And not only has each one of the ancient Oriental Kingdoms been reanimated and made to speak to us, like the gray, crumbling statue of Memnon, when touched by the rays of dawn, but we have also gained a new insight into the mutual rela- tions of the principal nations of antiquity. Formerly, when we had to read the history of the world, every one of the great Kingdoms of the East seemed to stand by itself, isolated from all the rest, having its own past, unconnected with the past history of other countries. China, for instance, was a world by itself. It had always been inhab- ited by a peculiar people, different in thought, in language, and in writing even from its nearest neighbors. dgypt, in the gray morning of antiquity, seemed to stand alone, like a pyramid in a desert, self contained, proud, and without any interest in the outside world, entirely original in its language, its alphabet, its literature, its art, and its religion. India, again, has always been a world by itself, either entirely unknown to the Northern nations, or surrounded in their eyes by a golden mist of fable and mystery. The same applies more or less to the great Mesopotamian Kingdoms, to Babylon and Nineveh. They, too, have their own language, their own alphabet, their own religion, their own art. They seem to owe nothing to anybody else. It is somewhat different with Media and Persia, but this is chiefly due to our knowing hardly anything of these countries before they appear in conflict with their neighbors, either as conquerors or as con- quered, on the ancient battle-fields of history. In fact, if we look at the old maps of the ancient world, we see them colored with: different and strongly contrasting colors, which admit of no shading, of no transition from one to the other. Every country seemed a world by itself, and, so far as we can judge from the earliest traditions which have reached us, each nation claimed even its own independent creation, whether from their own gods, or from their own native soil. China knows nothing of what is going on in Babylon and Egypt; Egypt hardly knows the name of India; India looks upon all that is beyond the Himalayan snows as fabulous, while the Jews, more than all the rest, felt themselves a peculiar people, the chosen people of God. Until lately, if it was asked whether there was any communication at all between the leading historical nations of the East, the answer was that no communication, no interchange of thought, no mutual influence was possible, because language placed a barrier between SM 93 44 690 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING 'THE PRESENT CENTURY. them which made communication, and more particularly free intellee- tual intercourse, entirely impossible. If therefore it seemed that some of these ancient nations shared certain ideas, beliefs, or customs in common, the answer always was that they could not have borrowed one from the other, because there was really no channel through which they could have communicated, or borrowed from each other by means of a rational aud continuous con- verse. Thanks to the more recent researches of Oriental scholars, this is no longer so. One of the first and one of the strongest proofs that there was, in very ancient times, a very active intellectual intercourse between Aryan and Semitic nations, is the Greek Alphabet. TheGreeks never made any secret of their having borrowed their letters from Phenician schoolmasters. They called their letters Phenician, as we ‘all our numerical figures Arabic, while the Arabs called them Indian. The very name of Alphabet in Greek is the best proof that at the time when the Greeks were the pupils of Phenician writing-masters, the secondary names of the Semitic letters, Aleph, Beth, Gimel, Daleth, had already been accepted. Originally the Aleph was the picture not of a bull, but of an eagle; Beth not of a house, but of another bird; Gimel not of a camel, but of a vessel with a handle; Daleth of a stretched out hand. This intercourse between Phenicians and Greeks must have taken place previous to the beginning of any written literature in Greece, previous therefore to the seventh century at least. When we speak of Greeks and Phenicians in general, we must guard against thinking of whole nations, or of large numbers. The work of humanity in the past, more even than in the present, was carried on by the few, not by the many, by what Disraeli called ** the men of light and lead- ing,” the so-called Path-makers of the ancient world. They represent unknown millions, standing behind them, as a Commander-in-chief rep- resents a whole army that follows him. The important point is that in the alphabet we have before us a tangible document, attesting a real communication between these leaders of progress and civilization in the East and in the West, a bridge between Phenicia and Greece, between Semitic and Aryan people. The name of the letter Alpha in the Greek alphabet is a more irresistible proof of Phenician influence than all the legends about Kadmos and Thebes, about a Phenician Herakles or a Phenician Aphrodite. It is strange that not one of the classical scholars who have written on the traces of Phenician influence in the religion and mythology of Greece should have availed himself of the Greek alphabet as the most palpable proof of a real and most intimate intercourse between the Phenicians and the early inhabitants of Greece. But their discoveries have opened even wider vistas. It was one of the most brilliant achievements, due to the genius of the Vicomte de Rouge to have shown that, though they discovered many things, the Phenicians did not discover the letters of the alphabet. Broken arches ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 691 of the same bridge that led from Phenicia to Greece have been laid bare, and they lead clearly from Phenicia back to Egypt. It is well known that even the ancients hardly ever doubted that the alphabet was originally discovered in Egypt and carried from thence by the Phenicians to Greece and Italy. Plato, Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and Gellius, all speak of Egyptas the cradle of the alphabet, and Taci- tus (Annals, x1.14), who seems to have taken a special interest in this sub- ject, is most explicit on that point. It was supposed for atime that the Egyptians simply took certain hieroglyphic signs, and made them stand for their initial letters. This was called the akrological theory, but it is no longer tenable. The alphabet was never a discovery, in the usual sense of the word; it was like all the greatest discoveries, a natural growth. It arose, without any intentional effort, from the employment of what are called complimentary hieroglyphies.* - -— - What the Vicomte de Rougé did, was to select the most ancient forms of the Phenician alphabet, as they are found on the sarcophagus of Eshmunezar (or better still, on the Stone of Mesha, which was not known in his time), and to show how near they came, not indeed to the most ancient hieroglyphics, but to certain hieratic cursive signs which have the same phonetic values as their corresponding Phenician letters. This was a most brilliant discovery, and I still possess a very searce paper which he sent me in 1859. He never published a full account of his discovery himself, but after his death -his notes were published by his son in 1874. I know quite well that some scholars have remained skeptical as to the Egyptian origin of the Phenician letters. My friend Lepsius was never quite convinced. Atte.apts have been made to derive the Pheni- cian letters from a cuneiform source or from the Cypriote letters, but the result has hitherto been far from satisfactory. The Phenician let- ters must have had ideographic antecedents. Where are we to look for them, if not in Egypt? What has always made me feel convinced that Rouge was right is the fact that we have to deal with a series, and that 15 out of the 25 letters of this series are almost identical in Phenician and in Egyptian. We are perfectly justified, there- fore, in making a certain allowance for some modifications in the rest. These modifications are certainly not greater than the modifica- tions which the Phenician letters underwent later in their travels over the whole civilized world. But there is another argument in Rougé’s favor which has often been ignored, namely, the fact that the Egyptians, whenever they had to transcribe foreign words, have fixed in many cases on the identical letters which served as the prototypes of the Phenician alphabet. This fact, first pointed out by Dr. Hincks, is one of the many valuable services which that ingenious scholar has rendered to hiero- glyphie studies; and the Vicomte de Rougé has been the first to acknowledge how much his own discovery owes to the labors of Dr. = = *Hincks, Egyptian Alphabet, p. 7. 692 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. Hineks, particularly to his paper on the Egyptian alphabet published in “ The Transactions of the Irish Academy in 1847.” All the facts concern- ing the history of the alphabet have been carefully put together in Lenormant’s great work, ‘*Lssai sur la Propagation de? Alphabet Phéni- cien.” Here, then, we have a clear line of communication between Egypt, Phenicia, and Greece, which Oriental scholarship has laid bare before our eyes. To judge from the character of the hieratic letters as copied by the Phenicians, the copying must have taken place about the nineteenth century B.c.*; according to others, even at an earlier date. It is well known that hieroglyphic writing for monumental purposes goes back in Egypt to the Fourth, or even the Second Dynastyt, and on these earliest inscriptions we not only find the hieroglyphie system of writing fully developed, but we actually see hieroglyphic pictures of papert and books, of inkstands and pens. But here again the beginnings escape us, and the origin of writing, though we know the conditions under which it took place withdraws itself from our sight almost as much as the origin of language itself. The question has been asked whether, as the oldest cuneiform writing clearly betrays an ideographic origin, its first germs could be traced back to the ideographic alphabet of Egypt. This would make Egypt the schoolmaster, or at least the older school- fellow of the Mesopotamian Kingdoms. But, whatever the future may disclose, at present Oriental scholarship has no evidence with which to contirm such a hypothesis. The same applies to another hypothesis which has been advocated with great ingenuity by one of the members of our Congress, M. Terrien de Lacouperie. He thinks it possible to show that the oldest Chinese letters, which, as is generally admitted, had an ideographic beginning like that of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, owed their first origin to Babylon. It is generally supposed that the cuneiform alphabet used by the Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia and Assyria was invented by a non-Semitic race called Sumerians and Accadians. Whether the Chinese borrowed from these races or from the Babylonians is difficult to decide. It must likewise remain for the present an open question whether these Sumerians and Accadians can be identified with a race dwelling originally in the North and East of Asia. There are scholars who place the original home of the Accadians on the Persian Gulf, though the evidence for this view also is very weak. We must not forget that ideographs, such as pictures of the sun and moon or of the superincumbent sky, of mountains and plants, of the mouth and nose, of eyes and ears, must of necessity Share certain features In common in whatever country they are used for hieroglyphic purposes. The scholar has the same feeling with regard to these very general ideo- graphic pictures which he has with regard to the very indefinite roots of *J. de Rougé Memoire sur V Origine Eqyptienne de 1 Alphabet Phénicien, 1874, p. 108. tIn the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is a monument of the Second Dynasty. $ Rougé, l. c., p. 103, ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 693 language which are supposed to be shared in common by the Semitic and Aryan families of speech. Both are too protoplastic, too jelly- like, too indefinite for scientific handling.* Still no researches, if only carried on methodically, should be dis- couraged a@ prior, and we must always be willing to learn new lessons however much they may shock our inherited opinions. It is not so very long ago that the best Semitic scholars stood aghast at the idea that the cuneiform letters were borrowed from a non-Semitie¢ race, and that some of the cuneiform inscriptions should contain speci- mens of a non-Semitic or Accadian language. We have got over this surprise, and though there are still some formidable skeptics, the fact seems how generally recognized that there was in very ancient times an intercourse between the Semitic and non-Semitic races of Asia as there was between the Egyptians and the Phenicians, and between the Phenicians and Greeks, that is, between the greatest people of antiq- uity, and that these non-Semitic people or Accadians were really the schoolmasters of the founders of the great Mesopotamian kingdoms. 5ut though we must for the present consider any connection between Chinese and Babylonian writing as extremely doubtful, there can be no doubt as to the rapid advance of the cuneiform system of writing itself from East to West. This wonderful invention, more mysterious even than the hieroglyphic alphabet, soon overflowed the frontiers of the Mesopotamian kingdoms, and found its way into Persia and Armenia, where it was used, though for the purpose of inscriptions only, by people speaking both Aryan and non-Aryan languages. Here, then, we see an ancient intercourse between people who were formerly con- sidered by all historians as entirely separate, and we are chiefly indebted to English scholars, such as Rawlinson, Norris, Sayce, Pinches, and others, for having brought to light some of the ruins of that long buried bridge on which the thoughts of the distant East may have wandered toward the West. Few generations have witnessed so many discoveries in Oriental scholarship, and have lived through so many surprises, as our own. If any two countries seemed to have been totally separated in ancient times by the barriers both of language and writing they were Egypt with its hieroglyphic and Babylon with its arrow-headed literature. We only knew of one communication between Egypt and its powerful neighbors and enemies, carried on through the inarticulate and mur- derous language of war, of spears and arrows, but not of arrow-headed writings. Who could have supposed that the rows of wedges covering the cylinders of Babylonian libraries, which have taxed the ingenuity of our cleverest decipherers, were read without any apparent difficulty by seribes and scholars in Egypt about 1500 B. c¢.? Yet we possess “Professor Hommel, in his paper submitted to our Congress, has pointed out strik- ing similarities between Egyptian hieroglyphics and corresponding Babylonian ideo- graphs. Who was the inventor and who the borrower, adhue sub judice lis est. 694 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. now in the tablets found at Tel-el-Amarna, in Egypt, a kind of diplo- matic correspondence, carried on at that early time, more than a thou- sand years before the invasion of Greece by Persia, between the kings of Egypt and their friends and vassals in Babylon, Syria, and Palestine- These letters were docketed in Egypt in Iieratic writing, like the dis- patches in our Foreign Office. They throw much light on the political relations then existing between the Kings of Egypt and the Kings of western Asia, their political and matrimonial alliances, and likewise on the trade carried on between different countries. They confirm statements known to us from hieroglyphic inscriptions in Egypt, more particularly those in the temple of Karnak. The spelling is chiefly syllabic, the language an Assyrian dialect. Doubtful Accadian words are often followed and explained by glosses in what may be called a Canaanite dialect, which comes very near to Hebrew. But how did the kings of Egypt understand these cuneiform dispatches? It is true we meet sometimes with the express statement that those to whom these missives were addressed had understood them,* as if this could not always be taken for granted. Itis true also that these letters were mostly brought by messengers who might have helped in interpreting them, provided they had learned to speak and read Egyptian. But what is more extraordinary still, the King of Egypt himself, Amenophis 11, when writing to a king whose daughter he wishes to marry, writes a dispatch in cuneiform letters, and in a language not his own, unless we suppose that the tablet which we possess was simply a translation sent to the King Kallimma Sin, and as such kept in the archives of the Egyptian Foreign Office. It is curious to observe that the King of Egypt, though quite willing to marry the daughters of smaller potentates, is not at all disposed to send Egyptian princesses to them. For he writes in his own letters (p. 29) “A daughter of the King of the land of Egypt has never been given to a ‘Nobody.’” Whatever else we may learn from these letters, they are not patterns of diplomatic language, if indeed the translation is in this case quite faithful.t In these dispatches, dating from 1400 B. c., a num- ber of towns are mentioned, many of which have the same names as those known to us from hieroglyphic inscriptions. Some of these names have even survived to our own time, such as Misirim for Egypt, Damas- cus, Megiddo, Tyre (Surrii), Sidon (Sidina), Byblos (Guble), Beyrut (Birtta), Joppa (Yapt), and others. Even the name of Jerusalem has been discovered by Sayce in these tablets, as Urwsal‘m, meaning in Assyrian the town of peace, a name which must have existed before the Jews took possession of Canaan. Some of these tablets (eighty- two) may be seen at the British Museum, others (160) at Berlin, most of the rest are in the museumat Gizeh. Weare indebted to Mr. Budge “See Tablets xXvi, LX, LXIX, LXX XIV. tMy skepticism on this point has been confirmed, for I see in an article by Prof. Sayce in the last number of the Academy that this translation is not quite correct. ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 695 for having secured these treasures for the British Museum, and to Dr. Bezold and Mr. Budge for having translated and published them. To us this correspondence is of the greatest importance, as showing once more the existence of a literary and intellectual intercourse between western Asia and Egypt, of which historians had formerly no suspi- cion, If we can once point to such an open channel as that through which cuneiform tablets travelled from Babylonia and Syria to Egpyt, we Shall be better prepared to understand the presence in Egypt of products of artistic workmanship also from western Asia, nay, from Cyprus, and even from Mycenie. I possessed potsherds sent to me by Schliemann from Mycene, which might have been broken off from the same vessels of which fragments have been found at Ialysos, and lately in Egypt by Mr. Flinders Petrie. I have sent these potsherds to the British Museum to be placed by the side of the pottery from Ialysos, and to our University Museum at Oxford. Mr. Flinders Petrie in the Academy, June 25, 1892, writes: ‘‘Mykenzean vase-types are found in Egypt with scarabs, ete., of the Eighteenth Dynasty, and conversely objects of the Eighteenth Dynasty, inciuding a royal scarab, are found at Mykene. And again, hundreds of pieces of pottery, purely Myke- nen in style, have been found in various dateable discoveries in Egypt, and without exception every datum for such, lies between 1500 and 1100 B. C. and earlier rather than later in that range.” I do not mean to say that this fixes the date of the Mykenean pottery, nor do I wish to rely on evidence which is contested by some of the best Egyptian scholars; otherwise, I should gladly have appealed to the names of the Mysians, Lycians, Carians, Ionians, and Dardanians, discovered in the epic of Pantaur about 1400 B. C.,in the reign of Rameses II; and to the name of Achwans, read by certain Egyptian scholars in an inscription at Karnak, aseribed to the time of Meneptah, the son of Rameses II. What we shall have to learn more and more is that the people of antiq- uity, even though they spoke different languages and used different alphabets, knew far more of each other, even at the time of Amenophis III, or 1400 B. ¢., than was supposed by even the best historians. The ancient world was not so large and wide as it seemed, and the number of representative men was evidently very small. The influence of Babylon extended far and wide. We know that several of the strange gods worshiped by the Jews,such as Rimmon, Nebo, and Sin, came from Babylon. The authority of Egypt also was felt in Palestine, in Syria, and likewise in Babylon. The authenticity of the cuneiform dispatches found at Tel-elAmarna in Egypt has lately received an unexpected confirmation from tablets found at Tel-el-Hesy, probably the ancient Lachish. Here a letter has been found addressed to Zim- rida, who in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets was mentioned as governor of Lachish, where he was murdered by his people.* In the same place cylinders were found of Babylonian manufacture, between 2000 and * Academy, July 9, 1892. 696 ORIENTAL SCHOLARSHIP DURING THE PRESENT CENTURY. 1500 B. c., and copies, evidently made of them in the West. Similar cylinders occur in the tombs of Cyprus and Syria, helping us to fix heir dates, and showing once more the intercourse between East and West, and the ancient nigration of Kastern thought toward Europe. Nor should we, when looking for channels of communication between the ancient kingdoms of Asia, forget the Jews, who were more or less at home in every part of the world. We must remember that they came originally from Ur of the Chaldees, then migrated to Canaan. and afterwards sojourned in Egypt, before they settled in Palestine. on) animale e ciriClitiysmee = eee ae ee 443 BorsiC.- courtesies roms 22sec eee ee See eee eee ee eee A ae 49 Bolivia; exchanG eva@en Gy secs ck oases ere re ree eee ee 50 transmissions: 0 s.2 252, se. cS ae eee ee ee eee Bl By Bolles; Eranls donations ito) 20010 pCa air as ee ee > Biff Bollman Charles Hamreyc ons iyi Ose sei seer eee een eee 36 Bolographic work in astro-physical observatory --.---.-..-----..-......_--- 60 Bolometer; descriptionvO ls. . 22522 ese eee ee ee 32 Bolton, H. Carrington, bibliography of chemistry ------.<2_-- 2.--2-2-2---- 8, 69, 70 Botany, study of atmosphere in relation to 22-22-22 2-- s2s2-5 oe 12 Bottego, Capt., searching for source of Jub River..---..-2---.-:-+-----.--- 399 Bonmuliniversity,,. publicatvons str oniys sees eee ees el 68 Boultonsblissict: Mallett. counbesiesetto mys see en 49 Boussingault on carbonte acid gas .- ee on. see eae ee 525 sbudiles antair bys. tease as oor cin ee ees eee en ee 522 studies in nitrosen*bye.. cose oe eee oe 531 Bow, histonyot, thes Maisomyom ser. esis eye ers eee ae er aa 638 Bows, arrows, and quivers, North American, Musom on....................- 631 BONS ETI ITE Miter CLT eT CUS CO ieee area yee ae 645 soy. den Uriaht Ac, wwallGOt ss eeecsa Ss anaes erly ot te ates aero eee i a 253 BOYS, C-1Vie Os phovoorap lis: ofetl yam oul ets ey eee ee 165 BLASH CATs) At, uP AEA DUS hs O 1 ere sree ene ere eyo eee ae eee 65 Brazil, ex san Gea Gem ys ae ste eae ee Eee ne re ene 5O LANSMISSTIONS 60! F525 Sees Feet, UES are eee ee Dil BPH (5333 BréalaMe, experiments awa themiron bys cee is te eae eee ee 532 Breckinrid se; WiiC2k., recent of Gheplns GG wit0 nis xox Breslau Umiversiby, wpublveabiOms stron eee eee 68 Bricchetu-nobeccehiyAtricany explorations) Dyseese eee eee eee 400 Brinton, Dr. Daniel G., commissioner to Madrid Exposition ......-..-....... 21 On AT Yan 2.5 skis: oS lest eee, oe ee 684 birchiplaceyotehunrianee a Ce gee 602 Mexican calendanisystem= ss === eee 603 the nation Iman lino pOLOg yee as aa eee 589 British Gurana,exchancemcenGyjere= see ees sees ee eee Sa!) {ransmissions tor sss soa. Shas hee oe ee 51 Brown. JohneHarvale, onspindamilonrauloni tes ae 473 Brown, Vernon H., & Co., courtesies from.....--...-- a Pinal Seva Ses See ene 49 BLYCe; JAMES ONMM LRA HON STO fc CeS (Orci CT yeep ee ee 567 Buache; deep-sea, soundinesip yess. ee a oes oe ee a eee eee 548 Buckney, Alicerdonation tor Zooloricalsbarkaaas 54 2se ss 95 ae aoe 57 Birddhism>antro duc edlinmbon@ kage crete ssa cvees ere eae a 698 Buddhists imsRersiaiss- 24 ges S0 sac siete ahs aeons Sate aie ee ee ea 689 Budge, Mr:, oriental. tablets translated Dy -- 2s a ae eee 695 Buttalosbornein:Zoolocicullbaniesseeen see seeee ae eeee eee eee eee eee 58 INDEX. 735 Pago. util OMT ATLONS CAStW ALC es. eee sare tow ese ee Lee nos See eeee wese 584 Buconilaran deus relatvomnuoramoece-lceHli\y sms. a2 as eyes Jee eae eee 487 BNNs Seeketaryss LepOrtOmeysae qo sie ee ma Sole oats als Soe sae 5 Pala arinnpenmnioration ote se re eo oe 22. Paes. skeen 581 eilanep ian COMELCSTCSH 0 OM teers ofa sae or ecco eesti eee eae 50 Bullerimsvot Na tonalyMusenMme tesa. h\.s5--- 052-2545. = 282s 02-- 22-2 aha 36 Burdon-Sanderson, J.S., on biology in relation to other natural sciences ---- 435 BureauTOleAmericankepupliCsrass=ssce == soe sas cee = seas oe eae 2 a 21 GUC atrOnsKe xc ames | Obese ee ersa fees sete aes semua Seer 48 Ethnology, (See also North American Ethnology.) annualineportiOts acc." 22 ome ais nee e Se ee eee 9 COrbespondencerolies: fee enn See oa Pes aoe 18 cletallstonsinan¢ essa sere see a sae eee nese ee XXil, XXXViii (DITECOLISILEPOLt Onl ees setae car eee ce ee eee 38 medalsvaiwaldedstors-o=2 - seis cose Sees nes ae tel 21 [OMI OICRN BONNE Gils AB Sake de oeoweeEooereoosanSoCGe 22 SecretanysmeportiOme -ss2acs a= s 52 ccs sees see 22 Smithon fund expended for-.-- -- SG cr corse gorse es 2 ENTE IO) xOMEINGSS Olin cose Semcon eaeeoouneods ous scceeees bEce 48 Oxrdnancesex chan gestOleee seems sees eee ee see 48 Statistics, exchanges of---....- ease SaaS See Ne AME RE Ey Sige 48 Burgundians, migration of...--..------ eae ae ee Dae i ie 580 Burma, explorations im --.-.:--.--2< Slaps Sarat ea eA URL Seine ek at 406 IBiENere, Ja los Clamiennon To) “Aon aerOAll Ieee eae oe esas came mecses eoadouesbe 57 : ‘OF Galdenoney Olimiacorcourbeste stu; ones = ere te =e ee eet ersr a re aielae 49 Caldwell, G. C., on the American chemist. ....--- er At SSE yy re meee LRN ead 239 (Chlivionemig, Inne liens oOGHoloeny, WNoe =o actin nnn ee BRE en Asocee -Oobeomce ere coos coor 40 OSE VEO GSA bet MM Sok hoe beabas Gececcoeeoe: SHooecqeeece 2538 (Gannlro diam tives kelammensyo terse ees cee ee eet eee eer spe eye mee cy mye ees tre 614 @ameronsshuenwrocs © O- 1 COURLESTES ROM coos ees oso aie Se ee oo eaters nate 49, 50 (Gammebros yo resemte dion be see ee See eee see eee es ee ares crane DG Carnynngilil, IWGe,. OF Jbl OWseyEhiOi yoo sjcasc seep epsseeeoee se odeoseus cocease 110 CHRedA, URIMEMNSTOME WO) .65 + cocones boob congas soS655 soso Conese ease Geen Saas 52 Canary islands, birds\of22- 2-2-2. ss. --)- SgonesHecobendoekee Been oSUooS sasber 468 Gann alismesamonevancestors Of Eins == sees sees a= os ae Sere a Bote 604. Cape Colony, exchange agency ......----------------- betas Se toe oe ee 50 ELAM SUMIESSTONS SU OMe eee sete eae ar Se Seeger SNES Sea eee ean e Bil 5s Cape oh Goodshoper discovery Ob 2 225 -o2scs tee == en ae el 395 Capus, Dr., at Mont Blan ciobservatoryiess sea seas eae Rey aes 260 Do, WMOlecwla HHRUCUMING Ol... -ocobooes oocoes cSedon ease coca eHes coS0 sese 124 DRS MIDSOHOWMOM OF Sons sso scksdsoce et scde cess ssacee mses sede csbsue 5384 Carhonateroilimewarecarotp iy deepisetes: == sree so See aes eae = sae orn 329, 330 @arbonicracld=sproducedsbyshivimpwb eines sas se aso ss ene eee eee el 525 CUECH OI, CON INUEMEHN, YG Se Sas coeoeemenecags SuSuBe bse esoe 5382, 533 Hit QUA S| NASON Mybe: See ae Aen ouneen sence danese CocarSacore 524 SO LIRCES | O lem peas ars re ee stay cen es WS SCT sie = Se 526 Carlisle, John G., member of Smithsonian Institution .......-..------------ 1 Carlton hb donabionboroolocicalibaric assess sso 8 2 ee ale el 58 Carpenter, Mrs., donation to Zoological Park .-2s...-.- ..---- ¢+-----+------- 57 Carranza, Dr huisy onceosraphy of Per .22.2. 2-2-2 on52-- 225 see == - 411 Cariocrapher methods Oteee ss sso acs sae cee sc ae en ss ees see 432 Catalytic substances, definition of ..........-.------------ +--+ +2 ee ee eee 237 736 INDEX. Page. Celtic-races; interation Of t2- 222. ba. een ae ee ee 579 Census’ Office, .exchan ves Of... 2.24 a2. ee eee ee 4g Cenozoic period, durationiofas:8-.. 22 neste a ce ee eee eee eee me 332 Central America, exploratvonssime scan oe ors eee eee Seas 411 Cette;marine biolosicalistationiah S225 se see eee eee eee eee eee 509 Ceylon, the Veddahsiof. ss. 222522 sce aaa ie ieee ee eee eee 613 Challenge expedition, in Antarctic Leg ON Sea. ee ee ea 359, 369 TEV LOW Of o:5 0 soon ee bee eee se oe ee eee 545 Chandler, Mr ondaw, of polar movements\soees- = == see eee eee 82 Variable Stars. ss. oo.eceace, oss sae eee ee eee ete 109, 114 ChanlerMa> seanchino for source ot Julbehnmes === eee eee 399 Chantre,/E.,onianthropometisy ees -e- ees o see oe oe eee 604 Charchani,metrolocicalistabion aijpece se aes eee eee eee 255, 256 Charpentier. M.jonvisualeneactlome= === et mere ois ae oes ene 449, 450 @hemicalrachivity otoreani Zed ib OCes peer oe 236 Compositionlotratmos peri) aii see eee ee 521 effects) of atmospheric Sa8@8 222 jose eee ee ae 527 energy, Drs Wi. Ostwaldionee 2-2 ne ease eee eee 231 the factors Ofs2 422.6258 2 Ae ae ee eee eee 233 investigations aided by Smithsonian Institution ...-......--...-- u pLroduchions;onsoceamsb ot Lome esse ses eee ee 560 sedimentation, estimates of earth’s age from .-...--.....--..---.- 326 Chemist,the Americans by iG. C2 Caldwell iene sas aes ee ee ee eee 239 Chemistry; acricultural, development Of= 225-955-542 — eee ee ee 248, 249 American; publicabions,ONas= oes see hee eee ee ee ee 239 bibhiovraphyrof by He © Boltontee cee eee eae ee OOO physical. developmentioless sess ee eee see eee eee ee 238 bechma Cale avesse cise ace. 2 et eh a eke etc a een oe a 238 Chemists; American-spublieatioms) Dye. oe ce ae rte eee 246, 248 Chemometer,tbeoryao tetera. see = ke eee ae a ee Stee ee 233 Chenault, C. Oy donation torZoolocical atari 2a )) ee ee ee ee 57 Cherokees, sacredstormmlasioty-e2 == cee ae ee ee ee ee 70 Chicago Fair. (See World’s Columbian Exposition. ) Childiminad method sotas tuldiysian oe eee ater eee ee 611 Chile; exchanoeagenc yc: <<< 252s: oes oo Seen ee ee eee eee 50 tPANSMISSIONS TOs. nesses eece. ose oak eee ee eee 51, 52, d3 China, exchange agency, --s.2.-. aa a soar eels ie ee ee eee 50 familly ;system sof COVeENNVe nb ty ecm =e eee ee ees 598 Introduetiontof Budd bis msn GO sees ee 698 MOuUNtAING/ Of s.. 22 2255 jose se see ee eee Ske eee 274 progress'in:study Of... 55.52.26 eos Seas ee eee 689 CLANSMISSIONS TO esccnse Ee Se ee eee ch Oe bee 51, 53 Chineseletters, Babylonian oriciniotes: sss. so see eee eee 692 migration ito Wmited States ae.com ee eee eee 574 miprations, Causes.Of2 22.2. 02s aos. sae eee es eee Se ee 575 Chittenden; ‘Prof. s25: S22. Re ha 252 Bee ote ee ee ee 14 Christmas island) naturalvhistony Gis -42 ee ener = eee eee eee eee 470 Clarke, Tl’. W., work inichemistry: by, =.=. 3sse- 2 ee ae eae eee 247 Clarke IR: Bs donationmio-ZoolocicaliParke sen =5se— = eee ae if Glark-Maxwiell (Profs S22 sais 2 poi see ee re ee ee 119, 463 Cleveland, Grover, member of Smithsonian Institution ............-...-....- 1 Cloissonnée jewelry, oriental oricin) ofa.) .-c eee oe sae ee eee eee ee 603 Cloudy: condensation, phenomena ofes-s-- es se) se ee 201 Coast and; Geodetic Survey, room assigned tOe> see) as ae ee 17 Collen, Henry, plan for composite heliochromy =-2-22----.----- s===2--= == 153 INDEX. (how! Page. Colombia sexchanice -ayoen Cy semreeerries sa <2 )ise Sees sea see ee ae 50 PRA SIT SSTONS TiO met eee Me en we me ee ky Nat ee he oe Sree eye 51, 52,53 Color lindmesss7obser ya blOMS OMe ae cet eyes ee = See ee ee 452 Ofsunsseen throuchicloudywicondensation--s2-- ------4-.2--2--- 225-5: 225 PUEMONTEN AMES LOAM Ete eee ee a een Soe ee 216 GlecloudyacondensainO Mis == se ee =e ea ee ee 214 Colorphotocraphy-byek Ves eae ee aoe ee) ee Sele oe 2 tee eee 151 PR UME Reet eee cae Bee ee ey he TR ee 163 JBC ONRNVATMLOTIKG eer mee, Soe amen ee ee eee Sieh 163 ColomTenserimn Once DORIOUNCS: ets anes seas oe see oo) neces a ee a 609 Colors mm cloudy condensation produced by expamsion ..-....--.-...-.----- 218 Colorado yobsenvialtony, establishedsinwss= = s=—sso5 5-2 = ose ee ee ae 253 Columbian exposition (see World’s Columbian Exposition). Columbian Historical Exposition at Madrid (see Madrid). Comoromslands birds, Of zews sas see sens Sui oe see cL eo ee eee SMe wn cee er 470 Compagnie Générale transatlantique, courtesies from......-...--...---.---- 49 Compressed ait eiiects onvamimaibedite) 2-25.52 -2.2 2552-02-22 25225 =e - <5 540 ‘Condensation, cloudy-acolomphenomen arto he=s === e == ee ee ae 214 PHENOMENA Olessae ase ee eee eee ee ee oe 201 Congressional acts and resolutions relative to Astro-Physical Observatory -- xiii International Exchanges... --- xlil NationalsMuseumesseo--> seo: xhi North American Ethnology -- - xliii Smithsonian Institution ._---- xl Aoolowicall Pate = oes eee xhii World’sColumbianExposition.xli, xii Conway, Mr, explorations among Himalayas by ---..-.-..-..-..-..----=--- 405 Campayave MeconwolacitGebrisi: 02: cee sss oe ae eee ee eee ee ae 290 COOKE PU AMES saViOVaOSs Ole rs wee ashe yt erry tetaiarse tne yet oe eye Steue sh ee ere 356 Cooker) ses papers One ChemisbhyoW Yrs cancer foe eee see seis erates ee ee 244; 245 Cooke Wieaw- Ons pind milion atlOne | 9222 tee esen sees co ee ae Le ee care Solos oe AT4 Coolidceshev- Wi. b.,on ceosraphy of therAlps. —— = 22-22 2-2 +22 Sse2 ee 398 Coopergt eh donation voroolocicaleb ar kee. Soe see. eee ee 57 Coppée, Henry, member of executive committee....--....-.-...-.-.------. X, Mill, x1 RECEMbO Meu Mes Ol GTGLO Mee eee eee Sees eee eats Seema X, X1 CondenuxsjJonnaone bird: mlonTatlOMs seesse aa Se ee ee ae ee te Soe ee 473 CordinllenanyerasialeOZOlC UIE 1M ane ea al ee ee ae eae eine 323 Corduiliierangsea; deposits! Ofa5-.--a2- 28.22 se Fee es ewi-n - 2-2 Soe e eee meee ease 331 hypotneticaleanenOfeen ee teseea tanec tae esas se tee eee eee 333 RaleoZzoilcisedimentspinesessso se eet eee Pet ee seer Sone 312, 321 HOURCCLOIMSECIMEN LS TC EP OSIGe Cele a eee 0 ee eee 313 CordillerasvotatnorAndessexplonab Onno terse seeee sea ese es eee ee eee 411 Coralsmudvandisand estimated banca Mess se yeaa aoe oe ee ee 329 Coxrrespondencesmethodsiot hand ime 2225 - sae =e =e ee oe ee nee inal 18 SeckotarysSeporbONtsse see ee Sa ees Loe eed a asses 18 WOLlis wend. COUTLESTES ERO Mes sare ae ame eee eases eens) ee te Cree eae einai 49 Wostaplu casexchancerac en Cees seme amar ae errs Senet cere seas 50 LAAT SIONS WO conse cooSee corte See ate a Ene oe eaiseonee 51, 53 Coulomb, as unit of electric quantity ---------- Soe eae seme eats sates 148 Wozens-Hardy, Mrs iexplorinoe, Monteneeros-5-=- 52. ---- == ---ss5 ---- ---- = 398 Crain Oloeay, J ROARS We aeas. boas BAC Sa a neds eps caoSeacmes cacao oReSe 607 (Cipaiers, Ihe he IMATION CLES oS cbologbe ee eso oe pe Senor Boe easemore 89 CrockersDr: MMe donationtto:Zo0olocical Park 22--=:22-----2---2-2--4---- 58 Croll bra James Oni ccolo ste bimMei cso: ss fee eset es ot keene eset 204, 250 €ros,;Churles, composite) heliochromy by .-<..: 2:22-=------ -:2-.-----++----'- 155 sm 93 47 738 INDEX. Page. Cuba;exchance-avency.. 2222-2 = Oe eee ae eee eee ee een 50 LEATISMISSIONS LOLSSt a 2% 2 vie kee 22 2 2 cle See Neg ee ae ee ee bless Cullom) Shelby Mj resentiotetheslnstituniony es ss)eese see eee eee ee Xo ek Cunard Royal Mail Steamship Company, courtesies from...-..............- 49 Cuneiform detters} orl oan Ofes soeie tr ice cpa re Ce ee eee) eee 693 Curzon, Mark Persian sma s Dye. see 2 eee eee ne ts oe eeree 403 Cushing FH eH eubmolo cre collections sya ees ee ee 39 on Indianbeliefs ve. 2.22. 32S see as oe Se Se eee eee 23 Indian mythology... 25-22... 2 s-se oe Oe ee eee 41 D. Dakota-Mmolishxdiehiomamyco: oe. see 55 sere see een eee ae teeta ee 24 Dall; Walliam H., instructions for collecting mollusks 23-=----—==-==-- ---—-=- 36 ACV Ss uTM 1S aE ONC OUT STS otek OTN et os aa 49 Dana, Prot. James D> om ceologicbime=aenns ssa se = ee as ee eee 308 coral limestone, = 4.2 Sener as. Sees ee eee 331 coral reef formation 253322. s eesti oe eee 327 IDRIS TCR) Ot oan See oss5adses os aan sees sos ce ses eSsesses5--+ Seesc0 581 Daniels, Byron G-, donation to Zoolosical’ Park 22 see ee bbe bil Darmesteter, Miron Buddhists sin Persian: os 2p oe ss sas ee ere 699 IS) ease yore ra 7] ea Coe ea a 280 Darwane© Warles somes Golo oe seine ener eee 303 DARA, Cason OinaaeaChhiny Om ley Crhel is A= W555 Ane Season oceans Se secd Sosaes5e 335 Darwin, GH. on-earth densitw5- =. a 22e- 2 a2 no eee ee ee 338 Dannbrees AcevOnUC C@p-Searep OSU Us gee ee ee ea eee ee 545 IDPH ARIE IB. aval nenemyceMh Lely Gree nanuvael lye eo 5 oe Ss ceo e so soso cacese ssoe oe Xvill Davis, Miss, donation to Zoological Park. 902022. -s22e2 ssc a ee weer see 58 Davy, Sir Humphrey, chemical discoveries by...--------.----.+-----=------- 241 Dawson Ore Georwe Nie om @ amen ams @ ce TGS ee ae ero 325 georraphy, of Canadan sset ese nee eee 409 Paleozore rocks and sedimentt: 22 —=s-— 5-2 aes 322 Dean, Bashford, on marine biological stations of Europe -......--.--------- 505 Déeby, M. de, photographs of Caucasus Mountains by-..-------------------- 398 Deep-sea deposits, A. Daubrée, on-----.------------------------------------ 545 Carbonate. “areas: Ofes-- -. 3 sees 5s e8 te eee eee 329 h0L JUNIE VRO KOIKE = AA keer coos facts coooSs bs soe aod e sce ses 368 OfsMebCOTC OL cane syste er eee eee 557 WOCRING OMMEHNN stan 5 coc oee os esos cause ck ocseesrescsooc 555 Deep sea exploration......-.-.--------------------+-------+-------++-+---=-- 413 Dehérain, sbudies Im nitrogen Wy 22 -- 25 sa. 2- sig ee eee 531 Delegates from Smithsonian to universities and learned societies. --...----- vay aly/ Dementer- 1., anvhropoloeical papers: Diyos == -=ce == eee ee 604 IDYermanehells,. (rcelnOnnkers) HANAN ae a5 sae ose sue ono eon aoa Sasssase csSsso% 50 ELAN SO SSO MS sbOr Ses see a eae ee Dil, 52,08 Density of steam, effect of temperature on ...--.-------------------------- 208 WIOCHiY) Manes esaese cos Menno anon SaOnOs acer ese esosS cbs csotmc 336 Department of Justice, exchanges of ..--.-.-.--.-------~-----------+-++---- 48 Mabor exchanges) Ole= 22. eee see eee eee ee 48 Deserts. LeLrribony, COVeLedsuDyewer ene] a. eens ee air 271 Dewar; Prof. liquefied air drozen’ by ..-- 292-2. = = see 2 se ee ee er 187 on magnetic properties of liquid oxygen. .----..--------.---- 183 Dewey, Frederic P., catalogue of geological collection....--..------------- 36 Diabase, density of, Barus and Hawes on..-.-..----.----------------------- 336 Dianiond, molecular StruchunresOlssssn =. sees ee = see ee ee 123 INDEX. (a) Page. Diez, WieRNOlONTC WN. WOMEYSOG! Olin = 655 Became pees Gene eeeee se ose eee ee pesoloe 355 Dinwiddie. Walliam, areheolowic researches bys. 22. 22---- 22222 -2--- <== - 23,39 Dohrn, Dr. Anton, director of Naples Zoological station --....-...-.------ 15, 16, 513 Dombasle, Mathieu, on function of carbonates in earth.-............-..---- 5B4 Darminas, WaNereey@rn Tm. Tel Oye OMIN@SSWS 6-8 -heece soc ces coeses Sasa eseosenoneeee 580 DOEHAn UMIVErsitiye PUIG ATLOMS ir O MMs eres eerie ee ee eee ee eo 68 Dyoresvany, Gio ANS. Ona imexeiroyoNhig) @ie AN@ Oia, HED San eee oes eee aoe seco oaocode 603 Dorsey, J. Owen, Dakota-English dictionary by ----. .---..-...-..----------- 24 Oe Woden dams pea eee cee ae eet tee arse alsa ls amarante 602 Tbaebienn: Ino Wench cor se eee one emacs Joooseecns cane 40) Inn ehat THRE cone eee eeeers ascores= Se een AO aSE An sete 43 OmahaminciiangartowiSkes sss oe 4 eee ee eee 672 DAPELSe bites eee sets ae ees Se ee eae eae an ee meet ome 616, 617 IDOE, JOM, Whiicn wronelis sai, ClaenmlsAy A )\jenoeSses5 ease ess] 555 oce5 Hoob Coe See 243 Dub lmsUmiversity-DrswWellimcadelecaterv0)s==- sss seer sae ses see ees ee nee IZ DUDOSCORSpCCELOSCOpPesUSCUUD yaw ry J aMSS ene === es ee 261 WirclauxesVinsTexp erimenbtsibiysscsaqe- aeeese sc eet scet leeeea oe bees ee Seoee 530 Duhauron, Ducos, patent for composite heliochromy -......-.....----------- ° 154 Pinmacsatiditesmneatnbyeso= ase ene a | PSS baie Oe eRe eek ae els 522 Dumas a Bs QuMObeds a cat.o see Sosa oe ors Gos Sass ee esos Set lns oeaihewe ee oe 544 Dum OnieMepACon mata luby cme brane e)= == .=ea sss ise reas es cine teeteeys 603 Dupont, M. Edward, fauna and man of quarternary epoch -....------.------- 628 Dushimaironew iMsirument fon esting. << (522222 ee fe ee alee eos 226 ID wel (GaMnIENEY, endo) NEN NEXe AIRE Ch eine tae acoo5 seorec ote ons Se nese ceccocjceaues 50 HrLAaNsmMisslOnssbOwecken ease ee ee ee ae eee nos een eee 51 MNIGNCM TO INOWIO AVNGINICR a= a5 toes decboo soseus ¥so5dueseqSaneac * Byet3} Duties on articles imported for National Museum.-......-----..--..----- ORG, 30:0: Deri, Cayling Goel os cao coondb hos She sac Go05 scas seeds cees as eoascs Gepede 287 EK. Fanbh pellet otmancrents) as) bOrLonml: Olieee ase ema ees ee nearness 354 Bajbngsna ess yaoi dalenevand ablOner species ts oo ea eee epee ieee emai 349 GOMIpaALed mwiitligs WMA OO me tease een ene een Cee [seers oe 351 OMCIUISTONS Wass b Oke aes ere oe © ane oe Se ees Benes Bol, d02 HUSH PLN A OXC HAN CLAD ON CY. ssscer aoe ein oe Beene aera em = ee ener 50 GRANSTANT SST ON See lO sens sree airs oes eee are ee ere eer 51,53 [TOMA NMS, IP Ro, orn Colom [Minnie coe oe ese eee eae See Beas Se nesooe onee 452 WewadomrexcliamG ea COM CV ame sees a= as aera ie es) eee ne 50 ERAN SMUISS TOMS eLOR Sse acto arene es eee Oe ren Sears een Sera einer sae 51, 53 Editor’s report on Smithsonian publications. .-...-....--.-..---.---------- 69 Behivenalsy, Jaleavey MGUlnG, yO olny? Ole asses esq5sses5 baoeeo oe sdos cos oar 709 TE Gh EHRs}, dio Io, Cowen WO Aoolomieel| Rae 252 son Sao oo6 Se 5255 coe sso coceee 57 Bakar, Wiulieiin, IMReMen WmysOKOE 6 s=san5 soe S5eces a5ecsoecse oseur Gaul LANA O, OXCMAMGS AGEN) ss00 cn ccocusuecsoenncses ase acess ses caso oseneS= 50 SAHIN Cit WINK TNs soseooemos cae asaeees 6 obasoo sooo cusdeoose 97 UEC iA itreayokeraverais) NS Saas oases 6 Soe e seeds ah ooon docoaesocde 702 DIRT TN SUI, Ol ae= ds caosan Sses seo oe Sees poceecae aaaa soeceac 688 CEANSTNSSTONMS Ret O Mesa eyes yest ean eran ae rea ay elena, Meee Sie oe eee 51,53 Egyptian and Semitic languages, relation between-.----------------------- 686 Coin, ISAosvikomenr Gyaveay Wit. ss ceseses pede sacs seaoo eed Secor 98 SUE AWOVESI OUD) Sie aebla tie pho Soe beOe ea aRme Sn eee ese eee Soriooda sens 101 Hey OES). Aingl PVA me Boos RbAd Sooo sete eeedeaad pS cosos= ese 95 WOUND OH Hae lM cos coe o Beos see eS eee peed sretcosp ese 100 Electric-spark photographs of flying bullets........----.------------------ 165 740 INDEX. Page. Wleetrical measure, units Ofese sc. oe eee eee eee ee ee ee 146 Naam lehanoneyl Iojoyistlaxsn iol Ona Se ase Siscgs Sess teneds peSeeek 444 Hlecirifie dis tear esx er ime ribs jaye ieee te ete 201, 202 Elkins, Stephen B., member of the “‘ Establishment” .......-.-.-.---------- ix Hilliot: Scott, African explorations by22 2-2. s-oees- = sen. ene eee eee ee 400 Niioth Brothers-calliviamomveversy i: Oris sess te oe ee ee 65 Hnereyv-chemical srs Wis Ostwald Ones see nes ieee ee ee ee 231 rPadient, i VestiGatlons gdMlse. spe ee see ee eee 7 SPCC; Of LOLS aDISMS sees eas ee eee ean ee eee a ere 446 Bnoland marines bio] ooGalles tal Ons) 1g ate ae ae ee 510 HnalishiChannelssunveved tor tunnels a= sas a2 eee eee 552 MEASUTES WAM Wel O MGS se seas estar era, wae tae See ee ee ee ee 141 AN Ot a:b 1 OM OMIN Oita eT Alea pate ee eee 583 Equatorialzeurrent; morthermere==- == 2224 >see sees == Bain A EOE SOE 268 Eratosthenes onearhhis) cimcumileren Ce siete ese Sea se eee eee 354 Emistalis tenaxsandeits relation) Gomi oom lanes = seas ate opera nents 487 Bidens Whoa ersviny, pw OMMOEHAKITNS TKO SS s665 65566 Secon Soe es Sheceassess- 68 Eskimo arrows Mason On 5-2-2022 -2- ceca: -e ko hoe eee ee ee eee 65 DOWws a MasonJon7csssh24 see ees See eee Predera ee cer eee 640 of Anchic Americar oriciniof e255 22s. os oe a ee ee eee 583 HspriellanUStoOuhin Ges ane COUTGESTES | hnO eee yrs eee ee 49 Establishment, Smithsonian; memibersiotics 2-05 esos oe ee 1 PLOpPoOseds chan Pepin se a— eee es eae XVil Hthnography, linguistic classification an —--~ "25-226 222 594. RERUNS Cans palo a bl ONE Olesya ae ae er eee SE ee eat ar Sees SS oe 579 Hpymolocicalisidyevalue Ofsse=s= =e erases. ea eh ES eee SEPT A= 683 Exchange bureau (sce also international exchanges), appropriation for...-.. 46 detnilsiok iiiancest senses eee ene eee 26, 46, xxi, XXX1x listsof\correspondentsse mec o ce sete ee eee eee 47 official documents sss eee es Se ee ae eee ere 47 report Of cCUTatoL_ Obese - peer oe sso ee 45 statement of Government exchanges .....-.-.2-.-.-2-2-: 48 tabmlan-statemenibrok wok s-seses=- =] = see] eee eee 45 system, international, Secretary’s report om --------------------- 25 Executive committee report to Board of Regents ....-...---------------- xiii, X1x-xl on finances of Astrophysical Observatory .xxxlil, XXXix international exchanges --..XX1, XXXVill National Museum. .---- ---- XXI, XXXVIiil National Zoological Park .. .xxxv, Xxxix North American ethnology --XXil, XXXViil repairs to Smithsonian build- PING rapes ee ee ees | Eee XXXL, XXXIX Smithsonian Institution. xix, xxxvill, x1 Expenditures, detailed report of executive committee -.....----.---------- xix—x] Sechketany Sie pont. Ole eases = eee ee ee eer es 3, 4 Explorations under Smithsonian Institution. .......----.---------- Seis A 7 Ey iHalsany Meco lacier-measurem eitss bynes ee ee See e ee ee ee 297, 298 Hara: aswnih Olelechric-cap alti y aso eee oe ee ee ee 148 Mewes. Js awa COL On LO llKelom eles ss are aia ae eee 604 Finances of the institution, executive committee report on.--.--.----.----- xix-x] SeChetaLy Seep OL be ONe se: eee soe ee eee 3 1A) Okpamrawyissiern, Wi Sh, COONAN mG Walt so sk55 5526 Sess bonese a asse dose SoSe 22 INDEX. TA1 Page Hishes method (Otelocomno tom 0 hee ere ae eee eer ete rere ate ree er 502 MoeiMe, Cools amdl en ONiceotsan sssocsss oes sce acess ease Ssese 36 Hletehere Musson ebhinolooys reeset sess e eee 604 Hier Pelix, agent in Leipsic. ..-9.- 22. < 2-252 ab... 2-2 e+ Aaa 49 Flying, problem of, by Otto Lilienthal .-..-..-.--.---.---------.---------- 189, 195 (See also AéGrodynamics. ) Flying bullets, electric spark photographs of .--..------------------------- 165 IN@lkil@ma, Ging) MAIGHOM, ROE OM noes Ss sees] shee ceecer csereme cen cass asec 604 SUMMMMIAy Oil [DROS IN, Sok SSS eS eR ea eeos oadecsesbs eat doe He ae 625 PORDE, mornnen IME QE scaes cnanee cece eeoses se seses soe eme Sore Guna eee 381 ORO G te ArT COME LESTE Se (EOL ae eaeiee as oe 2 e-em a =, Se et 49 Hossimibodies,noreami7e des ORlon Ole =a =e a= see ee tee 549 Foster, Charles, member of the ‘‘ Establishment” -.--..--.-.------+---.--- ix Foster, John W., member of the ‘‘ Establishment” .._._.......----/.------- rox Foster, L. S., bibliography of George N. Lawrence -.--..------------------ 36 Fowke, Gerard, archologic researches by --.------. .---------------------- 23, 39 TTRAMGS, CERCA O18 WO OWUERNO NI = oo boon oes Saea = eset aac be eeed asence= 609 ESCO NEVE) IRON cans = 52 Sno osseaaseees seco s> Bacacone anaes sees =seseqe 50 Teneo ONONO ACA SHRNOKONS TN 5 Seo sabe es cass soe sss sassecosooee d07 (HEATON ENOUNG) UN aman Sue e eee ee hee Sor ae qe aes Ane Seo ccec - 51,52, 53 Franklin experiments in atmospheric electricity ----.- .-------------------- 15 TimikS. TGR lees (oe Soe eee tees oceies ale see Soe ber Sad Se Boose ooecopore. 580 Proven Wniversity, pwolications tLOM ==. 25/2. 22550 Seems cece Se ee =) a 68 Ereichtiand cartage, expenditures for... 22 2--=.2-. 2: .-2722-2-2-2: 22. XXVil, XKXV Hrenchen esWsrdonanlonihorAOOlo ci celal ait Kose = ss eer aerate dT Piel miMkereAn MCL Whe) NON N /ANNIOMORN A 2b 55 oe eee se Heep aoe oso coesdooe ease 583 reshiveldssDouelas ou sombhenmeAl ses seem e= eee eset = ol seat SaooG0 Soeoee 395 OAC Tho TMISIOIN sos oconsscad saSmessseeon eds Soo booees Sans Hess 628 Geologic periods, time ratioof .-.......-------=---------------------+--+---: 331 tating, Claaidles ID. WW alle@nb Oise 255 sb2556 Sb oc eee ese ss oo geno eee 301 @larence sKamcso nme =e = ees fe ee a2 2 neces esses 335 Gur OTTy Ofan |) O Su AUR @ ers ane ae eee ea )efe 332 99 ney oy WIMMER MONG Re sp US coe neans coo Sen BeSEe aE eee S8on=s occ oo 742 INDEX. Page Geological physics; Barusione-2----s- se eestor as seo eee eee aie 300 Geolopical Surveyay Wim se5 1 COO Pere tO TU ayy Ue ee eee ae 22 exchanges Ofecs = 222554 ae eee cee ee ee eee 48 Geological’strmcture ofsthe;Sellainkp inane ees sa cee ae eee 322 Geology.of Antarctic recions2- 22 =... 2 52> seer ee eee eee eee eee 360 Germany.;.exchange agency = -. 2) ee eas ee ee ee 50 TMAET IE LOL GaGa bebe eee 517 TEANSMISEIONSSCO Ss 2S eee Se ie eee 52, 53 Giard) Prof. at Wimereux biolocicalystailong=ss= =e eee eee eee 507 Gibbs deawallandstonyeh emi cal em ei ova ee ee 233 Gibbs;.W.., «workoin chemistrye bys. seca e ote ee een ee eae eee 243, 245 Gibsons sand all vee bio sme boys beeen ere ean ee ate 33 Céeathtohe es veh eae sc eyes oe a ee 2, 33 memorial and resolutions on death of ..-..-.......-.- xil Giessen; publications Mom sso= = wares Cee ees ae eee eee 68 Gilbert; 'G."KF onvlunaricraters:aas-c2e =) see sea ee ee £9, 91 Gill) Dey Wancey Wi, archeoloricmesearchesibyee-s- ee = eee eee eee 39 illustrations bya. 2225 Sa oe eee 44 Gill, J. Ke von Indian llamo wa cese 2222 =e oes eee = eee eee tees 42 Gurard. Dis. Charles) jorbo carver liye lee sesso eee eee ee ee 36 GlacialydGloris ans Wiibe des tates eyes eee eae eee tee 281 erosion Of lake basing. 2.22202 2.4 ee Se eee eee eee 286 man in; Americasevidiences Of <2 sass --- ee ee eee 603 origin of Swiss lakes 222 + 22 8-2 os ees eee 2A ee epee 286 theories, As. Wallace One c2 5 ¢ os fate ee eee ee ae 277 Glaciers, -Amtarctica: 23 35256 ee fs Pe ee eee eer ree pete 362 deposits) of, widely scattered ear e =a eee eee 217 Himalayan’ 2" = saeco 242 Harrison, Benjamin, memberot the ‘“Hstablishment”-22-.. 2--------= ---=-- Ix donaiionstorZooloe ical bam kes yee ee ea P 57 Harrisons) 5 One Comationnuorool ogi all bam keenest eee 58 lnlemmsloewiexese, ID ie. dio Wag Cin JNMnerai erin SNEWS bese ne noes ceo eeeecac see see ce 620 Harvard Collere Observatory, money givem to.-.=:.-....---..---..-=.----- 253 IMMOOM PHO LOSrA Pls Os eee eee er ilT/ Dhotoceraphs: otal olemsudies eee ee 76 Heat, and pressure, GUStrIbMtLOnso tena ae a et Mad eee EC 5 ae 337 BOLATe ELE UNO Lb 20 Teese eer ee a a Sec ry gle een Series IPA NIP WATE Or WM MASMMEINON =a ooscces sous oceeas Hees CobE Osse sooo cssone 128 Heating and lighting National Museum, cost of......-...-/------------- XXIX, XXX lehnewa lan cuaee. onion Ota 5 sie ee eee ota ee nea Ran eee 688 Eeidel unos Uimmversttiyan puUlolac at tOns sti Oni ees: =e ney eee eres eee 68 HelderZoolocicallstationydescriphiomiot ss ss-5 ons 4 4se oo) eee 512 Heligoland}marime biological station at -.s23.2222525-:. 22a: lose: es D17 EHeliopolisrancientauemiplesmatiess ae sme eee ser i eee ee eee eer 96 IGN nell, ioENNG ere Ose waVOIeIaN JOM VENONMOAR S20 osc ogs4s 554 a= sess see6 cee ecee 442 onvheatrotebhier stim tenn a ee enn ee, ee ene SE eee 121 jdl@lhonin@l hing.) wont, Die, 18le Gomes ar NO Sea ee een Get aaa e Sc eis an 13 Helmholtzahe euech or elecurictthy on steam =. = 2.2 esse eee] 26s a2 ree 201 Helsinefors) Universiiye publica tons tnO Meas se= == ees ees eee _ 68 Hemenwayelxpediuifomexhilbtts ate Madrid... 92 =... 24 -ae 2-2 ees = 21 Henderson, J. B., member of executive committee -.-----.--..------------ 2G AURIS Receninotetiemins blu O Mlle eee ss eee ee eer eer a, SI Biemnalensonl 6s, BRO. COMPANIES) ION -54554 6a5500 snbooe seene sone a eeu eu Se cooc 49 Hendley Machine Company, apparatus from--..-.-.----..------------------- 66 Henry, Joseph, contributions to science, by ----.----------- --------------- 148 FOUN GRE SENG To. \iVOnAlOPsNite 5 Sees ooo osodes aaecece 10 T44 INDEX. Page. Henry as unit of electric-inducthion. =" gos. s ep ee ee eee 148 Henry Brothers} lunarsphiotocrap hist bya. s sees eee ee 94 Hen yeyErince, Hem ava a LOL. vO yielOre SO lee ee 355 Hensel]. Bruckmann & Lorbacher, courtesies from ........-.-..--- a RE Se 49 Henshaw, ui We. ethnolomic collections ibyysss 94-20 eee TALE 39 on! Indian sociolomy:2 Sect ae oe ee ne ee a ee 40 Sy Monymay, ots Indian bribes = 5 aa ey ee ee 43 Hereditary auc quoi sLOnS Ole binds ane = ee ene 481 Herulians; milorationOt 2208 | aeke yaceg scar aoe es ene ee ee he ee ee 580, ELSA Nir = 5 OTe Mery Clatlensrass LAT OTe TSG GS eed ea nee 40 polysynthesis of American Janguages..-.-.-..--....--- 603 study-oflroquoiandAnona cess \p == see ne eee 24 TeGiM Ja th aeio9 os evesiCOMaMelbyeanlsinaM, \faceseensoc ds cee oneasop-doss cocoon eocoe 249 illersy Je chance rote plo FO Oma kul Cay Oy keene a ee = 44 Himalayas asia barrier LO Mle TAblONS OM Ie Iss aes ees eee 577 exploravions amon eo] VClers) Of sans 5 sae se ee 405 Intl WeN'GeOneaLMOSPNERCls aaa =a a= Se eee 273 Histoloey Morin) Ofsesc ce aac es, cae eae ae cee ee eee Cee eee eee 442 Eod'ge se eaWe bib Om sla ames ten CS eee ee eee es ee 43 rela S bord Cire hO Mee sa ere eee ee 621 Hodekins, Thomas George, biography of, by Secretary Langley --.---. .--.- xiii, 33 cCharachenistlcsiO lees === == ee Xiv death Of: 23. 522 sie So eee Oia 16}, 33! cift to Smithsonian Mistibubion = 2-22.) ees mee, 3h, (9) POLULAT LOL AD \peldlacd Clea ee ee eee xv, 10 odo lins find aid dit ro is thOks Soe ay soe oe a ee XVii correspondencesrelanmestose-= se a: eases ee ee 18 CTAUCS MLO ML & 2 t= ey eee AE ee Nel Ee he eee ee ae ee ee 13 Secretary Ss LePOLtION: eas 85 ofa eiee te nee ee eee 10 PLIZES; Cir Culark am O VINCI Oye ee eee ee 10 supplementanysern culm sse= se = eee eee 12 medaliorthejomithsonian ins ttublon sss. ssee ae ee 11 researches: aimip orbamcCeron ss sek eee ae ae eee ee eee eee tt Hohnel; Mieut. searchince forsourceroh Ji ehiyenes sss =e ee 399 HMotiian Dr Wee omlndtameb elietis= ee = = 2-122 Seen ee es eee eee 23 GrandeMicdicinelSocietyas. 2 eee eee 70 InoKahie ny mylar ol EWI EVO = 5S ee ae one sek caoaoe Je 22555 38 Holden) Prot. on lunariphotornaply=sssss eo saseee eee ase eae ul Folland mranin esp tol oorealistarbyouis mes se ee 512 Holmes Wah. archeolocrcall nesearchesmyesses = ses ete ee eee 23, 39 on primal ‘shaping ants’. 742206 s45 eos = sa eee eee 602 Hommel, Mx. on origin of Epyptian cultures 2-25.) -- 222. fee ee a see 98 Hommel! Dre onSemiteszandvAniyase. == hoe ser ete ae ee ree 684 Honduras exchan evar eney —<-c cst os 28 oe ee ao Soe ee eee 50 tLANSMISSLONS COv 2 os Bees oe saps a a ee eee 52, 53 Hookeshobertcom lian cralersaees se s-oes pene ee oe eee ae ees 90 Horsexearlyex tinction Of neAni CTC ae een 584 HorsfordshaN- workin chemistry bys. ae] sees ee ene oe eee 248, 245 Flough; Walter; on)éthmoloow es =a. a ne ae sa ee eee 604 Shields andsarmor.- =. 522220 see eee eee eee 631 Houchton Reva samuel onkeco)l ooic times see ae eee eee eee eee eee 303, 332 Hovcaard ieut-, onisiberian explorablons === ee === eee ee 397 Hubbard, Gardiner G., on relations of air and water to temperature and life. 265, 628 Eb panads Ji. Gree pO to or carp Ewe wv, OTe 1 see 66 Hungary; transmissions to sees: shoo ee eee re ee eee 52 INDEX. 745 Page ns smuorahlOons ny Centrale bunOp ems amare c= Se aloe alate ee eee 581 Ini SLCELY 1 OM CALDONICRACI AEs emeeres eles airs fe oes SS = Says ise aoe ele 526 WOLD Kone Chemis bye ivgrersya peers oe iseeee == ras soe ee ne 243 Islme@lomag, lero Ch Oh, (leneuZsnil eres) (oO Se = 2S cee ooo Scene pee see cae eeee iD PAN LOM re UNES eOMME OS LOLS Oil CRU Cpe as ee eee ee ony oe = 302 Is Ub adkeny, eons, Oral. CINENNELS Tm CIRC AWNNO WHE 2 Lee ans oc SIRO Drs ice Ne 321 Evaro cen evermimat tonne cl Cm ib yaO lene tee yas ee eee fi TMOLECMIAER COMP OSLUTON O heme ere etree eae = ee aes Se 130 HiydnogaphicrOincerexchame@esy 0 femmes eal as ee ap er ee ae 2 ee 48 Ehyeiene sn relationstoatmospherievaire 22-2 ee eae eee ee Soe ee 11 Hyneman Or. 1D. Mj donation) to) Zoological Parks: {-=2: 2222-2 2-2... 2.2. 57 fe Meema cre ai eel ts a WOT Kp byes Ate Nie | Vee UCC Seas = oo. ssa eae 397 Jackson, ©. Ih., researches 1m Oreaniei chemist yea ses ee eee 247 Janssen, J., establishing Mont Blane observatory -.-.-...---...-...--.--.-- 259, 260 observations) by, at) Montblanc = sess. aa ee 261 EH Nee Endo Me nMetey GK e Coeaed sono cS cos coeUSorsanse onan Seescosdo betes ce 50 tLANSMISSLONS: hice 2 fae lo ee Dre ee se ee 52,53 Japanese Current; movement OL: 222 2F Ase etek ee oe ee ee 268 Jastrows Morris, on folklore 2 22sec ees Bee ooo eee 604 AV POX CH AMO OVA COM CY: ater a ams yaf = oe = Se ity ee eee 50 AGroey Warr wereswiinyn | QU KEEN MONS GUNN ie oe ciges Sas eno sss soe S282 Soa 63 EWS; OLUSIM Of MOM CIM in ae eee eae a er 613 orieinal home Of 2ic J. Ssccsee Sees oxen ee eee 696 Johns Hopkins, Uninersiby., public abtOns hme = eee ee ae eee 68 Johnstons Williamyr re 7 enh ofblerins tt uilom, pee ees eee XaEXcleee) Joule asmunibof electric.wOLrk -2 S225 2-2 se cee ees eee eee eee 148 K. Kahler, Moh. rocksaltidenses rome. -2- sees ere oe oan See ee eee ee 65 Kelvin; Word= on} eeolocicy time se e— = sae sae eee eee eee eee 335 molecules im thee therss- 222. ease see oe eee eee 129 Kentucky, clacial bowdldersam’ = 25-2 eee ee eee 282 Kereuelen, Mi de; explorations Dyn o-22 0... 2-5 a eee ee eee 356 Kern, Wee donation=to!Zooloricall Parkas s-sse =) eee se eee 57 Kidder: Dr. J. 3H. bequest of 25... S22 eee ees ai ee ee EORONGT TR KreliWUniversity,, publications trom) sees ee hee sae oon eee oe eee 68 Kine; Clarence, on aerofy ble earl seston 235 geolocical investigations: Dyeesee epee see ee eee eee 411 Kone.) Dr: sonvcolor pLimdness\s eases ee sae ee 452 RoniesberosUmiversitiyy pu lee ait iors) fa Oi at eye eee oer ee 68 Koniscone tor bes time; amo wm Oster dirs try nen i see oe el 226 Konow slows secretary: 5, le tbe ein one yer ese ee iets eet eee 18 Korea, exploratiomsin: 3: sssescsee> ao .Gaecse 556 See eee eee 407 LEON OE TS Ghassan) DES eee ekeoea nose se soa se eeee beehocoe soseeece 603 | [Grebe Dies BNC nb aves SPM yO MSUEIE A456 See he 5 onc ceo ecto coon sopSbe sacencss 399 KouroshiwO urrents smn Oveime nity Oiless ress aer eeer ae e e aeee 268 L. Lacaze-Duthiers, Prof. de, biological stations establishe:l by......--.------ = 507 WalkketG enlew ais) oa: Chea ral Oat ne Ost rae en eee ee 299 Takes s-valle yr) Sacral Orono te secre eae el ele area eet 289 INDEX. (47 Page, Lamont, Daniel S., member of Smithsonian Institution. .-..--..-.--..----- 1 Langley, 8. P., Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. ..........--.--..-- 12, 18, 14, 16 EXPELUM CMESeiNs ACEO Crys aI CS ase Sees ene 6, 69 investigations imashro-physics, =... 2222. 2-5..-.0- 2) 4.52 -5. 7 MEveOLOO ONCAIESUUCUCS meres Seer aren pene te ee 6 report on Smithsonian Institution ...-.--..------ Sine 1 : MAS EMIRE NES) 1 SOlene GINGA? Sasane soccer oa ede sade eer eases oe ol anomMacey Science Oi EroressoreMax Maller Ome sese= eee aes ae 683 [ana ces Anny aman (ays Cmibl Ca. a O'Or Ole sere ieee ae ea et oe 685 Lankester, Prof. Ray, biological station established by -----------.--------- 510 Wap PALenuvAncdovOnes COLO tine epee cae cere ei Ses eee ear 308 Warmers Ga .onablonstov 00] Ooilcally banker e. oe sess seas eee sys ate 58 Papimdecrandslonortimdecimenneap ana kim Oe ssa lee: sere = eee eee 421 MAVOISTeErAlMWemMUS Ube Malm CLO xO CMe = — eee es. Sele ee ee 522 lawrence Georte Newbold bibliographies Ofias.. 2s saris oe oe eae ae = 36 eow vibes papers onachemistry yy saeco sees ees oe sacs eee nee as eee sare 249 eteévre -Anare- on beliets of ancient Greeces_---. 2-2. 2-2 ee. one eee eee ' 625 persomaillnvertiygee eco ene nee oes ee ae arenes 598 Weipzlostini versity. publicationanrom.2=. 222652222 = estos. eens esos 68 Menethyandanass, fundamental standards of). -5---2222- 22-225 22-52 5-22--5-- 143 IL) Oe), see ae ee eee eee 602 lacie im, AMM eri caesar ele eee = ose ie ea ear eee 603 home of original races ‘of 22 sso s225-= nee ae ee ee eee 684 migrablons) Of RAcesrotis. = 2222 Shee seen ee ee ee nee 567 Manouwaier; -, on! weile hiborecere bellum =e ee ae eae 603 Mantez: José; courtesiessfnom! .. ss 8ee so eee ee ee ee eee 49 Map making, methods ofssi-. 2) 5 ne ee ee 419 Marburg University, publications front 495-5 sece= sesso eee eee 68 INDEX. 149 Page Maroy-phie on Locomotion of ditierent amimals s5-222.-4-4-- 222554) 2825 65-2 5OL Marine biological stations of Europe, Bashford Dean on ...-..-----..----- 505 Manine=Hospitalusernvices excllamoesiol ss. ss 4-55-42 > Sas nae se 48 Meankham=eClementsehcen Ole SO COOTAD I Var aoa acas oa see oe ee eee ee 395 Marseilles;marine biological/stabion at --.- 22 --22.--22-.2-2--- 252 5--- s--=-- 509 Marshaberots ONG -unomiimates) ltrs iit oS eee cs ee e enue aso ee eee os 14 Marshycollechonsols enorayvimes and etehimms 2) aan snes ake ee S) Mason, Otis T., on North American bows, arrows, and quivers..------------ 63 summary of progress in anthropology -_-2--5-..-=---------: 601 Mathews susie, aonations, torZoolocicall Park=-- 2. = --2--- 2-25 --- == 57 Mabthewis Dre Wi Ons Nanya) Or SONOS mera. eles. ny slns = oot e se ee oak S Sse a= 603 MEH US exc DANO Cra GEN Cymee eee eee Seti cae ee eee Sens Sa 3 se et 51 Meer Mp hy SOLO CistsalldmphySlCiStnsssee =o oa 4) a = eee | eee 443 Mersurneselectrical umiisiot-sseeeeree <5. oo ee eee es eae oa Nee 146 fundamental unitsiof; Mendenhallons-ssss. 22-222 +--+ 2422542522 = = 135 IMIGHSUIRES a Wiens .cO TCO 10 fase sine Basen ere Lio Seren 2 Senn een 142 Medals, awarded by Madrid Exposition to Smithsonian Institution. -_.. ---- PAL National Museum ...--..----.-- 21 Bureau of Ethnology. .-..--.---- 21 Hodokings of the smithsoniam Instrimbions=+2-2 92-5 see eee == =- Hal Medrawhistonyg Ohana ass nome ee tose coete ene a Sateen mk ee a 689 Medicmeamons primitive people, Dr. Bartelssom 22222-22522 2eses--2-===- 621 Memplisyancrenbtivemples athoc= 52 ce enehe ae eee eee oe eee 99 Mendelecitebresi dente s.. ins ane Soe see oe eee See Se a ee eee 18, 245, 246 Mendenhall, T. C., on fundamental units of measure..........--...--------- 135 Meni byerso me Wir erm On atl OTIS MUI OC Sass ae a eee eee 473 MencerwHeC-Onvaror ll texqim@arries te sa.erse she ee esas me a por eats Seana as 6035 Mesozoic pemod duration Of seaman 2g ee ae. le a2 ee 332 (MiPNy SECU PANU SI eee ee aad ocosHte SSoG ESCs Boe aoe See 311 MEeheoricroricimvyot deepEsean Ge posits: 52 seme ae ee eee iaee ane ee eee 557 Met eonitessexp OSTONObsm see ye ace oa er eae Nae ens aoa ote ieee eo eet Se Se 558 PHenomMe non ote t allo tee ee ener ei aS eye ar eee 558 Meteorological equipment of Arequipa Observatory .-.---.----..----..----- 254 Staion bie hie hes pemu then wiOrl deers sees eee ee eee 253 SUG OFISS Jeo bentllGyy Bec ease ees caeecesioas sIas ees eee 6 TAMIESe OS MNb NS OMe eae Pee eee ee 28 li ee a ee 8 NIGUTICEGOMVeMh] OM bbe LYM etl Oi ai ese ers yee eens ey ee yee ee ee . 144 SyStomradvaNbares.O ley ca eseces = easy ase erter. ho cea gn Cee eee eee 139 Meteorology, immelationstoabmospherie alts]. sss se ess sae eee ee eee 11 OGECAMT CRAM as tome Cae Sos meee at ees ee ee AD 412 OLPAMIGAT ChUC ELC 01 OMS) sa ecac as eesti wre ee oe ee Nee ee ae 362 NIGROLO TS ECheNNGe hi CHEMO: Ol sos sesh ouoes someoenc Baan oakeds seas eenoce 137, 188 Meudon Observatory, atmospheric experiments at....:----......------.---. 262 Mexi(canrachis olo oven, SElEL ONga = esse sas ese Ses aa re eee ee ae 617 bows aceowsaan dushield sma saeer scr oe eee Ae a 632 calendarisystem.eD Ge STi bONUO Neer ese = eee se ee 603 irs se Nit tall’ Onbetee es e em ee eae 604 Mexicovexchancve age ene yee as sere. ce ae meeee = oon oe Bane ae ee ee Soe 51 TAN SMITSSIONGy LO me ane see nee enya exper eeeee ah nk oe 52, 53 Michael PAS work inorganic; Chemisitys bye ss 4 ssso sa) Saint eee et 247 Michelson, Prof. A. A.,on measurement of wave-lengths of light..----.----. 8 spectroscopic measurements---.-.-....-.-.--..--- 7, 66, 69 Middleton, kava ent, donation toy Z0olomicalt park=s2 522-22 = —-5s 25-55 2-2 DD INICIO OE Wp ROlst canto. n oo COSC OBOS oo DROSS eee ees aaa eee 473, 476 750 INDEX. Page, Migrations, Imdian, ©. Staniland® Walke omer. == see ee eee 603 Micra tions ob mens ib \7cassiitl lait @ ree eee eee 569 DY dispersion i222 Se Ee Se te ee ee eee 569 bystransferencer=a 2s were os ee ee ee ae eae 568 PAUSCS) Of 9-2-2. See eet tae as Saat See ae Es 571, 576 Channels if 2 2 tee Se Re ne eee 517 Considereds histo Cally se a Cobh Se 567 Intidences Tesulitine st romyse see eee eee eee 585 principal epochs:of-2=- =25--.22cee seen eee een 579 the: correlations) Ofti.45.0222- eae selene eee eee 583 Miller, William H. H., member of the ‘“‘ Establishment” ......-..........--. 1 Mills, Dr. Charles K., on mental overwork among professional men... ---- -- 69 Milne-Ddwards; Alphonse sy reecticiiia fo) ater eee eller exe rset Seana parr Saree eee 71 deep-sea explorations, Wisse s-3 esses eee 545 Milne-Ndwards, Henry, biographical sketch of -.-2_.22 22222222 222. -2-- 22. 709 scientilichwork Of. 2 2 sea cee eee Shee eee 716 theoretical vie wsiohi2 =s2222e = sea ene eee 720 Mimiicry among birdsiss-2 = feasts Scot oe eee oe ee 479 Mindeletin Cosmos. study soteb we blomelucsu lye ees eee ee ee 39 Mineral deep-sea: deposits 4.5222 2s shanc Sent ase st ee eee ae eee ee 5dT Mineralocical productions onvoceans botwomas- == esse ase ee eee 560 Minnesotay study ot Ojlbwarslndiansanter.seee sees eee eee eee eae ee 38 Mitchell- Miaiss'!Marnv Me allustrations! bye 2-22 5-22 a ee ee ee 44 Mitchell| Die Weir oranbrom bode lanes fide to seas see = ae 13 Mobrtus roi. .on birdantorabion sees s= ee ee ee A477 Moh Hueo./onsprotoplasms! 2ee- Sees sss see oo ere ie) pee eee 442 Mohn Prot: onjdeep-seaideposlts = ee=- = sn. ee ee ee ee D547, 550 Moisture advantages Of ania seca eee ane e oe a eee ere d42 iM che atmosphere, proporuonOless== sa e= ones ee 541 Molecularicomposrtionvotyhiydro penises = eee 130 IPOD 2 cee cess See a 5 ee a ee ear 125 ViQHuidis 3.5 ee 6 eee oe ee en eee 127 OXY POM) soso oho isee Soe ee oie Cee Ee Ae eee 126 theory Of Casesiyoe se ne eae nee ee ee eye ee ee eee 122 Molluske> instructions tori collecting 2 css eee s2 eee eee eee 36 Montana, sedimentary tocks Ime nsr eo: 2 oe ce ee yaaa eee eee eee 321 study of Absaroka Indians am. 222 oo. eee see aes tale saree eee 38 MontiBlanc) summitrot how, tonmediere seer ese eee eee eee 259 Observatory) 222.5 P22 eee ieoiee ee ee ee eee Seer eee ae 259, 260 atmospheric phenomenarate- 2] ese e= eee see 263 MontelusOscarrontcnalizationcoteliallve sess see ae 627 Moon, photosraphs ofsc22 sos 2 a sae ee ot a eee eee eee 16 Mooney, Janes, ethnologic collections Diy eeeee ese eee eee 39 on Indian (sociology = =2e-ee oe ee aa eee 40 Imdianrtribés "5.25. 2222 sem oe eee eee oe eeeseer 43 sacred formulas\of Cherokees = 2. =. ae eee oe ae eee 70 Moorehead; W:., K:.on sheet-copperidesionsas=-45-ee" o-ee eee eee eee eee eee 603 Moxeys,).) donation to) Zoolocrcal Parks anes == eee ee 57 Morgan; lewis HH: onnaional and tribaldiife = ===. e=s==ee-==5 44 599 Morley, Prof. E. W., on oxygen and hydrogen density. ...--...---.---------- a Morrill; Justin S:,lecislation sucmested iby sees ee sae eee eee oe eee XVii regent ofthe Instriution s-soe ae eee ee ee X, Xil Mortillet, M. Adrien, classification of weapons by .-.-...------------------- 621, 633 Morton; Levi P> memberofthe “establishment? sees = ae PX repent of the Institutions =-- e-naese = see ee ee eee Soa INDEX. Go Page Monn dent ders shistoryiOtece soe eee as. a= oon a en eter ee nee 22 Mor AIM Sho fy ANN OTC. extents Ole ase eee cts ae see aa eee 2a ee eee ee 272 NT OETACER) OH CUMMNOS ONS 5 soo so sc so soos se550 sseoee 272 Asia inihivence evOnuabmOos peter eens sess sees aes ne 2°73 Mount Harvard meteorolomicalistationvat..-.-.-4-2-25- 5242-5 -5--4-ee-- 8 Qe Mozambigmevexchanpenagyency seasse ase So Pye ee oe aS 51 Miiller, Prof. Frederick Max, on oriental scholarship..-.......-...._......... 681 Muller; Johannes onicompound eye Ol insecbSsos— ae = as) == sees = oe 462 WOT Kelnep hiv sO LO Gygee eases a ores eae eee ee 441 Muniz, ManuelvA. on physical anthropology. -=--..=---------5----- --ss eee 604 Mum o7pya bse ae COMTLeSTES pi O 1 seers aaa ee ee ee 49 Murdoch yJohmnresianaitl OMe 0 frame ars aimee eerie eee oe 9 IN imory ID diol, cml Aomori vans Skee ok soe Ceeeeo eee oeissso Loe. 314 AMARC HC LOUSCONCL Ye some eee ee see eee een ee 397 Oxp OTA GONG yt ee ere eee age sree whe 35 on influence of water temperature ................___... 316 studies in deep-sea deposits by -........---.----.---..-.- 547 Murraysand Renard) on-deep-sea depositSs-=--- -2424- .2-5-.-s22--5--2-- 8. 327, 547 WESTIE CUNO GU ae a Bore ne eraE en SS orem ran ene ee 318 Museum. (See National Museum. ) Myriapoda, charles Harvey, Bollmanton = 222 s24- 25 s See eer 899 Nadaillac, Marquis de, on man’s endurance of heat and cold. -...-... 2.22... 609 Nalder Brothers, calvanomebers from. 22. 2s 25. cas 2222). = 28 3) 522 sea eeee 65 NansenisaGreenlandsexplorationsw aeons e se oon = ene es eee eee 378 NaplesrZoolosicale Station, descripbionsot s-25 --e- 2-5-2 2 ee 513 SMUPSOnIan tADIG abe. ass oes oer eae 14, 15, 516 Nares soln Georme, in’ command. of Challengen---- 5-2). ---2.2).52---2) 522... 546 Natrongasrannelemente meant htop O10 Syaeee= =) ease = ae ee ee ee 589 National compared with tribal government..-........._....-...-......-..: 596 National Museum, additions to collections .. 2.22... 2. 22.2222 22222 sacle eel vis)5) appropriation needed to purchase collections for _...____- 19 appropriation for fur >iture and fixtures .-....... xxvii, xxxii, xlii me aro ner TNC ell oe hi GOs ee ee ee SNSRIONS ENGI PORUEIOOL (on an Somasebsoasa one naoree XXIX, xlii preservation of collections........... xxiii, xlii PLING See so teks nie oc eee XAUX, xiii ASsIStanb Secretarys) LepoLy OM... 22584 4225 ses beeen 35 Coneressional-acts relative tOs.5-)2])-2- 52.) sees xlii COBLESPONMEN CE Olas. mae een. Sie eee Ft OE 18 CLOWiG OC aCOmaiih) O14 0 tenes eee yo) ae en ote PAL Sif disiributionkotaspeciimenssby=sen. eee aeee ns eee 21, 35 expenditures for furniture and fixtures ............. XXV1il, XXxi heating and lighting .-...-.....__.. ODS NOCD DOSUAO Cee pees ete a in ee SIDS, LOS, LSS preservation of collections... yxiii, xxviii, xxxix Salalespae eee ee LOGI SAAN, SSID SOO. MGC HSA wand ode Omermen we Mera te Cl Cee ee ee oe 21 UTD CAO teva STCOUS LOM am aa eae os Se. ease eee ee 21, 35 152 INDEX. Page. Vational Museum, Orig imiota i aas5 ets cee ert ne 19 publications of¢ 2 2252 oss5 gia a oa ce ee 21,36 relation to Smithsonian Institution. -............-....... 19 sClentifieisharh Of a- ssc neko te ee ee ee eee 35 Secrelarys Teporbion ie: - oe seis yee eee epee ea 19 Smibhsonitundiex pend dito = 9a ee 2 National Zoological Park. (See Zoological Park.) Nautical Almanaciotice, exchan C6810 fess saa eee a eee ee . 48 Nanay Orlndians collec hioms eros eee gern ayeasyaeee ae ee 40 SONGS. Drs Wee Mais Che wi) OMe eters eee 603 INavevle Obs eravait Orayg 1 © XcC Haim OS 10 fete erate pee ee ea ee 48 Navigazione Generale Italiana, courtesies from .:.......--... ...........-.- 50 Navy Deparbment,, COOperaLLO nish nee ee ee 22 exchang@esiofts 2 5 occ ee See ae aula ee ey ne ee 48 Neanderthal’ skull disputed er otters se sere er ene a ee 627 Necrolosy-secretany7s Pep orb: Olgere see a= ee eee 33 Necromaliorationeto; Aimeri Ca) pee seen sere ene ee = eee 582 Neolabhresperiod Oxtenitallswiorsl cle unin seer ee eee 706 Nepal; explorations: 2 223 <2 se ee eee ore ceenes Seer Sy ee ee a 405 Netherlands) exchanceacency go. —225 oa ee eee ee 51 CLANSMNUSSIONG LO Vs.2 Sees OS aoe ye ee ee ee 52153 Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company, courtesies from ___....- 50 Neumayer rol onisouth Rolariexsp] omaib lone ree ee 369 Nevada, sedimentary rocks: in! 2-2 sash een nee eee eee eee 321 Newell; W.. W.,on folklore (2-2 102. ie soenc oe ee ee ee 604 New Caledonia; exchanee jae en Cyaan aoe ee eee ee 51 Newcomb, Prot js., on nro ditty ote thiene artless ase ee ee ee 335 SUIS Neaba sas. oars Se eo Sees Oe een 351 Newtoundland vexe lance; a Oem Cyr eee tere ae eater 51 New: Guinea, exploration im) 252 os soe.-s=eo goes Ramee sr ee PCR I Ler ASE 407 New: SouthswWales; exchange acencymeces s-— ose eae ane eee eee 51 transmissions: 60). <-_< 255223202 see eee ee BS), GB New: Zealand: exchange arene yi. see eae ae ee een ee ee 51 explorations mus): 62.2 = sfc sane oe ees oe wea 408 glaclersvm x. s855 2 353 5 Sees oe cee eee ee 288. 290, 408 CransmMissiOns (tO) 2222 so. o Soccer ee pee eee eee D2, 03 Nichols; G.-C. donation sto) 20010 7G all ie ie kai ego ee ee 57 Niépce de St. Victor, discoveries in photography by--2-2--2-- --5-2_-_---e 151 Nitrogen; discovery Ofte. 2 ce — Sets oe ate ee am re ee ree ee 523 effect.of, upom humanWelnes j2ce. as oes pee ot ee 531 SOULrGES Amd WSES iO fas ae ys ere eee eee a ec 523 Noldeke, Prof. ononcimalshomeot seniitess-—se ees ee sae = ee 684 Nordenskaioldyonuclacia Cs tear ee eee 551 Norsemen migrations Ob. lae oe eee eee een 581 INOLS CVO Via SSS; LO NOT thie A may OTe ea eee te ea 581 North American bows, arrows, and quivers, Mason on....-...-.-...---.---- 631 continents: crow thiol <5 saa ose ee ee 43 LEPOLbon Dunreae of thm OlOGy see eee eae ee eee 70 Prehishorie so} CCLIONS: GO; LCLIN yeete ape sae es ers = eee ee eer ee 682 Prenistonicarchssoloo ye COneLess Ole sas ope ease ee ee ee eee ee 602 TEOSCALCUES MNES DP allt ran sate aphe tay een rece Se Rees ao ee 603 WHOL eek Oty Maxey Mill ete Omies sy e oe oa ee eer, cea a 682 Bressunerandetemperatun etal eserves <2) a oie ee es ee Ses ee eee Bal 338 of the atmosphere, effects on living beings-....-.--------.---.--.- 535 PresiwiCh ano Onslmmestonend eposiittes= >see =a se mere eee sae eee 320 Pes blyanD Ea OG ken Ch eine dlescl OniGe sass ae ae se ee 239 Priestiyzand scheele,oxyeen discovered bys --55--- 4-5-5 soee oe. 222 eee 522 Reet, IDs Wop Ielodlelianas) iMG beachh WOscasa sacs asdeoeod ssh sn sassener 13 AMM ES CxG oS MG hiRTHES stole WMTW. oe aaen aces ceaacs sees seco sees bee TOK, VG TOS BEOCtOL SVT OMe UN ATKCrabens emer sem ees ae ne Hoe pee Seas oe ee 90 iBrotoplasms wus os Moh Monyees asec eae see eae Se oe ee cra noon ea 442 RUSSTAsmOLAM Smal SSTONSUb Os. a seatpee et eran ee een oy a eee ree 52 Bsycholocweathumen Onl Gasol aie == aee area or oe ee eee ne eee ee 603 experimental a sandersony Onis eee rree es = eee cee a= eee 453 GUT Sees e cca Aeaeeete ee Acta Sees elena enol se pats Bea 43 phy siolosicalespro oresspineere = ae eee nena ae nee ener eee ee eee 610 Pteropodeoozevestumatedbanc animes +s sie ae eee ae ae eo eeeeraces ee oe 329 Publications, ofebuneanotehbhnologyesss-sees 2) seees eee eee eee 22 Nation alvin Seuiiters ate eee ee tary ate tee, see ee 21, 36 Smilbhsoniany ins titimtlomsin S93 see ee eee eee 8 PECEupUSPiROMUESAl eS asset eee ees 5 ee he ee See XX, SERVI, Sd HecenvedsiMesmMibnsoOnane ll bReyeee sa eee ees = eae 68 Smithsonian COs tno tases ete sa ry ee pene a ee xx editors Teportions = 4s 222 32ers eae eee ee ee 69 Smithsonrankannualereportsisseeete as see eee meee ee eee 69 Smithsonian contributions to knowledge --......-...-------- 69 Smithsonian miscellaneous collections ................-.----- 69 ipuiblicserinterwexchamoesio terns a5) eee re eee ee nee me ee eee 48 Putnam, Prof. F. W., anthropological collections by .......-.-.------..---- 604 Ry ramidebuild ens anh, Ofeth eee ce meta rate a na eee Sena are 101 JPNOLMAN GTO? kyr OMe pa cieien ne wane eee aes aratane stare 95 756 INDEX. Page. Quatermary fauna/and man, Dupont onessees sees eens eee eee 628 Queensland, exchangea cen yg sacra eee es ee ee ee 51 tTANSMISSIONS: 10, Co sehod heh oa ee ee eee eee 52, 53 Quiver, Mason! onvhistory, ofthe 552-25 -ee ee aaa ee 667 Tits Racesof:-menwniorations Obs. -— 78-5) ese e eee Een eee eee eee 567 progress: in study Of... cece ws eins See eee eee 612 Radianb ENeLe yy MNviSs bash ONS eae yay ee eee te eee 7 RAMS Dye ISLE, ANTE Ww. ODN Ce CLOSTO Nps eee eee es ee ee 286, 300 Randle; Aah. donation toyZoolosicallsean koe aes eee pe aNe: Ranvard yA; the lunanicracetrlby choses ses) a -8 sane eee: eae 89 Raylevh swords elecinitica tlomvorys be al ee ee ee ee ee 204 electric-sparkephotopraphsiby ss. 0. eens eee eee eee ee 167 Reade, Ala Mellard con ehemucalident data one se ees sea eee es 313 Kuropean Paleozoic formations=.---2--2-- -52--2 eee 329 Peolopic hime! [-e3 So e Oee ee Seeee eeeeeee 306, 307 ined iStar wine; courtesies tromsa-44-— eae eee Cee eee ne Eee 50 Regents of the Institution, annual meeting of........--...-..-------------- x1 annual report of executive committee. ..-..----. X1x executive committee of..-...........-- ASSO Ree aS. Ob.< ist Ofc see ce te ae ese ee ee ee eee x proceedings: of 222s: ee ee oe ee xi Regnault, Felix, on weapons of South American Indians---...--------.---- 603 Reinwald, M. C., & Co., agents for Smithsonian Institution................ 18 Renard, Rev. A. F., on deep-sea deposits --:.2-.----- --- SOAs Se 546 Renal ty) ccm os amb salis ne Cannes yee eee 552 Repairs to Smithsonian building 2s: 2 22st 2cc fe ee, ee RR oe Reptiles; method otsloc omo tomo tee eee eee 502 Rhodes SB yl donationstoeZoolocicalebankee ses ss eee eee 57 Riley, (> Vi, on-collecting,andpreservino insects =-o> sass] eee eeee eae 36 Roche; Ms, on lunar craters 245-6 ease aoe ao ne eee eee 92 Rockhill Wee Wes collected toby) ectsem wale emer =e ae 7 explorationstingdulbbet bisa see eee oe ee 7 Ro cers, JoOsephy Al. .conrectionsOf Sex tanbs ses e ae eee ee 69 Rogers, okies. wOlrkainsChennl SuTya Dy pence ae sete ee eee ee 243 Rogers, W. B., work in chemistry by ----- bag states Serene ae Sen Se 243 Kohls, courtesies trom. aes- | Sos eee eee eee eee ee 50 Romans; migrationsio foes 2s qos se rm ae eee 570 Romeyn, Capt. Henry, donations to Zoological Park......-.-.-..----.----- 58 Ross) Sir James Clark, Antarctic explorations by:---- «+--+ 2--2) 2-2 eee eee 357 Ross, Capt. John, explorations in Baffin Bay by----..-...--:.---------:---- 545 Roscol, se rance marine pleloolcalestablonsatees= | ee see ne aee eee eee eee 507 Rotch, A. Lawrence, on the highest meteorological station ...., ..-----.---- 253 Rouge; Viscomte degoniorioiniotalpiabets- see 42s ose eee eter eee eeeeee 690 Roumaniaxexchane era crenc yas eae sere eee eee eee ee eee eee 51 TrAaNSMISSIONS, LO tee ere Se Use Fee ee eee 53 Revingo, marine: laboratory jats-o242-...22- = sso oa ees ee eee 518 Rucians,-micration ofs:.Sstecce es ooo sce 6 oe eee ee eee 580 RGIS; DOMINGO ss COWLES LES mtu O Tete es re ae ee 50 Russia; ,anthropolorical ttypesoie==-- sees ae eee {ad oes ae 604 exchanype ac ene yease eee eee aaa ee ae Sosa Rik ae Sees etre 51 marine biologicalistations in sans es ae ee eee ee 517 transmissions to 65201 32505.55.he. eee ee eee ee Sond Sooo 25 52, 53 INDEX. 157 Page Russia: Physico-Chemical Society, letter from......--...-----.------------ 18 Rinihertond soxy contdiscoveredabiyneeaeeernse een ne eae as ee 523 Ryder, Prof. John A., advisory committee on Naples table ......_.......--- 5 Ss. Stn Gandens evn, sealudesioned: bivee. a8 as aoe ee eee Seas Xvi, 16 Stwlelenas exchanoemacen cys ie amas: oe - oan cee ane ee reine cere a ree 51 Sabine iieuts.explorationsan badinebay by seascce esses series ee. oe ae 545 Sacken, C. R. Osten, on Bugonia of the ancients........--...----.--------- 487 SapanawayalleyicachesiOhuee sss, seme teeta ene rs were eee nas = ne 603 Sa laisehlaninyesConatlonkto, A001 001Call bat kee se = ayste ee eee a ter 58 Salaries, expenditures for ...---.-. OG 2:0.91 OIG FOOL, LSA PVG, LOI VSSIi5 SOM | SO.9 Sandeman, Sir R., explorations by...-..-.....-- Des Se Raye tive SLi See ss ee 404 Same sa hve OT mee NAM O Ona OOM C yates cha ea ree. el ee eR 51 CLANSMISSlONSstOmeeener esse a= eee SP ats SERRE Ate eT 53 Narswvichaelhideep-searexplorations biyees- sse-> =- eee eee ee = ee 545 SAlMderswh bq onaton bOrZOologicals bankeeecea =e. Sane = eee =e eee 57 SAMOS eel Ora bi OMG O Lecce = ree ete orate em orm c eeere neys Srch Seer e e 580 SaxOnivepthansmiisslousitOerer ceeaet ase sn - Saco See ee ea ee ee eee 52 PSHEIN7 OO, FE on eye aaa tet OH MG ee Nee ea SN ea es ee Se ee eee oe 98 Schlatter, Georse, donation to Zoological Park == 92-5 2-225 2252-52-5 “255-6 58 seiner, Iie lels Sho Cin VubaKeRnn fexeoyery Nie 2256s So oa6 soe bee oes aoseee code 414 Schimildivekens donation Lop ooko ocala kee mae se ee ee a 59 Schnad oe r--ON Oblein Oty AFVAS: ©. a. 2o oon oes a lee ean ee 685 Schultz, Joseph, donation to Zoological Park _.--..-.....-.....----:------- 59 Schmltzewer Oth eekie .OneAmtanChC exp] OLablO ls = sss ses aoe see eee 370 SeoulennGl, Hales tiles Cea seer ase wopits AOS HE Res Se en saa neeeas SoaeRoaneCas: 277, 284 SCLipiuLce pL Lor TONShUd yeOh Psychologies = = =e eae se ee oe ee 611 Scudder Nape.cacuimoy librarians st ts Aen aye ea cane tts ole 68 SOE! TENCE Tin AMuh AGN OCR pseooo ncaa cesa oe coeabaeos occa cleaned Boesda 372 Seallofsthesnstisution, new, deston ordered = -2--- 3: -=--- 9s. -5- +4 5-22-2526" xvi, 16 Secretanyonmche Imstitution, researches Dyen=- 9-2. s--- = -5sseessaaese sees ee 6 ROVORU Olsen neers sce ne eee eee eases 1 astro-physical observatory ....--.----- 30 on Bureau of bthnology 2242-2 o2222.---- 22 international exchange system..----- 25 Nationale Vinseumisee ses eeee eee seree 19 ASOLO gi calgary kee eam eee eee 27 ScevonmpreniyprONENOLb Melo) awl asim ea) ee ee are ee 375 Sella, Signor W., photographs of Caucasus Mountains by ..-..------------- 398 Sergi, G., primitive inhabitants of Mediterranean. ......-.-.-...----------- 604 Setvaargex. chan crac en yascer sec see ses One eines See eae oe eel eee 51 SCMILES POL OIMalsMOMG Olen seal saeco = aoe See cis ca cents ete Noe ae ena 684 SEMMb Calan Cu ae es OLIN O taser eee reer 5 eee es aa ee ene 685 SOviecku Zoli Onu birder abl Olgas a ss oss ems 2 eee See eee 473 SExehaMtsss COLLG COLO MMO t= eepe a perenne ano Te reha gern ae ha ct SE ue eee 69 - Seymour, John 8., member of Smithsonian Institution ...--....---.-------- 1 ae Panda CaNe mOlkemnecheMIistEyeDyosaoeee eee ace ace ee oea eee Ses 243 SHOUpP Wie Ae onatlOonetorZ00lo gical lPar kines eee ae oe see 58 Shuteldt Draka vODsaTnoOweanelease. ts 2— se soae Saas ooo. 2 aes See eee sas en 665 Sramnexexsp LOLA LOM Syme ee sae ee cy se ee ane ante ae a on eee ate oan alata 406 NibecRlararcivjalvotsUMmM Creates ees ce seas Soe ecto hl see emer ae 393 CONCULOn Ole Mono OOS sesso e ee eeee eerie ieee eee Bape ayaa 604 temperatures Ofes sce ses me es eo eaiee eas hea atere RO ECBO oC 274 758 INDEX. Page. Signal service; exchanges of: 2 =-c.mac seen See ee eee eee eee 4S Silliman‘’s;journalorowth ofee. => =a05-0 eee = eee eee 242 Simonds) Hy)... Conationito)AOO10 oc alle air kage 57 Simonds, Hon. W. H., Commissioner of batents=e--s-s "ees ares. eee 1 member of the ““Nstablishment 773-22 -2- sss. -e eee ix Siret, 1. on prehistoric researches in) Spainl-- 5-2. =-- ose “eee ene eee 603 Skinner Po We donation to 7o0o0lopicalle ban kas ase eo ee 57 Smirnov, Ton. cannibalism .-2 ss. s4 aes eee eee ee 604 Smith rot, CaMachievonsoree msm sien Cae eee re 225 Smith i J.,eclectricuspark, photorraphy bygeess- 4 eesee ane ee eee 167 Smith Hal, on caches of saoimany, vallleviee sees. = aes = ee ee 603 Smith) JLawrenee, workin chemistry by ==. oes oe oe eee eee eee 243 Smith; John: Bs-onJNoctuidwree =: = 2 s5=— sae eee eee ee ee 36 SMLbhHsons ames amount Lote (UES tp Ole ee xix Smithsonstund: appropriation tomer burse) -=o-= eee eee 2 Conditionvor: Jiulliyol 893 5 ee ee 23 B.6,53 expended for Bureaulof Hthnolopy s9-5------o---eeee ae 2 international exchange service. -.--...-....--- 2,27 NationaliMuseum) 322-4 e-peee- seep aaa 2 limitationjof removed'2 25. eee aa. see eee eee xviii Secretary's statement of = 222. see ae eee ae eee 3 Smithsonian building, height above District datum plane --_....----------- 6 TOP ALES wb cect eee eo ea eee eye FOG OO NNO O-00-6 Smithsonian Institution aids explorations.--..../--.--------------+----+---- th scientific research <8 soe ee se eee eran ff Congressional action concerning -------.---------- xii financralistatementioneecaesee ta eee eee eee X1X, XXXVili jibrary, Report onl: Fak< oss ee eee ee ee 67 T6agin gf TOOMs2 22. <= she aes ee 67 medals:awarded 0/222 52322 eee ee ee eee ee 21 members of the “‘ Establishment” _----.-..--------- 1 proposed change in organization ------.----.---- xvii, xvii publications by.) 1893 eae eee ee 8 Secretary’s report) On2-b 2-6 cats eee eee eee 1 table at Naples zoological station ............----- 14, 15 smyth HH: Warineton, explonationsiby =o. 2 o-- see ee ee eee eee 406 Noarine. practical experimentsane- a. o> a4 seece sae aes eee eee ae 195 Sociologyof aborpines studi; Of- 255 sss ae ee ee eee eee 23 American Indians.23--2 5 sc 2 ee eee a ee eee 40 SUNN AEY Of LO OT: CSS wn ee eae eee a a 623 Solar atmosphere, density of. 2222. 222-22. ee eee eee eee ee eee eee 131 héat; Helmbholtzsons. 2-2. 25268 5 ee nees ee ee eee ne ee 121, 122 temperature, permanen ey7Ole sess. ence see eee ae ee 133 Solomon Tslandsexqol orators wae epee ree ee eee 407 Sound windnlatoryaamnovementiotes-- sss eer eee eee eee eae eee eee 115 South America, exploiation ofertversina- so) ae ee eee eee eee 411 unexplored repions Of = ss eee ee ae eee == eee eee 411 South) American indianss weapons Ole -2 —= ee sees aee ee eae 603 South Australia, exchange agency... .2..25-2-2 s=-e= see ee eee 51 transmssions “bos. 22 > <3 2 eee eee ee ee eee 52, 53 South Shetland. discovery of. -2 = 25252 -o = one eee eee eee 357 Spain, exchange agency ja.0-- = 3. to. So = eee a eee ee 51 prehistoric Tesearches) in =. s2 ce os 22 os — Geee es on ae ee 603 tLANSMISSIONS sO sea a ae eee ee eee 52,53 INDEX, 159 Page. Spanishsmicration to tropical! Americas... 2-2 2-.2-+5--- s2--55-2- 2 =-- 22-2 = 582 Reali donation: toe4oologicalib al ke sen aa ee eee ee eee 58 Spectro-bolographic work in astro-physical observatory .-.--....--.-.------ 60 NHacvrocope, ObseL vations on Mount) Blanc = sees.) ene ee 261 Spectroscopic measurement, Prof. Michelson on..-......--.---..----------- 718 SpeconnmedinamMI sheds pero tak OLIN Mate saree aa ae ee eta ee) sare = = eee 452 eltect:of hydrogen: OnE 22 25-22 22s% Aas sais eee. Sees vee e ne eece 130 IMVACIDLS iMVvestisablOng Ola==a c=. = ae= seme ee ee ee aas = oe 31 MAP rOfess ss eee owes ote eos See Se see. See 62 measurement Ofswavelencbhse =o esse ese asa) = eee 63 photocraphiciwreproductionsOtesm sss s-ss. ean ee eee. seer 151 Spenecr Herbert, oninatural selecoion) 2-22.22. =-. een ee eee eee 349 Tierra del BMuegians abu dysOf-o ssice ost ae = ee ho ee eer eee 615 Toner. lectures).¢ 22. sss. 2+ Sa Ses as ee ea a ee re ene 69 Toriello, Enrique, courtesies from. =. 5 <-<-~ = S276 3-2 a = ee 50 Tracy, Benjamin F., member of the ‘‘Establishment ”.-...--....---.---.---- ix ADOC, PHO WOMEN) Oise os ookacbes sons Soko coo oce Sosose ssc os creSessecs 266 Transmission of exchanges to foreign countries.........-.---------------- 25, 51, 53 Government publications to foreign countries.-.......... 25, 47,52 Traphagen, Frank W., index to literature of Columbium...--..-...-.-.-.-.- 69 Treager, E., papers by ..-.-------------------- +--+ +--+ +--+ 22+ 222-22 eee eee 615 Treasury Department, exchanges of.....-------------.--------------------- 48 Trenton, archeologic investigations at ....-.-----.------------------------- 39 Treviranus, development of biology by .----------------------------------- 436 Tribal compared with National Government..-.-.-.----.--------------------- 596 Trieste Zoological Station, description of -.--...--.------------------------ 517 Tristram, H. B., field study in ornithology SS Se SON Ee eee 465 True, Frederick W., designated curator in charge of National Museum..---- 20 Tschudi on atmospheric pressure.-.--.. ---.-------------------------.---.-- 537 Tiibingen University, publications from -...------------------------------- 68 Tuckerman, Dr. Alfred, on chemical influence of light ..---..----.--------- 69 literature of thermodynamics ...--..--..---.-.--- 69 Turkey, exchange agencyss2--c-: - oss 2-2 a= ae = ee 51 transmissions tO. sees ose eee ee eee eee eee 52, 53 Turkestan, mountains Of 2. =.2-.2-2'= see oe ee em ore eee eo 274 Turkistan, explorations in-.--.....--- +.) -< s--- =22- -2=- <<< = enone 404 INDEX. 761 Page. ihycho: the great lunaricrater, by AC. Ramyard) —22 55-50... so ese en ae oe 89 Tylor, Prof. E. B., on stone age basis ‘far:oriental study -...-...---.---.---.- TOL U. Undmlatonytheoryzotelight) 2seec5- sce | eo.c soe te = oa = eee ie eee 115- Winitsot measure. hiCaMendenhallionts-s5-<- -seae aes se oe ee reece ees 135 Wphamserotea warren songoeolomicnuim Gass roses ace elses ae eee 309 UrucuaycexchantearenGyc ssc. nse asics o eeiseee eee sc eee sees eee 51 CLAMSMISSIONSALOks ss | see Cae he Series eee ea eemne = eeeeee 52, 53 WaSiCoastiNunvey<.worksoftln sass 8 Le ae sie at peewee os eee 409 UaSshish Commission) co-operavionwithien ise mee ieee eee opera ont 22 itahasaltmvake,;decrease 1nidepthrotcs: 1-25. bs ses eee Oe =< Se 272 Sedum ombarsyeTOC keh eesee te secs Se = sae ee eae oe ors eee) Soe 321 VitrechitpUmiversivy> publica LrOnsseOm a= sass sereeens oa eee ea eer 68: Vv. WValloteMe sobservationsion-Mount: blanc) bye s-see2 eee] = = se ee ee 255 Vandals aml oma tl OM Obs 5 eee estes pais eters Seaicle paler en Gas eet ey erepeaee 580 Wandenwhoorn-aWrible, COULLESICS Thomas. -ececr- ee 4 S-ee ee a eee ae 50 Watiableistarsseroti@ :ACoy OUNG OM sea. ns: aha cain cen sacs os Somes cee aero 107 Warilomypetenhyaede jon aiteanG Wit@y. sc epaee ssa e see es eee een een ee 521 Vasey, Dr. George, delegate to Botanical Congress at Geneva ..--......----- 17 Wedasandehistonysotmaturalirely pions. s.522 eee ee ene ai ai ser 689 Wed dabhsrots@ ey lone sasssen soce tas an a. dx See e Goh ae ee aes as NS ER Ee ees 613 NOME HZ ONES WaASS PO LACLOTS caste oe creel cn eieyet Mae eat le ae Sep crepe evades ore 278 Woenezuelajexchang era vency: sacs 5-1 se sais ae Meer eee to tered ay 51 PRATISINISSTONS EU Ose ese ee eee eee een ee is Shere eee 52,53 NWactomayvexchan pera gency, s=scene sien ent sae eae gain no iaels Sema 51 LEANSIMTUSSTON SEO cater (errs = Se ete eae Se ee exis cscs soc Del eeteies 52, 53 Vakings Norway-and, Capt: Anderssen’ Ons... 2222 2-6 se 2-- eee = = ee ee 63 Weapons, classification Of 22. -2222.2. 5-5 e nolo os 2 see SoS ae ee ee ee 632 Weather Bureau, exchanges Of s22- 25 sas ssc cceiio- See eee eee 48 Weaver, I. C. donation: to Zoological Parks ess=-— sees n a eee eee 57 Wreddell’s voyages in Antarcticme rion. =2- see. 44-22 eee 357 Weights and measures, International Bureau of .......--....-------.------ 145 Standardcns i. see. c cee sce eee 141 Un Se sBurean fee oe eee eee 142 Welling, Dr. James C., commissioner to Madrid Exposition .....-.--..----- 17, 21 presents executive committee report ...----.-..---.- xili TevontioL the; Ms eibublOnee eee eee Raexd Wends of North Germany become Germanized...-..-.-.-.----.2.2---------- 58d Wesley, William, & Son, London agents of Smithsonian ........--..------ 49 West, Gerald’M:, on physical anthropology. .9--ses= =e eee eee 604 Westinghouse Electric Company, apparatus from.-.-.-..-..---- SL so ee 66 Whale fisheries) in'southern oceans*=2-2- ss... a ase eee eee eee 372 Wheeler, Joseph; revent of the Imstitution=>->22- 35-5553 5s seer eee eee 26 3. White, Andrew D., regent of the: Institution=--22- 2.25 5- sos ese eee Xs White; Gilbert, the father of field naturalists-2.- 52-222 22. - 3.2225 See eee 465 White, John ancient historyof Maorlies*-s oes eee eee eee eee eee 707 White Cross Line of Antwerp; courtesies! trom = -2 95-22 ee 50 Wihitman) Prof C.0-> nominates Dr. Stileseeses-a- so eee se eee 15 Whymper Bred Alaskan-explorati0ns Dy qses- see o- ee eee 410 Wiggins, Capt., in Arctic regions......-.- pci e wile Sale eis oi sai eee ate epee 389 Williams, Henry S8., on geologic time -.....-....--- 331 Williams, J. R., donations to Zoological eee. ee 57 Willis, Mr-,. on ceologre time tee ee ee seek incr eee ae ae ee 323, 324 Willis, Bailey, on disposition of carbonate of lime..-....-.-----.-.-..-----.-- 319 Wilson; Prof. Eh. B., committee on Naples table =~. 22-2. 2-2-2 see se sne eee 14 Waimereux, marine) biolocicalistation! ates sees eee eee 509 Winchell, Dr. Alexander, on geologic time .... 2: -- 25.2 s52--2 22 =-- ee eee ae 306 Winlock, W.C., bibliography of astronomy -..........--------- Jee 69 report as curator of exchangesy.-- sees ss= ee ee ee 45 represents Smithsonian at American Philosophical Society - ity Wisconsin, study, of Menomont Indians. --5- 4-4-2) ee eee eee 38 Woodhouse; Dr J, papers) ont chemistry sbyse-esee cee eee eee eee eee 241 Woodward. Dron) limestonerdepositmens see ese eeee eee eee eee eee eee 320 Woods:Holl marine laboratory see 4 eee ee eee eee eee 505 Woolley, Mr. H., photographs of Caucasus scenery by .--..----------------- 398 World’s Columbian Exposition, acts of Congress concerning .-------------- xli, xliii anthropologyaate-2 28-2 -c ete nee eee : 604 Indian; exhibitsvatn = -4s-2-ee ee ee eee 40 Museum exhibitrats cess sce soee eee eee eee 20, 36 Smithsonian exhibit at..............-..- 10 Wrede, Baron von, joummeys: by <2.-6. te ee eee eee eee eee 403 Wright, GN. on claciall manvinyAmericapaee -eseee seers e ee See eee 603 Wright, Miss Mary Irvin allustrations bycoosss---e 54 eeeee ee eee eee 44 Wright, Prof..Gok on clacial’ bowldersteseeneeeeee eee eee eee eee eee 282 Siew ere noes 50 Wright, Peter, & Sons, courtesies from.......--.-------------- INDEX. © 763 Page WiIEbembere, tramsSmiSsTOMs)tOs caer settle ler icin alel= niereie’=\cllalslelele[elels =lale[= ole elele = 52 Wurzburg University, publications from .............-...--...------------ 68 RYS: Yellowstone National Park, animals received from..-..................-.:- 59 Noune Ee Lor. qc. Ae ON VAL A DIC SUALS cea om cle mint= ose ie wie ale wwe elem nol ie 107 Z. ZAChariasyOrsOctomavecelonlabOLratOLyy. acs cismicicests2 ce tss sels cis = leo 518 AROS OH COG INOUUIGNN Sone ios cas Gado Hebb oOoonO Bobo ea eros coors oonapsae 562 PiGetatoN. wpa pers ONeaN GMTOPOLOS VY ice. a ciniela oa.ciceyos <\aiceete'iele =) << peel 604 Meolorical ear, AMM ALS) WOLMI IM -1)a\. ers ais se eis cian. sis ere leita ele ~~! orate beara 58 animalsyobtaineds by exchangemess.- 6 secre c= = eee ean 58 AMINA IS ORES SINt Salih O erate ac lare ear seereryat se eee raiainne iatstore etic 5b, 57 appropriations store se ees eeerise eee aa oe eee XXXV, 4, 28, 54 appropriations needed to purchase specimens for.....----- 30 betterjaccess mecded 25% Sea ae ee Sees es Sale see laa iat 54 Convressionalvactsi relative! lOss22-- ose ease eee eee xhii COrbespondencey of os F-scw eee Rese oe ele Sema eens 18 detaillsrottexpenditures meneane eee a eae ae eee XXXV, XXX1x NUM PEMOfsviSitOTsilOse. soos 2625 cee ae oe ee ee ease See a= 29 primary obj echoes: ...t ots ee ae see en ek = ee eeeieeee 27 LOPORUOLACtING MMA AC ele sae e see eee ee eee eee 54 SecretanysSereporbiOMh = cmcmjeise nies Sa Sere seen ences eee 27 ZoolosicalswonksjoteMilne=bdwardsis a. scemceee sce. cee ce eee eos eee nein 716 Stations,;marine, Dean ONv.cssceaes seis soe ince tie aa essetle ieee 505 OOLOSNROLEAT COUCH OL ONS ees ieee eat eee ee ne ee eae nise nee eee 384 AUMIGINGaN sae li etsrOLantiaet arse rie see a wisesiers ne ee Sc aioe a wee ier einke oe cieleeeiel= 23 Lorch Unversity, publications ffOM «. . <-.ctecscvicsecsc sccceticccecs ceveicess 68 et aes, Br ee ¥ wie, ioe yy €" 4 i a ; SM yo a, Ase i aA Nae, a ena ye aR 7 eye F a aA Wed Pash ae me ae i T yiM vi Cis cae) Der We ye ee ea ae vi ‘ 7 yp v2 ue, oO oa Meee P ee ge eT at f 1 } , 4 a tare ideas SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES IAIN 3 9088 01421 6626 = = ihe it seinen ec syitins, ip =. z = 3 z a = 3 stvetys Bete tee hh Oye rey tren. ti _ f es ts 4 bite Sesser ie Lae reesteety iit Gratis Baas er: Eero iit Hiiiilt