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ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

e SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION —
OF THE INSTITUTION

FOR

THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1902.
Piet

ae
Pe

hy gem:
. = d ae
ume

\ et ee
ee CaN

NOVi5 1902 _~=séSS.

Ts erncs

——

dG ee as
FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

ACCOMPANYING

The Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for
the year ending June 30, 1901.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., January 30, 1902.
To the Congress of the United States:

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to
submit to Congress the Annual Report of the operations, expenditures,
and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June
30, 1901.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. WriuuiAM P. Frys,

President pro tempore of the Senate.
Ill

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONTAN INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901.

SUBJECTS.

1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January
23, 1901.

2. Report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and
receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1901.

3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1901, with statistics of exchanges, ete. ;

4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem-
oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution,
teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These
memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1901.

IV

COIN NAS:

Page.
Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to
USE ES Se pee DIS oS SE ee eer ES 5 ee Sen ee eee er I
Pera ance Gi tie AnMNUa) REDOLE 25.202. .1sv-s055 S200 oct ence eee IV
PMLEIM OMNES Ve POLL pate nce Shes anes Cee ee me hee cob eta Vv
LLinsip GUE EAS poe Se eee ES a SG sR ce Sg ere Se VIII
Mieminersiet- O7icio or tne-Hstablishment.\ as: s-28\.- 2eee ssc coscc ce eee o- =e xI
eer on Loe Sinibhisonian: Tnstitutiol . 2.2.0 220e sn lose se eke eee ee esse XII
PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.
SIiLedamMeetno anlar cd WOO ans sat ca eon oe ee eae ta eee oes XIII
ReEporT OF THE EXecuTIvE Committee for the year ending June 30, 1901.
Mammitenorine tind soly 1; LOOM 2 ooo Soo ok bs cscs cc cme enece see XXV
Rees ane expenditures forthe year. 22.2. 2223222224 -<2 2 5222-55. XXVI
Appropriation for International Exchanges .-.-.------ ce eine arate XXVII
Merman. expenaiiiures OF SAMO] < l52 -oeses bosecs- s2ee coco es cone ee XXVII
mM poropLiawontor-american: Pthnology 2. o220.--.-+sss2e-e ecm 22 - =~ XVII
Wetnlstorexpenditures ol samesa nose cncsect os bese ne ose eedens ee XXIX
ABpropLanons ior tae National Museum. -~ sat. 22s. ses 25 ese os ese oe ic KOK:
Wetarlstoiexpenqitures-Ob SAME lst eo. 2 sce eek eee eee eee cane RONEN.
Appropriation for Astrophysical Observatory -....--------------------- XLVUI
WET Oe xpPEengibuUnres Ol ames. +.) o hence eee See en SS XLVIII
Appropriation for Observation of Solar Eclipse. .....--.-.---.---------- MIX
Wet siOMexpen diiUreMOl sanleee= =~ 6s = qaemeny me eet yo 2 ee eae et ee XLIX
Appropriation for the National Zoological Park...-.........--.---------- XLIX
Wetailstomexpenditures Of samnes---— sage kee oe etre nd Sales ee L
INGOT OTIC TTKOTD Ses eeha pale eas See Pia oe 15 Ae eS 2 ees a eRe Mee hap SOR Daeg LIV
AS ras Fet lees MTL pe ee ee ne ae =. Bane nae re ae Be a LVI

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

SEE SAEED AO NTAN ENSTIMUTION Sic ese soe cere ees eee ack Sods oe eas 1
NewS tat eN breeeyre oe eee oe lew cel ats Ee trg eee eee wlela se oe 1
TRECOYEN RG L (OVE By ete° 21) Kana OO eg ee ga Eee eet 8 Bae a eS ee gee 2
PAD OMAN ET Ole NEO CIIES tam see ps Sena eee et Re he I yokes 7
AGIPMRINS Hct IO Tres eee ete gS ie ee Site ee an Me Te Le ey og ia
ESOL CLIND Og eae ee arm ten ee Fare IR SMR eer eben ieee Alara AS WE 8
ERNST COS See ate Meee eee ee © ree err 2 a oi ew eas S 8
Research ...-- Se SES Ie ees SUE co Sega Ally Nine cased pny ee Pe Bel:

Ero tie Uni. <6" ocean els ee wre oes tres thd swede il
Ee RCRD Gees oa = aN ee tant eae 21th So emis Sk ee atccce td 15
JOS2 UOMO. = 3ebE Se a EASE ee Sr Rae Ce ne ESE OEE Sees eee Ra pas re 18

Wk CONTENTS.

THE SMITHSONIAN INstiTuTIOnN—Continued.

Publications... ov. 2. .0224< - daa Ss 22 Sen at ee a ee
library 2220. J 2554-600 och los. 2s eee eee ee eee ee
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. ................--------
Correspondence .. -- .-.s 52 208 4 est tes oe 22 ee see Eee
EX POSIUIONS 2.222. S as ce Ge: ee ee ee
Miscellaneous: - i202 ed et See ee
National Museum: 2.25.0 3202s... See shee ee ee
Bureau of American Ethnology 222 os 5c sae ee ee
National Zoological Park 2 22s: 2.222252 ee pee ne eee eee
Astrophysical Observatory = 2.220122 2.22. sakes eae ae ee ee
invermational-Exchanges=. 2. 2525 a..2 See eee 2 AU Si eee ee mere
Wecrolugy <= .2- -..2: 32.2.5. 2.242 bo eee
Appendixes:
I. Report on the United States National Museum..-.----.........-..-
II. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology .........-.-.-------
III. Report on the International Exchange Service ---...-.--...-------
TV. Report:on the National Zoological. Park/2t25=-02 ss) eae oee eae
VY. Report'on the Astrophysical Observatory :.-2_- =-22 22.520... --ecn-
WI. Report.of the Librarian: - :.>... 2222552 see eee ee eee
Vil..Report of the Editor . : .- 2.22. ..223e. ce eee ee eee eee
GENERAL APPENDIX.
The Smithsonian [Instituto 2 = Sosy s Nae a es ae
Some Recent Astronomical Events, by C. G. Abbot: .-..2-+22-22 222252222 2.
A’ Model of Nature, by A.W. Riickers2: 2223S ee ee eee
A Century of the Study of Meteorites, by Oliver C. Farrington.-.----.-.----
Recent Studies in Gravitation, by John H. Poynting -.....-..---+.---------
On Ether and Gravitational Matter through Infinite Space, by Lord Kelvin --
On Bodies Smaller than Atoms, by J. J. Thomson ....-..--...-.------------

The Exploration of the Atmosphere at Sea by Means of Kites, by A. Law-

mence: Rotel. -/422022 22. 2h. A el pec eee Boe ee
Solid Hydrogen, by. James Dewar... 5. . 22S eeee eee eee eee
Utilizing the Sun’s Energy, by Robert H. Thurston -..-..--..--2...-2-.----
The New Radiations—Cathode Rays and Réntgen Rays, by A. Dastre ...-.---
Wareless ‘Telecraphy, by. G. Marconi )..~:s..23 0. eee
Transatlantic Telephoning, by William A. Anthony .........---------------
The Telephonograph, by William J. Hammer... 2-22 3252522 eos eee oe
Color Photography, by Sir William J.. Herschel. 2 3.2 25-222 ee ee
The History of Chronophotography, by Dr. J. Marey.....------------------
The Aims of the National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain, by RG

Gdazebrook 2....: 2......62.2252-0-f 5742. 0 eee
Emigrant Diamonds in America, by William Herbert Hobbs ...--.-..-------
Bogoslof Voleanoes,-by.C. Hart Merriam .: 222-2 s2ce sete eee
The Antarctic Voyage of the Belgica during the Years 1897, 1898, and 1899, by

iICnEYE Are ‘towski

eee oe Beet: ens oo koc beeen d ck Cone ee ee
The Palace:of ‘Minos, by Arthur J. Eyans:.-:--. soc c2eeen coe ene een eee
The Engraved Pictures of the Grotto of La Mouthe (Dordogne), by Emile

Riviére

Page.

CONTENTS.

Maemind.o at nmitrve, Man, by BPranz: Boas...2 22.2... 5-.22.52h-css-nec2.c--
Traps of the American Indians—A Study in Psychology and Invention, by

COE RTS a eS I ee een ge eS ge ne
The Abbott Collection from the Andaman Islands, by Lieut. W. E. Safford,

(i Se ce Ris ee i Re a re Pe RR cep Cade ay PS
The Development of Illumination, by Walter Hough ..........-.-....------
Order of Development of the Primal Shaping Arts, by W. H. Holmes. ..-.--.-
rarer Dive Grtlbentvls Walken oe. S. ot eagee 25s te ek aces ee ee cece ae
The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing Conditions

elaveanc sentiment,,by Hrancis: Galton: --..s255s55ssn-2e5ec2e555 a2 e58
The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti, by S. P. Langley...............----..--
Pama Nature, by o- b. Langleyi-s 2. occ. fo oe So ee ea bane ete
The Children’s Room in the Smithsonian Institution, by Albert Bigelow Paine-
peeendii.F hysiological Uses, by A. Dastre’ 2s... fc k sobs os nena woe
Santos-Dumont Circling the Eiffel Tower in an Air Ship, by Eugene P. Lyle, jr-
Automobile Races, by Henri Fournier and others ........-..........-.-----
The Erection of the Gokteik Bridge, by Day Allen Willey .............---..
MheaGreateAl pine Dunnels, by ERrancis Pox --2 2. .s-2s.5:-2-5-ssce ene e ea sone
The Mutation Theory of Professor De Vries, by Charles A. White -.....--.-.-
ine Panesnurs, orDerrible Wizards) ‘by F. A: Lucas... 2... 22-22. 2. 225e. Ae
The Greatest Flying Creature, by 8. P. Langley, introducing a paper by F. A.

isucasion the Great Pterodactyl Ormithostoma<-25 .---------- 2222-2 - +e see
The Okapi; the newly discovered beast living in Central Africa, by Sir Harry

RMR MN oer Se a oo Bis ty) ns MOE Be ESE eet as s hese ckie meted
Observations on Termites, or White Ants, by G. D. Haviland .--...--.--.-.--
iieawandennes oLtne Water! Builalo... 222225 cee so. bec ce eee See ee ones
On the Preservation of the Marine Animals of the Northwest Coast, by William

DEMING OOS, DYE Gr. ATTNO.- ac ase eas oak de ck eee ae eee eee toe
The National Zoo at Washington, a study of its animals in relation to their

natural environment, by Ernest Thompson Seton...-...........----------
The Submarine Boat, by Rear-Admiral George W. Melville............------
Commemoration of Prof. Henry A. Rowland, by T. C. Mendenhall.....-...--

VII

Page.
451

461

LISE OF PLATES:

Page.
SEcRETARY’s Report:
Pewee sty ent Ante eee 14
Teabeiite hal fy Dee agers ee arte are ene nee os 31
ihe ee tame oun a re 40
late sues aor ek eck bese 49
JEL Se. Veceete ee See as ane eae 66
Pilahe Wiles heater. ae 70
IEE Ti cre\'G) tl Ge aes ie ape eA 108
Plate DVM ree aes eee 109
RIatesENe SS ee 110
Pltee -Xuls Nee ee So cei 124
Piste ell yas Sa ee 125
THe SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION:
Rlateris oe a2 she ae ioe 145
Platechl: sae se te eee eee 146
Plate MLSS eon sea a 147
Plates Seen Se 148
Ledeen rey We i oe eae aes eiltog 149
bated Wale ose are tees ee 150
PrinciepAL Events tn ASTRONOMY
(Abbot):
Plateuly oo: ieee ee eee 154
Plate II (Heliotype).-.-..---- 156
Pinte Wut <. ooe tee tee ee 156
Plate IV (Heliotype) -.-.-.-..-- 158
TAR CAVE sae Re Ae ae 162
Bilnte NOL ee eases. Ae oe as 168
Use or Kires av Sea (Rotch):
122 Ui 24 Beas ar ses neem ere ae a 246
Jel Eitep i Ug etal eee I 248
Urinizinc Sun’s Enercy (Thurs-
ton):
Diatesdls2 2 aacece = eee eee 268
WrreE.ess TELEGRAPHY (Marconi):
Pate plete soe oo eee eee eee 287
Trans-ATLANTIC TELEPHONING
(Anthony ):
(Plate Wits 2. sere eet ees 304
Prev sou? 35 ea ae ee 305
THe TELEPHONOGRAPH (Hammer):
Plates Te 22 ae ae ae aes 308
Plate ls (colored!\ias 2s secre oe 312
Cotor PHoroaraPrny (Herschel) :
late: I(colored)\psacs-eeene] 314
Plate: Th (colored)\ic Ss25 a2 315+
Plate LL (colored). --2 52222 316

Vill

Page.
History or CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY
(Marey ):
Pistols 225.2% eee 320
PlatevbL 4 jae yee See OY)
Plate PEs ae 25 te ape encom 330
Plate TD Viv Ses se ie eed 331
Platec Ni eee ce reece ao2
Plate Vil nee ee ee eee 333
Plato: Valens Hep eee ere oe 334
Plate Wille 36) aoe) ses 335
Plate se eee ie ey eee 340
NATIONAL PuysicaAL LABORATORY
(Glazebrook ) :
Plateaus ie ne soa oe 344
EAC yr 0 Die sae wee 99 Peleg en et NS 351
Emicrant Dramonps (Hobbs) :
Plated a. Ae eas tee 360
Plater lens oh Se st ee ee 362
Platediin shot paesee pe Sse 364
Bogostor VoucANoEs (Merriam):
PlateWdiiec= 2 Shee eee eee 368
Plitewil2 Ss eee ae ae 370
Plate Jules. 22 heat eee teers 372
VoyAGE OF THE Bexaica (Arctow-
ski):
Plates 2 Saag ees 378
Plate, Teer ees eee a 380
PlatecUhl 2 25) eke eee ee 382
Plate diverse eiicG ea eee 383
Plate Vie: sae oe eee 384
Plait SVs ee eee 386
Plate SV ilies ee ite ee ore 388
Forest Desrruction (Pinchot):
Platienl ate 58 seen Soe en ieee 401
Plate ies sie ee oe eee 402
Plate eee oe eee 403
Ps te pl Vice Se ae a ier eer 404
IrriGaTion (Newell) :
Plate i orea2 yes ace eect 410
Plated 22542 See eee 412
Plate TL soe see 414
Plate Wore jee ae eee 417
Plate Vie ee eee 4i8
Plate Wilt i=. Pee eae 420
Plate! Vill 2 3292 ee 422

LIST OF

tatom ele, werk gl
tee Velilees sus eo ee eS
Li TUE Uh ieee eae

TrAps OF AMERICAN INDIANS (Ma-
son):

Appotr CoLLECTION FROM ANDA-

MAN IsLanps (Safford):

DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
(Hough):

Halen leslie ace bees Rey ses

FrreE WaLK 1n Tauiri (Langley):

Plate I

CHILDREN’S Room (Paine):
Piste © (eolored +2225 2. ---. =.
Plates IT, III (colored) ......-
tater Ves(colored!)iea22. === 52
tate VY; (colored). 2220522...
Plate VI (colored )
Aten VL Vibe ee 22 eee
ESTE ERI SNG = ne ch Meet edn) Se
Plates X, XI (colored)......-
ies exe (TSX XS oa SE
Circting Eirren Tower IN
sHip (Lyle):
Plate I

Pe LCTNG ee ee ey
AUTOMOBILE RACEs:
Plate I

ater ee os sc Sp
PAPO MN Same <5 eS eea tee

474

594 |
596 |

606
607
608

PLATES.

AUTOMOBILE RAaces—Continued.
| PABST ie 9] Bis peek ek be => eat nea
GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS (Fox):
Plate I

Dinosaurs (Lucas):
Plate I

GREATEST FLYING CREATURE ( Lang-
ley):
Pigtewieet ence pyibrete he Uaioe.
Plate ieee eee ae eee
Plates III, IV (to face one an-
Othe) Peas etree Ree ek

THE Oxapt (Johnston):
Plates (colored) sone secre
Pisten ble oo. eatoe eee ee
ley Saas
TERMITES, OR Waite Ants (Havi-
land):
Plates Tal Veo ees ae ree
WANDERINGS OF WATER BUFFALO:
Plate I
Some Private Zoos (Aflalo):
Platessl— lle ee Aas oe
RlatesstW Sli s=. 23S oe
TEA sist WAG) ie eine eae era op
platen Vehis ies oe ee
|; NaTIonNAL ZooLoGicaAL PARK (Se-
ton):
Plate I
Rlatevile es] omer sce a aes
Platelets a eee
UNE eyed UY eee ate
Plates Vase sees Sasa ae
Plabes 2Ve lea Nee to eae ee
Plates Xe NCU Seen = Se
| SuBMARINE Boar (Melville):
| ben GN ae ieee ge net emery
| PALEY He A it ee NN yg a 2 ea
| RowLtanpd Memortau (Menden-
hall) :
Plate I

Ix

Page.

609

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE ‘‘ ESTABLISHMENT.”

Witiram McKin ey, President of the United States.
THEODORE RoosEvELT, Vice-President of the United States.
Metyi1ute W. Fuuter, Chief Justice of the United States.
Joun Hay, Secretary of State.

Lyman J. GAGe, Secretary of the Treasury.

Eurau Root, Secretary of War.

PHILANDER C. Knox, Attorney-General.

CHARLES Emory Situ, Postmaster-General.

Joun D. Lona, Secretary of the Navy.

FE. A. Hrrencock, Secretary of the Interior.

JAMES WILsoN, Secretary of Agriculture.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

(List given on the following page. )

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION.
SamueEt P. LAanGtey, Secretary,
Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum.

RicHarp Ratupun, Assistant Secretary.

xI

REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes,
Title LX XIII, section 5580), ‘‘The business of the Institution shall
be conducted at the city of Washington bya Board of Regents, named
the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the
Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, three members
of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives,
together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two
of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other
four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.

REGENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901.

The Chief Justice of the United States:
MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board, Jan-
uary 9, 1889.
The Vice-President of the United States:
THEODORE ROOSEVELT.

United States Senators: Term expires.
SHELBY M. CULLOM* (appointed Mar. 24, 1885, Mar. 28, 1889,
Dec.-18;°1895, and ‘Mar. 7) 1901S Shot eee es eee Mar. 3,1907
ORVILLE H. PLATT (appointed Jan. 18, 1899)..........-----. Mar. 3, 1903
WILLIAM LINDSAY (appointed Mar. 3, 1899) -......-..---:-- Mar. 3, 1901
FRANCIS M. COCKRELL (appointed Mar. 7, 1901).-.--.-.--.--- Mar. 3, 1905

Members of the House of Representatives:
ROBERT R. HITT (appointed Aug. 11, 1893, Jan. 4, 1894, Dee.

20, 1895, Dec: 22; 1897, and Jane 479900) os. es are ee Dec. 25, 1901
ROBERT ADAMS, Jr. (appointed Dec. 20, 1895, Dec. 22, 1897,

and: Jan: 4;°1900)< 2322 nce eee ee eee Dec. 25, 1901
HUGH A. DINSMORE (appointed Jan. 4, 1900)....----.------- Dec. 25, 1901

Citizens of a State:
JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (appointed Jan. 19, 1887, Jan.

9.1893, and: Jan. 24, 1899) i> = 22 ee eee Jan. 24, 1905
ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (appointed Feb. 15, 1888,

Mars 1951894, and! June 21900) 42. 2 5 ee ee June 2, 1906
RICHARD OLNEY (appointed Jan 24, 1900).......-2..:-.-2..- Jan. 24, 1906

Citizens of Washington:
JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed Jan. 26, 1892, and Jan. 24,

1898) Sot Set Se sll ee ee ee oe Jan. 24, 1904
WILLIAM L. WILSON (appointed Jan. 14, 1896; died Oct. 17,

1900).
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL (appointed Jan. 24, 1898) ..--- Jan. 24, 1904

GEORGE GRAY (appointed Jan. 14, 1901) ..........-....--.-- Jan. 14, 1907-

Executive Committee of the Board of Regents.

J. B. HENDERSON, Chairman. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.

Rosert R. Hirr.
XII

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS AT THE
ANNUAL MEETING HELD JANUARY 23, 1901.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents, adopted
January 8, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth
Wednesday of each year, the Board met to-day at 10 o’clock a. m.

Present: The Chief Justice, the Hon. M. W. Fuller (Chancellor), in
the chair; the Hon. O. H. Platt; the Hon. William Lindsay; the Hon.
R. R. Hitt; the Hon. Robert Adams, Jr.; the Hon. Hugh A. Dinsmore;
Dr. J. B. Angell; Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. Richard Olney; the
Hon. George Gray; and the Secretary, Mr. 5. P. Langley.

Excuses for nonattendance were read from the Hon. William P.
Frye and the Hon. J. B. Henderson, on account of illness.

At the suggestion of the Chancellor the minutes of the last annual
meeting were read in abstract, and there being no objection, they were
declared approved.

The Secretary announced the death on October 17, 1900, of Dr.
William Lyne Wilson, and stated that Mr. Henderson had very much
desired to present some personal remarks on the occasion, but that
his illness had prevented him from attending the meeting.

Mr. Bell then offered a series of resolutions, which will be found
under the heading ‘* Necrology,” on page 51 of this report.

The resolutions were adopted by a rising vote. Mr. Hitt then stated
that he had received a request from Mr. Henderson to ask the Board’s
permission to file later a memorial to be spread upon the minutes.
On motion, the permission was granted.

The Secretary read acknowledgments from Mrs. Margaret A.
Johnston and Mrs. Jennie T. Hobart of the resolutions adopted by
the Board on account of the death of Dr. William Preston Johnston
and of Vice-President Hobart.

APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS.

At the last meeting the Secretary announced that a resolution
appointing the Hon. Richard Olney a regent to succeed the late Dr.
William Preston Johnston had passed Congress, but was still in the
hands of the President. The President’s approval was given on the
day of tne meeting, January 24, but it was then, of course, too late

to notify Mr. Olney and secure his attendance.
XIII

XIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

The term of Dr. Andrew D. White having expired, he was reap-
pointed to succeed himself by a joint resolution of Congress approved
June 2, 1900.

The vacancy in the Board, caused by the death of Dr. William L.
Wilson, has been filled by the appointment of the Hon. George Gray,
through a joint resolution approved January 14, 1901.

The Secretary read a letter of acceptance from Dr. Andrew D.
White, at present United States ambassador to Germany.

The Secretary presented his annual report to June 30, 1900, calling
the attention of the Regents to the fact that it contained an account
of every important part of the affairs of the Smithsonian Institution
during the past year prepared by himself, but supplemented by full
reports from the gentlemen in charge of the various bureaus. He
would particularly call their attention, among numerous matters in the
report, to the subject of the Exchanges. He then detailed the facts
of the applications of the Institution through our ambassadors at
London, Paris, and Berlin, in the interests of the Government. °

The Secretary spoke about the Zoological Park and the desirability
that the Government would place in that city of refuge for the van-
ishing animal races of the North American continent some specimens
of the giant animals of Alaska, which were now going the way that
the buffalo had gone. He then asked the attention of the Regents to
a subject of minor importance, but of some interest, alluded to in the
report under the title of the Children’s Room.

On motion, the report was accepted.

Mr. Hitt here said that he desired to bring before the Board the
knowledge of certain proceedings which had taken place at the Univer-
sity of Cambridge in England when the Secretary had received the
honorary degree of doctor of science. This had been conferred in con-
nection with an oration in Latin delivered by the public orator, and
which Mr. Henderson, whom they knew to be a scholar who loved the
tasks of scholarship, had translated into such English as Horace would
have used if he had to speak in that tongue. Mr. Henderson had
sent him a copy of this, and he now presented it to the Board with a
request that it be placed upon the minutes. Mr. Hitt then read the
following translation:

From across the Atlantic there has very recently been borne to us a man distin-
guished in the world of science—one who but lately has published a most interest-
ing and useful work on astronomy. In the city which is the capital of the greatest
transmarine republic many important duties are committed to his care: First, the
supervision of a great museum abundantly filled with objects of natural history;
next, the administration of an institution the most celebrated for the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men; and, lastly, the control of an observatory with
instruments designed for the purpose of dissecting and analyzing the light of the
stars. It is said that below the red rays of the spectrum there are other rays, unde-
tected by the sharpest vision, but which, through the genius of this man, aided by
an instrument discovered by him and named a ‘‘bolometer,’’ have been gradually
developed and made plainly visible.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XV

No one will wonder that a man thus fond of communing with the stars should also
be moyed by a great desire to fly from earth, so great indeed that, as if by wings
attached, he has actually been enabled to imitate the flight of birds for a distance
exceeding 3,000 feet. Not fearing, perhaps, the fate of Icarus, he may yet be able
himself to make good the vision of Horace, the poet:

“On strong but unaccustomed wings I fly,
And soar as bird and man through liquid sky.”’

Perhaps, impatient of this world’s affairs and longing for celestial ones, he may
well be emboldened to fly from earth and take his place among the stars.

I present to you Samuel Pierpont Langley.

On motion, the Latin address of the public orator and the translation
of Mr. Henderson were directed to be placed upon the records.

CAMBRIDGE, October 11, 1900.

The following is the speech delivered by the public orator in pre-
senting Mr. Samuel Pierpont Langley for the degree of doctor in
science honoris CAUSES

Trans aequor Atlanticum ad nos nuper advectus est vir scientiarum in provincia
insignis, qui etiam de astronomia recentiore librum pulcherrimum conscripsit. In
urbe quod reipublicae maximae transmarinae caput est, viri huiusce curae multa
mandata sunt; primum museum maximum rerum naturae spoliis quam plurimis
ornatum; deinde institutum celeberrimum scientiae et augendae et divulgandae des-
tinatum; denique arx et specula quaedam stellarum lumini in partes suas distribuendo
dedicata. Luminis in spectro, ut aiunt infra radios rubros radii alii qui ocuiorum
aciem prorsus effugiunt, viri huiusce ingenio, instrumenti novi auxilio quod
fodomerpov nominavyit, paulatim proditi et patefacti sunt. Nemo mirabitur virum
stellarum observandarum amore tanto affectum, etiam e terra volandi desiderio
ingenti esse commotum, adeo ut, quasi alis novis adhibitis, plus quam trium milium
pedum per spatium, etiam avium volatum aemulari potuerit. Fortasse aliquando,
Icari sortem non veritus, etiam Horati praesagia illa sibi ipsi vendicabit.

‘non usitata nec tenui ferar
penna biformis per liquidum aethera.”’

Fortasse rerum terrestrium impatiens, rerum caelestium avidus, ausus erit e terris
‘Volare sideris in numerum, atque alto succedere caelo.”’

Duco ad vos Samuelem Pierpont Langley.

In the absence of Mr. Henderson Mr. Bell presented the report of the
Executive Committee to June 30, 1900, which, on motion, was adopted.

The Chancellor stated that a vacancy existed in the Executive Com-
mittee, caused by the death of Dr. Wilson.

Senator Platt then offered the following resolution:

Resolved, That the vacancy in the Executive Committee caused by the death ot
Dr. William Lyne Wilson be filled by the election of the Hon. R. R. Hitt.

On motion the resolution was adopted.
Mr. Bell then offered the following customary resolution relative to
income and expenditure:

Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902,
be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary,
with the advice of the Executive Committee, with full discretion on the part of the
Secretary as to items.

On motion the resolution was adopted.

XVI PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE.

In the absence of Mr. Henderson, Chairman of the Permanent Com-
mittee, the Secretary made the following statement:

The Hodgkins Fund.—The Hodgkins Fund now amounted to about
$250,000, $208,000 of which was deposited in the general funds, the
remainder being held in first-class bonds. About $10,000 more was
held in New York to meet possible litigation, but the indications were
that the Institution would receive this also. There were also two
houses of small value which would probably net the fund about $1,600.

The Avery Fund.—This, as well as other matters of the kind, were
being looked after by the attorney of the Institution, Mr. F. W.
Hackett, who reports satisfactory progress. As to the value of this
Avery estate, the Secretary had requested an approximate valuation
from Mr. Fox, the real-estate agent who had charge of the property,
and who stated the same at about $26,000. Mr. Fox had written that if
the United States Supreme Court Building were placed directly north
of the Congressional Library the value of part of the property would
be greatly increased. This property, most of which was idle, was
yielding an income of something like $500 a year.

The Andrews Bequest.—This matter had been laid before the Board at
its last meeting, and Mr. Hackett has reported that the estate would
probably amount to something like a million of dollars. No active
steps as yet had been taken in Ohio looking to an application of this
money for the establishment of an institution for the free education of
girls. It was by no means certain that the elaborate system formulated
in the will was capable of being put into successful operation. The
Secretary here quoted from Mr. Hackett’s report:

It may be needful before long to institute a friendly suit in New York to ascertain
under the laws whether the legacy be a valid one to the Ohio corporation, or rather
to the corporation that the will says shall be created in Ohio. I shall make this the
subject of a separate letter to you in a few days. Meanwhile, as a report to the
Regents of the progress making in this business, I will say that I am giving more or
less attention from time to time to the will and its legal aspects, and also am in touch
with the counsel for the executor.

The Sprague Bequest.—The Secretary now stated that he had the
agreeable duty of bringing before the Regents the fact of another
legacy to the Institution by Mr. Joseph White Sprague, whose last
place of residence was in the city of Louisville, Ky., but who died in
Italy in June, 1900. Under the provisions of his will, which had been
offered for probate, certain personal effects were bequeathed to rela-
tives, and all the remainder of his estate, both real and personal, to his —
nephew, Seth Sprague Terry, in trust to convert the personalty into
money and distribute 85 per cent of the profits of the entire estate
among certain devisees named in the will, and their relatives, until
twenty years after the death of the last of said devisees, when the trust

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XVII

expired by limitation and all assets in the hands of the trustee were to be
conveyed to the United States of America to be held asa portion of the
funds of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be known as the ‘‘ Sprague
Fund.” One-half of the income of this fund was to be added to the
principal each year; the other half to be expended under the direction
of the Institution, in such manner as would ‘* best promote the advance-
ment of the physical sciences” by the giving of free lectures, provid-
ing laboratory facilities for original scientific research, publishing the
results of such researches, or by awarding medals or other rewards
for meritorious discoveries. The half of the gross income authorized
to be expended annually in this manner was to be cumulative, and any
portion not expended during one year might be expended during any
subsequent year.

The Secretary continued that it had not yet been possible to obtain
an inventory of the value of the estate, but he might mention that in
a newspaper estimate it was represented at $200,000.

TWO-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES.

The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences having invited the Smith-
sonian Institution to participate in the celebration of the two-hundredth
anniversary of its foundation, on the 19th and 20th of March, 1900,
the Hon. Andrew D. White, United States Ambassador at Berlin, and
member of the Board of Regents, was requested to represent the Insti-
tution on this noteworthy occasion. A suitably engrossed address,
conveying the congratulations of the Institution, and transmitted
through the Department of State to Dr. White, was presented by him
to the Prussian Academy and cordially acknowledged in terms of which
the following is a summary:

The Royal Prussian Academy expresses the most sincere thanks for the interest
the Smithsonian Institution has taken in the celebration of its two-hundredth anni-
versary. The expression of this friendly interest has added greatly to the success
and pleasure of these commemorative exercises throughout their entire course.

For a lasting memorial of this anniversary the Academy sends a description of the
festival, which it begs the Institution to place in its archives. This record will
derive its chief value from the addresses and memorials attached to it.

An interesting letter from Dr. White was laid before the Regents.
It described the exercises as having been of an exceptional interest.
They took place in the Royal Palace, where the King and Emperor
received the entire body of guests in state, surrounded by the high
functionaries of the Kingdom bearing the Royal insignia, while the
monarch from the throne delivered a very interesting address of wel-
come. Later there were entertainments in honor of the delegates not
oniy by the King, but by the Chancellor of the Empire and others.
On the second day occurred a general reception in the great hall of

sm 1901

IL

XVIII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

the Prussian legislature, which was also very impressive. The whole
occasion was most interesting and everything was most admirably done.

The Secretary added that Dr. White had further said in conversation
that in all his experience as a minister to European courts he had never
seen so imposing a display of ceremonial magnificence.

MR. BELIZS RESOLUTION.

Under the head of unfinished business the Chancellor called up the
resolution offered at the last meeting by Mr. Bell.

Mr. Bell said that he thought the Institution could not afford to
remain silent on the subject of the great questions aroused by the
National University project, and that some expression of the good will
of the Institution at least might well be given. He, therefore, desired
to withdraw the resolution offered last year and to substitute for it the
following, which was satisfactory to the Executive Committee:

In order to facilitate the utilization of the Government Departments for the pur-
poses of research—in extension of the policy enunciated by Congress in the joint
resolution approved April 12, 1892:

Resolved, That it is tho sense of the Board that it is desirable that Congress extend
this resolution so as to afford facilities for study to all properly qualified students or
graduates of universities, other than those mentioned in the resolution, and provide
for the appointment of an officer whose duty it shall be to ascertain and make
known what facilities for research exist in the Government Departments, and
arrange with the heads of the Departments, and with the officers in charge of Goy-
ernment collections, on terms satisfactory to them, rules and regulations under
which suitably qualified persons may have access to these collections for the purpose
of research with due regard to the needs and requirements of the work of the Goy-
ernment; and that it shall also be his duty to direct, in a manner satisfactory to the
heads of such Departments and officers in charge, the researches of such persons
into lines which will promote the interests of the Government and the development
of the natural resources, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the country,
and (generally ) promote the progress of science and the useful arts, and the increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men.

After some discussion by the Regents, on motion the resolution was
adopted.
REMOVAL OF SMITHSON’S REMAINS.

The Secretary stated that he had received the following letter:

7 Via GARIBALDI,
Genoa, 24 November, 1900.
SAMUEL Prerpont LanGury, Esq., LL. D., D. C. L.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Dear Sir: The Committee of the British Burial Ground of Genoa (of which, as
you are aware, Her Majesty’s consul is chairman), fully realizing how keenly you are
interested in all that concerns the resting place of the respected Founder of your Insti-
tution, has deputed me to write to you and lay before you the present position of our
cemetery.

It will lie in your recollection that when I accompanied you some years ago up to
the heights of San Benigno you were struck by the enormous quarry which was

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XIX

slowly but surely eating its way toward us from the sea through the rocky side of
the hill on which we stand, and the excavation has lately come so close to us that
the intervention of the consul became necessary to arrest further advance, on the
plea that our property would be endangered if the quarrying were carried on.

Actual blasting has in fact been put an end to for the present, and the cemetery
(although the boundary wall is now on the very edge of the excavation) remains
untouched, but the local authorities who are the owners of the quarry haye given us
to understand that they need more stone for their harbor works and are therefore
anxious to see our graves transferred from the position they now occupy, for which
purpose they would: give us a suitable piece of ground in another part of the town
and would also undertake the due and fitting transport of the remains. Should our
answer be in the negative, it is intimated to us that in five years’ time, in 1905, the
term for applying the law for public utility (twenty years after the date of the last
burial) will have been reached, and we shall then have to give up of necessity what
we are now asked to yield as a concession.

Under the circumstances the committee have decided that it is their best policy, in
the interest of all concerned, to begin to negotiate at once for the transfer on a decor-
ous footing of the British Cemetery and all its tombs, and although some consider-
able time may elapse before this transfer is accomplished, yet it is evident that the
time has now come for us to ask you to prepare your decision as to what is to be
done with regard to the James Smithson remains. Are they to be laid with all pos-
sible care and reverence in new ground here, or are they to be conyeyed to the
United States?

Awaiting the pleasure of your reply, I beg to remain,

Very faithfully, yours,
HK. A. Le Mesurter.

The Secretary said that the cemetery referred to was not the cele-
brated Campo Santo of Genoa, but a very small one in the care of the
British consul and the English church, situated in an elevated and iso-
lated spot, and that no interment had occurred there for many years.
The Regents had formerly authorized the placing of a bronze tablet
on Smithson’s tomb, which had been done.

The Secretary here exhibited photographs of the tomb, showing the
bronze tablet in position. Recently word had been received that the
bronze tablet had been stolen, but orders had been given to replace it
by a marble one.

After some discussion, in which the desirability of bringing the
remains to this country was adversely considered, the following res-
olution, offered by Mr. Adams, was adopted:

Resolved, In view of the proposed abolition of the English cemetery at Genoa,
which contains the remains of James Smithson, that the Secretary be requested to
arrange either with the English church or with the authorities of the national bury-

ing ground at Genoa for the reinterment of Smithson’s remains and the transfer of
the original monument.

SECRETARY'S STATEMENT.

Experiments in Aerodromics—KEclipse expedition.—The Secretary
stated that in view of the lateness of the hour he would pass over
some of the matters about which he had intended to speak, among

XX PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

others the continuation of his experiments in aerodromics, which, with
the consent of the Regents, he was making for the War Department,
and of the results of the eclipse expedition of May, 1900, further than
to say in regard to the latter that they were of rather more than
ordinary importance; that they had left one or two interesting but
unsettled questions, particularly that as to the possibilities of the
observation of Intramercurial planets, which had determined him to
send out a small expedition to Sumatra to settle these questions on the
occasion of the exceptionally important eclipse of the sun in May of
the present year.

Ur of the Chaldees.—In October, 1899, Dr. Edgar James Banks, of
Cambridge, Mass., had written to inquire whether the Smithsonian
Institution would accept a collection of Babylonian antiquities, if such
could be procured. He stated that he hoped to be able to secure yal-
uable material by excavating at the town of Mugheir, situated on the
Euphrates River, which, according to tradition, is the site of Ur of
the Chaldees, from which Abraham came. Being satisfied after inves-
tigation of the standing of Dr. Banks, and one of the Regents of the
Institution being among the vice-presidents of his association, the Sec-
retary accepted his proposition, which committed the Institution to
nothing but the receipt of the finds. One of the employees of the
National Museum would be of the party and would collect ethnological
and natural history specimens. Any prediction with regard to the
expedition must be premature, but it might be said that this site, if
correctly chosen, was one of the most importance for students of the
Bible and of ancient history yet to be examined, and that there was
reasonable expectation that the Institution would reap a reward.

Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress.—'The Smithsonian
deposit was created originally by a relatively very large expenditure
from the proper funds of this Institution, nearly half whose income
went in this direction for several years. The money, the Secretary
was told, was spent at a time when such things were cheaper than
now, and well spent, for a varied collection of works, partly but not
exclusively scientific; but during the last twenty-five years the im-
mensely increasing demand upon “the small fund of the Institution had

vaused it to add little to its library by direct purchase, though this had
continued to increase largely through the exchange system, chiefly in
the direction of scientific periodicals.

The Regents would remember the Secretary’s explaining to them
two years ago that by an informal arrangement made between Pro-
fessor Henry and the Library Committee, in 1866, the Library of Con-
gress was not required to keep the Smithsonian books together, but
merely to see that they had a proper mark indicating that they
belonged to the Institution.

These books, which Congress had assumed the care of, had been

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OB REGENTS. XXTI

lying, it was too well known, in compulsory neglect and disorder, owing
to the lack of room in the old quarters in the Capitol, but since their
transfer to the new Library building they had been rearranged and
much had been done toward bringing into order this valuable Smith-
sonian deposit, which was in some respects the finest collection of sci-
entific periodicals and reports of learned societies in the world.

Congress had last year made an increase in the working force of the
Library, and had provided for three persons, one custodian and two
messengers, to look after the Smithsonian deposit.

The books had an entire ‘‘ stack,” which would hold 175,000 volumes,
and was called the ‘* Kast stack,” assigned to them, and besides this
one of the great halls, which was to be used for the books in more
immediate demand, and also as a reading room.

An appropriation of $30,000 was made, to be expended under the
Librarian of Congress, for fitting up this room, and while even this
large room would not be sufficient to bring together all the Smithso-
nian books, it would bring together most of the transactions of the
learned societies and scientific periodicals, which were among the most
valuable portions of the Library.

He desired to engage the interest of the Regents in procuring for
the expenditure, either through their Secretary or the Librarian of
Congress, a sum of in all not less than $50,000 for the joint purpose
of supplying the defects in the library due to its neglect for the past
twenty years, and to fill in the important sets of periodicals which
can not be secured by exchange. This money could not be spent rap-
idly, since many of the books could now be got only after long search,
and he presumed that it would take several years to supply the actual
losses.

International Catalogue of Scientifie Literature.—The Secretary
said that he had not time to enter upon this subject at leneth, but he
would remind the Regents that the Smithsonian Institution had long
ago, under Professor Henry, proposed the scheme of a general cat-
alogue of scientific literature to the Royal Society of London for their
joint consideration.

The Royal Society, within the last two or three years, had resumed
the project which had now grown to be a very large one. It had re-
cently called for and obtained the official aid of the principal govern-
ments of the world, and England, France, Germany, and other leading
European nations had made large appropriations to this great work.
It had been hoped that our own National Government would take its
share in this enterprise, but the Secretary regretted to say that it had
not done so, although the Department of State had earnestly recom-
mended it.

The Smithsonian Institution, which had been the original suggester
of this great plan, desired to be still associated with it in the measure

XXII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

of its ability, and had caused a circular to be sent during the past sum-
mer to the libraries, universities, and scientific establishments of the
United States, and solicited support for this international project in
the name of the Institution. He was gratified to be able to say that
the response had been most hearty, and that 66 sets of this costly pub-
lication had been subscribed for here, which was a much more consid-
erable aid than had been rendered by the peoples of any other nations
apart from the national subscriptions.

The Secretary hoped that our Government would yet do something
for this. He was entirely willing that the work should be continued
provisionally under the Institution as suggested by the Secretary of
State, but while he believed that it was the wish of all American
scientific men that the work should be done here, he did not desire to
have the Institution appear as a solicitor of Congress for the necessary
appropriation while so many things of more immediate urgence to its
own interests were ungranted. He would temporarily continue a cer-
tain amount of the cataloguing as aid on the part of the Institution,
which was, in this respect, taking the duties of what was called in
Europe a ‘‘ regional bureau.”

SPECIAL STATEMENT SMITHSONIAN FUND AND MUSEUM.

Continuing, the Secretary said:

The Regents have received my printed official report, and as I hope that they have
read it I shall not dwell on its contents, but will speak now of certain subjects of
special concern. The real matter, to the Secretary at least, always lies in the actual
presence of the Regents, and his ability to bring to them his difficulties directly and
to obtain their guidance. I say this now not with reference to anything that presses ~
for present action, but to be sure that I know their wishes in the shaping of a policy
which causes me frequent official anxiety. I do not mean with reference to the
parent Institution, for there never was a time when its small means were productive
of more satisfactory results, or when it was better known throughout the whole
world than it is to-day, but I immediately speak of the bureaus which the Govern-
ment has put in its charge, and for the moment particularly of the Museum.

The Regents will remember that on the resignation of Acting Assistant Secretary
Charles D. Walcott, I asked them to authorize the removal of the restrictions on the
appointment of the Assistant Secretary, Mr. Richard Rathbun, so that he could be
assigned to other duties, especially that of Assistant Secretary in charge of the
Museum, with the aid of three Head Curators, and that I spoke of this as an experi-
ment upon which I would report later. It having been found impracticable that
Mr. Rathbun should give his chief attention to the parent Institution and satis-
factorily administer the Museum also, I have recently made arra7:gements by which
he could give his principal attention to the latter, and in this form, after two years’
trial, I can report favorably upon the plan.

I think it is working well for two reasons. The first is personal to Mr. Rathbun, >
who has a fund of tact and patience, united with professional sympathy, which few
men possess in a greater degree.

The other reason why the present plan is successful lies, I think, in the nature of
the Regents’ own control, and here I want to revert to the fact that the Museum as it
exists has grown from the parent stem of the Smithsonian Institution, and grown so

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XXIII

fast that the child is tending to become larger than the parent. There are signs that
the Committee on Appropriations is at last coming to see the inevitable necessity of
enlarging the Museum buildings, and with this enlargement will come an increased
expenditure and a new era of responsibility for its management. With a million
dollars or more of annual expenditure the Museum will be more like other great
bureaus of the Government. I can say that I think the present system of adminis-
tration through the Regents is not only free from every suspicion of political influ-
ence, but through the method of election and appointment of its governing body and
officers, has an assurance of permanence and of unselfish administration which no
other method known to our Government affords.

The Secretary is, under the fundamental law, the Keeper of the Museum.
Although a scientific man himself, he is not disposed in this connection to favor one
branch of science as against another. (At least, if I may speak for myself, I think I
am not.) While retaining in his own hands so much of the authority which the
Regents and the law have imposed on him as is necessary for a proper coordination
of all the interests of the Institution, and while personally passing upon all matters
of policy, relations with important foreign and domestic establishments and all
unusual or extraordinary expenditures, he has always managed the details of the
Museum administration through an Assistant Secretary. Such men as Baird, Goode,
Walcott, and Rathbun have successively filled this office, and in every instance not
only deserved the confidence of the Regents and the Secretary, but have gained the
confidence of the scientific community.

I think, then, that the present plan of administration is working well, but I desire
the Regents to bear in mind that an extension of the work to be done is likely to be
later demanded by scientific public opinion; that the time has nearly come when
Congress will look favorably upon it, and that when the time for this extension
actually does come I hope they will feel that their own just and impartial rule is the
best that the Museum is likely to have in the future, as it is that which has built it
up in the past, guaranteeing as it does deliberation and fairness in the selection of
the Museum officers and a stability in its policy.

There is something to be said with regard to each of the other bureaus, but the
Regents will find this set forth in the Report, particularly with regard to the Secre-
tary’s personal efforts made last year to extend the field of the Bureau of Exchanges.
I wish, however, before concluding these statements to the Regents, to revert to a
subject on which I have already asked their advice and which is of fundamental
importance.

The Chancellor remarked on a previous occasion that the time seemed to be coming
when the Institution would be more and more in the way of receiving gifts, like the
Hodgkins gift. I hope and believe that this opinion will be justified, and I have
had the pleasure of bringing some evidences of it before the Regents this morning,
but I ask them to bear in mind, with regard to the Smithsonian Institution, which has
been called an anomaly in our Government, that its best feature, and that which
makes it a happy anomaly, is that while the whole is in the care of the State, there
is an independent fund under the Regents’ control. Now I beg them to consider
that this all-important feature of independence is every year lessening in its character,
owing to the decreasing relative importance of the fund by reason of the changing
value of money, and the enormously increased wealth of the country around it.
Thus in 1850 the Smithsonian Institution’s fund was over $600,000. This was at the
time a noble foundation, but how relatively small it is to-day can be seen from the
greatly increased funds now in the hands of other institutions of learning. I have
written to the presidents of a number of the principal American universities in
existence in 1850 and asked the extent of their endowment at that time.

Fifty years ago, the President of Yale University informs me, the funds of that
great institution were about $300,000. At that time the Smithsonian Institution

XXIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

fund was over $600,000, or more than twice that of Yale. Now President Hadley
tells me that the invested funds of Yale are about five and one-quarter million
dollars. The Smithsonian fund is nearly what it was; that is, except for the Hodg-
kins legacy; it is about one-sixth that of Yale; which is saying that the Smithsonian
fund has relatively decreased in the proportion of 12 to 1.

Not to found this comparison on the solitary case of Yale, I have inquired in this
way of the Presidents of seven of our leading colleges and universities, and I have
answers from five: Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and the University of
Pennsylvania.

Columbia reports an income of $11,000 in 1850, but no endowment. Harvard is
the only college or university which fifty years ago had a fund as large as that of the
Smithsonian Institution. The average fund of Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Penn-
sylvania in 1850 I find to be about $450,000. The average fund of each of those
same four institutions to-day, as their presidents and treasurers report to me, is
about $8,600,000 (an average increase of nearly 2,000 per cent).

If some of the newer universities, as Stanford, and Chicago, whose funds are
believed to be collectively $25,000,000, are brought into this estimate, the result is
that while at the time of its organization the Smithsonian Institution, with one
exception, was very much wealthier than any university or college in the United
States, to-day it has about one-twelith of the average property of those to which it
was formerly superior.

If there is any object that lies near my heart, it is that the Institution should
become so known throughout the country that gifts and devises which would
increase that part of its funds under the absolute control of the Regents should be ~
stimulated and increased. I am convinced that it is but necessary that the whole
of the American people who have money to devise or give shall only know what
the Institution has done in the past and what it guarantees under the rule of the
Regents in the expenditure of funds in the future, to bring in such gifts in increas-
ing number. I will do anything I can personally to aid this, and while it is not
becoming that the Institution should wear the appearance of soliciting anything of
the kind, I should be very glad for any counsel from the Regents as to the means of
aiding it.

The Regents informally discussed the matters suggested by the
Secretary, but, time preventing, took no action; and, on motion, the
Board adjourned.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN ENSTI-
TUTION

For THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901.

To the Board of Regents of the Sinithsonian Institution:

Your Executive Committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con-
gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the U. S. National Museum, the International Exchanges, the
Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro-
physieal Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1901, and balances
of former years:

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
Condition of the Fund July 1, 1901.

The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the
Treasury of the United States, according to act of Congress of August
10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress
February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson, savings from
income and other sources, to the amount of $134,831.

To this also have been added a bequest from James Hamilton, of
Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York,
of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500; a gift
from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000 and $8,000,
being a portion of the residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, and
$1,000, the accumulated interest onsthe Hamilton bequest, making in
all, as the permanent fund, $912,000.

The Institution also holds the additional sum of $42,000, received
upon the death of Thomas G. Hodgkins, in registered West Shore
Railroad 4 per cent bonds, which were, by order of this committee,
under date of May 18, 1894, placed in the hands of the Secretary of
the Institution, to be held by him subject to the conditions of said
order.

XXV

XXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Statement of receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.

RECEIPTS.
Cash-on ‘hand Joly], 1900 £22022: see ee $76, 219. 07
Interest dn tund‘ July 1, 1900.22 boree oes $27, 360. 00
Interest on fund January 1, 1901 --......------ 27, 360. 00
—————— 54,720.00
Interest to January 1, 1901, on West Shore bonds. ..-.-.-.- 1, 680. 00
—————— $132, 619.07
Cash from sales of publications... -...-.--5..222-2-+-22.22- 188. 59
Cash from repayments, freight; etc .. 5.2. 42aeee see --- 10,240.80
zt 10,429. 39
Total receipts. 22. =.=. 22 2525S Ae ee ee ee eee 148, 048. 46
EXPENDITURES.
Building:
Repairs, care, and improvements.-......-.--- $6, 938. 39
Hurmitureyandsfirturesss. 255 6a ee 2,188.01
$9, 126. 40
General expenses:
Fostage.and telecraph'- > i225 288 a 117. 67
DEALIONETY. 265 oat cn ee ae ah eens aera 1, 174. 44
Inicidentals (fuel, gas; 6662) o22 cee eee 4, 848. 20
Library (books, periodicals, ete.) ......---.- 2, 581. 80
SATIATION 2 ot ioe Be eae ee ieee de eee 20, 566. 95
Greneral: Prin binge eo ean ne eae 34. 85
Gallery Of att. os25s5.2 0 Opodo eagle tee eat 408. 92
Mcetim bay so" she ey a Se ees tee ae ne 221. 37
———_—— 29, 954. 20
Publications and researches:
Smithsonian contributions ................-- 36. 85
Miscellaneous collections ..............-..-- de Al eras
RO POLIS 26 Sone oS aks ae Se ee eo 1971163
Special publications {> -'2 25.2 7745 -eeeees 222. 50
Researcher: Sct ee, oe ay ee eee 4, 686. 04
paras Dae Soe Be ne ete 1, 1438. 10
Pingoicins Time 2.2572 eee i ee 4,473.51
—— 14, 246. 36
Literary and scientific exchanges..............-.-..--- 5, 708. 24
——— 59,.085. 20
Balance unexpended. June'30;°1901 772522 eee 83, 963. 26

The cash received from the sale of publications, from repayments for
freights, etc., is to be credited to the items of expenditure as follows:

Sinithsonian contributions. 22k ee ae ee ee $24. 91
Miscellaneous, collections *:').4: 2) 23 nt So ee eee eae 138. 97
RSE OES esac SNS er eee eS pe a Se ea Ie 16. 41
Special publications ................ Ut aoe ae See ae ee 8. 30
$188. 59
ixenanees 602 io ee Soe Se et 9, 785. 44
Imeidentals jt: 2 2.2 ie LO Se ee ea 455. 36
10, 429. 39

*In addition to the above $20,566.95, paid for salaries under building and general
expenses, $8,999.11 were paid for services, viz, $4,312.93 charged to building account,
$285 to furniture account, $2,151.06 to researches account, $1,250.16 to library
account, and $999.96 to Hodgkins fund account.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXVII

The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1901, were therefore $48,655.81, or $10,429.39 less than the gross
expenditures, $59,085.20, as above stated.

All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest,
sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are
deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the
Secretary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks
on the Treasurer of the United States.

Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to
appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted by Congress
to the Smithsonian Institution:

Detailed statement of disbursements from appropriations committed by Congress to the care

of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, and from balances
of former years.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901.

RECEIPTS.

Appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year ending June ?%, 1901, “for
expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United
States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employ-
ees and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, twenty-four
thousand dollars’”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900). .--:-..----------- $24, 000. 00

DISBURSEMENTS.
[From July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Salaries or compensation:

enrator.4 months ath2os. oo. 2 a-noe eae oo eee $1, 033. 32

HAGLINe CULAtOn OIMONbIS abap2col.= ae terse en oe er 1, 125. 00

1 chief clerk, {6 months, at S175 Sac ph ae cae ee ae \ 2, 149. 98
AGmonths cat $183 Shree ssi Sasso

HCE Kem sTN ONS WAG wlOO 532. 22 ene See es one 1, 800. 00

Heelerk-omMonin sabi glo cian. eee Ree Soe es 250. 00

1 clerk, J6 months, at dLIG.67 wenn eee eee eee eee eee \ 1, 450. 02
avneuilisd at lon. cos eae ee eae be

1 clerk, J g aDgtMtaaRyy et gLOM)S Oe ee eee ela sa - \ 1, 249. 98
\6 MONS Au PlOSk oot wee eee. hs ee es nee

1 stenographer, J11 months, as $90. .....--------------- \ 1, 090. 00
u MOMth At wlOO ee sea ee ee oe

ieclerkasi2omonths sat ecole = fees beac costo ee see 960. 00

1 ee PMOTOUILNS oppo = seer te ee a reser eeee \ 570. 00

Ports MGR ee pote: a ee tee Soh oe te JEN

(packer Le nmMOnths = Ati POO= coc oan ess eke esos cea = 660. 00

1 workman, : months, at 900 AO SERGE al ae eG \ 630. 00
Gemnanihs sat pope sae oe ee rare

1 messenger, i months, at $25 .....-----.-+------++--- \ 310. 00
lema@n thd tipo ee eats oe scmtcoe = ot

(lshboreralemonths: at. 4p... ete won eee eee a 540. 00

ICA Peniets 2OIGALYS Waldo: ce oe 2a ke ean a aces oe 60. 00

erento days: Miley 2 bots eS sobs ites fase cl. 19. 50

XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Salaries or compensation—Continued.

1 laborer, 29 days, at $1.50-......-.--------------------- $43. 50
1 laborer, 22 days, at $1.50 .....-.---------------------- 33. 00
1 cleaner, 166 days, at $1....----...-------+--=---2-+-<-- 166. 00
1 agent, 12 months, at $91.663......-.------------------ 1, 100. 00
1 agent, 12 months, at $15.......-.--------------------- 180. 00
1 agent, 12 months, at $50....-..----------------------- 600. 00
Total salaries or compensation... --.-.----.------------ 16, 020. 30
General expenses:
ASR eee ye ee aes Be ape he eee $876. 50
TANT eerie ee RM ence meen RRS SH 3, 587. 12
Papen cece ioe oie sacar ear es 225. 00
Saripiics Stoo it flues os Shae eee eee 63. 46
PAE ORORET WS ac 2-2 a Benes om Se epycel oe eg ee 291.91
——-—— 5,043.99
Motel dig bursemente:.= 2) sec oa oe eee oe ee eee $21, 064. 29
BalanGe July. 0, lool os os oats aoe ae eet Oh ere te er ee 2, 935. 71

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1900.

Balance July 1, 1900, as per last report......-.------------+------=----- $2, 538. 83

DISBURSEMENTS.
General expenses:

BOOKS. fos Se ae i ais ee eer eet gs ley ee $75. 63

ORES eee ee SON a ie ee an ad fal oe eae ere eT 146. 50

| Wy 21) a £1 eee Me a eel ee oo eRe RIE tues eRe tu As 2, 156. 10

SORVvICGs. Skee MR oe cee ah SI pe me ety sete) Sy ee em 10. 50

SPAMOMGRY) <= S23 2e es oe en ee en ae cee eee 11. 16

Rupplies sore ta fee Pee Pps en ees Ga es 85. 04
Total disbursements. =. 2 Ss 2s Se se as See oe ee ee ee $2, 484. 93
Balaneé Jilly b- 1901.0 s. 222352 te eee ee ee eee 53. 90

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1899.

Balance July: 1,°1900, as ‘per last. report. : .- 3223 pa ee eee $1. 59

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901.

RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘ for
continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or
compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of necessary
books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceed-
ing one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building’ ;
(sundry; civil’act, June 6;1900).2-2. SoS: see Ee ee eee $50, 000. 00

The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the
Secretary in the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX

DISBURSEMENTS.
Salaries or compensation:

1 director, 12 months, at $375 ....-.- cB SO tee a ea $4, 500. 00

1 ethnologist in charge, 12 months, at $353.33... .....-. 3, 999.96

ieebomolorist, 7 months, at $208.33. 2.2... 52-2-25-022--2- 1, 458. 31

Pemmoocist, 12 months, at $200 -.-. 22: . 3. --.----.-2--- 2, 400. 00

1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $166.67 .....-- hes ioe eee ee 2, 000. O04

iwenimolorist, 12; months, at. $166.67 -.....2.22.:-......- 2, 000. 04

meninolocist: 12: months; at $133!33 .-.2 2. 222-2. 25+ 1, 599. 96

meconolocist..2 months, at $125 22.25. 2202.22 22-2 -+- 4 1, 500. 00

ieromolorist, L2months, at. $125 -.... 2-22. 2. 2222s 1, 500. 00

donhinolocist, 24 months at $120 2022522... -- 2-2-2222 312.50

1 assistant ethnologist, 1 month, at $100 -.-........------ 100. 00

1 assistant ethnologist, 10 months, at $50-.......-..----- 500. 00

aussie 2 months. at Pl66:672 os 222 - =. sa. ee ese Bs 2, 000. 04

1 ethnologic translator, 63 months and 6 days, at $150... 1,001. 60

PeRleEk eo IMNOnINA VAL PLD ssf Soe keh so eset 375. 00

macrkeeLAumoentns vateploQea i822 eo ee Seek Se ee 1, 200. 00

Walon amon piswalinel O05 ase < wo ost Ss es ace tee es 1, 200. 00

eter Montes al plOOs 4-452 aacot sce se Sane e soos 1, 200. 00

fee el OTNOMGHS Ab PND ee. oe nie ee oe Bee cee e elo 900. 00

moor reader, 12 months,-at $75... 2. 2. .2--4=- 22. --- 2% 900. 00

l assistant ethnologic librarian, 10 months, at $60; 2
PERCH DU oe te ee ee ee TNS el eee 700. 00

Pekitled laborer; 12 months,-at $60: -2.. .- -.2--22----:.- 720. 00

Mmessoneer le months, ab po0's2 22 62 se ene 2 600. 00

Semarcn wl 2emonihe ahepoOes a4. 55.225. 122 se cee 720. 00

Sacer LA mMoOnths ab 405.202 eee 8 se eee 540. 00

PEDO ai-odaysatipl Oss. 2. Sees. wk oes ee 111.00

SavOrereccidays™ at dla) a2 3) ee. ee ek kes 2 42. 00
Momisalanesoncampensatlonee: (62 oe Sas eh $34. 080. 45

General expenses:

STL TS ak ee arn Se oe ee ee SE ee) ata a $822. 58

Prawines and: ilustravions:. 2.22 -a.8502 22. eee 407. 95

hola poate sige Ae oR Se ae es ae Alpe SA Ee 257. 93

DRRRNERE ee see en ete 5S ener ee 94.53

Ber ROIR CTI te ae ee 3 Se en ee cee ee MONI OD

RPG ATIOO RIS seers en ane WEN erayn le ec 108. 65

Pat ALAnTICNC ss wees. on oa Se Re ss eee ee 683. 33

MISPRIBEV CS eet Sarre oy8.2 SE Ja ee oS 10. 40

osse ane teleoraph..< 2222-24222 so Lees 72. 50

Ueto pa Nae 2 ee ane de ee ee 1, 500. 00

SREIIESET CON a= sth. miei: lye By She oie 2S! ryt 526. 35

0 LESS Sag See pee eee aes a er a 3, 388. 78

Repel cone Be SPE ae Fates 1, 238. 04

Mravel-and teldrexpenses: 2... 2.254 Seie snk PMA SY

13, 234. 86

Berne SD TESEINEM iGreen thee ec Ces ates ee oe ci ms Sale onSc : 47,315. 31

i alaaveeyd fi Ae Oy DR A Bere, eg gt a ee 2, 684. 69

KXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1900.

Balance July 1: 1900; as per last report. 22. s2s82..) cep eee eee $2, 147. 35

DISBURSEMENTS.

General expenses: :
BOOKS es st 5. 22 tots Soo wk eee x Smee eran $645. 95
Drawines an daillusirations’ ss. 2 Sh Se eee eee 49.51
GION Ge tee tae ONE Se oe ON Se here eC eee 67. 89
Oficeturnitute<:< 2.5.5 casted oe ee a Eee 288. 50
Imo iiteapee, sae ee bio Fg sche n esece entiation ce Sree 13. 51
Wiascellaneousy-j23 25-0 02 = ne 2 cee. see Sete ee eee 1. 65
INS TERMS Ue a Re eee ag ieee ta Se ieee fs aL os 72. 64
Pestarevand telesrani) Js.) sa. seen ate eee ner 21.32
vena eb shs. So Sn ce Se eee cae aoe eee eee 83. 33
SPeclaleserVIiGEs ewe Hilts Fae a eee ee ee eos 233. 00
DSPCCUMENS Vc oie Secs eek 2. cok ca een eee eee ei 285. 27
DUDES a wero sini oe. coos Aree ee ee eer 136. 77
Dravyel-and. neld expenses: =..2222.5s6 see ee ee eee ae 17.50
SOAMONEL > {6 aeeio ste ear ee Se hes ee a eee ane nape 225. 32
Mo bal CIShurseMieMm tee ac ee Sih las ees ee ate een eee ee ea $2, 142.16
Balarnce sd tidy Wi sh Oily ess oe oa eR eee eed a eae sully)

AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1899.

Balance, July. <1900;\asiper lastrepottss 4: Jsaqcese eee eee eases $92. 48
DISBURSEMENTS.
General expenses:
Barer bn ties ee ie spec ee sp DE a te tl tea er $0. 84
Balance .c 2 So a52 Sooo? ste ee ee a 91. 64

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1901.

RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901,
‘for continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col-
lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern-
ment and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of
all necessary employees, $180,000, ot which sum $5,500 may be used
for necessary drawings and iilustrations for pubiications of the

National Museum”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900)......-.-.------- $180, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.
. jJuly 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]
Salaries or compensation.........-.-..-<-+.. $158, 846. 45
SIO SULT NS CTR [Cs ge aaa Np gg PE 4, 025. 76

NOE SERVICE si. 22 Ske oho ee Se ee $162, 872. 21

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXI

Miscellaneous:

Drawings and illustrations ..........-.--- $2, 010. 53

pear, weer: sR ek See roe 4,617. 14

PMOMER ens ee rt seen Se 1, 291.37

MVC ae eee taro Se ee ee See he 1, 718. 98

LETH SAO) at icy’ See Sa the Le Re i ee oe 981. 85
ROtUINMISCe ANCOUS nas Ako ce eo eee Se $10, 619. 87
Mo talescnenGiuunes smc ae ee Se ae oe BRS ee ae eee SS $173, 492. 08
JEL W a eLers Mol ASH AS 10) Ea ae eae Oe i ag ee os ey Generar, Sara les 2 ae eae 6, 507. 92

Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation, 1901.

Scientific staff:

1 assistant secretary, 8 months, at $258.33_.......-.---.- $2, 066. 64
ihergucurator, 2'monthe at $291. 66.282 2 = 3, 499. 92
HeCHInALOr le months sat. peolsOOn a ee ee 3, 499. 92
GHEATOT Te MOUS At poole GO sse Son esos) es Be 3, 499. 92
iFeurator ple months at: p200%.- 2-5 oo eae ee 2, 400. 00
imcuratond2 months sabie2z00s = =so5 io eS eno 2, 400. 00
WPCMEALO ol mONGOS wat po0QS: see sek wee See ee 2, 400. 00 a
IPCUEALOL 2p Ontns at a200 2. ses atthe 28 ee 2, 400. 00
Imeurators L2 months, at PLiOs 424 2o coos eek ee Se fan sa 2,100.00. .
ievesistanh curator, 2 months, at pl50)2~ 55... 222s 8 1, 800. 06
iGansistant curator Ia months. at plo0\s- 22522. 222255022. 1, 800. 00
Waccishant curator Ia months. at plo0l 2.2 .)0282 es eee 1, 800. 00
(eaSISLAn CUrAtOE Iomonths, at-ploOm 235.222 e es ee 1; 800. 00
1 assistant curator, 6 months, at $150; 6 months, at $130.. 1, 680. 00
ifackistant curator, 12 months) atiplacsoo.e= 2.225 2 sss. 1, 599. 96
assistant curator, 12 months) at $133.33-.--...:..-....- 1, 599. 96
Issistanicurator, la months, at plop ose eae so ae 1, 500. 00
1 assistant curator, 12 months, at $116.66 ..... .._.._..- 1, 399. 92
iasisiany curator, 12 months) at $lil6:66) 225 ..2- 22222. - 1,399. 92
1 second assistant curator, 12 months, at $100 ____..___-- 1, 200. 00
Meare months, 2¢ $106.66. 52.3. ae ce. ae 1, 399. 92
adel months: at olOOw 2... 232s. sese ee Sao 1, 200. 00
Heed Amontassab PLOWS <9. 82k ce Se Sates ee seas. 1, 200. 00
Heard ale months atipsosco.e... sack eel cdl he erie 999. 96
MAMMA MLOULUSTAlISoroowcmtoo sees see ements a 999. 96
1 aid, 10 months, 54 days, at $83.33 _..... Rs ee og 978. 45
ily Sieh, LES aa Conall ekseyara At AVS) a eed Ee ee tat oe 900. 00
ih iols Wedsoavepatin asp ven ect S/o hens arm eee es See Ee smi eae 900. 00
Pt weet Ss ab Oe ac ac Se Dorey Ree eae eee ce 600. 00
i] puke) GIN Taeyoyan el asi eH ee 15) 0 een oe RR ieee a yep en ee 590. 00
bead i month and 15} days, at $a0es.. 2s J22 052k 75. 00
—— $51, 649. 45
Preparators:

iipuotosrapher, i months) at pl ipes 2. sane eo 2, 100. 00
iemodeler wala months at lOO: - fe... [hoe tie ee ee tl 2005019
LL TN 2 OS) Cas GALS Uae be She Ga fs ean a 45. 00
Hancoropict, 2 months, atiso0. 2<- 2 222 2.520. aLac else 1, 080. 00
1 chemical geologist, 4 months and 25 days, at $100...... 489, 29

1 preparator, 2 months and 41 days, at $75; 15 days, at
See ee ere ne Aha a A ee oS re 295. 40

XXXIT REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Preparators—Continued.

iepreparator, 12 months,at.poocs- eek se. Sn oeae ee $1, 020. 00
1 preparator, 12 months, at $85.......-...- Sea eee =. 1, 020. 00
ispreparator, 12 months, “at: So0c.2 ess oe ee ee 960. 00
1 preparator, ‘7 months; .aboio.. 2... sede e eae ee 525. 00
1 preparator, 6 months and 13 days, at $70......-..-..-- 452. 50
1 preparator, 7 months and 8 days, at $60..-......-...-- 437. 14
Ipreparator, 12 mionths, at'$4> =< 2: sce aoe pees 540. 00
1 preparator, 6 months and 15 days, at $45...-....---.-- 291. 77
1 acting chief taxidermist, 1 month and 3 days, at $125. 137. 10
istaxidermist; 12smnonths,-at.p 100 V2 ase ere 1, 200. 00
taxidermist: 2 ton this aG sno 0) ss ee pee een 1, 080. 00
1 taxidermist, 1 month and 9 days, at $75.......--...--- 96. 77
Iatax1GenmNsts 1 maomths erty gO ae eee eee ee ener 720. 00
$13, 689. 97
Clerical staff:

1 chief clerk, 4 months, at $208.34; 8 months, at $208.33. 2, 500. 00
iveditorsl2months. at. blG/=. 2 cses se se ere ee 2, 004. 00
iehief of division, 12:months, atp200) 22-2 2) oases ee 2, 400. 00
iprevistrar, al Zimonubs: ah pi Gene, eee ee ae 2, 004. 00
1 disbursing clerk, 12 months, at $116.67...............- 1, 400. 04
1 assistant librarian, 12 months, at $133.33 ........------ 1, 599. 96
1 stenographer; 12’ months, at $166.662.. 2.24.2. 7eee2. 1 999892,
il stenocrapher.<12 months, abiplop a ae oe eee -1, 500. 00
I stenographer, 12 months, at: $90"<-2 sc. ae ee oe eee 1, 080. 00
1 stenographer, 6 months, at $85; 6 months, at $75 .....- 960. 00
1 stenographer and typewriter, 9 months and 11 days, at

vio; 19 days, at POU; 23 days, at $2 22... an oe 786. 50
1 stenographer and typewriter, 11 months and 12 days,

BR ROO 206 Lane tae R rs! eae a ee eae a 569. 35
1 stenographer and typewriter, 8 months and 5 days, at

POU = epee Me Cec ee Sek. Seo oeeees tence eae ee err 408. 06
1 stenographer and typewriter, 3 months and 28 days, at

DO 2 cs ee ca ote a ee 195. 16
1 stenographer, 2 months and 48 days, at $50_.........-- 178. 39
1 typewriter, 6 months, at $85; 6 months, at $75.....__-- 960. 00
L-typewriter, 12 months, at $702.2) ts eee ee ee 840. 00
1 typewriter; 12 months, at, $6225.35 eee ee oe ee 780. 00
| typewriter, 10 months and 10 days, at $45........-.--- 464. 52
Ieelenksalimromthys; at! p25 ce Peeters ye eee eee eee 1,500. 00
ikclerk, liZimonths: at $L25:.. Sesto ees eee 1, 500. 00
bclerk.6months, ate 2h. 2 ae op ieee eee nae 750. 00
clerk, 12. months, at $1152.25. 2. = eee Se ieso0s G0
elerk 2anonths: at $100 2 eee 1, 200. 00
lclerk; 1 2.months:-at $1002. 2242-2, See ee eee 1, 200. 00
ielerk. 12 amonths)at-plQ0s =a =a ea = ee ee 2 1200200
1 clerk, 6 months, at $100; 6 months, at $90.............- 1, 140. 00
elerk 2:months-at. $80. 2 eo ee ee 960. 00
1 clerk 12 months, at $75... 52.2) 20. See eee 900. 00
1L.clerk, 12 months, at $752. 22 See eee 900. 00
irelerk, 2 months, ‘atih 75222 Ss 900. 00
1 clerk and preparator, 12 months, at ‘$75 7.2.2) 5.2. 5. 900. 00
1 clerk, 6 months, at $75; 6 months, at $70... .5..2...... 870. 00
Uclerk 12months, at:$60 5. snn ee ee 720. 00
1 acting property clerk, 12 months, at $60...........---. 720. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Clerical staff—Continued.
fecleriewl onmonthswatwmolse cap ate eens See eso acs

1 clerk and preparator, 12 months, at $60

HeGLENK sORMONtOS sab POULwn 2s hee corse coe Ae cle soe.
1 clerk, 6 months, at $60, 6 months, at $50.............-
iclerkelPimonths. at poo sess see eons ce coe
irc lerkaelesmOonunS eAinho deca ewer ot wee eee
fclenk en monthstandes2idays, at. pooim.+= 2s se. eee ae
clenkeelOamontias atipoOl- 2c 32S. ce = Seen oe ase.
imelenkemlemmonthsatipo0 Geass oace se Seen oe Sse aes
tclerk.. 1) 0tmonths: andi25 days, at $50: 2. 2-.52-- 322-22 -
1 clerk, 8 months and 83 days, at $50-.......-----.---..--
fm@lenkemle niromnbhs, Ati p40 neo. ek soak acts nee oa ae

1 clerk, 10 months and 57 days, at $40

Wclenk-wleumonths) aq hooses ce assesses Sacks ws oe ok
1 clerk, 6 months and 21 days, at $30............-..--.-
Menpyict, 207 CaVS:, At POOL. <6. se ecees ss heeds cdl see
ecovise iamonths. at. P40. so sosels. 62sec yes 2e5 5 ee

Buildings and labor:

1 superintendent, 9 months, at $250

1 generai foreman, 12 months, at $122.50..........-.----
isonenianwli2amonths- at so0h. 4222 sou ates a ew ce on

1 carpenter, 8 days, at $3

1 acting captain of watch, 105 days, at $3........-.-....-

1 lieutenant of watch, 12 months, at $70

1 watchman,
1 watchman,

1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

watchman, 6 months and 67 days, at $60

watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,
1 watchman,

I2imonthswatewOot- aac sees oe. Race be ee
1 month, at $64; 6 months, at $60; 46 days,

12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,

CIB 0) 0 Seo Sits yeas 8) ee ee ee ee
Pre ol 0S eae pee te ch oe ta a ee
ALD GOOS Se Fe eis a eee a eee:
2 sON OMG MS seat pO pee ats eee ro ee eee
I 2amonthsrratybO0 es me. ae ere ee ears
8 months and 10 days, at $60

SyMaVO Tle Ops be ee rae OO pte Sie ee ee pra ts (le daa
2 months and 15 days, at $60 ..........-.--
AParmonuhish aby poo me nae ese Pees ets revere ae
UP Araat ay nite] nes} eh Mee ska yo Je eg eae mare acs ne he mt eR
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
12 months,
10 months and 17 days, at $55 .............
6 months and 17 days, at $55.......-..-.--
4 months and 20 days, at $55..........----
4 months and 18 days, at $55 ..........-..-.
imonthiand Ordays ato. ----ce- soa.
POLONIA Lhasa eee cee Se eS evciors s

sm 1901——-n11

. 00
. 00
360. 00
660. 00
660. 00
660. 00
443.
600.
600.
540. 32
536. 77
480.
474. 80
420. 00
200. 32
41. 67
480. 00

2, 250. 00
1, 470. 00
600. 00
24. 00
315. 00
840. 00
780. 00

20. 00
20. 00

Ca (Pat
bt bp bw t
SSS

IJ J] “J
bo
==)
Oo
i)

ty
— .

XXXII

$47, 966. 97

XXXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,

Buildings and labor—Continued.
1 skilled laborer, 7 months and 15 days, at $60 ........--
Iskilledilaborer, 4 months) at 60 las. a eee
1 skilled laborer, 8 months and 99 days, at $55 .......__-
1 skilled laborer, 9 months and 16 days, at $55 .....___..
iskilled laborer: 12 months; at-$5055_ 222-2 eee
1 skilled laborer, 1 month, 15 days, at $50 --........--..
i-workman,.310 days, at $1.00. 32 2 ova eee eee ee
workman 206% days: ath 50o2 2 2 = eee ee
1 laborer, 1 month, 46 days, at $50 ........-........-.--
i laborer;’2 months; atiS502 os: 2 5 ee ee eee
ilaborer)26) days;at po0:-22 25 = sa: | See eee
I laborer 12-monthss atib45) 222) see ae ee ee
T laborer, month, 33"days, at$45-—. sists 2 ee eee
Ielaborers iimonth, at$40". 2 oe ee eee
iaporer, Slidays, at$45": 2. .252o ee ee ee ee
iilaborer) 12 months; at $4052 s-2 ane ee een ee
(laborer; 12 manths at) p40. 22ers ee ee eee
iMlaborer, 2-months at $4022 So ee eee
1 laborer, 7 months, at $40; 131 days, at $1.50 -....-..--
Ilaborer, 4 months: at$40 22 22S ee ee A ee
Ilaborer,4 month saat S408. 2 eae et eee tere
i laborer, 3 months, 34 days, at‘$40 _...5.272._.02 52-2 ows
1 laborer, 2 months, 15 days, at $40; 247 days, at $1.50 --
ivlaborer. U2 monthstab: pooss= 2 ee eee eee
1 laborer, 9'months, 443" days, at $20.2) See ee eo
Ilaborer, a months ate poy =e ee eS eee egos Shs
laborers months. 7oday Ss: dit ae anne eae eee
L laborer,-3 months, 27: daysy at:p20'2. Se es eens
i laborer, sa6g days; step joo. nae ee ee i
iMaberer: 330 days,-at $L.0: 2°. 22 Sse c ee eee
Ilaiborer, s0btdaiys: ati Pls (b aso. es ee tee ae ee
1 laborer, "334 days, at Gl. 75.2 2-2: se eee eee
A Jaborer, 202\ days, ‘atOls75: 2 22-2 ee ee
iaborer, “i days,Pl.70°> . 2 = > ee
{Aaborer, 329% days; at $l.505 le ol ee eee
Iaborer) 3245 days; at $150. > cer os eee
idaborer, alts days, at $1:50— . 322 eee ear 2
ITaborer, Slo days, at $1.50>.- -- . pete ee ee eee
ilaborer312) days,at $1280>. >. CoS ee ee
ilgboren aio \daye/-at $1.50 pepper itegs Siuree tne So A te
l laborer; Sl2.days;-at'g1250.- 3. S282 Bee re eee
I laborer, 312-daysy at-$1-50. 22 oS eee
1 laborer; 312 days) at $1.50... soe ee ees
T Jaborer, S10§-days,:at Ols00.. 2.4 . Joa eee
i: Jaborer; 3093 days; 4t $1005. 2 eee
1 jaborer,’263 days; ROSUS0". sc 2 4-2 ee ae eee
? laborer, 221 days, at 10022: S228 co eee ees
i laborer, 156-days, at $150.72. 4 oe eee eee
iaboret, 105 days, at $150.2 22. ee ee eee
ijaborer, 10) days, at'$1.502 5.520 52s eee ee
i laborer, 1l04:days;at.$1.50. 02. - >See eee aren
l iaborer. O7“davs, at ‘$1.50 2 ee eee ee
Ijaborer, Ut days, at $1.50... coe. 2 ee
jlaborer, Ol ‘days, at $1.50. .Jooc0. tose code eee eee

$450. 00
240. 00
588. 50
523. 86
600. 00

75. 00
465. 00
308. 25
125. 70
100. 00

42.10
540. 00
100. 89

45. 00

46.16
480. 00
480. 00
480. 00
476.50
160. 00
160. 00
164. 42
470. 50
420. 00
261.31

25. 00
110. 97

78. 00
588. 88
505. 50
533. 75
584. 50
511. 01

12. 25
494. 25
486. 75
476. 25
472.50
468. 75
468. 00
468. 00
468. 00
468. 00
465. 75
464, 25
394. 50
331. 50
234. 00
157. 50
157. 50
156. 00
145. 50
136. 50
136. 50

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXV

Buildings and labor—Continued.

iam To ODYR, AU DL. dO. <==. 522. soe ecw eee $118. 50
Ilaborer: OUtaAVS Ab pl O0 gs 292 Se ce a Ro se oe 75. 00
[belkticverevete SAGER CE Ol ise L501 | eet ee peers eas eet eae 69. 00
Helaborer, 4? Cavs a6 plo me ooo es PS es ee eee 63. 00
Ma pOren, 39 GAYS, waltipl O08. 4 ote oe oe ae et Saas en 58. 50
He DOTeR FOO GA yS. Ab gl. 00s. aaa no necks eS oS ake eo 58. 50
HNBOrer rote Cayescal Ml OU saree ese scar mak so 51. 75
(elanorer otGayvs, ab pleO0 545 se sce eee Seca Sasa = 51.00
feaponer ol s.days cat pltoOre- nce ee ee ee 47. 25
OFeT: A) Cavs, At Pl. O0s= 2 see pete kee wee 40. 50
imlabarer 2 edaves atipleo0s s= sae anemone seo ce meee 31.50
HlsnorerlordayssabipleoOs. 22 22 ee Sco ae oe 28. 50
PeEsOEer To Otye Atal ed. 0 Soo a ow oe oan 27. 00
abG@reR, 15 GAYS; At pt.00.2 See. D5. Deen ieee 19. 50
MED Oremel says Abi pleOO = le aka eee Stes ee 19.50
lelaporer Go Gaysdabolo0s=o. 2 el See soe eens see 9. 00
Mlaporermortlaves ab alos su. Jeon eos ceeees ke eee Ske 8. 63
MREDOREL OVS Ais pl OUS 2 pom een keene sae cea 7.88
Peiarer, Ways, Ab ol-00-.. 0%) so S855. .052 eee ss oes 7.50
miabokers days atiol D0) jo.52eee a eee ee a 6. 00
Pearee ot OAvh At plo an st eee es eet 5. 25
1 messenger, 10 months, 25 days, at $60..........----.-- 648. 39
IEAMSCOPOD, 25 ORY G, Ab gio co oes Gad sls Goaee cle = = de 30. 39
1 messenger, 3 months, 20 days, at $35; 6 months, at $25. 278. 33
1 messenger, 6 months, at $35; 1 month, 15 days, at $25 - 247. 50
iomesseneer: 0 moO nths, at $205... 2 seis S-2 = - sei. ys. eee 125. 00
1 messenger, 1 month, 28 days, at $25 _.......---------- 47.58
messenrerec0Mavs wath 202 5 See e eens os ee 16.13
tanessencver wh month wat p20h eee os soe a See ne 20. 00
ieanend ante lommonths at p40e 9)... -22ee sec ee eo on 480. 00
iatenoan oli days cab pLO0 se 2a ae eee eee ce 475. 50
iamendanko/ Gays, at. pb 22225 2 - ese fees en nshe 2 37. 00
MettLenG ania AO Gays ab pilin loos oreo as Seka ae = 26. 00
MECN OAL LOO ayo, 2. = =) See eae eee ren a ee ste: 18. 00
MaAtcenGant orOays ab Plustc >. sao cose oe eee ee oe 5. 00
aiten Gants Caves ati ole =) ft go. ee ee ts 2. 00
1 cleaner, 1 month, at $47; 1 month, at $41; 3 months, at

$36.50; 5 months, at $35; 2 months, at $38 _...-....-.-- 448. 50

1 cleaner, 3 months, at $30; 2 months, at $33; 3 months,
at $31.50; 2 months, at $34.50; 1 month, at $36; 1 month

Silt ¢ RTS) Se ae ees Te eg ene ae ee 392. 25
MelcanerelennGnbis.at. Poors -\22 eee eee ee 420. 00
iecleaner:, UL months: 29 days;:at foot -.22 92222 oo eee 418.83
ieaner ele Months; at posse == ee ees Seek ee ese 360. 00
ieleaner al Amonths:At-m50 s-a56 tes soe =22 ste tL ee 360. 00
iscleaner, 10 months; 60:days;/at $3022 -- 2. -22244.2-42.- 358. 07
ieleaner:-Osmonths; 83:days,atiga0! =<. 222 5.252.222 352. 03
1 cleaner, 2 months, 16 days, at $30..-....---..--------- 76. 00
Gleaner Months, ApoUs= 2s) So. sos Ssecctes: ook s.2 60. 00
Hecleanenwiim Gays, atipile es Rial er eee occ sheen 17.75

$45, 540. 06

icra expendinire fomealarieg, <= 2.55. ° 5 ocec- Skee sess. cee c os 158, 846. 45

XXXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1900.

RECEIPTS.
Balance as.per. report July 1, °1900 2 ooo oe eee ee $9, 133. 82
EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]
SpeCMSelMlCesso-. 2... Sigil dee. onan eee ene $525. 02
Miscellaneous:
RSREEOIES De SOM i 30ers aa ta epa a $1, 016. 14
BOON 52 25 oe oan a hence eee
Rireeibes oo eka pokes age eee
Mra elit 2s oso Se Ses boc se ee ee eee
Specimens 2i52'5. - Soc. eds eh ee ea eee 5, 763. 18
Wrawin@se dices Soest ree eee
8, 277. 41
Lotal expenditires 4 i-5-. cee ok eh eo Ee Pee ee eee $8, 802. 43
Balanée: July Usa Qe ee teoe oe ee RR roe ee 331. 39
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1900.
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
Appropriation by Congress, act March 3, 1899.............----------- $170, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.]
Salaries or compensation ........-.---------- $145, 476. 10
DPECiasenVviCes la saets sa Sees a aa 1, 751. 32
MOtalpSErVvicesist faeces <2 > S-se ene eo Se eee $147, 227. 42
Miscellaneous:
Drawings and illustrations -.........----- 904. 99
Suppliesicns Giorculs tasks os eee ae 4, 286. 47
Stationery essere atc et ee ere 1, 800. 82
SPeClMeNe saa rte le ores isis says. ae ee 10, 569. 52
Mravelitat waa eee cee Oe ea. Bee 2, 360. 06
Preigutl: 3 cere nese eee as a+ sas cee ee 2,519. 33
Total’ miscellaneous” -2. Ss: 32 =! 2. 224 See 22,441.19
Total expenditures 2.2.2. 020 50. nde eee eee ee eee $169, 668. 61
Balance July 1, 1901-2282 ee oe ee Se ee eee 331. 39
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1899.
Balance as per last:report, July 1,.1900. ~~. 2. soo eee $1. 53

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

NATIONAL MUSEUM—FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1901.

RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition
and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including
$2,500 for furnishing new lecture room and including salaries or com-

XXXVITI

pensation of all necessary employees”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900). $17, 500. 00

EXPENDITURES.

{July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Lecture

1 carpenter,

1 carpenter,

1 carpenter,

1 carpenter,

Total expenditure
Balance July 1, 1901

See eee

Regular. Halts | Total.
Salaries or compensation ...............---------- $8, 083. 78 $547.50 —
PIpeC INSEL yl COS Maer aniseen ase Selene oem saseis~ =6 11. 50 |
RMSE LVICCN = Scoc ae scam ss aes noeen o $8, 095. 28 7.50 | $8,642.78
Miscellaneous:
Phi ae iION CASONEe ahaiesia cas ea ieieias ania ei-e='-ino $95. 00
Rte CARES Seen ein ncn s ease eas nieiaa moines 587. 00
MT EES UTA US ClCsor oc foc aae coe tenaeeeiercee 167.75
Mrames ang WOOO WOT <5 2-< <2. 2.<s-=2-22 5-2 311.65 | 225. 22 |
CEU RTI, 3s ee I ee a eee ee ee ee 345. 43 |
IEE AWANE orc = 2 Scie amin iano Soe eae se ncleee 388. 42 17.17
Ta Ee = a = a ee eee re 106.17
CHRO: 2 26S AU SS SOG cet es in EaRe eee SIs eres Rae 98. 45 47.13
GIESE DIS Lea Sen Sa aso aa saetesseepeecsoses 60. 06
LLUNT 1) Gi eae CRB AC Ses Ee nee 947.19 | 82.39
LEIPaSan RS (ord RR Ce TO ye Sees Cee ee Cee en eerie 250. 70 138. 51
UDO OTe COR eae ee eee ae ee 752. 41
Heather, rubber, and’ cork..-...-----0------.. 209. 66
Tre ION CASCH ES. c= earls ca eicie's ae on ase sae 41.75 50. 00
MME BIE Sas a owe ae aes Be ens sin ancients cels ae 998. 52
VN eae See sots onion a sina nein) afuia wie sie aie cine 26.16 |
INGOTEAI AUG PLASUOl: sooo «a5 =item amiss aiann owi='a's| lenis ae 3. 25
RULER eee oe ee oa. Sas e acceisine 4|maamaea= swiss 480. 00
BICECUDLICON. ClG ses dacs s cteics a5 = cams oe eater | oleae l 331.00
Motalamiscellaneous!<---- .-------=-=---------| $5, 386.32 | $1,374.67 | $6,780.99
Total regular expenditure...........--....- $13, 481. 60
Total lecture-hall expenditure ............- peetocssnre $1, 922.17

$15, 403. 77
$2, 096, 23

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1901.

Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation.

1 superintendent of construction, 9 months, at $127.50
1 carpenter,

290 days, at $3
1 carpenter, 236 days, at $3
1 carpenter,
127 days, at $3
100 days, at $3
90 days, at $3
78 days, at $3
343 days, at $3
34} days, at $3
33 days, at $3
26 days, at $3
19 days, at $3
183 days, at $3
14 days, at $3

1 carpenter,
1 carpenter,

1 carpenter,
1 carpenter,
1 carpenter, 33 days, at $3®-....---
1 carpenter,
1 carpenter,
1 carpenter,

Pe uM Ee aR ei cae re ae ae eS wan eae
Pn GaveMbtaes 220 oman) Cece ene Sol eS eo lees ae sees

XXXVIITI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

iskilled laborer, (5 months. at) S8acoals..: 225 pee eee eae ee $416. 65
1 skilled laborer, 1 month, at $72; 2 months, at $60 ..............--...- 192. 00
i-skilled laborer, 3 months, 110'days, at $60 2e2-20 A coe re ee eee "481.38
i skilled laborer, 104 days, at-$2: 2222 se ee ee can eee ee ee ‘208. 00
iekilled laborer, o£ days, at $222.5 2-2 oe ee eee ee 108. 00
i gkalled laborer, 10 days, at '$2-2.- .-< S00 se eee 20. 00
Ivpainter, > months, at $70. 25-555. 22. oes ee oe ee ne 375. 00
workman, 250 Gays; at-Pl.70 4.0.25. -e soae ee ee eee ae ee 413. 00
islaborer; 40 days, at, $1560 222. ce es Se ee ee 73. 50
itaborer; 45 days, ab'e).H0. 2.4.5 3olen eo ele ee ae aeee See ee 67.50
Winhorerte7 days, at $1.50. .- 2 o).c2 So Se ae Sec eee eee 40. 50
8, 083. 78
LECTURE HALL.
pater, \- month, at, pro-. 02s. eae ea aes eee 75. 00
Pcarpenter, 40) GAVs, aitpas Sa serene oe eee ater eee ee ieee 135. 00
tearpenter, 27 days, ‘at $3:.< -Scwosssospert ccs 2 ee Soe ee. See ee 81. 00
iearpenter, 20 days: at $8: 2.22. 0e cease cease ea ee eee cee 60. 00
Tearpenter, 18 days, abies... 65-8556 cacden coe eee 54. 00
itskilied: labarer, 27 days ates. 2/2 mer ko aD RS pe rae ae 54. 00
iskilled Jaborer,.24 dave, at G22 on se. 1 oe ies sole Se Paes eae 48. 00
flaborer, 27 diye; Ah mh ORs o<o.0 7 Ue eei ee as, ete ee oe 40. 50
547. 50
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1900.
RECEIPTS.
Balance as perreport daly; T0052 2 oe ee eee eae eee ee $575. 24
EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

| Regular. | Galleries. Total.
Miscellaneous:

YA CES LTAYS, (CLC Dee zie oc te iee acre seen anes S70} | saeetes oes. $7.50
STATOR jaidemis saiaerite ohn ted oe ta Sats aces cee ces Lele Gees $141. 76 141. 76
GIRS A Sana et ono iac diac ac ac alg te Ane cer ee eee 28. 80 28. 80
LaCie Phe as R A ae ee ae ee ee aerate Se 121.91 18. 62 140. 53
PROOISM EE Ake cicnee eee cee az anos Sete ee ee TANGO eect cinenie 14. 65
WlOTN epee eat cot ee cae See be onan coe eee LO RAGE | eecieeenae ae 10. 25
GIB RSO aN eee eee ene eee an ante oleae ee eee 4122) lena hee ts 41.22
{Vite Os nee Ce G ORME See OEE Cer er meerreioe sete 14. 44 | 97. 66 112.10
f 2FY i a Ce RS eet Rn LD St he, BC Riu ee ire errs Stata! 20: 7Gil)saeseny cate 20. 76
ORieer nnn ture fe en ee ee ee 9:50 Sse secs 9. 50
Eon brackets. -esareck nec sono ae eee eee SPT lweerctoactees 3.12
Paper cere oecace = ae eee vateen accent ee see DUS OO USE. erate tate cnt 30. 00
LOT. Sey oo ie ne ee et eee ee been ae 2602 oman cma 2. 60

276. 55 286, 84 $563. 39

‘Balance July 1-190M2 25 Fawr te ce wea sete Salem area ee eee ee eee ee 11.85

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XX XIX
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1900.
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
Appropriation by Congress, act of March 3, 1899........-.-.-----.---. $25, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1899, to June 30, 19 1.]
= . = 24 : ee es : £
; Regular. |] Galleries. | Total.
Services:
alamesiOr COMPCNSAlIOM 2 22.52.62 -o- ew cee eine Qi;G0o= 071 || 3d, 918.50! |2- oo. ence
SHE GIN SEL VICES acetic a acncere sGoeseete ok sees <r QU 22) |asoeisens esis\eo- + aes See
“Doesr file Ob ey aL ees ee | 7,880.99 | 3,918.50 | $11,799. 49
Miscellaneous: |
Peet CL OMSCASCS: a sutemiciee es coe ats Sa/ciews'e Saweiece SOTAOON a eee, se secre ema aoa es
SOMBRE COSI e Gan erp see CAGE eee oe ae Ter eee 538.50 | 1,587.00 2,987.50 |
PEMWETS wULA VS CtCh a= no 6.2 sosclecneciet secetecisccs 402.40 | 2, 068. 50 2,470. 90
Brames‘and woodwork ...:..:.s22.2..2.-2.--.| 282.72 | 286.78 | 569. 50
PeteIS Pee erty a a een teens Mc ER. oes 1, 166.57 778.20 | 1,944.77
TR The ORs oc oR EC SEOs ane SR eee es aaa 726. 86 647.95 | 1,374.81
UG SERBS eee on Soe Se Oe ee anes tae 151. 84 | 4.60 | 156. 44
RL eres SI rte IR Selo toyz mie See ake See 68.56 | 14. 00 32. 56
CALSIS-3} ERS ae es GSS gece es een ee as eee Hed O BW eos on ae eas 264.03
PRIMO TOE See ae ast Ben ee oy See 1,189. 87 672. 02 1, 861. 89
en SOUR CLG hae Sse. sisal. alccisic ieee 5387.61 | 4.00 541. 61
(ChiaveGsti baa vl ADIN eee eee aeE Aap ae SaaS eBeas AA ONO Neier aoe 442. 00
BESTE PNG PUD DEL sete 5) eee necesesacce 88. 45 8.16 96. 61
TOMO TACKCIS ae ccites ca sesc conse sae eselelccaes cs 70509) 2 se cmwis, de es 75. 09 |
TORO VI ES TOM GASES 06 - osc onc oon smears se 1 eeeeenosece 143. 75 |
Sie CRILOML. MCLG 5 =o nares acinar atacioes esis cadcae DON ese is ne Sats 35.50 |
PROVE pete see Siac lee ane lotis ofsiutaee sin snes PROT cere paces 2.00 |
MRURHOMEITO nes aye Baas seas Sais e eee ase eeees AO Foe10)) | Pieesst ars ses < 107.10 |
ARUBA Tevet ocr oe teh ares chere bagi cialeisvajerars ayasenew'e SU SOO ete ert <2 30. 00
Beara ae eae a NEE RAE LS AL cau de i ieaias DGD alls eee 2.60 |
Boel morula reas acco see ces caecce.ais/ee a teat 14, 998. 44 |
otuitealleries= 25. cose Jean eee eee jcscBorsacan 9, 989. 71 |
RoOtwWwexpenditures 625 Voss. 8 eases waeaeeete (Piscuseuciene| yeaa seis Sion eee $24, 988. 15
| |
JAC dba loa Vleet eS aan Seer aaa See ee eta. Secs S| eo ae | ees eee 11.85
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1899.
Peat oily O00: as per last report: 22255.) oes. sooo. 324 ose le cue $1.35

Balance carried, under provisions of section 3090, Revised Statutes, by the Treas-

ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.
NATIONAL MUSEUM—HEATING AND LIGHTING, ETC., 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and telephonic
service for the National Museum, including $3,500 for electric installa-
tion”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900)

EXPENDITURES, REGULAR.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Salaries or compensation --...--.------ $6,097. 07
PETA BEAUIGE 21-2 es Jo's). oe ke. 64. 60
PNG pall eIny COs Myers tee ie ene erent ne $6, 161. 67

$17, 500. 00

XL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Miscellaneous:

@oaltand*wood 22 tees saeee mee $3, 531. 85

(CSTR er en er ee Se 1,131. 90

Rental of call boxes... 2. 222.2222 100. 00

iRlectrical supplies. 222.9295 soos 311. 44

CCCI. oS Scck es cmt ee Seca o 477.71

Heatine supplies... se sek Dee 501. 71

WPeles rams ease cane ae oe Sen eet 29. 17

MeLENNONEH ae 5h to ae ee ee 434. 65
Total miscellaneous, regular.......--.-.---- $6, 518. 48
Total regular expenditure: 22-5 -222-0 Se 3 os $12, 680. 10

ELECTRIC INSTALLATION.

RECEIPTS.

Appropriation, ‘‘* * * including $3,500 for

electric installation.”’

EXPENDITURES.
Salaries or compensation. . Slee ere eaee $858. 40
SPECIAL SEI VICCH A foo) s yt sone meas 3. 00
Total seryacesa. 3 220 i De te eens $861. 40
Miscellaneous:
Drawing sie ios ceeel en eee 55. 50
MUD DUES Meek ae aac ee es ee ere 1, 631. 36
ROOIS snc ets ye aoe eto ae ee 20. 14
WV OOUW ODKs 22. ety eee 328. 30
Eravel 5.2 hearer sam ae 35. 11
Total miscellaneous installation ........... 2, 070. 41
Total installation expenditure: =. ..=..2.-.24.seees = $2, 931. 81
Lotaliexpenditure A222 252. 20s Lee ee ee ee eee $15, 611. 91

Balance July 1, 1901

HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1901.

Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation.

t engineer, 12) months at plz so0c he. ce = ae eee a ee $1, 470. 00
1 telephone operator, 5 months, 17 days, at $40; 169 days at

PEO ac See oe ee ee ae Be eee am Pte a. 7 eae 475. 44
iefireman, U2 months, at S001 ea eee ee 720. 00
iSfireman, 12 months ati poo. a. 2 see eee oe ee ee 660. 00
iekilled laborer; 12 months; ath (ose. ees eee ee 900. 00
iskilled Jaborer,, 12 ononths, at $65 s2s9eeee sce e ease eee 780. 00
ivMaborer:/3075/days, at pl. 70... 2 =e eee ee 538. 13
1 laborer, 238 days, at $1.50----- gat Se Re eS ee 357. 00
islaborer, /25.days, at $1750). 2222228 eee eee eee 37.50
itcoalspasser; 106 days, at/$1) 50% 25 22e— se eee 159. 00

1, 888. 09

$6, 097. 07

,

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLI

Electric installation:

1 acting electrical foreman, 5 months, at $83.33.... ..---- $416. 65
acilled laborer, lS.daysat Soe. ccc s<2ce oe ae e e e 54. 00
MApOnrer aioe davis. ati pl- OUR 22h eee eee no. oe ela! 119. 25
imlaoners facdavs: atval n= soon see £5 Rae ees Aa eee 111. 00
mlAMOnEr OZ AVS 2b, PlcOUs fe eee Re wasn cies 2 cess 78. 00
Imaponery tes GAyS, a0 plea kee aes chee oe een c es oe 33. 79
MIADGLer hn Caysnatl OU ns. = eee eereee omen Se 8 sca, t = 15. 75
$858. 40
HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1900.
RECEIPTS.
Serena nem repariuly 1, L900! 2.2 22 eee ose on tegen eee Seed $561. 96
EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]
Miscellaneous:
RPGMAIBATI CVO Osa e fa ence eal se eames ere bt $17. 36
Eee hte 0h ee hint ween Tees Eee Le 83. 00
Fremtneormcalliboxese Soo. oo) = See re te oe acta sae oe rel 20. 00
SECT NOTLOR 9 ne Se Can Se Mic ae Sys Se SE sb cic 99. 05
LS PSIG, RS ced eo oe cane a me a 82. 99
© gC. GU 0) See ee ee eee 39. 00
SUSI ERG THRTE SE SRR RES eee 2 eR ee gt CR ve 20. 75
NES CLIVE ASE GES Se Sees peer ats 8 Se ier res ers re US) 7
“Tay ietlbranlserelll Bani eyoy DST Sc PR = Bec ye ep Da UI ee tea eee Se Ge Ce $561. 94.
EAM. Cero Ul varl pel O Ue... aera oe ee ere hoa a Oe 02
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
Appropriation by Congress July 1, 1899 (act of March 3, 1899) .......-- $14, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.
{July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.]
Balances ore COMpencsation..2.. = cease sso $6, 676. 65
BEEMAN MEINICES 2 22 O21. 22h bts = evens oneness 8. 00
Bra eS en VICOS i epee ate ee 2 2 ee as $6, 684. 65
Miscellaneous:
Rem WOO Cre carte oe ee ihe eS cies ee $3, 666. 45
Le et en nd oY tera hnse the erty Melted 2S, cob 1, 208. 10
IReniell on ccoy IO sep <Gsike ae pe Sere ook =a ee 120. 00
BLeCIRICH AI plLeseon ce a eee eee s 644. 45
IDIBGRU Cl ee eee aera aelers ae Se areas 332. 76
lest OIS DUES taproot = te ae aia fe ee 723. 53
BARES VS rea ee eae es et fe 37. 60
TNE (0) VOUS SS or ek Se ae a a PS a 582. 44
atlennscellamcouge ss. eek aos tot hee asso sntes ioloscs
‘Toye Sseyayes ave Uh MB esSy ee ee I, eee $13, 999. 98

Tevnllera eras familia GS TOR he ea ie ies ac Se ee . 02

XLII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

HEATING AND LIGATING, 1899,

Balance July 1/1900; as per last- report. so. . ae eee eee $0. O1

Balance carried, under provisions of section 3090, Revised Statutes, by the Treasury
Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901

NATIONAL MUSEUM—POSTAGE, 1901

RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for post-
age stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum”’ (sundry
elyilvach.omne. 6,900) ~ nse eo ok See ae re eee $500. 00

EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]
Hor posiage stamps and cards {2222 -n eee a res ee ee - $500. 00
NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRINTING AND BINDING, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks and for the
‘Bulletins’ and ‘Proceedings’ of the National Museum, the editions of
which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding in half
turkey or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets
presented to and acquired by the National Museum library”... ...--- $17, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Bulletins of the: Museum pss. a2 Sane ee ee ees $4, 945. 47
Proceedings of the Museum 2-22 s4--aee ee eee eee ee 8, 076. 74
Walbelsy-2c.8 22/22 Seek eee et an ne 584. 82
Blane c.. 2... see ese SS mes ree eres re a eee eee 252. 72
PMV Pes 2.0 2 Uae ote es Sere pe me ee eee 44. 60
Cards 5.2.23 i vs oe el She ee ee eee 50. 09
RANGING 592 Soo o3 2S. bo. aie 1, 412.13
Congressional Record... . .. 2222! 22-2 ase eee eee 16. 00
Coneressional documents =. .0 735, ce paar 188. 34
Ree OUEN 8 res cole. Bie. ae eae ee eee oe 7.61
Total expenditures ..... +... actus 2eeee soc oe ae $15, 578. 52
Balance July 1, 1901. -.- 222 oS eee oe 1, 421.48

NATIONAL MUSEUM—RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National
Museum’’ (sundry civil-act, June 6, 1900) 22. 2S22e eee eae ees $4, 040. 00.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLII

EXPENDITURES.
{July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Rent of workshops and storage quarters:
RVQmet oe Nib Ossineeies Wire ee cmece ese a a Rees | oe $1, 999. 92
Noreril/aceventh sireehiOw. s2.s22¢6 -c2- 5.52. ste occ. ee 1, 080. 00
Noes oubenth streets, seer ccet sass e 2 a2 ose BL 600. 00
Nos lo Vainoinia aventie SW (mean) =2522.--. 222222222252 360. 00

RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1900.
Puancermanperrepore duly I 900) yee ese. co Seach Se wee Sos ecieees $0. 08
Byline 2) 6) id ite bal US Oe se 2 a caer ie st ane, Se er a ele .08

RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1599.
iemnccmsaper last reportciuly Ly O00 Ase Ses Skee eS else sc ee ees $110. 08
Balance carried, under the provisions of the Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the

Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.
NATIONAL MUSEUM—BUILDING REPAIRS, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
repairs to the buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ-
ing repairs of roof, and for all necessary labor and material’’ (sundry
wleytll Seti AOTC GET OO) Pea ee a yep ees ey PR eS hf AL $15, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Salaries OF CoInpensation.- “212-22: 22 52.-<2s 2 $7, 661. 44
STE MAERETV COS ecse cn ke So Te oe PN ek 442. 85
MRGLAIBRERVAUES or, ies) Se ee st ae Se Bee aye es $8, 104. 29
Miscellaneous:
MeErAAZOrMnd ile tl OOTSt a=. 2s es a aeene $2, 037. 01
[L(UNGTN GSTS et ERS en RN oe ia ay eka EN ated 286. 57
Wement, oravel, sand, ete. ..... 0... 22... 2. 475. 60
Mamdiwarerand COOIS' so. 2. 2-2 net see ne 170. 79
BAnte Olas brushes: 222545. 02.02.22 see 229.79
See cad «vyemtlatOn = — see oss = ence 240. 00
Steel plates, angles, panels, etc.....---..----- 1, 122. 09
oo TD eS ee es an i aa ee 281. 50
PAWN SIT ces See oe See pe mE ene fo , 41. 26
TST ST a ee on Seo yeaa a lee le ne 52. 35
\ NV QYOLO LO el Uan TL Tae en WRT nel eke Aa anaes he ot 242. 62
STICK Sere ee wt Se SE RAR Ee ae 8 59. 50
“GalLGVSS:, Le. liens ewe en eaferets Be eee OO ea re a 3. 80
Decorating walls and ceilings..............--- 767. 90
Rotalkmaiece anecousissee ence ee See 6, 010. 78
MOTE xpendihnes = epee eee hee eee SL le 2 $14, 115. 07

PP ReaUe Lv ea Aen) eee sae ee etek oes Se 884. 93

XLIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

BUILDING REPAIRS, 1901.

1 superintendent, 2 months, at $250 ............-....------- $500. 00
1 superintendent of construction, 3 months, at $127.50 -...-.-- 382. 50
1 stenographer and typewriter, 22 days, at $2........-.------ 44. 00
Tf carpenter, 2347 days, at $3: 222 2.2 See ee con ee ee 702. 75
earpenter, OO days, aga 2 5-oos: aoe eee ee 327. 00
jicarpenter.L0b# days.1at Poe ©. le se eet rece See 317. 25
Ixcarpenter, SO days) atid: 2-2 a. .2 se cee eee ee ee 240. 00
Iearpenter,.7S days, ab $3: 1. lyico ans eg pattem aes eels ee 234. 00
iuearpenter, 26 days, At. $3 .. 2 vod) 222. ee eee 78. 00
heairpenter, U2 days; at po. 2 =-a5- ns boaters ow tee area 36. 00
Learpenter, 10:days; at. $3... 24 say so ec ae ee eee ee 30. 00
ivearpenter, 4 days, at $3,225 |e seee osdesee = eae eee eee 12.00
nneklayer,0 days; at pars a5 Sk a Seeman see 36. 00
ivprickiayer) O:days, at 4;...22 5-3 tec cee Sse a eee ae ee 36. 00
Jeplumiber, 48 days; ab $3.00) 20s sae SS es Se ere 168. 0C
1 painter, 3 months,15 days; aie10.>. oe ck Seat ee 262. 50
dworkman,, 78:26; Ab pu. tol, css nO. 5 ae WS ob ie soese 136. 50
1 skilled laborer, 10 months, 423 days, at $70.........--.-.-- 795. 97
1 skilled laborer, 4 months, 19 days, at $65........--...----- SO
ieekilledlaborer) 124) days at g2ccosus Sac oke be slaw eee 249. 00
ieskailledviaborer, months) ratrhoO) 2 so) ee eae) eee 240. 00
Ieskilled aboxer mle sida ss atin cece eae a ere rete 237. 00
Liskilled laborer \O¢s: days; atip2io. S03 5 koe ectele Bee 189. 00
isskalled: laborer. montis sat pQovam = soa ane ee eee 166. 66
Jeska lled: laborer). 43dsidaws. ath s -5 eee ee ee epee oe 87. 00
skilled Jahborer, 28 days. at spore = =e eae rere eee eee 84. 00
iskilledslaborer (Zovdays.abib2..-cee e ee 50. 00
i¢skilled laborer, (203idaiyss at O2)2:= eee ree ee een 41. 00
ie skilled laborer. 45 Gani at ple oo sey yer ne peer iee oe 9. 00
I slaborer, 775. days, catipliz75) - 522 tate Oh ee eee eee ete 135. 63
i daborer,;. 314 days, at $175 22.2.2 [eee tosh eae ee 5D, 13
tlaberer, 260% days, atipl-0052. 222. Siac een cee eee 389. 75
i laborer, 225. days,,a0- $1.50. 5.52222. sence eee eee ee 337. 50
imlaborer, L/Atdays, atiolsD0! 22 aoe ee eee ee 261. 38
i laborer, 86 days; at. $1.50 2525-3: sees ee oe ee eee 129. 00
I laboren Sildays, at pl: 00-2 - 45.0 eee eee eee 121. 50
iL laborer Si days) at $150 s< 2332-2 tse eee ee eee ene 121.50
laborer, 445 davs;at.ol 60-2 ete ee nee ees 66. 7.

laborer; s0idaysrathhll bO5S—. 2: - a See ee ee eee 45. 00
i laborer, 4 days; at $1:)0-- 3.6 2/2 ee eee 6. 00

BUILDING REPAIRS, 1900.
RECEIPTS.
Balance'as per report:July 1, 19002 ee eee
EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

FrONCOMUMNS: .<.¢.2 Sa SIS ee ee ee $98. 45
GAGS ee nj cece sie SS eee wee ee 4. 00
Mascellaneous woodwork: 3...) 5.28) 2 eee 60. 00

$7, 661. 44

$251. O07

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLV

[ha DUSCRRINEY 8 2 Nee nea ene ree ee ata ea Se $15. 50

| M000. 22 2 aR pores toe a en ae ne eee 1.50

ERUATE <TC TAINS os Se ea ey tage Re Re ee a oe els 25. 00
TLEOUCUL ae Se ES ae I Se aE een eee $250. 22
[Ese Teaver ie hea ap a ea ee ee ei i Ser ae . 85

BUILDING REPAIRS, 1900.
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
menropriation by Congress March 3, 1899... ..--.--..----=-+:-.-+--+--- $6, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.]

Services:
Primes COM PEMAA ON. esa .se ce 2b as oe ee ee $1, 833. 55
Miscellaneous:
“TL rPra NA GROTON AS ( ee ye ee ee hee Se ee 52, 166. 31
Cement, sand, mortar, lime, gravel, ete .....--- 299022
| TSI 8 Qi EI ea cg 2 a ae 58. 94
LEerilsc DS) TGC) sa gg at 101. 82
GSS “UL ety gee ae ae hee eer See ene reer 162. 31
Sreempeamp andsanples; 9 22.220 beste AS oe 457. 23
POAC UT TISe ee oa on ke OE 98. 45
Drawings, decorating walls, ete.......-..------ 392. 25
ONS Enel avai O72) eae ee ee el ey cei es ee 19. 88
Pere anGemolding’=)222 taefo- 2a 5 hos oc es 320. 20
1 LUE DGD Ue Sais ee aa ee eee eee oe 65. 06
ERRORS ete ee SN ee ee Sc Se 13:93
Remo VIN Girt e = 2 St oe Sees toe eek cee 10. 00
PRGA eOMISCellanCOUG . 5. eee eee een ee ee re 4, 165. 60
oiatibe SMeNCUCUTESe.4 35 See ee eee EP eee eee ee ba ee Se $5, 999. 15
OE EULESS AES 1a, Ye re SEE 2a I a i 8d
BUILDING REPAIRS, 1899.
e
Renae m report: July 1; 1900.2. 625 rs hae oe ek ee ee $0. 91

Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury
Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

NATIONAL MUSEUM—GALLERIES, 1899.

RECEIPTS.
Meds per report. July 1. 19000. 2 fo ee ee le Act $205. 79
EXPENDITURES.
he [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]
(LT EPCRA 0 ed ce a eg $205. 12
Sey EN CC ae PS PIS AN ee a Se be tet hs SED AE ae 67

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901,

XLVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

GALLERIES, 1899.
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
Appropriation by Congress: July 1; -1808220: 2:2. = eeseaeaaoe oe eee $10, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1901. ]

SAIANES Or -COMpPeNsatlon ees ts se teen ys ee ae $940. 56

InANSOMEe- ATCHESS 6. se Ooo eee eh ete ee 1, 609. 38

IDOL oun eet te os ee eee a ee peel ae RR aA, gh Pr Beer 3, 527. 35

PenrazzoO ang, marble floor sis. soso Se ee a ee ae 1, 295. 09

Elardware and tools eros = ee aa ee ee ee ee 54. 56

Loe) 62) eau a neenae eat MRONE De eedeg Os oe nrec 2s Gnd bee AE A pe rh 3 Tt 103. 34

Cementrette t. bes ee ee ne ee eee ee eee eee ee 234. 45

Drawings and blue prints. 22.7525 bey a ee a eee 85. 00

UNG GRUISTTAGE veer ste am Lee hes i i ety sree gt ee 2 a ER REE 3 61. 07

1 EW 01 ahs Mie Rye ILC ee SNe eee ie fs ea! yy Mea ie Te 25: 65

IBTICK Seta ete a ek see eae at SA Oe arm eee 46. 00

WOO WOR Ks torn be 2 ating are chine Sed WE ey et tin ee 156. 00

Gamvag ys wee e re enn Se ee ae ae eta cco. Saale nae rae ne eos 29, 21

Sky Meint aid VeMMIAORS ao oes Se oe ee eee eee 1, 782. 20

OLAV fara sate On Hee ot Soke See See at oer ee ee SRE 23. 10

SGC ies Be es ean cee eae Nees eats el po eee yA,

321; 0Y =) Gan aan eee EU ee ese alee aie sh I Ui thn a 5. 20
PotaljexpenmGitumegs se Sa oe Sse ee a ene eer el TERY E $9, 999. 33
Balance. 2. ¢.c5 sk ew See ee ee 67

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

NATIONAL MUSEUM—®BOOKS, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the
National Museum”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900)-:..-.--.2-2-9.5.-- $2, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals from July 1, 1900, to

June-30AL90l tes seee se oe Se ee See ee ee ees $1, 141. 96
Balaneée: July 1; 1901 os ic 2 Se Se oe eee eee ater 858. 04
BOOKS, 1900.
RECEIPTS.
Balance as per report July J, 1900 3222 ee ee ee eee $878. 72

EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals from July 1, 1900, to ~
UNE: BU OOM ie Cis 228 ate FE ee ie eee TPA REPRE SOMA BT SPIER TE eee Sac eae $848. 08

Balance July 1, 1901... osc 15 er Se ee eee 30, 64

REPORT OF TE & EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLVII
BOOKS, 1900,
Total statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.
mmrnpration by Congress March 3, 1899. .o..220..22-0.22225-000.-0052 $2, 000. 00
EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1899, to July 30, 1901.]

or purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals............---------- $1, 969. 36
TE aT era ey Suet IT STO eS cy de ra ea ee 30. 64

BOOKS, 1899.
RECEIPTS.
Plamen perme port) bye Lo0Q os. <2). o 3 Abe Ae eee 5 bs eee $25. 08
EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals --.--..-..........-. $17. 25

ba

. 83
Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas-
ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

Pon S La) SS pe cs ira OT i Te eR NS ey

BOOKS, 1899.

Tolal statement of receipts and expenditures.
RECEIPTS.

epropmation by Congres July 1,1898_...0- 82222 2222 n esse Se nen $2, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.
[July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1901.]

For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals ..................-- $1, 992. 17

BEV EN LHTARC Cle pe ete ons NS ey PRIN SLD Nineteen eames Setar coh es ee a pibee Se 7.83

Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas-
ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

ar

NATIONAL MUSEUM—PURCHASE OF SPECIMENS, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

ppropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the
National Museum’’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) ............----- $10, 000. 00

EXPENDITURES.

[July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.]

Ree R specimens =F) 5on a-Si eo oso wa oe - $6, 941. 44

DN TNS CHIE RAS (2.0) Se ap Noe nee ee nee ee 3, 058, 56

XLVIIL

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901.

REPORT OF

RECEIPTS.

THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, “for
maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the purchase
of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and publishing
results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies,
repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscellaneous expenses, twelve

thousand dollars’’ (sundry civil act, Jume 6, 1900) -.......-.--...---- $12, 000. 00
3 DISBURSEMENTS.
Salaries or compensation:
(raids IZamonths; Atel joss aes Sakae ae $2, 100. 00
ikclerke demonthy at lZbe. sao = eee 125. 00
1 junior assistant, 12 months, at $110 ......--- 1, 320. 00
1 stenographer, 12 months, at $100 --....--.-.- 1, 200. 00
1 instrument-maker, 9 months, at $80.......-- 720. 00
(fireman, L2months;-at pooss—2-2- = ee ees 600. 00
1 photographer, 29 days, at $4.50..........--- 130. 50
5 carpenters, 22. days, .atigoss 2.5. 35 sak Se 66. 00
2 painters,.6 days,.at $2.80". 22225. ieee sot 2 16. 80
2 painters, GO ISVs. .ab Wocos oes ae a ee 12. 00
1 skilled laborer, 43 days, at $70 per month -. - 10. 16
Islaloorers, oO Gay swat oli te- so se see see 8. 75
6G laborers, 983 days,at plso0! as 2s so ae soe 147. 75
Ideaner: sG66 dave atch tee ea eho ce eee 166. 00
Total salaries or compensation +. 2-525 242 5 -seeie $6, 622. 96
General expenses:
INPDALAGUS: (602 su etmee eS Se co: see ere $1, 417. 43
BOOKS) 2 See Ne sere ee eee ae ee 98. 69
leche Power? 2-4-2 Sasso e 3 ae aes 116. 70
Br@ight secs ee ee a a eee 5. 00
Ue te Seema ces Sota eae ee eee aS 61. 80
Drawings and illustrations =< 222 22222 ae; 2 16. 40
umiberts Seats so Se eek ee eee 19. 88
RepontSecr mace n soe te ce ce se ta 3, 106. 34
Stationery, dupplies ete) 2235225 Sse = eee 321.98
Travelinowexpenses'= =s2,- 5.2 ss2 40 see ae ee 133. 02
—— 5,297.24
Totalidisbursements == 2< a2: fe so ee eee $11, 920. 20
Balance: Jubky: 1002 0 <n) 2 eee ee eee eee 79. 80

Balance July 1, 1900, as per last report

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1900.

DISBURSEMENTS.

General expenses:

Books -

Freight

Fuel...

Drawintsiy: -o2'.2--c..c. + Oe ee ee ee

$880. 00
30. 42
18. 86
27.30
20. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLIX

General expenses—Continued.

RMIMNMO Wit t= ths eee he Las een $54. 59
TURAN OCESEY Se Stal ho Seat ae re Oe eS eS 3. 36
osiaceanoctelegrara tins sa oe ose tect oee le Sk Sete .99
Eeranet a aes ces Bae Rea, Say ETE as 8 6. 00
RI 8 et ee BS othe Se a a ae 3 ao 154. 27
BravehmotexpPenses, us) 25. He he eee ee ek des 17. 00
Pee eC IS UNSC IICH (Geet aie ar eS eta ee See et A a $1, 212. 79
“epoca 4 a yy TESS I CN ee Aaa en ed ieee ee ie nea a eee 2.99

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1899.

Balancer per ius. report, duly W900. + 222 o2 ess eee ee $3. 97

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.

OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSE OF MAY 28, 1900.

Paancenmuyel, sl O00) asspenlast reports. 222 22 2. es SS ee ee $1, 529. 20

DISBURSEMENTS.
General expenses:

JUVE PEW LDS etc ey ds Seto ee es See $437. 64
mR Oe ee he es ee Se ee SE as ay tc 62. 75
SR Seat ee oe on ok Ao SkS so oS aee See a 47.39
Welepboneland telepraphi....+.:2-¢Sltels.2<---2. tet: 33.48
ihransportation’:- 5522222. 2 vg ERE ER AE th SENAY RARER ad fe 3. 00
jiravel and field expenses\: 2.2. .222252i.2srsoce. 3) li 2. 189. 20
Min alMICHUESCTICI Te oss 2k fone ee ye SEN ce Monae ad ee a $773. 46
eC E Ch Vale OK) Mens epee eee ye ee Or ee, ee ee Bee ae oer ee 755. 74

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1901.
RECEIPTS.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for
continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply,
sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and otherwise
improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclos-
ures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals, includ-
ing salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, the purchase
of necessary books and periodicals, and general incidental expenses
not otherwise provided for, seventy-five thousand dollars; one-half of
which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia
and the other half from the Treasury of the United States; and of the
sum hereby appropriated, five thousand dollars shall be used for con-
tinuing the entrance into the Zoological Park from Cathedral avenue,
and opening driveway into Zoological Park, including necessary grad-
ing and removal of earth: Provided, That the unexpended balance of the
amounts, aggregating eight thousand dollars, heretofore appropriated
for widening, grading, and regulating Adams Mill road from Columbia
road to the Zoological Park entrance, is hereby reappropriated, to be
expended under the direction of the Commissioners of the District of
Columbia; and that the control of Adams Mill road is hereby vested
in the said Commissioners, and all proceedings necessary to purchase

sm 1901——1v

L REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

or condemn the land necessary to widen said road as authorized by act
approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, providing
for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred, and for other purposes, shall be
taken by said Commissioners”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) .-.--- $75, 000. 00

DISBURSEMENTS.
Salaries or compensation:

1 superintendent, 12 months, at $225 _....-..- $2, 700. 00
1 property clerk, 12 months, at $150 -.......-- 1, 800. 00
1 clerk J& months, at $90 -........-.--.----- \ 1. 200
‘\G-monthe, at $0222". eee f :
#\-copyist, 12 months, at $90. -. = 22-22 ee 1, 080. 00
i copyist,, 3. days, atwbloo0 ose eee eee 4.50
1 stenographer, 12 months, at $62.50......---- 750. 00
1 head keeper, 12 months, at $100 :.-..-...--- 1, 200. 00
1 keeper, 12 months,at $6022 35-2222 28 720. 00
1 keeper, 12 months, at $60 -.....-.-----.---- 720. 00
t keeper, 12*months, at p00 6 2. 24 Set se 720. 00
1 keepet; 12 months, at P00! —.- ko eee 720. 00
1 landscape gardener, 53 months, at $75; 2
TROMGHS Br Cavs, abode oot see oe eye eee 601. 38
1 assistant foreman, 6 months, at $60; 6 months, a
Ab ROD be: whe ac Sec. ee et cee Meee 750. 00
1 watchman, 12months,. at $60. -_-.-...2--.-: 720. 00
1 watchman, 12 months: at, S60 52 -0- 22252 ee 720. 00
] watchman,{? months, at 700 cee ra has L 630. 00
Gamonths at) pod. 2ee eee eee i
blacksmith, 12mnonths;atih(oms.-.s2 2 eee 900. 00
1 assistant blacksmith, 12 months, at $60-.---- 720. 00
iworkman=12 months: at $6052.52 => 32s eee 720. 00
workman 2 monihe: ab o0 22 15s se ene 600. 00
islaborer, [2imonthss at po0 ssa ssa en ee 720. 00
1 laborer, 103 months and 9 days, at $50 ..---- 539. 52
l laborer,{" months at @o0 = os 2 ee ee \ 630. 00
HImMOnthis ato - ee ao ee jf
iMlaborer wy months at goOe.=.. = sae ae eee 575. 00
1 laborer, 23 months and 12 days, at $20-...--.- 58. 00
Total salanies\or compensation +. soe ese = ae eee $20, 498. 40
Miscellaneous:

SUI GUS ee eee yn ee a re 1, 392. 39
Bul dain pment ae eet eee 78. 34
(Can CT asks 9 55k a co sea fae acer tas = Se Ae eee 563. 15
Fencing; ‘cage materials, ete. 20:5 022 ae ee ISOSS Sa
BOOG 23: as ee ee i See ae a ee 8, 745. 45
Prele@h tise. sc eg) oo eee ena bce Oran ee ee 457. 33
Wie) Leos Sap ae oe ea a ces ae ar 841. 33
Hurnitures 5. oon. oS ee eee ee ee ee 243. 00
Dilustration’s :3..<% sels ce nese eee 15. 00
[eamiber: 2,2 AS ares Le Avel 22e U2
Machinery, tools, ete [32:85 \5-e = eens 480. 55
Miscellaneéous.:52< 2.2... cos. bee ee 837.50
Paints; Atle plass .6te.. ... 22 tec eee 219. 32

Portage and telegraph»... 0. 52<-2<veen oes eeee 174. 95

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Miscellaneous—Continued.

Bimehiaseromaniinals tee S| ee Se a oe $2, 634. 68
Road materials:and' grading ...-.....--..2=-.-- 981. 61
Pimnenerye DOOKS, CtCh- at 52 Se SSS 133. 63
Pree genre itis, Ole 6 sna Sees oe 622. 00
Traveling and field expenses ..._-.......----- 454. 41
SC CH LANTUS TelCw one 2 cen heck ese ce eb Sees 13.10
Water supply, sewerage, etc _.....---.------- 552. 32

RorelemMscellaneouss. sce ame ee Sk Sa oe

Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams
in constructing buildings and inclosures, laying
water pipes, building roads, gutters, and walks,
planting trees, and otherwise improving the

grounds:

Mearpenter, oO days, ato <=. -2 255.4. 225-- 168. 00
l carpenter, 293 days, at $3 .............-42-- 88. 50
Iheanpenter JO daysat do 222.5. 222k eco 87. 00
mearpenter, 20 days, ates . 2.522.222 le. 2.. 2+ 81. 00
Menpenter, 24 days) ates: =. 225505. S265 5-55 72. 00
ipearpenter, lodays, ats -. 20.222 £2 c2 222-2: 42. 00
imearpenters loa Gdays at poo... 25 2ess eet t 39. 00
fecunpenter, oon ays, ab po. 2.5.5 22-semesck 2: 118. 50
iicarpenter, 29; days) atibs-. 2-0 .<22 tse St 88. 50
Pearpenter, 29) days, at go. 2... 22 -2eeSene: 88. 50
imcarpenter, 24 days, abigo.2 0.25.2. 2c eee 72. 00
Incarpenter, 8 days; atipo <5. 2022 -5.2222-- 5825 24. 00
inearpenter, 295: days, at$32-..--2 25.58.22. 88. 50
iWeanpenter 207s days, -atvga = os. eess ese 892. 50
Dyenter, 18 days, at: Go 2.2 oe eee 54. 00

flaborer, 5} days, at $1.50) 999, 37

tositter, 71}-days: at $3) 0) ots <> -se5s5- ee
iapaimber, 4 days,au poss s-~-<-< 5 cleo 12. 00
ABPAUNGen 4 OAS PAL GS jcc =: o). 2 Pea es me 12. 00
Penainter, 3 days, ab fo... 2.222 eee Saal 9. 00
Istinner, sop days, at $2-00 2-2 2 eS See
Welaporer, obo days; atip2-o02—. = 22-22 eee e 912. 50
imaborer, 121 days, at'$2.00.. 22.2.2 22722 2S. 302. 50
IAD OTeE eGo 0AVS; at o2 252 22.) \ eee eee 567. 50
Wlavorer, oOo GAYS, at'$2 52-2222. 2-222 Se 730. 00
felaborer O days, ab pa i222 8 22 ee eee 12.00

sll days, at $2.....)

T taborer 19643 days, at $1.50 S------------ > 419. 14
1 workman, 365 days, at $1.75...............- 638. 75
ImAOren loss GAVE, Ab mile (oenso yee te oe 234. 06
Hlanorer ooo Gays- at b/d. -2.)/2-- acne el ot 638. 75
lanoOrer otis days, at ple(dess =... csc ao 597. 64
lelaborer: 286: days, atipl. (Oc... 22-2222 2.2...) 500. 50
imaborer, 50s days, at $l.75.- 2-2-2 Sl 2a2--- 530. 25
ilaborer 2005 Gays, at pl.7D- 22... 2. 22.2. 443. 21
iMaborer: o605 days, at $l.5025.. -..2_- 2-222. 548. 26
iaborer days ab ol. oO. 2 esse tk 6. 00
imlapORer. 270+ daysvat $1.00. 225520422 5-222 - 415.13

1 laborer,

Vaan raty pio Uses ee ne ee ee 101. 64

$21, 460. 3:

LIL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE. COMMITTEE.

Wages of mechanics and laborers, etc. —Continued.

I laborers365%-daysrrat pile0 32 sae eee $548. 63
‘190 days, at $1.50--

1 laborer area days, at ea, wo eerste eee ee 598. 68
Iiabotrer;, 372 days; Api o0. 7 Ae, oe rae 508. 02
1 taborer, 232) days, ‘at $1.50. et 423.77
ivlaborer, 278% days; at oll b0 22 = = see 418. 14
IMlaparer:, 2s days atoll. pO toe, ee eee 387.01
Tabonet,- 2542 Gaye, at al 00a oe ae 351. 38
iclaborer-228) days: at plso0le: 522. 2 ee 342. 39
tilaborer, 196; days) ath. p02. 2.2. 2 aos 294. 37
i Taborer, 195% days).at- pleo0 =e. eee ee 293. 62
iMaborer,h/1s days,rat pilsnO ses. a5 secre kee 257. 63
ilaborer, 102% days, at $1.50, = 4.2225. pe eee 154.13
1 laborer, 1254 days, at $1.50. -.-> >. --22..-2. 187. 88
islaborer, l43-days,.at-$1. 502-2) 252 eset 21275
islaiborer 20s Cay Gisaten leo) eae es 38. 25
ilaborer: Sicdays, at pleas. 22) er ae ee 121. 50
islaborer, LOOP days..at plsbOlay = sana e ee oe 151.13
ielaborer, 199 dayasatpioe. ocso soe Fe ee 298. 50
lV laborer, 233 days, ‘at-$1:50-2 - 222 Shluk o 30. 63
J laborer, -339 days, sate@1. 50. 26 22 soc oe 508. 50
¥ laborer, 287 days,at-PLSO: 2-22 oe een ce 43. 12
A laberer,23 days abl. oO se 2 JP a ee hae 34. 50
iclaborer, 20. days; at261.505¢<2 one fee 30. 00
i ilaboter; 5 days, atipico0.: sind. oe 7.50
l laborer, 103}; days) atiel. 50222. . S eee 154. 88
i laborer;313}, daye. ati PlbOo os 469. 88
laborer 94P Gays ation ees eee 141.38
ilsborer, 4.days, at ®1508.. 220) oe at ee 6. 00
1 laborer; 338% days,.at $1.50.% =. 2222 2 ee 508. 13
tlaborer, 6/ days, at $1:502. 52. \. 2.42. eee 100. 50
i \aborer;o9} days, -at 003 - > 23S Sees 88. 88
: 25 days, at $1.25 :
naa em days, at ae Fe ae ae LEY As
aalaborer; Al daysJatgl.b0: 22-3 =. eee 61. 50
Liaborer, 13 days atl.505 302... ss oe 19. 50
ilaborer;, 8.days:-at $1.50." ee ee 12. 00
i Jaborer,:4 days, ab pl.50. >. 2225.5. SS ee 6. 00
laborer; 2) daysat: $1500 2275. ee ee Sale
i Taboren 2 Maye, ai P00 So ae 3. 00
Ielaboret 5G} days, at‘Sl.20 2-20: 2-6 eee 70. 31
f32 days, at $1.....- \ wee

1 laborer \3561 days, at $1.25.f ----7777777777 ee
| laborer, 14% daye..atapleco. co Se ee 18. 12
1 laborer, 365.days,ab- pli >< 7h tees 456. 25
1 laborer, 444 days,-at-$l.25-.2 42 ees. 55. 32
1 laborer, 11} days; at Piso ees otal ee 14. 06
1 laborer, 11) days; ai$ieab 22 ee ee 14. 06
Iaborer, 3222 days; ot Sls. ieee ee 322. 75
laborer, 263% days, atploo i eee 263. 75
Iilaborer, 2523 days; at $l. oon 252. 75
i Jaborer, 612 days;-at $12. 2255 eee 61. 75

iuahorer; 5} days; at $1... 0. 325 Se eRe ies Dew

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. LIII

Wages of mechanics and laborers, ete.—Continued.
{53 days, at 75 cents)|

EIaDOTED) deeruh BH. oc (ae eee erase $33. 32
Wwisborer, 44; days, ato cents. 522-222-254. - 3.56
1 laborer, 12} days, at $1.50........- Oe ee 18. 37
1 laborer Ha days, at$l.25) 115. 63
30 days, at $1.505
laborer, 121. days: atrel. 5022222222 2. a: 181. 87
ilanorergl 27 Gaye at plosos. a. < ect Masco 15. 63
j attendant fais days, at 75 cents. -| aes
(laborer L78idays; at $l 2 =----- fiseiesuaae ols
1 attendant, 278 days, at 75 cents...........-- 208. 50
Wattendant,vati7o cents. 28") 62s cec 2). 222: Evid
1 attendant, 93 days, at 75 cents.._....----.-- 69. 75
(aaa ae days, at 75 Canis C i, ee 307. 89
laborer 1223 days, at $1__.... f
1 attendant, 264 days, at 50 cents........-...- is Ey
1 weeder, 188 days, at 75 cents..--...-------- 141. 08
water boy, 121 days, at'50 cents..-.......:.- 60. 50
1 water boy, 2193 days, at 50 cents -..-..-..-- 109. 89
1 water boy, 3423 days, at 50 cents ......--__- 171. 38
1 water boy, 12 days, at 50 cents ........---.- 6. 00
1 water boy, 61 days, at 50 cents .._........-- 30. 50
1 water boy, 49 days, at 50 cents -.-....-..--- 24.50
1 water boy, 28? days, at 50 cents _.-....----- 14, 37
1 water boy, 123 days, at 50 cents ...-.....-_-- 6. 25
1 wagon and team, # day, at $3_........---..- 2.25
1 wagon and team, 223 days, at $3. .......---- 67.50
1 wagon and team, 194} days, at $3..........- 582. 75
1 wagon and team, 53 days, at $3....-.....-.-- 16.50
1 horse and cart, 1553 days, at $1.50........-- 233. 62
1 horse and cart, 30} days, at $1.50........... 45. 37
1 horse and cart, 673 days, at $1.50..........- 101. 25
ithorse'and cart, 8 days, at $1.50 22 (222. Le. 12. 00
jehorseand- cart. Wy days, at $1502. 22-= 16. 88
1 horse and cart, 165 days, at $1.50__......... 24.75
1 horse and cart, 293 days, at $1.50-_......__- 44, 25
1 horse and cart, 172 days, at $1.50..........- 26. 63
1 horse and cart, 8 days, at $1.50 ...-.......-- 12.00
ishorse’and. cart, 7 days, at pl50)..... 2.222. 10.50
ishorse and cart) 7 daye, abpleo0 25-22 == 10. 50
NGEOIEO res CAVE Atl 2.25 eee set ek eee et 1.50
menarie.-2974- Gays, at oOvcente. 252. 2. 225224 148. 88
oe 137 cubic yards, at 60 cents -\ 209. 71
laborer, 85 days, at $1.50.............--.- J %
1 stonebreaker, 92} cubic yards, at 60 cents -- - 55. 65
1 stonebreaker, 343 cubic yards, at 60 cents - -- 20. 70
otltwares:onmechanicg 6G 2-42-52 2s2s5 2s $23, 238. 98
etal Gus puree ments: ae * Ola on ea ee ees beng ses ctek fee $65, 197. 71

Balancer Nulivaiey OQ see es cens Ane ee ee Aen ee eae Seer 3: 9, 802. 29

LIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1900.

Balance July 1, 1900, as per last report....-=.....2222-..220% $14, 907. 46
Transferred to Commissioners District of Columbia (sundry
civilact, June’, 1900) Sj... 32 ee eee 5, 000. 00

General expenses:

Manes — ooo SO, ee doe wee Pe at ete eee $115. 20
IBGOKS( cet Eee es soe es eee ea ee ee 318. 65
@ameras 2. 2%. Se ee Be ee ee ee 445. 00
Fencingiand cape: materal: o° 22. 52262 tee ye eee 1, 046. 35
1 ECoG 6 pee ae em ae rs RAL EEE re es ecg PIN Os os 1, 288. 92
12) C=) apie nes eee pea G Reem egies ER a ene eA po oo Ske Fes he 145. 39
Muorniture:: 2222.5. Ch yas ee eee eee Se ae Cee eee eee 60. 00
Preieiit. eo fe. oh eee oes eek oe eres 689. 13
umber. e242 oot Se en cee eee ae ee ee eee 328. 83
Machinery, ‘tools, ete |. 22 vasatee he ee ee eee 261. 97
Miscellaneous! <= os) = asetscec Sea ea ee ee 122. 87
Pamnite OU, glass. tes = eles a wets on se eee ee eo 40. 97
Postage, telephone, and telegraph -2_..-. <2 ...<.----22- 75. 94
Purchase: of animals soa oe eee 2 See 236. 00
Road material and prading yt Ss sae ese ee 1, 338. 84
Spetial 'setyvaces fossa ene ce a ee eee ee 480. 00
Surveying, plana, ete. ose ae Sos fe eee cee Cee 984. 00
Traveling and field expenses {722 2. osc, Seno Se eee 629. 23
arees, platite, Cleo oo. mot size eet ere Siete meer eae ere 710. 60
Water supply, sewerage) eles. 02 ae ee oes ae 195. 27
Total disbursements iets. elie Se ee eee eee eee eee a eee
Balamee. 25. Mei Ree he ee ee Se ee ie eee ain See eee
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1899.
Balance July 1, 1900, as-per‘last report: :22022222~ 22) 2a ot ae es

DISBURSEMENTS.
General expenses:

NS GOK oie or hg Bek ere Se i i $3. 18
Miscellaneous? 2c. 220222. So eee eee 13. 67
Special Services, <2. o.n is C= = 2 oe oe eee 50. 00
POStages So24/.n 542 ceo net Oe oo ae eee ee ae 2. 00
Total disbursements) Ss... ¢ oss oe ee eee
Balances cas eee Le ae eee gee a eS ee

$9, 907. 46

$9, 513. 16

394. 30

$82. 31

13. 46

Balance carried under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the

Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901.
RECAPITULATION.

The total amount of funds administered by the Institution during the year ending
June 30, 1901, appears from the foregoing statements and the account books to have

been as follows: ¢
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

From balance of last year, July 1, 1900 ...-.-- SR omen: cs 5 $76, 219. 07
From interest on Smithsonian fund for the year.......----- 54, 720. 00
Fromrinterest on West.Shore bonds =5.2— Seels.ssees seeeee 1, 680. 00
Beon-sales of publications ‘:- ...: 222.5 232 e ee eee 188. 59
Brom-repayments of freight, etc. =.= S02 eee eee eee 10, 240. 80

$143, 048. 46

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTED BY CONGRESS TO THE CARE OF THE INSTITUTION.

International exchanges—Smithsonian Institution:
Brom. balance of- 1898-99... ..2 2... 6.2 ce 2
From balance of 1899-1900 .....--..-.-..+-+.---
From appropriation for 1900-1901 ..........-.--

American ethnology—Smithsonian Institution:
Brememalanee ol 1898-99255 2-2. = 2 ee
From balance of 1899-1900 ......-.---- pie alee tee
From appropriation for 1900-1901 .......-------

Preservation of collections—National Museum:
irony balance of 1898-99. 2. = 222 Se kee
rom balance of 1899-[900-22 .- = 222.2 22222 -+--
From appropriation for 1900-1901 _.-.....------

Furniture and fixtures—National Museum:

roms balancesor 1898-0922 52-2 oe ee oe

Krommpalance of 1899-1900... =) ee

From appropriation for 1900-1901 -......-------
Heating and lighting, etc.—National Museum:

Hromb=palance or 898-99). 2-2 2 2s sek 5.28

Hrommspalamee Orls99=LO00! to. A eee eee ese

' From appropriation for 1900-1901 -..-...-.-----

Postage—National Museum:

from appropriation tor 1900-1901, =~ 22.2 2.

Printing—National Museum:

From appropriation for 1900-1901 .........--.--

Rent of workshops, etc.—National Museum:

rom: balance, Of 1898-99. 22 S22 ec e Sls tsk
Brommpalnce- ot ls99 O00 es ee ao. See eo
From appropriation for 1900-1901 .......--:.---

Building repairs—National Museum:

Bromsbalanceofel 898-99 es sa* see eee ene
rom balance: or t899—1 Q0022 2 Seem sen eee
From appropriation for 1900-1901 ..........----

Galleries—National Museum:

irom ubalanee of 1898-99. =... bb. ss23552 52 9s. 22-

Books—National Museum:

rom balance of: 1898-99... aa22 feos ee
rom: balancexor 1899=1900. =... = 2 see ese 2
From appropriation for 1900-1901 -....----.-.----

Purchase of specimens—National Museum:

From appropriation for 1900-1901 .............-
Astrophysical Observatory—Smithsonian Institution:
Brom? balamce-Gi 1898-995 2522) ee eee eet
rome palanceots L899 0 See ae bee
From appropriation for 1900-1901 ...-....--.---

Observation of eclipse of May 28, 1900:

Hrommpaanee Jittly al hOO0O sane 2 5 Ve ee NSS Tee

National Zoological Park:

Hromebalance of 1898-99" es oS. ot Pek
From: balanceiok 1899-1900: 2.6.2. 7542... 222. -<
From appropriation for 1900-1901 -........-----

$1.59
2. 538. 83

24, 000. 00

92. 48
2.147. 35
50, 000. 00

1.55

99 €
g, Loos 82

-. 180, 000. 00

eas
5. 24
17, 500. 00

1, 215. 78

82. 31
9, 907. 46
75, 000. 00

$26, 540. 45

02; 230-

189, 135: :

18, 076. 5

18, 061.
500.

17, 000. C

4, 150.

2,903.
10, 000.

13, 219.

1,529.

84, 989.

83

80
00

20

ba |
|

LVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

SUMMARY.
Smithsonian institwiome. oc = rs eee ee ee $143, 048. 46
Bechainges 52, ose fc esse oe ee ee Ge ee eee 26, 540. 42
Bibb rales a he ES Sae Se ee ee 52, 239. 83
Preservatiom-op collections 322525 «ve. tee eee ee ee 189, 135. 35
Burt bare an ol sic mren os pe ee etc ene eae 18, 076. 59
Bostme aud Nehtineg 35 20 ote ac ee ee 18, 061. 97
IR Me ci hte oe 2 Said woe ek fame ee na a a 500. 00
Liggis |n 12) <A gly Sale area aM eet mye aii pare (= ni eee? oh Jeet BT 17, 000. 00
Rent or workshops. 2.2.0.9 62.4. Sheet Seiko eee 4, 150. 16
Baal digas epee se shes leis Sere ee os oan ee ee 15, 251. 98
Aamo a he od Se oe be ie Re tee ee eee 205. 79
LOO Kanye ers oe Sic cnc, Sn Les 2 CON a a See SS mee ae 2, 903. 80
Purchase of specimens .0 ee a ee 10, 000. 00
meropnyeica) Opservatory. 22-2 ee ee Sie 13, 219. 75
Observation of eclipse of May 28, 1900 ........---.......-- 1, 529. 20
National Zoological Paki: «<2... veces cs Mecca 84, 989. 77

596, 853. 07

The committee has examined the vouchers for payment from the
Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1901, each of
which bears the approval of the Secretary or, in his absence, of the
acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services
charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution.

The committee has also examined the accounts of the several appro-
priations committed by Congress to the Institution, and finds that the
balances hereinbefore given correspond with the certificates of the
disbursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institution, whose appointment as
such disbursing officer has been accepted and his bond approved by the
Secretary of the Treasury.

The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been
examined and found correct.

Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian fund available for use in the year ending
June 30, 1902.

Balance July ae Lo0le 2. se ee ee eee $83, 963. 26
(Including cash from executors of J. H. Kidder) --..-.------ $9, 000. 00
(Including cash from Dr. Alex. Graham Bell)...-......-.---- 5, 000. 00
10, 000. 00
Interest due and receivable July 1, 1901.........-.....------ 27, 360. 00
Interest due and receivable January 1, 1902...........:..--- 27, 360. 00
Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1901_. -.-- 840. 00
Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due January 1, 1902 --- 840. 00

— 56, 400. 00

Total available for year ending June 30, 1902..............--..--- 140, 363. 26

Respectfully submitted.
J. B. HeNpDERsSON,

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL,
Ropert R. Hirv,
Executive Committee.
Wasurinaton, D. C., January 14, 1902.

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ETC.

[Continued from previous Reports. ]

[Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. ]
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the vacancy in the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution of the class other than
members of Congress, caused by the death of William Lyne Wilson,
of Virginia, shall be filled by the appointment of George Gray, a resi-
dent of Delaware. (Approved January 14, 1901; Statutes, XX XI,
1459.)

That facilities for study and research in the Government Depart-
ments, the Library of Congress, the National Museum, the Zoological
Park, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Fish Commission, the Botanic
Gardens, and similar institutions hereafter established shall be afforded
to scientific investigators and to duly qualified individuals, students,
and graduates of institutions of learning in the several States and Ter-
ritories, as well as in the District of Columbia, under such rules and
restrictions as the heads of the Departments and Bureaus mentioned
may prescribe. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1039.)

SMITHSONIAN Deposit | Linrary oF ConGREss|.—-For custodian, one
thousand five hundred dollars; one assistant, one thousand two hundred
dollars; one messenger, seven hundred and twenty dollars; one mes-
senger boy, three hundred and sixty dollars; in all, three thousand
seven hundred and eighty dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes,
XXXI, 970.)

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the
United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smith-
sonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary
employees, and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals,

LVII

LVIIlL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

twenty-four thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes,
XXXI, 1146.)

TREASURY DEPARTMENT, CONTINGENT EXpENsES.—To pay the
account of the Smithsonian Institution for the transmission of mail
matter for the Treasury Department for the fiscal years as follows:

For the fiscal year nineteen hundred and one, two hundred and forty-
four dollars and five cents.

For the fiscal year nineteen hundred, four hundred and fifty-three
dollars and fifty cents. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI,
1012.)

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi-
bition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum,
including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty
thousand dollars.

For expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele-
phonic service for the National Museum, including five thousand dol-
lars for electric installation, twenty-three thousand dollars.

For removing old boilers in the National Museum building, and for
the purchase and installation of new boilers, including material and
labor for necessary alterations and connections, twelve thousand five
hundred dollars.

For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col-
lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern-
ment, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of
all necessary employees, one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, of
which sum five thousand five hundred dollars may be used for neces-
sary drawings and illustrations for publications of the National
Museum; and all other necessary incidental expenses.

For purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections
of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars.

For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in
the National Museum, two thousand dollars.

For repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ-
ing all necessary labor and material, fifteen thousand dollars.

For construction of two galleries in the National Museum building,
five thousand dollars.

For rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the
National Museum, four thousand four hundred dollars.

For postage stamps ‘and foreign postal cards for the National _
Museum, five hundred dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes,
XXXI, 1147.)

For the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and
for the ‘* Bulletins” and ‘‘ Proceedings” of the National Museum, the

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LLX

editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and
binding, in half turkey, or material not more expensive, scientific
books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National
Museum Library, seventeen thousand dollars. (Approved March 3,
1901; Statutes, X X XI, 1187.)

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians,
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries
or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of neces-
sary books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not
exceeding one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of
building. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1146.)

For payment of outstanding accounts for transportation incurred
during the fiscal year eighteen hundred and ninety-seven under the
appropriation ‘* North American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,”
forty-seven dollars and sixty-one cents. (Approved March 3, 1901;
Statute, XX XI, 1018.)

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water
supply, sewerage, and drainage; and for grading, planting, and other-
wise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and
inclosures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals;
including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees; the
purchase of necessary books and periodicals, the printing and publish-
ing of operations, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, and
general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, eighty thou-
sand dollars; one-half of which sum shall be paid from the revenues
of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the
United States; and of the sum hereby appropriated five thousand dol-
lars shall be used for continuing the entrance into the Zoological Park
from Cathedral avenue and opening driveway into Zoological Park,
including necessary grading and removal of earth. (Approved March 3,
1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1147.)

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

For maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the
purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and
publishing results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hun-
dred copies, repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscellaneous
expenses, twelve thousand dollars. That the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution is directed to report to Congress on the first day of

LX ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

the next regular session an entire account of all appropriations hereto-
fore expended by the Astrophysical Observatory, what results have
been reached, and what is the present condition of the work of said
observatory. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, X-X-XI, 1146.)

“BIRDS AND EGGS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES.

AN ACT To amend an Act entitled ‘‘An Act for the protection of birds, preservation
of game, and for the prevention of its sale during certain closed seasons, in the
District of Columbia.”’

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled,

* * * * * * *

‘Sec. 3. That for the purposes of this Act the following only shall
be considered game birds: The Anatidee, commonly known as swans,
geese, brant, river and sea ducks; the Rallidee, commonly known as
rails, coots, mud hens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly known
as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tat-
tlers, and curlews; the Galline, commonly known as wild turkeys,
grouse, prairie chickens, pheasants, partridges, and quails; and the
species of Icteridee, commonly known as marsh blackbirds and reed
birds or rice birds.

‘‘That no person shall kill, catch, expose for sale, or have in his
or her possession, living or dead, any wild bird other than a game
bird, English sparrow, crow, Cooper’s hawk, sharpshinned hawk, or
great horned owl; nor rob the nest of any such wild bird of eggs or
young; nor destroy such nest except in the clearing of land of trees
or brush, under a penalty of five dollars for every such bird killed,
caught, exposed for sale, or had in his or her possession, either dead
or alive, and for each nest destroyed, and in default thereof to be
imprisoned in the workhouse for a period not exceeding thirty days:
Provided, That this section shall not apply to birds or eggs collected
for scientific purposes under permits issued by the superintendent of
police of the District of Columbia in accordance with such instructions
as the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution may prescribe, such
permits to be in force for one year from date of issue and nontrans-
ferable.” (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX -XI, 1091.)

WORLD’S COLUMBIAN COMMISSION.

Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring),
That there be printed three thousand five hundred copies of so much —
of the report of the committee on awards of the World’s Columbian
Commission as is contained in the special reports upon special subjects
or groups as were prepared by expert judges authorized to act by the
World’s Coiumbian Commission, its executive committee on awards,

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXxI

the committee on final report, or the board of reference and control,
of which one thousand shall be for the use of the Senate, two thou-
sand for the use of the House of Representatives, and five hundred
for distribution by the Department of State. (Passed Senate May 31,
1900; passed House March 1, 1901; Statutes, XXXI, concurrent
resolutions, 14.)

TENNESSEE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That so much as may be nec-
essary of the unexpended balance of the appropriation of one hundred
thousand dollars provided in section three of the Act to aid and encour-
age the holding of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition at Nashville
in eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, approved December twenty-
second, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, be applied to the preparation
of illustrations and the printing and binding at the Government Print-
ing Office of six thousand copies of the report of the board of man-
agement of the United States Government exhibit at said exposition,
under the direction of the chairman of said board. (Approved,
March 2, 1901; Statutes, X-X-XI, 1464.)

LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION.

AN ACT To provide for celebrating the one hundredth anniversary of the purchase
of the Louisiana territory by the United States by holding an international exhi-
bition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, forest,
and sea in the city of Saint Louis, in the State of Missouri.

Whereas it is fit and appropriate that the one hundredth anniversary
of the purchase of the Louisiana territory be commemorated by an
exhibition of the resources of the territory, their development, and
of the progress of the civilization therein; and

Whereas such an exhibition should be of a national and international
character, so that not only the people of that territory, but of our
Union, and of all nations as well, can participate, and should there-
fore have the sanction of the Congress of the United States: There-
fore,

Beit enacted by the Senateand House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibit of arts,
industries, manufactures, and products of the soil, mine, forest, and
sea shall be inaugurated in the year nineteen hundred and three, in
the city of Saint Louis, in the State of Missouri, as herein provided.

Sec. 2. That a nonpartisan commission is hereby constituted, to
consist of nine commissioners, to be known and designated as the
** Louisiana Purchase Exposition Commission,” who shall be appointed,
within thirty days from the passage of this Act, by the President of
the United States, and who shall also be subject to removal by him.

LXII ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

Vacancies in said commission to be filled in the same manner as original
appointmerts.

Src. 3. That the commissioners so appointed shall be called together
by the Secretary of State of the United States, in the city of Saint
Louis, by notice to the commissioners, as soon as convenient after the
appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days thereafter.
The said commissioners, at said first meeting, shall organize by the
election of their officers, and they may then, or thereafter, appoint
such executive or other gommittees as may be deemed expedient, and
a secretary at a salary of three thousand dollars per annum; that in
addition to the salary of the secretary of said commission there is
hereby allowed, out of any money appropriated to aid in carrying
forward said exposition, the sum of ten thousand dollars per annum,
or so much thereof as may be necessary, for the purpose of defraying
the clerical, office, and other necessary expenses of said commission.

Src. 4. That said commission, when fully organized under the pro-
visions of this Act, shall appoint two of their number to act in con-
junction with a like number appointed by the Louisiana Purchase
Exposition Company, to constitute a board of arbitration, to whom all
matters of difference arising between said commission and said company,
concerning the administration, management, or general supervision of
said exposition, including all matters of difference arising out of the
power given by this Act to the said company or to the said national
commission to modify or approve any act of the other of the two
bodies, shall be referred for determination; and in the case of the fail-
ure of said board of arbitration to agree upon such matters as may be
so referred, said board of arbitration shall appoint a fifth member
thereof; and in case of the failure of the said board to agree upon a
fifth member, such fifth member shall then be appointed by the Secre-
tary of the Treasury. And the decision of said board shall be final in
all matters presented to it for consideration and determination.

Src. 5. That said commission be empowered, in its discretion, to
accept, for the purposes of the exposition herein authorized, such site
as may be selected and offered, and such plans and specifications of
buildings for such purpose at the expense of and tendered by the
corporation organized under the laws of the State of Missouri, known
as ‘* The Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company.”

Sec. 6. That the allotment of space for exhibitors, classification of
exhibits, plan and scope of the exposition, the appointment of all
judges and examiners for the exposition, and the awarding of
premiums, if any, shall all be done and performed by the said Louisi-
ana Purchase Exposition Company, subject, however, to the approval
of the commission created by section 2 of this Act; and said com-
mission is hereby authorized to appoint a board of lady managers, of
such number and to perform such duties as may be prescribed by said

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXII

commission, subject, however, to the approvai of said company. Said
hoard of lady managers may, in the discretion of said commission and
corporation, appoint one member of all committees authorized to
award prizes for such exhibits as may have been produced in whole or
in part by female labor.

Sec. 7. That after the plans for said exposition shall be prepared
by said company and approved by said commission the rules and regu-
lations of said corporation governing rates for entrance and admission
fees or otherwise affecting the rights, privileges, or interests of the
exhibitors, or of the public, shall be fixed or established by said com-
pany, subject, however, to the modification or approval of said com-
mission.

Sec. 8. That said commission shall provide for the dedication of
the buildings of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in said city of Saint
Louis, not later than the thirtieth day of April, nineteen hundred and
three, with appropriate ceremonies, and thereafter said exposition
shall be opened to visitors at such time as may be designated by said
company, subject to the approval of said commission, not later than
the first day of May, nineteen hundred and three, and shall be closed
at such time as the national commission may determine, subject to the
approval of said company, but not later than the first day of December
thereafter.

Sec. 9. That whenever the President of the United States shall be
notified by the national commission that provision has heen made for
grounds and buildings for the uses herein provided for, he shall be
authorized to make proclamation of the same, through the Depart-
ment of State, setting forth the time at which said exposition will be
held, and the purpose thereof; and he shall communicate to the diplo-
matic representatives of foreign nations copies thereof. together with
such regulations as may be adopted by the commission, for publication
in their respective ccuntries; and he shall, in behalf of the Govern-
ment and the people, invite foreign nations to take part in the said
exposition and to appoint representatives thereto.

Sec. 10. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign
countries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition, upon
which there shall be a tariff or customs duty, shall be admitted free of
payment of duty, customs fees, or charges, under such regulations as
the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe; but it shall be lawful
at any time during the exposition to sell, for delivery at the close
thereof, any goods or property imported for and actually on exhibition
in the exposition buildings or on the grounds, subject to such regula-
tions for the security of the revenue and for the collection of import
duties as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Prow/ded,
That all such articles, when sold or withdrawn for consumption in the
United States, shall be subject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such
articles by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation, and

LXIV ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

all penalties prescribed by law shall be applied and enforced against
such articles and against the person who may be guilty of any illegal
sale or withdrawal.

Sec. 11. That it shall be the duty of the national commission to
make reports monthly to the President of the United States, showing
receipts and disbursements and giving a general summary of the
financial condition of said exposition, and a final report within six
months after the close of the exposition, presenting the results and a
full exhibit thereof.

Src. 12. That the national commission hereby authorized shall cease
to exist on the first day of January, nineteen hundred and five.

Src. 13. That the United States shall not in any manner nor under
any circumstances be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceedings,
or representations of the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Com-
pany, its officers, agents, or employees, or any of them, or for the
service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officers, agents, servants, or
employees, or any of them, or for any subscriptions to the capital
stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obligations
of any kind issued by said corporation, or for any debts, liabilities, or
expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation or accruing
by reason of the same.

Src. 14. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov-
ernment of the United States from its Executive Departments, the
Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the United States Com-
mission of Fish and Fisheries, and the Department of Labor, such arti-
cles and material as illustrate the function and administrative faculty
of the Government in time of peace and its resources as a war power,
tending to demonstrate the nature of our institutions and their adapta-
tion to the wants of the people; and the Bureau of the American Repub-
lics is hereby invited to make an exhibit illustrating the resources and
international relations of the American Republics, and space in the
United States Government building shall be provided for the purpose of
said exhibit; and to secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of
such Government exhibit a board, to be known as the United States
Government board, shall be created, independent of the commission
hereinbefore provided, to be charged with the selection, purchase,
preparation, transportation, arrangement, installation, safe-keeping,
exhibition, and return of such articles and material as the heads of the
several Executive Departments, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, the Commissioner of
Labor, and the Director of the Bureau of the American Republics may,
respectively, decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The
President may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such
board shall be composed of one person to be named by the head of each
Executive Department, one by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, one by the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, one by the

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXV

Commissioner of Labor, and one by the Director of the Bureau of
American Republics. The President shall name one of said persons so
detailed as chairman, and the board itself shall appoint its secretary,
disbursing officer, and such other officers as it may deem necessary.
The members of said board of management, with other officers and
employees of the Government who may be detailed to assist them,
including officers of the Army and Navy, shall receive no compensation
in addition to their regular salaries, but they shall be allowed their
actual and necessary traveling expenses, together with a per diem in
lieu of subsistence, to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury, while
necessarily absent from their homes engaged upon the business of the
board. Officers of the Army and Navy shall receive this allowance in
lieu of the transportation and mileage now allowed by law. Any pro-
vision of law which may prohibit the detail of persons in the employ
of the United States to other service than that which they customarily
perform shall not apply to persons detailed for duty in connection
with the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Employees of the board
not otherwise employed by the Government shall be entitled to such
compensation as the board may determine. The disbursing officer
shall give bond in the sum of thirty thousand dollars for the faithful
performance of his duties, said bond to be approved by the Secretary
of the Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury shall advance to said
officer from time to time, under such regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury may prescribe, a sum of money from the appropriation
hereafter to be made for the Government exhibit, not exceeding at
any one time the penalty of his bond, to enable him to pay the ex-
penses of exhibit as authorized by the board of management herein
created.

Sec. 15. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized
and directed to place on exhibition, in connection with the exhibit of
his Department, upon such grounds as shall be allotted for the pur-
pose, one of the life-saving stations authorized to be constructed on
the coast of the United States by existing law, and to cause the same
to be fully equipped with all apparatus, furniture, and appliances now
in use in all life-saving stations in the United States.

Sec. 16. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause a suitable
building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition for the Government exhibits, as provided in this
Act, and he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor in
the same manner and under the same regulations as for other public
buildings of the United States; but the contracts for said building or
buildings shall not exceed the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand
dollars, which sum, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby
appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appro-
priated, to defray the expense of erecting said Government building or
buildings hereby authorized. The Secretary of the Treasury shall

sm 1901 4

LXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

cause the said building or buildings to be constructed from plans to be
approved by said Government board; and he is authorized and required
to dispose of such building or buildings, or the material composing
the same, at the close of the exposition, giving preference to the city
of Saint Louis or to the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
to purchase the same at an appraised value, to be ascertained in such
manner as he may determine.

Sec. 17. That the commissioners appointed by the President under
the authority of this Act shall receive as compensation for their sery-
ices and expenses the sum of five thousand dollars each per annum,
the same to be paid by the Secretary of the Treasury and deducted
from any money appropriated for said exposition.

Src. 18. That no member of said commission or of said Government
board, whether an officer or otherwise, shall be personally liable for
any debt or obligation which may be created or incurred by the said
commission or by the said United States Government board herein
authorized.

Src. 19. That whereas the Secretary of the Treasury has certified,
under date of February sixth, ninetecn hundred and one, that the Loui-
siana Purchase Exposition Company has presented to him proof to his
satisfaction that it has raised ten million dollars for and on account of
inaugurating and carrying forward an exposition at the city of Saint
Louis, Missouri, in the year nineteen hundred and three, to celebrate
the one hundredth anniversary of the purchase of the Louisiana Ter-
ritory; therefore there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in
the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of five million dol-
lars, to aid in carrying forward such exposition, to pay the salaries of
the members and secretary of the national Commission herein author-
ized, and such other necessary expenses as may be incurred by said
commission in the discharge of its duties in connection with said
exposition, and to discharge all other obligations incurred by the
Government on account of said exposition, except for the erection of
its own buildings and the making and care of its own exhibits at said
exposition. That the money hereby appropriated shall be disbursed
under the direction of the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Com-
-pany under rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of
the Treasury and upon youchers to be approved by him: Provwded,
That, except for the payment of the salaries and expenses of the
national commission, no part of said appropriation shall become
available until the sum of ten million dollars shall have been expended
by said company on account of said exposition to the satisfaction of
the Secretary of the Treasury: Provided further, That all sums
expended by the Government on account of said exposition, including
the salaries and expenses of said national commission, except for the
erection of its own buildings and the making and care of its own

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXVII

exhibits at said exposition, shall be limited to and paid out of the
appropriation of five million dollars herein provided for such purpose.

Sec. 20. That there shall be repaid into the Treasury of the United
States the same proportionate amount of the aid given by the United
States as shall be repaid to either the Louisiana Purchase Exposition
Company or the city of Saint Louis: Provided, That this section shall
not be taken or construed to give the United States a right to share in
the proceeds of said exposition beyond the actual amount appropriated
to aid in carrying forward said exposition.

Sec. 21. That any bank or trust company located in the city of
Saint Louis, or State of Missouri, may be designated by the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition Company to conduct a banking office upon the
exposition grounds, and if the bank so designated shall be a national
bank, upon such designation being approved by the Comptroller of
the Currency, said national bank is hereby authorized to open and
conduct such office as a branch of the bank, subject to the same restric-
tions and having the same rights as the bank to which it belongs:
Provided, That the branch oflice authorized hereby, if the same shall
be a branch of a national bank, shall not be operated for a period
longer than two years, beginning not earlier than July first, nineteen
hundred and two, and closing not later than July first, nineteen hun-
dred and four.

Sec. 22. That no citizen of any foreign country shall be held liable
for the infringement of any patent granted by the United States, or of
any trade-mark or label registered in the United States, where the act
complained of is or shall be performed in connection with the exhibi-
tion of any article or thing at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.

Src. 23. That the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is authorized,
at his discretion, to detail for special duty, in connection with the
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, such officers of the Army as may be
required, to report to the general commanding the Department of
Missouri; and the officers thus detailed shall not be subject to loss of
pay or rank on account of such detail, nor shall any officer or employee
of the United States receive additional pay or compensation because
of services connected with the said exposition from the United States
or from said exposition.

Sec. 24. That nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to create
any liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or
obligation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance
from Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or
liquidation of any debts or obligations created by said commission.

Sec. 25, That as a condition precedent to the payment of this appro-
priation the directors shall contract to close the gates to visitors on
Sundays during the whole duration of the fair. (Approved March 3,
1901; Statutes XXXII, 1440.)

REPO BL

OF

ete tcp eee or

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, L901.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present herewith my
report showing the operations of the Institution during the
year ending June 30, 1901, including the work placed under
its direction by Congress, in the United States National
Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Interna-
tional Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, and the
Astrophysical Observatory.

Following the precedent of several years, I have given, in
the body of this report, a general account of the affairs of
the Institution and its bureaus, while the appendix presents
more detailed statements by the persons in direct charge of
the different branches of the work. Independently of this,
the operations of the National Museum are fully treated ina
separate volume of the Smithsonian Report, and the Report
of the Bureau of American Ethnology constitutes a volume
prepared under the supervision of the Director of that Bureau.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE ESTABLISHMENT.

By act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the Smith-
sonian Institution was created an Establishment. Its statutory
members are the President, the Vice-President, the Chief
Justice of the United States, and the heads of the Executive
Departments. The prerogative of the Establishment is ** the

i LS LN a L

2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

supervision of the affairs of the Institution and the advice and
instruction of the Board of Regents.”

On March 4, 1901, the vacancy in the membership of the
Establishment which had existed since the death of Vice-Presi-
dent Hobart, on November 21, 1899, was filled by the election
of the Hon. Theodore Roosevelt to the Vice-Presidency. The
Hon. John W. Griggs resigned as Attorney-General and was
succeeded by the Hon. P. C. Knox.

As organized on June 30, the Establishment consisted of
the following ex-officio members: .

WituraM McKintey, President of the United States.

THEODORE RoosEvELT, Vice-President of the United
States.

MELVILLE W. FuLurr, Chief Justice of the United
States.

Joun Hay, Secretary of State.

Lyman J. Gace, Secretary of the Treasury.

Eximu Roor, Secretary of War.

PHILANDER C. Knox, Attorney-General.

CHARLES Emory Situ, /%ostmaster- General.

Joun D. Lone, Secretary of the Navy.

Eruan ALLEN Hitcucock, Secretary of the Interior.

JAMES Witson, Secretary of Agriculture.

BOARD OF REGENTS.

The Board consists of the Vice-President and the Chief
Justice of the United States as ex-officio members, three
members of the Senate, three members of the House of
Representatives, and six citizens, ‘‘two of whom shall be
residents of the city of Washington and the other four shall
be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the
same State.”

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents
adopted January, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs
on the fourth Wednesday of each year, the Board met on
January 23, 1901, at 10 o’clock a. m.

The following is an abstract of its proceedings, which will
be found in detail in the annual report of the Board to
Congress:

The Secretary announced the death on October 17, 1900, of
Dr. William Lyne Wilson, and said that he could not refrain

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3

from expressing his own personal sense of loss at the removal
of one whose broad scholarship and large experience in public
affairs were joined to a disposition which made him at once the
most valued and sympathetic of counselors. The Hon. J. B.
Henderson, chairman of the Executive Committee, also made
some personal references to Mr. Wilson, which together with
the action of the Board in his memory will be found under
the head of ‘* Necrology.”

The vacancy in the Board caused by the death of Mr. Wilson
was filled by the appointment of the Hon. George Gray
through a resolution of Congress approved January 14, 1901.

The Secretary presented his report of the operations of the
Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900, calling
especial attention to the subject of the Exchanges, in whose
behalf he had visited England, France, and Germany, and had
endeavored to secure better arrangements with those coun-
tries, and he hoped that from France and perhaps from Ger-
many fuller returns might be expected.

He also spoke of the Zoological Park and his desire that
the Government would place in that city of refuge for the
vanishing animal races of the North American continent, some
specimens of the giant animals of Alaska.

Mr. Hitt here brought to the attention of the Board the
oration which had been delivered upon the occasion of the
conferring of the degree of Doctor of Science upon the
Secretary by the University of Cambridge, England, which
Mr. Henderson, whom the Regents ‘*knew to be a scholar
who loved the tasks of scholarship, had translated into such
English as Horace would have used if he had to speak in
that tongue.” It was ordered that the address of the public
orator and the translation by Mr. Henderson be placed upon
the record.

After the adoption of the reports of the executive and per-
manent committees which had been presented by Mr. Bell in
the absence of their chairman, Senator Henderson, attention
was called to the fact that a vacancy existed in the executive
committee, caused by the death of Dr. Wilson, and upon
resolution, the Hon. R. R. Hitt waselected to fill this vacancy.

The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences having invited the
Institution to participate in the celebration of the two hun-
dredth anniversary of its foundation, on the 19th and 20th of

4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

March, 1900, the Hon. Andrew D. White, United States Am-
bassador at Berlin and a member of the Board, was requested
to represent the Institution on this noteworthy occasion. A
suitably engrossed address was transmitted through the De-
partment of State and presented by Dr. White to the Prussian
Academy, the acknowledgment of which, together with an
interesting letter from Dr. White describing the ceremonies,
were laid before the Board. Dr. White described the exer-
cises as having been of exceptional interest. They took place
in the Royal Palace, where the Emperor received the entire
body of guests in state, surrounded by the high functionaries
of the Empire bearing the royal insignia, while the Monarch
on the throne delivered an address of welcome. Later there
were entertainments in honor of the delegates, not only by
the King, but by the Chancellor of the Empire and others.
On the second day there occurred a general reception in the
great hall of the Prussian legislature, which was also very
impressive.

The Secretary added that Dr. White had further said in con-
versation that in all his experience as a minister to European
courts he had never seen so imposing a display of ceremonial
magnificence.

Under unfinished business there came up the resolution
introduced by Dr. Bell with reference to the utilization of
scientific bureaus of the Government for purposes of research.
The resolution in the form it had been offered at the previous
meeting was withdrawn by Dr. Bell and the following, which
contained some alterations intended to meet the views of other
members of the executive committee, was presented:

In order to facilitate the utilization of the Government
Departments for the purposes of research—in extension of the
policy enunciated by Congress in the joint resolution approved
April 12, 1892:

Resolved, That it is the sense of the Board that it is desira-
ble that Congress extend this resolution so as to afford facili-
ties for study to all properly qualified students or graduates
of universities, other than those mentioned in the resolution,
and provide for the appointment of an officer whose duty it
shall be to ascertain and make known what facilities for
research exist in the Government Departments, and arrange
with the heads of the Departments, and with the officers in
charge of Government collections, on terms satisfactory to
them, rules and regulations under which suitably qualified

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5

persons may have access to these collections for the purpose
of research with due regard to the needs and requirements of
the work of the Government; and that it shall also be his
duty to direct, in a manner satisfactory to the heads of such
Departments and officers in charge, the researches of such
persons into lines which will promote the interests of the
Government and the development of the natural resources,
agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the country, and
(generally) promote the progress of science and the useful
arts, and the inerease and diffusion of knowledge among men.

After some discussion by the Regents, on motion the reso-
lution was adopted.

The Secretary also brought to the attention of the Board a
letter received from Genoa indicating the necessity of remoy-
ing the remains of James Smithson, interred in the British
burial ground at Genoa, to a new cemetery which was to be
chosen later on, and requesting to be informed of the wishes
of the Regents. After some discussion, in which the desira-
bility of bringing the remains to this country was adversely
considered, the following resolution was adopted:

Resolved, In view of the proposed abolition of the English
cemetery at Genoa, which contains the remains of James
Smithson, that the Secretary be requested to arrange either
with the English church or with the authorities of the National
Burying Ground at Genoa for the reinterment of Smithson’s
remains, and the transfer of the original monument.

The Secretary then made his customary statement to the
Board, remarking that, in view of the lateness of the hour, he
would pass over some of the matters about which he had
intended to speak, and among others about the continuation
of his experiments in aérodromics and the results of the
eclipse expedition of May, 1900, which had since been made
public. The observation of the eclipse had left one or two
interesting but unsettled questions, and he had determined to
send out a small expedition to Sumatra on the occasion of the
exceptionally important eclipse of the sun in May, 1901.

He brought to the attention of the Board the proposed
expedition to Babylonia under Dr. Edgar James Banks, who
had gone to Constantinople in the hope of securing permission
to excavate the town of Mugheir, which, according to tra-
dition, is the site of the Ur of the Chaldees from which Abra-,
ham came. The material results of such expedition, if any.

6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

which under Turkish law might be allowed to leave the country,
would be deposited in the Institution.

He also reviewed briefly the greatly improved condition of
the Smithsonian Deposit in the Library of Congress since the
new quarters had been erected, calling attention to the fact
that a sum of not less than $50,000 would probably be required
to supply the defects in this Deposit due to the lack of adequate
provision for it by Congress during the past twenty years,
and to fill in the important sets of periodicals which can not
be secured by exchange.

He reminded the Regents, in connection with the projected
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, that the first
step to such a catalogue had been taken many years since by
Professor Henry, that the support of the catalogue by private
universities and libraries in this country had been prompt and
gratifying, and that there remained but the supplying of the
material for the United States, for which he hoped Congress
would provide, and while waiting its action for carrying on
the work in the interim, he had made a strictly temporary
provision with the aid of the funds of the Institution. It was
not intended by him to recommend any permanent contribu-
tion from the Institution’s limited funds.

The Secretary then made a statement with regard to the
Museum and its needs, announcing that he had recently
arranged that the Assistant Secretary should give his personal
attention chiefly to the Museum; that he believed that the
Committee on Appropriations was getting to see the inevitable
necessity of enlarging the Museum buildings, that with this
would come larger responsibilities, and that this growth and
the confidence of the community and of the Congress were
due in a large measure to their belief in that impartial rule
of the Regents which has in the past guaranteed considera-
tion and fairness in the selection of Museum officers and sta-
bility in its policy.

Finally, the Secretary called attention to the fact that the
continued independence and usefulness of the Institution would
depend in a large measure upon the increase in its endowment.
When the Institution was established over fifty years ago, its
fund of $600,000 was relatively a large one, twice as large as
that of Yale College, larger than that of Princeton, Columbia,
and the University of Pennsylvania, and only equaled by the
fund of Harvard. The Institution’s endowment has in the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. G

fifty years increased but from $600,000 to somewhat less than
$1,000,000, but the average endowment of the five universities
named is now about $8,000,000, indicating that in this regard
the Institution’s fund for scientific purposes is relatively unim-
portant compared with what it was fifty years ago.

The Secretary announced to the Regents the fact that sev-
eral new bequests had been made to the Institution, though
none of these were realized at present. While the Institution
has scrupulously refrained from even the appearance of” solic-
iting funds, yet he felt that its own utility depended largely
upon the increase of the means which were directly at the dis-
position of the Regents. He asked for any instructions as to
the employment of means consonant with the position and
actual independence of the Institution for making its fitness
asa conservator and administrator of gifts and legacies known
to the general public, and he spoke of the desirability of a
wider circulation of the Secretary’s report and Appendix, to
which he had givenof late much personal care. A discussion
upon the subject arose, but the Board adjourned without taking
any action.

APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS.

The Hon. Shelby M. Cullom, whose term of office as Regent
expired March 4, 1901, was on March 7 reappointed by the
President of the Senate, and the Hon. Francis M. Cockrell,
Senator from Missouri, was appointed to succeed the Hon.
William Lindsay, whose term as United States Senator
expired on March 4, 1901.

As organized at the end of the fiscal year, the Board of
Regents consisted of the following members:

The Hon. M. W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States,
Chancellor; the Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Vice-President of
the United States; Senator S. M. Cullom; Senator O. H.
Platt; Senator Francis M. Cockrell; Representative R. R.
Hitt; Representative Robert Adams, jr.; Representative
Hugh A. Dinsmore; Dr. James B. Angell; Dr. Andrew D.
White; the Hon. J. B. Henderson; the Hon. George Gray;
Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. Richard Olney.

-

ADMINISTRATION.

The Secretary’s time continues to be chiefly given to purely
administrative duties, while, during such increasingly limited

8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

opportunity as presents itself consistently with these, he en-
deayors not only to oversee its scientific investigations but to
give his personal care to them. His purpose has always been,
in regard to the former, to put upon those in immediate charge
of the bureaus of the Institution all the authority that is con-
sistent with his own responsibility to the Board of Regents.
He has already mentioned that the growth of those bureaus
has thrown upon the Institution a very considerable amount
of clerical labor pertaining to Government work, so that the
limited income of the Institution is drawn upon for matters
which should properly be provided for by Congress.

The Board has authorized the Secretary to lay these matters
before Congress, but the needs of other parts of the Institu-
tion’s service have seemed so pressing that he has as yet
deferred doing so in favor of such other demands.

BUILDINGS.

The renovation and rearrangement of storage rooms in the
south tower was continued during the year, and in the base-
ment additional space was arranged for the use of the inter-
national exchanges. Work was also begun toward the con-
struction of a tunnel between the Smithsonian and Museum
buildings for carrying steam pipes, with the intention of
centralizing the heating apparatus and utilizing new Museum
boilers for heating both buildings. Improvements in the
Museum building and in the buildings at the Zoological Park
are mentioned elsewhere.

FINANCES.

The permanent funds of the institution are as follows:

Bequest of Smithson: 1846. _- 2...... 122 eee Te eee $515, 169. 00
Residuary lecacy ot Suuthson; 1867 <2 oe 26, 210. 63
Deposits from savings of income, 1867........--..-.-------- 108, 620. 37
Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875 ........-.....----- $1, 000
Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895....._-- 1, 000

2, 000. 00
Bequest: of Simeon Habels 1880028 .5.05 2 =< e es e eee 500. 00
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881.........-.---- 51, 500. 00
Gilt, of Thomas:G: Hodekine 1S0ilie yaa eee ee ere eee ene 200, 000. 00
Portion of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894. - -- 8, 000. 00

Total permanent fundss 25 52° ees ee a ee eee 912, 000. 00

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3)

In addition to the above permanent fund, the Regents hold
certain approved railroad bonds which form part of the fund
established by Mr. Hodgkins for investigations into the prop-
erties of atmospheric air.

The act organizing the Institution (sec. 5591, U. S. Revised
Statutes) was amended by act of Congress approved March
12, 1894, as follows:

The Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to
receive into the Treasury on the same terms as the original
bequest of Jam es Smithson such sums as the Regents may,
from time to time, see fit to deposit; not exc eeding with the
original bequest the sum of one million dollars: “P ovided,
That this shall not operate as a limitation on the power of the
Smithsonian Institution to receive money or other. property
by gift, bequest, or devise, and to hold and dispose of the
same in promotion of the purposes thereof.

Under this provision the permanent fund of $912,000 is
deposited in the Treasury of the United States, and bears
interest at 6 per cent per annum. The interest alone is em-
ployed in carrying out the aims of the institution.

The unexpended balance at the beginning of the fiscal year,
July 1, 1900, as stated in my last report, was $76,219.07.
The total receipts by the Institution during the year were
$66,829.39. Of this sum $56,400 was derived from interest,
while the remaining $10,429.39 was received from miscellane-
ous Sources.

The amount disbursed during the year was $59,085.20, the
details of which are given in the report of the executive com-
mittee. The balance remaining to the credit of the Secretary
on June 30, 1901, for the expenses of the Institution was
$83,063.26, which includes the $10,000 specifically referred to
in previous reports, as well as the interest accumulated on the
Hodgkins and other funds, which is held against certain con-
tingent obligations, besides relatively considerable sums held
to meet liabilities which may be expected to mature as a result
of various scientific investigations and publications in progress.

During the fiscal year of 1901 Congress charged the Insti-
tution with the disbursement of the following appropriations:

International Exchanges, Smithsonian Institution............--- $24, 000

American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution .........22.....-- 50, 000

Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution ....- $12, 000
Observation of eclipse of the sun, May 28, 1900... . 4, 000

—— 16,000

10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

United States National Museum:

Furniture. and trxtinesice <2. Sone cee eee ee $17, 500
Hesting and lightmy 2225222 See eee eee 17, 500
Preservation of-collections..-.:..- 2222 22222222 ~.. 180, 000
Purchase of apecimens: 222-52 22s ae aati ee 10, 000
Postage.c.¢ i. a Se eee eee ae ee eee 500
IBGOKSY so 2 5 eee Seo SOS ae as ee ee es 2, 000
Rentof workshops) 4 2 2325. 22sse oe eee eee 4, 040
hepairs. to builded <2. 2. oe oe eee eee 15, 000
PrMtine 22.2520 A ele a See ee ee 17, 000

——— $263, 540

National Zoological Park; .< 2. eg 2 eke eee 75, 000

428, 540

All the vouchers for disbursements made during the fiscal
year have been examined by the executive committee, and a
detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures will be
found reported to Congress in accordance with the provisions
of the sundry civil acts of October 2, 1888, August 5, 1892,
and March 3, 1899, in a letter addressed to the Speaker of
the House of Representatives.

The vouchers for all the expenditures from the Smithsonian
fund proper have likewise been examined and their correctness
certified to by the executive committee, whose statement will
be published, together with the accounts of the funds appro-
priated by Congress, in the report of that committee.

For carrying on the Government’s interests under the
charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year end-
ing June 30, 1902, estimates were forwarded as usual to the
Secretary of the Treasury. The following table shows the
estimates submitted and the sums respectively appropriated:

| Estimates. oe
iIntermubionaliixchanges ss. «2: +22. ote cee eee eee eee ae | $24, 000 | $24, 000
AIMe mca MihnoOlopys oc 6sscclssscn. shee ee Re oeee ee eee Beene oe 60, 000 | 50, 000
Astrophysical ODServ atOLy esse. ceed. oo oe ee eee 15, 000 12, 000
National Museum: )
Hurnitiire and fxturess:-.. £25 2.5.55-- ples ee ee ee | 20, 000 20, 000
Heating and lighting .............- Are: ie cant hea 23, 000 | 23, 000
New! botlemic ts Secor! Meet Pk ia eee eee 12, 500 12,500
Preservation /of Collections. 2.42.5.2. ee eee ee 180, 000 | 180, 000
Purcliase ‘Of Specimens. ob 2s. e io ce a ee eee 25, 000 | 10, 000
Books! 326. S558 Recess eee see ee ee 2,000 | 2, 000
Repairs to buildings............- D1 Mss gee RR Py AML 19,500 | 15, 000
Galleries 2.05/35 net eee en ne ee er a ee ee ee ee 2,500 | 5, 000
Rent: of workshops 43 ccc-eet eee ee ee ee eee eee 4, 040 4, 400
Postage sini 32555 hs SoS es ee a er 500 500
Printing ecco oe 45100 canoe Ce ee ee ee 17, 000 17, 000
National ‘Zoological Parl: = 22225 = ee oe eee ee eee 120, 000 80, 000

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ig!
RESEARCH.

It was a part of the original plan of the Institution that its
Secretary should not give his time wholly to administrative
duties, but should, as a student of nature, directly aid in its
scientific investigations."

Research work in various fields of science has been contin-
ued by the Institution and its dependencies. The Secretary
has made some progress toward the solution of the problem
of mechanical flight, and in the Astrophysical Observatory
has continued work believed to be important, which is de-
scribed later.

Through the Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy the Institution has been enabled to carry on various bio-
logical and ethnological researches which will be found fully
described elsewhere in this report and need not be repeated
here.

HODGKINS FUND.

Among the many applications for grants from the Hodg-
kins fund, it has been found practicable to approve several
which conform to the conditions of the bequest, and investi-
gations in various lines of original research are making satis-
factory advances as mentioned below.

In November, 1900, a grant was approved on behalf of
Prof. Wallace C. Sabine, of Harvard University, for the aid
of his investigations on sound, the particular phase of the
problem under investigation being the subject of loudness
and interference. This research requires apparatus of special
design, part of which is now complete and is satisfactory.

Professor Sabine, who had charge of the design of the new
symphony hall in Boston, has for several years given much
attention to the problem of architectural acoustics, or the
science of sound as applied to buildings. It is expected that
his complete report will be of much practical interest in con-
nection with this subject.

In December, 1900, Mr. C. Canovetti, chief engineer of the
city of Brescia, Italy, made an application for a Hodgkins

! Resolved, That the Secretary continue his researches in physical science,
and present such facts and principles as may be developed, for publication
in the Smithsonian Contributions. (Adopted at meeting of the Board of
Regents January 26, 1847.)

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

grant, at the same time bringing to my attention his experi-
ments which have been awarded prizes by the Société d’En-
couragement pour Industrie Nationale, of Paris, and by the
Reale Academia dei Lincei, of Rome.

As is customary, the application received the consideration
of specialists in the branch of atmospheric research pursued
by Mr. Canovetti, and after the acceptance by him of the con-
ditions set forth in the Hodgkins circular, a moderate grant
was approved on his behalf in April, 1901, for experiments
now in progress, which will be reported on later.

Details of the progress to date of the research mentioned
in my last report as conducted by Dr. Victor Schumann, of
Leipzig, have been received. The most noteworthy points in
the results so far refer, perhaps, to the relation of light and
electricity and to the probable insight into the nature of the
Roentgen rays to be gained in the course of this investigation.
The interest in this subject, in both popular and scientific cir-
cles, is now so widespread that permission has been given to
Dr. Schumann to announce independently in some journal in
his own country the discoveries made in the progress of his
research, reporting them at the same time to the Institution.
It is felt that this course will subserve the cause of science
by satisfying the immediate and general interest in this sub-
ject, and that it will also justly tend to establish Dr. Schu-
mann’s right of priority in his own researches.

The investigations of Dr. von Lendenfeld, of the University
of Prague, are still in progress, and it is anticipated that his
final report, which is now awaited, may furnish data availa-
ble for greatly improving the construction of the meteorolog-
ical kites now in constant use, and thus be the means of adding
materially to our knowledge of atmospheric conditions at high
altitudes, the practical application of which is of such general
interest and usefulness.

The interesting experiments in connection with kites and
with air currents at varying altitudes, which have been prose-
cuted for some time at the Blue Hill Meteorological Obser-
vatory by Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, are still in progress, an
additional grant having been approved this year on behalf of
Mr. Rotch. |

It will be remembered that the original grant mentioned in
my report for 1897 was made for the purpose of securing

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ho

automatic kite records at a height of over 10,000 feet, an alti-
tude which so lately as four years ago had never been attained.
Successive grants have since been made, and while it is due to
the persistence and skill of Mr. Rotch and his assistants that
his own extraordinary record of 14,000 feet has been surpassed
by hin, it is a matter of gratification that the Hodgkins fund
of the Institution has in some way been associated with such
results.

Dr. Carl Barus, of Brown University, whose research on
ionized air, mentioned in my last report as having been aided
by a grant from the Hodgkins fund, has during the progress
of his investigation frequently summarized his provisional
results for the Institution. As in other cases, because of the
immediate interest attaching to this investigation, Dr. Barus
has been authorized to publish preliminary reports of his prog-
ress in the scientific journals. In April, 1901, this research
was completed and reported upon in detail to the Institution
so far as concerned the discussion of data accumulated since
the approval of the Hodgkins grant. This completed report
is now in course of publication in the Smithsonian Contribu-
tions to Knowledge.

This research on atmospheric conditions, in investigating
the production of nuclei, determining their number per cubic
centimeter, their velocity, their association with ionization,
the effect of the presence of the electric field, etc., proves
interesting not only in its own methods and results, but
because of its agreement with the data obtained by other
investigators from different experiments and_ theoretically
different points of view.

The research of Prof. Louis Bevier, of Rutgers College, in
connection with the analysis of vowel sounds is steadily pro-
gressing. During the year detailed studies of several vowel
sounds have been made with results which agree well with the
conclusions arrived at through an entirely different method
by von Helmholtz in his analysis of German vowels.

The lower resonance detected in our vowel sounds by Dr.
Bevier, and not recorded by von Helmholtz save for ‘* a,” will
later be the subject of detailed discussion which will endeavor
to establish and explain these facts. A further report upon
this research is awaited with interest.

In December, 1900, a grant was approved on behalf of Dr.

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Marey, of the French Institute, in aid of his experiments on
air currents. This research has been materially furthered by
the successful application of chronophotography, a field in
which Dr. Marey’s experiments have heretofore been note-
worthy. By this means it has not only been possible to ana-
lyze the movements of waves and currents of liquids which
are invisible to the naked eye, but even the displacements of
molecules.

From reports so far submitted, but as yet necessarily incom-
plete, it is believed that this research will aid materially in
the solution of various problems connected with the mechanics
of propulsion in fluids, at the same time rendering service
in solving practical questions of ventilation, etc. The illus-
tration indicating the method of making visible the course
of these otherwise invisible currents round an obstacle is
appended.

The reader, if he has not noticed the rare experiment of
successful machine flight of heavy bodies through the air, has
probably had his attention called at times to the extraordinary
difference between the performance of small steam vessels like
yachts or tugs, where with equal power one glides through the
water almost as though it offered no resistance, while another
labors in rolling a formidable wave before it. The same dif-
ferences occur in still more subtle form in the air. We can
not with the naked eye separately see, in either case, the cur-
rents that produce the effect, but by Dr. Marey’s most inge-
nious experiments we are enabled to obtain photographic
records from which we can study the forms which offer the
least resistance and see why it is. A single illustration, indi-
cating the influence of a very slight divergence from the best
forms in the case of the air, is here given.

The experiments of Prof. A.G. Webster, of Clark University,
on the propagation, reflection, and diffraction of sound have
achieved a result of practical value in the construction of an
instrument capable of emitting an accurately measured sound.
It is thus possible, in treating persons of defective hearing, to
decide with exactness as to the degree of deafness in a sub-
ject, and to say if the power of hearing varies at different
times. An instrument which furnishes the means of accu-
rately determining these points should prove of value in
medical treatment.

.
.

. " <% : 7
S== ink oe = “
—S___ = a =
SSS === 2S: nel z= — — = =

SSS

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15

A preliminary report has been received from Prof. William
Hallock, of Columbia University, New York, who, as before
stated, is conducting a research on the motion of a particle of
air under the influence of articulate sound. General investi-
gations allied to this subject, which are carried on in the
laboratory of Columbia University, although in no way aided
by the Hodgkins fund, have contributed helpfully to a knowl-
edge of the principles underlying these experiments, and espe-
cially to certain parts of the investigation referring to the
relation between the amplitude of vibration of an air particle
and the amplitude of vibration of a film, or dust particle,
suspended in theair. Dr. Hallock’s research wiil be continued
during the present year, when a final .report is expected.

A third grant has been approved on behalf of the Journal
of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, the
editor, as in the two previous years, sending to educational
establishments a specified number of copies of the Journal, in
accordance with a list approved by the Institution.

The conditions requisite to the approval of a grant from the
Hodgkins fund, and to which applicants give assent before
final action, are stated in the Hodgkins circular, a copy of
which was included in the report of last year. It may, how-
ever, be here repeated that should an investigation be of con-
siderable duration, a summary of progress is to be submitted
to the Institution at the end of six months, as well as a subse-
quent report recording the final results of a research.

These researches are, in the words of Mr. Hodgkins, all
devoted to the ‘increase and diffusion” of more ‘‘exact
knowledge in regard to the nature and properties of atmos-
pheric air in connection with the welfare of man,” and are
aided by the Hodgkins fund, it is hoped, in a manner which
their promoter intended when he made his gift to the Institu-
tion in the above words.

NAPLES TABLE.

Realizing that the opportunity for study in the Naples
Zoological Station is an especial advantage to students pre-
pared to do original work in embryological, histological, or
other fields, the Institution is desirous of granting the privi-
lege of the Smithsonian Table to all applicants so qualified,
and with this end in view the conditions, which are here

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

rehearsed, have been made such as can be easily complied
with. The appointing power rests finally with the Secretary,
but each request for the seat with its accompanying data is
referred as a preliminary step to the Advisory Committee
for recommendation, and this year, as heretofore, he has been
indebted to the committee for valuable suggestions in this
connection and has been very usually guided by their advice.

With a formal application for the table, addressed to the
Secretary of the Institution, a summary of the scientific his-
tory of the candidate is to be submitted, together with such
letters of recommendation as he may wish to place on record.
These credentials should contain a list of the original papers
which have been published by the applicant, and should be
accompanied by any data which would tend to establish a
capability for original research, such as conducted by those
resident at the station. By an official decision, arrived at in
the interest of all candidates, the table is not assigned more
than six months in advance of the date for which it is desired,
and no appointment is made for a longer period than six
months, although a student may apply for an extension of
time or for future reappointment. Few investigators have
so far desired to remain longer than six consecutive months
at the station, although a second appointment is at times
requested, and applications are not infrequently submitted
several months in advance of the period when it is in order
to take them up for consideration.

It should be again noted that Smithsonian appointees are
expected to report to the Institution at the termination of
their term of occupancy, or preferably at the end of each
three months, in case of a longer residence at the station.

The following appointments to the Smithsonian seat have
been made during the year:

Dr. P. C. Mensch, of Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa.,
whose application was approved during the summer of 1900,
occupied the Smithsonian Table during November of the same
year.

Dr. F. L. Stevens, of the University of Chicago, was
appointed for May, 1901.

Dr. Burton-Opitz, of Rush College and the University of
Chicago, and later ‘* Voluntiir-Assistent” to Dr, Hiirthle in the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Le

physiological institute of the Royal University of Breslau,
received the appointment for three months during the sum-
mer of 1901.

Applications for the coming year are now receiving con.
sideration.

An extract from an open letter issued by Doctor Dohrn, the
experienced and always considerate Superintendent of the
Station, of interest to the newcomer in Naples, is given in a
footnote. The student who has been authorized to occupy
the Smithsonian Table at the Station will do well to address
the Institution for fuller information which, for lack of space,
is not here given.’

‘Notre longue expérience nous met 4 méme de donner aux personnes
qui désirent se rendre pour la premiére fois 4 la Station Zoologique quelques
conseils qui leur feront épargner du temps et de l’argent.

1. Choix du matériel @ étude.—Veuillez informer le plus exactement que
vous pourrezl’ Administration de la Station Zoologique, ‘‘Stazione zoologica,
Napoli,’ du jour de votre arrivée et de ce que vous désirez étudier, afin que
nous puissions préparer d’avance, si cela est nécessaire et possible, le maté-
riel dont yous aurez besoin. II serait avantageux pour vous d’indiquer en
méme temps (autres objets que vous auriez intention d’étudier pour le
cas ott le matériel viendrait 4 manquer temporairement. Si vous voulez
vous occuper @embryologie nous vous recommandons de consulter pour
votre gouverne les renseignements que nous avons publiés! sur la ponte
des ceufs, ete.

2. Outillage-—Vous trouverez plus loin la liste détaillée de ce que nous
pourrons yous fournir en fait d’ustensiles, de réactifs, ete. Nous vous
prions de bien youloir en tenir compte en faisant vos malles. Nous vous
conseillons de porter votre microscope avec yous, comme petit bagage, et
de ne pas le placer dans vos malles; évitez surtout de l’expédier comme
colis, car souvent méme Vemballage le plus soigneux n’empéche pas les
accidents. Ayez les mémes précautions a l’égard de votre microtome.
Lorsque les colis sont expédiés par chemin de fer il faut de quatre 4 six
semaines pour les colis ordinaires, de deux a trois pour ceux par grande
vitesse. Les instruments et les livres peuvent plus facilement entrer en
franchise s’ils sont emballés avec des vétements déja portés. I] faudra
toujours s’abstenir de mettre des cigares ou du tabac dans les colis ordi-
naires ou dans ceux par grande vitesse. Comme adresse il suffira que
vous écriviez votre nom suivi de “‘Stazione Zoologica, Napoli.’’ Ce sera
aussi la meilleure adresse pour vos lettres, ete. * * *

(b) Matériel @ dude.—M. Lo Bianco ira s’informer réguli¢rement de vos

1Mitth. Z. Stat. Neapel, 1. Bd., 1879, p. 119 et suiv., 124 et suiv.; 2. Bd., 1881, p. 162 et
suiv.; 8. Bd., 1888, p. 385 et suiv.

sm 1901-———2

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

EXPLORATIONS.

The Institution has continued to carry on various astro-
nomical, biological, and ethnological explorations through
the medium of the Astrophysical Observatory, the National
Museum, and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and has
also cooperated with the Executive Departments in these
directions. The details of most of these explorations are
given in the paragraphs devoted to the several bureaus.

During the past summer the Secretary, in a journey under-
taken at his private charges in search of rest, departed con-
siderably from the beaten route of travel by making a voyage
to the South Pacific Ocean, where he visited the island of
Tahiti and was there particularly fortunate in witnessing the
celebrated ‘* fire-walk” ceremony which he has described in
an article in the general appendix to this report.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the Institution represent the double aim
of its founder, that it should exist for (1) the ‘t increase ” and
(2) the ** diffusion” of knowledge.

désirs et vous fera porter dés le lendemain A votre place les animaux et les
plantes les plus communes, en tant que possible. I] est fait exception pour
les dimanches et les jours de féte. I] faudra bien se rappeler que le matériel
que nous fournissons est destiné exclusivement aux recherches et non pas
i Ja formation de collections étrangéres 4 vos études. * * *

(c) La bibliothéque est ouverte aux mémes heures que les laboratoires,
mais on la ferme a la tombée du jour.

Si vous voulez emporter un livre relié de la bibliothéque aA votre place de
travail, vous n’aurez qu’ mettre i sa place un carton portant le numéro
qui vous est échu. On mettra a votre disposition douze de ces cartons
dans la bibliothéque d’en bas et six dans celle d’en baut.

Pour avoir les livres non reliés vous remettrez un re¢u au bibliothécaire.
Les journaux et les brochures qui se trouvent sur les tables de lecture ne
pourront pas sortir de la bibliothéque sans la permission du bibliothécaire.
Pour emporter les livres chez vous (qu’ils soient reliés ou non) vous devrez
toujours en déliyrer un recu au bibliothécaire et vous serez tenu de les
rapporter le lendemain. Le bibliothécaire yous donnera les renseigne-
ments nécessaires pour que yous puissiez yous seryir aisément de la biblio-
théeque.

Vous nous obligerez en avertissant le bibliothécaire des irrégularités que
vous pourrez trouver dans les livres (feuilles détachées, planches déchirées
ou perdues). Ayez soin de tenir les livres hors de tout contact avec |’eau
de mer, et de ne pas les tacher avec des signes ou des notes.

Avant votre départ ayez la bonté de remettre tous les livres 4 leur place
et de demander au bibliothécaire s’il n’a pas par hasard quelque recu de
vous.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

The series of Contributions to Knowledge are intended to
record results of original researches in science, for the
increase of knowledge. In this series there has been put in
course of publication during the year a memoir by Dr. Carl
Barus upon experiments in ionized air, a work which, as
mentioned above, was carried on with a grant from the
Hodgkins fund.

To the series of Miscellaneous Collections there have been
added a bibliography of chemical dissertations compiled by
Dr. Bolton, and an article on the ** Cheapest form of light,”
the latter being a reprint of.a paper by the Secretary and
Mr. Very, originally published in the American Journal of
Science, for which there has been a continued demand.

There have also been added to the Miscellaneous Collections
two volumes containing the legislative history of the Institu-
tion from the announcement of the original bequest in 1835
to the year 1899. It is prepared by W. J. Rhees, of this
Institution. This work was published also in a Congressional
edition.

As year by year the publications of the Institution and of
its bureaus are increased in number it is believed that its
influence, not only in the ‘‘increase” but in the ‘* diffusion” of
knowledge, is felt in a greater degree. This is manifest by
the greater popular demand for publications, particularly the
General Appendix to the Secretary’s Annual Reports, in
which the aim has been to consider the diffusion of knowledge
among the masses of the people, and to create a desire for a
better understanding of the important relations that exist
between scientific studies and the needs of our daily life.

It will be remembered that under the general printing law,
besides the limited document edition of the Smithsonian Re-
port distributed to certain designated depositories, only 3,000
copies are now published by Congress for the use of its mem-
bers, and 7,000 copies for distribution by the Institution, but
it is earnestly to be hoped that a larger edition will be author-
ized to correspond with the increased popular demand.

With regard to this larger edition, it may be said that it was
a custom, introduced by the first Secretary of the Institution,
Joseph Henry, of honored memory, to give a certain number
of timely articles .of an instructive but wholly popular and
nontechnical character in the General Appendix to the Secre-
tary’s Report. ,

20) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The experiment was tried under his immediate successor of
publishing in place of these an annual résumé of the science
of the world, which undertaking was soon found to be an
impractical charge, if done on a desirable scale, and nearly
useless with anything less; and the present Secretary, believ-
ing, with Secretary Henry, that the Institution’s function for
the diffusion of knowledge was only less important than that
for its increase, resumed and extended the early plan of giving
short memoirs by writers of authority who are able to present
new facts in a nontechnical manner, thus furnishing a sum-
mary of the more important progress made in all departments
of science during the year elapsed, supplemented by a few
papers relating to more remote periods, as in the case of
oriental research.

This summary has had the Secretary’s increasing attention
for the last two or three years, not only because of its intrinsic
importance, but since the Institution thus becomes more
widely known to those whose help it desires.

The Secretary has given an unusual amount of personal
care to the General Appendix of the Report for 1900,* which
contains 43 articles on various branches of science as enu-
merated on another page, in the report of the editor.

The Annual Report of the Institution for 1899 has been dis-
tributed and the report for 1900 has been put in type, but the
latter volume was not received from the Public Printer in
time for its distribution to the general public before the close
of the fiscal year.

There was also received from the Printer a delayed portion

'As the Report for 1900 marks the close of the century, considerable
space is given to reviews of the progress in various branches of science
during the nineteenth century, prepared by men distinguished in their
various fields. The subjects thus reviewed are astronomy, chemistry,
geology, physics, electricity, geography, biology, medicine, psychical
research, which, with an article on the ‘“‘ Century’s great men of science,”
furnish in brief a picture of scientific activity of the last century.

China, which has figured so much in the public eye during the year
past, is given especial prominence. There is a brief sketch of the Pekin
Observatory, the looting of which created so much comment; an article by
the Chinese minister, Wu Ting-Fang, on mutual helpfulness between China
and the United States; Chinese folklore and some Western analogies,
and an exceptionally interesting account of the loot of the Imperial Sum-
mer Palace at Pekin in 1860. This latter is an abridged translation from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. rad

of the Museum Report for 1897, being a memorial volume of
Dr. G. Brown Goode.

In addition to the preceding publications by the Institution
proper a considerable number of works, chiefly on biological
topics, have been added to the Museum series. The Bureau
of Ethnology completed the Seventeenth Report, which has
been considerably delayed in publication, and progress was
made on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth reports.

The Secretary during the year transmitted to Congress the
Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the
year 1900, and also the Third Report of the National Society
of the Daughters of the American Revolution.

LIBRARY.

It will be remembered that the Institution, besides its .
deposit in the Library of Congress, has retained in its own
building a limited number of scientific periodicals, together
with a small collection known as the ‘*Secretary’s library,”
dealing principally with works of art and pure literature,
and a still more limited one of books furnishing interesting
reading for the employees of the Institution, which is desig-
nated as the ‘*‘ Employees’ library.”

The detailed report of the librarian will be found later,

but he states that there have been added during the year over
30,000 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, exclusive of the libra-
ries of the National Museum and the Bureau of American
Ethnology, but including all other branches. Of the acces-
sions, by far the greater part were assigned to the Smithsonian
deposit in the Library of Congress.
a journal written by Count D’ Herisson, who was on the staff of the French
general during the Anglo-French expedition to China in 1860 and an eye-
witness of the extraordinary scenes he describes. It appears to have
entirely escaped attention during the late crisis, although it has an inter-
esting bearing on recent events and illustrates in a curious manner how
history repeats itself.

Aéronautics, which only in the last decade has been growing to be con-
sidered a science, has several articles devoted to it by M. Janssen, Lord
Rayleigh, Secretary Langley, and others.

Among the thirty or more other articles there may be mentioned, as
illustrating the variety of the subjects treated, papers on malaria and the
transmission of yellow fever, by Surgeon-General Sternberg; an essay on
Huxley, by Professor Brooks, of Johns Hopkins, and a paper on so practi-
cal a subject as incandescent mantles.

29 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The Secretary has lately arranged with the Librarian of
Congress that the Smithsonian set of any periodical of art or
science, or set of transactions of learned societies in that
Library, shall be considered and kept as a primary set, or, if
incomplete, shall, under this title, be supplemented by vol-
umes of any broken sets already in that Library’s possession.
Tf there still be duplicates in the Library of Congress, it is
anderstood that these and not the Smithsonian copies shall be
disposed of.

On the other hand, he has also agreed that in the division
of Government documents in the Library of Congress the
Smithsonian sets, excepting those which include special scien-
tific publications, shall be transferred to the main collection
of the Library of Congress.

No action has been taken with regard to the large maihee
of sets or single volumes on general subjects which do not
fall under the above heads, and these are left under the exist-
ing arrangements.

With regard to those which already form a portion of the
Smithsonian deposit, the Librarian of Congress has said, and
the Secretary has agreed to the justice of his representation,
that while it is abstractly desirable that the entire Smith-
sonian library should be kept together, there may be cases
where the general interests of the public will be served best
by taking a portion of these and classifying them with others.
It is understood in every case that all volumes belonging to
the Smithsonian deposit are distinctly so marked, carrying
with them, therefore, the evidence of their ownership.

This general agreement, which requires much detailed work,
will finally result in giving a more coherent character both to
the Smithsonian deposit and to the Library of Congress itself,
and is in the mutual interests of both establishments.

The Institution is indebted to the courtesy of the Librarian
of Congress also for establishing an arrangement whereby
twice a day books are brought to the Institution by the Library
of Congress and returned thereto. This has rendered possi-
ble the sending up of a much larger number of publications
than heretofore, no less than 200 boxes, each containing the

equivalent of 40 large octavo volumes, being sent up during ~

the past year. The possibilities in the direction of increasing
the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress and of

_—

| ;

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

filling up deficiencies are unlimited, except by the very small
force that can be put upon this work; and both establishments
would be much benefited if a larger force were available.

The Smithsonian shelving in the Library of Congress is of
steel, iron, and marble, comprising 19,362 running feet of
shelves, while the bridges are mainly of steel and essentially
fireproof.

INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

The Regents, through their first Secretary, Joseph Henry,
appear to have originated this undertaking in a communica-
tion which he was authorized to make to the meeting of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science at Glas-
gow in 1855, suggesting the formation of a catalogue of
memoirs. The Smithsonian Institution had not the means of
carrying out the plan, which was referred to the Royal Society,
who approved it and secured a grant from the English Goy-
ernment under which 11 volumes have now appeared. In the
preface to the first volume we read ‘‘ The present undertak-
ing may be said to have originated in a communication from
Dr. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.”

In March, 1894, the Royal Society issued a circular to
learned societies throughout the world proposing a great
international subject catalogue.’ In 1895 the Department of
State received from the British ambassador an expression of
hope on the part of the English prime minister, Lord Salis-
bury, that the United States Government would be repre-
sented at a coming conference on this subject.’ The matter
was referred by the Secretary of State to the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, who recommended that the Govern-
ment should take such part and suggested the names of dele-
gates, a recommendation which was duly adopted. It is suf-
ficient now to recall that the seed which the Institution
planted has grown into this great enterprise, in which almost
all modern nations, except the United States, have taken an
effective part.

In the report for last year the Secretary stated to the Regents
the reason for the absence of an oflicial delegate at the Third

'The reader who may care to look at the history of the subject is
referred to articles by the Librarian of the Institution, published in ‘“ Sci-
ence”’ on August 6, 1897, and on June 2 and 9, 1899.

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Conference on the International Catalogue of Scientific Liter-
ature, held in London June 12 and 13, 1900. It was learned
afterwards that Mr. Putnam, the Librarian of Congress, who
happened to be present in London, had private conferences
with some of the representatives, and greatly aided them in
reaching a conclusion. It was decided at that time to proceed
with the catalogue if 300 subscriptions, at $85 per annum, for
a period of five years, could be obtained, and the quota for
the United States was fixed at 45 sets. It being necessary to
secure these before the end of September, 1900, the Secretary,
as an evidence of the Institution’s good will, sent out a cir-
cular letter commending the project to American institutions
of learning. By the end of September the above number had
been secured, thus assuring the publication of the work in
England, and this number has since been increased to the
equivalent of over 66 sets, at $85 apiece, for five years, rep-
resenting a sum of about $30,000, the largest subscription
made to the catalogue by any single country, a fact which
abundantly demonstrates the interest felt in the catalogue on
the part of scientific men in the United States.

It is greatly to be regretted that no adequate provision has
been made for the cataloguing of the scientific literature of
the United States, which is to form a part of it. The Secre-
tary has provisionally undertaken to do this work out of the
private funds of the Institution, in what is feared will be an
inadequate way, since only two assistants can be allotted for
the purpose, and the Secretary has felt able to retain these
only to June 30, 1902. It has indeed been quite clear from the
outset that this work could not be made a perpetual charge
upon the small Smithsonian fund; but with a full recognition
of the importance of this project, the Secretary is still not
willing to have the Institution itself solicit aid from Congress
for it, while other interests already committed to the Institu-
tion are so inadequately provided for and demand its first care.

There is yet hope that some way may be found by which this
country may take its proper share in the community of nations.
In this great undertaking, which is now being carried on by
England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Austria, the
Institution, which is not soliciting for itself any Congressional
aid, will be glad to see Congress place the work in any effect-
ive hands, or, if the Institution itself be designated, it will
do its part if Congress shall so direct and provide the means.

—v

bo
Cr

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
CORRESPONDENCE.

The correspondence of the Institution, next to its publica-
tions, furnish, perhaps, the most effectual means of diffusing
knowledge concerning matters of purely scientific interest,
as well as of disseminating information of a popular nature
on subjects coming within the scope of the Institution’s work.
The inquiries which come to the Institution from all parts of
the world embrace almost every conceivable topic, and the
major portion of the correspondence relates not to matters of
a routine nature, but to widely diversified subjects of scientific
investigation. Thus the expenditure of a very considerable
amount of time and labor is necessitated, as it is endeavored
in every instance to respond as fully as possible to the requests
for information, though where the subject of inquiry is
clearly without the scope of the Institution, the communica-
tions are referred to the branch of the Government service
having special cognizance of the matter or matters to which
they relate. Where the inquiries have particular reference
to the activities of the bureaus administered under the Insti-
tution, they are referred to the bureau concerned in each
case for attention and answer, unless they involve matters of
policy, in which event they are returned for the Secretary’s
action.

The plan adopted in 1890 of registering such letters as are
of sufficient importance to make a record of them desirable,
has been continued in operation during the year and has con-
stituted an efficient check against their loss or temporary
misplacement. :

The increasing demand for publications of the Institution
has necessitated an increase in the amount of correspondence
relating to their distribution, though this has been consider-
ably reduced by the employment of printed forms. Aside
from the letters sent out relating to the operations of its sev-
eral bureaus, special correspondence has been conducted on
aérodromic matters and in the administration of the Hodgkins
fund. Since the Smithsonian bureaus were put under the
civil-service law and rules in July, 1896, there has been a
steady increase in the amount of correspondence relating to
civil-service matters, and this has added perceptibly to the
labors of the Institution.

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

EXPOSITIONS.

The Institution and its bureaus were represented in the
Government building at the Pan-American Exposition by an
extensive exhibit prepared under the general direction of Dr.
F. W. True, of the National Museum, who was designated by
the Secretary to represent the Institution on the Government
Board. Mention of this subject will be found in the reports
of the Museum and other bureaus.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Glasgow University.—The congratulations of the Institution
were extended to the University of Glasgow on the occasion’
of its ninth jubilee celebration in June, 1901, and upon its
invitation that a representative of the Institution be appointed
to participate in the ceremonies, the Secretary designated Dr.
Theodore N. Gill to serve in that capacity.

Congress of Americanists.—In June, 1901, the Secretary
designated Maj. J. W. Powell, Mr. W. H. Holmes, and Mr.
F. W. Hodge to represent the Institution on the general
committee of arrangements for the International Congress
of Americanists, to be held in-New York City in the autumn
of 1902.

Professor Ienry’s laboratory notes.—During the long course
of scientific researches by Secretary Joseph Henry resulting
in his discovery of the electro-magnet, which is practically the
basis of the telegraph and of most of the electrical devices
of the present day, he kept minute notes of each day’s experi-
ments. While it has not seemed necessary to publish these
notes in full, it has appeared of interest that the most impor-
tant original memoranda showing his methods of work should
at least be made public, and after consultation with Secretary
Henry’s family a competent person has been placed in charge
of the compilation of these notes in a form that will make
u good-sized octavo volume, to be illustrated by a consider-
able number of reproductions of Professor Henry’s original
sketches. :

Nobel prize competition.—The Institution has been informally
advised that, in accordance with a bequest from Dr. Alfred
Nobel, the conditions of which are not dissimilar to those
under which the Hodgkins fund of the Institution is adminis-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27
tered, the Swedish Government has established a competition
designed to stimulate discoveries in the service of humanity.

As specified by the testator, the income from Dr. Nobel’s
fortune is to be distributed annually in very considerable
rewards, say $40,000 each, to those who during the past year
have rendered the greatest service to the world in the domains
of physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature,
and in the work of fraternizing nations, reducing or suppress-
ing standing armies, and propagating peace congresses.

In view of its entire approval of the testator’s objects, the
Institution makes this mention of this subject, with which it
has otherwise no official connection.’

Santa Fe Palace.—On March 20 the governor of New
Mexico approved a joint resolution of the Territorial legis-
lature ‘tasking for the establishment of a branch of the
Smithsonian Institution in the old palace at Santa Fe, N.
Mex.” This resolution is as follows:

[House joint resolution No. 7.]
Whereas the building in the city of Santa Fe, known as

the Palace, is the oldest public building and the most historic

‘Alfred Nobel died at San Remo December 10, 1896. His will provided
that the interest on the capital bequeathed should be annually divided into
five equal parts to be awarded as prizes to those persons who should have
contributed most materially to benefit mankind during the year immedi-
ately preceding, as follows: One part to be given to the person having
made the most important discovery or invention in the science of physics;
one 7o. in chemistry; one do. in physi logy or medicine; one do. for the
most distinguished work of an idealistic tendency in literature, and one do.
to the person who shall have most or best promoted the fraternity of
nations and the abolishment or diminution of standing armies and the
formation and increase of peace congresses.

The contest of the will by the heirs at law is now over, and the statutes
under which the awarding of the prizes is to be made are formulated and
the first awards are to be made in 1902.

Under the statutes ‘It is essential that every candidate for a prize under
the terms of the will be proposed as such in writing by some duly qualified
person. A direct application for a prize will not be taken into consideration.

“The right to hand in the name of a candidate for a prize shall belong to

‘““(1) Home and foreign members of the Royal Academy of Science in
Stockholm.

‘*(2) Members of the Nobel Committee of the Physical and Chemical
Sections.

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

edifice in the United States, having been the seat of govern-
mental power and the home of the executive officials of New
Mexico through all the changes in government for three cen-
turies; and

Whereas New Mexico itself is more prolific in archeological
treasures than any other part of the Union, and has already
contributed more largely ths 1an any other State or Territory to
the National Museum, and it is desirable that its peculiar his-
torical objects should be preserved in one place, and amid
their natural environment, instead of being scattered all over
the world; and

Whereas the Territorial legislatures of 1882 and 1884
asked that this historic edifice be devoted to the preservation
of the antiquities of New Mexico, and two Secretaries of the
Interior have officially recommended that its permanent use
be that of a museum of the antiquarian collections of the
Southwest; and

Whereas, by inadvertence in the wording of the act of
Congress which donated public lands to the Territory for
educational and other purposes, passed June 21, 1898, the
palace property was included in the cession made by the
United States to Mexico, without any wish for such cession on
tue part of our people; and

Whereas the two houses of the last legislature, each by a

‘*(3) Seientists who have received a Nobel prize from the Academy of
Science.

‘*(4) Professors, whether in ordinary or associate, of the physical and
chemical sciences at the universities of Upsala, Lund, Christiania, Copen-
hagen, and Helsingfors, at the Caroline Medico-Chirurgical Institute and
the Royal Technical College in Stockholm, and also teachers of the same
subjects who are on the permanent staff of the Stockholm University
College.

““(6) Holders of similar chairs at other universities or university col-
leges, to the number of at least six, to be selected by the Academy of
Science in the way most appropriate for the just representation of the
various countries and their respective seats of learning.

““(6) Other scientists whom the Academy of Science may see fit to
select.”’

At the time of Nobel’s death his estate was estimated to have a value of
from 30,000,000 to 35,000,000 kroner, which, if invested at 3 per cent,
would yield an annual income of from $240,000 to $270,000. Each fifth
would thus amount to $48,000 to $55,000. Since then 1,500,000 kroner
have, by agreement with the heirs at law, been set aside for the founda-
tion of Nobel institutes in Sweden; but at the same time the interest for
the intervening years since Nobel’s death has been accruing, so that the
exact value of each annual prize is not now known.

Inquiries concerning the Nobel competition should be addressed to the
Council of the Nobel Foundation, care of the Royal Academy of Science,
Stockholm, Sweden.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

unanimous vote, passed a joint resolution asking the United
States to reassume ownership of said property, and that a
western branch of the National Museum be established at the
Palace: Now, therefore, be it

Resolved (fF the council CONCUL), That this legislature con-
siders that the appropriate future of the palace should be as
the home of the great collections of archeological and other
antiquities of New Mexico and the Southwest.

Resolved, That we request the authorities in charge of the
National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution to establish
a southwestern museum of the character hereinbefore indi-
vated as the palace property, with the ancient palace itself as
the center.

Resolved, That the Territorial board of public lands be
authorized and directed to convey said palace property either
to the United States or to the Smithsonian Institution, upon
the condition that a branch either of the National Museum or
the museum of the Smithsonian Institution be established and
maintained therein; that the palace building be preserved in
good order and without material changes in “its general struc-
ture and appearance forever; that the ‘New Mexico Historical
Society be allowed such space in said building as it may require
for the proper exhibition of its collection of New Mexican
antiquities and other objects illustrating the history of the
Territory as a part of said general exhibition; that the exhi-
bition rooms in said building be open to the public without
charge forever; and that no expense for arrangement or main-
tenance of said building and its contents be a “charge on New
Mexico or any civil division thereof.

Inasmuch as the offer on the part of the Territory of New
Mexico, if accepted by the Smithsonian Institution, would
involve the transfer of valuable real estate in the city of Santa
Fe, the Secretary has held the question of acceptance for such
action as the Board of Regents may deem desirable.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The National Museum is visited annually by about a quarter
of a million persons, and each one seems to desire to examine
as many as possible of its treasures, now numbering nearly
5,000,000 objects pertaining to the anthropological, biological,
and geological sciences.

Through its publications and its correspondence the Museum
reaches everywhere, giving to the world information of a
technical or of a popular character concerning the American
and alien races of men and their habits, the life history of

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

animals and plants, and the structure and composition of the
earth.

The Secretary, in his report for 1888, called attention to
the inadequacy of the Museum building, which even then,
within seven years after its completion, was found to be
wholly insufficient for the collections. The subsequent his-
tory of the Museum has been a continuous recital to Congress
by the Regents of its increasing inadequacy.

The Secretary feels it his urgent duty to call attention to
the absolute need of an additional, more modern, building for
the National Museum, wherein may be properly exhibited
objects now packed in the present structure, and where may
be set up before the public, whose property they are, very
many objects of scientific, historical, and popular interest now
in storage quarters. Too much can not be said in urging this
all-important matter, and it is hoped that definite action may
finally be taken by Congress.

The Secretary repeats here, what he already said in 1888,
that not only is large additional space required to relieve the
congested condition of the present building, but that the
appropriations have become utterly insufficient, even for the
proper care of the collections. It is hoped that Congress may
see fit to remedy these conditions and to give larger appropria-
tions this year.

The Secretary repeats also that it is not alone the lack of
space that is keenly felt, but the absolute inadequacy of the
appropriations in maintaining a corps of efficient assistants
to care for the collections. The accompanying table will per-
haps tell the story better than any amount of description.

If we take the five years extending from 1881 to 1886 as ¢
basis for comparison, the appropriations were at the rate of
$1,000 for the care of about 6,000 specimens. This was rep-
resented at the time as insufficient, and divers expedients
were resorted to, such as the creation of honorary and unpaid
curators to perform the work. At present $1,000 are pro-
vided for the care of about 21,000 specimens, and proper care
at anything like this rate is simply impossible. The number
of specimens has increased nearly five times, while the amount
of money appropriated for their care has not doubled.

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ak

When Congress comes to appropriate for the increase of
space to over twenty times what it is at present (which amount
will be necessary to provide for our present collections on a
scale of space only commensurate with that now allotted, for
example, by the American Museum of Natural History), it
will be found that the Museum’s most valued property does
not lie only in the granite walls of its new building, if it have
one, nor in the cases, nor in the specimens, however import-
ant these may be, but in its possession of a corps of long-
trained and long-experienced workers.

This band of collaborators has continued its labors in most
vases while their duties have been growing more onerous and
their pay has remained practically stationary, because its
members are as a rule working for the love of their work
rather than for pay; but unless more adequate provision is
made now, the Museum, when Congress has granted new
quarters for it, will not be able to take into them those who
in the past have made it what it is, these men, its best posses-
sion, who are now going and who will have gone.

It is always to be remembered that the collections and
specimens referred to have not been purchased on any
digested plan, and though in themselves often very valuable,
are mainly derived from Government expeditions often organ-
ized for purposes other than collecting, from gifts, and from
other sources, and that their usefulness is always impaired
unless the gaps between them are filled. A small appropria-
tion was provided for this purpose—that is, chiefly the filling
of gaps in the collections, in 1898—but the amount available is
so limited and the deficiencies in the collection so great that
it will be impracticable to add any new series of objects at
present. It is hoped that Congress may hereafter grant
larger sums for this purpose and for such unique character-
istic American objects as are rapidly disappearing.

The Secretary does not wish to say that the National Mu-
seum, under this absolute denial by Congress of its indispen-
sable means of existence, has fallen to a second place among
American museums, but he would ask a comparison between
it and others which were once its inferiors.

Taking a single instance, that of the American Museum of
Natural History—the museum of the State of New York—
some statistics have been secured with regard to its size and

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

cost of administration and contrasted with similar data bearing
upon this Museum—the museum of the whole United States:

Statistics of the United States National Museum compared with the American
Museum of Natural History.

American Mu-
National Museum. | seum of Natural
History.

Cubic feet im building ss. 4ssceees- ee eee 3, 600, 000 38, 000, 000
Number of Specimens”: S02 Ses Se cee ek eee | 4, 994, 672 2, 300, 000
Space provided for each specimen ....-..-.--------. | fy Of 1 cubic foot. 163 cubic feet.
Income: 1901 <a s cane 2B ceas Passes cee eae $263, 540 $230, 000
Salaries paid-to.curators:.- <2. 3j-cecnassaeencen sue | 922, 199.76 $44, 000
Gost Gf buildings to: dates les 25.25-22oasees fe dceee se | $391, 400 #4, 000, 000
Expenses for all purposes, 1901 ..2--..222.2---.-2---- | b $246, 824. 67 $230, 000

aTotal paid to entire scientific staff, $51,649.45.
> Balance of appropriation held to meet outstanding liabilities.

It has been possible during the year to arrange for a new
lecture hall in the Museum, a feature which for several years
seemed to be of public importance but which was of necessity
temporarily abandoned. The present hall is well equipped
for its use, being provided with a convenient platform, a
lantern stand, screen, chairs, and adjustable window screens.

Progress has been made in the installation of electric arc
lamps throughout the Museum halls, and it is expected dur-
ing the coming year to complete the work so that the building
may be opened at night when occasion or order of Congress
should require it.

Much-needed improvements are being made in the heating
system by the installation of new boilers in the Museum and
the connection by a tunnel with the Smithsonian building,
rendering it possible to considerably economize the service
by heating both buildings from one center instead of by two
plants as heretofore.

Among other improvements of the year it may be men-
tioned that the last of the old temporary wooden flooring of
the Museum halls has been entirely replaced by permanent
terrazzo pavement.

The report of the Assistant Secretary enumerates some-
what in detail the accessions to the several departments of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo

Museum during the year, aggregating about 180,000 speci-
mens, among which may be here mentioned ethnological mate-
rial collected by officers of the Army and Navy in southern
California, British Columbia, and Alaska, some facsimiles of
ancient codices presented by the Duc de Loubat, and aborig-
inal objects of much interest from Brazil and other parts of
South America. Special attention is also called to the valua-
ble collection transmitted from the Far East by Dr. W. L.
Abbott, who has already contributed so largely to the Museum
as the result of his extensive explorations.

Among other newly acquired collections of interest are
objects of flint, illustrating the stone-shaping art of the primi-
tive Egyptians, presented by Mr. Seton-Karr, of London,
and a very full series of stone implements and other relics,
principally from Maryland, presented by Mr. J. D. McGuire.

The biological department has been enriched by collections
of special interest gathered by collaborators of the Museum
in various parts of the world, including marine zoological
specimens gathered in connection with the expeditions of the
Fish Commission steamers A/batross and Fish Hawk in the
Pacific Ocean and the region of Porto Rico. It has been pos-
sible to secure by purchase upwards of a thousand specimens
of North and Central American birds, and by donation there
has been received a large number of the eggs and nests of
Philippine birds.

Among the geological additions of the year are several
thousand fossils from various regions, one of the most inter-
esting being a fairly complete skeleton of an adult female
mastodon from Michigan.

During the past twenty years it has been possible for the
Museum to distribute duplicate specimens to a considerable
number of institutions of learning in this country, and very
much more could be accomplished in this way were funds
available for the preparation of additional collections of this
kind. Wherever these series have been sent, they are highly
appreciated, and the demands from other institutions for simi-
lar contributions are constantly increasing.

It is all important that every object exhibited in the Museum
be suitably and permanently labeled, and while it is gratify-

sm 1901——3

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ing that much progress has been made in this work in recent
years, many specimens still remain with only temporary labels.
During the past year but little could be accomplished in this
direction, owing to the large demand upon the time of Museum
officials in connection with the preparation of exhibits for the
Pan-American Exposition, and also the present inadequate
facilities for label printing. Attention in this connection is
‘alled to paragraphs below on the possible treatment of labels
so as to render them not only valuable for scientific classifi-
cation, but also instructive and interesting to the public.

The Secretary has endeavored each year to make some
advance in the direction of the Institution’s primary purpose
of the increase of original knowledge through observation and
research by the eminent men who are acting as its immediate
curators. What has been done in this way will be found indi-
cated in the Museum reports.

He is at this moment speaking, however, of only a sub-
ordinate, though not unimportant, portion of the Museum’s
work, that of instruction and entertainment, and toward this
end he has with personal attention brought together in one of
the halls of the Smithsonian building a small collection which
has been called ‘* The Children’s Room” (though it appears to
interest adults at least as much as children), comprising
objects of interest rather than of practical instruction. The
room itself has been made attractive by a careful choice of
color and design in the decoration of the walls and ceilings,
embodying illustrations of the life of animals and plants.

The objects displayed in the room include cages of living
birds, aquaria with fishes, and cases filled with those things
which interest children even of a larger growth.

As the Secretary stated in his last report, the classification
‘‘is not that of science, but that which is most intelligible to
the untrained mind,” and is intended for the purpose of
exciting the interest and wonder of the youthful visitor, in the
ultimate hope that this will stimulate a desire for knowledge
in natural history.

The Secretary takes this occasion to express the hope that
this small special collection may have a possible use beyond
its immediately declared purpose. It is only within the last

Ee Ce

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5

led

few years that scientific men have begun to collect and publish
in methodical form the life histories of birds and other ani-
mals, and it is believed that they are beginning to take an
increased interest in reducing the results of their researches
to popular form for the entertainment and instruction of the
larger public, on whose support with Congress, the pecuniary
means for higher learning itself must also depend.

With regard to this, the Secretary will quote from a previ-
ous report to the effect that ‘*if the first purpose of a museum
be for the increase of original knowledge by investigation
and research, its second purpose is to entertain as well as to
instruct.”

The Secretary has elsewhere quoted the detinition of an
educational museum as ‘‘a collection of instructive labels,
each illustrated by a well-selected specimen.” It is believed
that the National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution has
led in the practice of making its labels generally instructive;
and yet it may be properly asked whether the labels in the
collections even in our own Museum, or in almost any other,
are a collection of instructive labels for the general public.

The Secretary expresses the wish that still further progress
in this direction of instructing and interesting the public may
be made, and he suggests, as one legitimate means of doing it,
not any change in the present labels or in the Latin names of
the specimens, which should always remain, but an addition to
each, or at least to the labels of the more popularly interest-
ing specimens, giving briefly in English some characteristic,
and if possible some /nferesting characteristic, of the specimen
in question.

Again repeating that the first purpose of the Museum is to
aid investigation and research, and that this will always have
his first attention, he recalls that there is a subordinate but
most valuable purpose, and he wishes to say now what has
been increasingly in his mind for years, that he would feel he
had been promoting a most useful work if he could be the
means of inducing all museums to systematically add to exist-
ing labels (on at least all the most interesting or characteristic
specimens) something which would bring their subject within
the reach of the unlearned public.

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

To illustrate the very slight modification necessary to carry
the suggestion into effect, there is given below an example of
the usual label and of the modified form which, adding a
single sentence, furnishes additional information of a popular
character.

452
CRESTED FLY-CATCHER.
Great Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.
Myiarchus crinitus (LInn.)
list. N. Am. B., I, p. 334, pl. xiiii, fig. 3.

Eastern United States and British Provinces,
but rare northeastward beyond the Connecticut
Valley; west to edge of the Great Plains; in
winter, Central America to Nicaragua.

452

CRESTED FLY-CATCHER.
Great Yellow-bellied Flycatcher.
Myiarchus crinitus (LINN.)
Hist. N. Am. B., IT, p. 334, pl. xliii, fig. 3.

Eastern United States and British Provinces,
but rare northeastward beyond the Connecticut
Valley; west to edge of the Great Plains; in
‘winter, Central America to Nicaragua.

This bird ornaments its nest with the cast-off
skin of a snake, the purpose being apparently to
‘frighten off intruders.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

Researches among the native American tribes have been
continued in the Bureau under the immediate supervision of
Maj. J. W. Powell, its Director. The operations of the year
were conducted in accordance with the act of Congress ap-
proved June 6, 1900, and with the formal plan adopted by
the Secretary June 19, 1900.

As heretofore, the work has been carried forward in such
manner as to aid in advancing the science of ethnology, and
the Director has given much attention to the development of a
classification of the native tribes on the basis of their normal
activities. It is thought that, in addition to its immediate

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

utility, this work will constitute an important contribution to
the sciences dealing with mankind.

Field work was prosecuted in Alaska, Arizona, California,
Maine, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Virginia,
and Wisconsin, as well as in British Columbia and Ontario,
Canada, and in Lower California and Sonora, Mexico. Addi-
tional data were received from correspondents and collabora-
tors in other sections.

One of the noteworthy expeditions of the year traversed
the arid regions of Arizona, Sonora, and Lower California
along new routes, and resulted in discovering the recent
extinction of the Tepoka Indians, in defining the western
boundary of the territory occupied by the Papagos, also in
the first scientific study of the Cocopas living in the Lower
Colorado River region. Among these Indians a collection
was made for the National Museum, portions of which were
subsequently used in the exhibit at the Pan-American Expo-
sition in Buffalo. The Cocopas were found to present vari-
ous features of interest both to scientific students and to
statesmen. The work of the expedition was facilitated by
several officers of the Republic of Mexico, including His
Excellency Sefior Don Manuel de Aspiroz, the ambassador
from Mexico to the United States, whose courtesy it is a
pleasure to acknowledge. An extensive archeologic recon-
naissance was made also through central and southeastern
Arizona, where various ruins of ancient habitations were
examined. Linguistic records of great value were obtained
by a collaborator among the Haida Indians in British
Columbia.

Valuable collections were made or acquired during the
year—a typical series of stone implements from Georgia, a
collection of artifacts in stone and clay from southern Cal-
ifornia, the Cocopa collection already mentioned, and a series
of obsidian blades from California being most notable.

As during previous years, numerous photographs of abo-
rigines were taken both in the field and from Indian delega-
tions visiting Washington, and toward the close of the year
a number of kinetoscope views, or motion pictures, were
obtained for purposes of study and record.

The work in the office covered a wide range of topics per-
taining to the characteristics and products of the aborigines.

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Among the reports prepared for publication, one embody-
ing a series of symbolic paintings of ritualistic character,
which may be termed a Codex Hopiensis from the tribe in
which it was found, is of peculiar interest. Another report
of special note relates to wild rice as an aboriginal food
source, and touches on the utilization of this plant by white
settlers. The publication of the Report was continued with
some delay due to the time required for reproducing the illus-
trations accompanying the papers. The Seventeenth Report
and the first volume of the Eighteenth were distributed dur-
ing the year, while the second part of the Eighteenth was
finished to the point of binding; at the same time the Nine-
teenth Report was edited and proof-read.

The work of the Bureau during the year is described at
some length in the Report of the Director.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

The Secretary recalls to the Regents that the primary pur-
pose for which they sanctioned the establishment of the Na-
tional Zoological Park was embodied in its name. It was to be
a ‘*‘ National” one; and it was not for the City of Washington
only, but to be a means of preserving the great animals of the
country, and particularly of the North and West, which were
in danger of extinction; and it was to exist quite as much for
Idaho or Oregon as for the District of Columbia.

It is earnestly to be hoped that Congress will carry out the
plan originally urged upon it, of treating this park as it treats
the National Museum, that is, as something not existing for
the benefit of the District chiefly, nor properly to be main-
tained by the taxation of its inhabitants. In any case it is to
be known that while the National Park has been of a great
deal of incidental use to Washington as an admirable place fo1
health, recreation and entertainment, accessible to those who
can only go on foot, and offering such charm of scenery as no
other public park under such conditions possesses, yet that
one of the principal purposes for which it was founded—the
preservation from extinction of the national animal races—has
not been considered by Congress. bout this the Secretary
can express himself no better now than he did in his report for

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

1890, in which, referring to the history of similar attempts,

he said:

**In the early part of this century a naturalist traveling in
Siberia stood by the mutilated body of a mammoth still unde-
cayed, which the melting of the frozen gravel had revealed,
and to the skeleton of which large portions of flesh, skin, and
hair still clung. The remains were excavated and transported
many hundred miles across the frozen waste, and at last reached
the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, where, through all
these years, the mounted skeleton has justly been regarded as

the greatest treasure of that magnificent collection.

**Scientifie memoirs, popular books, theological works,
poems—in short, a whole literature—has come into existence
with this discovery as its text. No other event in all the his-
tory of such subjects has excited a greater or more permanent
interest outside of purely scientific circles; for the resurrec-
tion of this relic of a geologic time in a condition analogous
to that in which the bodies of contemporaneous animals are
daily seen brings home to the mind of the least curious observer
the reality of a long extinct race with a vividness which no
fossils or petrifactions of the ordinary sort can possibly equal.

** Now, Lamassured by most competent naturalists that few.
if any, of those not particularly devoted to the study of Ameri-
‘an animals realize that changes have already occurred or are
on the point of taking place in our own characteristic fauna
compared with which the disappearance from it of the mam-
moth was insignificant. That animal was common to all
northern lands in its day. The practical domestication of
the elephant gives to everyone the opportunity of observing
a gigantic cre eature closely allied to the mammoth, and from
which he may gain an approximately correct idea of it. But
no such example is at hand in the case of the bison, the
prong-horn antelope, the elk, the Rocky Mountain goat, and
many more of our vanishing races.

** The student of even the most modern text-books learns that
the characteristic larger animals of the United States are those
just mentioned, with the moose, the grizzly bear, the beaver,
and if we include marine forms and arctie American animals
we may add the northern fur seal, the Pacific walrus, the

Californian sea elephant, the manatee, and still others.

** With one or two exceptions out of this long list, men now
living can remember when each of these animals was reason-
ably ‘abundant within its natural terr itory. It is within the
bounds of moderation to affirm that unless Congress places
some check on the present rate of destruction there are men
now living who will see the time when the animals enumerated
will be practically extinct, or exterminated within the limits

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of the United States. Already the census of some of them
can be expressed in three figures.

‘*The fate of the bison, or American buffalo, is typical of
them all. ‘Whether we consider this noble animal,’ says
Audubon, ‘as an object of the chase or as an article of food
for man, it is decidedly the most important of all our Ameri-
can contemporary quadrupeds.’

‘*At the middle of the last century this animal pastured in
Pennsylvania and Virginia, and even at the close of the cen-
tury ranged over the whole Mississippi Valley and farther
west wherever pasturage was to be found. At the present
time a few hundred survivors represent the millions of the
last century, and we should not have even these few hundred
within our territory had it not been for the wise action of
Congress in providing for them a safe home in the Yellow-
stone Park.

‘* Now, for several reasons it has been comparatively easy to
trace the decline of the buffalo population. The size of the
animal, its preference for open country, the sportsman’s in-
terest in it, and its relations to the food supply of the West-
ern Indians, all led to the observation and record of changes;
and accordingly I have made special mention of this animal
in representing the advantages of a national zoological park
where it might be preserved; but this is by no means the
only characteristic creature now threatened with speedy
extinction.

‘* The moose is known to be at the present time a rare animal
in the United States, but is in less immediate danger than some
others. The elk is vigorously hunted and is no longer easily
obtained, even in its most favored haunts. The grizzly bear
is believed to be rapidly approaching extinction outside of
the Yellowstone Park, where, owing to the assiduous care of
those in charge, both it and the elk are still preserved. The
mountain sheep and goat, which inhabit less accessible re-
gions, are becoming more and more rare, while the beaver
has retreated from a vast former area to such secluded haunts
that it may possibly survive longer than the other species
which I have just enumerated, and which are but a portion of
those in imminent danger of extinction.

‘‘Among the marine forms the manatee still exists, but,
although not exterminated, it is in immediate danger of be-
coming so, like the Californian sea elephant, a gigantic crea-
ture, often of greater bulk than the elephant, which has
suffered the fate of complete extinction within a few past
years; at least it is uncertain whether a single individual
actually survives. The Pacific walrus, upon which a large
native population has always in great part depended for food
and hides, is rapidly following the sea elephant, and so on
with other species.

Smithsonian Report, 1901

PLATE III.

- MODEL OF THE

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL*PARK
WASHINGTON, D. G :

:

eye a HL Crock valley, owo miles northwest of
tbe White Arca 6&7 acres.
=.
2 fee |
ee |
Limite em
j

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4]

‘**This appalling destruction is not confined to mammals.
Disregarding the birds of song and plumage, to which the
fashions of the milliner have brought disaster, nearly all the
larger and more characteristic American birds have suffered
in the same way as their four-footed contemporaries. The
fate of the great Auk is familiar to all naturalists; but it is
not so well known that the great Californian vulture and sey-
eral of the beautiful sea fowl of our coasts have met the same
fate, and that the wild pigeon, whose astonishing flocks were
dwelt upon by Audubon and others in such remarkable
descriptions and which were long the wonder of American
travelers, with the less known, but magnificent ivory-
billed woodpecker, and the pretty Carolina parrakeet, have
all become, if not extinct, among the rarest of birds.

**Apart from the commercial value of its skins, the tax upon
which has paid for the cost of our vast Alaskan territory, the
singular habits and teeming millions of the northern fur seal
have excited general interest even among those who are not
interested in natural history. In 1849 these animals abounded
from Lower California to the lonely Alaskan Isles, and it had
been supposed that the precautions taken by the Government
for their protection on the breeding grounds of the Pribilof
Islands would preserve permanently the still considerable rem-
nant which existed after the purchase of Alaskaand the destruc-
tion of the southern rookeries. But it is becoming too evident
that the greed of the hunters and the devastation caused by
the general adoption of the method of pursuing them in the
open sea, destroying indiscriminately mothers and offspring,
is going to bring these hopes to naught.

“For most of these animals, therefore, it may be regarded as
certain that, unless some small remnant be preser ved ina semi-
domesticated state, a few years will bring utter extinction.
The American of the next generation, when questioned about
the animals once characteristic of his country, will then be
forced to confess that with the exception of a few insignificant
creatures, ranking as vermin, this broad continent possesses
none of those species which once covered it, since the pr esent
generation will have completed the destruction of them all.”

During the eleven years that have elapsed since these para-
graphs were written, the writer has presented these consider-
ations every session, with the insistance it seemed to him their
importance deserved, until of late years he has had to feel
that the opportunity for saving this remnant, which was going
more and more each year, had in some respects finally gone.
The great Kadiak bear, the largest carnivorous animal upon
the planet, since the report above quoted was written, has been
driven farther and farther into the interior, until a specimen

492 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

is now unprocurable except by the fitting out of a costly expe-
dition, with the remote chance of obtaining a single adult,
though such an expedition will probably be more successful in
procuring the young.

Something much like this may be said of the giant moose
and of other of our semiarctic fauna. The buffalo is so
nearly gone, even from its shelter in the Yellowstone National
Park, that the stockade which the Institution erected there to
secure and ‘*‘ gentle” part of the few buffalo remaining, is fall-
ing down without a single one ever having been in it. Taught
by the hopelessness of previous applications, the Secretary
has limited his request for this purpose to an immediate appro-
priation of $15,000, with the now faint hope of securing some
of the young of these vanishing creatures—the great bear, the
great moose, and the like. The Secretary is prepared to soon
abandon recommendations which have been urged for nearly —
ten years, not only because they have been so far made in
vain, but because some term must be set in which they will
have too evidently grown useless from the disappearance of
the animal races in question.

As to the best means of securing the protection of these
races, he has acquired in this long effort some practical knowl-
edge of the difficulties and of the simple but effective remedy
which can be applied. The subject is too large a one, how-
ever, to treat here, and he will only say that these creatures, if
secured and transported immediately from their native haunts,
are most unlikely to live under the conditions of civilization.
They are, on the contrary, very likely to live and even to per-
petuate their species if taken with care and kept surrounded
by the protection that experience and common sense suggest;
and both these mean the continuance of the present National
Zoological Park here under the eyes of Congress, but with a
simultaneous provision for first bringing up the wild animals
in a commodious place of confinement in the country where
they belong (one in Alaska, for instance), large enough to allow
them to live without a sense of captivity, on their ordinary food,
and in their ordinary climate. This place might be a small
ranch, where the things of vital importance after their capture
and security—namely, their being ‘* gentled” and accustomed
to the sight of the keeper before being transferred to Washing-
ton—can be carried out. Sucha ranch can be established at a

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

small cost, which will not be likely to be exceeded, and Con-
gress can be assured that it is not entering into an indefinite
future expense if this initial one be approved.

The Secretary will not leave this brief mention of the sub-
ject without stating that the walrus, perhaps the sea elephant,
some kinds of seal, and many other great aquatic mammals,
van equally share in this protection at a similarly small expense,
by simply preserving some locality where the walrus now
congregate, as,for instance, a known spot on the northern
shore of the Alaskan peninsula, or by establishing a more
special preserve in some landlocked bay, where they will
obtain their natural food and be properly guarded.

As to the local use of the National park, the beautiful region
set aside by Congress for it here has proved a fit place for
filling the objects of its existence, declared by Congress to be
**'The advancement of science and the instruction and recrea-
tion of the people,” for here not only are the national ani-
mals, with others, preserved (in connection, it is to be hoped,
later with fixed sources of supply), from which the race could
be recreated if it died out elsewhere, but the National Zoolog-
ical Park has become a favorite resort of the nation’s visitors
to the capital, who find in its shades, along with such land-
scapes as no other city can show, object lessons of attractive
interest—for we must admit that we are all, adults as well as
children, interested in our animals, with an attraction which
no books about them can supply.

It has been possible to make some needed improvements in
the roadways of the park during the year, but many of the
buildings are almost falling down. The need of means to put
a permanent shelter over the animals can not be overstated.
Mention has already been made in this relation of the aqua-
rium building, which consists of a literal barn, and which was
brought here until Congress could provide a special one; but
although several years have elapsed, none has yet been pro-
vided. The elephant house, a small wooden shed, put up asa
temporary expedient ten years ago, requires extensive repairs
to prevent it literally falling from rottenness.

The wooden fence placed around the park ten years ago,
and expected to last four or five years till a permanent one
was provided, has never been replaced at all, and has gone
beyond repair.

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

With regard to the birds, more is being done for the better
care of the larger ones. There has been designed and partly
constructed a large ‘‘flying cage,” capable of including tall
trees within it, which is to be built near the present bird
house. The cage will be supplied with running water, and it
is hoped that some of the aquatic species may live within its
limits.

THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

The most prominent feature of the year’s work has been
the distribution of the first volume of Annals of the Astro-
physical Observatory, to which attention was directed in
my report of last year. This special volume has been sent
to 1,500 Government depositories, observatories, learned
societies, and to eminent astronomers and physicists through-
out the world. The work will, it is believed, establish an
enduring reputation for the observatory from which it pro-
ceeded.

The eclipse expedition to Sumatra is spoken of more at
length in the detailed report of the Aid Acting in Charge,
which will be found in the Appendix. The special occasion
for this expedition arose with reference to the observations -
made under the Government appropriation by the Institution
in the solar eclipse of May 28, 1900, at Wadesboro, N. C.
These, though valuable, were not in themselves complete, and
pointed to conclusions of particular interest which demanded
the opportunity of another eclipse to definitely perfect them.

Perhaps the most interesting of these was the incomplete
evidence secured on a single photograph of the existence of
several small planets within the orbit of Mercury, as indicated
in Plate XVIII of the last year’s report. Prof. E. C. Pick-
ering, to whom this photograph was referred for his expert
judgment, saw nothing in the appearance of the photographic
impressions of the supposed planets which would lead him to
pronounce them spurious.. To make certain of their genuine-
ness would, however, required the evidence of another photo-
graph, and new photographs were only to be supplied by
another eclipse.

A second, not absolutely conclusive, observation of great
interest was that made by the bolometer on the heat of the
inner corona, from which, as stated on page 154 of the Smith-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

sonian Report for 1900, certain conclusions were drawn regard-
ing its temperature. These observations attracted widespread
interest and discussion among the astronomical public, and it
became of importance to verify and extend them if possible.

Hence it seemed to be desirable that an expedition should
proceed to the island of Sumatra to observe the long eclipse
there. The Institution did not, however, ask for a second
appropriation from Congress.

The United States Naval Observatory, which had secured
such an appropriation, had courteously offered to take one of
the Institution’s staff as a part of its own expedition. Since,
however, the Institution wanted the Sumatra work to com-
plete its own special work of the previous year, and since it
would involve the use of large special apparatus belonging to
it, it was deemed better that it shouldssend out a party of its
own, though on a most modest scale.

The party sent out from the Institution consisted of Mr.
C. G. Abbot, Aid Acting in Charge of the Smithsonian
Observatory, and Mr. Paul Draper.

Through the permission of the Secretary of War and by
the good offices of Brig. Gen. M. I. Ludington, Quartermaster-
General, transportation was secured to Manila and return by
the army transport service. The Secretary of the Navy con-
sented that the Institution’s expedition should be carried from
Manila to Padang and return in the same vessel with the expe-
dition of the United States Naval Observatory. My acknowl-
edgments are further due the Hon. F. W. Hackett, Assistant
Secretary of the Navy, for very effective aid in perfecting
these arrangements. Letters of introduction to Dutch offi-
cials were obtained from the Department of State of the
United States, and from his excellency Baron W. A. F.
Gevers, minister of the Netherlands.

Mr. Abbot and Mr. Draper sailed on February 16 in the
transport Sheridan from San Francisco, arriving at Manila
on March 15, whence, seven days later, they embarked on the
United States naval transport General Alava, reaching Padang,
Sumatra, on April 4, from which point they proceeded to
Solok, a small town in the interior, which, though about
twenty-five miles north of the central eclipse track, was chosen
as having the best meteorological record of any part of the
island, and because of its location on a railroad. Nothing

46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

could exceed the kindness exercised by all the Dutch officials
of Sumatra to further the comfort and success of the obsery-
ers. Free transportation was offered on all government rail-

yays, and observing sites placed at their disposal, with native
laborers for the installation of equipments. The Secretary
wishes to especially acknowledge the indebtedness of the
Institution to his excellency Governor Joekes, of Sumatra’s
west coast, to Heer Th. F. A. Delprat, head of government
railways in Sumatra, and to Heer C. G. Veth, United States
consular agent at Padang, whose efforts in behalf of the party
were untiring.

The little expedition reached Solok April 11 and passed the
time in constant drill, being strengthened by native help in
erecting instruments. On the momentous day (May 18) the
weather proved to be very bad over this portion of the island,
and caused the partial failure of the observations, though Mr.
Abbot and his companion may feel that while it was not in
their power to command success they have deserved it.

They returned under the same assistance from the Army
and Navy with which they went out, reaching Washington on
the 29th of July.

Attention is called to the progress reported by the Aid Act-
ing in Charge in perfecting devices to increase the actual
working sensitiveness of the galvanometer, which is an
indispensable companion to the bolometer the instrument
which perceives and measures excessively small variations of
temperature.

The bolometer, it will be remembered, was invented by the
present writer some twenty years ago as an instrument to
detect radiant heat in such small quantities as could be recog-
nized not even by the most delicate thermometer, and which
were so far beyond the reach of that instrument that the
thermopile could not register them. It may seem to the gen-
eral reader that the recognition of such excessively small
amounts of heat can not be of practical importance, but this
would be like saying that the human eye was an instrument
of no importance to the owner, since the amount of energy
which enabled it to see is so inexpressibly small.

The bolometer has been called ‘tan eye which sees in the
dark,” and it sees only by means of almost infinitesimally

ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

small amounts of heat, but it now sees with these what neither
the eye nor the photograph can see. When the writer took
charge of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian
Institution the bolometer, with its attendant galvanometer,
could recognize a change of temperature of Jess than one-
hundred-thousandth of one degree Centigrade. With the
changes which he and others have since introduced in the instru-
ment and its attendant galvanometer, it can now recognize less
than one one-hundred-millionth of one degree. As much as
a thousandfold gain in sensitiveness has, then, been attained
over the former conditions, and a manifold further increase is
hoped for by the use of the more sensitive galvanometer
now being developed under the immediate care of Mr. Abbot,
the Aid Acting in Charge.

Even with this remarkable progress the bolometer is still
far less sensitive than the eve in its capacity to detect radia-
tions of wave-lengths suitable for eye observations, but, as is
well known, it has the great advantage that all rays affect it
equally, whether visible or not, and that hence it can see
where the eye can not.

In this little and inadequately instailed Smithsonian Obser-
vatory the bolometer has extended the known spectrum to a
wave-length many times that known to Sir Isaac Newton, and
its use has spread from this country to every physical labora-
tory in the world where such researches are carried on. It is
growing more sensitive each year with continued improve-
ments, to which there seems to be no assignable limit, and
its future promises to be as full of value as its past.

The urban situation of the Observatory puts serious difli-
culties in the way of investigations which, like the one just
referred to, require exceptional steadiness and freedom from
magnetic fluctuations. An astrophysical observatory should
evidently be located where smoke, lights, noise, traflic, and
heavy electric currents are at a distance. That the Smith-
sonian Observatory should still, after twelve years, be in its
present situation and with merely temporary wooden build-
ings for its home is indeed far from the expectations cherished
at its inception, a condition of affairs which the Secretary still
ventures to hope will be changed.

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

The importance of the work accomplished by the Interna-
tional Exchange Service is constantly becoming more fully
understood, and the benefits derived from it in the inter-
change of the publications of the civilized world more ade-
quately estimated. The liberality of the American people in
gratuitously supplying their scientific literature to apprecia-
tive students of it, wherever they may be, and the provision
for its transmission at the expense of the United States Gov-
ernment and of the Smithsonian Institution jointly, creates
such an impression abroad that the Institution is often asked
for a description of the methods for recording and forward-
ing exchanges, with a view to enabling others to adopt its
system, which for accuracy, labor saving, and as a perma-
nent record for ready reference, years of assiduous study
have perfected into what it is to-day.

The term ‘‘ International Exchanges,” to those unaccus-
tomed to its application, may seem ambiguous, but the use of
the term is now universally accepted as applying to the
mutual exchange: between Smithsonian correspondents every-
where of printed books on subjects of interest to the student
in any branch of human knowledge.

The Institution adopted the custom of voluntarily present-
ing its publications to learned societies in the year 1849, when
it sent a copy of Volume I of the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge to each of one hundred and seventy-three for-
eign institutions. The recipients of these copies subsequently
sent their publications in exchange, and these reciprocal con-
tributions aided in forming the nucleus of the library of the
Smithsonian Institution.

As the Institution increased the publication of works on
scientific subjects, the exchange with its correspondents
abroad also increased, and the facilities for forwarding and
distributing the parcels soon led to requests being made by
other learned establishments in the United States for their
publications to be forwarded abroad by the Institution in the
same manner. The purpose of the donor of the Smithsonian |
fund, ‘‘the diffusion of knowledge among men,” could not, in
the minds of the Regents, be better promulgated than by

i ae! iat Uf ae we tte = a > eee ‘.. a
o ¥ a lo rs i : » = be ve ay oe eat’ eM a .
7 e N *, 7 ie” 3 _— BNE, - aL ’
a 7 > : " 7 : é rol} os
~ Ae, _
> = ’ s
_ th
nah ¥
Z f ¥ ’ oe
=e S ‘
i ~
> ‘
os
: ls - -
- >
eg 7 - :
_ w a a] . «
(Az he 7» 7 ‘
Ube > 7 :
“AS 7
ie = x ‘. i c { Pp
ae ‘
a .
1 ee ip ae
as" -
i a =S x _
. - _
- a :
- a » ‘ .
_ 5

Smithsonian Report, 1901, PLATE IV.

HART REPRESENTING THE RELATIVE NUMBER OF PARCELS EX-

CHANGED BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER COUNTRIES
DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. EXCHANGES WERE
CONDUCTED WITH 130 COUNTRIES. THOSE AGGREGATING LESS THAN
1000 PACKAGES ARE OMITTED. THE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF EACH PARCEL
WAS 3 1-2 POUNDS. TOTAL WEIGHT HANDLED DURING THE YEAR
414,277 POUNDS.

Germany .
Great Britain .

France .

Austria-Hungary .

Italy

Russia .

Mexico.

Belgium

British America .

Switzerland

Argentina .

Netherlands .

Norway

Sweden.

Brazil

India

Japan

Victoria

Costa Rica

Denmark .

Spain
Chile

Each Cotumn Equat To 1,500 Packaces.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

devoting a part of the income of the fund to this purpose,
and from that time to the present the Institution has assigned
space in the Smithsonian building and has appropriated a con-
siderable part of its annual revenue to the support of the
system of International Exchanges.

The United States Government participated to a large
extent in the benefits of the exchange system of the Smith-
sonian Institution for many years without contributing to its
support, until the burden became so great that Congress in
1881 made an appropriation of $3,000 for the purpose, and
since then has made larger provision for the service from year
to year until $24,000 was granted for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1900, and a like amount was appropriated for the
last year.

Notwithstanding the support of Congress in aid of the
exchange service during recent years, none of the appropria-
tions cave been quite adequate to the growth of the service
and to provide for improvements necessary to expedite
exchange transmissions, which, within the last two years, have
been unusually large. In order to accomplish these improve-
ments it has been necessary to substitute fast mail steamers
for the slower ones upon which the ocean transportation com-
panies usually granted the Institution the courtesy of free
freight, and in demanding the best possible facilities it has
been necessary in most instances to pay the customary rates.

The field covered by correspondents of the Smithsonian
Institution and the contributors and recipients of its ex-
changes is now represented by one hundred and forty-eight
countries, covering every part of the civilized world and
extending to several countries where enlightenment has only
commenced to manifest itself. In the latter are some of the
most appreciative correspondents of the service.

Outside the United States the Smithsonian correspondents
now number twenty-seven thousand five hundred and fifty-six
(27,556), and including this country there is a grand total
of thirty-five thousand seven hundred and five (85,705), an
ageregate increase of seventeen hundred and fifty-four (1,754)
during the year.

The parcels received for transmission this year number
one hundred and twenty-one thousand and sixty (121,060)

sm 1901——4

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

(many of which contained several separate publications), rep-
resenting an increase over the previous year of seven thousand
four hundred and ninety-seven (7,497). The relative amount
of exchanges with various countries is graphically shown in
the accompanying chart.

A total of sixty-two thousand three hundred and fourteen
(62,314), or more than half the number of parcels delivered
to the International Exchanges, were either received from the
departments and bureaus of the United States Government
for transmission abroad, or were received for them from
abroad, and constituted fully 75 per cent of the total weight
of all transmissions for the year. This branch of the service
is then of value to the Library of Congress and the depart-
mental and sectional libraries of every branch of the Goy-
ernment.

In his last report the Secretary presented an account of his
visit to London and Berlin during the summer of 1900 for
the purpose of impressing upon the British and German
Governments the desire of the Institution that they should
each establish an international exchange bureau, or at least
arrange for the transmission and distribution of exchanges so
far as this country is concerned. This work has been carried
on between the United States and each of these countries
from the beginning at the expense of the Institution, which
has paid all expenses, even to the employing of a salaried
agent in both countries. As yet no definite action has been
taken by either Government.

Although subsequently to the conclusion of the Brussels
treaty in 1886, France had established an international ex-
change bureau, it had not provided sufficient means to conduct
it in a manner to insure prompt distribution of parcels. The
Secretary, accompanied by Mr. Henry Vignaud, of the United
States embassy, had an interview with Monsieur Liard, chief
of the libraries of France, who promised to recommend to the
French Chambers an increase in the appropriation for inter-
national exchanges. The Secretary is pleased to note that a
substantial improvement has recently been made in the time
required for the distribution of exchanges in France, and has
every reason to hope that the interests of the exchange serv-
ice at large are about to benefit by improvements introduced
at his request, on the efficient recommendation of M. Liard,
in the French system.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5L

Whenever it has been possible for a representative of the
Smithsonian Institution to visit the exchange bureaus of other
countries, the information obtained concerning the systems
and customs practiced elsewhere and a personal acquaintance
with the officers in immediate charge of exchanges has been
of great benefit. As the official exchange bureaus of Italy
and Switzerland had never been visited by a representative of
the Institution, and as the agencies at Vienna and Budapest
had not been inspected since the autumn of 1897, Mr. W. Irving
Adams, chief clerk of the International Exchange Service, was
directed to visit and familiarize himself with all of them dur-
ing the last summer. His report, given in the Appendix,
conveys the assurance that the cordial relations hitherto exist-
ing between these agencies and the Smithsonian Institution
will henceforth be more firmly established than ever; and an
increase in the contributions from Italy and Switzerland to
the United States Government institutions, especially to the
Library of Congress, is already apparent.

NECROLOGY.
WILLIAM LYNE WILSON.

At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution held January 23, 1901, the Hon. J. B. Henderson,
the chairman of the Exeentive Committee, made the following
remarks in memory of Mr. Wilson:

It is due to Mr. Wilson that a word of tribute to his mem-
ory should come from the Executive Committee of the Board
of Regents. His service asa member of the Committee was of
short duration, but long enough to endear him to those who
survive.

While Mr. Wilson possessed, in an eminent degree, the
power of speech—while indeed he was an orator, gifted with
the charm and beauty of genuine eloquence—his chief title to
remembrance will rest, not upon his words, but rather upon
what he did and what he was.

Non opus est verbis, credite rebus. Blessed with a liberal
education, he enjoyed it not alone, but became an educator of
usefulness and marked distinction. Asa lawyer he took high
rank, and placed himself among the most distinguished jurists
of his State. For twelve years he served an intelligent con-
stituency in the Congress of the United States, where his
record is marked by all that characterizes the highest order
of statesmanship—honesty, purity, devotion, and intelligence.

As Postmaster-General in the Cabinet of President Cleve-
land, he gave renewed evidence of ability and industry, and

59 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

also the highest assurance of capacity for the conduct of the
most difficult administrative duties.

With this but inadequate retrospect of what he did, let us
turn for a moment to what he was. In the first place, he was
what the poet justly designates as the ‘* noblest work of God,”
an honest man. Beyond the wisdom of the philosophers and -
the classical lore of the universities, he had that pure and better
teaching, an educated conscience. And to this unerring tribunal
he submitted the conduct of his life. And thus it was that
the observance of the golden rule brought him no burden, but
was a part of his existence. He esteemed his friend as he
esteemed himself. In the language of the Greek philosopher,
his friend was ‘‘ another I.”

It has been said that great men are without ostentation and
selfish pride. If this be a mark of greatness, Mr. Wilson’s
gentleness and simplicity of character gave him the highest
place among the truly great. It is said, and said with truth,
that kindness is the only key with which the casket of the
human heart can be opened. Mr. Wilson had no enemies,
and his kindness and lovable character explain the fact.

Tennyson was right when he said,

’Tis only noble to be good.
Kind hearts are more than coronets,
And simple faith than Norman blood.

The Board adopted the following resolutions.

Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution is called upon to mourn the death, on October 17,
1900, of William Lyne Wilson, a member of the board from
1884 to 1888 and from 1896, and a member of its executive
committee:

Be it resolved, That the Regents place upon record the
expression of their sense of loss in the passing away of a col-
league, the simplicity and integrity of whose life gave to the
country a statesman of the first rank and to the people a noble
example. To the Institution he brought the twofold qualities
of the man of affairs andthe man of learning, while his atten-
tion to his duties was unremitting, even in sickness, and his
counsel was always most wise and helpful. As a college presi-
dent, as a leader in Congress, he was conspicuous for his
fidelity to the highest ideals. In his death the country has
lost a distinguished citizen, the Institution a wise counselor,
and the members of the board a colleague and friend, whose
especially lovable nature won the hearts of all with whom he
came in contact.

Resolved, That this resolution be entered as a part of the
journal of the board and a copy transmitted to Mrs. Wilson.

Respectfully submitted.

S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX TO THE SECRETARY'S REPORT.

APPENDIX I.
“REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Str: I have the honor to report as follows regarding the condition and
operations of the National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1901:

While having as its primary function to preserve and classify the Goy-
ernment collections, to which large additions were made during the year,
the National Museum is best known to the public from its educational
side, and as a source of information on scientific subjects. As one of the
principal points of interest at the national capital, it is visited by large
numbers of persons from all parts of the country, the attendance during
the past year having been above 216,000, which is about the average.
Many thousands who have not the opportunity of coming to Washington
are benefited by its publications sent to them directly or accessible in the
public libraries. Upward of 700 lots of specimens were received at the
Museum for identification and report, besides some 8,000 letters requesting
information on a great diversity of scientific topics. The amount of dupli-
cate material contributed to educational establishments, large and small,
in various parts of the country, and used in connection with the exchanges,
has aggregated over 10,000 objects. At the close of the year scarcely any
of the regular educational sets of duplicates remained on hand, but a new
series of 100 sets of marine invertebrates was in course of preparation. It
has also been possible to grant facilities to many students for conducting
investigations along their special lines of research, and to others material
has been sent as loans, to enable them to carry on their work at their home
laboratories.

One of the most noteworthy accomplishments of the year has been the
fitting up, under the direction of the Secretary, for the special benefit of
very young people, of the main floor of the south tower of the Smithsonian
building, adjacent to the Bird Hall, which has been designated the Chil-
dren’s Room. The floor is of marble mosaic, with a border of Celtic design.
The walls have been painted in several shades of green and paneled, with
a view of some time adding pictures illustrating curious features of animal
and plant life. The ceiling is decorated with a trellis and vine, through
which are glimpses of sky and cloud, and of bright-plumaged birds.

The main exhibition consists of strange and attractive specimens of birds,
mammals, insects, shellfish, sponges, corals, minerals, and fossils, and
occupies two cases surrounding the room and built so low that even the
smallest child can examine the objects on the upper shelves. In the cen-
ter of the room is a large aquarium with fresh-water fishes, while hanging
from the ceiling are several brass cages with bright colored and singing

birds.
53

54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The object in planning this room bas been to excite the wonder and
curiosity of children, to inspire them unconsciously with a love for nature,
and no feature has been admitted which might tend to defeat this purpose.
No Latin or technical labels puzzle the children, but every object is
described in the plainest language.

Organization and staf’.—The organization of the Museum, 2s modified in
1897, comprises an administrative office and the three scientific depart-
ments of anthropology, biology, and geology. Each department is in
charge of a head curator and is composed of several divisions, of which
anthropology has 8, biology 9, and geology 3, while there are also 18 sub-
divisions or sections.

Under the general direction of the Secretary, who is the keeper ex officio
of the Museum, administrative matters have been in the immediate charge
of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

At the close of the year the scientific staff consisted, besides the 3
head curators, of 18 curators, 12 assistant curators, 14 custodians, 10 aids,
4 associates, and 2 collaborators, making a total of 63 persons, of whom,
however, only about one-half were under salary from the Museum, the
remainder serving in a volunteer or honorary capacity, though nearly all
of the latter were in the employ of other bureaus of the Government.

The Museum has suffered the loss of one of its most valued collaborators
in the death, on September 15, 1900, of Mr. 8. R. Koehler, Honorary
Curator of the Section of Graphic Arts, who since 1887 had rendered most
important services in building up the extensive print collection. He was
also connected with the Boston Museum of Fine Arts as curator of prints.

Dr. W. L. Ralph, custodian of the Section of Birds’ Eggs since the
death of Maj. Charles Bendire, has been made Honorary Curator of that
section, and besides giving generously of his time, he has, by liberal per-
sonal donations, greatly increased the size and value of the interesting
collections under his charge. Mr. F. A. Lucas, curator of Comparative
Anatomy, has been designated Acting Curator of Vertebrate Fossils. Miss
Harriet Richardson has been made a collaborator in the Division of
Marine Invertebrates, and Mr. Peter Fireman has received a temporary
appointment as chemical geologist.

Buildings.—Attention has been directed in each succeeding report to the
crowded condition of the two main buildings occupied by the Museum
collections, and to the necessity of increasing from year to year the extent
of the outside quarters required for storage and workshop purposes. Dur-
ing the past year Congress has again been called upon to provide for the
rental of an additional building. Inconvenient as it is to administer upon
the collections scattered and stored in this manner, the essential point is
the danger to which the material is thus subjected—material which can
not be replaced and which constitutes a record of the greatest importance
to the Government archives.

Among the alterations and improvements made in the Museum build-
ing, the most noteworthy has been the fitting up of a new lecture hall in
accordance with the provision of Congress, the room selected for the purpose
being the East North Range, at one side of the main entrance. The only
changes made in the room itself have been to substitute a terrazzo floor

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

for the old wooden one and to paint the walls and ceiling, which has been
done in very tasteful and pleasing colors. The furnishings consist of the
necessary platform, chairs, lantern, curtain, and stand, and adjustable
screens at the windows. It isexpected that the facilities thus afforded will
often be utilized for the delivery of scientific lectures bearing upon the
rich and varied collections in the Museum.

Some years ago a number of electric arc lamps were temporarily installed
in the Museum building, the only attempt that had been made up to the
present time to light its exhibition halls. The sundry civil appropriation
act for 1901 carried an item of $3,500 for beginning a permanent instal-
lation of wires for lighting the entire building. This work is now well
under way and will be completed during the next fiscal year under an
additional appropriation sufficient to cover the small wiring and the pur-
chase of the necessary fixtures and lamps.

The roof of the Museum building, never entirely satisfactory, and
showing many weak points during recent years, has been repaired and
strengthened to the extent that its character warranted, under the advice
of a competent engineer, and it is hoped that it can be made to answer for
a few years longer.

{t is noted with pleasure that the last of the wooden floors, with which,
through motives of economy, the Museum was originally provided, have
finally given place to a more substantial character of pavement. In antic-
ipation of the appropriation made at the last session of Congress for
improying the heating system, plans have been prepared for the instal-
lation of a pair of more powerful boilers, sufficient for supplying steam to
both buildings, whereby it is expected to obtain a more reliable and
economical service.

The furniture acquired during the year consisted of nine exhibition and
45 storage cases, besides 578 other pieces of furnishings.

Additions to the collections.—The new material received embraces 1,470
separate accessions, including about 180,000 specimens, and a census of the
collections at the end of the year shows a total of about 4,995,000 specimens
now catalogued in the Museum books.

The Department of Anthropology has received several collections of
interest: From the Indian tribes of the Great Plains and the Interior
Basin material of ethnological importance was obtained, consisting of
articles of dress, implements, products of industry, and weapons, gathered
by Capt. Paul B. Carter,U.S. A. A series of ethnological and archzeolog-
ical objects was collected from the Mission Indians of southern California
by Mr. Horatio N. Rust, with the special view of aiding the Museum
ethnologists in distinguishing between the arts and industries of the Indians
belonging to the Shoshonean and Yuman missions, and it therefore
becomes a type of southern Californian material already in the Museum.
About 150 specimens of costume, implements, utensils, and products
of the primitive manufactures of the Chilkat Indians in southeastern
Alaska were secured by Lieut. G. T. Emmons, U.S. N., and they have
been largely used in preparing lay figures, constituting a family group of
this tribe. To students of aboriginal American culture a series of seven
facsimile reproductions of ancient Mexican codices, or books, presented by
the Duc de Loubat, will furnish valuable information.

56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The anthropological department has likewise been enriched by material
' relating to South American tribes. Thus, through the courtesy of Dr.
Orville A. Derby, director of the Geographical and Geological Survey of Sao
Paulo, Brazil, Rey. W. A. Cook collected for the Museum a large number
of ethnological objects from the Bororo Indians of Mato Grosso. These
Indians belong to the extended South American family, the Tupi-Guarani,
-and their primitive mode of life as well as the picturesqueness of their
feather costumes and ornaments give a special importance to the collec-
tion, coming from an area hitherto but meagerly represented in the
Museum.

Material of the same general character was gathered by Prof. J. B.
Steere, of Ann Arbor, Mich., from the Pamamary Indians and other tribes
about the Upper Purus River in Brazil. The word ‘“Pamamary”? signifies
““berry eaters,’’ and as Professor Steere made a special study of these peo-
ple on account of their wild habit of life, the objects have special worth
in the series of industrial products. These Indians have not been classi-
fied linguistically, but form an outstanding group. Through an exchange
with the Field Columbian Museum there was secured a selection from the
ethnological material pertaining to the various tribes on the Upper Para-
guay River exhibited by Dr. Emil Hassler and the Brazilian Commission
at the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. These are chiefly articles
of dress gorgeously decorated with feathers, the savages of that region
being very fond of arraying themselves with feathers of most brilliant
colors. There are also numerous specimens of textiles. The tribes rep-
resented by this large and varied collection are the Apiaca (Tupian),
Angaytes, Cadoca (Guaycurian), Cainguas, Chamacoco Brabos, Chama-
coco Manos, Cordovas, Cuximanapanas, Guanas (Arawakan), Guaranis
(Tupian), Guatos (Tapuyan), Lenguas (Lenguan), Matacos (Matacoan),
Omiris, Parecis (Arawakan), and Payaguas (Payaguan).

Some interesting ethnological objects from California, Alaska, Hawaii,
and the Fiji Islands were secured during the year, including various im-
plements and utensils illustrating the early tribes of the Pacific coast; and
especially conspicuous among them is a series of obsidian implements of
remarkable size and execution.

From Miss M. A. Shufeldt, of Morristown, N. J., the Museum has
obtained a series of ethnological material from China, Japan, and Korea,
associated with historical events in which her father, Admiral Robert W.
Shufeldt, U. 8. N., played an important part, many of the vo‘ jects being
of considerable extrinsic value as well as of historical interest.

Among the objects received during the year from the Philippine Islands
may be mentioned those presented by Gen. James M. Bell, U.S. V.,
which include three pieces of Bicol armor, a signal torch, several spears,
bows and arrows, a war club, and a shield. Dr. W. L. Abbott, who for
» so many years has enriched the Museum with the results of his extensive
explorations in the East, has now contributed a large and varied ethno-
logical collection from the Andaman and Nicobar islands, a particular
interest attaching to these groups for the reason that the inhabitants,
especially those of the Andamans, are among the most primitive of man-
kind. These people belong to the ‘‘ Negritos,’’ or small negroids of south-
eastern Asia, and are allied to the Semangs of the Malayan peninsula and

ee

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

the Aetas of the Philippines. Dr. Abbott’s collections are therefore very
valuable, since they represent some of the very earliest stages of invention.

Two altars in combined Gothic, Renaissance, and Rococo style from a
church in Hildesheim, Germany, have been added to the series illustra-
ting ecclesiastical art, which it is hoped will be prepared for exhibition
before very long.

The American history collections haye been considerably increased
during the year, perhaps the most noteworthy additions being swords,
pistols, medals, spurs, and shoulder straps contributed by Mrs. George W.
Morgan as personal memorials of her husband, General Morgan, who
received them in recognition of his services in the Mexican and civil wars.
Several telegraph instruments and insulators of historic interest were
donated by J. H. Bunnell & Co., of New York City, and one of the origi-
nal cylinders and other parts of the celebrated locomotive, the ‘‘Stour-
bridge Lion,’’ were presented by Mr. G. T. Slade, general manager of the
Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad Company.

In the division of prehistoric archzeology 281 articles of flint from an
ancient Egyptian quarry, presented by Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr, of London,
are of special interest as illustrative of the quarrying and stone-shaping
art of the primitive Egyptians. The specimens consist entirely of ‘‘reject-
age,’’ or partially shaped failures and broken pieces that result from the
manufacture of knives and other implements by the flaking processes, and
closely resemble the rejectage from American flint quarry sites. A num-
ber of Babylonian seals and some inscribed earthenware bowls were
acquired durirg the year, many of the seals being rare and of great inter-
est, while the inscribed bowls are said to reveal a peculiar phase in the
development of religious ideas.

Among the accessions of prehistoric objects from localities within the
United States may be mentioned as of special interest the stone implements
and other relics, principally from Maryland, presented by Mr. J. D. McGuire,
of Ellicott City, Maryland, consisting of more than 7,000 specimens, and
perhaps the most important collection yet made in the Chesapeake region
as the result of the energies of one person. Also there was acquired the
Steiner series of more than 18,000 stone implements obtained from an
ancient village site on Big Kiokee Creek, Columbia County, Georgia. Mr.
Wm. H. Holmes, the head curator of the Department of Anthropology,
secured nearly 500 archaeological specimens from an ancient quarry in
Union County, Illinois. He describes these objects as representing not
only the rejected materials resulting from manufacture, including the vari-
ous forms of unfinished and broken implements and the flakage, but also
the tools used in quarrying and shaping, and in sharpening the implements
used and made.

In the Department of Biology several divisions report the receipt of ac-
cessions equaling or surpassing in interest and value those of the preceding
year. One of the most important accessions was from Dr. W. L. Abbott,
and included large numbers of mammals, birds, reptiles, mollusks, insects,
and marine inyertebrates from the Natuna Islands, the Mergui Archipel-
ago, and the coast of Tringanu, Malay Peninsula. The value of this mate-
rial will be appreciated from the fact that as many as twenty new species
have already been noted among the mammals alone. The collections of

58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Dr. E. A. Mearns were also important, being largely from type localities
along the Kissimee River and elsewhere in Florida, and comprised 600
birds and 300 mammals, besides birds’ eggs and reptiles, and also a fine
series of the skulls and skeletons of the soft-shelled turtle, Platypeltis spinifer.
He also contributed a series of the mammals occurring in Rhode Island.

Six important lots of marine invertebrates were transferred tothe Museum
by the United States Fish Commission, namely: the Ophiurans of the
Agassiz- Albatross cruise of 1891 to the Galapagos Islands and the west.
coast of Central America; the Japanese crustaceans collected by the Alba-
tross in 1900; the corals obtained during the South Sea Expedition of the
same vessel in 1899-1900; a collection of crayfishes from West Virginia;
the crustaceans and echinoderms obtained by the Princeton University
Arctic Expedition of 1899, and the corals gathered in Porto Rican waters
by the steamer Fish Hawk in 1899. The Fish Commission has also depos-
ited in the Museum the types of the new species of fishes collected on this
latter expedition.

A valuable series of types of Hawaiian fishes collected by Dr. O. P. Jen-
kins, of the Leland Stanford Junior University, and Mr. T. I. Wood, has
been contributed by the former, while the university presented an inter-
esting collection of Japanese fishes.

Oriental shells, representing about 500 species and regarded: as the most
interesting addition to the Division of Mollusks, were received from Dr.
W. Eastlake, of Tokyo, Japan. A collection of the shells of Haiti and
Jamaica, embracing over 200 species, was gathered by Mr. J. B. Hender-
son, jr., of Washington, District of Columbia, and Mr. Charles T. Simpson,
of the National Museum, Mr. Henderson generously paying the expenses
of the trip. Some Naiades from Central and South America were received
from Dr. H. von Ihering, of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and are of special value as
supplying many deficiencies in the Museum collections.

The Museum has been fortunate in acquiring the private collection of
Mr. Robert Ridgway, curator of the Division of Birds, representing about
1,100 species of North and Central American birds, many of them in the
first plumages, and all in an exceedingly fine state of preservation. A rep-
resentative series of 56 birds from Singapore has been donated by Mr.
C. B. Kloss, and an excellent collection of the nest and eggs of Philippine
birds, accompanied in many instances by specimens of the birds them-
selves, has been presented by Capt. H. C. Benson, U.S. A. Four Birds
of Paradise, including the rare Pteridophora alberti, a species with extraor-
dinary plumes, were also secured. Dr. W. L. Ralph has added to his
many acts of generosity by donating rare birds’ eggs, including specimens
of the eggs of the Everglade Kite and Henslow’s Sparrow.

The Division of Insects received several important accessions, the most
noteworthy of which includes more than 15,000 specimens of European
lepidoptera, a collection which was once the property of the late Dr. O.
Hofmann.

The National Herbarium has been enriched by the acquisition of the
collection of lichens belonging to the late Henry H. Willey, of New Bed-
ford, Massachusetts, a well-known specialist in this group of plants; also
of collections of 917 plants from Georgia, 617 from Missouri, 500 from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

Florida, and 813 from Mississippi and Florida. Messrs. William Palmer
and J. H. Riley, of the National Museum, gathered more than 300 plants
in Cuba, while Messrs. C. L. Pollard and W. R. Maxon, attached to the
botanical staff of the Museum, secured at least 1,600 specimens in Ala-
bama, Georgia, and Tennessee.

All the divisions in the Department of Geology have received important
additions, the Geological Survey, as in past years, being one of the princi-
pal contributors. Among the material transmitted by the Survey was a
type series of 386 specimens of asphalt and associated rocks, collected in
various parts of the United States by Mr. G. H. Eldridge, as well as some
rocks and ores from the Ten Mile District, and Silverton, Pikes Peak, and
Cripple Creek quadrangles, Colorado.

From the Geological Survey the following valuable collections of fossils
have also been received: Three hundred and seventy-five specimens of
pre-Cambrian invertebrate fossils, including species figured and described
by the Director of the Survey, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, in the Bulletin of the
Geological Society of America; a collection of 2,370 specimens from the
Cambrian, consisting mainly of brachiopods; 2,425 Ordovician fossils from
southern Nevada and near El! Paso, Texas, and 114 Silurian and 1,550 Devo-
nian specimens from the Helderberg and Oriskany beds of Indian Terri-
tory and the higher Devonian of Colorado and New Mexico. A portion
of the material last mentioned was described by Dr. George H. Girty in
the Nineteenth Annual Report of the Survey. Mention should also be
made of the receipt of large collections of Cambrian fossils from Russia,
Norway, Sweden, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, obtained for the
Museum by Dr. Walcott and his assistants, Mr. M. Schmalensee and > Mr.
S. Ward Loper. Mr. Schuchert, of the National Museum, made extensive
collections of Carboniferous, Silurian, and Devonian fossils in New Bruns-
wick, the Gaspé region in Quebec, western New York, Maryland, and
eastern Pennsylvania.

An excellent collection of cephalopod mollusks was acquired during the
year, and a remarkably fine slab of crinoid, Uintacrinus socialis, from the
Upper Cretaceous of Logan County, Kansas, was presented by Mr. Frank
Springer, of Las Vegas, New Mexico. There was also secured the Randall
collection containing upward of 3,600 specimens of Upper Devonian and
Lower Carboniferous fossils. A fairly complete skeleton of an adult female
mastodon was excavated in Michigan for the Museum. The skull of an
Elotherium and other vertebrate fossils from the Bad Lands of Dakota
were presented by Dr. J. R. Walker, of the Pine Ridge Agency. A nearly
complete, though composite, skeleton of the New Zealand Emeus crassus
was purchased, and a series of Moa bones was acquired by exchange from
F. W. Hutton, of New Zealand.

Several valuable lots of fossil plants were received in exchange. Thus,
the University of Kansas transmitted 150 Carboniferous and Permian fossil
plants; 173 plants from the Middle and Upper Miocene and the Upper
Pliocene of Germany were received from the Natural Science Society of
the Museum Senckenberg in Frankfort, and a small series of fossil plants
from the Triassic of York County, Pennsylvania, was transmitted by
Prof. A. Wanner, of York, Pennsylvania.

60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The meteorite collection has been increased by purchase and through
exchange more than in any previous year. One of the most important
accessions was a stony meteorite weighing 2,049 grams, which fell at Felix,
Alabama, in May, 1900. It was collected by Mr. J. W. Coleman and trans-
mitted to the Museum by Mr. R. D. Sturtevant, of Augustine, Alabama.

Important donations of minerals were as follows:

A quantity of Georgia corundum in masses and crystals, by the Inter-
national Emery Company, of Chester, Massachusetts; a series of zinc ores
and associated minerals from Missouri, by Mr. F. W. Crosby; large speci-
mens of mohawkite and domeykite, with native silver, from the Wolverine
copper mine, Houghton County, Michigan, by Mr.-Fred Smith; 6 nuggets
of platinum from Trinity County, California, by the Welsbach Company,
through its president, Mr. W. E. Barrows; a fine large nodule of priceite,
by Mr. W. C. Lake, of Harbor, Oregon, and 12 specimens of turquoise and
2 of opal, by Mr. H. P. Petersen, of Washington, District of Columbia.
Among other additions was a series of specimens of native silver and cop-
per from Houghton County, Michigan, and 3 samples of beach gold from
Cape Nome, Alaska.

Exploration.—Some of the most important accessions of the year were
the results of explorations carried on by members of the Museum staff
and by other scientific bureaus of the Government. Mention has already
been made of several collections secured in this manner.

Mr. W. H. Holmes, head curator of Anthropology, accompanied by Dr.
W. A. Phillips, of the Field Columbian Museum, examined the extensive
flint quarries in the vicinity of Mill Creek, Union County, Illinois, where
he obtained a large number of implements and quarry rejects. In June,

1901, Dr. Walter Hough began investigations in the Pueblo country in
conjunction with Mr. Peter G. Gates, of Pasadena, California, intending
to continue the work during the entire summer, chiefly at the expense of
Mr. Gates, the collections to be divided between him and the National
Museum. The collections made by Prof. J. B. Steere, of Ann Arbor,
Michigan, on the Upper Purus River, in Brazil; by Mr. William A. Cook,
near the headwaters of the Paraguay River, and by Lieut. G. T. Emmons,
U.S. N., in British Columbia and Alaska, have already been referred to.
The expeditions to the Philippines by Col. F. F. Hilder, and to Sonora,
Mexico, by Mr. W J McGee, both of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
for the Government board of the Pan-American Exposition, resulted very
successfully, and the material obtained will, it is understood, be transferred
to the Museum at the close of the exposition.

Dr. Roland Steiner continued his explorations of quarries, workshops,
and village sites near Grovetown, Georgia, and at the mouth of Shoulder-
bone Creek and on Little Kiokee River, where he procured many thou-
sands of specimens, all of which have been deposited in the Museum.

During a stay of four months in Florida, Dr. E. A. Mearns, U. 8. A.,
gave his attention to the collecting of birds and mammals for the Museum.
Mammals were also collected in Italy, Sicily, and southern France by Mr.
Dane Coolidge, and in the vicinity of Peterboro, New York, by Mr. Gerrit
S. Miller, jr. Mr. W. H. Ashmead was detailed in the spring of 1901 to
obtain entomological material in the Hawaiian Islands, in conjunction with

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

an expedition sent there by the U.S. Fish Commission, and Dr. J. E.
Benedict accompanied the Fish Commission steamer Fish Hawk during an
exploration of the fishing banks in the Gulf of Mexico opposite Anclote
River, Florida. Mr. J. B. Henderson, jr., of Washington, who has on
many former occasions manifested his interest in the Museum, made at
his own expense a collecting trip to Haiti and Jamaica, taking with him
Mr. C. T. Simpson, of the Division of Mollusks. Much valuable mollus-
can material was obtained.

Messrs. Barton A. Bean and William H. King collected fishes at Key
West, Fla. The explorations in Cuba for the Pan-American Exposition,
begun in 1900 by Messrs. Palmer and Riley, also of the Museum staff,
were completed early in the year. Botanical explorations with interest-
ing results were conducted in the Southern States by Messrs. C. L. Pollard
and W. R. Maxon.

Important accessions through explorations by the Geological Survey
have already been alluded to. Mr. F. A. Lucas, of the Museum, and Mr.
Alban Stewart visited several localities where mastodon bones had been
reported, with the object of securing a skeleton for the Pan-American
Exposition. Only a single fairly preserved one was obtained, however, in
a locality in southern Michigan. Mr. Charles Schuchert spent consider-
able time collecting fossils in Canada, also in the vicinity of Buffalo, N. Y., in
Maryland, and in eastern Pennsylvania, the object of his inquiries being
to secure data for fixing more definitely the line separating the Silurian
and Devonian systems in America.

Exchanges.—Much material had been received through the exchange of
duplicate specimens with scientific establishments and individuals both at
home and abroad. In view of the small amount of money available for
purchases, this method of obtaining collections has become of considerable
importance, especially with reference to foreign countries, from which
gratuitous contributions are rarely to be expected and to which the scien-
tific explorations of this Government seldom extend. Transactions of this
character were conducted through the year with the following institutions
and individuals abroad:

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England; Museum of Natural History,
Paris, France; Musée de St. Germain, Seine-et-Oise, France; Zoological
Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark; Museum Senckenberg, Frankfort-on-
the-Main, Germany; Royal Zoological and Anthropological-Ethnograph-
ical Museum, Dresden, Germany; Geological Institute of Kiel, Germany;
Museum of Natural History, Berlin, Germany; Zoological Museum of the
University of Upsala, Upsala, Sweden; Museum of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia; Royal Geological Museum, Leiden,
Holland; Royal Zoological Museum, Turin, Italy; Royal Botanic Gardens,
Sibpur, India; Australian Museugn, Sydney, New South Wales; Canterbury
Museum, Christchurch, New Zealand; National Museum, Montevideo,
Uruguay; Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil; National Museum, Mexico,
Mexico; Geological Institute, Mexico, Mexico; and with Mr. B. W. Priest,
Keepham, England; Mr. W. Kirkaldy, Wimbledon, England; Prof. Henry
Balfour, Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, England; Mr. Edward Lovett, Croy-
don, England; Mr. C. T. Druery, London, England; Prof. M. Gandoger,

62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Anas (Rhone), Villefranche, France; Mr. E. Andre, Gray (Haute-Saone),
France; Dr. Krantz, Bonn, Germany; Dr. E. Schellwien, Provinzial
Museum, Konigsberg, Prussia; Dr. Fred. Berwerth, Vienna, Austria; Mr.
Carl Wohlgemuth, Bozen, Tyrol, Austria; Prof. W. C. Brégger, Univer-
sity of Christiania, Christiania, Norway; Mr. G. van Roon, Rotterdam,
Holland; Mr. Paul Narbel, Cour, Lausanne, Switzerland; Dr. I. Comabella,
Barcelona, Spain; Mr. W. R. Billings, Ottawa, Canada.

Installation. —The crowded condition of the two buildings occupied by
the National Museum prevents any extensive advances in connection with
either the exhibition or the working collection of specimens. Improve-
ments are constantly being made in methods of installation, in labeling,
and in the substitution of a better quality of specimens in the display cases
wheneyer such are received, but the growth of the Museum in directions
apparent to the public and the specialist has come practically to a stand-
still. There is room left only for storage.

One of the galleries allotted to the Department of Anthropology for
exhibition purposes has of necessity been cut off from the public and
made into a temporary laboratory. Considerable progress has been made
in this department in the preparation of case labels. Some changes have
been made in the section of Biblical Antiquities. The collections in the
section of American history and certain exhibits in the division of Pre-
historic Archeology have been largely rearranged.

The South East Range, assigned to the exhibition of reptiles, amphibians,
and fishes, has been entirely renovated, a terrazzo floor having been laid
and the walls and ceiling appropriately painted. The installation, how-
ever, is not yet completed. Casts of fishes now occupy upright cases along
the west wall, while the reptiles and amphibians are shown in a series of
floor cases with sloping tops. Some South American and Old World species
in alcohol will shortly be added. A small series of deep-sea fishes, supple-
mented by colored figures, has been placed on exhibition. The exhibit
of game birds.in the entrance hall of the Smithsonian building is being
entirely reconstructed, so as to illustrate, in groups, the parent and young
birds in an environment charaeteristic of their haunts. At the close of
the year four such groups had been finished. Owing to the imperfect
condition of the cases in which the large regular series of birds is installed,
it has been necessary to employ a taxidermist continuously in overhauling
the collection, in order to preserve the specimens from deterioration. These
cases, Which have been in use for about twenty-five years, are now neither
dust nor insect proof.

Perhaps the most important, or at least a most interesting work of instal-
lation completed during the year, is the Children’s Room, mentioned on a
previous page. '

New labels have been prepared for the American mammals occupying
the large wall-case on the east side of “the South Hall, and a series of
enlarged models, representing the structure of feathers, has been added to
the collection in the Division of Comparative Anatomy.

The display collections of the Department of Geology were never in a
more satisfactory condition than at present, and, except in the Sections of
Paleobotany and Vertebrate Paleontology, they are well arranged and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

labeled. There is on hand, howeyer, a very large amount of original
material, as represented in the Marsh collection of fossil vertebrates and
the Lacoe collection of fossil plants, which requires time for its prepara-
tion, but from which the exhibition halls will ultimately receive some of
their most novel and interesting features.

Publications.—The publications issued during the year comprise the
second volume of the Annual Report of the Museum for 1897, the Annual
Reports for 1898 and 1899, Volume 22 of the Proceedings, and Part 1 of
Special Bulletin No. 4, besides a large number of papers from the Reports
and Proceedings printed in separate form.

Volume II of the Report for 1897 contains a biographical account of Dr.
G. Brown Goode, the late Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in charge of the National Museum, together with reprints of several
of his more important papers on museums and on the history of scientific
progress in America, and is illustrated with portraits of more than 100 men
who have been prominent in the scientific advancement of the country.
The Appendix to the Report for 1898 consists of a single paper by the late
Prof. E. D. Cope on the crocodilians, lizards, and snakes of North Amer-
ica, comprising 1,100 pages of text, with 37 full-page plates and 347 text
figures. The Report for 1899 contains five scientific papers based upon
collections in the Museum.

Volume 22 of the Proceedings includes papers numbered from 1179 to
1205, the Synopsis of the Naiades, by Mr. Charles T. Simpson, being espe-
cially worthy of note.

Part 1 of Special Bulletin No. 4 is the first of a series of papers on the
American Hydroids, by Mr. C. C. Nutting, professor of zoology in the
University of Iowa, and was issued early in the fall. It treats of the Plu-
mularidee, is in quarto form, and contains 34 plates.

Dr. W. L. Ralph has undertaken to continue the extensive work on the
Life Histories of North American Birds, begun some years ago by the late
Maj. Charles E. Bendire, U. 8. A., and of which two volumes have been
printed as Special Bulletins Nos. 1 and 3, and a circular (No. 50) soliciting
new and unpublished information on the subject has been prepared and
distributed to correspondents.

Pan-American Exposition.—At this exposition, which opened at Buffalo
on May 1, and will continue until the Ist of November, the three scien-
tific departments of the Museum are represented by carefully prepared
collections.

The exhibit in anthropology is intended to illustrate the native peoples
of America from North Greenland to Terra del Fuego. It consists pri-
marily of twelve groups of lay figures, each showing the several members of
the family of a representative tribe engaged in some characteristic pursuit,
and so arranged that in passing from one to the other the visitor may form
an intelligent idea of the appearance, condition, and culture of the original
inhabitants of the continent. There are also thirteen models illustrating
various types of dwellings from the far North to the extreme South, and
thirteen series illustrating those activities that seem best calculated to con-
vey an idea of the culture status of the races.

The exhibit made by the Department of Biology is limited to American

64 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

vertebrates,and includes a number of large characteristic American animals,
such as the Kodiak bear, glacier bear, Alaskan moose, white sheep, musk
ox, West Indian seal, the condor, bald eagle, boa constrictor, alligator,
Galapagos turtle, various large fishes, etc. Many of the specimens were
obtained especially for this purpose, andall are exceptionally well prepared.

The Department of Geology is represented by a systematic collection of
minerals, comprising 735 specimens; collections illustrating cave deposits,
concretionary structures, hot springs and geyser deposits, silicified woods,
and the rocks and soils of the Hawaiian Islands; a small case of native
elements; a collection of 450 specimens illustrating the development and
classification of the cephalopod mollusks, and a synoptic collection of cri-
noids, including about 300 specimens; a mounted skeleton of the gigantic
toothed diver, Hesperornis regalis, from the Cretaceous of Kansas; a life-
size restoration of the skeleton of the Cretaceous reptile, Triceratops prorsus,
from the Cretaceous of Wyoming, and a life-size restoration of Zeuglodon
from the Tertiary of Alabama. In addition there are two cases of bones
of the mammoth from Indian Territory and Missouri.

Library —The additions to the library during the year numbered 1,038
books, 2,261 pamphlets, and.8,968 parts of periodicals.

Respectfully submitted.

RicHARD RATHBUN,
Assistant Secretary.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Aveust 1, 1901.

APPENDIX II.
REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

Sir: I have the honor to ask attention to the following report of opera-
tions in the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1901.

These operations were conducted in accordance with the act of Congress
making provision ‘‘for continuing researches relating to the American
Indians under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution,’’ approved
June 6, 1900, and with the formal plan submitted on June 9, 1900, and
approved by the Secretary on June 19, 1900.

The field operations of the regular corps extended into Arizona, Lower
California (Mexico), British Columbia, California, Maine, New Mexico,
New York, North Carolina, Ontario, Sonora (Mexico), Virginia, and Wis-
consin; while special work has been carried forward by agents or tempo-
rary collaborators in several additional States, Territories, and provinces.
The office work has comprised the collection and preparation of material
from most of the States and Territories, as well as from various other
parts of the American hemisphere.

The researches have been carried forward in accordance with an ethnic
system based chiefly on the work of the Bureau, though partly on the
observations and determinations of other scientific investigators in this
and other countries.

The ethnic system developed and adopted in the Bureau is based _pri-
marily on the human activities—i. e., on what men do and think—rather
than on mere physical features. Proceeding on this basis, the habits and
customs of the aborigines receive first attention; and the tribesmen are
classed by their languages and dialects, by their forms of social organiza-
tion, by their systems of belief and opinion, by their arts and industries;
so that the classification affords a means of measuring the susceptibility of
the various tribes to civilization, to education, and to arrangement on res-
ervations in harmonious groups. The classification is thus essentially
practical.

The practical tribal classification rests on a definition of the activities
discovered among the aborigines and other peoples largely during the past
quarter century. The primary activities thus discovered are esthetic; and
intimately connected with these are the industrial activities involved in
maintenance and welfare. Equally important are the social activities
shaping the collective existence of families, clans, tribes, and confedera-
cies; and the relations are regulated by linguistic activities, which are
highly important and indeed fundamental. Coordinate with these activi-

gar 1 00th 65

66 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ties of arts and industries, laws and languages, are the activities connected
with opinion, belief, philosophy—i. e., the sophic activities. On weighing
all the factors it has been found that the most convenient classification of
tribes is that based primarily on language, as explained in previous reports;
and this mode of defining the Indian tribes, first proposed by Gallatin and
adopted by the Bureau on its institution, has now come into general use.

FIELD RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION.

Throughout the first quarter of the year the Director was in Maine,
reviewing observations on shell mounds and village sites in connection
with the researches in classification noted in other paragraphs; and the
work was resumed early in June. Limited collections were made, though
the observations and notes on the numerous survivors of the Abnaki Indians
proved of much interest and value.

An extended exploratory trip was made during the autumn of 1900 by
Mr. McGee. Early in October he proceeded to the field for the purpose
of completing researches relating to the aborigines of the Serian stock and
at the same time carrying forward studies of neighboring tribes. A party
was organized at Phoenix, Ariz., and moved southwestward to Gila Bend
and thence southward to the international frontier at Santo Domingo.
Here the outfit was admitted to Mexican territory through the courtesy
of Sefior Don Fernando Leal, at the obliging instance of Senor Don Manuel
de Aspiroz, the ambassador from Mexico to the United States. In this
vicinity are several settlements of Papago Indians, including some of the
Arenefios of early literature and local tradition, and the opportunities for
study were seized. From Santo Domingo the party proceeded southward
to Caborca and thence westward to the coast of Gulf of California, where
the Tepoka Indians (collinguals of the Seri) were reported to live so late
as 1894, subsisting on sea food and finding potable water in the lagoons
and sand beds at the embouchure of the sand wash variously called Mag-
dalena, Santa Ana, Altar, Asuncion, and San Ignacio. On reaching the
coast the leader was disappointed to find the tribal remnant entirely gone—
probably through extinction, possibly through migration down the coast
to Seriland. Traces of the Tepoka habitations still remained, together
with shell accumulations and minor relics, corroborating the reports con-
cerning the tribe current at Caborca in 1894; and the visit served also to
clear up doubtful points connected with the geography and history of the
region. Failing thus to attain the primary object of the expedition, Mr.
McGee determined to visit the territory of the little-known Cocopa Indians,
reputed to live about the head of the gulf, and to this end endeavored to
follow the coast northward to the mouth of the Colorado. Finding this
entirely impracticable, he returned by a new route to Santo Domingo,
collecting useful data concerning the Papago Indians on the way; and
from Santo Domingo he proceeded west-northwestward over the old Yuma
trail (including a stretch of 90 miles now without water) to Yuma, and
thence southward to the Cocopa country. Here valuable collections, notes,
and photographs were obtained; and after some weeks the party returned
via Yuma and the Gila and Salado valleys to Phoenix, disbanding there
on December 20. The party comprised Mr. W J McGee, ethnologist in

PLATE V

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

Pa
A

oo

at eee
c

U
r]
}
/
!
/

m4 Sa

Sioux FAMILY, lOWA TRIBE. AH-BLOH-COE-WAH-YE (STANDING ON
PRAIRIE), ALIAS JOHN GRANT, CHIEF, 1900.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

charge, as leader; Mr. DeLancey Gill, artist; Prof. R. H. Forbes, of the
Territorial University of Arizona (during part of the trip); Senor Aurelio
Mata, a Mexican customs officer sent from the custom-house at Nogales to
facilitate the crossing at the international boundary; John J. Carroll, of
Tempe, teamster; Jim Moberly, of Tempe, packer; Hugh Norris, of Tucson,
Papago interpreter, and Ramon Zapeda, of Tucson, Mexican interpreter.
The Bureau was placed under great obligations for free entry of the outfit
to the Government of the neighboring Republic through the officials
already named, as well as through Sefor Don Eduardo J. Andrade, of
Yuma, custodian of the Andrade grant, covering the territory occupied by
the Cocopa Indians.

On August 11 Mr. James Mooney proceeded to the old Cherokee coun-
try in western North Carolina and adjacent territory for the purpose of
collecting additional data required for the completion of his series of papers
on the Cherokee Indians, and his field operations continued with success
until early December. On April 25 he made a reconnoissance trip through
eastern North Carolina and Virginia for the purpose of locating remnants
of aboriginal tribes still surviving in the wooded and nearly inaccessible
districts of that region; he revisited the Pamunkey tribe and discovered
considerable remnants of the Chickahominy, Mattaponi, and Nansemond
tribes.

On his appointment as assistant ethnologist (September 1), Mr. John R.
Swanton proceeded to British Columbia to undertake researches among
several northwestern tribes. His work proceeded successfully up to the end
of the fiscal year, when he was still in the field.

On October 1 Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt repaired to the region occupied by the
survivors of the Iroquoian tribes in northwestern New York and neighbor-
ing portions of Canada, where he began the collection and verification of
traditions and cosmogonic legends, and his work continued until about the
middle of February, when he returned to the office with valuable collec-
tions and records.

On April 15 Dr. Frank Russell was appointed as ethnologist and was
assigned to duty in Arizona; he immediately proceeded to the field and
began an extended reconnoissance of the southern and central portions of
the Territory. Outfitting with a team at Tucson, he passed around the
northern end of Santa Catalina Mountains and up San Pedro River (visit-
ing the caves and pictographs of the Santa Catalina range and the cliff
houses of the Galiuro range on the way) to Nugents Pass, where he entered
Arayaipa Valley. Here he found an interesting group of cliff houses.
Thence he proceeded, by way of Eagle Pass, to Gila Valley, where inter-
esting archeologic observations were made. Pushing on southward he
traversed the eastern slopes of Chiricahua Mountains and the western
slopes of Swisshelm Mountains, and examined the easterly canyons of
Huachuca Mountains. Next he traversed portions of the Babacomori,
Sonoyta, and San Rafael valleys about the Mexican boundary; thence he
returned by new routes to Santa Catalina Mountains and Tucson, arriving
about the end of May. In the course of the trip he discovered various
ruins hitherto unknown, some of new types. Several of the ruins were
surveyed, and limited collections were made. On June 11 he proceeded

68 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

northward from Tucson, crossing the Gila near Florence, skirting the base
of Superstition Mountains, and traversing Tonto Valley; a number of
cliff houses and other ruins were discovered, but the journey was not com-
pleted at the end of the fiscal year.

In June an arrangement was effected with Mr. O. P. Phillips and the
Armat Moving-Picture Company, under which Mr. Phillips proceeded to
New Mexico and Arizona for the purpose of making motion pictures rep-
resenting the industries, amusements, and ceremonies of the Pueblo and
other tribes, it being anticipated that such pictures would prove of especial
service for purposes of immediate research as well as for permanent record
The preliminary reports indicate that the work has been successfully
initiated.

Throughout the fiscal year Dr. Willis E. Everett remained in Alaska,
pursuing his avocation of mining engineer, but availing himself of oppor-
tunities for observing the native tribes and recording their languages and
other activital characteristics. Several reports indicating progress in the
collection of such material were received in the course of the year.

Dr. Robert Stein, who spent the winter of 1899-1900 on Elsmereland,
primarily for purposes of geographic exploration, but incidentally to make
search for traces of aboriginal occupancy in the interests of the Bureau,
reported via Dundee, through the courtesy of masters of whaling vessels,
late in the summer of 1900. He found no traces of Eskimo or other settle-
ments in the territory traversed by him, comprising the eastern coast
of Elsmereland, and his negative evidence is of service in investigations
relating to the distribution and migrations of the Eskimo. At the time
of the last report he was preparing to cross Baffin Bay to Upernivik, on the
western coast of Greenland, with the expectation of extending his pre-
vious observations on prehistoric Eskimo settlements along the unexplored
coast.

During the autumn Miss Alice C. Fletcher found it necessary to revisit
Oklahoma for the purpose of completing the ritual of the Pawnee cere-
mony, known as the Hako, of which the greater portion was collected
during the last fiscal year. In connection with the collection of this mate-
rial she was fortunate in obtaining also much additional information touch-
ing the ceremonial and ritualistic life of this highly interesting and little-
studied tribe.

OFFICE RESEARCH.
WORK IN ESTHETOLOGY.

In addition to administrative duties in the office and the field work noted,
Mr. McGee engaged in researches relating to the primitive symbolism
found among the American aborigines and other lowly peoples. Certain
symbols are of nearly world-wide distribution, and extend into several
stages of culture—e. g., the swastika, or fylfot, appears on all of the conti-
nents except Australia, and its culture range extends at least from higher
savagery into the lower strata of civilization. Before the extremely wide
range of such symbols was ascertained various inquirers were led to regard
the swastika as an evidence of cultural identity, and hence of the original

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

unity of the peoples among whom they were found; but since they have
been observed among highly diverse peoples in different stages of culture
and on remote continents this interpretation has been modified or aban-
doned in large measure, and students have set themselves to the task of
tracing the development of the symbols in particular cases. The recent
researches have shown that the symbols of quatern character, like the
swastika, express or reflect modes of thought especially characteristic of
lower (but not lowest) culture, yet extend well into civilization and enlight-
enment. At the same time the researches bring to light such diversities in
the nature and applications of the concepts expressed by the symbols as to
indicate, if not demonstrate, independent development. Thus, quatern
symbols abound among the Papago Indians of Arizona and Sonora, as well
as among several neighboring tribes, yet the Papago concept is distinct, as
shown by its extension to time as well as space, this extension carrying
such archaic features of ritual and ceremony as to indicate increasing inde-
pendence of the concept in the generations traced backward. The neigh-
boring Zuni Indians have a more highly differentiated concept, e. g., in
that their ‘‘ cult of the quarters’’ involves six directions (zenith and nadir
in addition to the cardinal points), yet the symbol retains the original
quatern form, with two added elements so placed as to destroy the sym-
metry of the figure. These instances of diversity in symbol, and still
greater diversity in meaning of the symbol (or in the primary concept),
might be multiplied almost indefinitely; they merely give some indication
of the development of simple Lbf=F quatern symbols and of the complex
and protean magma of thought out of which they have been developed by
simple processes and in easy steps. Incidentally the examples marshaled
by Mr. McGee corroborate and extend the law of activital coincidences for-
mulated in an early report of the Bureau; but the applications of the recent
study are numerous and useful, especially in their bearing on symbolism
in general and on the development of systems of counting. The results of
the study are incorporated in the Nineteenth Report in the form of a brief
paper entitled ‘‘ Primitive numbers.”’

During the earlier portion of the year Dr. Fewkes arranged for publication
a series of graphic representations of the personages composing the Hopi
pantheon, together with full descriptions of the pictures and a discussion of
characteristic paraphernalia of the personages represented. The representa-
tions are in outline and color and well illustrate the early stage in the devel-
opment of graphic art reached by the more advanced among the aboriginal
tribes; hence they throw strong light on the codices and other pictorial
essays of the more southerly tribes, especially those of Mexico, Central
America, and Peru. The pictures were executed by a native artist, who
was also a priest in the hieratic or sacred organization through which the
tribal mythology is maintained, and each picture is a faithful reproduc-
tion of ancient representations handed down through many generations.
The material has been assigned for publication in the twentieth annual
report; the original drawings will be used as copy and will be reproduced
in slightly reduced facsimile. The work is deemed an important contri-
bution to knowledge of the aborigines in several respects. It illustrates
the motives and conventions of aboriginal art in both form and color; it

70 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

reveals the rdle of symbolism in primitive art with remarkable clearness;
it illustrates with satisfactory completeness the nature and structure of a
typical barbaric pantheon; and since the symbols and conventions (and,
indeed, the personages represented) are of great constancy in primitive
thought, it affords a series of types available for use in identification and
comparison of a wide range of symbolic representations among the Pueblo
and other tribes, not only in ceremonies and sacred paraphernalia, but in
the decoration of fictile ware, basketry, woven fabrics, ete.

Later in the year Dr. Fewkes was occupied with a systematic study of
the collections made by him in Arizona and New Mexico during 1896 and
1897, the study being carried forward with special reference to the sym-
bolic decoration of the fictile ware. All systematic investigators of the
decorative devices used by primitive peoples have been impressed with
their constancy, i. e., with the exceeding slowness of modification. They
have also been impressed with the dependence of the modification on
external forces and conditions rather than on the spontaneous internal
factor so prominent in the art of advanced culture. Recognizing these
characteristics of primitive art, Dr. Fewkes undertook to define the sym-
bolic (or esthetic) types prevailing among the peoples of Walpi, much as
a naturalist might define types of animal and vegetal life for the establish-
ment of species, genera, and orders, and for tracing the lines of vital
development in a distinctive environment. His symbolic types were based
on specimens observed among the tribesmen or obtained from sites by
their ancestors during the historical period; and he soon found that the
types served to indicate what may be termed a ‘‘symbolic province,”’’ i. e.,
a region throughout which the symbolic devices were similar, but in which
they differed essentially from those of other regions. In this way he
defined an ethnic district and established standards for the guidance of
future investigation and also for the localization of ill-labeled specimens
in museums; for many collectors have been content to label specimens of
symbolic pottery, ete., ‘‘Arizona,’’ ‘‘ Pueblo region,’’ or by other large and
indefinite political or natural divisions, thereby confusing important sym-
bolic distinctions and ethnic districts. As his investigations of the symbolic
types progressed, Dr. Fewkes became more deeply impressed than any
predecessor with the persistence of motives and the regularity of their
evolutional lines; and he conceived, in a definite and constructive way,
the possibility of tracing prehistoric migrations by means of the decorative
symbols, i. e., of employing symbolic devices as prehistoric records, read-
ing from them the tale of tribal movements before the coming of Coronado.
He conceived the possibility of coordinating the archeologic record as
taught by symbols with tribal traditions, and the double advantage of
mutual verification between tradition and symbolic record. Proceeding in
accordance with these ideas, he obtained from living Hopi traditions of a
former residence of their ancestors at a locality which they called Homo-
lobi; and by excavatious identified this site and verified the traditions,
extending his knowledge of the evolution of the symbolic types; for the
Homolobi collections (now in the National Museum) are not only abun-
dant in decorated ware, but notably rich in symbols susceptible of inter-
pretation. Subsequent exploration brought him to the site of a ruin on

Smithsonian Report, 1901 PLATE VI.

SHAHAPTIAN FAMILY, NEz PERCE TRIBE. CHIEF JOSEPH, 1900.

Pager

FS

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7)

Chevlon Creek, where excavation revealed another stage in the same
general line of symbolic development, which corroborated the vague and
shadowy tradition that Hopi clans once inhabited this site. He later
sought a locality noted in the vaguest of all the migration legends still
current, and he was gratified by finding near Chavez Pass the archeologic
record of this stage in migration inscribed in symbols related to the higher
type from the more northerly localities. Beyond this point ruins which
mark traditional halting places in migration were not located; beyond it
the symbolic development has not yet been traced; but there is good
ground for anticipating that when Dr. Fewkes resumes the field he will
obtain still earlier records of the prehistoric movements and development
of this branch of Pueblo peoples. The work is deemed of much impor-
tance as a verification of aboriginal tradition, as a means of verifying other
migration legends, and as a most promising introduction to the practical
interpretation of history unwittingly recorded in graphic symbols. Inci-
dentally, the work corroborates the earlier conclusion reached in the
Bureau, that the Pueblo peoples are a-resultant product of Southern cul-
ture and Northern blood; yet the significant details throw new light on
the entire problem. The report is elaborately illustrated by colored pho-
tographs of the ware from the several localities examined; it was practi-
cally ready for the press at the close of the fiscal year.

WORK IN TECHNOLOGY.

The earlier accounts of exploration in the territory occupied by the
Cocopa Indians seemed to indicate that the tribesmen occupied the coast
of Gulf of California and were of maritime habits; but in the course of the
expedition led by Mr. McGee it was definitely ascertained that the folk
are essentially agricultural and confined, at least so far as habitations are
concerned, to the interior. The industrial condition of the tribe was found
to be of much interest. The tribal habitat comprises the Lower Colorado
Valley from the international boundary southward to the head of the gulf,
together with a few tributary valleys descending from the Cocopa Moun-
tains on the west. The main valley is broad and diversified by distribu-
taries, or bayous, of which the most important is Hardy River, or ‘‘ Hardy’s
Colorado.’’ There are also several fairly permanent basins, filled by the
annual floods and slowly evaporated during succeeding months, and
the greater part of the broad bottom is swept by the freshets. Within
the region lie a number of ‘‘mud volcanoes,’’ apparently analogous to the
‘‘mud lumps’? of the Lower Mississippi, which have attracted much
attention by reason of their novelty, though they are quite subordinate
to the general features. The entire district affords the closest American
parallel to the valley of the Nile, not only in physical conditions, but in
the influence of these on human conditions. Like northern Africa, the
general region is one of extreme aridity, the rainfall (averaging less than
2 inches yearly during the last quarter century at the typical station of
Mammoth Tanks) being negligible; while the habitable district is well
watered by annual freshets of remarkable regularity in period and height.
These freshets not only flood but fertilize the riparian lowlands; they
control directly the local flora and somewhat less directly the local fauna,

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and they regulate the movements, most of the industrial habits, many
of the social customs, and much of the mythology of the human popu-
lation. During the greater part of the year water is obtainable only
from the shrunken river, on whose banks grow most of the seed-bearing
and root-yielding plants available as food, so that the people are led to
occupy the lower bottom lands. Here the cultivated crop plants are sown
in soil soaked by the flood and enriched by its silt deposit, to grow and
ripen rapidly under the subtropical sun; here habitations are erected, nat-
urally of light and temporary character, and here the small and scattered
villages characteristic of the tribe grow up during each late summer and
early autumn. The chief crop plants are corn (maize), beans, peas, squashes,
and melons, and it is noteworthy that most of these represent the aboriginal
plant stocks brought under cultivation in pre-Columbian times. Fishing
and hunting the abundant waterfowl, as well as other game, contribute
to the tribal subsistence, and during recent years part of the corn, beans,
and peas is carried on horseback to Yuma, where it is bartered chiefly for
appareling. Early winter is the time for ceremony with the attendant
feasting, and by early spring when the greater and less portable part of
the annual crop is consumed, the families prepare for the annual migration
to the higher lands, where they await the rise and subsidence of the ver-
nal flood. On its passing they return to the low grounds, to rebuild and
plant on the last year’s farms or elsewhere according to the changes wrought
by the freshet or the chance of death and mortuary observance. Naturally
an agriculture depending so largely on chance conditions is improvident,
comparatively unproductive, and incapable of sustaining any considerable
or concentrated population, so that its tendency combines with that of
annual migrations to stifle the home sense and to scatter the members of
consanguineal groups and thus to affect the social organization. The recur-
rent floods also affect the ceremonies and attendant faiths of the tribes-
men in various ways; e. g., they control mortuary observances and have
undoubtedly led indirectly to the custom of burning the bodies of dece-
dents in and with their houses, distributing their property to nonrelatives,
and incidentally destroying adjacent houses and other property. This dis-
persive social factor combines with that growing directly out of the agri-
cultural methods, and not only prevents the development of village life
with the concomitant institutions, but perpetually impoverishes the tribe.
Thus the Cocopa Indians present an industrial paradox, for while they
occupy one of the garden spots of the Western Hemisphere, whose natural
freshets might be so utilized as to sustain an enormous population, they
subordinate themselves to the environmental conditions and remain one
of the poorest and most hopeless of the American tribes.

During the earlier part of the year Dr. Albert E. Jenks (then a correspond-
ent of the Bureau) revised his memoir on The Wild Rice Gatherers of the
Lake Region (in press as part of the Nineteenth Annual Report, as noted
in the last report), incorporating some of the results of recent researches.
On June 1 he was appointed to the position of assistant ethnologist in the
Bureau, and was assigned to work related to his previous researches. He
at once took up the subject of birch bark, with the aboriginal industries
depending on this natural commodity of a considerable fraction of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 73

North American continent. One of the most important products of the
birch-bark industry is the canoe; and this, like other industrial products
of consequence, exerted a powerful influence on the lives of the producers.
Through one of those harmonies of nature on which the progréss of man-
kind so largely depends, much of the birch-bearing region of North
America (a zone stretching from Maine to Washington State and Alaska,
and extending from below the Great Lakes nearly to the treeless Arctic)
is also the region of late Pleistocene glaciation, and hence of glacial lakes,
swamps, and labyrinthine streams; so that throughout the period of abo-
riginal development an ideal canoe material coexisted with illimitable
functions for the canoe in the way of travel and transportation. Under
the natural combination, joined to native intelligence and skill, the lakes
and streams became routes of passage, and by reason of the lightness and
strength of the material, and the lowness and narrowness of the ice-molded
divides, portages were easy, so that the routes passed from lake to lake,
river to river, and drainage system to drainage system, practically across
the continent. Under the stimulus of facility the birch-canoe makers
became travelers and explorers; energetic hunters and fishermen explorcd
new waters and carried tribal knowledge into new regions; ambitious
scions struck out into the remoter wilderness to make conquest over the
unknown and often to establish families and clans, and eventually tribes,
in new localities; so that in course of time the paddlers of the light canoe
carried their kindred, their dialects, their faiths over the greater part of
the vast region defined by the birch tree and the glacial waterways. Most
of the canoe men belong to the Algonquian stock, most of the remainder
to the Athapascan stock; and the recent researches render it clear that
their water craft was a leading factor in determining their wide distribu-
tion, their success in making conquest of the continent up to the plane of
aboriginal standards. The detail results of the work are in preparation
for an early report.

In tracing the joint lines of migration and esthetic development noted in
other paragraphs Dr. Fewkes became impressed with the fact that among
the ancestors of the Hopi Indians the esthetic standards were much more
permanent than the industrial standards. Throughout the entire course
retraced by his researches—a course covering several distinct treks, alter-
nating with periods of stable settlement, the whole covering some centu-
ries—the symbolic devices inscribed on the fictile ware remained constant
or underwent only slight and easily traceable modifications, while at each
successive settlement new materials were utilized in the pottery making, the
manufacturing processes and the final forms of the ware being manifestly
adjusted to the character of the material. The discovery that the indus-
trial activities (which directly measure the conjustment of man and
environment) are the most progressive of the entire series is not, of course,
novel; still less is it novel to learn that the especially conservative esthetic
concepts, which are at once hereditary and prophetic, as shown by Groos,
outlive whole generations of contemporaneous industrial concepts; yet the
example is notably apposite and instructive, largely by reason of the free-
dom of the folk from external interference, with the consequent simplicity
and integrity of the record. The details are incorporated in Dr. Fewkes’s
report on operations of 1896-97.

74 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In the course of his reconnoissance of central and southern Arizona Dr.
Frank Russell gave especial attention to the architectural features of the
ruins, and defined a number of types, of which one or two are new to
southwestern archeology. The work was still in progress at the close of
the fiscal year.

WORK IN SOCIOLOGY.

A portion of the year was employed by the Director in reviewing the
abundant data in the Bureau archives relating to aboriginal institutions,
and in systemizing the principles of sociology in the light of these data.
One of the lines of inquiry, rendered important not only by inherent
interest but by current problems growing out of the recent expansion of
the territory of the United States, relates to slavery among the primitive
peoples, and the researches render it clear that the relationships so desig-
nated vary widely with intellectual plane or culture grade—indeed, the
social subordination of lower culture is so unlike the slavery of civilization
that the application of the same designation to both institutions is quite
misleading. In the slavery of civilization the slaves are not only aliens
but chattels, whose personal ownership is definitely established and main-
tained through laws relating to tenure, bequest, conveyance, etc., but in
savage society, in which personal proprietary rights are inchoate or non-
existent, in which the tenure inheres practically or absolutely in the
group, in which bequest is hardly, if at all, recognized, and in which
thrift sense is lacking and property sense involved with mythic factors,
such slavery is simply impossible. True, there are many recorded in-
stances of slavery among lower tribes, but most of these rest on casual or
superficial observation, or on other testimony stopping short of inquiry
into the precise nature of the relations between the supposed slaveholders
and the supposed slaves, while the convenience of the common term for
the expression of social inequality has contributed to mislead recorders
and (still more seriously) readers. To understand the so-called slavery of
savagery it is necessary to grasp the mode of social organization charac-
teristic of that culture grade. As shown chiefly through the researches
among the American aborigines, such organization is based primarily on
consanguinity (actual or imputed), and secondarily on age; and the rela-
tions growing out of these factors are kept constantly in the mind of every
member of each clan and tribe by habitual forms of address. So the con-
stituent individuals of a given clan are fathers and mothers, sons and
daughters, brothers and sisters, and these relationships are constantly
indicated in salutations, and even in ordinary conversation (the precise
relationship to the speaker being commonly expressed also by a pronomi-
nal element). At the same time it is constantly borne in mind that father
and son, mother and daughter, are not coordinate, the former being the
superior by reason of greater age; similarly brethren are classed as elder
brothers and younger brothers, while the female kindred of the same
generation are classed as elder sisters and younger sisters, and the elder
are always deemed superior, the younger inferior, in rank. By simple
and practical extension of the system, the relative ages of all persons in
the clan are kept in mind; and since, according to the universal usage of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75

savagery (so far as known), superior age confers authority, there is a
practically simple, though theoretically complex, regimentation running
through the entire clan, whereby the eldest person commands all and
obeys none, while the youngest person obeys all and commands none, and
each other person is entitled to command and bound to obey in the direct
proportion of relative age. This regimentation is complicated by various
factors, such as adoption, and (especially) what may be called promotion
and demotion, 1. e., advancement in ‘‘age’’ (rank) by common consent in
recognition of prowess, ete., with correlative reduction in ‘‘age’’ as the
penalty for cowardice, etc., so that the actual age relations may be com-
pletely lost; yet the imputed relationship serves practical purposes, and
the organization is maintained with unimpaired efficiency by means of
relationship terms. The same system is extended from the clan to the
tribe, in which the several clans are ranked in the order of ‘‘age”’
(of course imputed), and eventually to the tribes united in confederacies;
so that at last the system reaches every member of the tribal confederacy
and each is entitled to command or bound to obey any other according to
the relationship expressed in the form of salutation and constantly kept
alive in conversation. True, uncertainties and differences of opinion may
arise, especially between the remoter individuals and groups; commonly
these are settled by more or less prolonged deliberation and discussion, or
*council,”’ though some of the bloodiest wars of Indian history grew out
of such misunderstandings; yet even the appeal to force and arms but
serves as a means of settlement of the dispute, for the conquerors thereby
become the elder and the conquered the younger in primitive thought.
So, too, when stranger tribes meet, both are constrained by universal
tribal law, and proceed to council or war, as the case may be, for the pur-
pose of fixing the relative ‘‘age,’’ with the consequent right of command,
and in some cases the question may remain open for centuries (as between
the Apache and the Papago) and lead to interminable warfare. Now,
the conquered tribe may merely retire from the field of dispute, leaving
what both conceive to be the verdict of superhuman potencies beyond
reach of continuous execution; but if the contestants are actually related,
or if the conquest is complete, they commonly remain in association, the
survivors of the conquered families being absorbed or more formally
adopted into the conquering tribe, and perhaps distributed among the
families of that tribe, whereupon all the captives become subordinate to
each and all of the conquerers, to whom thenceforth they owe obedience.
Commonly it is this condition of obedience on the part of a certain class
or group to the commands of another class or group which impresses
observers and leads to the records of slavery among primitive folk, though
the institution involves no ownership of human chattels, no rights or
duties save those connected with a system of rank correlated with relative
age, actual or imputed. The institution might better be styled wholesale
adoption, or collective adoption, than slavery. Among the American
aborigines the captives, or adoptees, are usually assigned an ‘‘age’’ corre-
sponding with the time of their entry into the tribe, so that they are com-
pelled thereafter to obey all children then living, and are entitled to com-
mand all children subsequently born into the tribe, and there is thus a

76 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

fixed way whereby they attain in time the rank of the conquerors. More-
over, the method of promotion permits any ‘‘slave’’ (i. e., captive-junior)
to attain ‘‘age’’ by the display of prowess, industry, skill, generosity, or
other attributes appealing to the sentiments of primitivemen. Among cer-
tain other peoples, the custom of collective adoption appears to be so modi-
fied that the captives remain juniors not only to members of the captor
tribe born anterior to the captivity, but to all others, and it is this modi-
fied institution which matures in actual slavery with the development of
property-sense; but even in this case there are (at least in the early stages)
devices for the manumission or liberation of, or the acquisition of rank by,
captives (or captive-descendants) of exceptional abilities. The several
primitive customs grade into the institution of slavery proper in ways
which are of much interest, but which need not now be followed; it suf-
fices to emphasize the important distinction between the captive subordi-
nation of primitive peoples and the real slavery of some civilized nations.

In the course of his researches among the Cocopa Indians Mr. McGee
discovered several industrial factors of dispersive tendency, i. e., factors
tending to weaken home ties and family bonds and to scatter the families
and clans; and naturally these factors are reflected in the social organiza-
tion. The tribe is now distributed over an area of several thousand square
miles, extending from the international boundary on the north to the head
of salt water (of Gulf of California) on the south, and from the eastern
border of the Colorado bottom to the base of Cocopa Mountains; and within
this area are seven subtribes, of which some, and perhaps all, are really
clans, each organized under a subchief and all definitely united under a
head chief, the present incumbent of this office being a man of parts, an
orator of ability, and a leader of much shrewdness, commonly known as
Pablo Colorado. Now, naturally (and necessarily for the maintenance of
tribal integrity) the dispersive factors are counteracted and balanced by
connective factors; and while it is probable that some of these remain
undiscovered, a few others of no small significance were detected by Mr.
McGee. As already mentioned, the mortuary observances include sacri-
fice of all the immediate belongings of decedents, for immediately after the
death of a tribesman his personal possessions—horse, saddle, weapons,
implements, apparel, grain and other food stuffs, bedding, dogs, ete.—
become public and are distributed among nonrelatives in the order of
arrival, while any unclaimed residue is burned with the body and house.
Several social consequences attend this industrially improvident proce-
dure. In the first place, the largess is an incentive to maintaining connec-
tion between the scattered families and clans and to lively (albeit morbid)
interest in the state of health of invalids, thrifty producers, and other
members of the tribe; again, the actual mortuary distribution brings
together scattered tribesmen and their families and unites their interests
in ceremonies of affecting if not imposing character; and finally the mate-
rial sacrifice commonly leaves dependents (widows, children, and perhaps
agelings) to be supported by the informal public bounty of tribal life, or
perhaps to be distributed among scattered families in such manner as to
strengthen sentiments of communality and to keep alive the sense of com-
munity in interests. This factor is prominent in the customs of the tribe,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. vere

and its influence is direct and easily traceable. A less direct factor of sim-
ilar tendency is found in the marital custom, or rather in the observances
preceding and preparing the way for marriage. The girls’ puberty feast
is, indeed, one of the most imposing and widely heralded of the tribal
ceremonies; commonly it brings together representatives of all the subtribes
or clans; and the proceedings are conducted with extreme formality and
dramatic impressiveness. The principal ceremony lasts through a night.
following a day of preparation and followed by another day of final feast-
ing, accompanied by games, etc. The central episode is the temporary
burial of the novitiate; a shallow pit is excavated, and in this a fire is made,
as fora fish bake; after the earth is thoroughly warmed the remaining fuel
and coals are removed, the girl is placed in the pit and buried to the neck
with the earth thrown out in making the excavation; there she spends the
night, and in the morning is extricated and brought before the assembled
tribesmen as a woman; and commonly a match is made with a repre-
sentative of some more or less remote branch of the tribe. Through the
ceremony community of thought is maintained in most effective fashion,
and through the resulting union family sentiments are united to the extent
that a common consequence of marriage is the breaking of a new path,
often many miles in length, through the luxurious herbage of the annually
flooded bottom land. The formal organization of the Cocopa tribe is in
large measure esoteric, so that it can be ascertained fully only after pro-
longed and intimate acquaintance with the tribesmen, but the preliminary
investigation serves to show that the field of inquiry is one of promise.

In his comparative study of myths, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt has found
various references to social customs of such sort as to indicate clearly cer-
tain archaic institutions of the Iroquoian Indians. Thus the Onondaga
legends illumine the legislative and executive customs of the tribe, and,
while ostensibly giving traditional warrant for the customs, they really
picture a somewhat earlier stage in the development of institutions than
that found by the Caucasian pioneers. In this tribe all matters of public
policy, especially the selection of chiefs and the discontinuance of war,
were first considered by the elder women in fairly definite clan councils.
Their conclusions were formally communicated to a male spokesman,
usually the elder brother (actual or putative) of the elder woman, and by
this spokesman, with others of similar character from the other clans, the
opinions of the mothers were brought before the exclusively masculine
tribal council for debate and final decision. In this way the women sitting
in clan council constituted the primary legislative body, while their broth-
ers sitting in tribal council formed a senate or final legislative body whose
decisions were binding on the executives of clans and tribes; so that the
social organization may be classed as adelphiarchal (like that of the Seri
Indians described in earlier reports) in principle, though largely patri-
archal in detail. As among the Seri, too, the maternal features of the
legislation were paralleled by recognition of large maternal rights in
material possessions—e. g., throughout the Iroquoian tribes the control or
nominal ownership of lands was in the women as the collective and _per-
petual mothers of the tribe. These and other points of general interest
are set forth fully in Mr. Hewitt’s memoir, which has been assigned to
the Twenty-first Annual Report.

78 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
WORK IN PHILOLOGY.

Throughout a considerable part of the year the Director was occupied in
developing and applying the system of linguistic classification foreshad-
owed in the last report. Primarily, languages are devices for the expres-
sion of thought; secondarily, they are mechanisms for shaping thought.
The simplest languages are emotional and largely demonstrative, compris-
ing not only articulate vocal utterances, but inarticulate sounds, gestures,
facial expressions, etc., and these spontaneous expressions of feeling and
thought grow into the four leading lines of linguistic development. The
simplest of these is gesture language (or sign language), which arises largely
in pantomime, but matures under favorable conditions in highly complex
systems such as those investigated by the late Colonel Mallery and more
recently by Maj. H. L. Scott (whose studies were unfortunately interrupted
by the Spanish-American war). A far more important line of linguistic
development is that of oral speech, and the activities of expression have
been so long and so vigorously exercised in this line as to have developed
a series of special organs differing widely in refinement of function and
delicacy of structure from those of lower animals. By means of these
organs the speaking animal, Man, makes mastery of sound, which is
created at will and reduced to vocables, notes, sentences, in such manner
as to convey ideas of the utmost complexity with hardly perceptible loss
of meaning; and with the development of words and sentences lexicology
and grammar arise, while etymology and sematology gradually acquire
importance. The third line of linguistic development is that of written
language, which first involved manual adaptation, together with a revolu-
tion in mode of thought, and afterward involved the invention of that long
series of mechanical devices now forming the sign and measure of higher
intellectuality. The last line of linguistic development is that represented
by characters expressing quantitative values; it may be styled logistic lan-
guage. Although based primarily on the rich records of aboriginal Amer-
ican languages preserved in the archives of the Bureau, the system of
linguistic classification has been shaped by extended comparisons with the
various languages of Europe and Asia, together with some of those of
Australia, Africa, and Polynesia. The system has been freely discussed
with students and has been published in preliminary form for the purpose
of eliciting further suggestion and criticism; it is expected that the matter
will be incorporated in full in an early report.

In connection with the linguistic classification, the Director has con-
tinued to study the recorded languages of the Mexican and Central Amer-
ican tribes, with a view to the classification of these tribes by linguistic
affinities in a manner corresponding to that already adopted for the Ameri-
can tribes north of Mexico (and published in the Seventh Annual Report).
In this work he had the constant assistance of Dr. Cyrus Thomas, whose
familiarity with the literature of the southern districts of North America
proved invaluable. Before the end of the year a preliminary classifica-
tion was made and mapped; but it is deemed unwise to submit the matter
for publication pending reexamination of various critical points. It has
been the good fortune of the Bureau to see the classification and mapping

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79

of the tribes north of Mexico adopted widely, and it is naturally desired
that the continuation of the work southward shall be equally worthy of
acceptance.

Dr. Albert 8. Gatschet continued the arrangement of the comparative
Algonquian vocabulary, and also carried forward his analysis of the com-
plex structure of the Peoria ‘language. In both directions his progress
was considerable and his results of much value, not only as an aid in for-
mulating the linguistic classification above described, but to the collabo-
rators of the Bureau and students generally.

Dr. Franz Boas continued the arrangement of linguistic material for
publication at intervals throughout the year. In addition, he revised the
proofs of his memoir entitled ‘“‘ Kathlamet Texts,’’ submitted just before the
close of the last fiscal year and transmitted for publication in bulletin form
early in the present year. By reason of the highly technical character of
the matter, composition was necessarily slow and proof reading laborious;
but the matter is now all in type.

The Natick Dictionary, compiled from the Eliot Indian Bible by the late
James Hammond Trumbull (noted in the last report), is still in the
printer’s hands, though nearly ready for publication.

In connection with the collection of Iroquoian myths, Mr. Hewitt has
continued recording the vocables and working out the grammatic structure
of the languages spoken by several Iroquoian tribes. Some of the results
of the work will appear in his memoir on comparative mythology now
practically ready for the press; others are in condition for incorporation
in future reports.

As already noted, Mr. John R. Swanton spent the entire year in collect-
ing linguistic material in British Columbia. The languages of this district
give promise of special importance in their bearing on questions of tribal
migrations and intertribal relations. Mr. Swanton has not yet taken up
the preparation of his material for publication. :

The work on the Diccionario de Motul, described in the last report, is
still under way. A considerable portion of the manuscript in Maya and
Spanish was transcribed by Miss Jessie E. Thomas during the year, and
Senior Andonaro Molina, of Merida, Yucatan, is engaged in furnishing an
English translation and in extending the vocabulary through personal
acquaintance with the Maya tongue.

WORK IN SOPHIOLOGY.

As indicated by the contents of previous reports, the Director has for
some years been engaged in developing a system of anthropologie classifi-
cation designed primarily to serve as a basis for the researches in the
Bureau, though it is hoped that the system will be of use to the students
of the Science of Man throughout the world. It was through the partial
development of this system that recognition was led first to discrimination
of the human activities and later to the definition of the five groups of
activities observed in the researches and described in recent reports.
During the last five years several of the groups or categories of activities
have been formulated and characterized with some degree of fullness. The
treatment began with the arts, or esthetic activities, and proceeded to the

sO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

industries, or technical activities, and thence to the institutions expressing
social activities. During the past year the characterization was extended
to languages, or the activities designed for expression, as already set forth,
and toward the end of the year the last and most complex of the activital
groups, i. e., the sophic activities involved in opinion, together with myth,
faith, and the more refined and ennobling products of mentation, was
taken up. Fair progress was.made in the analytical work, and it is antici-
pated that definite results will be reported at an early day.

During his Southwestern expedition Mr. McGee found opportunity to
witness certain ceremonies of the Yaki Indians, which were of interest
partly because the tribe has been little studied, partly by reason of the
prominence of zoic motives in the vocalization and instrumentation, as
well as in the gestures and movements of the ceremonial dance. In por-
tions of the ceremony each actor impersonated an animal. He worea head-
dress (not extended into a mask, as among more northerly tribes) consisting
of a scalp, with ears, horns, and other appendages of the animal kind, and
leggings abundantly decorated with claws or hoofs of the same animal. He
carried a rattle or flute, used to imitate the voice of the tutelary or the
sound of its movements, while he imitated its notes of alarm, fright, pain,
and pleasure with his own voice, and mimicked its corresponding move-
ments; yet in other parts of the ceremony the same actors passed by care-
fully graded stages into the strictly conventional movements of a dance
involving collective action of considerable complexity. Briefly, the cere-
mony seemed to be characterized by a remarkable combination of symbolic
and conventional features, indicating an exceptional range from the primi-
tive impersonation to the formal figures and movements attending moder-
ately advanced culture.

Mr. James Mooney continued his researches relating to the mythology
of the Cherokee Indians, making good progress in the collection of
additional material in the field, as well as in the extension of compari-
sons between the myths of the Cherokee and those of other tribes and
peoples. The application of comparative study to primitive mythlogy
is proving highly instructive and useful. In the infancy of ethnologic
research students were frequently struck by the discovery of activital
parallels, or similarities, among more or less remote peoples, and were
led thereby to infer previous contact, or even closer relationship, between
the peoples; but as study progressed and new parallels were discovered,
even among the remotest peoples of the earth, the verity of the inference
came to be questioned, and finally the law of activital coincidences was
formulated as a convenient generalization of the facts connected with
independent development of devices produced in the constant adjust-
ment of the intelligent organism to its environment. At first the law of
activital coincidences rested chiefly on industrial artifacts; then it was
found to have equal support in the esthetic products of various peoples;
next it was found to have still stronger and more direct support in institu-
tions, i. e., in the devices and features of social organization; while certain
features of language were found also to indicate the extent and efficiency of
coincidental interaction between mind and nature in shaping the activitat

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. $1

products. Hitherto most investigators of mythology have been content
with discrete studies and explorations, or, at most, with exoteric parallels.
Accordingly many of them have stopped with the inference of former
contact or kinship on which the students of industrial artifacts rested a
quarter century ago, i. e., their studies were such as to bring out resem-
blances among the mythic systems examined, but not such as to detect
and properly emphasize the essential differences. Now, Mr. Mooney’s
comparisons, although not exhaustive, are sufficiently general to permit
discrimination of the exoteric coincidences from esoteric motives in the
myths. Accordingly they clear the way for the application of the law of
activital coincidences to primitive mythology, if not to sophiology in gen-
eral. The greater part of the material completed for publication has been
incorporated in the memoir on ‘‘ Myths of the Cherokee,’’ mentioned in
the last report.

Another comparative study of myths has been carried forward by Mr.
J. N. B. Hewitt; and this investigation is noteworthy in that the compari-
sons are confined to a limited group of confederated tribes (of the Iro-
quoian stock) and in that the features compared are in exceptional degree
esoteric. The myths were obtained at first hand and carefully recorded
and yerified in the aboriginal terminology, after which literal and free
translations were made, so that each chapter of the work is at once a
linguistic record and the best obtainable version of the ancient traditions.
Now, it is noteworthy that most of the similarities found thus among the
several Iroquoian myths are rather external than internal, rather superfi-
cial than essential, and, concordantly, that the more important differences
are primarily internal, i. e., more directly connected with concept and
motive than with ritual andemblem. The voluminous material was prac-
tically ready for the press at the close of the fiscal year and has been
assigned to the Twentieth Annual Report.

During the closing months of the year Dr. Fewkes was employed in
summarizing his own observations and those of others in the Pueblo
region, with the object of presenting an outline of Pueblo mythology. As
noted in earlier reports, the Pueblo region is arid, and hence infertile and
harsh as an environment for human inhabitants, and the harshness of
environment is curiously reflected in highly differentiated beliefs and cere-
monies, so that the Pueblo region as a whole may, perhaps, be regarded
as a sophie province, i. e., a province defined by a distinctively typical
series of myths and faiths. (Good progress was made in the work, which
was not, however, completed at the close of the fiscal year.

In addition to the inquiries connected with the classification of the
languages of Mexico and Central America, Dr. Cyrus Thomas gave con-
tinued attention to the hieroglyphic records of the inscriptions and sculp-
tures of Yucatan and interior Mexico, materially supplementing and
extending his paper on calendric systems, now in type asa part of the
Nineteenth Annual Report. He made some progress also in the prepara-
tion of a final memoir on the codices.

Although seriously handicapped by ill health, Mrs. Matilda Coxe Ste-
venson continued the preparation of her memoir on the ceremonies and

sm 1901-———6

82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

myths of the Zufii Indians. A portion of the manuscript was submitted
for editorial revision in May, and the remaining chapters were reported as
nearing completion at the end of the fiscal year.

As noted in the last report, an exceedingly valuable acquisition was
made through Miss Alice C. Fletcher in the form of the Pawnee ritual
known as the Hako; but on arranging the material for printing certain
breaks were found which seemed of such importance as to warrant post-
ponement of publication pending further efforts in the field to complete
the ritual. Accordingly Miss Fletcher revisited Oklahoma, and afterward
brought her principal informant to Washington, where the record was
finally completed. The ritual is remarkable for extent and completeness,
for the clear light which it throws on archaic customs and beliefs, and for
the systematic and harmonious development of the musical and terpsicho-
rean features. The original record was obtained by aid of the grapho-
phone, and this record was then written in words and musical notation,
and afterward verified by repetition. On the whole the ritual is one of the
most complete ever acquired by the Bureau, and is in every way worthy
to be regarded as a type of aboriginal ritualistic production. The final
arrangement of the material was nearly complete at the close of the
fiscal year, when the work was interrupted by Miss Fletcher’s temporary
absence from the city.

DESCRIPTIVE ETHNOLOGY.

During the earlier portion of the year Mr. F. W. Hodge continued the
preparation of the Cyclopedia of Native Tribes in connection with edi-
torial work, his progress in both lines being highly satisfactory. On
January 31 he resigned his connection with the Bureau to accept a posi-
tion in the office of the Secretary. The Cyclopedia material was then
turned over to Mr. Mooney, who has made some pregress in preparing it
for publication.

During the earlier months of the year Col. F. F. Hilder was, by tem-
porary transfer, engaged in making collections in the Philippine Islands
under the auspices of the Government Board of the Pan-American Expo-
sition. After his return he resumed his duties as ethnologic translator
and continued the transcription, translation, and annotation of an early
Jesuit manuscript history of Texas, obtained through the instrumentality
of the Bureau, but now preserved in the Library of Congress. The sketch
was found rich in important ethnologic data, and the anonymous author
was identified by Colonel Hilder, through collateral information, as Padre
Morfi. The work was nearly completed when brought to a premature
end by the sudden death of Colonel Hilder on January 21.

COLLECTIONS.

As usual, the several collaborators engaged in field operations made more
or less extensive collections for purposes of study and for ultimate transfer
to the U. S. National Museum. The largest collection of the sort was
made by Mr. McGee among the Cocopa Indians. It comprised domestic
utensils of wood, stone, and clay; several bows with arrows; war weap-
ons; complete suits of women’s apparel; cradles; decorative and symbolic

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

objects of shell and bone; flutes, rattles, etc., together with the chief veg-
etal food products used by the tribe, the collection being sufficiently
complete to permit the construction of one or more life-size groups. The
most elaborate war weapon is of interest in that it is designed to serve at
once as standard and spear and in that the sharpened point for the latter
use is at the inner end of the shaft, so that the weapon illustrates the cen-
tripetal movement of lowest culture rather than the centrifugal arm
movement characteristic of advanced culture. Smaller collections were
made by Mr. Mooney among the Cherokee Indians, by Mr. Hewitt among
the Iroquoian Indians of Canada, and by Dr. Russell in Arizona. A num-
ber of collections were obtained also by purchase under the more imme-
diate direction of the Secretary. Among these may be mentioned the
Steiner collection of stone implements from Georgia, which comprises a
large number of types and of which a portion was obtained during the
last fiscal year. Another collection of special note was obtained from Maj.
H. N. Rust, of Pasadena, Cal. It comprises several types and numerous
examples representing the stone artifacts of southern California. Advan-
tage was taken also of the opportunity to acquire a number of the remark-
ably faithful Indian portraits executed by Mr. J. H. Sharp, of Cincinnati.
A particularly instructive collection of obsidian blades (including the
largest known specimen) was also obtained during the year through Mr.
Nathan Joseph, of San Francisco, while a few particularly fine pieces of
aboriginal Alaskan workmanship were obtained from Lieut. G. T.
Emmons. <A small collection of basketry produced by the renegade
Apache at Palomas was picked up by Mr. McGee, together with several
pieces of Pima basketry made near Maricopa. A small but noteworthy
object obtained was an authenticated Sitting Bull belt of beaded elk skin;
and half a dozen small collections of stone implements and weapons were

secured.
PROPERTY.

The property of the Bureau is practically limited to (1) office furniture
and apparatus, (2) ethnologic manuscripts and other original records,
(8) photographs and drawings of Indian subjects, (4) a working library,
(5) collections held temporarily by collaborators for use in research, and
(6) undistributed residue of the editions of the Bureau publications. The
fiscal year witnessed little change in the amount or value of the office
property. The accumulation of manuscripts and other records of original
work progressed steadily; about a thousand photographic negatives,
together with several hundred prints and a number of drawings, were
added to the collection of illustrative material. The library maintained
normal growth chiefly through exchange, and the number of back
reports was considerably reduced through the constantly increasing public
demand for ethnologic literature. Mr. J. Julius Lund continued in charge
of the property as custodian.

PUBLICATION.

Mr. F. W. Hodge continued in charge of the editorial work until his
resignation took effect, as already noted, after which this work was con-
ducted by Mr. H. 8. Wood. The first part of the seventeenth report and

84 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the first part of the eighteenth report were received from the Government
Printing Office during the year, and these, with the second part of the
seventeenth report, have been distributed. ‘l he second part of the eight-
eenth report was not delivered up to the end of June, while neither of
the two bulletins of the new series was quite complete; and the nineteenth
report, though nearly all in type, was not yet ready for the bindery at the
close of the year.

Mr. De Lancey Gill remained in charge of the illustrative work, preparing
copy forand revising proofs of the numerous illustrations for the eighteenth
and nineteenth reports. He also made photo-portraits of some two hun-
dred Indians, chiefly members of delegations visiting Washington in the
interest of their tribes, and developed a considerable number of negatives
made by the several collaborators in the field.

NECROLOGY.

On January 21, 1901, the Bureau suffered a grievous loss in the death of
Col. F. F. Hilder, ethnologic translator. Colonel Hilder was a student of
ability and remarkably broad experience, and although his formal con-
nection with the Bureau began only on July 1, 1898, he had made himself
a place among the most valued and trusted members of the corps. A more.
extended account of his career will be transmitted later.

I have the honor to be, yours, with respect,
W J McGesr,
Acting Director
Mr. S. P. Lanery,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

AppEeNnpIx ITI.

REPORT ON THE OPERATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL
EXCHANGE SERVICE FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30,
1901.

Srr: I have the honor te submit the following report upon the opera-
tions of the International Exchange Service for the year ending June 30,
1901:

The equipment of the five rooms in the south basement of the Smith-
sonian building, whitch have been used exclusively by the International
Exchange Service during the last eight years, consists of such furniture
and appliances as are necessary to the work, chiefly among which are tiers
of upright bins opening in front and occupying nearly all the wall space of
two rooms, into which packages of publications for distribution abroad are
temporarily placed until a sufficient quantity has accumulated to constitute -
a shipment to the respective distributing bureau of each country.

Much space is required for geographically arranging and for recording
parcels, for which purpose several large counters are arranged in the center
of each of three of the rooms which are devoted to this part of the work.

There are also cases containing indexes and acknowledgments and a
card record of all packages sent to and received from each correspondent,
correspondence files, library shelves for current directories of the principal
cities of the world, desks, copying presses, typewriting machines, ete.

The property acquired during the year consisted principally of boxes,
packing materials, stationery, and other necessary supplies, costing in the
aggregate $2,339.53.

The rooms assigned to the Exchange Service have for a long time been
inadequate to the increasing demands, but no additional space was avail-
able until the recent changes in the heating plant of the Institution made
it possible to add 360 square feet to the shipping department. This alteration
made it necessary to change the brick walls, construct an area window,
lay new flooring, and build additional bins. These expenses and those
incurred on account of laying new floors in the entire suite of exchange
offices during the early part of the present fiscal year were borne by the
Smithsonian Institution, and no part of them were paid from the Congres-
sional appropriation for support of the International Exchanges.

Considering the fact that almost every fast steamer leaving New York
for foreign ports takes a consignment of international exchanges from the
Smithsonian Institution, it is not surprising that there should be some
losses every year. During the last twelve months, however, there has
been but one instance of either loss or damage, and the year’s record is

therefore one of the best in this regard.
85

86

REPORT OF THE

SECRETARY.

The event above mentioned occurred in February last, when two cases
of exchanges destined for correspondents in New South Wales were dam-

Diagram illustrating
height of packing boxes,
resting one upon an-
other, used in transmit-
ting exchanges from the
United States to foreign
countries during the fis-
cal year ending June 30,
1901, as compared with
the height of the Wash-
ington Monument.
Height of monument,
555 feet; height of boxes,
2,775 feet.

aged by fire and water in the hold of the steamship
Castano while loading at her pier in Brooklyn, N. Y.
The cargo was subsequently discharged and the two
cases returned to the Institution, but upon exami-
nation their contents were found to be unfit for use,
and the United States Government publications
were sent to the Superintendent of Documents to
be rebound, and duplicates were substituted. The
contributors of the miscellaneous scientific publica-
tions were each notified of the facts, as is customary
in such instances, and were asked to supply dupli-
cates. In almost every instance they complied.

The operations of the Exchange Service during
the year are graphically shown in the accompanying
statistical tables. They show a marked increase
over the transmissions of the preceding year.

The number of correspondents in the United
States has been increased during the year by 428 and
those in other countries by 1,326. The total num-
ber of correspondents in the United States is now
8,149 and in all the rest of the world 27,556, or a
grand total of 35,705, the number of countries par-
ticipating being 148.

During the year 121,060 packages of publications,
weighing 414,277 pounds, were received for transmis-
sion, being an increase over the previous year of
7,497 parcels and 4,286 pounds in weight.

The sum of $24,000 was appropriated by Congress
for the support of the International Exchanges,
being the same as appropriated for the preceding
year. A special effort is continually being made to
improve the transportation facilities, and fast mail
steamers are selected to carry exchanges to all parts
of the world when practicable. An unavoidable
delay is always encountered when discharging the
cargoes of vessels, and freight is often detained for
several days at the ports of debarkation, owing to
the confusion and inadequate terminal facilities.
This difficulty has been overcome to some extent
by forwarding small consignments of exchanges by
express instead of by freight, thus receiving more
prompt attention.

Mr. John C. Williams, deputy collector of the port
of New York, was designated on January 30, 1900,
to represent the Institution in the matter of clearing
exchanges received from abroad, vice Mr. John

Quackenbush, deputy collector, who asked to be relieved on account of

advancing years and increased official duties.

The efficiency and prompt-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87

ness with which Mr. Williams has since performed these duties are highly
satisfactory, and his valuable services are much appreciated by the
Exchange Service and its correspondents.

Although the universal system of exchanges is now supported in many
countries by official recognition and Government aid, there are some which
have not yet established official bureaus for the purpose, among the most
important of which are Great Britain, Germany, and Austria-Hungary.
The free interchange of publications between the United States and each
of these countries is considered so important that the Institution has for
many years provided for the entire expense of conducting exchange rela-
tions with each, even to employing salaried agents for the purpose. Messrs.
William Wesley & Son, in London, Dr. Felix Fliigel, in Leipsic, and Dr.
Joseph yon K6résy, in Budapest, Hungary, represent the Institution in the
matter of exchanges between ‘this and their respective countries. While
the entire burden of expense for this service has been upon the Institution
for nearly fifty years, the good to the scientific world would perhaps seem
an ample reward, but it is feared that the time is not far distant when an
equitable division of the expenses must of necessity be insisted upon.

The services of many professional men and of many educational institu-
tions throughout the world which have been cheerfully and gratuitously
given in aid of the service are much appreciated, and while it is not possi-
ble to mention each name in this limited space, it is hoped that they will
consider this expression of appreciation as particularly applicable to them.

The war in South Africa has necessitated the discontinuance of sending
to Pretoria the official publications of this Government, but the recent
issues are held in reserve by the Institution until such time as they may
be safely forwarded.

Arrangements for distributing contributions for miscellaneous corre-
spondents in Japan are still incomplete, and, acting under instructions
received through the Japanese minister to this capital in October, 1896,
only such exchanges as are destined for governmental institutions and
individuals officially connected therewith are accepted for transmission.

As yet no action has been taken in China, as far as known to the Smith-
sonian Institution, with a view to establishing an exchange bureau, and
at present only such parcels as are addressed to the imperial customs
service and to correspondents in Shanghai are accepted. These are again,
after a temporary interruption, distributed by the Zi-Ka-Wei Observatory
at Shanghai.

Since the Biblioteca Nacional at Quito, Ecuador, consented to act in the
capacity of exchange distributing agent in January, 1900, eight cases of
exchanges have been sent by the Institution to the port of Guayaquil, but
no exchanges have as yet been received from Ecuador except by post.
This absence of reciprocal benefit is perhaps due to the difficulty of trans-
portation between Guayaquil and Quito, which it is hoped will be over-
come in due time.

While in Europe unofficially during the month of July, 1900, Mr. F. V.
Berry was instructed to investigate the transportation of exchanges to the
United States, and the terminal facilities in London, with a view to both
the expediting of consignments and, if possible, the reduction of expenses.

88 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Mr. Berry’s report showed conclusively that the methods employed in
transporting exchanges between London and New York could not be
improved upon, and that any attempt to hasten the distribution of parcels
throughout Great Britain would greatly increase the expense beyond the
limit that the institution was able to allot to this branch of the service.

Mr. W. Irving Adams, chief clerk of the International Exchange Sery-
ice, was instructed by the Secretary to visit Italy, Switzerland, Austria-
Hungary, and such other countries in Europe as he might deem expedient,
with a view to the general improvement of the service at large, and
through personal contact to establish more intimate relations, if such were
possible, with the several exchange bureaus and agencies in those countries.
Mr. Adams sailed from New York on May 15, with the expectation of
being absent about three months. His report, although covering a part of
the next fiscal year, is here given:

OcToBER 9, 1901.

‘‘Srr: In accordance with your instructions to proceed to Austria-Hun-
gary, Italy, Switzerland, and such other countries as, in my judgment, might
be advisable, for the purpose of promoting the interests of the international
exchange service, I sailed from New York on the 15th of May last, de-
barked at Antwerp, Belgium, May 26, and at once proceeded to Vienna,
Austria.

“Austria-Hungary.—The K. K. Statistische Central Commission, Sch warz-
enberggasse 5, Vienna, was designated as the exchange agency for Austria,
at the instance of Dr. Edward Suess, president of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences, and as a result of my visit to Vienna in 1897. Previous to
that time all contributions from this country for Austria-Hungary were
distributed through the agency of the institution in Leipzig, Germany,
and the importance of establishing independent agencies in Vienna and
Budapest was made doubly apparent, inasmuch as the agency at Leipzig
was becoming overburdened with work, and, furthermore, the returns
were not as large as it was thought they would be if separate agencies were
established. This theory has been substantiated by facts, and the contri-
butions from Austria-Hungary have gradually increased from year to year.

‘Prof. Karl Theodore von Inama-Sternegg, the president of the K. K.
Statistische Central Commission, .is much interested in the exchange
service and is disposed to render every assistance possible. He cheerfully
assented to all the changes which I proposed to him and even yolunteered
to make a personal effort to procure the official publications of his Goy-
ernment and the municipal publications of the city of Vienna for the
Library of Congress and to send them as early as practicable.

‘‘The freight charges for transporting exchanges from Vienna to Ham-
burg, and vice versa, have seemed to be excessive, and it was my purpose
to ascertain if consignments could not be made by rail to Trieste or Fiume
and thence by steamships to New York, which regularly touch at Adriatic
and Mediterranean ports. I found upon inquiry that while the latter
course might save the Institution perhaps $50 to $75 per annum, the time
consumed in transit, owing to the fact that the steamers in the Adriatic
service are exceedingly slow, would be nearly three times as great, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89

that the efficiency of the service with Austria-Hungary would thus be
seriously impaired. I learned, further, that merchants usually shipped
their goods to the United States from European Atlantic ports whenever
time was an object to be considered.

“Under the circumstances noted above, I beg to recommend the continu-
ance of the practice of sending exchanges to Vienna and Budapest via Ham-
burg for the present, at least, or until such time as an official exchange
bureau supported by the Imperial Government of Austria-Hungary shall
be provided for.

“Dr. Joseph von Korodsy, director of the statistical bureau of the city of
Budapest, was appointed agent for the Institution for the distribution and
forwarding of exchanges at the conclusion of my visit to Hungary in 1897,
and has since served in that capacity. Prior to my arrival at Budapest
Dr. Kérésy had been ill for several weeks, but was then convalescent and
had resumed his official duties.

““Dr. Julius Pikler, his assistant, personally attends to the distribution of
exchanges, and keeps a record of all parcels received and forwarded. For
this service Dr. Pikler receives each year from the Smithsonian Institution
300 kronen—equivalent to $60. On account of his faithful and efficient
performance of duty, I beg to recommend that his compensation be
increased to 500 kronen, or $100 per annum.

‘“The bureau of statistics has for many years been located in a large
building known as the ‘‘ Redoute,’ but during the month of September
was to have been moved to the city hall, where the library of the bureau,
numbering 27,000 volumes, and the official library of the city will be con-
solidated and placed under Dr. Korésy’s charge.

‘“‘Tn response to my request, Dr. Kérésy promised to procure, if possible,
copies of all the publications of the city of Budapest for the Library of
Congress, though he feared that they could not be obtained for several
months, but would be eventually. He fully realizes the importance of
exchanging publications with foreign countries, especially with the United
States, but regrets that other officers of the city government do not place
the same value upon a mutual exchange, and for that reason little provi-
sion is made for surplus copies.

*“While in Budapest I made the same inquiries with regard to reducing
the expenditures for transportation of exchanges that I did in Vienna, but
met with a similar expression of opinion, which led me to favor a continu-
ance of the present custom of using the route to and from Hamburg on
account of better service, though the freight rates are considerably higher
than by Adriatic ports.!

‘Since my return to Washington I learned that Dr. KGrésy addressed a
letter to the Secretary bearing the date of July 11, in which he refers to
my visit and to the matter of inland freight on exchanges. He proposes
to ask the State railways of Hungary to transport exchanges between Buda-
pest and Fiume without charge, and will also attempt to obtain a conces-
sion from the ministry of posts and telegraphs to enable exchange parcels
to be forwarded free of postage. Concerning this concession, however, he
has little hopes for success.

90 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

‘‘From Budapest it was my purpose to next go to Venice, but as the most
direct route took me through Vienna I availed myself of the opportunity
of personally conveying my compliments to Dr. Suess, a foreign associate
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States and the president
of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Austria. The International Ex-
changes owes much to the efforts of Dr. Suess in promoting its interests in
Austria, as he was instrumental in arranging for the agency in Vienna as
now constituted, and his personal acquaintance with many eminent sci-
entists in the United States and his visits to this country from time to
time have served to make him an interested student of America’s progress
in science.

“‘Ttaly.—Although my principal official duties in Italy were confined to
the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele in Rome, I was favored with
the promise of complete sets, so far as they were available, of the munici-
pal publications of the cities of Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome, Naples,
Genoa, Turin, and Milan. The sincerity of these promises is proven by
the fact that large consignments from Florence, Rome, and Genoa have
already been received and deposited in the Library of Congress, while ad--
vices are at hand that other collections are on the way.

‘‘In exchange for these valuable contributions it is understood that the
Library of Congress will send to the libraries of the cities above mentioned
such publications of this Government as from their nature will be of interest
to municipal governments generally, and, among others, to include the
reports upon Commercial Relations, Commerce and Navigation, District of
Columbia, and the Department of Labor, the Statistics of Railways, Con-
sular Reports, and Statistical Abstracts.

“Count Domenico Gnoli, director of the Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio
Emanuele at Rome, assured me that all the official publications of the
Kingdom of Italy which were available and not possessed by the Library
of Congress would be supplied, and, in my presence, he gave instructions
to that effect.

“The International Exchange Service of Italy—Ufficio degli Scambi
Internazionali—is located on the second floor of the National Library Build-
ing, and is approached by a stairway on the left of the main entrance and
independent of the grand staircase leading to the Library. The space
occupied as the office for the exchange service consists of one long room
well lighted and well adapted to the purpose.

“The relationship of the Italian Exchange Service to the Biblioteca
Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele is similar in some respects to that of the
international exchanges to the Smithsonian Institution.

‘Signor Cavaliere Giovanni Garavini, the chief of the bureau, showed
me many courtesies and gave me every possible opportunity to familiarize
myself with his methods, which, though systematic and complete, do not,
on account of the limited requirements, demand the same detail necessary
to ready reference as is practiced by the Institution.

‘“The sum of 5,000 lire is annually provided by the National Library for
conducting exchanges, and the charges on contributions by Italian corre-
spondents for foreigr. d’stribntion are prensia by the bureau to ports of

at

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91

debarkation in other countries in accordance with the conditions of the
Brussels treaty concluded in 1886. The distribution of exchanges in Italy
is not made with the same dispatch that is considered by the Institution as
of the utmost importance in forwarding parcels to addresses in this country
after their arrival from abroad. Instead of being allowed the right to
frank exchanges through the mails, a privilege enjoyed by the Institution,
all parcels received for each city in Italy are forwarded to a single address
in that city by freight and are then distributed by local means. This cus-
tom, which was doubtless instituted in the interest of economy, it seems
impossible to improve upon until the allowance for the transportation of
exchanges shall be substantially increased, which, however, can not be
expected in the immediate future.

‘“‘The proffer of Signor Garavini of his hearty cooperation with the Insti-
tution at all times, to the end that a mutual exchange of publications, both
governmental and scientific, may be made more general and effective
between Italy and the United States, coupled with the many favors
bestowed upon me unsolicited, and the assurance that he would hold him-
self in readiness at all times to serve the Institution in any capacity, were
reassuring of the esteem in which the [nstitution is held in the Kingdom.

** Switzerland.—After concluding my work in Italy I proceeded to Switzer-
land and visited the cities of Zurich and Bern, in both of which I received
assurances that all their municipal publications would be sent to Washing-
ton, through the Swiss exchange service, as early as practicable.

“Mr. H. Angst, the British consul-general for Switzerland, is the director
of the Swiss National Museum, which is located in Zurich. Mr. Angst was
especially obliging and offered me every facility for examining many parts
of the building to which the public is not admitted, including the shops of
the workmen and preparators.

“This museum is new, complete in every detail, and occupies a most
desirable position in the center of the city, facing a beautiful park. The
architecture of this building is unique, especially with regard to the
arrangement and finish of the rooms devoted to Swiss history, which are
made to conform to the age contemporary with the articles of furniture,
implements, customs, and arts, which are appropriately installed in them.
In order to. make the construction of these rooms conform to the many
interesting epochs in Swiss history it was necessary to dismantle many
monasteries, churches, and chateaux, but this has been done with a mini-
mum of expense and with a view to perpetuating the beauties of historical
architecture, instead of losing all semblance of ancient customs with the
decay and abandonment of old buildings which have been discarded for
more modern structures.

““The Swiss international exchange service, conducted by Dr. Gurtner, is
a division of the bibliothéque fédérale centrale, Bern. For many years it
has been the custom of Dr. Gurtner to send Swiss exchanges for correspond-
ents in this country to Dr. Fligel, the agent of the Institution at Leipzig,
Germany, and in time they were reforwarded with the German exchanges
to the Smithsonian Institution. This arrangement caused a duplication of
work and was not in accordance with the conditions of the Brussels treaty.

,

92 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

I therefore suggested that it would be preferable to send future Swiss con-
tributions direct to New. York, prepaying freight thereon to that port in
the same manner as the Smithsonian sent this country’s exchanges for
Switzerland to the port of Hamburg free of expense. Dr. Gurtner informed
me that there would be no objection to making this change, and I am
pleased to report that the new arrangement has already gone into effect,
the last consignment from Bern being sent direct to New York.

“The gracious compliance with my requests in other cities for copies of
their municipal publications was repeated in Bern, and the volumes which
I asked for are expected soon. The official publications of the Swiss Fed-
eration will, however, be delayed for a time on account of the fact that each
of the twenty-two cantons of which the confederation is composed retains,
by law, certain rights concerning the publication and distribution of official
documents and each cantonal council must act upon the request which will
be made to it from Bern.

“Although the population of Switzerland is small in comparison with
some of the countries of Europe, it is relatively among the foremost
patrons of the International Exchange Service.

“‘The French bureau has improved its methods so materially since my
visit to Paris in 1897, and especially so since the Secretary had an inter-
view with Monsieur Liard, chief of the libraries of France, last summer,
that I did not think it advisable, or, in fact, necessary, to make any sug-
gestions to the director of the bureau. I called, however, as a matter of
courtesy.

‘Throughout my entire journey, wherever it was necessary for me to ask
the official assistance of the consular officers of the United States, and in
the case of my call at the embassy in Paris, I was, without exception,
offered every facility at the command of this Government’s representatives
abroad to aid me in accomplishing the work prescribed in my official
instructions.

‘‘T returned to the Institution on August 28, having been absent from
Washington three months and fourteen days.

‘Very respectfully, yours,
‘““W. I. Apams, Chief Clerk.”’
“Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,
“Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.”

REPORT

OF THE SECRETARY.

93

Tavular statement of the work of the International Exchange Service during the
fiscal year 1900-1901.

Number of correspondents June 30, |
Number Weight Packages Gases
Siate of pack- of pack- ; == = Se ~_|sent todo- shipped
ages | ages Foreign Momestie Foreign Domestic mesticad- AIDROGL
handled. handled. socie- eaaiationl| indi- indi- dresses. |
ties. *\viduals.| viduals.

a | cae Braees
Sal fe ie eee TONI2Ie lax SOR SODA ers eee et nae meee nena Gite ea see | ear he [eee
Aiapustss 2 52.- (RE age Ties ofl eee Any haere De eee ieanenS: 3 [Sede Sr act ie gS
September ..... Lets Selb wal Uae: 33S Ps See el fe ater a | ay ee sere ieee ae
October ......-. TOSS MEA OV OTS ck sas poses See cele saree ale Semis rset | he ee icies| aetna
November ....- TRS i Ve 7 a7 [etal Hy See eye ( Pea (al gaa eine sty eatiepmetrc| pear ee ele
December...--- TATZo} lst Oy |aesen ates |--- 2-2 ---- |e 22-22 eefee eee eene|ee ee eee] e ee eee

1901. | |
Vamuery.... = 2 | OEE |r SERGE) aed eel pa bee stcca| bee Sons- Pst anes te UNG Na Leela sere
SESE TILER ee AT Onl ee ee O20 eee al sama toes ase ape ee era ae malate eioiOsierell mais
March ......-.- Ree TAD NIGL RR ROI A Bor Aiea RR Or esc lon cE hE ead ERS
Ponte: TSe4S8) hraseenanle. eee tee ory eee Ricwavereea ery ee ety ac] hse
in doh gee ee LONDOG W777 LOS epee eee aes Actin NARS he 62 We Si Nia oN Ere eae
02, eee fess yor 80: 349) Woe Sees pies eae erste penny ada

MOS 223.2555 | 121,060 | 414,277 11,295 | 2,996 | 16, 261 5, 153 31, 367 1,757
Increase over | | |
1899-1900 . - | 7,497 | 4, 286 | 450 275 | 876 | 153 2,742 111

1 Decrease.

The following table shows the number of packages of exchanges handled
and the increase in the number of correspondents each year from 1894 to

1901.

Number of packages received.
Weight of packages received,
Ledger accounts:

Foreign societies ........-

Foreign individuals ...... |

Domestic societies. ......-
Domestic individuals ....

Packagestodomesticaddresses|

Cases shipped abroad

| or s | S| !
| 1894-95. 1895-96. 1896-97. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900 1900-1901
107,118 | 88,878 | 81,162 84,208 | 97,835 | 113,562 | 121, 060
326, 955 |258, 731 [247,444 301,472 [317,883 | 409,991 | 414,277
| 33
8,751 | 8,022 | 9,414 | 10,165 | 10,322) 10,845 | 11,295
9,609 | 10,878 | 12,013 | 12,378 | 13,378 | 15,385 | 16,261
| 2,014 | 2,115 | 2,445) 2,583) 2,596 | 2,721] 2,996
3,034 | 3,899 | 4,136 | 4,382 | 4,673) 5,000 5, 153
29,111 | 34,091 | 23,619 | 21,057 | 30,645 | 28,625 | 31,367
1,364 | 1,043 | 1,300! 1,330 | 1,500! 1,768 1,757

94

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

CORRESPONDENTS.

The record of exchange correspondents at the close of the year contained

35,705 addresses, being an increase of 1,754 over the preceding year.

The

following table gives the number of correspondents in each country and
also serves to illustrate the scope of the service:

Number of correspondents of the International Exchange Service in each country
on June 80, 1901.

CORRESPONDENTS. CORRESPONDENTS.
County |ibre-| vigu-| rota. | [Ebro] Fit | rota
=e) ees, , tas:
AFRICA. AMERICA (NORTH)—
AIP Cha Soe see aoe so 20 28 48 continued.
ATP OIASAE Me > eae. 3 Peles ore dl (Greenland2=..-. 2522 7a RE 2
INZOTES rece cee 5 14 TOU MGxaCO Hesse en a: oe 140 138 278
BGM 2 ine eee nese se sete if 1 || Newfoundland ...... 12 17, 29
British East Africa -. 0 1 St. Pierre-Miquelon. . 2 2 4
Canary Islands ...--. ie Resear 1 || United States........ 2,996 | 5,153 8, 149
Cape Colony.....:... 40 71 111 |} West Indies:
Cape Verde Islands. .|...--- 5 5 Ampuillay see ersleel een 1 1
MEV pt oe seca seats 27 51 78 ANTIEUR - cee 5 1 9
French Kongo: s: 2c. -|s----2 1 1 Bahamas........ 2, 10 12
Gam piasits Seasaoee sefce aes 2 2 Barbados........ 9 10 19
GoldiCcestiees =e sseeeee ee 2 2 Bermuda........ 4 13 17
Gorée-Dakar 8-3. SalGe ae 3 3 Buen Ayre. 225s see 1 1
Kongo Free State. ...|.....-. 3 3 (Qiullat: heeegmee tins ee ee 42 81 123
Paes) sath. oe eee 2 1 3 CUERCHO 2. eee 1 4 5
hiberia oe. ea 2 5 7 Pominica = 2252. 2 7 9
Lourenco-Marquez ..|....... 2 2 Grenada... 222... 2 5 7
Madagascar .....-..- 2 7 9 Guadeloupe..... 2 5 if
Madeira 22252 c2e5 oes 3 3 6 j S02 i eee ener ge hes 6 16 22
Manmitiusts 22245. 2. 11 7 18 JVamiaiGae. coe 13 32 45
IMOKGRCOE* e: - ooae ase econ 10 10 Martinique.....- 2 5 7
Mozambique /os..--ccieece ose 1 1 Montserraty--osa|peeeees 2 2
Nittalenc tence easter 13 15 28 Nevises Ps. ac eealseeetee 1 1
Orange Free State...|....... 1 1 Porto Rico.2 =---- 4 10 14
Remmionee Scales Deets 2 St. Bartholomew |....... 2 2
SiHelenai.i. a2. 355. 2 2 4 St. Christopher .-. 1 4 .5
Sierra Leone ........ 1 4 St Croix oe 1 2 3
South African Re- | StBustativis2 ao csreceesis 1 1
puelie fees Fee by iret aa 23 St.Martin .......|...-... 2 2
SREAG Soros Seats gene, abS 6 7 13 Stabucia wae sensy- 2 4 6
FRZADAD, eet tac sc oe cette se 6 6 St. Thomas ....-. 1 3 4
AMERICA (NORTH). St. Vincent ....-. 1 a 3
Santo Domingo. . 2 10 12
Camadassscte.e. ce: - 257 463 720 PObaEOS 2 ee ale 1 1
Central America: Trinidad ........ 4} u 25
British Honduras Bi 7 10 | Tires tel ania 9 5 7
Costa Rica......- 25 31 56
Guatemala ...... 40 53 SP ee Ee (SOUTH).
Honduras .....-. 9 27 36 || Argentina ..........- 128] 119 247
Nicaragua.....:-. 12 35 47 |) BOLLV Le rte oon ne csi eters 16 11 27
San Salvador.... 14 11 2B oH" Breizal iy ce Sie ora s 115 136 251

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

95

Number of correspondents of the International Exchange Service in each country
on June 80, 1901—Continued.

Sountry

AMERICA (SOUTH)—
continued.

Colombia’... 55554
Dutch Guiana....-..
MeUROOL: 62.5052 55.
Falkland Islands....

Uruguay
Venezuela...........

British North Borneo
Galepesee--- 5: << 2-...

Cyprus

Philippine Islands ..
Portuguese India....
MaMawalls so 2205.25. .
Straits Settlements ..
STEEN; fe: Raney Seaeae menue

AUSTRALASIA.
New South Wales....
New Zealand ........
Queensland
South Australia

CORRESPONDENTS.
Libra-| Yidu- | Total.
als.

14 9 23

76 80 156

32 47 79

3 2 5

13 20 33
ieee 6 6
1 2 3

14 9 23

36 58 94
39| 25 64

32 39 71
See 7 7
eee 1 1
ee 7

Bt anaths 1 1
eS 1 1
21 1 32

41 82 123

rT pe 4
spect: age) 3
eee 1 1
if ae 2

7 20 27
198 | 183 381 |
119 | 282 401
17 27 44

1 6 7
see 1 i
3 8 ul
9 13 22, |

spain | nese ey 1
do \ece Se 1

4 15 19

10 12 22
Bele a 3 3
s0| . 113 193

69 84 153

33 46 79
40| 62 102

; CORRESPONDENTS.
CASE Seite) ae: | Total
als.
AUSTRALASIA—Con-
tinued.
Tasmania: fs se2.<.- 16 17 33
VACtOTIA sho eacee occ 86 117 203
|| Westerp Australia... 16 22 38
EUROPE.

Anrstrig-uasns oe oaciosie 665 920 1, 585
Belsinme see 314 354 | 668
Bulgaria: 295 lessees 13 14 27
Denmark: -< ssocacta- 102 152 254
Hraneee sO esosces 1, 559 | 1,340 3, 399
Germany se. sseces 2,234 | 2,990 | 5,224
Gibraltanees. aaeees | eae 4 | 4
Great Britain........ 1,872 | 3,887 | 5,759
Greece 22-25. 38 36 74
WkGelamadl. -=2* sets See ot 16 8 24
tauliy 22 asee5-8 = | 751 759 1,510
Luxemburg ........- | 9 ° 3 12
Malitans, io. csstess | 8 | 12 20
Netherlands......... 184 244 428
NOL Wa yee och oS 118 123 241
Portugal 26 ess.tass 98 70 168
Roumania:: 2. -.5-<5: 30 55 85
Rissiaeees eee oe | 442] 690] 1,132
Secele ieee sata lie Ole 1S 32
PpaMe=-oo~ 3S. A | 162 161 323
SWEGGD cca. 22 as-is | 165 289 454
Switzerland ......... | 316 508 | 824
Turkeys -< 221255 deees 33 | 70 103

POLYNESIA.

| Bismarek Archipel- |
BRO Es eee ao alow sos te 1 1
Hiji islands 325.60 | 1 | 3 4
Hawaiian Islands ... 23 40 63
Marshall Islands ....!}...-..- 1 1
New Caledonia......|...---- 2 2
New Hebrides....... ay BSResee 1
BB UNON ace = sere eiimeretsias | atetar ae ol 5 5
JUNG Mies SA Bore Ia Loe ie 3
SGPT PA os Sates tare enteral nein ora / 2, 2
International ......- SAallisa ies 34
Totalee aoe 14,291 [21,414 | 35,705

96

REPORT OF THE

SECRETARY.

EXCHANGE OF GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS.

The following table shows the number of packages forwarded and _re-

ceived by the several branches of this Government during the year.

By

comparison with the last report it will be observed that there has been a
slight increase in the number of packages transmitted abroad and an
increase of 5 per cent in the number of packages received. The contribu-
tions credited to the Library of Congress were forwarded in accordance
with the act of Congress approved March 2, 1867.

Statement of Government exchanges during the year 1899-1900.

Name of bureau.

American Historical Associ-
Astrophyical Obseryatory.. --
Auditor for the State and
other Departments, Treas-
ury Department
Board on Geographic
UINGHITTA Ge er ala arc fororarale attore? terns
Bureau of American Eth-

Bureau of American Repub-

MOS woes jose alse aetna ee
Bureau of Education
Bureau of Medicine and

Surgery
Bureau of the Mint........-.
Bureau of Navigation
Bureau of Statistics, Treas-

ury Department: ...-....-.. 1
Bureau of Steam. Engineer-

ing, Navy Department
Gensus Office: sco. ok i 5sc23h 2
Civil Service Commission... .
Coast and Geodetic Survey. ..|
Commissioners of the Dis- |

trict of Columbia
Comptroller of the Currency...

Department of Agriculture...)
Department of the Interior...
Department of Justice
Department of Labor..-...--..
Department of State........- |
Entomological Commission. .)

Fish Commission
General Land Office
Geological Survey

Packages.

Packages.
a Sent Name of bureau. Be Sent
for— for—
Hydrographic Office.....-..- AGSe) 2c Bets
8 20 || Interstate Commerce Com-
6 5 MISSION, So eae aes eee 19 297
Isthmian Canal Commission.}....--- 1
Library of Congress....--..-- 7,015 | 24,370
eeEe 843 || Life-Saving Service....-...-.. 3 104
Light-House Board ......-..- 4 115
cee ohne 208 || Marine-Hospital Service..... 14 104
National Academy of Sci-
224 | 1,320 OCNCCSS soe s Gewese ee ane as 88 36
National Museum ...-.....--- 316 | 3,029
10 13 || National Zoological Park ... G2. aeees
oo ae Nautical Almanac Office .... 34 161
Naval Observatory --...-..--- 138 675
Dia Navy Department ....-...--. 21 1
11 397 || Office of the Chief of Engi-
14 18 TIC OMS % oe tie entie winwinim =i =i 29 124
Office of Indian Affairs....-. 6 | Serene
71 | 4,360 | Ordnance Office, War De-
THEI ct or re shiniane eooeaeia are e Zu lense tena
fGen oe as ‘Patent: OMmce ca: 2a scenes eee k 102 | 1,253
LOY hea fees ae President of the United
On ce Ne Sstetesnoay i cciede dae nen Ose erat
103 828 || Record and Pension Office,
War Department... 2... 2:| 5. -2-4- 162
2 13 || Senate of the United States -|...-.-- 1
5 11 || Smithsonian Institution... 2,147 | 4,157
1, 096 5 || Superintendent of Docu-
23 560 MENTS ene eae oe ee ees at 134
Sal ee Surgeon-General’s Office
37 96 (Amy) seers eat eee 159 290
13 10 || Treasury Department ....-.-- 6 8
Zap gees War Department .........--- 62 151
85 327 || Weather Bureau ....-..-.--. 129 | 1,186
Pieces Total eesesne esasee 12,904 | 49, 410
602 | 4, 062

a

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97

RELATIVE INTERCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS BETWEEN TH UNITED STATES AND
OTHER COUNTRIES.

Following is a comparative statement of exchange transmissions by pack-
ages between the United States and other countries during the years 1900
and 1901:

Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the Inter-
national Exchange Service during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1900 and
June 30, 1901.

1900. 1901.
Country. Packages. Packages.

For— From— For— From—
JL SCETSEDY So, Ale etic, es or ec ge Ar 96 8 | 118 74
CSP ECELED vcs Et oe eae ei A et ope a Se ea ee a | bil Reo e cee
PRP TIEN eet eine on ae oe eins is Soe a See (3) loon eoeeaes | (Al peooee eee
OAD DI Wes ee Se a eee Seer BAP Ae Sea 2), |Sooseoeans Diilesasaemeee
OM TSE HACER go 2 ga RRS el ee 3, 127 308 | 2,374 392
PREMIERE PUNE ALi earns Sooo coos eile cima Sa cc OG 4,387 2,125 | 4,531 2,518
LO NE ee SOS RE eS Reet Gi Bi serereerer acai 1 PY Re Sareea
PRAIA IS Pree iroe Scr actos S58 /n)-to etme shia Sea see Ol baiaieeecneters 1G eee eee
US SISM OGL ONS Se axel toe lege ee a ya AE RSs RS A 7 aL, AN | 3) a ee
VEL RD (DET oo Sigh SS a ete a ee ee 2,148 1, 564 | 2,301 1, 792
RAE RDNRINOLA SES cos rman oy pS Soe dake va ae Se Seat Dil seems see DD es eee
‘so LO pad 3 Se a ae Sere eh a ne a TAN et see cee | for eee
RCS Mee ese te PS St eR na eA Mees Sa ILE cre cei ctsc|la ea cteree De Reese
1) ay ol aay ee 1,385 | 803 | 1,440 715
lol StS ee oe eek ane 2,479 1,396 | 2,532 706
TELA IST OWT 03 00g 9] Oe a a 1 1 | 4S eteree acer
EELUULSTS. CHOIETI Gi Sap aren peed cette gee 5 ea pa 5) I ee eee 57 1
BIN Oe ONG MTAS feet nS. 2f oe Set SOL oe se Oillest 5-256 1D ee seer
S800) PENT lag! ete Ree pee age etl ee SO tee er 63 1 |} 72 88
LE TEEN TESA Ea 0 Ss A ee ee (RR ES con Gill erts some e
«ELLEN EST SS is SSIS eA Rm en a gee De ra 1 La eee
"CURIDYEN (CHO GN OA sO lear I tenet ee 210 8 274 1
EGG, NN STPOUEY TINE eV FS) ctl CS Chr oh cp Ue a el regen Qi eee as
‘ULETRL GTO BOSAL eo ter Seo a ae =e Re CR Mee era DON loescceecee
| IIT Die a NE NS oe 1, 106 211 1,090 1
MRAILA eS ee eta a ts ee ee 2 et eer 238 173 249 141
(Lio SV TD ATES lee Se ea pa ave ee eee omen era ae ee 704 14 G5 Beeeee eer
RINE Lal CHAe hehe tees te eee Sed on 1 wert Se 922 478 784 673
NIUE eater ie ee Se phe 9 wis ate, aistetamiers Saino aah 196 22 233 25
LUDINTETD EOE by AE Bee iene a ane ear eari eae ieabae eee Ue oeenase IA ase erect Ae
BOGUS ea Sao oe Sane ao eee ene eelan eos NL PS erate A) ae mee Ne
JU DEE TT ENT Roe BES eye er ae es oy See 1, 067 266 1,054 186
PEC C ee ae ee See eo heme PAS sala wets oe v6 | eats Oe Dy face ia ates eee
LOWTAN ELEY CR OIE PETS RE aaa Mise eae Sire see ER eee qi Rates oa Gh Wen 22 aro sta ss
ETUC ue Sete ee 2 eta aloe seine aja Eee, wi sie cee ocala a= Thal aaerosamicts iia \eiigetete ee
OEE 23.5 cope GaSe See eno Se ae een ane 7 eeeeeoeed HOS S| eeesecuce
EMIS AS. a eyes nee cok cet ec moc mase ast (eee, ee By aeetacian so
LOOT USHE TGR SE Foot Aaa eee ee Fol eee oe Ciibseeasaeee

sm 1901——7

98 REPORT OF THE

SECRETARY.

Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the Inter-

national Exchange Service, etc.— Continued.

1900. i901.
Country. Packages, Packages.
For— From— For— From—
OTM OS) she 30%. Soo ee Ee ee ee TE eee tia ey DN pceeciee ae
rane ok Se aN ee ee ae ee | 7,178] 3,458| 8,037 2, 525
Hrench CochimiChinass sen. sees Sete ee ee Hg ee et abl terse coee 28
He Ta HG AULA Ne dap ee Se oo oiredaw ic see Se Pera | ee ee oe eee L|Hescestte
(SELIART eee oe. ota Sk oy, Ce ere er ee ed ea 12,576 6,139 14, 868 8, 265
Goibralitor cesses ecco es sce ace nee een aie Qilse Rew oeele ose see See
(Gus eiat: 10 bo), Beat nae ei eee mr meta he. Se | Gil Ro Same ae 4 De saa
Great Britain’and Ireland’--:2+2-2-2..-.-o2--- =e | 10,843 8,950 | 12,394 8, 606
(OW eLer hte ee A Se eer er ee Ree eri Sian eee. | DOBTAlnns se aeae (So) Dl eg meng pares |
(Co Sera Nia Ol pee es ae Se ea eee ee Si Dy | aeanic tetas oe (eee ae Om ate
(GILG C LODE Re ie ue see Se oo Dee weeee cs [Sal [geet at
JEN Mov babs L ps Seek ae ed a GREE is eae een, Se ae aU 7.1 a Reed 129. ener
(SEBLT CON So AE RS Reread a ate ess Se eee So ene gen 3 i epee 2
ERATE iS 5 Soe ne eh Re ec ac ere ee Doel eee aoe ote DLO eno erteee
Hiawallam telsmis. ies es et sent ee eee eel 71 8 Od oe cae
ROM eras eee Ree ee FIN 41 267 51 2}
PION EKONE eased RS Ses eek baie wee Soe S2A see eee ena (Os Sano Rete
TCola nd ts cee eee Sete ee oe See ee 35 1 44 1
Ta Se aoe ee seer ha eta tees ee eke eee Bete 5 eae 1,371 154 1,410 159
LC Rie ee A ae Se SRE et 3, 862 992 4, 340 1, 275
HAc5 03 1h GS ee pee pre RE Rie e Ae en eg Ee Ae be! TGs serous OO! Seo seseere
iNT ea ake tae aoe ace ee ee ee 1, 394 20 1, 533 18
2) ee SP Rel a ee i A Oe al PS Rt fa 151 124 203 144
WROTE A aoe ean etka ioe oes Nace ee aa eee ee ee OR eS eon 204} inameseeNe
TOON src eee aa Dane 3 Beets Se Oe del] Eine catenin Steinteni=s «al eee eee
OUDCRIB) cise ee aa iag Mes. tee oe ne See mee ee BAe [Predera no C7 Ae es YR Se
HUREMIDERL see ae ae nar Pe Rete cis ores OO) |'-s/secte cers 20 ‘Loe ener
MEGA ASCaIr esti 52th es one ts eee pee cs Oe ea ee 5 DY Wea ee ee roe 2
TACs sae a ok ese Sa Sonne oe epee 1 aseeee: Oi |set-eaeee
Malian 72 Se Se ee ee ca ee ee 23 | 2
MaTtiOIG Ue <2 scence enon ene. saeco ase Beemer Stree
Mauritius ........ ae ya ews ee bes Ae Se ee BT | zt cses AP lax seictena at
Memo: ce 3:22 3s 5 Se Sas ec es ee ee | 1, 641 4, 099 1,719 3,720
MOnCONe STO 2s. voces ase ee nee ae see Ds etor eee Sl oo cect Sesame
Mromtsenrate sen tec cce ne st turner pee eee Perea S (Roses ol ees
BOTOC COs 7. os ce es Sets nee asin cee oe ae ee fi Soee teers ye Bons
NFA bene ie piar eho oes cts ee cere oe eee ae ene ee 46 5 58 3
Netherlands’. 2.2.52 .eace. sos cee eee ee 1, 662 583 1, 847 723
ING@VIN weet ee eda aces ou. dees Sc ache state wales woe RE SORES [oreo ameAa se dh | eesemc tee
IVE WTO COLOUEL © «0-2 Fc So = me He eee oe a eeecie itera: oratcte ata | eet eee [eee eee
Newiotmmdlamte 202.0007. 205. See eco ae eee 37 lal eee 7H il Benes
INGIWRELODTICOR Ss =. 2 oe LL Sa Sh eee ee ees a ie ree reese) erry eerie | RRR he
New SOUUHRW ALE i i... 553225 Fe Sete eee eee 1,390 360 1, 534 229
New Zealandrssrn se sess-soros aes eae eee 834 5 821 12
Ni carats SEE. sen aaeee ean ne science clameaeeer Die scioeeeecins | See
NOT Way soe Sc ee ee ee oe oe SES 1,237 383 1, 292 999
IPATAPURY tniocc. cere coon Memon tas eee sites ee ieee 39 13 73 40

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99

Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the Inter-
national Exchange Service, etc.—Continued.

1900. 1901.

Country. Packages. Packages.

For— | From—- For— From—

TA EIRSIO apicillonrei ee a ite Ene Bee eon ene renee 22 ee 20) |casec- ce
“2 Lee ee er 724 | 25 723 15
ipippine Talands 6.00. bbs 2s. ise. sh e.5-.: Det deeb aaa Gill: ee eee
OOS RA CORE 32 ans eee ee hee Se ED 10 | ee Sa eee AG dee A
LECT TVET en Shai ae ee ee 912 | ee ar oe O14 2 ee
(SYTUECETTES CG |e ee Se a ge fo el ees otis aL Te a oe es ae
RSs TE Ue as ee in AAS atte Vi lene ee (31 eee oes
Le) eiCi Tea y oe See OO eo een ae ee eee 189 101 175 87
PUSSIES Sie Sire eS le ons Ss areas as ee 2, 951 779 3, 213 2 ott
Simbaribolomew s-:2.s-.2<--s--5--- ee sew re es IE Fe, ca =r en BARE Pt
SUNT) 2 See Se See Cee eee a pI |e ers Be Nese eee
Sih, IDA SRT Go. CG ped nace beg ee COR Aree a Rees eters! (Seer s am Ibe epee Je he
i LBPEUCIT OAL ee ee ee a en 74 AS aren iis) ae See
SUS oe See oe ar eee LS eae oe cere Sale eee ee
Sti, IAS 3p perigee ee ai oat ame eR | jis eee id VaR ah
PIAeITe RNG) MIGUCLONM =. 22. cs paseo -c ee ee eee meebo ee ok | See wee
PUPERIOIN AS mel tf re want Se Ae Se i sek adotee = Ai eese secete Ze Sees
Sie VY LITLE Fe Se vIn ear es Sylsaoae eee Bert ote ee
SSULTERET 1, od econ eee ans ec ey Se UE Bene oe 1 IS 3 eee ae
BSAA ENC on eons oe SAE RS Saco Se Sule ctere ee VME Er
‘SEDIEIAG: TDYOOTTUIAVaVk See 2 Ae one eects a ne Ca | Wal Pe omcne Ohl pate saeeee
‘SEY PSEA SG U0) ee a eee 53 | 24 77 7
ema Meee e aN a Tee eh a et tack 26 | 1 Settee ears
puumnenere Pantene Pads fh 2 ae Sf Va yh ie eatea Balt ede
Better etl Craet oe ee Se See Oe ete ease se eae 0 AR eee 2 1
OCI ty ISIAMIAS! 2. o-oo to nosis ads seece Sues ee a le Ree AGS ott sss
SonrbrAtrican Republic. - 2522: . 22... -.2.5-2 2.225 594 | 104 GOA eee eee
DOHONEA Sinaia, fecp ian 2 beatee id bogeys Ione: 781 39 764 92
SIDE EY alt he LO SEES, Seer era ae ee ee Ue) EI eee Sats ae fT 2a he we
LIES We LUEMENTS 325 = nooo on ook n= weenie = G4 ste: 46 it
SSPE Ue ein ea ee ck ears nee ene ee Ate RS Ana CS eee)
SAPD 3 Ss eee ain ee poe ssessek 1,916 493 1,909 292
SAGDIG ee Ee ee ee ee eee ye 2,120 726 2,431 686
Oe ne eee ee ee She os he eel oa 2 een ee | PA Al ep
OTTAWA SEERA ats Seah ae ane ene eel ee pale a dae | 644 2 691 2
TYE AS Ai eee eS ee ee eee A Ree oid Tfl (ee et et 1B geet eye
rAd es ee ees so oe ok eae Viel eartee, ee GOs tsetse
ETERS Ae Sea ee eee Ie 1 ss ie oe 15 | 1
BRURICG Vieni cscs wp: Seno aCe ree ee Suess G20) eae eee | SON Sato:
SUNT Gia 6 a ee ae ee eae ee Cae by ee eee 6 | BAe
TURGEON ee oars se ne Se ere ee eee tte oh | 28,625 76, 264 31, 367 | 81,310
MUSE TSE OS ect ea reas no a a 817 116 817 129
\WASTELETA ELS Ds a oon a ee ge a es SP eB 699 1 660522225. 2
IRE LOTER Aeneas Sea eee asia! NS SL eee ey 1,101 517 1,190 312
NWR PAUIStrali a soe22 otek ere rote EE ed ove FAS, Ua heehee | 656 335
16 AWA BY: TES Sy oe ine = oe fp Dike dete as DB |eatace es

100 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The following is a list of the Smithsonian correspondents acting as dis-
tributing agents, or receiving publications for transmission to the United
States, and of countries receiving regularly exchanges through the Insti-
tution:

Algeria. (See France.)

Angola. (See Portugal. )

Argentina: Museo Nacional, Buenos Ayres.

Austria: K. K. Statistische Central-Commission, Wien.

Azores. (See Portugal. )

Belgium: Commission Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Brussels.

Bolivia: Oficina Nacional de Inmigracién, Estadistica y Propaganda Geo-
grafica, La Paz.

Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.

British Colonies: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, England.

British Guiana. (See British Colonies. )

British Honduras. (See British Colonies. )

Bulgaria: Dr. Paul Leverkithn, Sofia.

Canada: Packages sent by mail.

Canary Islands. (See Spain.)

Cape Colony: Superintendent of the Stationery Department, Cape Town.

Chile: Universidad de Chile, Santiago.

China. (Shipments suspended for the present. )

Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.

Costa Rica: Oficino de Depdésito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, San José.

Cuba: Dr. Vicente de la Guardia, Habana.

Denmark: Kong. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.

Dutch Guiana: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo.

Ecuador: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.

East India: India Store Department, India Office, London.

Egypt: Société Khédiviale de Géographie, Cairo.

Fiji Islands. (See British Colonies. )

France: Bureau Francais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris.

Friendly Islands: Packages sent by mail.

Germany: Dr. Felix Fliigel, Wilhelmstrasse 14, Leipzig-Gohlis.

Gold Coast. (See British Colonies. )

Great Britain and Ireland: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex street, Strand,
London, England.

Greece: Prof. R. B. Richardson, Director, American School of Classical
Studies, Athens.

Greenland. (See Denmark. )

Guadeloupe. (See France. )

Guatemala: Instituto Nacionai de Guatemala, Guatemala.

Guinea. (See Portugal. )

Haiti: Secrétaire d’ Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.

Hawaiian Islands: Foreign Office, Honolulu.

Honduras: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.

Hungary: Dr. Joseph von Kordésy, ‘‘ Redoute,’’ Budapest.

Iceland. (See Denmark.)

Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

Jamaica. (See British Colonies. )

Java. (See Netherlands. )

Korea: Packages sent by mail.

Leeward Islands. (See British Colonies. )

Liberia: Care of American Colonization Society, Washington, District of
Columbia.

Luxemburg. (See Germany. )

Madagascar. (See France. )

Madeira. (See Portugal.)

Malta. (See British Colonies. )

Mauritius. (See British Colonies. )

Mexico: Packages sent by mail.

Mozambique. (See Portugal. )

Natal: Agent-General for Natal, London, England.

Netherlands: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Den Helder.

New Guinea. (See Netherlands. )

New Hebrides: Packages sent by mail.

Newfoundland: Packages sent by mail.

New South Wales: Government Board for International Exchanges,
Sydney.

New Zealand: Colonial Museum, Wellington.

Nicaragua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.

Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet, Christiania.

Paraguay: Care Consul-General of Paraguay, Washington, District of
Columbia.

Persia. (See Russia. )

Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.

Philippine Islands: Packages sent by mail.

Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.

Queensland: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane.

Roumania. (See Germany. )

Russia: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque
Impériale Publique, St. Petersburg.

Saint Helena. (See British Colonies. )

Santo Domingo: Packages sent by mail.

San Salvador: Museo Nacional, San Salvador.

Servia. (See Germany.)

Siam: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York.

South African Republic: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex street, Strand,
London.

South Australia: Astronomical Observatory, Adelaide.

Spain: Oficina para el Canje de Publicaciones Oficiales, Cientificas y
Literarias. Seecion de Propiedad Intelectual del Ministerio de Fomento,
Madrid.

Straits Settlements. (See British Colonies. )

Sumatra. (See Netherlands.)

Syria: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York.

Sweden: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.

Switzerland: Bibliotheque Fédérale, Berne.

102 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Tasmania: Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.

Trinidad. (See British Colonies. ) .

Tunis. (See France.)

Turkey: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston,

Massachusetts.

Turks Islands. (See British Colonies. )

Uruguay: Oficina de Depdésito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, Montevideo.
Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.

Victoria: Public Library, Museum, and National Gallery, Melbourne.
Western Australia: Victoria Public Library, Perth.

Zanzibar: Packages sent by mail.

The distribution of exchanges to foreign countries was made in 1,757
cases, 282 of which contained official documents for authorized deposito-
ries, and the contents of 1,475 cases consisted of Government and other
publications for miscellaneous correspondents. Of the latter class of
exchanges the number of cases sent to each country is given below.

Avo ential. cass osc eee Se 30)| New South Wales. -—- 222 2:22) lo
PNUIS LEIA eh eee eae pe eee 644 Netherlands +5.--s2e2-- eeee 40
1 SYST 0 1 a ee es a 49'|<New Zealand!" a. oe if
Bolivia ates ate. ae eyes mes tye 2 SNICaragaie= jroo 1a ee ome 3
IBV Allee oe ak Die sees er er eres 25.| INOEWAY -o25- 501 oo ne ae eee 25
Bnitisin@oloniess 2. esse a oanae 13] SPareouaay sore ee see nee eee 2
Gape Colomye: 02.12. =a aot 2) Peru .......----------------+- 10
(Gj ci 71 Ne alent ee Gv ae eee a Ae AS OV OSIAS, «Scr eens 2S oes (=)
(OintH Teyana a er ee een ete ert LS IMPORTS als 5 a ees acer 18
Golomilbrasse a ee 6 | Queensland: 25 8 ee eee 10
CasieveRiOnr 3:55 es oS eae 6; ROWUMSTIA 20. chek ee eee ()
ia aey ys eee se es DB WWIWUSELA tees face fee ote as eae 62
Peninanke ory eee ae Pio) Salwador.. 22 ee aoe eee 3
Duteh Gaiam; 2a ete eer (+). Santo Donmlunson 2. cose cee 1
Hasan so! tee ee a 1S Ser vlaien< 2 ome ee ee (*)
Tee Nie csc etei st cet Sate cee Z| PUERTO oe he are ae ale coe ee tees (2
France and Colonies. -.....---=- GAs Souths Australias ees ee 8
(FORMAN. o-\oh oa ae Ser ae seh 248 | South African Republic. ...--.-.- C)
Great Britain and Ireland -.-- - SOUONES Wallies Soa = Met areas eines 19
GRECCE . oak ea sat eee ke eee Ty Sweden 4. tee eee eee 43
Gan aetinaley a el Se Sek 23) Swibzenlamdl eer e ec eee 43
EV Aart 3 eh nee eS Case ap Bi ee elie Dart 887 7 A 2
BlenGUyraAs 25950 to eee see a il That a): WARN oe bm acre Re es,
nam arya fee oe eer see nee 25 | Turkeys. 2 eee eee ee 2
TNitemlivy ve 2 2 oS tt eee eee CaS UD Viner Os cere Beets eee neta 8
‘ED Ua eae ee eects he 23,|, VieNe ZUG] aise aie 3 tae ere oe 7
ING COmmr aes Se kc eee CATON QEGE TA 205 Sone ee tes ee eee 10
Natal coe ees 2 Soo eee (*).. | Western Australas <2 ccec 10

' Included in transmissions to Netherlands.
» Packages sent by mail.

3 Included in transmissions to Great Britain.
* Included in transmissions to Germany.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1038

The following is a list of depositories of regular sets of United States
Government publications forwarded abroad through the International
Exchange Service on July 10, October 6, November 23, 1900, and on Jan-
uary 23, April 1, and May 20, 1901:

Argentina: Library of the Foreign Office, Buenos Ayres.

Austria: K. K. Statistische Central-Commission, Wien.

Baden: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg.

Bavaria: Konigliche Hof-und Staats-Bibliothek, Miinchen.

Belgium: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels.

Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.

Buenos Ayres: Library of the Government of the Province of Buenos

Ayres, La Plata.

Canada: Parliamentary Library, Ottawa.

Canada: Legislative Library, Toronto.

Chile: Biblioteca del Congreso, Santiago.

Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogoté.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdsito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, San José.
Denmark: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.

England: British Museum, London.

France: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.

Germany: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin.

Greece: National Library, Athens.

Haiti: Secrétaire d’ Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.
Hungary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest.

India: Secretary to the Government of India, Calcutta.

Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Roma.

Japan: Foreign Office, Tokyo.

Mexico: Museo Nacional, Mexico.

Netherlands: Library of the States General, The Hague.

New South Wales: Government Board for International Exchanges,

Sydney.

New Zealand: General Assembly Library, Wellington.

Norway: Departementet for det Indre, Christiania.

Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.

Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.

Prussia: Koénigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.

Queensland: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.

Russia: Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg.

Saxony: Konigliche Bibliothek, Dresden.

South African Republic: Department of Foreign Affairs, Pretoria.!
South Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.

Spain: Seccion de Propiedad Intelectual del Ministerio de Fomento,

Madrid.

Sweden: Kongliga Biblioteket, Stockhoim.
Switzerland: Bibliothéque Fédérale, Berne.
Tasmania: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.

‘Shipments subsequent to August 1, 1899, suspended.

104 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Turkey: Minister of Public Instruction, Constantinople.

Uruguay: Oficina de Depdsito, Reparto y Canje Internacional de Publica-
ciones, Montevideo.

Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.

Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne.

Western Australia: Victoria Public Library, Perth.

Wirttemberg, Konigliche Bibliothek, Stuttgart.
Respectfully submitted. F. W. Hopes,

Acting Curator of Exchanges.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX IY.

REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE NATIONAL
ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

Srr: I have the honor to herewith submit the following report relating
to the condition and operations of the National Zoological Park for the
year ending June 30, 1901:

At the close of that period the approximate value of the property
belonging to the park was as follows:

UP SU SESS SSAC TUTE Sg a ee $63, 000
Boldings for administrative purposes ........20.25..2:..+22.2=2 14, 000
Oiieetariture, books, apparatus, ete... =... -..=.=-.2.5--...- 4, 000
Machinery, tools, and miplements ._._.--...:....-----<2-6---<- 2, 200
Heneesang: OUTGOOTIMClOSUTESi-2 22 oe eae fe ose eee de 25, 000
Roadways, bridges, paths, rustic seats, ete .................---- 74, 000
EET SEPT EIS SES oe ea ON i a Oe EE Pelagia WS eee OT 1, 000
LTD ED Spee ee 5s en ee Oe I Rica eee 800
Pane Tl ZOGlotiCal collection. 2. 22s. tee ake oem ae 36, 000

A detailed list of the animals in the collection is appended hereto.
They may be classified as follows:

| Domesti-

Indige- | 5. :
ania Foreign. Gafeal Total.
IED EE DTTR TILE | SPS Ba Ae a RE ee 382 77 78 537
LOT Bos53 6588 RHEE SESH te BEE AAAe een eta Rene Be tater 129 40 56 225
RUPEE iste tae cee idee sere eye neice cence amen aoe 91 723) | ae 116
SLOSS pe Ms 8 Ble ae AC Slt 602 142 cy ey:

The accessions of animals during the year have been as follows:

OER DISE Es Si Re SoS Per ee pe Skah Uae eee Bp cak ge Oa Oa 131
Perr eee ATE CULICCIOR. = 49.45), Glo aoe Soe oes eee eh sek 104
La ELLE chic ee coma ape Se Tage So Oe a Cal a 9
PeReeIMCC NCR CHAL NO St Se. 22s See a eee! 1 Se oe oy 28
Burnet Nanional Aoolosical Park 28 si22 fee ose 46
Rua EL beets St eee tee ee ees Me eM tO AMES Seas! lot 318

The cost for purchase, collection, and transportation of these acces-
sions has been $4,000. Besides this there has been spent for books
photographs, apparatus, and office furniture the sum of $1,100.

105

106 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The appropriation for the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year
1901 was as follows:

For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply,
sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and otherwise improv-
ing the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclosures; care,
subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals, including salaries or
compensation of all necessary employees; the pure hase of necessary books
and periodicals, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided
for, seventy-five thousand dollars; one-half of which sum shall be paid
from the revenues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the
Treasury of the United States; and of the sum hereby appropriated five
thousand dollars shall be used for continuing the entrance into the Zoolog-
ical Park from Cathedral avenue and opening driveway into Zoological
Park, including necessary grading and removal of earth: Provided, That
the unexpended balance of the amounts, aggregating eight thousand dol-
lars, heretofore appropriated for widening , grading, and regulating Adams
Mill road from Columbia road to the Zoological Park entrance is hereby
reappropriated, to be expended under the direction of the Commissioners
of the District of Columbia; and that the control of Adams Mill road is
hereby vested in the said Commissioners, and all proceedings necessary to
purchase or condemn the land necessary to widen said road as authorized
by act approved March third, eighteen ‘hundred and ninety-nine, provid-
ing for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred, and for other purposes, shall be taken
by said Commissioners. (Sundry civil act, June 6, 1900. )

From this the following improvements have been made in the buildings
and grounds during the year:

Temporary bird house. —A much-needed structure to accommodate struthi-
ous and other large birds. As it was deemed inadvisable to expend money
for a permanent structure at this time, a cheap frame construction was
used, the sides of which were treated with pebble-dash and the roof made
of asphalted felt covered with crushed slag. The interior work of the
house is better in quality than would be expected from the exterior, the
cages being commodious, of good material, with neat finish, and each sup-
plied with direct sunlight from a skylight. It is heated by a steam boiler
already in the possession of the park, having been formerly used in the
principal animal house. The building being very low is easily heated dur-
ing winter, but is very hot in summer. Its internal appearance is quite
satisfactory, and the birds have been much more healthy since theyshave
been transferred to it. For diving birds two aquarium tanks were intro-
duced, in order that their evolutions under water might be seen by the
public. This extremely interesting feature might be enlarged with great
advantage. To be effective the water supplying the tanks should be per-
fectly clear and limpid. This can only be done by means of a good filter.
The cost of this bird house was $3,500.

Flying cage.—Another structure relating to birds has been devised and the
construction begun during the present year. This isa large flying cage, 158
by 50 by 50 feet. It is intended to supply the cage with running water,
and it is hoped that herons and other aquatic species may nest within
its limits. The total cost of this structure is estimated at $6,200, only a
portion of which will be expended from the appropriation for 1901.

The principal animal house.—The roof of this house was repaired and a
portion of it replaced. Additional heating coils were placed at the north
end, and the outside range of cages was repainted; all ata total cost of $500.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107

Office building.—The old building in which the office of the park is placed
has been, up to the present time, in a very ruinous state. In order to
restore it to something like its pristine condition, the entrance hall and
large room connecting with it were finished witha brick floor and suitable
windows, the entrance hall on the second floor repaired, one of the chim-
neys entirely rebuilt, and an extra flue constructed. Several bookcases
were built in the library room, furniture was purchased, and several small
alterations made to the outside of the building. The total cost of this
work was $2,200.

Aquarium.—It being evident that the present temporary aquarium
building can be maintained in proper condition but a short time, it was
thought necessary to prepare plans for a new and much more satisfactory
structure. These plans, which are very elaborate and complete, were
prepared by Messrs. Hornblower & Marshall, at a cost of $500.

Bridge near Quarry road entrance.—Under the appropriations for the
District of Columbia, Congress made the following appropriation:

For construction of a bridge across Rock Creek on the line of the road-
way from Quarry road entrance, under the direction of the Engineer
Commissioner of the District of Columbia, twenty-two thousand dollars,
one-half of which sum shall be paid out of the revenues of the District of
Columbia. (Sundry civil act June 6, 1900.)

In accordance with this provision, a bridge of concrete, made according
to the ‘‘ Melan”’ system, was constructed in the Zoological Park, taking
the place of the wooden bridge of a composite character which was built
when the park was first established.

Incidental to the construction of this bridge, the water main that was
hung upon the old structure had to be removed and relaid at the bottom
of the creek. The cost of this work was $450, which was defrayed from
the appropriation for the National Zoological Park.

New paddocks.—Increase of the collection has made it necessary to con-
struct several new paddocks during the year, one being for the Rocky
Mountain sheep, another for moose, another for the Newfoundland caribou
and mule deer.

It was found necessary to separate the buffalo paddocks by double
partitions, in order that the males may not fight through the partition
fences.

Water pipes were laid to the camel paddocks, and also to provide pools
and shower baths for the bison and other animals during the heated
months of summer.

Repairs to boundary fence.—The fence which had been removed along the
west and south side of the park, to allow grading and improvement of
roads in the vicinity, has been reset during the year and a considerable
amount of repairs have been made to the fence in other portions of the
park. The total cost of these repairs was $300.

Macadam walk.—Many visitors to the park enter from the western side.
The board walk which had been constructed to lead from Connecticut
avenue extended to the central portion of the park, through a shady ravine,
became so decayed and unsafe that it was necessary to replace it. It was
remoyed and a macadam walk laid. Other walks of less extent were

108 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

made where urgently needed. The expenditure for this purpose was
about $700.

Driveway from Cathedral avenue.—It will be noted from the language of
the appropriation for the park that the entrance formerly specified to be
made from Woodley road is now to lead in from Cathedral avenue, a
street recently constructed along the western side of the park. An appro-
priation of $5,000 was made, which included the necessary grading and
removal of earth. In pursuance of this provision of law, work was done
on the small dam made over Rock Creek near the site of the old Adams
mill in order to secure the banks against high water and to permit the
stream to be safely forded. An illustration showing this ford is herewith
appended. From this point a fill is being made to connect this driveway
with Cathedral avenue. The heavy fill made by the District authorities
along the line of Cathedral avenue made it necessary to construct a rude
retaining wall at one important point to prevent detritus from washing
down and filling up the road. The amount appropriated by the act,
$5,000, has been used upon the driveway, and the work will be continued
during the next fiscal year.

The raw slopes of earth that will remain after this driveway is completed
should be planted at once with suitable shrubs and trees, in order that they
may be kept from serious erosion and to avoid the unsightly appearance
which they would otherwise present.

Repairing roadways.—The driveway from the Adams mill entrance,
which is more used than any other road in the park, has been reshaped
and resurfaced with crushed limestone. This driveway assumes addi-
tional importance from the fact that the District authorities have at last
graded a carriage way from Columbia road to the park entrance, thus
making the driveway in the park more easily accessible.

The main driveway throughout the park, from Quarry road to the west-
ern entrance, has been dressed with gravel, and the whole at a cost of $400.

The Klingle road, which skirts the north side of the park, having been
repaired and raised by the District authorities, it became necessary to reset
the park fence and raise the grade of the driveway connecting with it.

The cutting of Cathedral avenue through the western edge of the park
made it necessary to remove a considerable number of evergreen and other
trees and shrubs formerly set in that locality for the purpose of a screen.
These trees were reset during the hot summer months along the roads and
walks in different parts of the park and the shrubs around the office build-
ing. Considering the extremely unfavorable weather when the transfer
was made, this planting was fairly successful. A considerable amount of
stock was transferred from the nursery to permanent localities, and the
‘are of the natural forest of the park has been continued as necessary. The
total cost of this work during the year was $900.

Children’s room at the Smithsonian Institution.—A small exhibit of fishes
and birds belonging to the National Zoological Park has been installed and
maintained in the children’s room at the Smithsonian Institution. The
total expenditure for this purpose was about $400.

Sundial.—The sundial purchased in London by the Secretary from a pre-
vious appropriation was set up on the lawn near the animal house, at a cost
of $100.

‘MYVd IVOIDO1OOZ IWNOILVN SAHL NI GYOS

HA aLvId “L061 ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiws

7

Ae
ait 7
of
a >

4
Ay

by

t

Gaal ea
ae as Pernt ee

a

PLate VIII.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

YounG BULL Moose, NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109

Gasoline engine and dynamo.—In the course of certain improvements
made at the United States National Museum, it was found that one of the
gas engines there used could be dispensed with. It was transferred to the
park and adapted for the use of gasoline. The dynamo connected with
this engine was also transferred to the park. It will be employed for run-
ning lathes and other necessary machinery in the blacksmith and carpen-
ter shop. The total cost of this installation was $300.

Several important accessions have been made to the collection during the
year. Among these are a pair of young lions from Somaliland, Africa, pre-
sented by Mr. R. A. Gross, a merchant of Aden; also a pair of young
leopards, presented by the Hon. E. 8. Cunningham, United States consul
at Aden, Arabia. Other animals are expected from this region, but native
uprisings in that neighborhood have doubtless prevented further collec-
tions.

From Mr. Perry M. De Leon, the United States consul-general at Guaya-
quil, was received a kinkajou and acoati mondi. Four sloths sent by him
unfortunately died en route.

Two Sitka deer, one of which died en route, were presented by Capt.
Ferdinand Westdahl, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

From Miss Helen Hatfield, the daughter of Col. Charles A. P. Hatfield,
U.S. A., of Puerto Principe, Cuba, several valuable birds were received,
among which were two flamingos, a roseate spoonbill, and an ibis. Two
Cuban deer were received from Miss Hatfield and Miss Challie Evans.

A Liberian eagle was presented by Mr. James R. Spurgeon, United
States secretary of legation at Monrovia, Liberia.

Mr. EK. H. Plumacher, United States consul at Maracaibo, sent a large
crocodile. Through some defect of dentition the animal was unable to eat,
and died not long after its arrival.

Mr. Solomon Berliner, United States consul at Teneriffe, sent some
Lanzarotte pigeons.

Four Newfoundland caribou were purchased through the good offices of
Mr. Martin J. Carter, the United States consul at St. Johns. <A pair of
young moose were also obtained through the good offices of Mr. W. H. H.
Graham, United States consul at Winnipeg. These, however, died shortly
after arrival. ‘lhose formerly received from Mr. Graham still remain in
the collection. An illustration herewith appended shows the advance in
growth of the male moose.

After long and persistent efforts a single Rocky Mountain sheep was
obtained from western Colorado. It bore the transportation from its
native haunts very well, and is at the present time in good condition. The
annexed representation of this interesting animal was made for the park
by Mr. M. I. Keller.

Most of the States have now enacted rigid game laws preventing the col-
lection or transportation of mountain sheep, mountain goats, or other rare
animals. It seems desirable that this legislation should be so modified as
to permit the collection and transportation of animals for the national col-
lection, which was founded with the express object of preserving these rare
species.

A specimen of the comparatively rare sea lion of Steller was also purchased.

110 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Capt. Wirt Robinson, U.S. A., and M. W. Lyon, jr., who went to Vene-
zuela in the interest of the United States National Museum, obtained a
peccary, three curassows, and four guans.

Messrs. Palmer and Riley, of the National Museum, obtained specimens
of Cuban crocodile and several other animals.

In previous reports attention has been called to the urgent need for a
new house for elephants and other pachydermatous animals. The present
structure is merely a temporary shed, built in an emergency, and expected
to last but a few years. It is now in such a condition that it must be
strengthened in order to hold up the roof and make it safe for occupa-
tion. It is extremely cold in winter, the temperature frequently falling
to 40° and even lower. It will have to be sheathed during the present
season in order to carry the animals through the next winter. A house
suitable for elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, tapirs, and other animals
of this character, is considered an essential in all properly equipped zoologi-
cal gardens, and it would seem to be necessary to erect such a structure
before any attempt is made to collect animals of this character. One great
disadvantage that the park has always had is that the animals were pro-
cured before buildings were ready for them. It would seem wiser to plan
and erect the structures and afterward procure the animals for them.

The needs of the park with reference to a suitable bird and reptile house
were mentioned in the last annual report. A new structure of this kind
should be built in order to keep the animals in proper condition. Many
snakes are lost from lack of proper sunlight. It is impossible to keep
lizards at all, and it is useless to attempt to exhibit turtles and other
reptiles under the conditions at present prevailing.

A large cage for eagles should be built in some suitable locality in the
park, as, since this bird has been selected as the national emblem, it would
seem thatit should be made an especial feature in a national collection. At
present these birds are kept in a rickety pen, built of scantling and covered
with wire netting. Themagnificent harpy eagle from Brazilis confined in the
low, temporary bird house, where, in summer, it is extremely hot. There
is no suitable cage for the fine Liberian eagle received during the present
season. All these birds need a large and commodious cage where there is
sufficient room for short flights. Unless this is done they are liable to
injure their feet by pounding down upon their perches, and many fine
birds have been permanently injured in this manner. A similar cage
should also be built for the California condor. This great bird presents a
most striking appearance when allowed to spread its vast expanse of wings
in flight, but when sitting upon its perch seems much like the minor mem-
bers of the vulture family. It is expected that several additional speci-
mens of this condor will be received during the coming year.

Another important improvement that should be made is the construction
of a suitable pond for sea-lions and seals. The large pond which was con-
structed for that purpose is found to be altogether too muddy for use by
these animals, as when allowed to swim at will in it they soon suffer from
sore eyes. They are accommodated at present in small and unsatisfactory
basins in the old bear enclosures near the Quarry road entrance.

Besides the losses by death which have been already referred to, several

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ata ei

others should be mentioned. An interesting specimen of Baird’s tapir,
about three months old, received from Lieut. Roger Welles, jr., U.S. N.,
died about twenty days after receipt. When received it was suffering
from indigestion, and in spite of all efforts it never recovered. Very prob-
ably it was taken too young from its mother.

An old bison died from malnutrition, haying been sick and feeble for
some time. A lioness died as a consequence of difficult parturition. Two
Virginia deer were killed by a savage buck, and four mule deer died from
some defect of nutrition. The fine zebu bull presented by Mr. Starin, in
1891, finally succumbed, apparently to oldage. An old elk and a sea-lion
died from the same cause.

Lists of the animals in the park at the close of the fiscal year and of
accessions from various sources are hereto appended.

Animals in National Zoological Park June 30, 1901,

Num-

Num-

Name. Bor | Name. en
MAMMALS. | MAMMALS—continued.
North American species. North American species—Continued. |
|
American bison (Bison americanus) “ 11 || Gray coatimundi (Nasua narica) ....| 1
Prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra | Raccoon (Procyon lotor)..........--- 23
PIS eT TO) ROC SEE 3 | Black bear ( Ursus americanus) sie Nos 6
Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis cana- Cinnamon bear ( Ursus americanus) . 2
TESTES) is acl lS tee SE a | 1 | Grizzly bear ( Ursus horribilis) ......- 2
Virginia deer( Odocoileus virgin ianus)| 6 || Alaskan bear ( Ursus sp.) ..........-- 1
Sitka deer (Odocoileus columbianus Polar bear ( Thalarctos maritimus) --. 1
75 CnUs) eee I ee 1 | California sea lion (Zalophus ealifor- |
Mule deer ( Odocoileus macrotis) ...-. 6 | TUL OTALS ) Bote nre hoes ee ENE ee #
Cuban deer (Odocoileus sp.) ---.----- 1 | Steller’s sea lion (Eumetopias stelleri) - i
American elk (Cervus canadensis) -.- 21 || Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) .......-. 4
Woodland caribou ( Rangifer caribou 1 1 Common pocket gopher (Geomys
Newfoundland caribou (Rangifer DUT ROMER) oak ya's pee aaiee ee oa Se 3
TOIRTE PEO 2) SOB OR ES AE EE anes 1 California pocket gopher ( Thomomys
Moose ( Alces americanus) .......----- 2, | DONE ELS cee ane Sen ae 2
Collared peceary ( Tayassu angulatus) 1 | American beaver (Castor canadensis) . 4
Ocelot (helzs pardalis)..o-2-.2..-2..- 5 | Hutia-conga (Capromys pilorides) .-. 11
munya! (HERS CONCOLOT) «=. - -ns2 aes << 2 | Woodchueck (Arctomys monax) ....-. 2
Spotted lynx (Lynx rufus maculatus) - 2 || Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) . 63
Gray wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus) - 5 || Fox squirrel (Sciurws niger) ......-.- 8
Black wolf ( Canis lupus griseo-albus) 3 || Gray squirrel (Sciwrus cinereus) ...-. 31
Coyote)( Canis latrans)=.2.2..-2.5.5.. 15 || Mountain chipmunk ( Tamias speci-
Red fox ( Vulpes pennsylvanicus) -.... UPL OSE) Loe Sie Sen ae ae ee Set ee 18
Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)....... -- 16 | Thirteen-lined spermophile (Sper-
Swift fox (Vulpes velox) .-........... 6) mophilus tridecimlineatus) ......... 13
Gray fox ( Urocyon cinerco-argenteus)| 4 Kadiak ground squirrel (Spermo-
North American otter (Lutra hud- | philus empetra kadiakensis).......-- 1]
WOTICO be wae atom snes fe ao sacses 3 | Beechey’s ground squirrel (Spermo- |
American badger (Taridea amer- | | philus grammurus beecheyi) ......-- 1
PELLTED Pans ea Bea woe es Nea a 4 || Yellow-headed ground = squirrel |
Kinkajou ( Totos caudivolvulus)...... 2|| (Spermophilus brevicaudus) ........ 20
American civet cat ( Bassariscus as- Antelope chipmunk (Spermophilus

RULED) ie nie nate ahaha -s aioiomartick wee ewe 2 LOU CUT IS Nope erreette eee tan ascicicesee 2

112

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Animals in National Zoological Park June 30, 1901—Continued.

Name. gee Naarie! sce
MAMMALS—continued. MAMMALS—continued.
North American species— Domesticated and foreign sprcies—
Continued, Continued.
Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexi- European hedgehog (Erinaceus euro-
COMM) antennae sonra ese panini ae aia 2 PRUE) 2a see acs eens clos ca eteeelaer ee it
Northern varying hare (Lepus Indian fruit bat (Pteropus medius) .. 2
AMETICONUS) one eae oe eee eae 92S Wild oan (Sus sCTope) | cco see ene nics 2
Peba armadillo ( Tatu novemeineta). . 1 || Solid-hoofed pig (Sus scrofa) Estee eae 1
Opossum (Didelphys virginiana)....- 1 || White-lipped peccary (Tayassu albi-
Domesticated and foreign species. TOSEIIS) «-- 2-20-2222 e eee eee ee eee eee 1
ZEW (BOs iN7CUs)| sass. 2 eee eee 6
Purple-faced monkey (Semnopithe- Yak (Poephagus grunniens) .....-.-+- 1
cus cephalopterus)...--------------- - Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus) .... i
Grivet monkey ( Cercopithecus griseo- Common goat ( Capra hireus) ......- 5
WnLOES 2" >< ene dere nae oer pa 1 || Cashmere goat (Capra hircus)......- 6
Malbrouck monkey (Cercopithecus Nylghai (Bosclaphus tragocamelus) .. 9
CYMORUI UE) amo an oe acne nae 1 || Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) 2
Green monkey (Cercopithecus calli- Sambur deer (Cervus aristotelis) ...... 1
DUCTED) teow on <r mio ater Oa / Philippine deer (Cervus philippinus)
Macaque monkey (Macacus cyno- Fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) .......- 1
RCTS ROS ermine pte a err i Common camel (Camelus dromeda-
Bonnet monkey (Macacus sinicus) .- 1 $dtie seen eee 3
Pig-tailed monkey (Macacus nemes- Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) . >)
UPUNUS) - «soo e = oa eaten nnn se naa ee 1) Cama (Aucheniaglama).....-....--- 6
Moore macaque ( Macacus maurus). - 1 South American tapir ( Tapirusamer-
Black ape (Cynopithecus niger) ....-- if hush eke 1
Black spider-monkey (Ateles ater)... a Indian eiephant ( Elephas indicus)... 1
Apella monkey (Cebus apella)....... 1 || Crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) .
Capuchin (Cebus capucinus).......-- 4 Hairy-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta
Cebus, undetermined ..............- 1 prymholopia). 2. ct eee 1
Lion (Felisileo)).-. «--w-0ae ns -s eee 5 Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azare)... 2
Tiger (Felis tigris).....--..--.+--+--- “ Acouchy ( Dasyprocta acouchy)....--- 5
Leopard (Felis pardus) -.--<---=----- 3 Golden agouti (Dasyprocta aquti) ...- 2
Spotted hyena (Hyxna crocuta) ..... 1 Albino rat (Mus rattus)......---.---- 5
Wolt hound = tea 0e noo ea 2 Crested porcupine ( Hystria cristata) - 3
Sh Ce a 1 |! Guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus).......-- 14
POINGET ....---- 22+ 2- se eee sence ence e ee a English rabbit (Lepus cuniculus)...-. 17
Chesapeake Bay dog ........-......- : Six-banded armadillo ( Dasypus sea-
Bedlingtomterrierss= 222.4-0-scee 1 Viriehigh 3 tee he eee 1
Smooth-coated fox terrier..........- 3 Great gray kangaroo (Macropus
Wire-haired fox ternens2-f seeks 1 Gidantenay tsi ee ee eee 3
Eskimo dog...-..-.-..---+-2++2+5 2-45 3) Brush-tailed rock kangaroo (Petro-
Mongoose (Herpestes mungo) .--.--..- 1 gale penicillata)..........2..0.00++ 9
Tayra (Galictis barbara) ..........-.- 1
Ped coatimundi (Nasua rufa).....-.- 2 a
Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon can- Road runner (Geococcyx california-
CHIVOTG) Beet ten faite oa = ein daeee 2 MUUS) |, initia cee a eee tae se cee en alee eee 3
Sun bear ( Ursus malayanus).....-...- 1 || Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua
Sloth bear (Meluwrsus labiatus) ......- 1 GULAritO) kee MeeeSCreae eo eee eee 1

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 113

Animals in National Zoological Park June 30, 1901—Continued.

Num-

Name. Har Name. oles
BIRDS—continued. BIRDS—continued.
Leadbeater’s cockatoo( Cacatwalead- Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo
(2 2) eS ES ORAS EERO NOD 1 | SV ETAUS) enters cinco Sam cietitale oe 2
Roseate cockatoo (Cacatua roseica- Pea fowl (Pavo cristatus) .....---.--- 26
FELTON Sees ee A Sa Sn ee 5 || Valley partridge (Callipepla califor-
Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ara- HUCOMAULCOLD) oe ocean ele ae 5
US ANS A RS BO SEE PSOE 2 || Mountain partridge ( Oreortyx pictus) . 1
Red and yellow and blue macaw Sandhill crane (Grus mexicana)...-. 3
(LON (COTE) ee Re a ee eS 2 || Whooping crane (Grus americana) .-. il
Red and blue macaw (Ara chlorop- Green heron (Ardea virescens) ...---- 2
REVED Pree a ania co aictor ae claeesiacss ee Ae 1 | Little blue heron (Ardea coerulea) -.. 1
Green paroquet (Conurus sp.)...-.--- | 2 || Great blue heron (4 rdea herodias) .. 8
Carolina paroquet (Conurus caroli- | Black-crowned night heron (Nyeti-
fa PE as a ee | 3 corax nycticorax N#VIUS) ...-..----- 3
Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona | Scarlet ibis (Guara rubra).......---- 1
PEUETOTOUROLY) ctacinss Sees ses Sao Se eels 1 || White ibis (Guara alba) ....---.----- 2
White-fronted amazon (Amazona | Boatbill (Cochlearius cochlearius) - --. 1
PPUCEECDROIDN oo =<. 220 slo dinne « ees 3 || Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja) ....- 1
Double yellow-head (Amazona ora- American flamingo (Pha@nicopterus
DIRE EN fe a Saw Saray oie a wists eS wsinie SSE 3 TALOCT es setae eee aoe aieltine ieee eines 2
Mealy amazon (Amazona farinosa) .. 1 |, Trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator) ... 3
Great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus) - 12 Whistling swan (Olor columbianus). - 1
Barred owl (Syrniwm nebulosum)....- 7 |; Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus).......--- 2
Barn owl (Strix pratincola) ........-- ; 4 || Brant (Branta bernicla) ......-.....-- 2
Bald eagle ( Halixetus leucocephalus) -| 11 | Canada goose ( Branta canadensis) -. 6
Harpy eagle ( Thrasxtus harpyia) .... 1 | Hutchins’s goose ( Branta canadensis
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysztos) ...-- 2 Wtichinstt): ns. 222<2atse~sss<2sceees 1
Crowned hawk-eagle (Spizaétus cor- | Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides)..... 5
US eee a= ae bees cece shoes = | 1 | Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galer-
Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis)... .| 8 VOUMULM) ine ae ce nes oh emeloeenesicciss 11
Sharp-shinned hawk ( Accipiter velox), 1 ePintadl (Dayle acutw)\- <3 --<j-12<.<125- 1
Pigeon hawk ( Falco columbarius) --. fo Pekinr duck (CAVGS'|Sp)) o.a--422 ee ee 2
California condor (Gymnogyps cali- | Mallard duck (Anus boschas) ........ 1
FROIN TOY OTIS ees Ss Hee tie aR Seta a 1 || Common duck (Anas boschas) .....-. 5
Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) ...- 6 || American tree duck (Dendrocygna
Black vulture (Catharista atrata).... 1 GISCOLOT)) ac seesaw aleei= salitsctcses 1
King vulture (Gypagus papa) ....-.-- 1 || American white pelican (Pelecanus |
Lanzarotte pigeon (Columba livia) .. 1 ECRythTrOrnynCnos) s---c-s-5-s-- 522252 8
Ring dove (Colwmba palumbus) ....-. 7 | Brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus) .-.. 5
Chachalaca ( Ortalis vetula maceallii) 2 || Florida cormorant (Phalacrocorax |
Red-tailed guan ( Ortalis ruficauda) -| 2|| dilophus floridanus)....-..........- 4
Rufous-bellied guan (Penelope cris- | Snake bird (Anhinga anhinga) ...--- 2
POLO erie ee inya see ci Saicicdes S Aeloiee 3 || Common rhea (Rhea americana) ... a 1
Red billed curassow (Crax carun- Cassowary ( Casuarius galeatus)...... 2
CUM) Ce ceheriaGo ONCE BISCO AEB EASE 1 || Emu (Dromxus nove-hollandiz) ..... 1
Daubenton’s curassow (Crax dau- REPTILES. |
DERLOND) Catence sOnaa- fee cmndcec estes 3 || Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis ) - 14
Lesser razor-billed curassow ( Mitua Cuban crocodile ( Crocodilus rhombi- |
POIMENLOSO) eee ee se meee 1 MET) ese ee nad ene once cowiceeas ais'eis 4

sm 1901——8

114

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Animals in National Zoological Park June 30, 1901—Continued.

Name. thea Name. cag
REPTILES—continued. REPTILES—continued.

Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) .... 6 || Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus ada-
Musk turtle (Aromochelys odorata) -. 2 MNOUILEUS =o ois oe wp I ee al i
Mud turtle (Cinosternum pennsylva- Copperhead ( Ancistrodon contortrix) . 2

DICUND Ase. SEN eee SEE 5 || Water moccasin (Ancistrodon pisci- |
Terrapin (Pseudemys sp.).-.--------- 1 VOTUB) ona Oe eal Sos ens eae ees 1
Gopher turtle (XYerobales polyphemus ) 1 |, Indian python (Python molurus) .... 1
Box tortoise (Cistudo carolina)...--- 2 | West African python (Python sebx) . 1
Three-toed box tortoise ( Cistudo tri- | Common boa (Boa constrictor) ....--- 13

AEICORVIS Ne Caceres 6 || Anaconda (Eunectes murinus)....--- 2
Painted box tortoise ( Cistudo ornata) 5 | Bull snake (Pityophis sayi sayi) ...-- 8
Dunean Island tortoise (Testudo | Black snake ( Bascaniwm constrictor) . 3

CDCI VUUM) fon epics ee eine ae 2 | King snake ( Ophibolus getulus) ....-- 4
Albemarle Island tortoise ( Testudo | Mountain black snake ( Coluber obso-

WICING) 2228 2 = soe ~ eee sesso s zee e eee 2 Ale RELIES) 8 a eS Sees oe eae 1
Brazilian tortoise ( Testudo tabulata) - 4 | Garter snake ( Eutenia sirtalis)....-- 4
Clouded iguana (Cyclura carinata).. 1 | Water snake (Natrix sipedon).. ...-- 2
Alligator lizard (Sceloporus sp.) ----- 3 | Hog-nosed snake ( Helerodon platy-
Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornu- Hk sees cr ones Cas Cra oe Oe ah 3

BUD Bo tee a ae ae oes ese 3 | Gopher snake (Spilotes corais cou-
Glass snake (Ophiosaurus ventralis) - | PAM VAAN 0 for i) eee rica Hao ISO ADS ACO C SS 2
Gila monster ( Heloderma suspectunc) ] 4 |

List of accessions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901.
ANIMALS PRESENTED.

Name. | Donor. patie
Malbrouck monkey ......... | Mrs..A.1% Barber, Washington, Di ©. ose ee ees 1
Black spider monkey.....-.-- | Lieut. Rover Welles jrsUaSe Ngee ener eee 1
ASIO6 SoS 2h oe os eee tRewAS Gross} Aden: Arabia. vs sao see ee pe eee 2
Wheapard |: 28sec ee ae eae E. S. Cunningham, United States consul, Aden, 2

Arabia.
WCCO hse. a: ohhs 2 eeroeees BRear-Admiral JGl Walker USiNoes -peess eee eee 1
DOI ne cee soe seiee Thomas W. Cridler, Third Assistant Secretary of 1
State.
Gowole tacos 5st eke Aree JsR.Rddy, Washington sD: Cress. he eee | 2
RS UPOK 2. Ae se eo es Frank G. Shaible, Wreesork, We Jt a. chai eel 1
TD ae Saco Seen so ee ! Edward Fox and John Turnbull, Cazenovia, N. Y-.- 2
Dare tem eaen eh am ee eee J; D. Hale sMunsonvillesN. He sacccmen seen eee l 2
Ores fee nse pene nee | J.D: Watkins Washineton DiC .s2s2so-2-c- eee
DORR ase oe oes Donor VHkNOWD 2 s5 3 soe ae ee ee eee eee
(GirsvatOxccme Saat oie. oe E}.A, Newman, Washington, Di@ .. 2.22.28 a cieciniees |
IOs 3 btn ap SeneeeE aa ee Raphael Koester, Washington, D.C..........-..-.... |
GION 10) | bec ES ees | Perry M. De Leon, United States consul-general,
| Guayaquil, Ecuador.
COB MMII et sas ecc ees =o snes 6 Oe eee ae er eon ESOS eRe ase 1

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

115

List of accessions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901—Continued.

ANIMALS PRESENTED—Continued.

|
Name | Donor. Sea

TET VETO thee eRe eS Se | The President of the United States.................. 2

ANPING TACCOON. - 2222-5 -5=-=- DOnOLUNENO Wises cee sos eee ad oss cee cseee ee wtees| i

MRA Ane occ cece e Mark Joulley; Nogales: Ariz£ 22225. 21S i sec cscnce eee 1

Cinnamon bear.........-.--- niga Dic ac Goo e sean ptiseoscis cae wna E ASS On SeaESCOSAaR SOE 1

arbor seals. .0.c.--csc-cs fo. LAH S taningN ew Wonk sss: 28 toe Gunes ee So 6

European hedgehog.....--.. Gis: Millersir Washine toni D? Cras oa tse acces 1

Common goat ...........-.-- | Charles W. Buhler, Washington, D.C ................ 1

SHO St ae ee Beate | Capt. Ferdinand Westdahl, U.S. Coast and Geodetic 1

Survey.
(CeO rts (2) ee Miss Helen Hatfield and Miss Challie Evans, Puerto 2
, Principe, Cuba.

Sp ao pty 2) [Gone FOOtey Washington, Di@ so: sos5osce-ces see 1
Dit: Sas ae een Samuel Ross; Washington; D: ©... 2...22222.522..-2. 1
1017). ea re Miss Lockwood, Washington) D.C... 2: .c..25223--3.2 1
ii. s eee R. L. McGuire, Washington, D: C........-2:....-2- 22. 1

Bpermopbile .........-.-2:.- R. H. Sargent, U.S. Geological Survey ............... 4

Englishirabbit..........----- Miss Olga Smolianinoff, Washington, D.C........... 2

OMNES. 52 e<ccs- occ. Miss Florence Stevens, Washington, D.C ............) i
iD). eee Mrs. Mary O. Clarke, Washington, D.C............... 1

Great horned owl ......-..--- J..Pysibler Washington Di Ci2s52sa-sssce eee Lee 1

Payne eee 2 -- oss 2s Sena BW stone Wasmine ton: DiC us55.5.c5ses5 esate ne | 4

erred owl's co. 25s chases WE. Potts; Washington, D.C. ....<:2.22. dc 2n22<5s0- | 1
DG Soe ee eee os Ja CSviGsr Ww eSHine CONS Gon. oss nlc cou asoleoaee ee 2

pereech OW! S22 3 sos ae6-- 3-5 Clarke Middleton, Washington, D.C..............--. 2

American osprey .......-.--- AM NiGnolsonkOrlando; Wa... asses eccsenoces | 1

Pireow hawk. <<. 2-s6202-5< DOAOMUD KNOW senses = - 52 ect cine oasis eoe ees eee 1

DieckehaWike: See oe ec ore NERS Wood, Washington. Di@s2.222 bes... i

MERE Sc naee eect ce oe Jacap Kellan) Cape: Charles Va crsccccea5 ccs a=: 1
Doyen ee Woe Holton. DhevPlaing oViaieo. ace ees eset san « 1
es Fe Pa se Ea = Dave DuncansambeleWiaencsce +6 5.2... 8scee seeocce 2

Liberian eagle ........ POnOoe J. R.Spurgeon, United States Secretary of Legation, 1

Monrovia, Liberia.

Red-tailed hawk ............ W. Rov Clayton, Annapolis; Md- s5..0..:4. -c<cecceec- 1
IDG Rese Sepa ee nen Ira Brink and A.D. Avery, Middletown, N.Y ....... 1
Lae ee Miss Mabel Keenan, Brentwood, D.C................! 1
Dt AY Ryans Se tS Aerie a Mrs. Anderson; Washington, DiG@). 272-2. .:2.-0..25. 1
Wi Oe e come sec meerecs seas: DOBOMURKNOWMES. sc soses soe eee e neat occ eee eee 1

Sharp-shinned hawk........ | Henry and George Marshall, Laurel, Md ............ 2

Harkevvultures. 52.2.2 EY SsSchmidsWashineton; DiC...2. 6.2259. 0.2. hee 1

Lanzarotte pigeon........... Solomon Berliner, United States Consul, Teneriffe . . 2

Red-tailed guan ............. E. Shunk, La Guaira, Venezuela...............-..... il

Nishi iheroni sss .0 2 Soc sce. ASM: Nicholson; Orlando,Bia,- <<. + 22. scccs-5-cec ck 1

Little blue heron............}..-- Oey eee oats eats ee einai eee Ae nae awe cee 1

WMIRCCUMIDIS (22 02 5 55sec Soe Miss Helen Hatfield, Puerto Principe, Cuba ......... 1
Oe meena een kee AM Nicholson Orlando, fila. -- 5.22.2. el see. 3

Roseate spoonbill ........... Miss Helen Hatfield, Puerto Principe, Cuba .........) 1

OIA Ole ke chess ere eee Roe (GU pom ee as Bee des set nt hae ena a ee oe a 2

Florida cormorant .......... | A.M.N teholson; Orlando, Wats. >. -..2 ec 2 acto ee 2

116 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

List of accessions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901—Continued.

ANIMALS PRESENTED—Continued.

Se E
Name. Donor. Num-
Sharp-nosed crocodile. --..... E. H. Plumacher, United States Consul, Maracaibo, if
Venezuela.

AM gator es. soc Sl ses ses GC. As Niel) Washington; DIG. 24 Oo. < eee eee 2
1D 5 TAS SR a et Muas.'Calders; Washineton! DiC 2-22 a eS eee 1

TDYey oe ie Oh Willis Lanier, Washington, D.C .....--..------------ 1

DOF col secs ces ee ewance eee Capt. John Shaw, Washington, D.C..........-......- 1
Painted box tortoise ......--. JobniE Britts; Clintons Mors. f <5 3. 2 eel is)
Three-toed box tortoise .....|..... doitss Al2e ag ree OS A Tee Ne PN ee ese 6
Hormedtiizard ...occ-seeeeee BE: Meyenberg, Pecos; Pexses Va soaker eee oes : 3
AMpatorlizand=.22202se5= see eee ne OG sana tees aad Sees <a oak Bee Pee Ee | 2
Gila monster sc. Ussee ee WW: Wo Wilson sMlorence ZAmiz £2. 22.2. ee eee 1
Glase snakes. 235 pace ere oe John Y. Detwiler, New Smyrna, Fla .......-..-.2..- b
Prairie rattlesnake ........-- L. W. Purinton, Banner, Kans ..........-.....-:.---- 1
King snakes ics. s-c2-eocnee George Van Gueder, Riverdale, Md ................. 1
Black -@nake.<cs229.% -feceees RAGsRaine; Washington ,D > ©2252 s-2 sco secseeeeeee 1
WOOL ReLS eee ee Victor Mindeleff, Washington, D.C...............-.- | 1

OS eet Ye ee ee Miss Jessie Roberts, Potomac, Md ..... 5 eo 2
Garteranakes. 2-24 22 5 8k Carrico Stithton) In y: st e--o. =n soe aor ree | 1
Water snakes)... 220 ..2ie2 eee GiB Reubin Washing toni C_- 4 sr 2 eee ee 1
Hog-nosed snake ......--.--. J ASabuch Wlessupss Ma 2s see Soe nee ees 1
DOR testes ee. 8 LW. earinton banner Mans oe. ee saeo see eee eee 1

1 D0 See ae pe rerar re ncaric BR. G, Bostoek; Baltimore; MGs 2222 sa ese eee 4

2 DG peepee Be mee Sint Oe peer Ey Ee Caxrrico, Stijhton yyy ees oo eee ee. ee eee 1

WOscsi ce eeeee ease eaeee RG Paine WashizistonyDsGe ss ores ton seeee 1

ANIMALS LENT.
Macaque monkey ........... | C..J.Previtt, Washington D.C 2 oe ee seeeaseere if
Pig-tailed monkey.........-- W..P. Mo Kine. Washington: aCe: scm .sete carers 1
Capuchin cs ow conc cs < oe een’s Thos. W. Cridler, Third Assistant Secretary of State. 3
VOR ee naa eincraeterte alesis sists M.G.:Roessle; Washineton D.C o.--- eae see eee 1
Red Ox o2 Psa cecne ee ose ae T.M. Rudd, Washington, D.C .......---- Pee So aR 1
Red and blue macaw.....-.-- | Thos. W. Cridler, Third Assistant Secretary of State. 1
Yellow-naped amazon ....-. . Mrs, A. B. Williams, Washington, D.C ...-......2..-- 1
|
ANIMALS RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE.

Purple-faced monkey ..-..--- E.S.Sechmid, Washington, D.C ........-- 5. eS 1
Green monkey... .2.2c02--e2 Miss Rachel Weems, Upper Falls, Md.-.......-.-.---- ) 1
Cebus, undetermined........ | B.S.Schmid; Washingtony.DiC = ..--2.22-.- 42. nae | 1
RACCOONS we amano S=c tin oe ostee Poe Gis ek He Sie a Cee eee eee 3
PIGS CATS. S. 2 crcisaceaeiy ol sae OO OAS eae, oe eee ROR ne ie SISOS 1
Indian antelope............. | William Bartels, New York...........-<--.----------| 1
Bactrinmrcamel: =. 225-05 F.C; Bostock; Indianapolissingi. 2 =a ae eee 2
Brush-tailed rock kangaroo .| William Bartels, New York........----.----.-------- 1
Great horned owl .....-...-- E. 8. Schmid, Washington, DiC... --2-as4.-- <0. eee 1
Barred OWlc-2-cig eee aoeee nse eons GO 3222s weet See eee one eed 1

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

117

List of accessions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901—Continued.

ANIMALS RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE—Continued.

Name. : Donor.
TR CLEVE (Se ae eee | iH. S:Schmid, Washineton, DiC .-<2--t4-5.. 2522.- sess
Red-tailed hawk ............ ar (eo Oe ee Pee eee DT OBE een
Ran SV GUne Sao. 22 2-5-<5s-h< nC. Bostock, Baltimore) MGe- 6So2. sass ae
VC AUGER Loh ae ee ee HS. sehnnia: Washington D: C225. =. -2--- 223-25 02052
(GANHOS POUSE 3.255 555.525-/5 5155 i AOS sarees cena oie eitaiate aa om ise an Se aes SiS
Baniace = nee os See os GO ees ae eae eare Sisko cine wisi are waias Searsrevionaa ae

Animals purchased and collected.

Gaines papoon! Chapio-spiina:) ===. .~ 2s. e eee ew oe
MipoMan helt BATOGGR |e sons. boo} Soe eS en Sccsae 22
STU RECIea ()/ MAES ELON) hans eta tae ae Ne Ne Ae cee
American otter (Lutra hudsonica).........-..--.-------
American badger ( Taxidea americana) ....-...-.--------
Caecomistle CbassariscusOstuig)is2-2-- 28-5. - 22s os
pimek near (Ursus amerieanus) 25.2022 2200s 2k 5 oe
Cinnamon bear ( Ursus americanus)-..-..---------------
Palecans Desi UUTsis SDs) eee eee == eo aca: a
Steller’s sea lion (Humetopias stelleri)..-...--.----------
Collared peccary ( Tayassu angulatus) .......---.-------
American bison (Bison americanus) .------...----------
Rocky Mountain sheep ( Ovis canadensis) .....--.-------
Prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra americana) ...--.-----
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) .....-.-----------
mute deer (Odocoileis macrotis)... 5: .5.22328552.65--5 -
Newfoundland caribou ( Rangifer nove-terre) .---..------
NIGGSER (CAI CESMERLCOMUS) he po eee ee ee eke Sa eee E
Blac kesguinne le (ISCUIPUS CINEFCUS)) =. 2525<245556225525-5--
Richardson’s spermophile (Spermophilus richardson)
Kadiak spermophile (Spermophilus empetra kadiakensis)
Canada porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus) .-..-..-----------
Three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) .......---------
Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)~...------ ee er eee
Barred owl (Syrnium nebulosum)............-----------
Bald eagle ( Halixetus leucocephalus) ......-..---+-------
Réd-tavled hawk (-Buteo borealts)in..222- 52-22 -222022225
iblackovulture. (Catharista-atratd)=se=2 s2255-s225-e2-2 -= -
Red-tailed euan ( Ortahs ruficauda):.--5------:.-2--+---.
Daubenton’s curassow (Crax daubentoni) ......---------
panghiullkerane() Grusonezicang ace =< see ee oe SE
Great blue heron: (Ardea herodtas) = 2-22.42 224. 2222-22
ETON COTOMLUS IONE LOWONONE) = sla. to is eee eo
Cuban crocodile (Crocodilus rhombifer) .........---.----
ibrazilvanytortoise (Testudo tabulate) =. .22-.2.< 2.22.54.
Common. boa (Boa consiricior))--25-22~ <2 +.-222-55-2-2--

KO

on

bo cso

—_— oe
ee OO TO OO Ot

mm OO

on

118 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Animals born in the National Zoological Park.

Bion) (Beis leo)" ee ee eee tee
Gray wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus) .....------------- Seek eaeiee
Goyote ( Canis lairans).. 25sec 3.22 oe, 26 eet ete ae ee
Bineifox: (Vulpes dagopus):o. 52 ent oe ies is a ee Seeeee ee
American bison: (Bison:amerteanus)”. 8200 22502 28s: wenn se cess oe
Zebu Bos indies) oo is. Se oraee 5 ee ae ee ee eee
Cashmere goat (Capra ‘hircus) ~~ Fo oor e 3 oa ee Soe he 5 a eee
Nilshat’ (Boselaphits tragocuntelus) 22022222 = soe ees ae nen ees
American 6lk (Cervis canadensia). 2. 2.0 ==. Seen <8 6 en ee
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianas): . 2.2 <5 -- == ae eeeee
Mule deer (‘Odocoileus macrons)) ss ks ae 2 = oe eee oes
Tama {Auchenia glama) ise 2 re ee noe eee
‘Euntia-conga .( Capromys pilorides):. 22> 22. pt aa. 3 Sa een eee
Praiie dope ( Cmomys ludomeianus). 2252s ssse ia a= Se ae 3 ee
Acouehy"(-Dasyprocia acouchi) 222520235 eoe soe = 2 Laem ee oe ee ee

WONT WHE TEND HH ooh

Animals on hand July 1, 1900 -..-.-....------+-------------------- 839
Aceessions: during the year's c.. 23.2 22225 bo teen oe aan eee ee 318

SD bende eects ee ceo eo ae ae ee eae 1,157

On hand June 30) L901 a ee ee oe eee 878
Respectfully submitted.
Frank Baker, Superintendent.
Mr. §. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX V.

REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVA-
TORY FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901.

Srr: The kinds and amounts of the Observatory property are approxi-
mately as follows:

PEPE OEAEES Peete? cto gt PR en ee tee whe Mom tt ae SIE IE ae ie US be $6, 300
«2 TP OPAL a A 9 2 os ie aa Mea pcs Mag ee RS ie Sa 31, 300
MEMRE CASIO OCORUD cor. a2 Hes eee ye ee Ste RS ce 5, 600

ES ee peowen ener 2 RUS ECE NEW tee ons So ye tp 43, 200

During the past year the acquisitions of property of the kinds just
enumerated have been as follows:

(a) Apparatus.—Astronomical and physical apparatus has been pur-
chased at an expenditure of $1,300.

(b) Library and records.—The usual periodicals have been continued,
and various books of reference have been purchased at a total cost of $200.

Total accessions of property, $1,500.

The Observatory inclosure has been enlarged to include about 11,000
square feet, as against less than 6,000 square feet formerly. The cost of
fencing the grounds as thus enlarged was $400.

Losses of property have been slight, and consist in the usual wear and
tear and breakage of apparatus, amounting in aggregate to $50.

THe WorkK OF THE OBSERVATORY.

For convenience the work of the Observatory may be described under
the following headings:

1. Publications and miscellaneous work.

2. Progress of investigations.

3. Eclipse expedition to Sumatra.

(1) Publications and miseellaneous work.—As was stated in my last year’s
report, Volume I of Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory was then
being issued. Owing to difficulty in obtaining satisfactory reproductions
oi Plate XX, the actual distribution of the edition was delayed while fur-
ther efforts were made to improve this plate. New copies of it were pre-
pared and submitted to the engravers, and it was only in March and April
of the present year that the edition was finally bound up and distributed.
In the effort to include as thoroughly as possible the names of those to
whom the book would be valuable, considerable time was spent in prepar-
ing the mailing list, but it is even yet possible that some persons much
interested in astrophysical work may have been overlooked by inadvert-
ence, but as there still remains a part of the edition applications for

copies will still be considered here.
119

120 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Inasmuch as the Aid Acting in Charge is also the custodian of the physical
apparatus of the Smithsonian Institution, he was concerned in the fitting
up of the new instrument room in the south tower of the Smithsonian
building, and in the arrangement of the apparatus there.

A considerable amount of the time of the Junior Assistant was occupied
in the preparation of enlarged representations of the bolographic results
appearing in Volume I of the ‘‘Annals”’ for use by the Secretary in describ-
ing these results to various learned societies, and also for exhibition at the
Buffalo Exposition.

(2) Progress of investigations—Adjustment of apparatus.—From my last
year’s report it will be apparent to how great an extent the Observatory
apparatus was removed to North Carolina for use in observing the solar
eclipse of May, 1900. It will therefore be understood that no little time
was consumed in again setting up and accurately adjusting the apparatus
for work here.

Radiation of the moon.—The first observations made were upon the radi-
ation of the moon. These observations, whose general result was given by
anticipation in last year’s report, in connection with the discussion of the
bolometric work on the corona during the eclipse, called renewed attention
to the fact, so apparent in your bolometric work at Allegheny, that much
the larger proportion of the radiation we receive from the moon is the
radiation proper of the lunar soil rather than the direct reflection of solar
rays, but that this properly lunar radiation varies exceedingly in amount,
depending on the amount of moisture in our atmosphere. Thus the
directly reflected portion of the whole lunar ‘radiation received at the
earth’s surface may vary from 20 to 40 per cent, according as our air is dry
or humid. It may be mentioned that certain similar observations made
by the Aid Acting in Charge while upon the eclipse expedition to Sumatra
indicated that quite 40 per cent of the lunar rays received in that moist
climate are those directly reflected from the sun.

Intramercurial planets.—Inasmuch as the results of the photographic
search for new planets conducted at the eclipse of May, 1900, were fully
described in last year’s report, it will be unnecessary to refer to them here,
.more than to say that the comparison and reduction of the eclipse photo-
graphs for this purpose really formed part of the work of this present year.
It was, however, deemed desirable to again photograph the same region of
sky with the lens employed at that eclipse, and apparatus was set up and
used for this purpose in January of the present year; but satisfactory
results had not been obtained when it became necessary to send the appa-
ratus to Sumatra. :

Galvanometer.—The sensitive galvanometer mentioned in my last year’s
report, and from which the greatest usefulness is expected, has absorbed
considerable attention; and although progress has not, owing to other
occupations, as yet passed beyond an experimental stage, it is yet so satis-
factory as to deserve a preliminary notice. By way of introduction atten-
tion is drawn to the distinction between the computed sensitiveness of a
galvanometer and its actual or working sensitiveness. In the older prac-
tice of perhaps twenty years ago the most sensitive galvanometers had
needle systems of several hundred milligrams weight, and they were,
owing to their great inertia, customarily used with a time of single swing

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ba

as great as ten or even twenty seconds. Thus it became customary in
describing the sensitiveness of a galvanometer to refer its sensitiveness to
a time of single swing of ten seconds. Within the past decade the gal-
vanometer needle systems of highest sensitiveness have become relatively
microscopic in size and now frequently weigh no more than one or two
thousandths of a gram (two to four millionths of a pound). These systems
are often far more sensitive with a time of single swing of only one or two
seconds than the best galvanometers of twenty years ago at a time of single
swing of twenty seconds. With a needle system practically undamped
either by air resistance or induction currents the sensitiveness is propor-
tional to the square of the time of swing, so that the sensitiveness of a
needle system at ten seconds single swing would on this basis be a hun-
dred times that which it would have at a one-second swing. Thus it arises
that the computed sensitiveness of these light systems runs perhaps thou-
sands of times as great as that of the systems of twenty years ago. But
it must not be forgotten that owing to the increased disturbance from
mechanical jarring and to the extreme potency of air resistance with these
light systems they can not in general be usefully employed at even half
so long a time of single swing as ten seconds; and in the second place, if it
were indeed possible to use them at a ten-second swing, it would be found
that the sensitiveness was perhaps not more than ten instead of a hun-
dred fold greater than at one second. Thus comparisons of sensitiveness
based on a ten-second single swing are entirely unfair to the older instru-
ments, which could be and were employed at the time of swing used as
the basis of comparison, and hence had a working sensitiveness far more
nearly comparable with that of the present day than their computed sensi-
tiveness would indicate. In consequence of this unfairness it has recently
become common to speak of the sensitiveness at ten seconds double swing,
a condition at which galvanometers are now sometimes actually used. At
this Observatory this change of the basis of comparison has not heretofore
been adopted. It must not be inferred from what has been said that the
advance made in the last twenty years in the construction of galvanom-
eters is belittled, for the reduction in the time of swing for the same
degree of sensitiveness is a most valuable saving in time and chances
of error, and for automatic recording, as in bolographic work, is wholly
indispensable.

In the past two years the design of galvanometer needles has been a sub-
ject of much investigation both experimental and theoretical at this
observatory, and it is believed that the results arrived at mark practically
the limit of probable progress in the way of obtaining sensitiveness at a
given short time of swing of a needle system. By this I mean that it is
improbable that a galvanometer can ever be constructed of a given resist-
ance which when employed at one second time of a single swing shall give
very appreciably greater deflections for given currents than will such a
galvanometer as can be constructed with the aid of the knowledge now
attained here. In other words, the time for increase of computed sensi-
tiveness by tens and hundreds of times with each newly constructed
instrument has passed away. In what has been said I do not wish to
claim peculiar advantages for our'galyanometer, for | understand that both
in this country and abroad practically the same results, as regards com-

cl ae REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

puted sensitiveness, have recently been reached by several physicists
independently, which strengthens the view that little further advance in
this direction is likely.

But the useful or working sensitiveness of a galvanometer is another
matter, and by the system of support and magnetic shielding described in
my last year’s report great advantage has been gained in this already, and
still better results are hoped for by still other improvements. Let me
clearly indicate how progress in working sensitiveness may be consistent
with a standstill in computed sensitiveness. The spot of light reflected
from the mirror of the galvanometer needle, which should be quiet when
no current is being observed, is always making slight excursions upon the
scale, and these fluctuations prevent readings of current deflections to be
made of less than a certain minimum amplitude, for they then become
indistinguishable among the accidental deflections just mentioned. Let
us now suppose that the average of accidental deflections should be reduced
by better elimination of ground tremors and magnetic fluctuations from a
millimeter to a tenth of a millimeter on the scale, then it is apparent that
ten times the working sensitiveness is attained. But let us suppose that
further improvement in these respects is found possible. It is hardly
practicable to read the position of an ordinary spot of light more accu-
rately than to the nearest tenth millimeter, so that little progress would
directly result, but the time of swing of the needle might be profitably
increased. Then, however, the effect of air damping would soon become
so prejudicial as to stop advance.

We are now in position to state generally the methods employed and
the results attained and hoped for here in this matter of increasing the
working sensitiveness. The aim of all efforts is to make it possible to read
deflections to a tenth of a millimeter on a seale at 3 meters with an actual
time of single swing of ten seconds.

In the first place it has been sought to reduce the mechanical tremors of
the galyanometer due to the city traffic; and for this purpose the elaborate
pier and suspension system described in my last year’s report was con-
structed. In thesecond place it has been attempted to reduce the prejudi-
cial effects of these and other mechanical disturbing factors which still
remain to jar the needle itself. To fully understand what has been planned
for this purpose it should be stated that in addition to such mechanical
tremors as have already been referred to, it has been found that the sound
waves sent out from concussions of various kinds are able to seriously
affect the steadiness of the needle. These sound waves can travel into the
valyanometer case to jar the needle despite any system of support, and the
only way to avoid them is to exhaust the air in the galvanometer, so that
our new cases are of air-tight construction. The exhaustion of the air, in
addition to preventing disturbance by sound waves, also makes the sensi-
liveness nearly proportional to the square of time of swing of the needle, so that
it is no longer so unjust to use a ten-second time of single swing as the
basis of comparison. But in addition to securing exhaustion of the air as
a means of reducing mechanical tremors, another device has been found.
The experimental and theoretical investigations of needle systems above
alluded to have indicated a method of construction by means of which the
weight of the needle system can be largely increased without diminishing the com-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. noe

puted sensitiveness, so that in this way the mechanical disturbances of sound
and ground tremors which reach the galvanometer case, being compelled
to influence a larger mass, will produce a less prejudicial effect upon the
needle.

It has also been sought to reduce magnetic disturbances of the needle by
the system of magnetic shielding described in my last year’s report.

The application of these several devices has as yet proceeded only so far
as is described in what follows: Several different systems of only 0.0019
gram weight have been tried in the galvanometer with the arrangements
of support and shielding already described, but not with the air exhausted,
and it has been found that up to times of single swing of two seconds the
average accidental deflections on a scale at 3 meters do not exceed 0.1
millimeter, and the time of swing has actually been raised to ten seconds
without excessive disturbances. The effectiveness of exhaustion of the air
to make the sensitiveness proportional to the square of the time of swing
has been studied, and these studies though not complete indicate that for
air pressures of less than 1 millimeter of mercury this relation will be
approximately followed.

A “‘heavy’’ needle system of 0.015 gram weight is in process of con-
struction, whose computed sensitiveness, it is believed, will equal or
slightly exceed that of the light systems already tried, while its steadiness
will be much greater.

The most sensitive ‘‘light’’ needle system used gave at 1.5 seconds’ single
swing in atmospheric pressure a deflection of 1 millimeter on a scale at
1 meter in a galvanometer of 1.4 ohms resistance with a current of
Toov0s00000 AMperes. The damping was then so excessive that the sec-
ond swing was but 715 the magnitude of the first. If the hopes now reason-
ably entertained are realized the ‘‘heavy’’ needle can be effectively used
at ten seconds’ single swing in vacuum, with a scale at 3 meters, and a
current of poo000¢000000 AMperes will in actual practice give a deflection
of 1 millimeter, and it is possible that a current of y55900¢0 000000 @Mperes
can be detected. Such a working sensitiveness as may thus be expected
would exceed that employed in taking the bolographs of 1898 by 5,000
fold, taking into account the ratio of the galvanometer resistance employed.
The gain of working sensitiveness now actually attained in preliminary
experiments is no less than a hundredfold. If the fiftyfold further gain
hoped for is actually accomplished the field of research thus opened is
enormous, so that I regard these improvements in the galvanometer as
now the first consideration. It is greatly to be regretted, however, that
owing to the unfortunate situation of the observatory in the midst of city
disturbances the difficulties to be overcome are so large. In this connec-
tion, I venture to express the hope that the change of site of the observa-
tory contemplated in your former reports may some time be accomplished.

Personal equation apparatus.—A portion of the time of the Junior Assist-
ant has been employed in the testing of an apparatus of your own design
to eliminate personal equation in time observations. These experiments
are not yet completed.

Absorption of the solar atmosphere.—An investigation of the absorption of
the solar radiation in the sun’s atmosphere has been begun. A large solar
image is formed, and bolographs are made at points near the center and

124 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

edge of the sun, respectively. Preliminary experiments indicate an absorp-
tion progressively increasing toward the shorter wave lengths, so that
curves taken with equal slit widths, while of nearly equal height at about
2 “, would exhibit nearly twice as much energy from the sun’s center as from
near the limb in the visible portion of the spectrum. So far as is yet deter-
mined there is no certainly discernible selective absorption for different
narrow bands besides the gradual alteration of absorption just alluded to,
but the experiments are as yet inconclusive as regards this point.

(3) Eclipse expedition to Sumatra.—It will be recalled that the obserya-
tions of last year’s eclipse by the Smithsonian expedition raised interesting
questions as to the existence of intramercurial planets and as to the
nature of the coronal radiations. So far did the interest in these problems
extend that it was thought worth while to send an expedition from the
Astrophysical Observatory to Sumatra to observe the total eclipse of May
18, 1901, and to repeat and extend the bolometric observations on the
coronal radiation and the photographic observations for possible intra-
mercurial planets. This expedition left Washington February 5, 1901;
reached Padang, Sumatra, April 4; occupied the station selected (at Solok),
April 11; and left Sumatra May 28. The personnel consisted of C. G. Abbot,
Aid Acting in Charge, and P. A. Draper, temporary assistant. Apparatus
weighing about 4,000 pounds was taken, including the 8-inch equatorial
telescope mounting with ccelostat. Through the good offices of the War
Department the voyages from San Francisco to Manila and the return
were made upon army transports, while the expedition was conveyed from
Manila to Padang and return upon the United States naval vessel Gen.
Alava, which also conveyed the expedition from the United States Naval
Observatory. It isa pleasure to remember the hospitality and friendliness
of the officers of this vessel toward us. Within Sumatra the expedition
was given free transportation upon the government raiiway, and indeed it
would be hard to acknowledge sufficiently the assistance and courtesy
received at the hands of the Dutch. I wish especially, however, to make
mention of the great kindness and helpfulness of the United States con-
sular agent at Padang, Mr. Cornelius G. Veth, who spared neither time
nor expense in our behalf. The most cordial relations existed between the
Smithsonian expedition and that of the United States Naval Observatory,
such mutual assistance as could be afforded being freely interchanged.

Solok, Sumatra, the point selected for the observations, is a fair-sized
town of mostly native inhabitants, but the seat of a Dutch residency. We
found quarters in a small hotel, and an abandoned fort near the hotel was
placed at our disposal for the observing station. This fort was shared with
the larger party of the Naval Observatory, and its large rooms and _inclos-
ing walls, together with the sufficiently large level inclosure, made it an
ideal station. Several years’ meteorological observations having especial
reference to the eclipse had indicated that Solok had at least as good
chance of fair weather as any place in the island, and as the day of the
eclipse approached we found from our own observations through the month
of May that the chances fora fair sky around the sun at the hour of the
eclipse were fully two to one. So far were these chances superior to those
of Fort de Kock, a minorstation near the edge of the shadow, occupied by

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Smithsonian Report, 1901. PLATE XIl.

CAMP OF THE SMITHSONIAN SOLAR ECLIPSE EXPEDITION AT SOLOK, SUMATRA.

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 125

the Naval Observatory expedition, that the greatest depression prevailed
in the messages received from that station prior to the eclipse. All was in
readiness before the day of the eclipse, and very numerous rehearsals with
both the bolometric and photographic apparatus had been held, and we
felt that our arrangements were such that excellent results ought to be
secured.

The day before the eclipse was rainy, but the morning of May 18 was
clear, so that the prospects appeared of the brightest up to 9 or 10 o0’clock.
But about the time of the first contact clouds began to form, and when the
eclipse became total, at about twenty minutes after noon, the whole sky,
excepting a perfectly clear belt around the horizon, was overcast with a
sort of checkerwork of clouds, so thick that the corona could barely be
distinguished. During the latter part of totality the very position of the
sun was doubttul. I realized that observations were useless, and I remained
in the tent of the intramercurial-planet instrument throughout the totality
without attempting bolometric work. Merely to have something to show
to prove that the expedition had observed an eclipse, the programme for the
intramercurial-planet apparatus was carried through, and I later developed
the plates taken. Those exposed in the first half of totality showed the
corona faintly, extending out possibly a quarter or half a diameter, and
showed the planets Mercury and Venus. Nothing else could be distin-
guished, not even the first-magnitude star Aldebaran. The plates exposed
during the last half showed even less, as the clouds were then thicker.

After totality the sky gradually cleared, and we had a fine afternoon and
the clearest (and, indeed, almost the only) clear night there had been for
weeks. The despised station at Fort de Kock had a perfect day through-
out, and was the only station occupied by an eclipse expedition of which
this was true. The meteorological conditions of Sumatra are not such as
to encourage astronomical observation there.

I was much surprised at the amount of general illumination still remain-
ing in the middle of totality. Some rainy days are equally as dark as it
then was at Solok, although the totality lasted six minutes and the shadow
was about 150 miles wide. The general illumination may have come from
outside the shadow path by reflection and diffusion of the clouds, but yet
there was, as has been said, a perfectly clear band of sky around the hori-
zon, and hence far within the shadow.

The accompanying plates illustrate some of the scenes of this wonder-
fully interesting though woefully disappointing expedition.

In concluding this report I wish particularly to commend the ability and
industry displayed by the Junior Assistant, Mr. F. E. Fowle, in carrying
on the work of the Observatory during my absence, especially as regards
bolometric work, which he did largely unassisted, and when the best part
of the equipment was gone on the eclipse expedition.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. ABsgot,
Aid Acting in Charge Astrophysical Observatory.
Mr. 8S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

AppENDIx VI.

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE
30, 1901.

Sir: I have the honor to present herewith the report of the operations
of the library of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1901.

The most considerable portion of office work is that connected with the
Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress.

The following table shows the number of volumes, parts of volumes,
pamphlets, and charts recorded in the accession books of the Smithsonian
deposit, Library of Congress, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901:

Quarto or; Octavo or
larger. / smaller. Total.
Wolumest 7 Fee se See ae fe ee Vk ey = ee ee 518 1,413 1,931
IRSXts OM VOHIMIGR)s ese oe on Aah. ie Mee eres Soe eee 14, 695 6,673 | 21,368
Painphletsrs. 3) ee ee ee ek eee tee 3 510 | 3, 993 4, 063
CRAPS, ete. Siar ered OS" ee Ne see Eee as teat Oo a a | Se Pe bakeeceesse 772
POUH at ft SO St eee a ee eS oe Dee ae in ee ae ee Fearon a nas 28,134

The accession numbers run from 431972 to 438892.

In ever-increasing volume the operations of the library, like those of the
International Exchanges, look to the strengthening of the Library of Con-
gress. All books, pamphlets, charts, and completed volumes of period-
icals are accessioned and recorded on cards as a permanent record file,
which both serves as a ledger account with learned societies and establish-
ments and as a catalogue of the Smithsonian deposit. The greater part of
these publications are then sent to the Library of Congress, amounting
during the past year to 192 boxes, 7 bags, and 30 packages, which are esti-
mated to have contained the equivalent of 9,000 octavo volumes, this being
asending to the Library of Congress independent of that forwarded by
the International Exchanges.

The additions to the libraries of the Secretary, the Office, and the Astro-
physical Observatory number 374 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, and
2,058 parts of volumes, making a total of 2,432, and a grand total of 30,566.
On the card catalogue of serial publications about 30,000 entries were made,
of which 300 required new title cards.

The following universities have sent inaugural dissertations and academic
publications: Albany, New York; Ann Arbor, Michigan; Baltimore, Mary-
land; Basel; Berlin; Bonn; Breslau; Czernowitz; Erlangen; Giesen; Frie-
burg; Greifswald; Halle a. 8.; Heidelberg; Helsingfors; Ithaca, New

126

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1o%

York; Jena; Kiel; Leipzig; Liege; Louvain; Lund; Marburg; Philadel-
phia, Pennsylvania; Rostock; Strasburg; Toulouse; Tubingen; Utrecht;
Wurzburg; and Zurich.

A small but valuable collection is gradually being formed at the National
Zoological Park, and two sectional libraries are maintained in the Tustitu-
tion in addition to those already alluded to, Aérodromics and Law Refer-
ence. :

The circulating library established in 1898 for the employees of the Insti-
tution has continued to be used, to the pleasure and profit of the staff, and
now contains about 1,280 volumes. During the year 2,515 volumes were
borrowed by 105 persons. The rooms occupied by this small collection
have been rendered more attractive.

In continuance of the policy of increasing the library by exchange and
filling in incomplete sets, 919 letters were written for new exchanges and
for completing series already in the library; 295 new periodicals were
added to the list; 460 defective series were either completed or partly com-
pleted, according to the publishers’ ability to supply the numbers requested.
About 1,500 letters were received, which are filed in jackets on which a
synopsis of the letters is given. A card catalogue of the correspondence
is kept for reference. Orders are issued for the Smithsonion publications
sent in exchange for the publications received; when single numbers are
reported as missing postal cards are forwarded requesting that they be sup-
plied; corresponding postal cards are sent as acknowledgments of receipts;
about 200 were asked for and 150 supplied.

Lists and cards haye been received from the Library of Congress since
November, 1900, indicating the volumes which are needed to complete the
sets in the Smithsonian deposit in the Library. These lists and cards are
copied and kept permanently, while the originals are returned with notes
stating what action has been taken.

The items which have been acted on show a very satisfactory result;
the books in these cases which are received in compliance with requests
are transmitted directly to the office of the Smithsonian deposit at the
Library of Congress, marked ‘‘To complete Smithsonian sets.”’

The great activity of the large force at the Library of Congress in the
various departments that have directly to do with the Smithsonian deposit
has kept the Library force here exceedingly busy. Very great good is
resulting from this activity, but much better results could be had if addi-
tional assistance were at my disposal, specifically for attending to the
matters of mutual interest to the Library of Congress and the Institution.

Numerous transfers have been made from the Smithsonian deposit to
the main collections of the Library and vice versa in the interest of com-
pletion of sets under a single ownership, such changes being made on the
general principle that the Institution’s collection shall consist primarily of
periodicals and transactions of learned societies, whilst the Library of
Congress should possess as complete files as possible of all publications
issued by Government, whether Federal, State, or municipal, both
domestic and foreign.

The third conference on the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera-
ture reached the conclusion that the Catalogue would be undertaken if

128 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

300 complete sets were subscribed for, and the Institution was informed in
August, 1900, that the quota for the United States would be 45. A circular
was immediately sent to the various colleges and libraries in this country,
and in spite of the fact that it was the summer season, subscription to 45-
sets was received by the middle of September, which number has since
been increased to the equivalent of 66 sets, demonstrating the great
interest had in this country in the undertaking. The preparation of a list
of periodicals to be indexed has been taken in hand and indexing actually
begun, two assi tants being temporarily assigned for this purpose.

The accessions to the National Museum Library numbered a total of
12,267 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, of which 4,942 were a portion of
the Smithsonian deposit; 25,141 books were borrowed. The efficiency of
the Library has been materially added to by the institution by the Library
of Congress of means of transferring books, etc., twice each day, thus
enabling the Institution to receive and return books at a very short notice.
The number of periodicals entered was 8,986, and 4,811 cards were added
to the authors’ catalogue of the Museum Library, which now contains 27
sections. Its operations will be more fully described in the report to the
Assistant Secretary.

Respectfully submitted.

Cyrus ApuER, Librarian.

Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

“: APPENDIX VII.

REPORT OF THE EDITOR FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE
30, 1901.

Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publications
of the Smithsonizn Institution and its bureaus during the year ending June
30, 1901:

I. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.

A memoir on experiments with ionized air, by Dr. Carl Barus, has been
sent to the printer, but was not completed at the close of the fiscal year.

II. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

1253. A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1897. By Henry
Carrington Bolton. Section VII, Academic Dissertations. Washington:
Published by the Smithsonian Institution, 1901. Octavo. pp. vi-+ 534.

1258. On the Cheapest Form of Light. ByS. P. Langley and F. W.
Very. Washington: Published by the Smithsonian Institution, 1901.
Octavo. pp. 20, with 3 plates.

1259. List of Observatories. Washington: Published by the Smith-
sonian Institution, 1901. Octavo. pp. 27. (Distributed as proof sheets,
for revision. )

1305, 1306. The Smithsonian Institution. Documents relative to its
origin and history. 1835-1899. Compiled and edited by William Jones
Rhees. In two volumes.» Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901.
Octavo.

Vol. I, 1835 to 1887. Pages 1-1, 1-1044.

Vol. II, 1887 to 1899. Pages 1045-1983.

This work forms Volumes XLII and XLIII of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
In his preface Mr. Rhees thus describes the object and contents of the volumes:

The present volume is undertaken in continuation of a volume bearing the title The
Smithsonian Institution; Documents Relative to its Origin and History, prepared by the
editor of the present volume, which, besides other matters, gives the legislative history
of the Smithsonian Institution to 1877. Prefixed to this will be found a selection of the
documents which passed between the United States and the attorneys in England ante-
cedent to the actual reception of the bequest of James Smithson, a British subject, who
gave his fortune to the United States of America ‘‘to found at Washington, under the
name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.”

This fact was communicated through the United States legation at London to the Sec-
retary of State, and was made the subject of a special message to Congress by President
Jackson on December 17, 1835. The message was referred to committees, and it was at last
agreed that, although there was some doubt as to the propriety of accepting it, the
bequest should be obtained, if possible, and the Hon. Richard Rush was sent to England
in July, 1836, as a special agent of the United States, with power of attorney from tha

sm 1901——9 129

130 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

President to prosecute the claim in the chancery court. The fund was brought to this
country in 1838, and after eight years of debate, including consultation with all the
leading educators of the United States at that time, a law was finally framed on August
10,1846, ‘‘to establish the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men.”’ Under this act, with a few amendments, the operations of the Insti-
tution have been carried on to the present time, and a detailed account of the legislation
by Congress, as well as of proposed action, from 1835 to March 3, 1899, is given in this
work, The legislation fully accomplished is shown by acts and joint resolutions, fol-
lowed in all cases by references to the volumes and pages of the Statutes at Large from
which they were quoted.

Concurrent resolutions of the Senate and House and separate resolutions of either
pranch of Congress are referred to by the dates of action.

An account is also given of action or discussion relative to objects intrusted by Con-
gress to the care of the Institution, and of some of the operations of the Government with
which it has had direct or incidental connection.

The proceedings of each Congress are given successively, the first volume containing
those of the Twenty-fourth Congress to the Forty-ninth and the second volume those of
the Fiftieth to the Fifty-fifth Congress. :

Under each Congress the subjects are arranged according to the date of their introduc-
tion, all action in that Congress on each subject following in chronological order, except-
ing that estimates and appropriations are placed at the end of each subject.

In the preparation of this work an examination was made of every page of the Con-
gressional Globe and Congressional Record, of the journals of the Senate and House, the
Statutes at Large, the Congressional documents and reports from 1835 to 1899, together with
other printed and manuscript material in the Institution and elsewhere; and the table
of contents and index are as comprehensive and minute as possible, the latter being
alphabetical, analytical, and chronological. }

The formal details of legislation in most cases are abbreviated, and the quotations from
the statutes, giving dates and amounts appropriated, are always given in figures, and
not in words.

Ill. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS.

1177. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion for the year ending June 30, 1897. Report of the U. 8. National
Museum, Part II. [A memorial of George Brown Goode.] Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. xm-+515 pages, with 109
portraits. e

1218. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion for the year ending June 30, 1898. Report of the U. 8. National
Museum. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. XviI
+-1,294 pages, with 36 plates and 347 text figures.

1252. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institn-
tion for the year ending June 30, 1899. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, 1901. Octavo. Lxi11-+672 pages, with 82 plates.

1254, -Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion for the year ending June 30, 1899. Report of the U. 8. National
Museum. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. xv 4-598 pages,
with 98 plates and 38 text figures.

1260. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- .
tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion for the year ending June 30,1900. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1901. Octavo. Lv +759 pages, with 108 plates.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. fot

IV. SEPARATES FROM SMITHSONIAN REPORTS.

1221. Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, report of executive committee, acts and resolutions of
Congress. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages xL-Lxir. Wash-
ington: Goyernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1222. The Wave Theory of Light. By A.Cornu. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 93-105. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1223. The Motion of a Perfect Liquid. By Prof. H. S. Hele-Shaw.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 107-118, with Plates I-IV.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1224. The Field of Experimental Research. By Elihu Thomson. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 119-130. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1225. Liquid Hydrogen. By Professor Dewar. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 131-142, with Plates I, IJ. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1226. Some of the Latest Achievements of Science. By Sir William
Crookes. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 145-153. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1227. An Experimental Study of Radio-Active Substances. By Henry
Carrington Bolton. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 155-162.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1228. The Growth of Science in the Nineteenth Century. By Sir
Michael Foster. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 163-183.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1229. Sir William Crookes on Psychical Research. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1899, pages 185-205. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1280. Survey of that Part of the Range of Nature’s Operations which
Man is Competent to Study. By G. Johnstone Stoney. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1899, pages 207-222, with figures. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1251. On Lord Kelvin’s Address on the Age of the Earth as an Abode
Fitted for Life. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlain. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 223-246. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1252. An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth. By J. Joly.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 247-288. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1233. The Petrified Forests of Arizona. By Lester F. Ward. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 289-307, with Plates I-III. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1254. Present Condition of the Floor of the Ocean: Evolution of the
Continental and Oceanic Areas. By Sir John Murray. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1899, pages 309-328. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1235. Relation of Motion in Animals and Plants to the Electrical Phe-

132 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

nomena which are Associated with It. By J. Burdon-Sanderson. From.

the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 329-351, with Plates I-IV. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1236. The Truth About the Mammoth. By Frederic A. Lucas. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 353-359, with Plates I-IV. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1237. Mammoth Ivory. By R. Lydekker. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 361-366. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1238. On the Sense of Smell in Birds. By M. Xaviér Raspail. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 367-373. Mushaneton: Goyern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1239. Have Fishes Memory? By L. Edinger. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 375-394. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1240. Scientific Thought in the Nineteenth Century. By William
North Rice. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 395-402.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1241. The Gardenand Its Development. By Paul Falkenberg. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 403-418. Washington: Over:
ment Printing Office, 1901. Detace:

1242. Review of the Evidence Relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in
California. By William HE. Holmes. From the Smithsonian Report for
1899, pages 419-472, Plates I-X VI. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1901. Octavo.

1243. A Problem in American Anthropology. By Frederic Ward Put-
nam. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 473-486. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1244. On Sea Charts Formerly Used in the Marshall Islands, with Notices
on the Navigation of these Islanders in General. By Captain Winkler, of
the German Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 487-508,
with Plates I-XV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901.
Octavo.

1245. The Peopling of the Philippines. _By Rudolf Virchow. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 509-526, with Plates I-III. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1246. List of the Native Tribes of the Philippines and of the Languages
Spoken by Them. By Prof. Ferdinand Blumentritt. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1899, pages 527-547, with Plates I-X. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1247. The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cozumahualpa, Guatemala, in the
Hamburg Ethnological Museum. By Herman Strebel. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1899, pages 549-561, with Plates I-XI. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1248. Count Von Zeppelin’s Dirigible Air Ship. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1899, pages 563-565, with Plates I-II. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavyo.

1249. The Progress in Steam Navigation. By Sir William H. White, of
the British Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 567-590.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

a i

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Ee

1250. A Century’s Progress of the Steam Engine. By Dr. R. H. Thurs-
ton. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 591-603. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1251. Bunsen Memorial Lecture. By Sir Henry Roscoe. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 605-644, with Plates I-VII. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1255. Report of 8S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, for the Year ending June 30, 1900, pages 1-117, with Plates I-X VIII.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

1261. Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, Report of Executive Committee, Acts and Resolutions
of Congress. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages xI-Lxv.
Octavo pamphlet.

1262. Progress in Astronomy during the Nineteenth Century. By Sir
Norman Lockyer. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 123-147.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1263. A Preliminary Account of the Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900, as
observed by the Smithsonian Expedition. By 8. P. Langley. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 149-156, with Plates I-IV. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1264. Notes on Mars. By Sir Robert Ball and others. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 157-172. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1265. On Solar Changes of Temperature and Variations in Rainfall in
the Region Surrounding the Indian Ocean. By Sir Norman Lockyer.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 173-184, with Plates I, II.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1266. The Pekin Observatory. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900,
pages 185-186, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1901. Octavo.

1267. The Progress of Aeronautics. By M. Janssen. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 187-193. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1268. Lord Rayleigh on “ Flight.’’ From the Smithsonian Report for
1900, pages 195-196. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901.
Octavo.

1269. The Langley Aérodrome. From the Smithsonian Report for
1900, pages 197-216, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1270. The Zeppelin Air Ship. By Thomas E. Curtis. [James Walter
Smith.] From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 217-222, with
Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1271. The Use of Kites to Obtain Meteorological Observations. By A.
Lawrence Rotch. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 223-231,
with Plates I-III. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901.
Octavo.

1272. Progress in Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century. By Prof.
William Ramsay. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 233-257.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

134 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1273. Liquid Hydrogen. By Prof. James Dewar. From the Smithso-
nian Report for 1900, pages 259-264, with Plates I-IV. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1274. A Century of Geology. By Prof. Joseph Le Conte. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 265-287. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1275. Evolutional Geology. By Prof. W. J. Sollas. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 289-314, with Plate I. Washington: Goy-
ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1276. Progress in Physics in the Nineteenth Century. By Prof. T. C.
Mendenhall. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 315-331.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo.

1277. Electricity during the Nineteenth Century. By Prof. Elihu
Thomson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 333-358. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1278. The Photography of Sound Waves and the Demonstration of the
Evolutions of Reflected Wave Fronts with the Cinematograph. By
R. W. Wood. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 359-369,
with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1279. Unsuspected Radiations. By Prince Kropotkin. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 371-385. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1280. Incandescent Mantles. By Vivian B. Lewes. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 387-401, with 2 text figures. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1281. The Imperial Physico-Technical Institution in Charlottenburg.
By Henry 8S. Crahart. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages
403-415, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1282. The Geographic Conquests of the Nineteenth Century. By
Gilbert H. Grosvenor. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages
417-430, with Plate I, and 12 text figures. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1283. Through Africa From the Cape to Cairo. By Ewart 8. Grogan.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 431-448, with Plates I-IV.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1284. The ‘‘Yermak’’ Ice Breaker. By Vice-Admiral Makaroff, of the
Russian Imperial Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages
449-459, with Plates I-III]. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1901. Octavo.

1285. The Growth of Biology in the Nineteenth Century. By Oscar
Hertwig. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 461-478. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1286. The Restoration of Extinct Animals. By Frederic A. Lucas..
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 479-492, with Plates I-VIII,
and 2 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo..

1287. Life in the Ocean. By Karl Brandt. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1900, pages 4938-506. Washington: Government Printing Of-
fice, 1901. Octavo.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

1288. Nature Pictures.” By A. Radclyffe Dugmore. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 507-515, with Plates I-XN VII. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1289. The Outlaw: a Character Study of a Beaver who was cast out by
his Companions. By A. Radclyffe Dugmore. From the Smithsonian Re-
port for 1900, pages 517-522, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1290. A Notable Advance in Color Photography. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 523-526, with Plate I, and 5 text figures.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1291. The Breeding of the Arctic Fox. By Henry de Varigny. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 527-533. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1292. Discoveries in Mesoptamia. By Dr. Frederich Delitzsch. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 535-549, with Plates I-X. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1293. On Ancient Desemers or Steelyards. By Herrman Sokeland.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 551-564, with 22 text
figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1294. Mutual Helpfulness between China and the United States. By
his excellency Wu Ting-Fang. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900,
pages 565-574. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1295. Chinese Folklore and Some Western Analogies. By Frederick
Wells Williams. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 575-600.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1296. The Loot of the Imperial Summer Palace at Pekin in 1860. By
Count D’Hérisson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 601-635.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1297. Progress of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. By Dr. John S.
Billings, U. S. A. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 637-644.
Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1298. Malaria. By George M. Sternberg, M. D., U. S. A. From the
Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 645-656. Washington: Government
Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1299. Transmission of Yellow Fever by Mosquitoes. By George M.
Sternberg, M. D., U.S. A. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages
657-673. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1300. Psychical Research of the Century. By Andrew Lang. From
the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 675-681. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. :

1301. The New Spectrum. By S&S. P. Langley. From the Smithsonian
Report for 1900, pages 683-692, with colored plate. Washington: Goy-
ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1302. The Century’s Great Men in Science. By Charles S. Peirce.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 693-699. Washington: Goy-
ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

1503. The Lesson of the Life of Huxley. By William Keith Brooks.
From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 701-711. Washington: Goy-
ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

~

136 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1304. Reminiscences of Huxley. By John*Fiske. From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1900, pages 713-728. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1901. Octavo. -

Report upon the condition and progress of the U. 8. National Museum
during the year ending June 30, 1898. By Charles D. Walcott, acting
assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in charge of the U.S.
National Museum. From the Annual Report of the U. 8. National
Museum for 1898, pages 1-149. Octavo.

The Crocodilians, Lizards, and Snakes of North America. By Edward
Drinker Cope, A. M., Ph. D. From the Annual Report of the U.S. National
Museum for 1898, pages 153-1270, with 36 plates and 347 figs. Octavo.

Report upon the condition and progress of the U. 8. National Museum
during the year ending June 30, 1899. By Richard Rathbun, assistant
secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. From the Annual Report of the
U.S. National Museum for 1899, pages 1-152. Octavo.

Guide to the Study of the Collections in the Section of Applied Geology.
The nonmetallic minerals. By George P. Merrill, curator Division of
Physical and Chemical Geology and head curator of the Department.
From the Annual Report of the U. 8. National Museum for 1899, pages
155-483, with 30 plates and 13 figures. Octavo.

Report on the Department of Biology for the year 1898-99. By Frederick
W. True, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U. S. National
Museum for 1899, pages 25-35. Octavo.

Report on the Department of Anthropology for the year 1898-99. By
William H. Holmes, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U.S.
National Museum for 1899, pages 17-24. Octavo.

Report on the Department of Geology for the year 1898-99. By George
P. Merrill, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U.S. National
Museum for 1899, pages 37-49. Octavo.

A Primitive Frame for Weaying Narrow Fabrics, by Otis Tufton Mason, .
curator, Division of Ethnology. From the Annual Report of the United
States National Museum for 1899, pages 487-510, with 9 plates and 19
figures. Octavo.

An Early West Virginia Pottery, by Walter Hough, assistant curator,
Division of Ethnology. From the Annual Report of the United States
National Museum for 1899, pages 511-521, with 18 plates. Octavo.

Pointed Bark Canoes of the Kutenai and Amur, by Otis T. Mason,
curator, Division of Ethnology, with notes on the Kutenai by Meriden 8.
Hill. From the Annual Report of the United States National Museum
for 1899, pages 523-537, with 5 plates and 6 figures. Octavo. .

Descriptive Catalogue of a Collection of Objects of Jewish Ceremonial
Deposited in the United States National Museum by Hadji Ephraim Ben-
guiat, by Cyrus Adler, Ph. D., custodian, Section of Historic Religious
Ceremonials, and J. M. Casanowicz, Ph. D., Aid, Division of Historical
Archeology. From the Annual Report of the United States National
Museum for 1899, pages 539-561, with 36 plates. Octavo.

V. SPECIAL SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS.

1256. Publications of the Smithsonian Institution available for distribu-
tion, March, 1901. Washington: March, 1901. Octavo, pp. 55.

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ils if

VI. PUBLICATIONS OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Special Bulletin. American Hydroids. Part I. The Plumularide,
with thirty-four plates. By Charles Cleveland Nutting, professor of
zoology, University of lowa. Washington: Government Printing Office.
1900. Quarto. pp. 285, with Plates I-X XXIV.

Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Volume XXII.
Published under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office. 1900. xii+-1075 pages, with 18 plates.
Octavo.

Proc. 1203. A Hundred new Moths of the Family Noctuide. By John
B. Smith. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum,
Vol. XXII, pages 413-495. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1204. A new Bird of Paradise. By Rolla P. Currie. From the
Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXII, pages
497-499, with Plate XVII. Washington: Government Printing Office,
1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1205. Synopsis of the Naiades, or Pearly Fresh-Water Mussels.
By Charles Torrey Simpson. From the Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, Vol. X XII, pages 501-1044, with Plate XVIII. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1206. Classification of the Ichneumon Flies, or the Superfamily
Ichneumonoidea. By William H. Ashmead. From the Proceedings of
the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 1-220. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1207. A new Rhinoceros, Trigonias osborni, from the Miocene
of South Dakota. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings of the
United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 221-223. Washing-
ton: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1208. New species of Moths of the Superfamily Tineina from
Florida. By August Busch. From the Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 225-254, with Plate I. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 19.0. Octavo.

Proc. 1209. Life Histories of Some North American Moths. By Harri-
son G. Dyar. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 255-284. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1210. Synopsis of the Family Tellinidz and of the North Ameri-
ean Species. By William Healey Dall. From the Proceedings of the
United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 285-326, with Plates
II-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1211. The Pelvic Girdle of Zeuglodon, Basilosaurus cetoides
(Owen), with notes on other portions of the skeleton. By Frederic A.
Lucas. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum,
Vol. XXIII, pages 327-331, with Plates V-VII. Washington: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1212. A new Fossil Cyprinoid, Leuciscus turneri, from the
Miocene of Nevada. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings of the

138 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 333-354, with Plate
VIII. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1213. A List of Fishes Collected in Japan by Keinosuke Otaki and
by the U.S. S. Albatross, with descriptions of fourteen new species. By
David Starr Jordan and John Otterbein Snyder. From the Proceedings
of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, page 335-380, with
Plates IX-XX. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1214. Synopsis of the Family Cardiidz and of the North
American species. By William Healey Dall. From the Proceedings of
the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 381-392. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo.

Proc. 1215. Revision of the Orthopteran Genus Trimerotropis. By
Jerome McNeill. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 393-449, with Plate XXI. Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo.

Proce. 1216. The Hermit Crabs of the Pagurus bernhardus type. By
James E. Benedict. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 451-466. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1901. Octayo.

Proc. 1217. On anew species of Spiny-tailed Iguana from Utilla Island,
Honduras. By Leonhard Stejneger. Pages 467, 468. Washington: Goy-
ernment Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proe. 1218. New systematic name for the Yellow Boa of Jamaica. By
Leonhard Steineger. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 469-470. Octavo.

Proc. 1219. Diagnosis of a new species of Iguanoid Lizard from Green
Cay, Bahama Islands. By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings
of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 471, 472. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1220. On the Wheatears (Saxicola) occurring in North America.
By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 473-481. Washington: Government
Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1221. List of Fishes collected in the River Pei-Ho, at Tien-Tsin,
China, by Noah Fields Drake, with descriptions of seven new species. By
James Francis Abbott. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 483-491. Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1222. Key to the Isopods of the Atlantic Coast of North America,
with descriptions of new and little known species. By Harriet Richard-
son. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol.
XXII, pages 493-579. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901.
Octavo.

Proc. 1223. Some Spiders and other Arachnida from Southern Arizona.
By Nathan Banks. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 581-590, with Plate XXII. Washington:
Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1224. A new Dinosaur, Stegosaurus marshi, from the Lower Cre-
taceous of South Dakota. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 139

of the United States National Museum, Vol’ XNIII, pages 591, 592, with
Plates XXIII, XXIV.. Washington: Government Printing Office 1901.
Octavo.

Proc. 1225. New Diptera in the United States National Museum. By
D. W. Coquillett. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 593-618. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1901. Octayo.

Proc. 1226. A Listof the Fernsand Fern Allies of North America North
of Mexico, with principal synonyms and distribution. By Wilham R.
Maxon. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum,
Vol. XXIII, pages 619-651. Washington: Government Printing Office.
1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1227. A Systematic Arrangement of the Families of the Diptera.
By D. W. Coquillett. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 653-658. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proe. 1228. A Comparison of the Osteology of the Jerboas and Jumping
Mice. By Marcus W. Lyon, jr. From the Proceedings of the United
States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 659-668; with Plates XX V—
XXVII. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1229. Cambrian Brachiopoda: Obolella, subgenus Glyptias; Bicia;
Obollus, subgenus Westonia; with descriptions of new species. By Charles
D. Walcott. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum,
Vol. XXIII, pages 669-695. Washington: Government Printing Office.
1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1230. A Revision of certain species of Plants of the Genus Anten-
naria. By Elias Nelson. From the Proceedings of the United States
National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 697-713. Washington: Government
Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1231. Description of a new species of Snake from Clarion Island,
West Coast of Mexico. By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings
of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 715-717.
Washington: Government Printing Office. 190i. Octavo.

Proc. 1232. On the Relationships of the Lutianoid Fish, Aphareus fur-
eatus. By David Starr Jordan and Edwin Chapin Starks. From the
Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages
719-723, with Plates XXVIII, XXIX. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1233. A Review of the Lancelets, Hag-fishes, and Lampreys of
Japan, with a description of two new species. By David Starr Jordan
and John Otterbein Snyder. From the Proceedings of the United States
National Museum. Vol. XXIII, pages 725-734, with Plate XXX. Wash-
ington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo.

Proc. 1234. The proper names of Bdellostoma or Heptatrema. By
Theodore Gill. From the Proceedings of the United States National
Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 735-738. Washington: Government Print-
ing Office. 1901. Octavo.

140 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

VII. PUBLICATIONS OF,THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

The first part of the Seventeenth Report and the first part of the Eight-
eenth Report were received from the Government Printing Office and
distributed during the year.

Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to
the Se-retary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1895-96. . By J. W. Powell,
Director. In two parts. Part I. Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1898. Imperial octavo. Pages i-xciii, 1-128, 129*-344*, 137-468,
with 81 plates and 229 text figures.

Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1896-97. By J. W. Powell,
Director. In two parts. Part I. Washington: Government Printing
Office. 1899. Imperial octavo. Pages i-lvii, 1-518, with 174 plates and
165 text figures.

VIII. PUBLICATION OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.

The Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year
1900 was sent to the printer toward the close of the fiscal year, and most
of it was in type before June 30. The report is in two volumes, with the
following contents:

‘Report of Proceedings of Sixteenth Annual Meeting in Detroit and Ann Arbor, Decem-
ber 27-29, 1900, by A. Howard Clark, secretary—The New History, by Edward Eggleston,
president—Concerning the Writing of History, by James Ford Rhodes—Plea for Military
History, by Charles Francis Adams—Sectionalism and Representation in South Carolina,
a Sociological Stndy, by William A. Schaper—Frontier Land Clubs, or Claim Associations,
by Benjamin F.Shambaugh—Missouri Party Struggles in the Civil-War Period, by S. B.
Harding—Military Government of Southern Territory, 1861-1865, by A. H. Carpenter—
Marcus Whitman: A Discussion of Professor Bourne’s Paper, by William I. Marshall—Lord
Baltimore’s Struggle with the Jesuits, 1634-1649, by Alfred Pearce Dennis—American Eccle-
siology, by George James Bayles—Studies in the Colonial Period of England, 1672-1680:
The Plantations, the Royal African Company, and the Slave Trade, by Edward D. Col-
lins—Critical Work on the Latin Sources of the First Crusade, by Oliver J. Thatcher—
The Turkish Capitulation, by James B. Angell—Stein’s German Policy at the Congress
of Vienna, by Ulysses G. Weatherly—The Considerations which induced Edward III to
Assume the Title King of France, by Walter Irenzeus Lowe—Fifth Annual Report of the
Historical Manuscripts Commission—Titles of Books on English History, published in 1899;
selected by W. Dawson Johnston—Report of the Public Archives Commission.

IX. NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION,

The Third Report of the Society was received and submitted to Congress
during the year and progress made toward its publication as a Senate
Document.

Respectfully submitted.
A. Howarpb Cuark, Editor.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

GENERAL APPENDIX

SMETHSOMAN REPORT FOR 1901.

at

ADVERTISEMENT.

The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discoy-
ery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collab-
orators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on
special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspond-
ents of the Institution.

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report
required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarka-
ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery,
as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti-
tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history,
been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would
possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress.

In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an
annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been
issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com-
petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom-
inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology,
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus-
sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1901.

145

PLATE I.

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THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

**The advancement of the highest interests of na-
tional science and learning and the custody of objects
of art and of the valuable results of scientific expedi-
tions conducted by the United States have been com-
mitted to the Smithsonian Institution. In furtherance
of its declared purpose—for the ‘increase and diffu-
sion of knowledge among men’—the Congress has
from time to time given it other important functions.
Such trusts have been executed by the Institution with
notable fidelity. There should be no halt in the work
of the Institution, in accordance with the plans which
its Secretary has presented, for the preservation of the vanishing races
of great North American animals in the National Zoological Park. The
urgent needs of the National Museum are recommended to the favora-
ble consideration of the Congress.” (President Roosevelt’s first mes-
sage to Congress. )

In the first Smithsonian Report issued in the twentieth century it
may not be amiss to tell the readers of this volume very briefly what
the Institution is, how it came into being, and how it has fulfilled the

purposes for which it was established.

In the popular mind. the Smithsonian Institution is a picturesque
castellated building of brown stone, situated in a beautiful park at
Washington, containing birds and shells and beasts and many other
things, with another large adjacent building, often called the Smith-
sonian National Museum. The Institution is likewise supposed to have
a large corps of learned men, all of whom are called ‘* Professors”
(which they are not), whose time is spent in writing books and making
experiments and answering all kinds of questions concerning the things
in the heavens above, the earth beneath, and the waters under the
earth.

Contrast this popular notion with the facts. The Smithsonian Insti-
tution is an ‘* Establishment” created by an act of Congress which owes
its origin to the bequest of James Smithson, an Englishman, a scien-
tific man, and at one time a vice-president of the Royal Society, who

sm 1901——10 145

146 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

died in Genoa in 1829, leaving his entire estate to the United States of
America ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian
Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men.”

After ten years of debate in Congress, turning partly on the ques-
tion whether the Government ought to accept such a bequest at all
and put itself in the unprecedented position of the guardian of a
ward, Congress accepted the trust and created by enactment an
‘* Establishment” called by the name of the Smithsonian Institetion,
consisting of the President of the United States, the Vice-President,
the Chief Justice of the United States, and the members of the Pres-
ident’s Cabinet. It has also a Secretary, with varied functions, among
others that of being the Keeper of the Museum.

Smithson’s money, which amounted to over half a million dollars,
and later to three-quarters of a million, a great fortune in that day of
small things, was deposited in the United States Treasury, the Govern-
ment afterwards agreeing to pay perpetually 6 per cent interest upon it.

In the fundamental act creating the Institution, Congress, as above
stated, provided that the President and the members of his Cabinet
should be members of the Institution, that is, should be the Institu-
tion itself, but that nevertheless it should be governed by a Board of
Regents, composed of the Vice-President and Chief Justice of the
United States, three Regents to be appointed by the Preside:t of
the Senate (ordinarily the Vice-President), three by the Speaker of
the House of Representatives, and six to be selected by Congress;
two of whom should be residents of the District of Columbia *nd
the other four from different States, no two being from the :ame
State. The fundamental act further provides that the Secretary of
the Institution already defined shall also be the Secretary of the Board
of Regents. The Museum is primarily to contain objects of art and
of foreign and curious research; next, objects of natural history,
plants, and geological and mineralogical specimens belonging to the
United States. Provision is also made fora library, and the functions
of the Regents and of the Secretary were defined.

The preamble of this bill states that Congress has received the prop-
erty of Smithson and provided ‘‘for the faithful execution of said
trust agreeable to the will of the liberal and enlightened donor.” It
will thus be seen that the relations of the General Government to the
Smithsonien Institution are most extraordinary, one may even say
unique, since the United States solemnly bound itself to the adminis-
tration of a trust. Probably never before has any ward found so
powerful a guardian.

The first meeting of the Regents occurred on September 7, 1846,
and in the autumn of the same year they elected as Secretary JosSEPH
Henry, then a professor at Princeton, known for his extraordinary

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE Il.

JAMES SMITHSON.

Founder of the Smithsonian Institution. From a painting by Johnes, 1816.

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Founder of the Smithsonian Institution.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 147

experiments on the electro-magnet, and other subjects relating to
electricity. Under his guidance the Institution took shape. Its work
at first consisted, in the main, of the publication of original memoirs,
containing actual contributions to knowledge, and their free distribu-
tion to important libraries throughout the world; to giving popular
lectures in Washington, publishing them, and distributing them to
libraries and individuals; stimulating scientific work by providing
apparatus and by making grants of money to worthy investigators,
cooperating with other Government Departments in the advancement
of work useful to the General Government, etc. These were the
principal methods employed by Henry to carry out the purposes of
Smithson, for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Here, too,
were initiated certain studies which afterwards became most fruitful
and have resulted in important Government work, such as the present
Weather Bureau, among others. The beginning of cooperation in
library work was at this Institution. At the same time many—we
might almost say most—of the present scientific activities of the Gov-
ernment have grown out of it or been stimulated by it. Experiments
in fog signaling, in the acoustics and ventilation of public buildings,
and in numerous other subjects, were inaugurated. In fact, in these
earlier days, with one or two exceptions, the Smithsonian was the
sole representative of active scientific work directly or indirectly con-
nected with the United States Government. Its influence upon the
character of private scientific work, too, was very great, since half a
century or more ago the avenues for publishing were few, and the
funds for the purpose slender.

Gradually, out of the collections which had been kept in the Patent
Office, the private collections of Smithson, and of appropriations of
his money made by the Regents, and largely also through the results
of the great exploring expedition of Captain Wilkes, there grew up a
Smithsonian Museum, one which was exclusively cared for from the
Smithson fund; but which, partly through the greater activity of the
Government surveys and partly through the gifts of private individ-
uals, and also through the valuable objects presented to the United
States Government by foreign nations at the close of the Centennial
at Philadelphia in 1876, brought about the establishment of what is
now known as the United States National Museum of the Smithso-
nian Institution, which is under control of the Regents of the Institu-
tion, for which a building was provided, and which now receives direct
support from Congress. This Museum has now the matter belonging
to the original Institution collected by the Smithsonian’s own observ-
ers, with much more secured through the General Government, making
in all over 5,000,000 specimens, and is the foremost collection in the
world in everything that relates to the natural history, ethnology,
geology, and paleontology of that portion of North America now the

148 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

United States, besides containing many valuable series from other
countries. The collections have been visited by over 7,500,000 per-
sons, and the Institution has carried selections of its specimens to every
large exhibition held in the United States, and distributed 850,000
specimens to colleges and academies, thus powerfully stimulating the
growth of museums large and small in every section of the country.

The publications of the Smithsonian have been in several series,
mostly to convey to specialists the results of its original scientific
investigations and to thus represent the first half of its fundamental
purpose ‘‘ for the ¢nerease of knowledge,” and, subordinately, others
to include handbooks and indexes useful to students, and some publi-
cations which, while still accurate, contain much information in a style
to be understood by any intelligent reader, and thus represent the
second half of the founder’s purpose for the ** d¢ffuszon of knowledge.”
Many valuable publications, too, have been issued by the Museum and
the Bureau of Ethnology, and recently by the Astrophysical Observa-
tory. Inall, 265 volumes in over 2,000,000 copies and parts have been
gratuitously distributed to institutions and private individuals, these
works forming in themselves a scientific library in all branches.

Partly by purchase, but in the main by exchange for these publica-
tions, the Institution has assembled a library of over 150,000 volumes,
principally of serial publications and the transactions of learned socie-
ties, which is one of the notable collections of the world. The major
portion of it has been since 1866 deposited in the Library of Congress,
with which establishment the most cordial and mutually helpful rela-
tions subsist.

In 1850 Spencer FULLERTON Barrp, a distinguished naturalist, was
elected Assistant Secretary of the Institution. To him the great
activity in natural history work was due, and by him the Museum was
fostered, he being greatly aided from 1875 by a young and enthusiastic
naturalist, GeorGE Brown Goopr. Secretary Baird initiated in the
Smithsonian Institution those economic studies which led to the estab-
lishment of the United States Fish Commission.

As another means of diffusing knowledge there was early established
the bureau of international exchanges, originally intended simply for
the proper distribution of the Smithsonian’s publications, but which
gradually assumed very wide proportions, becoming no less than an
arrangement with learned societies throughout the world to recipro-
cally carry free publications of learned societies, or of individual scien-
tific men, intended for gratuitous distribution. This system was after-
wards taken up by various governments which, through treaties, bound
themselves to exchange their own publications in the same way. Since
the inauguration of this service, 5,000,000 pounds weight of books and
pamphlets have been carried to every portion of America and of the
world. The Institution existing not only for America, in which it has

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE IV.

JOSEPH HENRY.

First secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1878.

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Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE V.

SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD.

Second secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1878-1887.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. , 149

over 8,000 correspondents, but for the world, has throughout Europe,
Asia, Africa, and the islands of the sea, nearly 28,000 correspondents—
more without the United States than within—justifying the words
**Per Orbem,” as the device on the Smithsonian seal.

Other work has been intrusted to the Institution by the Govern-
ment, such as the Bureau of American Ethnology, for studies relating
to the aborigines of this continent; the Astrophysical Observatory,
which for ten years has been chiefly devoted to the enlargement of
Newton’s work on the spectrum, and the National Zoological Park.
The establishment of the latter was intended primarily to preserve the
vanishing races of mammals on the North American continent; but it
has also assumed the general features of a zoological park, afford-
ing the naturalist the opportunity to study the habits of animals at
close range, the painter the possibility of delineating them, and giving
pleasure and instruction to hundreds of thousands of the American
people. These two latter establishments are due to the initiative of
the present Secretary, Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY, elected in 1887; a physicist
and astronomer, known for his researches on the sun, and more
recently for his work in aérodynamics. While the fund has been
increased of later years by a number of gifts and bequests, the most
notable being that of Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins of a sum somewhat
over $200,000, its original capital, once relatively considerable, has
now, in spite of these additions, grown relatively inconsiderable where
there are now numerous universities having twenty times its private
fund. It threatens now to be insufficient for the varied activities it
has undertaken and is pursuing in every direction, among these the
support of the higher knowledge by aiding investigators everywhere,
which it does by providing apparatus for able investigators for their
experiments, etc. Investigations in various countries have been stimu-
lated by grants from the fund. It has been the past, as it is the
present, policy of the Institution to aid as freely as its means allowed,
either by the grant of funds or the manufacture of special apparatus,
novel investigations which have not always at the moment seemed
of practical value to others, but which subsequently have in many
instances justified its discrimination in their favor and have proved of
great importance.

The growth of the Institution has been great, but it has been more
in activity than in mere bigness. The corner-stone was laid fifty years
ago. In 1852 the entire staff, including even laborers, was 12. In
1901 the Institution and the bureaus under it employed 64 men of sci-
ence and 277 other persons. These men of science in the Institution
represent very nearly all the general branches, and even the specialties
to some extent of the natural and physical sciences, besides history
and the learning of the ancients; and it may perhaps be said that the
income of the Institution (which, relatively to others, is not one-tenth

150 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

in 1901 what it was in 1851) has been forced to make good, by harder
effort on the part of the few, what is done elsewhere in the Govern-
ment service by many.

The private income of the Smithsonian Institution is not quite
$60,000, but it controls the disbursement of about $500,000 per annum
appropriated by the Government for the bureaus under its charge.

Certain other functions difficult to describe are still of prime im-
portance. The Smithsonian is called on by the Government to advise
in many matters of science, more especially when these have an inter-
national aspect. Its help and advice are sought by many thousands of
persons every year, learned societies, college professors, journalists,
and magazine editors, and thousands of private individuals, seeking
information, which is furnished whenever it can be done without too
serious a drain, though naturally a percentage of the requests is unrea-
sonable. _ It has cooperated with scientific societies of national scope,
like the American Historical Association, and has stimulated the
growth of a number of the Washington scientific societies, and it may
be said to teem with other activities.

The Regents control the policy of the Institution, and the Secre-
tary is their executive officer. Since the beginning the Regents have
been selected from among the most distinguished men in public life
and in the educational and scientific world. Their roll contains the
names of the most distinguished American citizens for half a century.

An unwritten policy has grown up which, without instructions or
regulations, has been of profound influence in the work. The Smith-
sonian Institution does not undertake work which any existing agency
can or will do as well. It does not engage in controversies; it limits
its work to observation and the diffusion of ascertained knowledge,
not to speculation. It preserves an ‘*open mind” for all branches of
knowledge and considers any phenomena which are the object of serious
study within its purview. Its benefits are not confined to Washington
nor to the United States, but as far as consistent are extended to all
men.

Its Secretaries, Assistant Secretaries, and scientific officers have
from the beginning—long before a classified service existed—been
elected and appointed for merit, and for that alone. No person has
ever been appointed on the scientific staff for any political reason or
consideration.

It is impossible to look into the future. The Smithsonian Institu-
tion has a remarkable organization for the administration of funds
for the promotion of science; yet amidst the great benefactions of
the past quarter of a century relatively few have come to it. Its
activities could be still further increased if it had greater means
under its control, and the Regents, because of the peculiarly independ-
ent position they hold, can be of great public service in suggesting

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE VI.

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY.

Third secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Elected in 1887.

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THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 5a:

the channel into which gifts for scientific purposes might be directed,
evenif they do not see their way clear to accepting such donations for
the Institution itself.

For the National Museum a great new building is a prime necessity.
The Museum has practically reached a point where it is physically
impossible that it should grow under present conditions.

Secretary Langley has for several years past been urging upon the
Government the dispatch of several expeditions for capturing the
species of large mammals so rapidly being destroyed in the United
States and Alaska; but even without this, the National Zoological
Park, with its relationships to the other great national parks, is des-
tined to be one of the great collections of the world.

The Bureau of American Ethnology, which since its organization
has devoted itself to the aboriginees of this continent, may have new
work to do in Porto Rico and in Hawaii.

Among still other activities, of which there is now but a premonition,
a National Gallery of Art (provided for by Congress in the original
charter) may be alluded to.

The past of the Smithsonian Institution is secure, its presentis known
to all men, and it looks forward to the future in the belief that it will
worthily continue under whatever changing conditions to ‘‘ increase and
diffuse knowledge among men.”

2c0332355-

SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

By C. G. Axpzor.

The year 1901 has beena remarkable one in the history of astronomy
for the number of important observations and discoveries which have
been recorded. I have selected for the following account six, perhaps,
the most interesting. These are (1) recent determinations of stellar
motion in the line of sight; (2) advances in astronomical photography;
(8) the measurement of the heat received from the stars; (4) the
observation of the planet Eros; (5) the total solar eclipse of May 18,
1901, and (6) the history of the new star in Perseus.

1. RECENT DETERMINATIONS OF STELLAR MOTION IN THE LINE OF
SIGHT.

It is now over thirty years since Sir William Huggins made the
earliest application of Doppler’s principle to the problem of determining
the velocity of motion of the stars in the line joining the star with the
observer, technically called the line of sight. Before this all measures
of stellar motion had been by the comparison of accurate positions
obtained many years apart, and giving thus the stars’ ** proper motion”
or motion at right angles to the line of sight. The principle of Dop-
pler, however, offers a means of discovering the other component of
stellar motion, for in accordance with it the apparent wave length of
light is increased or diminished by the recession or approach of the
source, just as a locomotive whistle becomes of higher pitch as it
comes toward us and lower as it goes away. It requires, then, in
theory, but the comparison of well recognized lines in the stellar
spectra with the corresponding ones in the spectrum of a terrestrial
source, to see whether or not the star lines are shifted toward the
blue or the red, together with a measurement of the amount of this
shifting to decide if the star is approaching or receding from us, and
at what rate. In practice, however, the displacements caused by
stellar motion are so slight that the effects of a varying temperature
of the apparatus and of other causes make this one of the most difli-
cult fields of astronomical investigation.

154 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

After Sir William Huggins’s first experiments in 1868 and those of
Professor Vogel at Potsdam in 1871 the work was taken up at Green-
wich and pursued for thirteen years. Those early results were but
rough, however, and we owe to the introduction of astronomical
photography the present advances in this as in so many other lines.
The introduction of photography, and with it the first results of great

value for accuracy, date from the observations of Vogel at Potsdam
in 1887. Not long after this Professor Keeler, thén director of Alle-
gheny Observatory, obtained his famous spectrographic proof that the
rings of Saturn consist of small bodies revolving about the planet in
obedience to Keplar’s laws and are not continuous rigid sheets of
matter as they appear to be in a telescopic view.

The most celebrated instrument used for these line of sight researches
is that known as the Mills spectrograph of the Lick Observatory, with
which Professor Campbell, the present director, has made and is still
continuing his noted line of sight determinations for all the brighter
stars of the northern hemisphere. An illustration of this instrument
attached to the 36-inch equatorial is here given (Pl. I). The reader
may see in the illustration what care is used to avoid temperature dis-
turbances. With the Mills spectrograph thes accuracy of Professor
Campbell’s determinations has become very great, so that the probable
error of a determination from a single photograph may be, for stars
having favorable spectra, far within a single kilometer per second.

While most of the stars observed have line of sight velocities not
exceeding 10 kilometers per second, certain of them give evidence of a
far greater rapidity of motion, amounting in the case of € Herculis to
no less than 70 kilometers per second (or nearly 45 miles). Still more
interesting are the variable velocities reported in numerous cases.
From evidence of this kind Professor Campbell has concluded, for
instance, that the Pole Star is not single as it appears in the tele-
scope, but consists of a system of no less than three bodies revolving
about in mutually influenced orbits.

It has become possible with the spectroscope not only to prove that
several stars exist where only one is seen with the most powerful tele-
scopes, but to determine the time of revolution of such a spectroscopic
pair in its orbit, and even with considerable certainty to determine the
form and size of this orbit and its inclination to the plane of the eclip-
tic, although, as I have said, the separate stars are so close and their
orbit so circumscribed as never to be seen.

Line of sight determinations have now become one of the most
important features of astrophysical study. A new telescope is to be
devoted to this purpose at the Cape of Good Hope Observatory. The
Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam has very recently obtained a
new stellar spectrograph of the most approved construction. The
Lick Observatory is establishing a branch observatory in South Amer-

‘AYOLVAYSSEO MOI SHL JO HdVEYDOLOAdS STIIW SHL

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SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 155

ica to complete the spectrographic survey of the heavens, and the great
equatorial at Yerkes Observatory has within a few months been fitted
with a new stellar spectrograph of the greatest perfection.

2. RECENT ADVANCES IN ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.

It was formerly the custom, in the time of Sir William and later of
Sir John Herschel, to employ reflecting telescopes for stellar observa-
tions. With the more recent high development of refracting tele-
scopes, mirrors became superseded largely by lenses for the most
refined work. It is well known to what extraordinary size and perfec-
tion telescope objectives have risen, so that in the United States alone
we have perhaps as many as half a dozen of over 2 feet clear aperture,
the largest being the 40-inch equatorial of the Yerkes Observatory.
But while the substitution of refracting for reflecting instruments thus
went on, the introduction of photography in astronomical work gave
an impetus which has since led to the revival of the use of reflectors.

The advantage of the latter is due in part to the fact that reflecting
instruments bring all rays of whatever wave length to the same focus,
while refractors can only be corrected to bring a certain limited num-
ber of wave lengths to a focus at any given plane. When refracting
instruments are constructed for visual purposes it is customary to cor-
rect the lens in such a way that the rays which affect the eye most
intensely shall be brought to a sharp focus, neglecting so far as is
necessary the violet rays which are most active photographically. It
will be readily seen therefore that a visual refracting telescope is not
suitable for the most exact photographic operations. Hence it has
been the custom, followed at the Lick Observatory, at the Astrophysi-
cal Observatory at Potsdam, and at many other observatories where
great refractors are employed, to have an additional lens, either used as
a corrector for the visual objective, or wholly substituted for it, to be
employed solely for photographic purposes. This has necessitated a
very great initial expenditure of money as well as no inconsiderable
waste of time and danger to the instruments in the substitution of
lenses, as the instrument is changed from visual to photographic uses.

The fact that a reflecting telescope with all its appurtenances, of equal
light-gathering power to a great refractor and without the defect
of chromatic aberration, can be made at a small fraction of the cost
merely of the lens itself, has therefore led several large observatories
to yield their great equatorials chiefly to visual and spectroscopic
purposes, supplementing their equipment for stellar photography by
the use of a reflector with whoily separate driving mechanism and
dome.

Against the very great advantage of a reflector in point of cost,
however, there is to be offset the fact that the extent of the field
where the definition remains good at the focus of a large lens is far

156 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. -

greater than the corresponding field in the focus of a great mirror.
But notwithstanding this disadvantage, reflectors have more and more
come into use for photographic purposes within recent years, and
some of the most beautiful and striking photographs of the nebule
and star clusters ever made were obtained with the Crossley reflector
in the last months of his life by Professor Keeler, director of the Lick
Observatory at Mount Hamilton, California. Since his untimely death
the instrument has been continued in use and is now giving excellent
results.

More recently still Mr. Ritchey, of the Yerkes Observatory, has
designed and prepared with his owi hands a reflecting telescope of
slightly smaller dimensions than the Crossley instrument, and is now
obtaining photographs of nebul, star clusters, and other objects requir-
ing much light-gathering power but no great extent of field, which
are unexcelled for excellence. The illustration (Plate IT) shows the
great nebula in Cygnus as photographed by Mr. Ritchey with an
exposure of three hours. The faintest stars shown in the original are
more than 10,000 times fainter than the unaided eye can see. Plate III
includes two drawings from photographs by Mr. Ritchey of the nebula
round Nova Persei taken with the same instrument.

I have spoken of the large expense and inconvenience attending the
use of refracting instruments for both visual and photographie pur-
poses. In preparing the great Yerkes refractor of 40 inches aperture
no provision was made for its employment as a photographic tele-
scope, but very recently, owing to the great advance made by com-
mercial dry-plate manufacturers in the preparation of photographie
plates sensitive in the yellow and green portions of the spectrum—that
is to say, those portions where the eye is the most sensitive—it became
possible, if the imperfectly focused blue and violet rays of the instru-
ment could be cut off, to use the telescope without prejudicially long
exposures for photographic purposes. Mr. Ritchey has, accordingly,
employed a color screen close to the photographic plate, by means of
which these prejudicial rays are eliminated; and by the further use
of a most eflicient following apparatus, also of Mr. Ritchey’s design,
there has recently been taken with this telescope, originally intended
only for visual and spectroscopic purposes, extraordinarily perfect
astronomical photographs (Pl. IV). This marks a most important
advance in astronomical photography, for it thus becomes possible,
with a very trifling expense, to use the great visual equatorials of the
world with perfect success as photographic telescopes.

Before passing from the subject of celestial photography I wish to
mention a combination of the refracting and reflecting schemes which
is now being employed with great success. It will be remembered
that one of the most celebrated features of the Paris Exposition was
the ‘‘Great Telescope,” so-called, and that this was employed not

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SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 157

pointing toward the celestial object, but pointing rather at a great
mirror which itself reflected the light to the lens. This combination
of the lens and the mirror is coming increasingly into favor. It was
used with advantage, as the readers of last year’s report remember,
by the Smithsonian eclipse expedition of 1900, and with no less success

by observers of that eclipse from other places, notably by Professor

Barnard of the Yerkes expedition.

The advantage of this arrangement consists chiefly in that the tele-
scope is immovable and therefore not so much subject to the shaking
of the ground, bad following of the clock, or to flexure of the tube
of the lens or of the lens itself, all of which are liable to seriously
affect the steadiness and perfection of the image of a great equatorial.
Of course these sources of error all come in to disturb the reflecting
mirror which is placed in front of the telescope; but yet, owing to
the compactness and relatively small weight of the apparatus which is
there driven, these sources of error may be much diminished. Besides
these advantages we have the not inconsiderable further gain that the
visual or photographie observer can carry on his operations with per-
fect comfort and convenience, owing to avoiding the necessity of fol-
lowing the moving eye end of an equatorial. Ina recent visit to the
Yerkes Observatory I had the pleasure of seeing the beginnings of
very large telescopes of this pattern which Professor Hale designs to
employ for the most delicate and far-reaching photographic and radio-
metric investigations.

3. THE MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAT RECEIVED FROM THE STARS.

Attempts were made as early as 1869 and 1870 by English astrono-
mers to obtain evidence of the heat received at the earth from the
brightest stars. These experiments were carried out with the aid of
the thermopile, then the most sensitive form of heat-measuring appa-
‘atus Known.

Since 1880 there have been devised, however, as many as four instru-
ments fur more sensitive than the old-fashioned thermopile. These
are the bolometer, the radiomicrometer, the improved thermopile of
Rubens, and the radiometer, which last has reached its greatest sensi-
tiveness in the hands of Prof. E. F. Nichols.

In 1888 Prof. C. B. Boys, with his then newly invented radiomi-
crometer, repeated the earlier observations on the heat of the brighter
stars, and while the earlier observers had convinced themselves of dis-
cernible heating effects, he, with his far more sensitive arrangements,
came to negative results. As showing the great sensitiveness of his
apparatus and the therefore extreme minuteness of the amount of heat
received from the stars, it need only be said that in the absence of
atmospheric absorption a candle placed at almost 2 miles distance
would have been perceived by him,

158 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

Notwithstanding this discouraging evidence, the question was again
taken up within the last two or three years by Professor Nichols with
his radiometer. Before mentioning his results it will be of interest

to briefly describe that instrument. The
principle upon which it is based is the
well-known one of the Crookes revolving
vanes, familiar in the collections of appa-
ratus exhibited in the physical cabinets of «
academies and colleges. In this interest-
ing toy a pair of small metallic vanes,
blackened on opposite sides and fixed
perpendicularly upon a light arm, itself
horizontal and delicately poised at its
center upon a vertical axis, is caused
to rotate in a vacuum by the influence of
light.

The Nichols radiometer is merely this
old instrument adapted to measure the
intensity of the impinging rays. Anidea

The Nichols radiometer. From Astrophysical Journal, Vol. xiii, No. 2, March, 1901.

of its construction is given by the accompanying diagram. ‘The vanes,
made very small, are fastened at the ends of aslight stem ef glass about
one-fourth of an inch long, which in turn is fixed at right angles to a
second longer glass stem furnished with a very light mirror and sus-

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SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 159

pended by an extremely thin quartz fiber. All is inclosed in a metal
case, with a glass window opposite the little mirror, so as to observe

the deflections of the vanes by the telescope and scale method, and a
second window of fluorite or other material transmissible to the long

wave-length radiations is inserted opposite the vanes to admit the rays
to be measured. The case is air-tight and may be exhausted to any
degree. The sole force which keeps the vanes at the zero of position
when uninfluenced by radiation is the tortional elasticity of the quartz
fiber, and this resists the rotation of the vanes and returns them to
their original position when turned temporarily from it by the influ-
ence of radiation. ’

An extraordinary degree of sensitiveness of this instrument was
indicated by experiments which were made on the heat of a candle sit-
uated 2,000 feet from the concave mirror which focused its rays upon
the radiometer. The feeble radiations of the candle at this great dis-
tance sufficed to turn the radiometer through nearly a hundred scale
divisions, and even the face of an observer, when placed in the position
before occupied by the candle, produced a deflection of 25 scale divi-
sions. Asa tenth of a single scale division could readily be observed,
it will be seen, to speak figuratively, that with the radiometer one
might note the approach of a friend while yet some miles distant,
merely by the glow of his countenance.

Correcting the observation upon the candle for the absorption of the
earth’s atmosphere in the layer between it and the radiometer, it was
found that in the absence of the atmosphere, a single candle at upward
of 16 miles could have been detected, so that the instrumental equip-
ment was far more sensitive than that used by Professor Boys in the
negatively resulting stellar observations already alluded to.

Experiments were performed upon the radiations of the stars Veg:
and Arcturus, and on the planets Jupiter and Saturn. The heat
of each of these objects was distinctly recognized, and caused, in
the mean, deflections of 0.51, 1.14, 2.38, and 0.37 scale divisions,
respectively, when approximately reduced to zenith. Thus the rela-
tive thermal effects of Vega, Arcturus, Jupiter, and Saturn are as
1:2.2:4.7:0.74. This, it will be seen, is quite appreciably different
from their relative brightness to the eye, a circumstance which may,
with additional experiments, lead to interesting conclusions regardiag
the nature of the radiation received from these several objects.

4. THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE PLANET EROS.

The minor planet Eros, it will be recalled, was discovered by Witt,
of the Urania Observatory at Berlin, August 13, 1898. When after
several observations its approximate orbit was computed, this was
found to be so highly eccentric as to differentiate this new planet from
the many other asteroids with which it had been provisionally classed.

160 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

So highly eccentric indeed was the planet’s orbit that, although
upward of 90,000,000 miles distant at unfavorable oppositions, when
nearest the earth it may come within about 15,000,000 miles, and
is on these occasions, so far as is known, our nearest celestial neigh-

bor after the moon. This peculiarity caused the planet to become an_

object of great interest on account of its possible use in the more
accurate determination of the sun’s distance from the earth, for an
object at 15,000,000 miles distance has a yery appreciably different
position among the stars if viewed from opposite ends of the earth’s
diameter—no less a parallax indeed than 100 seconds of are. Con-
sequently its actual distance from the earth could probably be deter-
mined with very great accuracy, and this distance when thus fixed
could be used indirectly to obtain a new estimate of the sun’s distance
from the earth, with an accuracy possibly exceeding that of earlier
methods.

Search was immediately instituted by Prof. E. C. Pickering, the
director of Harvard College Observatory, through the continuous
photographic record of the stars which is kept up at that observatory,
for earlier positions of the planet, and such were soon found among
plates taken in 1893, 1894, and 1896. From these observations, which,
taken with those made in 1898, follow the planet through a consider-
able range of time, a very accurate orbit was computed.*

The orbits of Eros and the earth were found to be of such a form
that their next reasonably close approach would occur in November,
1900, and while their distance at this time was indeed considerably
greater than their least possible distance of 15,000,000 miles, yet it
was determined to institute at that opposition a thorough parallax cam-
paign to be taken part in by all the observatories in the world fitted
with instruments suitable for this purpose, for it would be necessary
to wait upward of twenty years for the minimum distance to occur,
Fully 50 observatories took part in this parallax campaign, continu-
ing observations from October through to about the 1st of February.
These observations were in part photographic, in part visual, and
taken at stations as far apart as the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa,
and Helsingfors, in Finland, and indeed it might almost be said that
there was no habitable quarter of the earth which was not represented
by observers. It is yet too early to say what will be the results, but
it is hoped that they may lead to a very excellent determination of the
distance of the sun.

“As an evidence of the value of the photographie records.of Harvard College
Observatory, it was recently remarked by Professor Pickering that ‘‘if, in the future,
any other object like Eros should be discovered, we have at this observatory the
means of tracing its path since 1890, during the time in which it was moderately
bright, with nearly as great accuracy as if a series of observations had been taken of
it with a meridian circle,”

ioe

SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 161

But in connection with these observations were others which are of
remarkable interest, for it appeared that the brightness of the planet
varied extraordinarily. In February, 1901, it was found by European
astronomers that rapid variations occurred to the amount of two whole
stellar magnitudes, which would be equivalent to a variation of 600
per cent! More recent observations show that the range of bright-
ness diminished so that at the middle of May there was apparently less
than a tenth of a magnitude variation. The extraordinary amount of
these fluctuations in the brightness of a planet almost baffles explana-
tion, and several theories have been tentatively proposed, none of
which, however, as yet is established. Among these explanations are
that the planet is of unequal reflecting power on different portions of
its surface; that the variation is due to the inclination of its axis taken
in connection with a very eccentric form; or that it is even double, as
has been assumed by M. André and others, by whom it has been sug-
gested that there may be two single bodies alternately eclipsing each
other. In any of these explanations it is extremely difficult, as has
been said, to account reasonably for the very remarkable variations of
brightness. The question is complicated by the velocity of light, the
varying distance of the sun and the earth, the phase of, the planet and
the direction of its axis of rotation, all of which, while they make
numerical computations arduous, yet may furnish valuable checks on
the trustworthiness of any theories which may be proposed.

5. THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 18, 1901.

The total solar eclipse of May 18, 1901, which occurred over a belt
extending from the island of Mauritius across the Indian Ocean and
through several of the large islands of the Dutch East Indies was at
its maximum over six minutes long, and hence gave rise to many
observing expeditions, although the chances for favorable observing
weather were regarded as precarious in these tropical regions. Most
of the observers selected the west coast of the island of Sumatra for
their post of observation, though some went to Mauritius, others to an
island off the east coast of Sumatra, and still a few others, I believe, to
Borneo. The nations represented on these expeditions included the
Netherlands, the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and
Japan. The United States sent the greater number of parties, while
the Netherlands, on account of its control of the island of Sumatra,
where the observations were conducted, had the most numerous
observers and the most extensive programme.

The United States observers occupied seven stations, all on or near
the west coast of Sumatra, excepting the Amherst College expedition,
which was stationed on a small island east of Sumatra.

England sent three parties, one stationed on the island of Mauritius,
and the other two on or near the west coast of Sumatra.

em too ——— 1

162 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

France was represented by one observer, Russia by one, Japan by
several, while the Netherlands made very extensive preparations,
including the participation of army officers, a portion of its scientific
staff from Batavia, and a party of three from the Netherlands proper.

The Smithsonian Institution, as will be recalled by the readers of the
report for 1900, had, in May of that year, observed the total eclipse at
Wadesboro, North Carolina, and had obtained, among other results of
interest, bolometric evidence indicating a probable low temperature of
the corona, while on a single photograph of the region near the sun
there had been found certain star-like images which were suspected to
be due to as yet undiseovered planets. The expedition to Sumatra
was undertaken to verify these tentative results.

These two kinds of research proved very attractive to other parties
as well, for the Lick Observatory, the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, one of the English parties, and the Dutch, all had appa-
ratus for the photographic search after intramercurial planets, and the
Dutch and French also used apparatus designed for the thermal study
of the radiation of the corona.

The United States Naval Observatory expedition was largely spec-
troscopic in character, while at the same time including first-class
outfits for the photography of the corona. One of these especially
deserves mention, for it was undoubtedly the most complete and well-
arranged apparatus ever used for coronal photography. I refer to
that of Professor Barnard, of the Yerkes Observatory, an invited
member of the Naval Observatory expedition. Professor Barnard had
the same optical apparatus which he used at Wadesboro, North Caro-
lina, in 1900, but the photographic plates were much more numerous,
owing to the longer eclipse, and included one plate 40 inches square,
for a very long exposure.

The spectroscopic work of the Naval Observatory was done mainly
with diffraction gratings, a rather new departure in eclipse photogra-
phy, and the programme included the photography of the flash spec-
trum and of the coronal spectrum. For the latter, Dr. Gilbert had
polariscopic apparatus of Professor Wood’s design, with which it was
hoped to prove the existence of Fraunhofer lines.

The Dutch, as has been said, covered a very wide range of observa-
tion. Their army officers, at various stations in the path of totality
and near it, made meteorological and géneral observations, while their
main party had an elaborate outfit for every kind of eclipse research.

The English, as did the Naval Observatory party, made a main fea-
ture of spectroscopic work, including also direct photography of the
corona and of the regions thereabouts, and other general observations.

Before proceeding to the discussion of the eclipse itself, a few
remarks upon the trip, in which I had the good fortune to participate,
may be of interest. The two Government expeditions of the United

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Abbot. PLATE V.

SumMaTRA. By LAKE SINGKARAK.

SUMATRA. NATIVE DWELLING.

——r.

SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 168

States, while independently sent out, proceeded together in entire
harmony and good fellowship, and added, so far as was in their power,
to each other’s success and enjoyment.

Proceeding from Washington on the 5th day of February, 1901, we
reached San Francisco on the 11th of the month. Further passage

was arranged for upon the army transport Sheridan from San Fran-

cisco, by way of Honolulu, to Manila. The expeditions left San
Francisco on February 16 and after a somewhat rough passage (during
which, as we afterwards learned, the ill-fated steamer Ro /anei‘ro
went ashore at San Francisco) we reached Honolulu, where we stayed
several days. The interest and enjoyment of our stay there was
greatly increased by the kindness and attentions of the Social Science
Club of Honolulu.

Leaving Honolulu, we reached Manila March 18, and after a stay of
afew days there, during which very interesting visits were made to
the office of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and to the
Manila Observatory, we proceeded by the U.S. ship General Alava,
which had been detailed by the Navy Department for the purpose,
direct from Manila to Padang, on the west coast of Sumatra.

We, of course, being without exception northern hemisphere
observers, took great interest in seeing the unfamiliar constellations
rise out of the south, and in seeing our familiar north star gradually
disappear. The officers of the ship took every possible care for our
comfort, and we were also entertained (and some of us immersed) upon
passing the equator, by the court of His Majesty Neptunus Rex, who
came aboard in true man-of-war style. Another incident of great
interest was the sight of the famous volcano Krakatau, in the Strait
of Sunda, whose eruption in 1883 is so well remembered as the occasion
of great loss of life and also of interesting astronomical and meteoro-
logical occurrences, due to the volcanic dust which was thrown up to
such extreme heights that it became distributed all over the world.*

We reached our destination at Padang April 4, near sunset, and
while the passage from Manila had been most quiet and delightful, yet.

“Tt will be recalled that the explosion, which occurred on Monday, the 27th day
of August, 1883, and was heard several thousand miles, took place about 10 o’clock
in the morning, as determined, not by any observers, for none such survived to tell
what they saw, but by meteorological observations of the air waves which, proceeding
from the voleano, went round the world, were reflected back from the antipodes,
and re-reflected from the voleano, seven complete passages of the globe being distin-
guished before they wholly subsided. Furthermore, a water wave was thrown up, at
some points as much as 150 feet above sea level, on the sides of the Strait of Sunda;
and this water wave was observed at the Cape of Good Hope, at Cape Horn, and
even in the English Channel, no less than 11,000 miles distant. The Strait of Sunda
was greatly altered in its configuration, a channel over a hundred fathoms deep exist-
ing where previously there was a portion of a mountain over a thousand feet above
sea level, while in addition a wholly new island was formed.

164 SOME EECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

the remembrance of the inner harbor will always stay with me as the
type of absolute peace. Scarce a ripple stirred its surface, scarce a
sound came to our ears, and when a little later we heard the monot-
onous but sweet native music floating over the water the feeling of
quietness and repose was, if possible, augmented.

Our reception by the consular agent of the United States, Mr. C. G.
Veth, on board ship early next morning, was most cordial, and noth-
ing could exceed in kindness the care and generosity and the assistance
which this gentleman gave us, not only on that day but upon every
succeeding day until we left the island. We learned from him that
Governor Joekes and other officials of the Dutch Government had put
all possible conveniences at our disposal, including the free passage
both for ourselves and our instruments, at any time during our stay,
all over the system of Government railroads throughout the western
coast of Sumatra.

The choice of stations was of course our next care. In the publi-
‘ations of the Netherlands Eclipse Committee, a series of meteor-
ological observations had been recorded at many stations in Sumatra,
and taking into consideration these, the facility of transportation of
apparatus, and other matters, and after a reconnaissance of several
days, I determined cn my part to locate at a small place in the interior
named Solok, and Professor Skinner of the Naval Observatory made
the same choice for his principal party. Here there is a fort, not at
present occupied, which, with its inclosure, was placed wholly at our
disposal by the Assistant Resident of Solok, Mr. Derx. This fort was
admirably suited for our purposes, for it has large, cool rooms and
smaller outbuildings, one of which was used for a photographic
house; while around the fort was a level inclosure surrounded by an
embankment and moat, and still further by a system of barb-wire
defences, which thoroughly protected us not only from hostile but
friendly invasion. Our apparatus arrived in perfect order and was
transported from the railroad station to the fort by the aid of a
company of prisoners.

While walking with Mr. Derx, and seeing a company of the pris-
oners go by carrying a load of our instruments, I asked him what
they had done which led to their finding themselves in this situation.
‘*Oh,” said he, very coolly, ‘some have murdered, others stolen, and
the like.”

Our stay at Solok passed quickly by, the days being spent in arrang-
ing the apparatus and in drilling ourselves in its use, so that we found
but little time to go about to view the other camps or to see the—
to us-—strange sights which the country afforded. However, partly
through exchanges and partly through our own efforts, we all of us
secured a more or less complete record of our trip and stay, in the
form of photographs, two of which are here reproduced. (Plate V.)

af

SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 165

~

Our chief anxiety throughout our preparations was in regard to the
weather, and for the first two or three weeks we were under great
despondency, for the days were cloudy almost without exception, and
at the hour when the eclipse would be total there was scarcely a day
in April when the observations would have been successful. With
May, however, our hopes were raised, for while the days were scarcely
ever fair throughout, yet during the hour of totality, according to
Professor Barnard’s count, about two-thirds of the days in May would
have been successful eclipse days. Cloudy nights, however, made it
very difficult to adjust the apparatus, but by taking advantage of what
slight opportunities occurred we were able to get plenty of focus
plates by means of which we were assured that the apparatus was in
good working order.

On May 17 the sky was overcast and it rained heavily, but we hoped
for better weather for the 18th, thinking that so severe a storm meant
a speedy clearing, and sure enough on the morning of the 18th the sun
broke through the clouds shortly after his rising, and the sky became
of a clearness which we never experienced during all our stay there.
This continued until after 10 o’clock, when thin, hazy clouds began
to form slowly, leaving a perfectly clear belt about the horizon. The
first contact came with no very prejudicial degree of cloudiness, but
after that it grew steadily thicker, leaving still a clear belt around the
horizon, and when the crucial moments of totality occurred the posi-
tion of the sun could but indistinctly be discerned. Glimpses of the
inner corona and prominences could be seen, with the planets Venus
and Mercury, but all more like a lantern shining through a thick fog
than iike anything fit for astronomical observations. It seemed wholly
useless to go through the programme; yet, for the sake of having some-
thing to show that we had been at an eclipse, we exposed all the intra-
mercurial planet plates; but I omitted the bolometric observations
wholly, as they could not possibly lead to trustworthy results. [ was
struck with the amount of the general illumination. The belt of
totality was 150 miles wide and we were within less than 30 miles of its
center, so that there was a total eclipse belt of nearly 50 miles outside
of us, and I had expected a degree of darkness comparable almost with
night, but was astonished to perceive that in mid-totality the day was
no darker than it often is during a heavy fall of rain.

We were a sorry party after the eclipse as we watched the sky again
clear and give us what we had so longed for before—a fine afternoon
and night. Professor Barnard, especially, was almost broken hearted,
for no one had an apparatus so absolutely perfect for its use as he, and
no one had drilled himself to such a state of dexterity as he, and no
one, I suppose, will ever obtain an eclipse photograph which will sur-
pass what he would with clear sky have obtained with his long expo-
sure on the 40-inch square plate. To make his discouragement still

166 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

more complete, though the night of May 18 was, as I have said, gener-
ally fine, yet when he tried as a last attempt to make a long exposure
on the rifts in the southern Milky Way, the very regions he wished
most to get became covered with a slight degree of fog which spoiled
the definition.

The other parties on the island all fared better than we; but only
one, the branch of the Naval Observatory expedition which was
located at Fort de Kock, close to the northern edge of the shadow,
had perfect seeing. There excellent photographs of the corona and
prominences were secured with the 40-foot instrument, under Mr.
Peters’s charge, and spectroscopic results of value were obtained with
the grating in the hands of Dr. Humphreys. Dr. Mitchell, at Sawah
Loento, was successful in spite of clouds. He secured a fine photo-
graph of the ‘‘ flash spectrum” at third contact, which gives much
information in regard to the sun’s atmosphere. The large Dutch party
had but very unsatisfactory results, as the cloudiness was almost equal
to that at Solok. The main portion of the English expedition, occu-
pying a small island just off the west coast of Sumatra, had, though
not a cloudless, yet a not very cloudy sky, and obtained excellent
results, of which a short account has lately appeared.

Mr. Perrine, of the Lick Observatory, was pretty successful, consid-
ering that he also observed through a very considerable cloudiness,
though not equal to that at Solok. His intramercurial planet appara-
tus revealed possibly thirty or forty stars, where it would have shown
perhaps a thousand had the sky been clear; but with his direct photo-
graphs and with his spectroscopic work he was much more successful.
In a preliminary report from the Lick Observatory it appears that he
has obtained good photographs of the coronal spectrum extending to
considerable distances each side of the sun, and taken with slit spectro-
scopes with the slit both tangential and radial to the sun’s limb.

In each of these the outer but not the inner corona was shown to
have faint Fraunhofer absorption lines in the spectrum, giving, in other
words, a reflected solar spectrum, thus proving that a portion at least of
the coronal light is reflected from particles. His spectrum photo-
graphs, however, show in addition that the major part of the coronal
light is probably not reflected, and he attributes it to the incandescence
of particles heated by their proximity to the sun. This view, some
readers may recall, would be in contradiction to that tentatively
advanced from considerations of the bolometric experiments of the
Smithsonian Institution at Wadesboro, North Carolina, in 1900, which
yielded the inference that the inner corona was relatively a cool source
of light assimilable to the glow discharge or to the aurora. I can not
altogether understand why it is that Mr. Perrine so positively pro-
nounces the radiation of the inner corona that of an incandescent body
rather than that of an electrical discharge or something of a similar

SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 167

nature, for either would give a continuous spectrum such as he
observed. Yet he may have additional evidence, of which I am not
aware, in support of this conclusion.

Mr. Perrine has noted the very interesting fact that a certain dis-
turbed region of the corona fell directly over the only sun spot which
appeared on the sun within a week or more of the eclipse.

After the eclipse was over we spent the days in packing the instru-
ments, the nights in developing the photographs, and were ready to
leave the island by May 28. On the night before our departure Mr.
Veth, the United States consular agent, as a last proof of his great
kindness, gave a reception to the American and English astronomers
and naval officers. This function was extremely enjoyable and was
participated in by the officials of the Dutch Government and by the
society of Padang, and gave us a feeling that however inhospitable to
astronomers could be the climate of Sumatra, yet the kindness of its
people went far to atone for it.

6. THE NEW STAR IN PERSEUS.

The greatest interest, both among astronomers and the public, was
excited by the announcement of the discovery on February 21, 1901,
at 14 hours 40 minutes Greenwich mean time, by Dr. T. D. Anderson,
of Edinburgh, Scotland, of a new star in Perseus. This star at the |
time of its discovery was of the 2.7 magnitude and shone with a
bluish white light. It rapidly increased in brightness until on Feb-
ruary 23 it reached the 0.0 magnitude, and was then brighter than
any fixed star in the heavens with the exception of Sirius and Canopus.
An immediate search on the plates taken at the Harvard College
Observatory showed that on February 2, 6, 8, 18, and 19, 1901—that is
to say, up to within two days of the star’s discovery by Dr. Anderson—
there was no object there as bright as the 10.5 magnitude.

The duration of extreme brightness of Nova Persei was but
temporary, for on reaching its maximum, on February 23, it imme-
diately commenced to decline, and by February 28 had reached the
second magnitude, when, after a slight increase in brightness, it again
declined nearly continuously until March 18, when it had reached the
fifth magnitude. Then began a series of great fluctuations of a some-
what periodic nature, with maxima about two days apart, so that, for
instance, on the 19th of March the star was of the 6.5 magnitude,
while on the 21st it was of the 4.7 magnitude, a variation of nearly 600
per cent. These fluctuations continued with more or less regularity,
though with a gradually increasing interval between them, until the
middle of the summer, when the brightness became fairly steady at
the sixth to seventh magnitude, and since then there have been no very
considerable alterations. The illustration (Plate VI) taken from

168 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS.

Popular Astronomy, November, 1901, shows the history of the bright-
ness of the star up to the last of April.

Immediately after its discovery the spectrum of Nova Persei was
thoroughly studied both by photography and visual observations.
When first found its spectrum was almost perfectly continuous, but a
close examination revealed a few delicate dark Fraunhofer lines in
the green, so that at that time the spectrum was, though feebly devel-
oped, yet of the so-called Orion type, and very unlike that of the other
new stars which had heretofore been observed, and of which bright
lines are the most conspicuous feature. By February 24 the spectrum
showed a remarkable change, being now traversed by numerous dark
and bright bands and closely resembling that of the famous Nova
Aurige (an earlier discovery of Dr. Anderson), so that the star now
became entirely similar to other new stars. This type of spectrum
continued with only moderate variations until March 19, when there
appears to have been a peculiar change in the spectrum. No dark
lines were present on that date except a few faint lines due to the par-
tial reversal of the bright bands, but the continuous spectrum was
almost invisible. On March 23, however, the continuous spectrum had
reappeared with narrow dark lines, and on March 27 and afterwards
there was a strong continuous spectrum. During the month of April
the spectrum departed from the recognized type in many particulars,
and occasionally the continuous part was absent, only separated bright
bands remaining. There appears then to have been two types of spec-
trum during the months of March, April, and May, while the bright-
ness of the star was so variable, and it is interesting to note that on
the dates when the spectrum was peculiar—that is to say, not similar
to the spectra of the other new stars—the brightness of Nova Persei
was at a minimum.

But not only has Nova Persei made a characteristic record for itself
as regards the variations of its brightness and of its spectrum, but in
August it presented a new and still more remarkable feature. Reports
came from France that a faint nebula had been photographed about
the star, and while this was at first contradicted and ascribed to optical
defects in the apparatus, yet it was not long before the discovery was
thoroughly confirmed, and a faint circular nebula was photographed
surrounding the planet like a halo. Nor was this all, for there were
in the nebula several condensations of nebulosity, which were sufli-
ciently marked to have definite positions.

On November 7 and 8 this nebula was photographed at the Lick

Observatory, and upon comparing the position of the condensations of

which I have spoken with the photograph obtained on September 20,
at the Yerkes Observatory, it was found that these condensations had
actually moved at a rate which, if continued for a year, would amount
to 11 minutes of arc in the heavens. The reader will find evidence

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SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 169

of this displacement in Plate IIT, already referred to. Later photo-
graphs show a continuation of the rapid expansion of the nebula. The
astonishing magnitude of this motion becomes more appreciated when
it is said that the greatest displacement or proper motion of a star so
far observed in the whole universe is less than 9 seconds per annum,
or less than one-seventieth part of the rate of motion of the nebula
surrounding Nova Persei. This great disparity has led some to think
it is the propagation of light and not of material which is made
apparent.

What further of interest Nova Persei has in store for us we can not
foretell, but up to the present time its appearance and subsequent his-
tory have deserved to take rank as the foremost astronomical event of
the year.

ve we iy

?

A MODEL OF NATURE.*

By Arraur W. Rucker, M. A., LL.D.

* * * Two years ago Sir Michael Foster dealt with the work of

the century as a whole. Last year Sir William Turner discussed in
greater detail the growth of a single branch of science. A third
and humbler task remains, viz, to fix our attention on some of the
hypotheses and assumptions on which the fabric of modern theo-
retical science has been built, and to inquire whether the foundations
have been so *‘ well and truly” laid that they may be trusted to sustain
the mighty superstructure which is being raised upon them.

The moment is opportune. The three chief conceptions which for
many years have dominated physical as distinct from biological science
have been the theories of the existence of atoms, of the mechanical
nature of heat, and of the existence of the ether.

Dalton’s atomic theory was first given to the world by a Glasgow
professor—Thomas Thomson—in the year 1807, Dalton having com-
municated it to him in 1804. Rumford’s and Davy’s experiments on
the nature of heat were published in 1798 and 1799, respectively; and
the celebrated Bakerian lecture, in which Thomas Young established
the undulatory theory by explaining the interference of light,
appeared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1801. The keynotes of
the physical science of the nineteenth century were thus struck as the
century began by four of our fellow-countrymen, one of whom—Sir
Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford—preferred exile from the land
of his birth to the loss of his birthright as a British citizen.

DOUBTS AS TO SCIENTIFIC THEORIES.

It is well known that of late doubts have arisen as to whether the
atomic theory, with which the mechanical theory of heat is closely
bound up, and the theory of the existence of an ether have not served
their purpose, and whether the time has not come to reconsider them.

The facts that Professor Poincaré, addressing a congress of physi-
cists in Paris, and Professor Poynting, addressing the physical section

* Address of the President of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, at the Glasgow meeting, 1901. Reprinted from Report of the British Asso-
ciation, 1901.

171

172 A MODEL OF NATURE.

of the association, have recently discussed the true meaning of our
scientific methods of interpretation; that Dr. James Ward has lately
delivered an attack of great power on many positions which eminent
scientific men have occupied; and that the approaching end of the
nineteenth century led Professor Heckel to define in a more popular
manner his own very definite views as to the solution of the ‘‘ Rid-
dle of the Universe,” are, perhaps, a sufficient justification of an
attempt to lay before you the difficulties which surround some of these
questions. |

To keep the discussion within reasonable limits, I shall illustrate the
principles under review by means of the atomic theory, with compara-
tively little reference to the ether, and we may also at first confine our
attention to inanimate objects.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MODEL OF NATURE.

A natural philosopher, to use the old phrase, even if only possessed
of a most superficial knowledge, would attempt to bring some order
into the results of his observation of nature by grouping together
statements with regard to phenomena which are obviously related.
The aim of modern science goes far beyond this. It not only shows
that many phenomena are related which at first sight have little or
nothing in common, but, in so doing, also attempts to explain the
relationship.

Without spending time on a discussion of the meaning of the word
‘‘explanation,” it is sufficient to say that our efforts to establish rela-
tionships between phenomena often take the form of attempting to
prove that if a limited number of assumptions are granted as to the con-
stitution of matter, or as to the existence of quasi material entities,
such as caloric, electricity, and the ether, a wide range of observed facts
falls into order as a necessary consequence of the assumptions. The
question at issue is whether the hypotheses which are at the base of the
scientific theories now most generally accepted are to be regarded as
accurate descriptions of the constitution of the universe around us, or
merely as convenient fictions.

Convenient fictions be it observed, for even if they are fictions they
are not useless. From the practical point of view it is a matter of
secondary importance whether our theories and assumptions are cor-
rect, if only they guide us to results which are in accord with facts.
The whole fabric of scientific theory may be regarded merely as a
gigantic ‘‘aid to memory;” as a means for producing apparent order
out of disorder by codifying the observed facts and laws in accord-
ance with an artificial system, and thus arranging our knowledge under
a comparatively small number of heads. The simplification introduced
by a scheme which, however imperfect it may be, enables us to argue
from a few first principles, makes theories of practical use. By means

Le |e RN eel

A MODEL OE NATURE. 1%3

of them we can forsee the results of combinations of causes which
would otherwise elude us. We can predict future events, and can
even attempt to argue back from the present to the unknown past.

But it is possible that these advantages might be attained by means
of- axioms, assumptions, and theories based on very false ideas. A
person who thought that a river was really a streak of blue paint might
learn as much about its direction from a map as one who knew it as it
is. Itis thus conceivable that we might be able, not indeed to con-
struct, but to imagine, something more than a mere map or diagram,
something which might even be called a working model of inanimate
objects, which was, nevertheless, very unlike the realities of nature. Of
course the agreement between the action of the model and the behavior
of the things it was designed to represent would probably be imperfect,
unless the one were a facsimile of the other; but it is conceivable that
the correlation of natural phenomena could be imitated, with a large
measure of success, by means of an imaginary machine which shared
with a map or diagram the characteristic that it was in many ways
unlike the things it represented, but might be compared to a model in
that the behavior of the things represented could be predicted from
that of the corresponding parts of the machine.

We might even goastep farther. If the laws of the working of the
model could be expressed by abstractions, as, for example, by mathe-
matical formule, then, when the formule were obtained, the model
might be discarded, as probably unlike that which it was made to
imitate, as a mere aid in the construction of equations, to be thrown
aside when the perfect structure of mathematical symbols was erected.

If this course were adopted we should have given up the attempt to
know more of the nature of the objects which surround us than can be
gained by direct observation, but might nevertheless have learned
how these objects would behave under given circumstances.

We should have abandoned the hope of a physical explanation of
the properties of inanimate nature, but should have secured a mathe-
matical description of her operations.

There is no doubt that this is the easiest path to follow. Criticism
is avoided if we admit from the first that we can not go below the sur-
face; can not know anything about the constitution of material bodies,
but must be content with formulating a description of their behavior
by means of laws of nature expressed by equations.

But if this is to be the end of the study of nature, it is evident that
the construction of the model is not an essential part of the process.
The model is used merely as an aid to thinking, and if the relations of
phenomena can be investigated without it, so much the better. The
highest form of theory—it may be said—the widest kind of generali-
zation, is that which has given up the attempt to form clear mental
pictures of the constitution of matter, which expresses the facts and

v4 A MODEL OF NATURE.

the laws by language and symbols which lead to results that are true,
whatever be our view as to the real nature of the objects with which
we deal. From this point of view the atomic theory becomes not so
much false as unnecessary. It may be regarded as an attempt to give
an unnatural precision to ideas which are and must be vague.

Thus, when Rumford found that the mere friction of metals pro-
duced heat in unlimited quantity, and argued that heat was therefore
a mode of motion, he formed a clear mental picture of what he believed
to be occurring. But his experiments may be quoted as proving only
that energy can be supplied to a body in indefinite quantity, and when
supplied by doing work against friction it appears in the form of heat.

By using this phraseology we exchange a vivid conception of moy-
ing atoms for a colorless statement as to heat energy, the real nature
of which we do not attempt to define; and methods which thus evade
the problem of the nature of the things which the symbols in our
equations represent have been prosecuted with striking suecess, at all
events, within the range of a limited class of phenomena. A great
school of chemists, building upon the thermodynamics of Willard
Gibbs and the intuition of Van’t Hoff, have shown with wonderful
skill that, if a sufficient number of the data of experiment are assumed,
it is possible, by the aid of thermodynamics, to trace the form of the
relations between many physical and chemical phenomena without the
help of the atomic theory.

But this method deals only with matter as our coarse senses know
it; it does not pretend to penetrate beneath the surface.

It is therefore with the greatest respect for its authors, and with a
full recognition of the enormous power of the weapons employed,
that I venture to assert that the exposition of such a system of tactics
‘an not be regarded as the last word of science in the struggle for the
truth.

Whether we grapple with them or whether we shirk them; however
much or however little we can accomplish without answering them,
the questions still force themselves upon us: Is matter what it seems
to be? Is interplanetary space full or empty? Can we argue back
from the direct impressions of our senses to things which we can not
directly perceive—from the phenomena displayed by matter to the
constitution of matter itself ?

It is these questions which we are discussing to-night, and we may
therefore, as far as the present address is concerned, put aside, once
for all, methods of scientific exposition in which an attempt to form a
mental picture of the constitution of matter is practically abandoned,.
and devote ourselves to the inquiries whether the effort to form such
a picture is legitimate, and whether we have any reason to believe
that the sketch which science has already drawn is to some extent a
copy, and not a mere diagram, of the truth.

A MODEL OF NATURE. 175

SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN THE ANALYSIS OF MATTER.

In dealing, then, with the question of the constitution of matter and
the possibility of representing it accurately, we may grant at once
that the ultimate nature of things is, and must remain, unknown; but
it does not follow that immediately below the complexities of the
superficial phenomena which affect our senses there may not be a
simpler machinery of the existence of which we can obtain evidence,
indirect, indeed, but conclusive.

The fact that the apparent unity which we call the atmosphere can
be resolved into a number of different gases is admitted; though the
ultimate nature of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbonic acid, and water
vapor is as unintelligible as that of air as a whole, so that the analysis
of air may be said to have substituted many incomprehensibles for one.

Nobody, however, looks at the question from this point of view.
It is recognized that an investigation into the proximate constitution
of things may be useful and successful, even if their ultimate nature
is beyond our ken.

Nor need the analysis stop at the first step. Water vapor and car-
bonic acid, themselves constituents of the atmosphere, are in turn
resolved into their elements, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, which,
without a formal discussion of the criteria of reality, we may safely
say are as real as air itself.

Now, at what point must this analysis stop if we are to avoid cross-
ing the boundary between fact and fiction? Is there any fundamental
difference between resolving air into a mixture of gases and resolving
an elementary gas into a mixture of atoms and ether?

There are those who cry halt at the point at which we divide a gas
into molecules, and their first objection seems to be that molecules and
atoms can not be directly perceived, can not be seen or handled, and
are mere conceptions, which have their uses, but can not be regarded
as realities.

It is easiest to reply to this objection by an illustration.

The rings of Saturn appear to be continuous masses separated by
circular rifts. This is the phenomenon which is observed through a
telescope. By no known means can we ever approach or handle the
rings; yet everybody who understands the evidence now believes that
they are not what they appear to be, but consist of minute moonlets,
closely packed, indeed, but separate the one from the other.

In the first place, Maxwell proved mathematically that if a Saturn-
ian ring were a continuous solid or fluid mass it would be unstable
and would necessarily break into fragments. In the next place, if it
were possible for the ring to revolve like a solid body, the inmost
parts would move slowest, while a satellite moves faster the nearer it
is toa planet. Now, spectroscopic observation, based on the beautiful

176 A MODEL OF NATURE.

method of Sir W. Huggins, shows not only that the inner portions of
the ring move the more rapidly, but that the actual velocities of the
outer and inner edges are in close accord with the theoretical velocities
of satellites at like distances from the planet.

This and a hundred similar cases prove that it is possible to obtain
convincing evidence of the constitution of bodies between whose sepa-
rate parts we can not directly distinguish, and I take it that a physicist |
who believes in the reality of atoms thinks that he has as good reason
for dividing an apparently continuous gas into molecules as he has for
dividing the apparently continuous Saturnian rings into satellites. If
he is wrong it is not the fact that molecules and satellites alike can not
be handled and can not be seen as individuals that constitutes the dif-
ference between the two cases.

It may, however, be urged that atoms and the ether are alleged to
have properties different from those of matter in bulk, of which alone
our senses take direct cognizance, and that therefore it is impossible to
prove their existence by evidence of the same cogency as that which
may prove the existence of a newly discovered variety of matter or of
a portion of matter too small or too distant to be seen.

This point is so important that it requires full discussion, but in deal-
ing with it, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between the validity
of the arguments which support the earlier and more fundamental
propositions of the theory and the evidence brought forward to jus-
tify mere speculative applications of its doctrines which might he
abandoned without discarding the theory itself. The proof of the
theory must be carried out step by step. :

The first step is concerned wholly with some of the most general
properties of matter, and consists in the proof that those properties
are either absolutely unintelligible, or that, in the case of matter of all
kinds, we are subject to an illusion similar to that, the results of which
we admit in the case of Saturn’s rings, clouds, smoke, and a number
of similar instances. The believer in the atomic theory asserts that
matter exists in a particular state; that it consists of parts which are
separate and distinct the one from the other, and as such are capable
of independent movements.

Up to this point no question arises as to whether the separate parts
are, like grains of sand, mere fragments of matter, or whether, though
they are the bricks of which matter is built, they have, as individuals,
properties different from those of masses of matter large enough to be
directly perceived. If they are mere fragments of ordinary matter,
they can not be used as aids in explaining those qualities of matter.
which they themselves share.

We can not explain things by things themselves. If it be true that
the properties of matter are the product of an underlying machinery,
that machinery can not itself have the properties which it produces,

A MODEL OF NATURE. VET

and must, to that extent, at all events, differ from matter in bulk as it
is directly presented to the senses.

If, however, we can succeed in showing that if the separate parts
have a limited number of properties (different, it may be, from those
of matter in bulk), the many and complicated properties of matter can,
to a considerable extent, be explained as consequences of the constitu-
tion of these separate parts; we shall have succeeded in establishing,
with regard to quantitative properties, a simplification similar to that
which the chemist has established with regard to varieties of matter.
The many will have been reduced to the few.

The proofs of the physical reality of the entities discovered by means
of the two analyses must necessarily be different. The chemist can
actually produce the elementary constituents into which he has resolved
a compound mass. No physicist or chemist can produce a single atom
separated from all its fellows and show that it possesses the elemen-
tary qualities he assigns to it. The cogency of the evidence for any
suggested constitution of atoms must vary with the number of facts
which the hypethesis that they possess that constitution explains.

Let us take, then, two steps in their proper order, and inquire, first,
whether there is valid ground for believing that all matter is made
up of discrete parts; and, secondly, whether we can have any knowl-
edge of the constitution or properties which those parts possess.

THE COARSE-GRAINEDNESS OF MATTER.

Matter in bulk appears to be continuous. Suchsubstances as water
or air appear to the ordinary observer to be perfectly uniform in all
their properties and qualities, in all their parts.

The hasty conclusion that these bodies are really uniform is, never-
theless, unthinkable.

In the first place the phenomena of diffusion afford conclusive proof
that matter when apparently quiescent is in fact in a state of internal
commotion. I need not recapitulate the familiar evidence to prove
that gases and many liquids when placed in communication interpene-
trate or diffuse into each other; or that air, in contact with a surface
of water, gradually becomes laden with water vapor, while the atmos-
pheric gases in turn mingle with the water. Such phenomena are not
exhibited by liquids and gases alone, nor by solids at high tempera-
tures only. Sir W. Roberts-Austen has placed pieces of gold and
lead in contact at a temperature of 18°C. After four years the gold
had traveled into the lead to such an extent that not only were the two
metals united, but, on analysis, appreciable quantities of the gold were
detected even at a distance of more than 5 millimeters from the com-
mon surface, while within a distance of three-quarters of a millimeter
from the surface gold had penetrated into the lead to the extent of

sm 1901——12

178 A MODEL OF NATURE.

1 ounce 6 pennyweights per ton, an amount which could have been
profitably extracted.

Whether it is or is not possible to devise any other intelligible
account of the cause of such phenomena, it is certain that a simple and
adequate explanation is found in the hypothesis that matter consists of
discrete parts in a state of motion, which can penetrate into the spaces
between the corresponding parts of the surrounding bodies.

The hypothesis thus framed is also the one which affords a rational
explanation of other simple and well-known facts. If matter is
regarded as a continuous medium the phenomena of expansion are
unintelligible. There is, apparently, no limit to the expansion of
matter, or, to fix our attention on one kind of matter, let us say to the
expansion of gas; but it is inconceivable that a continuous material
which fills or is present in every part of a given space could also be
present in every part of a space a million times as great. Such astate-
ment might be made of a mathematical abstraction; it can not be true
of any real substance or thing. If, however, matter consists of dis-
crete particles, separated from each other either by empty space or
by something different from themselves, we can at once understand
that expansion and contraction may be nothing more than the mutual
separation or approach of these particles. .

Again, no clear mental picture can be formed of the phenomena
of heat unless we suppose that heat is a mode of motion. In the
words of Rumford, ‘‘it is extremely difficult, if not quite impossible,
to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and
communicated in the manner the heat was excited and communicated
in [his] experiment [on friction] except it be motion.”* And if heat
be motion, there can be no doubt that it is the fundamental particles
of matter which are moving. For the motion is not visible, is not
motion of the body as a whole, while diffusion, which is a movement
of matter, goes on more quickly as the temperature rises, thereby
proving that the internal motions have become more rapid, which is
exactly the result which would follow if these were the movements
which constitute sensible heat.

Combining, then, the phenomena of diffusion, expansion, and heat,
it is not too much to say that no hypotheses which make them intelli-
gible have ever been framed other than those which are at the basis of
the atomic theory.

Many other considerations also point to the same conclusion. Many
years ago Lord Kelvin gave independent arguments, based on the
properties of gases, on the constitutions of the surfaces of liquids, and
on the electric properties of metals, all of which indicate that matter
is, to use his own phrase, coarse-grained—that it is not identical in

* Phil. Trans., 1789, p. 99.

A MODEL OF NATURE. 179

constitution throughout, but that adjacent minute parts are distin-
guishable from each other by being either of different natures or in
different states.

And here it is necessary to insist that all these fundamental proofs
are independent of the nature of the particles or granules into which
matter must be divided.

The particles, for instance, need not be different in kind from the
medium which surrounds and separates them. It would suffice if they
were what may be called singular parts of the medium itself, differing
from the rest only in some peculiar state of internal motion or of dis-
tortion, or by being in some other way earmarked as distinct individ-
uals. The view that the constitution of matter is atomic may and
does receive support from theories in which definite assumptions are
made as to the constitution of the atoms, but when, as is often the
case, these assumptions introduce new and more recondite difficulties,
it must he remembered that the fundamental hypothesis—that matter
consists of discrete parts, capable of independent motions—is forced
upon us by facts and arguments which are altogether independent of
what the nature and properties of these separate parts may be.

Asa matter of history the two theories, which are not by any means
mutually exclusive, that atoms are particles which can be treated as
distinct in kind from the medium which surrounds them, and that they
are parts of that medium existing in a special state, have both played
a large part in the theoretical development of the atomic hypothesis.
The atoms of Waterston, Clausius, and Maxwell were particles. The
vortex-atoms of Lord Kelvin, and the strain-atoms (if I may call them
so) suggested by Mr. Larmor, are states of a primary medium which
constitutes a physical connection between them, and through which
their mutual actions arise and are transmitted.

PROPERTIES OF THE BASIS OF MATTER.

It is easy to show that, whichever alternative be adopted, we are
dealing with something, whether we consider it under the guise of
separate particles or of differentiated portions of the medium, which
has properties different from those of matter in bulk.

For if the basis of matter had the same constitution as matter, the
irregular heat movements could hardly be maintained either against
the viscosity of the medium or the frittering away of energy of
motion which would occur during the collisions between the particles.
Thus, even in the case in which a hot body is prevented from losing
heat to surrounding objects, its sensible heat should spontaneously
decay by a process of self-cooling. No such phenomenon is known,
and though on this, as on all other points, the limits of our knowledge
are fixed by the uncertainty of experiment, we are compelled to
admit that, to all appearance, the fundamental medium, if it exists, is

180 - A MODEL OF NATURE.

unlike a material medium, in that it is nonviscous; and that the
particles, if they exist, are so constitued that energy is not frittered
away when they collide. In either case we are dealing with some-
thing different from matter itself in the sense that, though it is the
basis of matter, it is not identical in all its properties with matter.

The idea therefore that entities exist possessing properties different
from those of matter in bulk is not introduced at the end of a long
and recondite investigation to explain facts with which none but
experts are acquainted. It is forced upon us at the very threshold of
our study of nature. Either the properties of matter in bulk can not
be referred to any simpler structure, or that simpler structure must
have properties different from those of matter in bulk as we directly
knew it—properties which can only be inferred from the results which
they produce.

No a priori argument against the possibility of our discovering the
existence of quasi-material substances, which are nevertheless different
from matter, can proye the negative proposition that such substances
‘an not exist. It is not a self-evident truth that no substance other
than ordinary matter can have an existence as real as that of matter
itself. It is not axiomatic that matter can not be composed of parts
whose properties are different from those of the whole. To assert
that even if such substances and such parts exist no evidence, however
cogent, could convince us of their existence is to beg the whole ques-
tion at issue; to decide the cause before it has been heard.

We must therefore adhere to the standpoint adopted by most scien-
tific men, viz, that the question of the existence of ultraphysical enti-
ties, such as atoms and the ether, is to be settled by the evidence, and
must not be ruled out as inadmissible on a priori grounds.

On the other hand, it is impossible to deny that, if the mere entry
on the search for the concealed causes of physical phenomena is not a
trespass on ground we have no right to explore, it is at all events the
beginning of a dangerous journey.

The wraiths of phlogiston, caloric, luminiferous corpuscles and a
crowd of other phantoms haunt the investigator, and as the grim host
vanishes into nothingness he can not but wonder if his own concep-
tions of atoms and of the ether

shall dissolve,
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a wrack behind.

But though science, like Bunyan’s hero, has sometimes had to pass
through the ‘* Valley of Humiliation,” the specters which meet it there
are not really dangerous if they are boldly faced. The facts that mis-
takes have been made, that theories have been propounded, and for a
time accepted, which later investigations have disproved, do not

A MODEL OF NATURE. 181

necessarily discredit the method adopted. In scientific theories, as in
the world around us, there is a survival of the fittest, and Dr. James
Ward’s unsympathetic account of the blunders of those whose work
after all has shed glory on the nineteenth century, might mutatis
mutandis stand for a description of the history of the advance of civil-
ization. ‘‘The story of the progress so far,” he tells us, ‘is briefly
this: Divergence between theory and fact one part of the way, the
wreckage of abandoned fictions for the rest, with an unattainable goal
of phenomenal nihilism and ultraphysical mechanism beyond.” “

‘The path of progress,” says Prof. Karl Pearson, ‘tis strewn with
the wreck of nations. Traces are everywhere to be seen of the heca-
tombs of inferior races and of victims who found not the narrow
way to the greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are in very
truth the stepping-stones on which mankind has arisen to the higher
intellectual and deeper emotional life of to-day.” ”

It is only necessary to add that the progress of society is directed
toward an unattainable goal of universal contentment to make the
parallel complete.

And so, in the one case as in the other, we may leave ‘‘ the dead
to bury the dead.” The question before us is not whether we too may
not be trusting to false ideas, erroneous experiments, evanescent
theories. No doubt we are; but, without making an insolent claim to
be better than our fathers, we may fairly contend that, amid much
that is uncertain and temporary, some of the fundamental conceptions,
the root ideas of science, are so grounded on reason and fact that we
can not but regard them as an aspect of the very truth.

Enough has, perhaps, now been said on this point for my immediate
purpose. The argument as to the constitution of matter could be
developed further in the manner I have hitherto adopted, viz, by
series of propositions, the proof of each of which is based upon a few
crucial phenomena. In particular, if matter is divided into moving
granules or particles, the phenomenon of cohesion proves that there
must be mutual actions between them analogous to those which take
place between large masses of matter, and which we ascribe to force,
thereby indicating the regular, unvarying operation of active ma-
chinery which we have not yet the means of adequately understanding.
For the moment, I do not wish to extend the line of reasoning that
has been followed. My main object is to show that the notion of the
existence of ultraphysical entities and the leading outlines of the
atomic theory are forced upon us at the beginning of our study of
nature, not only by a4 priori considerations, but in the attempt to com-
prehend the results of even the simplest observation. These outlines
can not be effaced by the difficulties which undoubtedly arise in filling

«James Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, Vol. I, p. 155.
» Karl Pearson, National Life from the Standpoint of Science, p. 62.

182 A MODEL OF NATURE.

up the picture. The cogency of the proof that matter is coarse
erained is in no way affected by the fact that we have grave doubts as
to the nature of granules. Nay, it is of the first importance to recog-
nize that, though the fundamental assumptions of the atomic theory
receive overwhelming support from a number of more detailed argu-
ments, they are themselves almost of the nature of axioms, in that the
simplest phenomena are unintelligible if they are abandoned.

THE RANGE OF THE ATOMIC THEORY.

{t would be most unfair, however, to the atomic theory to represent
it as depending on one line of reasoning only, or to treat its evidence
as bounded by the very general propositions I have discussed.

It is true that as the range of the theory is extended the fundamental
conception that matter is granular must be expanded and filled in by
supplementary hypotheses as to the constitution of granules. It may
also be admitted that no complete or wholly satisfactory description of
that constitution can as yet be given; that perfection has not yet been
attained here or in any other branch of science; but the number of
facts which can be accounted for by the theory is very large compared
with the number of additional hypotheses which are introduced; and
the cumulative weight of the additional evidence obtained by the study
of details is such as to add greatly to the strength of the conviction
that, in its leading outlines, the theory is true.

It was originally suggested by the facts of chemistry, and though, as
we have seen, a school of chemists now thrusts it into the background,
it is none the less true, in the words gf Dr. Thorpe, that ‘‘every great
advance in chemical knowledge during the last ninety years finds its
interpretation in [Dalton’s] theory.” *

The principal mechanical and thermal properties of gases have been
explained and in a large part discovered by the aid of the atomic
theory, and though there are outstanding difficulties, they are, for the
most part, related to the nature of the atoms and molecules, and do not
affect the question as to whether they exist.

The fact that different kinds of light all travel at the same speed in
interplanetary space, while they move at different rates in matter, is
explained if matter is coarse grained. But to attempt to sum up all
this evidence would be to recite a text-book on physics. It must suf-
fice to say that it is enormous in extent and varied in character, and
that the atomic theory imparts a unity to all the physical sciences
which has been attained in no other way.

I must, however, give a couple of instances of the wonderful success
which has been achieved in the explanation of physical phenomena by
the theory we are considering, and I select them because they are in
harmony with the line of argument I have been pursuing.

*Thorpe, Essays on Historical Chemistry, 1894, p. 368.

A MODEL OF NATURE. 183

When a piece of iron is magnetized its behavior is different accord-
ing as the magnetic force applied to it is weak, moderate, or strong.
When a certain limit is passed the iron behaves as a nonmagnetic sub-
stance to all further addition of magnetic force. With strong forces
it does and with very weak forces it does not remain magnetized when
the force ceases to act. Professor Ewing has imitated all the minute
details of these complicated properties by an arrangement of small
isolated compass needles to represent the molecules. It may fairly be
said that as far as this particular set of phenomena is concerned, a
most instructive working model based on the molecular theory has not
only been imagined but constructed.

The next illustration is no less striking. We may liken a crowd of
molecules to a fog; but while the fog is admitted by everbody to be
made up of separate globules of water, the critics of scientific method
are sometimes apt to regard the molecules as mere fictions of the
imagination. If, however, we could throw the molecules of a highly
‘aretied gas into such a state that vapor condensed on them, so that
rach became the center of a water drop, till the host of invisible mole-
cules was, as it were, magnified by accretion into a visible mist, surely
no stronger proof of their reality could be desired. Yet there is
every reason to believe that something very like this has been accom-
plished by Mr. C. 'T. R. Wilson and Prof. J. J. Thomson.

It is known that it is comparatively difficult to produce a fog in
damp air if the mixture consists of air and water vapor alone. The
presence of particles of very fine dust facilitates the process. It is
evident that the vapor condenses on the dust particles, and that a
nucleus of some kind is necessary on which each drop may form. But
electrified particles also act as nuclei, for if a highly charged body
from which electricity is escaping be placed near a steam jet, the steam
condenses, and a cloud is also formed in dust-free air more easily than
would otherwise be the case if electricity is discharged into it.

Again, according to accepted theory, when a current of electricity
flows through a gas some of the atoms are divided into parts which
carry positive and negative charges as they move in opposite direc-
tions, and unless this breaking up occurs a gas does not conduct elec-
tricity. But a gas can be made a conductor merely by allowing the
Rontgen rays or the radiation given off by uranium to fall upon it. A
careful study of the facts shows that it is probable that some of the
atoms have been broken up by the radiation, and that their oppositely
electrified parts are scattered among their unaltered fellows. Sucha
gas Is said to be ionized.

Thus by these two distinct lines of argument we come to the conclu-
sions: First, that the presence of electrified particles promotes the
formation of mist, and, second, that in an ionized gas such electrified
particles are provided by the breaking up of atoms.

184 A MODEL OF NATURE.

The two conclusions will mutually support each other if it cana be
shown that a mist is easily formed in ionized air. This was tested
by Mr. Wilson, who showed that in such air mist is formed as though
nuclei were present, and thus in the cloud we have visible evidence of
the presence of the divided atoms. If, then, we can not handle the
individual molecules we have at least some reason to believe that a
method is known of seizing individuals, or parts of individuals, which
are in a special state, and of wrapping other matter round them till
each one is the center of a discrete particle of a visible fog.

I have purposely chosen this illustration, because the explanation is
based on a theory—that of ionization—which is at present subjected
to hostile criticism. It assumes that an electrical current is nothing
more than the movement of charges of electricity. But magnets placed
near to an electric current tend to set themselves at right angles to its
direction; a fact on which the construction of telegraphic instruments
is based. Hence, if the theory be true, a similar effect ought to be
produced by a moving charge of electricity. This experiment was
tried many years ago in the laboratory of Helmholtz by Rowland, who
caused a charged disk to spin rapidly near a magnet. The result was
in accord with the theory; the magnet moved as though acted upon by
an electric current. Of late, however, M. Crémieu has investigated
the matter afresh, and has obtained results which, according to his
interpretation, were inconsistent with that of Rowland.

M. Crémiew’s results are already the subject of controversy,* and
are, I believe, likely to be discussed in the section of physics. This is
not the occasion to enter upon a critical discussion of the question at
issue, and I refer to it only to point out that though, if M. Crémieu’s
results were upheld, our views as to electricity would have to be mod-
ified, the foundations of the atomic theory would not be shaken.

It is, however, from the theory of ions that the most far-reaching
speculations of science have recently received unexpected support.
The dream that matter of all kinds will some day be proved to be fun-
damentally the same has survived many shocks. The opinion is con-
sistent with the great generalization that the properties of elements
are a periodic function of their atomic weights. Sir Norman Lockyer
has long been a prominent exponent of the view that the spectra of
the stars indicate the reduction of our so-called elements to simpler
forms, and now Prof. J. J. Thomson believes that we can break off
from an atom a part, the mass of which is not more than one-thou-
sandth of the whole, and that these corpuscles, as he has named them,
are the carriers of the negative charge in an electric current. If atoms
are thus complex, not only is the a priori probability increased that
the different structures which we call elements may all be built of —

*See Phil. Mag., July, 1901, p. 144; and Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XX,
No. 152, May-June, 1901, p. 78.

A MODEL OF NATURE. 185

similar bricks, but the discovery by Lenard that the ease with which
the corpuscles penetrate different bodies depends only on the density
of the obstacles, and not on their chemical constitution, is held by
Professor Thomson to be **a strong confirmation of the view that the
atoms of the elementary substances are made up of simpler parts, all
of which are alike.”* On the present occasion, however, we are occu-
pied rather with the foundations than with these ultimate ramifications
of the atomic theory; and having shown how wide its range is, I must,
toa certain extent, retrace my steps and return to the main line of
my argument.

THE PROPERTIES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES.

For if it be granted that the evidence that matter is coarse grained
and is formed of separate atoms and molecules is too strong to be
resisted, it may still be contended that we can know little or nothing
of the sizes and properties of the molecules.

It must be admitted that though the fundamental postulates are
always the same, different aspects of the theory, which have not in all
cases been successfully combined, have to be developed when it is
applied to different ploblems; but in spite of this there is little doubt
but that we have some fairly accurate knowledge of molecular motions
and magnitudes.

If a liquid is stretched into a very thin film, such as a soap bubble,
we should expect indications of a change in its properties when the
thickness of the film is not a very large multiple of the average
distance between two neighboring molecules. In 1890, Sohncke?
detected evidence of such a change in films of average thickness
of 106 millionths of a millimeter (4), and quite recently Rudolph
Weber found it in an oil film when the thickness was 115 joy. °

Taking the mean of these numbers and combining the results of
different variants of the theory, we may conclude that a film should
become unstable and tend to rupture spontaneously somewhere be-
tween the thicknesses of 110 and 55 py, and Professor Reinold and I
found by experiment that this instability is actually exhibited between
the thickness of 96 and 45 y.° There can therefore be little doubt
that the first approach to molecular magnitude is signaled when the
thickness of a film is somewhat less than 100 “4, or four millionths of
an inch.

Thirteen years ago I had the honor of laying before the Chemical:

“For the most recent account of this subject, see an article on ‘‘ Bodies smaller than
atoms,”’ by Prof. J. J. Thomson, in the Popular Science Monthly (The Science Press),
August, 1901. [Reprinted in the present Smithsonian Report. ]

»Wied. Ann., 1890, XL, pp. 345-355.

* Annalen der Physik, 1901, IV, pp. 706-721.

‘Phil. Trans., 1893, 184, pp. 505-529.

186 A MODEL OF NATURE.

Society a résumé of what was then known on these subjects,* and I
must refer to that lecture or to the most recent edition of O. E.
Meyer’s work on the kinetic theory of gases” for the evidence that
various independent lines of argument enable us to estimate quantities
very much less than four millionths of an inch, which is perhaps from
500 to 1,000 times greater than the magnitude which, in the present
state of our knowledge, we can best describe as the diameter of a
molecule.

Confining our attention, however, to the larger quantities, I will
give one example to show how strong is the cumulative force of
the evidence as to our knowledge of the magnitudes of molecular
quantities.

We have every reason to believe that though the molecules in a gas
frequently collide with each other, yet in the case of the more perfect
gases the time occupied in collisions is small compared with that in
which each molecule travels undisturbed by its fellows. The average
distance traveled between two successive encounters is called the mean
free path, and, for the reason just given, the question of the magni-
tude of this distance can be attacked without any precise knowledge of
what a molecule is, or of what happens during an encounter.

Thus the mean free path can be determined, by the aid of the theory,
either from the viscosity of the gas or from the thermal conductivity.
Using figures given in the latest work on the subject,° and dealing
with one gas only, as a fair sample of the rest, the lengths of the mean
free path of hydrogen, as determined by these two independent
methods, differ only by about 3 per cent. Further, the mean of the
values which I gave in the lecture already referred to differed only by
about 6 per cent from the best modern result, so that no great change
has been introduced during the last thirteen years.

It may, however, be argued that these concordant values are all
obtained by means of the same theory, and that a common error may
affect them all. In particular, some critics have of late been inclined
to discredit the atomic theory by pointing out that the strong state-
ments which have sometimes been made-as to the equality, among
themselves, of atoms or molecules of the same kind may not be justi-
fied, as the equality may be that of averages only, and be consistent
with a considerable variation in the sizes of individuals.

Allowing this argument more weight than it perhaps deserves, it is
easy to show that it can not affect seriously our knowledge of the
length of the mean free path.

Prof. George Darwin“ has handled the problem of a mixture of

*Chem. Soc. Trans., LIII, March, 1888, pp. 222-262.

» Kinetic Theory of Gases, O. E. Meyer, 1899; translated by R. KE. Baynes.
* Meyer’s Kinetic Theory of Gases (see above).

4 Phil. Trans., 180.

=

A MODEL OF NATURE. 187

unequal spherical bodies in the particular case in which the sizes are
distributed according to the law of errors, which would involve far
ereater inequalities than can occur amongatoms. Without discussing
the precise details of his problem, it is sufficient to say that in the case
considered by him the length of the main free path is seven-elevenths
of what it would be if the particles were equal. Hence, were the ine-
qualities of atoms as great as in this extreme case, the reduction of
the mean free path in hydrogen could only be from 185 to 119 yy;
but they must be far less, and therefore the error, if any, due to this
cause could not approach this amount. It is probably inappreciable.

Such examples might be multiplied, but the one I have selected is
perhaps sufficient to illustrate my point, viz, that considerable and
fairly accurate knowledge can be obtained as to molecular quantities
by the aid of theories, the details of which are provisional and are
admittedly capable of improvement.

IS THE MODEL UNIQUE?

But the argument that a correct result may sometimes be obtained
by reasoning on imperfect hypotheses raises the question as to whether
another danger may not be imminent. To be satisfactory our model
of nature must be unique, and it must be impossible to imagine any
other which agrees equally well with the facts of experiment. If
a large number of hypotheses could be framed with equal claims to
validity, that fact would alone raise grave doubts as to whether it were
possible to distinguish between the true and the false. Thus, Professor
Poincaré has shown that an infinite number of dynamical explanations
can be found for any phenomenon which satisfies certain conditions.
But though this consideration warns us against the too ready accept-
ance of explanations of isolated phenomena, it has no weight against
a theory which embraces so vast a number of facts as those included
by the atomic theory. It does not follow that because a number of
solutions are all formally dynamical they are therefore all equally
admissible. The pressure of a gas may be explained as the result of
a shower of blows delivered by molecules, or by a repulsion between
the various parts of a continuous medium. Both solutions are expressed
in dynamical language, but one is and the other is not compatible with
the observed phenomena of expansion. The atomic theory must hold
the field until another can be found which is not inferior as an expla-
nation of the fundamental difficulties as to the constitution of matter
and is, at the same time, not less comprehensive.

On the whole, then, the question as to whether we are attempting
to solve a problem which has an infinite number of solutions may be
put aside until one solution has been found which is satisfactory in all
its details. Weare in a sufticient difficulty about that to make the
rivalry of a second of the same type very improbable.

188 A MODEL OF NATURE.

THE PHENOMENA OF LIFE.

But it may be asked—nay, it has been asked—may not the type of
our theories be radically changed? If this question does not merely
imply a certain distrust in our own powers of reasoning, it should be
supported by some indication of the kind of change which is conceivable.

Perhaps the chief objection which can be brought against physical
theories is that they deal only with the inanimate side of nature, and
largely ignore the phenomena of life. It is therefore in this direction,
if in any, that a change of type may be expected. I do not propose to
enter at length upon so difficult a question, but, however we may
explain or explain away the characteristics of life, the argument for
the truth of the atomic theory would only be affected if it could be
shown that living matter does not possess the thermal and mechanical
properties, to explain which the atomic theory has been framed. This
is so notoriously not the case that there is the gravest doubt whether
life can in any way interfere with the action within the organism
of the laws of matter in bulk belonging to the domain of mechanics,
physics, and chemistry.

Probably the most cautious opinion that could now be expressed on
this question is that, in spite of some outstanding difficulties which have
recently given rise to what is called Neovitalism, there is no conclusive
evidence that living matter can suspend or modify any of the natural
laws which would affect it if it were to cease to live. It is possible
that though subject to these laws the organism while living may be able
to employ, or even to direct, their action within itself for its own
benefit, just as it unquestionably does make use of the processes of
external nature for its own purposes. But if this be so, the seat of
the controlling influence is so withdrawn from view that on the one
hand its very existence may be denied, while on the other hand, Pro-
fessor Haeckel, following Vogt, has recently asserted that ‘‘Matter
and ether are not dead, and only moved by extrinsic force; but they
are endowed with sensation and will; they experience an inclination
for condensation, a dislike for strain; they strive after the one and
struggle against the other.” *

But neither unproved assertions of this kind nor the more refined
attempts that have been made by others to bring the phenomena of
life and of dead matter under a common formula touch the evidence
for the atomic theory. The question as to whether matter consists of
elements capable of independent motion is prior to and independent of
the further questions as to what these elements are and whether they
are alive or dead.

The physicist, if he keeps to his business, asserts, as the bases of
the atomic theory, nothing more than that he who declines to admit
that matter consists of separate moving parts must regard many of

@ Riddle of the Universe (English translation), 1900, p. 380.

A MODEL OF NATURE. 189

the simplest phenomena as irreconcilable and -unintelligible, in spite
of the fact that means of reconciling them are known to everybody,
in spite of the fact that the reconciling theory gives a general correla-
tion of an enormous number of phenomena in every branch of science,
and that the outstanding difficulties are connected not so much with
the fundamental hypotheses that matter is composed of distinguishable
entities which are capable of separate motions as with the much more
difficult problem of what these entities are.

On these grounds the physicist may believe that, though he can not
handle or see them, the atoms and molecules are as real as the ice
crystals in a cirrus cloud which he can not reach; as real as the unseen
members of a meteoric swarm whose death glow is lost in the sunshine,
or which sweep past us, unentangled, in the night.

If the confidence that his methods are weapons with which he can
fight his way to the truth were taken from the scientific explorer, the
paralysis which overcomes those who believe that they are engaged in
a hopeless task would fall upon him.

Physiology has specially flourished since physiologists have believed
that it is possible to master the physics and chemistry of the framework
of living things, and since they have abandoned the attitude of those
who placed in the foreground the doctrine of the vital force. To sup-
porters of that doctrine the principle of life was not a hidden directing
power which could perhaps whisper an order that the flood gates of
reservoirs of energy should now be opened and now closed, and could,
at the most, work only under immutable conditions to which the living
and the dead must alike submit. On the contrary, their vital force
pervaded the organism in all its parts. It was an active and energetic
opponent of the laws of physics and chemistry. It maintained its own
existence not by obeying but by defying them; and though destined
to be finally overcome in the separate campaigns of which each indi-
vidual living creature is the scene, yet, like some guerrilla chieftain, it
was defeated here only to reappear there with unabated confidence
and apparently undiminished force.

This attitude of mind checked the advance of knowledge. Difhiculty
could be evaded by a verbal formula of explanation which in fact
explained nothing. If the mechanical, or physical, or chemical causes
of 2 phenomenon did not lie obviously upon the surface, the investi-
gator was tempted to forego the toil of searching for them below; it
was easier to say that the vital force was the cause of the discrepancy,
and that it was hopeless to attempt to account for the action of a
principle which was incomprehensible in its nature.

For the physicist the danger is no less serious, though it lies ina
somewhat different direction. At present he is checked in his theories
by the necessity of making them agree with a comparatively small
number of fundamental hypotheses. If this check were removed his
fancy might run riot in the wildest speculations, which would be held

190 A MODEL OF NATURE.

to be legitimate if only they led to formule in harmony with facts.
But the very habit of regarding the end as everything, and the means
by which it was attained as unimportant, would prevent the discovery
of those fragments of truth which can only be uncovered by the pain-
ful process of trying to make inconsistent theories agree, and using
all facts, however remote, as the tests of our central generalization.

‘*Science,” said Helmholtz, ‘‘Science, whose very object it is to
comprehend Nature, must start with the assumption that Nature is
comprehensible.” And again, ‘‘The first principle of the investigator
of Nature is to assume that Nature is intelligible to us, since otherwise
it would be foolish to attempt the investigation at all.” These axioms
do not assume that all the secrets of the universe will ultimately be
laid bare, but that a search for them is hopeless if we undertake the
quest with the conviction that it will be in vain. As applied to life
they do not deny that in living matter something may be hidden which
neither physics nor chemistry can explain; but they assert that the
action of physical and chemical forces in living bodies can never be
understood if at every difficulty and at every check in our investiga-
tions we desist from further attempts in the belief that the laws of
physics and chemistry have been interfered with by an incomprehen-
sible vital force. As applied to physics and chemistry they do not
mean that all the phenomena of life and death will ultimately be
included in some simple and self-sufficing mechanical theory; they do
mean that we are not to sit down contented with paradoxes such as
that the same thing can fill both a large space and a little one; that
matter can act where it is not, and the like, if by some reasonable
hypothesis, capable of being tested by experiment, we can avoid the
acceptance of these absurdities. Something will have been gained if
the more obvious difficulties are removed, even if we have to admit
that in the background there is much that we can not grasp.

THE LIMITS OF PHYSICAL THEORIES.

And this brings me to my last point. It is a mistake to treat phys-
ical theories in general, and the atomic theory in particular, as though
they were parts of a scheme which has failed if it leaves anything
unexplained, which must be carried on indefinitely on exactly the same
principles, whether the ultimate results are or are not repugnant to
common sense.

Physical theories begin at the surface with phenomena which directly
affect our senses. “When they are used in the attempt to penetrate
deeper into the secrets of nature, it is more than probable that they
will meet with insuperable barriers; but this fact does not demonstrate
that the fundamental assumptions are false. and the question as to ~
whether any particular obstacle will be forever insuperable can rarely
be answered with certainty.

Those who belittle the ideas which have of late governed the advance

A MODEL OF NATURE. 191

of scientific theory too often assume that there is no alternative
between the opposing assertions that atoms and the ether are mere
figments of the scientific imagination, or that, on the other hand, a
mechanical theory of the atoms and of the ether, which is now con-
fessedly imperfect, would, if it could be perfected, give us a full and
adequate representation of the underlying realities.

For my own part I believe that there is a via media.

A man peering into a darkened room, and describing what he thinks
he sees, may be right as to the general outline of the objects he dis-
cerns, wrong as to their nature and their precise forms. In his deserip-
tion fact and fancy may be blended, and it may be difficult to say
where the one ends and the other begins; but even the fancies will not
be worthless if they are based on a fragment of truth, which will pre-
vent the explorer from walking into a looking-glass or stumbling over
the furniture. He who saw ‘‘men as trees walking” had at least a per-
ception of the fundamental fact that something was in motion around
him.

And so, at the beginning of the twentieth century, we are neither
forced to abandon the claim to have penetrated below the surface of
nature, nor have we, with all our searching, torn the veil of mystery
from the world around us.

The range of our speculations is limited both in space and time; in
space, for we have no right to claim, as is sometimes done, a knowl-
edge of the ‘‘infinite universe;” in time, for the cumulative effects of
actions which might pass undetected in the short span of years of
which we have knowledge, may, if continued long enough, modify our
most profound generalizations. If some such theory as the vortex-
atom theory were true, the faintest trace of viscosity in the primordial
medium would ultimately destroy matter of every kind. It is thus
duty to state what we believe we know in the most cautious terms, but
it is equally a duty not to yield to mere vague doubts as to whether
we can know anything.

If no other conception of matter is possible than that it consists of
distinct physical units—and no other conception has been formulated
which does not blur what are otherwise clear and definite outlines—if
it is certain, as it is, that vibrations travel through space which can
not be propagated by matter, the two foundations of physical theory
are well and truly laid. It may be granted that we have not yet
framed a consistent image either of the nature of the atoms or of the
ether in which they exist; but I have tried to show that in spite of the
tentative nature of some of our theories, in spite of many outstanding
difficulties, the atomic theory unifies so many facts, simplifies so much
that is complicated, that we have a right to insist—at all events till an
equally intelligible rival hypothesis is produced—that the main strue-
ture of our theory is true; that atoms are not merely helps to puzzled
mathematicians, but physical realities.

an A . a) Foot yy: ins INS
Fie sos region Sinton. ein [te

A CENTURY OF THE STUDY OF METEORITES. *

By Dr. Ottver C. FARRINGTON,

Curator of Geology, Field Columbian Museum.

The close of the nineteenth century will mark the end of the first
century of the study of meteorites. Up to the beginning of this
century the attitude of scientific men toward the accounts of stones
reported to have fallen from the sky was in general one of scorn and
incredulity. Thus an account prepared with great care by the munici-
pality of Juillac, France, telling of a stone shower which occurred
there in July, 1790, was characterized by Berthelon at the time as ‘‘a
recital, evidently false, of a phenomenon physically impossible” and
‘‘caleulated to excite the pity not only of physicists but of all reason-
able people.” Bonn, in his Lithophylacium Bonnianum, refers to the
Tabor, Bohemia, meteorite which fell in 17538, as ‘te coelo pluvisse
creduliores quidam asseverant.” Chladni, writing in the early part of
the century, speaks of many meteorites which were thrown away in his
day because the directors of museums were ashamed to exhibit stones
reported to have fallen from the sky. President Jefferson when told
that Professors Silliman and Kingsley had described a shower of stones
as having taken place at Weston, Connecticut, in 1807, said: ‘It is
easier to believe that two Yankee professors will lie than to believe
that stones will fall from heaven.”

The change of opinion on the part of intelligent and especially sci-
entific men, which took place at the beginning of this century, was due
largely to the investigation by the French Academy of the shower of
stones which fell at L’Aigle in 1803. This investigation established
so absolutely the fact of the fall to the earth at L’Aigle of stones from
outer space that scientific men were logically compelled to give credence
to the reports of similar occurrences elsewhere. Further, the papers
of Chladni and Howard published about the same time, strenuously
urging that other masses reported to have fallen upon the earth could
not, because of their structure and composition, be of terrestrial ori-
gin, had much to do with fixing the growing faith that solid cosmic

“Reprinted by permission from Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LVII, February,
1901.

sm 1901——13 193

194 CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES.

matter not of terrestrial origin does at intervals come to the earth.
Since this beginning the study of meteorites has been one of constantly
widening interest and purport.

The essentially distinguishing features of meteorites were early
made out. Howard in 1802, from a chemical investigation of various
‘*stony and metallic substances which at different times are said to have
fallen on the earth, also of various kinds of native iron,” drew the con-
clusion that a content of nickel characterized most such bodies. He
also found that the meteoric stones were made up chiefly of silica and
magnesia and that the iron sulphide of meteorites was distinct from
the terrestrial mineral pyrite. He further noted the chondritic struc-
ture as characteristic of many of the meteoric stones. The correctness
of his observations was soon confirmed by analyses made by Fourcroy,
John, Klaproth, and others. In 1808 Alois von Widmanstiitten, by
heating a section of the Agram iron, brought out the figures which
have since proved so characteristic of meteoric irons in general and
which are now known by his name. Thus the data were early at hand
for distinguishing meteorites from terrestrial bodies, and it soon
became possible to collect the ‘‘sky stones” even when they had not
been seen to fall. Systematic efforts for the collection of these bodies
were not put forth, however, for many years. Up to 1835 there were
only 56 different meteorite falls represented in the Vienna collection,
and in 1856 only 136. Up to 1860 those of the British Museum col-
lection numbered only 68 and those of the Paris collection only 64.
The studies of these bodies during the first half of the century were
made, therefore, upon a relatively limited number. The earlier inves-
tigations were chiefly chemical in character, various elements being
discovered in succession. Manganese was discovered in the stone of
Siena by Klaproth in 1803, chromium in the stone of Vago by Laugier
in 1806, carbon in that of Alais by Thenard in 1808, chlorine in that
of Stannern by Scheerer in the same year, and cobalt by John in the
Pallas iron in 1817. The number of elements discovered since has
brought the total up to 29, none being found, however, which are not
already known upon the earth. Many of the chemical compounds of
meteorites were early isolated and their identity with terrestrial
minerals established. Count Bournon showed in 1802 that the trans-
parent green mineral accompanying the iron of Krasnojarsk was
olivine. The same mineral was found in other meteorites by later
observers, and Rose was able in 1825 to make angular measurements
of the crystals which showed them to be identical with those of ter-
restrial olivine. Laugier separated chromite from the stones of
Ensisheim and L’Aigle in 1806. Augite was recognized by Mohs in
the stone of Stannern in 1824 and by Rose in that of Juvinas in 1825.
Haiiy recognized a feldspar which he thought to be orthoclase in the
stone of Juvinas in 1822, but three years later Rose showed it to

CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. 195

be plagioclase; and the existence of orthoclase in meteorites has yet
to be proved. Continued investigations of the compounds found
in meteorites up to the present time have resulted in the detection
of at least 21 whose composition is certain, besides several of a
somewhat problematic nature. Of these compounds seven have been
found to differ in composition from any known terrestrial substances.
The character of these indicates the complete absence of water and of
oxygen in any large amount from that portion of nature’s laboratory
where meteorites are formed. Important investigations as to the gases
occluded by meteorites were begun by Boussingault in 1861 and have
been continued by Wright, Ansdell, Dewar, and others. It has been
proved that large quantities of hydrogen, as well as carbonic acid gas,
are contained in these bodies, under pressure greater than that of
the earth’s atmosphere. These investigations led further to the spec-
troscopic study of meteorites by Vogel, Wright, and Lockyer. The
spectra thus obtained, when compared with those exhibited by comets,
showed striking resemblances, which have led to a growing belief
among scientific men in the identity of origin of comets and meteorites.
Lockyer has indeed pushed this conclusion to the point of believing
that ‘‘ all self-luminous bodies in the celestial spaces are composed either
of swarms of meteorites or of masses of meteoric vapor produced by
heat,” and he draws from this many important deductions relating to
the origin of the stars, comets and nebule, and the physical condi-
tions prevailing in them. It will remain for the twentieth century to
test the correctness of such conclusions, but the facts already brought
out have considerably shaken the confidence hitherto placed in the
nebular hypothesis. Another interesting result of the century has
been the establishment of a general similarity between shooting stars
and meteorites. This idea was first suggested by Chladni in 1798,
but it has remained for Newton, Adams, and Schiaparelli to give it
shape and proof. The general verdict of science is now in accord
with the belief of Newton, ** that from the faintest shooting star to the
largest stone meteor we pass by such small gradations that no clear
dividing lines can separate them into classes.” Moreover, the long-
existing belief in le vide planétaire, space filled only with a mysterious
fluid called ether, has been shown to be untenable. Careful records and
estimates have shown that 20,000,000 cosmic bodies large enough to
produce the phenomena of shooting stars are encountered by the earth
daily. The number of these bodies existing in space must be, therefore,
beyond all calculation, and their existence implies that of smaller par-
ticles in sufficient number to form a widely pervasive cosmic dust.
Many remarkable meteorite falls have occurred during the century.
Beginning with the stone shower of L’Aigle in 1803, when 2,000 to
3,000 stones fell, no less than eleven such showers have been recorded.
In the shower of Pultusk, Poland, which occurred in 1868, 100,000

196 CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES.

stones are estimated to have fallen, their total weight reaching over
400 pounds. In the shower at Mocs, Germany, in 1882, more than
3,000 stones fell. In our own country about 750 pounds of meteoric
matter fell at Estherville, Lowa, in 1879, and several thousand stones
fell over an area 9 miles in length and 1 mile wide near Forest City,
Iowa, in 1890. Many of these falls have been marked by extraordi-
nary phenomena of light and sound, making them events never to be
forgotten by those who witnessed them and worthy to be reckoned
among the most remarkable natural occurrences of the century.
About 285 actually observed meteoric falls is the total recorded
during the century. It is a remarkable fact regarding the nature of
the material fallen that only 5 of these have been of meteoric irons.
One of these irons fell at Mazapil, Mexico, during the star shower of
November, 1885, at the time when the return of Biela’s comet was
looked for, and was thus considered an occurrence corroborative of
the already suspected relationship among comets, shooting stars, and
meteorites. ;

The indifference to the collecting of meteorites which characterized
the early part of the century has given place in its latter days to an
extraordinary diligence in the search for these bodies. One meteorite
has of late acquired a value equal to four times its weight in gold, and
several can be sold for two and three times their weight by the gold
standard. The meteorite collection of the Natural History Museum in
Vienna has for many years been the leading one. What it has cost to
build it up may be known from the fact that it is considered the most
valuable of any single collection in that great treasure house. Repre-
sentatives of over 500 meteoric falls are exhibited in this collection,
and the meteoric matter has a total weight of 7 tons. The collection
of the British Museum of Natural History is nearly as large, while at
Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Calcutta, together with Washington,
Chicago, Cambridge, and New Haven, in our own country, are gathered
extensive and important collections. The establishment of such large
collections has for the first time put the study of meteorites on a sat-
isfactory basis and given lively hope that important truths will be
discovered by researches thus made possible. The general similarity
of the stony meteorites to the basic voleanic rocks of the earth has
been established, and similarity of many physical structures such as
brecciation, slicken-sided surfaces, and veins has been proved. The
chondritic structure and the crystalline structure represented by the
Widmanstiitten figures are, however, so far as is yet known, peculiar
to meteorites, and it will remain for the twentieth century to discover
what these structures mean. Classifications of meteorites based on
their mineralogical and structural characters have been established, :
and important differences among meteorites shown, in spite of their
family resemblances. It would be idle perhaps to recount, as might

CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. E97

a

be done, many theories regarding the nature and origin of meteorites
which have been found untenable as a result of the century’s study.
The theory of the lunar origin of meteorites had at times such able
supporters as Laplace and J. Lawrence Smith. Other able observers
have believed meteorites to be material ejected at some past period
from the earth’s volcanoes, some have regarded them of solar origin,
and still others as fragments of a shattered planet. All of these
theories may be said to have been proved fallacious. The discovery
reported by Hahn in 1880 of remains of sponges, corals, and plants in
meteorites excited for a time eager inquiries into the possibilities of
proving by the study of meteorites the existence of life outside our
own globe. No satisfactory evidence of the existence of extraterres-
trial life has, however, as yet been obtained from meteorites. The
most positive and enduring results of the century’s study may, there-
fore, perhaps be summed up as the establishment of the fact of the
fall of solid cosmic matter to the earth and a suflicient knowledge of
its nature to distinguish it from matter of terrestrial origin. Satis-
factory conclusions as to the origin of this matter and its relations to
the visible bodies of the great outlying universe remain yet to be
drawn.

“we
as

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.*

By Pror. Joun H. Poyntine, D. Sc., F. BR. S.

The studies in gravitation which I am to describe to you this evening
will perhaps fall into better order if I rapidly run over the well-beaten
track which leads to those studies, the track first laid down by
Newton based on astronomical observations, and only made firmer and
broader by every later observation.

I may remind you, then, that the motion of the planets round the
sun in ellipses, each marking out the area of its orbit at a constant rate,
and each having a year proportional to the square root of the cube of
its mean distance from the sun, implies that there is a force on each
planet exactly proportioned to its mass, directed toward, and inversely
as the square of its distance from the sun. The lines of force radiate
out from the sun on all sides equally, and always grasp any matter
with a force proportional to its mass, whatever planet that matter
belongs to.

If we assume that action and reaction are equal and opposite, then
each planet acts on the sun with a force proportional to its own mass;
and if, further, we suppose that these forces are merely the sum totals
of the forces due to every particle of matter in the bodies acting, we
are led straight to the law of gravitation, that the force between two
masses M, M, is always proportional to the product of the masses
divided by the square of the distance 7 between them, or is equal to

GX M,xM,
eee ae
and the constant multiplier G is the constant of gravitation.

Since the force is always proportional to the mass acted on, and
produces the same change of velocity whatever that mass may be, the
change of velocity tells us nothing about the mass in which it takes
place, but only about the mass which is pulling. If, however, we
compare the accelerations due to different pulling bodies, as for
instance that of the sun pulling the earth with that of the earth pull-
ing the moon, or if we compare changes in motion due to the different

"From Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol. XVI, part 2,
November, 1901. Read at weekly evening meeting, Friday, February 23, 1900, His
Grace the Duke of Northumberland, K. G., F. 8. A., president, in the chair.

199

200 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. -

planets pulling each other, then we can compare their masses and
weigh them one against another and each against the sun. But in
this weighing our standard weight is not the pound or kilogram of
terrestrial weighings, but the mass of the sun.

For instance, from the fact that a body at the earth’s surface, 4,000
miles, on the average, from the mass of the earth, falls with a velocity
increasing by 32 ft./ sec.”, while the earth itself falls towards the sun,
92,000,000 miles away, with a velocity increasing by about 4 inch/ sec.?,
we can at once show that the mass of the sun is 300,000 times that of
theearth. In other words, astronomical observation gives us only the
acceleration, the product of G * mass acting, but does not tell us
the value of G nor of the mass acting in terms of our terrestrial
standards,

To weigh the sun, the planets, or the earth in pounds or kilo-
grams, or to find G, we must descend from the heavenly bodies to
earthly matter, and either compare the pull of a weighable mass on
some body with the puil of the earth on it, or else choose two weigh-
able masses and find the pull between them.

All this was clearly seen by Newton, and was set forth in his System
of the World (third edition, p. 41).

He saw that a mountain mass might be used, and weighed against
the earth by finding how much it deflected the plumb line at its base.
The density of the mountain could be found from specimens of the
rocks composing it, and the distance of its parts from the plumb line
by asurvey. The deflection of the vertical would then give the mass
of the earth.

Newton also considered the possibility of measuring the attraction
between two weighable masses, and calculated how long it would take
a sphere a foot in diameter, of the earth’s mean density, to draw
another equal sphere, with their surfaces separated by one-fourth
inch, through that one-fourth inch. But he made a very great mis-
take in his arithmetic, for while his result gave about one month, the
actual time would only be about five and one-half minutes. Had his
value been right, gravitational experiments would have been beyond
the power of even Professor Boys. Some doubt has been thrown on
Newton’s authorship of this mistake, but I confess that there is some-
thing not altogether unpleasing in the mistake even of a Newton. His
faulty arithmetic showed that there was one quality which he shared
with the rest of mankind.

Not long after Newton’s death the mountain experiment was actually
tried, and in two ways. The honor of making these first experiments
on gravitation belongs to Bouguer, whose splendid work in thus
breaking new ground does not appear to me to have received the
credit due to it.

One of his plans consisted in measuring the deflection of the plumb

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 201

line due to Chimborazo, one of the Andes peaks, by finding the dis-
tance of a star on the meridian from the zenith, first at a station on
the south side of the mountain, where the vertical was deflected, and
then at a station to the west, where the mountain attraction was nearly
inconsiderable, so that the actual nearly coincided with the geograph-
ical vertical. The difference in zenith distances gave the mountain
deflection. It is not surprising that, working in snowstorms at one
station and in sand storms at the other, Bouguer obtained a very
incorrect result. But at 'east he showed the possibility of such work,
and since his time many experiments have been carried out on his
lines under more favorable conditions. Now, however, I think-. it is
generally recognized that the difficulty of estimating the mass of a
mountain from mere surface chips is insurmountable, and it is admitted
that the experiment should be turned the other way about and regarded

Fic. 1.—Cavendish’s apparatus.

as an attempt to measure the mass of the mountains from the density
of the earth known by other experiments.

These other experiments are on the line indicated by Newton in his
calculations of the attraction of two spheres. The first was carried
out by Cavendish.

In the apparatus (fig. 1) he used two lead balls, B B, each 2 inches
in diameter. These were hung at the end of a horizontal rod 6 feet
long, the torsion rod, and this was hung up by a long wire from its
middle point. Two large attracting spheres of lead, W W, each 12
inches in diameter, were brought close to the balls on opposite sides,
so that their attractions on the balls conspired to twist the torsion rod
round the same way, and the angle of twist was measured. The force
could be reckoned in terms of this angle by setting the rod vibrating
to and fro and finding the time of vibration, and the force came out to
less than one three-thousandth of a grain. Knowing M, M, and 7, the

202 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

distance between them and the force G M, M,'7”, of course Cavendish’s
result gives G, or, knowing the attraction of a big sphere on a ball,
and knowing the attraction of the earth on the same ball—that is, its
weight—the experiment gives the mass of earth in terms of that of
the big sphere, and so its mean density. This experiment has often
been repeated, but I do not think it is too much to say that no advance
was made in exactness till we come to quite recent work.

By far the most remarkable recent study in gravitation is Professor
Boys’s beautiful form of the Cavendish experiment, a research which

Fig. 2.—Boys’s apparatus.

stands out as a model in beauty of design and in exactness of execu-
tion (fig. 2). But as Professor Boys has described his experiment
already in this theater," it is not necessary for me to more than refer
toit. It is enough to say that he made the great discovery, obvious,
perhaps, when made, that the sensitiveness of the apparatus is increased
by reducing its dimensions. He therefore decreased the scale as far
as was consistent with exact measurement of the parts of the appa-
ratus, using a torsion rod, itself a mirror, only 2 inches long, gold
balls, 7 m, only + inch in diameter, and attracting lead masses, M M,

“Proc. Royal Institution, XIV, part 2, 1894, p. 353.

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 203

only 44 inches in diameter. The force to be measured was less than
1/5 X 10° grain.

The exactness of his work was increased by using as suspending
wire one of his quartz threads. It would be difficult to overestimate
the service he has rendered in the measurement of small forces by the
discovery of the remarkable properties of these threads.

One of the chief difficulties in the measurement of these small gray-
itational pulls is the disturbances which are brought about by the air
currents which blow to and fro and up and down inside the apparatus,
producing irregular motions in the torsion rod. These, though much
reduced, are not reduced in proportion to the diminution of, the
apparatus.

A very interesting repetition of the Cavendish experiment has lately
been concluded by Dr. Braun* at Mariaschein, in Bohemia, in which
he has sought to get rid of these disturbing air currents by suspend-
ing his torsion rod in a receiver which was nearly exhausted, the pres-
sure being reduced to about one two-hundredth of an atmosphere.
The gales which have been the despair of other workers were thus
reduced to such gentle breezes that their effect was hardly noticeable.
His apparatus was nearly a mean proportional between that of Caven-
dish and Boys, his torsion rod being about 9 inches long, the balls
and the attracting masses

weighing 54 grams—less than 2 ounces
either 5 or 9 kilograms. His work bears internal evidence of great
care and accuracy, and he obtained almost exactly the same result as
Professor Boys.

Dr. Braun carried on his work far from the usual laboratory facili-
ties, far from workshops, and he had to make much of his appa-
ratus himself. His patience and persistence command our highest
admiration. :

Iam glad to say that he is now repeating the experiment, using as
suspension a quartz fiber supplied to him by Professor Boys in place
of the somewhat untrustworthy metal wire which he used in the work
already published.

Professor Boys has almost indignantly disclaimed that he was
engaged on any such purely local experiment as the determination of
the mean density of the earth. He was working for the universe,
seeking the value of G, information which would be as useful on Mars
or Jupiter or out in the stellar system as here on the earth. But
perhaps we may this evening consent to be more parochial in our
ideas and express the results in terms of the mean density of the
earth. In such terms, then, both Boys and Braun find that density
5.527 times the density of water, agreeing therfeore to 1 in 5,000.

There is another mode of proceeding which may be regarded as the

*Denkschriften der Math. Wiss. Classe der Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften Wien,
LXIV, 1896.

204 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

Cavendish experiment turned from a horizontal into a vertical plane,
and in which the torsion balance is replaced by the common balance.
This method occurred about the same time to the late Prof. U.
Jolly and myself. The principle of my own experiment* will be
sufficiently indicated by fig. 3. A big bullion balance with a 4-foot
beam had two lead spheres, A B, each about 50 pounds in weight, hang-
ing from the two ends in place of the usual scale pans. <A large lead
sphere, M, 1 foot in diameter and weighing about 350 pounds, was
brought first under one hanging weight, then under the other. The
pull of the lead sphere acted first on one side alone and then on the

Fic. 3.—Common balance experiment (Poynting).

other so that the tilt of the balance beam when the sphere was moved
round was due to twice the pull. By means of riders the tilt and there-
fore the pull was measured directly as so much increase in weight.
This increase, when the sphere was brought directly under the hanging
weight with 1 foot between the centers, was about one-fifth mgm. in a
total weight of 20 kilograms, or about 1 in 100,000,000. If, then, a
sphere one foot away pulls with 1/10° of the earth’s pull, the earth

earth’s mass is calculable in terms of the mass of the sphere, and its

@ Phil. Trans. 182, 1891, A, p. 569.

Nic

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 905

density is at once deduced. The direct aim of this experiment, then,
is not G, but the mass of the earth.

It is nota little surprising that the balance could be made to indicate
stch a small increase in weight as 1 in 100,000,000. But not only did
it indicate, it measured the increase, with variations usually well within
1 per cent of the double attraction, or to 1 in 5,000,000,000 of the
whole weight, a change in weight which would occur merely if
one of the spheres were moved one-fortieth inch nearer the earth’s
center. This accuracy is only attained by never lifting the knife edges
and planes during an experiment, thus keeping the beam in the same
state of strain throughout, and, further, by taking care that none of
the mechanism for moving the weights or riders shall be attached in

aS
PZ ASS

Olle,

YY IGE Y/j

Fie. 4.—Common balance experiment (Richarz and Krigar-Menzel).

any way to the balance or its case; two conditions which are abso-
lutely essentialAf we are to get the best results of which the balance
is capable.

Quite recently another common balance experiment has been brought
to a conclusion by Professor Richarz and Dr. Krigar-Menzel* at Span-
dau, near Berlin. Their method may be gathered from fig. 4. A
balance of 23 cm., say 9-Inch beam, was mounted above a huge lead
pile about 2 meters cube, and weighing 100,000 kilograms.

Two pans were supported from each end of the beam, one pan above
the other pan below the lead cube, the suspending wires of the lower
pans going through narrow vertical tubular holes in the lead. Instead

* Anhang zu den Abhandlungen der Konigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaften
zu Berlin, 1898.

206 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

of moving the attracting mass, the attracted mass was moved. Masses
of 1 kilogram each were put first, say, one in the upper right-hand pan,
the other in the lower left-hand pan, when the pull of the lead block
made the right hand heavier and the left hand lighter. Then the
weights were changed to the lower right hand and the upper left hand,
when the pulls of the lead pile were reversed. When we remember
that in my experiment a lowering of the hanging sphere by 13 inches
would give an effect as great as the pull I was measuring, it is evident
that here the approach to and removal from the earth by over 2 meters
would produce yery considerable changes in weight, and, indeed,
these changes masked the effect of the attraction of the lead. Prelimi-
nary experiments had, therefore, to be made before the lead pile was
built up, to find the change in weight due to removal from upper to
lower pan, and this change had to be allowed for. The quadruple
attraction of the lead pile came out at 1.3664 mgm., and the mean
density of the earth at 5.505.

This agrees nearly with my own result of 5.49, and it is a curious
coincidence that the two most recent balance experiments agree very

ey eS a ee

See > eS Se a

— —— ————

Sear ei Cee ae —— ae

Fic. 5.—Paramagnetic¢ sphere placed ina Fic. 6.—Diamagnetic sphere placed in
previously straight field. a previously straight field.

nearly at, say, 5.5, and the two most recent Cavendish experiments
agree at, say, 5.53, but I confess I think it is merely a coincidence. I
have no doubt that the torsion experiment is the more exact, though
probably an experiment on different lines was worth making, and I
am quite content to accept the value 5.527 as the standard value for the
present.

And so the latest research has amply verified Newton’s celebrated
cuess that ‘the quantity of the whole matter of the earth may be five
or six times greater than if it consisted all of water.”

I now turn to another line of gravitational research. . When we
compare gravitation with other known forces (and those which have
been most closely studied are electric and magnetic forces) we are at
once led to inquire whether the lines of gravitative force are always
straight lines radiating from or to the mass round which they center,
or whether, like electric and magnetic lines of force, they have a pref-
erence for some media and a distaste for others. We know, for
example, that if a magnetic sphere of iron or cobalt or manganese Is
placed in a previously straight field its permeability is greater than

atl

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 207

the air it replaces, and the lines of force crowd into it, as in fig. 5.
The magnetic action is then stronger in the presence of the sphere near
the ends of a diameter parallel to the original course of the lines of
force and the lines are deflected. If the sphere be diamagnetic, of
water, or copper, or bismuth, the permeability being less than that
of air, there is an opposite effect, as in fig. 6, and the field is weakened
at the end of a diameter parallel to the lines of force, and again the
lines are deflected. Similarly a dielectric body placed in an electric
field gathers in the lines of force and makes the field where the lines
enter and leave stronger than it was before.

If we inclose a magnet in a hollow box of soft iron placed in a mag-
netic field, the lines of force are gathered into the iron and largely
cleared away from the in-
side cavity, so that the mag-
net is screened from exter-
nal action.

Now, common experience
might lead us at once to say
that there is no very con-
siderable effect of this kind
with gravitation. The evi-

denee of ordina ry weighing FIG. ee of interposition of more permeable medium
in radiating field of force.

may perhaps be rejected,
inasmuch as both sides will be equally affected as the balance is
commonly used. But a spring balance should show if there is any
large effect when used in different positions above different media or
in different inclosures, and the ordinary balance is used in certain
experiments in which one weight is suspended beneath the balance
‘ase and surrounded perhaps by a metal case or perhaps by a water
bath. Yet no appreciable variation of weight on that account has yet
been noted, nor does the direction of the vertical change rapidly from
place to place, as it would with varying permeability of the ground
below. But perhaps the agreement of pendulum results, whatever the
block on which the pendulum is placed and whatever the case in which
it is contained, gives the best evidence that there is no great gathering
in or opening out of the lines of the earth’s force by different media.

Still, a direct experiment on the attraction between two masses with
different media interposed was well worthy of trial, and such an exper-
iment has lately been carried out in America by Messrs. Austin and
Thwing.* The effect to be looked for will be understood from fig. T.
If a medium more permeable to gravitatign is interposed between two
bodies, the lines of force will move into it from each side, and the
erayitative pull on a body near the interposed medium on the side
away from the attracting body will be increased.

Physical Review, V, 1897, p. 294.

208 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

The apparatus they used was a modified kind of Boys’s apparatus
(fig. 8). Two small gold masses, in the form of short vertical wires,
each 0.4 gm. in weight, were arranged at different levels at the ends
virtually of a torsion rod § mm. long. The attracting masses M, M,
were lead, each about 1 kgm. These were first in the positions shown
by black lines in the figure, and were then moved into the positions
shown by dotted lines. The attraction was measured first when merely
the air and the case of the instrument intervened, and then when vari-
ous slabs, each 3 cm. thick, 10 cm. wide, and 29 em. high, were inter-
posed. With screens of lead, zine, mercury, water, alcohol, or:
glycerin, the change in attraction was at the most about 1 in 500,
and this did not exceed
the errors of experiment.
That is, they found no evi-
dence of a change in pull
with change of medium. If
such change exists, it is not
of the order of the change
of electric pull with change
of medium, but something
far smaller. Perhaps it
still remains just possible
that there are variations of
gravitational permeability
comparable with the varia-
tions of magnetic perme-
ability in media such as
water and alcohol.

Yet another kind of effect
might be suspected. In
most crystalline substances
the physical properties are
different along different di-
rections in a crystal. They expand differently, they conduct heat differ-
ently, and they transmit light at different speeds in different directions.
We might, then, imagine that the lines of gravitative force spread out
from, say, a crystal sphere unequally in different directions. Some
years ago, Dr. Mackenzie* made an experiment in America, in which
he sought for direct evidence of such unequal distribution of the lines
of force. He used a form of apparatus like that of Professor Boys
(fig. 2), the attracting masseg being calc spar spheres about 2 inches in
diameter. The attracted masses in one experiment were small lead
spheres about one-half gm. each, and he measured the attraction
between_the crystals and the lead when the axes of the crystals were

Fic. 8.—Experiment on grayitative permeability (Austin
and Thwing ).

* Physical Review, II, 1895, p. 321.

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 209,

set in various positions. But the variation in the attraction was
merely of the order of error of experiment. In another experi-
ment the attracted masses were small cale spar crystal cylinders,
weighing a little more than one-half gm. each. But again there was
no evidence of variation in the attraction with variation of axial
direction.

Practically the same problem was attacked in a different way by
Mr. Gray and myself.*| We tried to find whether a quartz crystal
sphere had any directive action on another quartz crystal sphere close
to it, whether they tended to set with their axes parallel or crossed.

It may easily be seen that this is the same problem by considering
what must happen if there is any difference in the attraction between
two such spheres when their axes are parallel and when they are
crossed. Suppose, for example, that the attraction is always greater
when their axes are parallel, and this seems a reasonable supposition,
inasmuch as in straightforward crystallization successive parts of the
erystal are added to the existing crystal, all with their axes parallel.
Begin, then, with two quartz crystal spheres near each other, with
their axes in the same plane, but perpendicular to each other. Remove
one to a very great distance, doing work against their mutual attrac-
tions. Then, when it is quite out of range of appreciable action, turn
it round till its axis is parallel to that of the fixed crystal. This
absorbs no work if done slowly. Then let it return. The force on
the return journey at every point is greater than the force on the
outgoing journey, and more work will be got out than was put in.
When the sphere is in its first position, turn it round till the axes are
again at rightangles. Then work must be done on turning it through
this right angle to supply the difference between the outgoing and
incoming works. For, if no work were done in the turning, we could
go through cycle after cycle, always getting a balance of energy over,
and this would, I think, imply either a cooling of the crystals ora
diminution in their weight, neither supposition being admissible. We
are led, then, to say that if the attraction with parallel axes exceeds
that with crossed axes, there must be a directive action resisting the
turn from the crossed to the parallel positions. And, conversely, a
directive action implies axial variation in gravitation.

The straightforward mode of testing the existence of this directive
action woul” consist in hanging up one sphere by a wire or thread
and turning the other round into various positions and observing
whether the hanging sphere tended to twist out of position. But the
action, if it exists, is so minute and the disturbances due to air cur-
rents are so great that it would be extremely difficult to observe its
effect directly. It occurred to us that we might call in the aid of the

—

* Phil. Trans. 192, 1899, A, p. 245,
sm 1901——14

210 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

principle of forced oscillations by turning one sphere round and round
at a constant rate, so that the couple would act first in one direction
and then in the other, alternately, and so set the hanging sphere
vibrating to and fro. The nearer the complete time of vibration of
the applied couple to the natural time of vibration of the hanging
sphere, the greater would be the vibration set up. This is well illus-
trated by moving the point of suspension of a pendulum to and fro in
gradually decreasing periods, when the swing gets longer and longer,
till the period is that of the pendulum, and then decreases again; or,

Governor i)
Lead fly-whee( =

|

Fic. 9.—Experiment on directive action of one quartz crystal on another.

by the experiment of varying the length of a jar resounding to a given
fork, when the sound suddenly swells out as the length becomes that
which would naturally give the same note as the fork. Now, in look-
ing for the couple between the crystals, there are two possible cases.
The most likely is that in which the couple acts in one way while the
turning sphere is moving from parallel to crossed, and in the opposite
way during the next quarter turn from crossed to parallel; that is, the
couple vanishes four times during the revolution, and this we may
term a quadrantal couple; but it is just possible that a quartz crystal

:

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. re |

has two ends, like a magnet, and that like poles tend to like directions.
Then, the couple will vanish only twice in a revolution and may be
termed a semicircular couple. We looked for both, but it is enough
now to consider the possibility of the quadrantal couple only.

Our mode of working will be seen from fig. 9. The hanging
sphere, 0.9 cm. in diameter and 1 gm. in weight, was placed in a light
aluminum wire cage with a mirror on it, and suspended by a long
quartz fiber in a brass case with a window in it opposite the mirror,
and surrounded by a double-walled, tinfoiled wood case. The position
of the sphere was read in the usual way, by scale and telescope. The
time of swing of this little sphere was one hundred and twenty seconds.

A larger quartz sphere, 6.6 cm. diameter and weighing 400 gms.,
was fixed at the lower end of an axis, which could be turned at any
desired rate by a regulated motor. The centers of the spheres were

Scale division

3 4 S 7

ber tess: | |
erload 1/25

Fic. 10.—Upper curve in regular vibration. Lower curve a disturbance dying away.

on the same level and 5.9 cm. apart. On the top of the axis was a
wheel with 20 equidistant marks on its rim, one passing a fixed point
every eleven and five-tenths seconds.

It might be expected that the couple, if it existed, would have the
greatest effect if its period exactly coincided with the one hundred and
twenty second period of the hanging sphere, i. e., if the larger sphere
revolved in two hundred and forty seconds; but in the conditions of
the experiment the vibrations of the small sphere were very much
damped, and the forced oscillations did not mount up as they would
ina freer swing. The disturbances, which were mostly of an impul-
sive kind, continually set the hanging sphere into large vibration, and
these might easily be taken as due to the revolving sphere. In fact,
looking for the couple with exactly coincident periods would be some-
thing like trying to find if a fork set the air in a resonating jar vibrat-
ing when a brass band was playing all round it. It was necessary to

pl le RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

make the couple period, then, a little different from the natural one
hundred and twenty second period, and accordingly we revolved the
large sphere once in two hundred and thirty seconds, when the sup-
posed quadrantal couple would have a period of one hundred and fif-
teen seconds.

Figs. 10 and 11 may help to show how this enabled us to eliminate
the disturbances. Let the ordinates of the curves in fig. 10 represent
vibrations set out to a horizontal time scale. The upper curve is a
regular vibration of range + 3, the lower a disturbance beginning
with range + 10. The first has period 1, the second period 1.25.
Now, cutting the curves into lengths equal to the period of the shorter
time of vibration and arranging the lengths one under the other, as in
fio. 11, it will be seen that the maxima and the minima of the regular
vibration always fall at the same points, so
that, taking 7 periods and adding up the ordi-

- nates, we get 7 times the range, viz, + 21.
5 But in the disturbance the maxima and mini-
Q ma fall at different points, and even with 7
S * periods only, the range is from + 16 to — 13,
t or less than the range due to the addition of
\ S the much smaller regulation vibration.
: % In our experiment the couple, if it existed,
. & would very soon establish its vibration,
a which would always be there and would go
€| through all its values in one hundred and

fifteen seconds. An observer, watching the
wheel at the top of the revolving axis, gave
the time signals every eleven and five-tenth
| seconds, regulating the speed if necessary,
FIG. 11.—Results of superposition of and an observer at the telescope gave the
rare ee RES E IS a: scale reading at every signal—that is, 10
times during the period. The values were
arranged in 10 columns, each horizontal line giving the readings of
a period. The experiment was carried on for about two and one-half
hours at a time, covering, say, 80 periods. On adding up the columns
the maxima and minima of the couple effect would always fall in the
same two columns, and so the addition would give 80 times the swing,
while the maxima and minima of the natural swings due to disturb-
ances would fall in different columns, and so, in the long run, neu-
tralize each other. The results of different days’ work might, of
course, be added together.

There always was a small outstanding effect, such as would be pro-
duced by a quadrantal couple, but its effect was not always in the same
columns, and the net result of about three hundred and fifty period
observations was that there was no one hundred and fifteen second

Fangerl6 to-/3

RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 213

vibration of more than 1 second of are, while the disturbances were
sometimes 50 times as great.

The semicircular couple required the turning sphere to revolve in
one hundred and fifteen seconds. Here want of symmetry in the
apparatus would come in with the same effect as the couple sought,
and the outstanding result was accordingly a little larger.

But in neither case could the experiments be taken as showing a real
couple, They only showed that, if it existed, it was incapable of pro-
ducing an effect greater than that observed.

Perhaps the best way to put the result of our work is this: Imagine
the small sphere set with its axis at 45° to that of the other. Then
the couple is not greater than one which would take five and one-fourth
hours to turn it through that 45~ to the parallel position, and it would
oscillate about that position in not less than twenty-one hours.

The semicircular couple is not greater than one which would turn
from crossed to parallel position in four and one-half hours, and it would
oscillate about that position in not less than seventeen hours.

Or, if the gravitation is less in the crossed than in the parallel posi-
tion, and in a constant ratio, the difference is less than 1 in 16,000 in
the one case and less than 1 in 2,800 in the other.

We may compare with these numbers the difference of rate of travel
of yellow light through a quartz crystal along the axis and perpen-
dicular to it. That difference is of quite another order, being about 1
in 170.

As to other possible qualities of gravitation, I shall only mention
that quite indecisive experiments have been made to seek for an altera-
tion of mass on chemical combination,* and that at present there is no
reason to suppose that temperature affects gravitation. Indeed, as to
temperature effect, the agreement of weight methods and volume
methods of measuring expansion with rise of temperature is good, as
far as it goes, in showing that weight is independent of temperature.

So, while the experiments to determine G are converging on the
same value, the attempts to show that, under certain conditions, it may
not be constant, have resulted so far in failure all along the line. No
attack on gravitation has succeeded in showing that it is related to any-
thing but the masses of the attracting and the attracted bodies. It
appears to have no relation to physical or chemical condition of the
acting masses or to the intervening medium.

Perhaps we have been led astray by false analogies in some of our
questions. Some of the qualities we have sought and failed to find,
qualities which characterize electric and magnetic forces, may be due
to the polarity, the + and —, which we ascribe to poles and charges,
and which have no counterpart in mass.

“Landolt, Zeit. fiir Phys. Chem. XII, 1, 1894. Sanford and Ra’y, Physical Review,
V, 1897, p. 247.

914 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.

But this unlikeness, this independence of gravitation of any quality
but mass, bars the way to any explanation of its nature.

The dependence of electric forces on the medium, one of Faraday’s
grand discoveries forever associated with the Royal Institution, was
the first step which led on to the electromagnetic theory of light, now
so splendidly illustrated by Hertz’s electromagnetic waves. The
quantitative laws of electrolysis, again due to Faraday, are leading, I
believe, to the identification of electrification and chemical separation—
to the identification of electric with chemical energy.

But gravitation still stands alone. The isolation which Faraday
sought to break down is still complete. Yet the work I have been
describing is not all failure. We at least know something in knowing
what qualities gravitation does not possess, and when the time shall come
for explanation all these laborious and, at first sight, useless experi-
ments will take their place in the foundation on which that explanation
will be built. .

ait ee

ON ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER THROUGH
INFINITE SPACE.*

By Lorp KeEtyvry.

NOTE ON THE POSSIBLE DENSITY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS MEDIUM AND ON
THE MECHANICAL VALUE OF A CUBIC MILE ° OF SUNLIGHT.®

Section 1. That there must be a medium forming a continuous mate-
rial communication throughout space to the remotest visible body is
a fundamental assumption in the undulatory theory of light. Whether
or not this medium is (as appears® to me most probable) a continuation
of our own atmosphere, its existence is a fact that can not be ques-
tioned when the overwhelming evidence in favor of the undulatory
theory is considered; and the investigation of its properties in every
possible way becomes an object of the greatest interest. A first ques-
tion would naturally occur, What is the absolute density of the lumi-
niferous ether in any part of space? Jam not aware of any attempt
having hitherto been made to answer this question, and the present
state of science does not in fact afford sufficient data. It has, however,
occurred to me that we may assign an inferior limit to the density of
the luminiferous medium in interplanetary space by considering
the mechanical value of sunlight as deduced in preceding communica-
tions to the Royal Society ‘ from Pouillet’s data on solar radiation and

“Reprinted from the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science [sixth series], August, 1901, pp. 161-177. [This is an amplifica-
tion of Lecture X VI, Baltimore, October 15, 1884, now being prepared for print in a
volume on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light, which I hope may be
published within a year from the present time. ]

"Note of December 22, 1892.—The brain-wasting perversity of the insular inertia
which still condemns British engineers to reckonings of miles and yards and feet and
inches and grains and pounds and ounces and acres is curiously illustrated by the
title and numerical results of this article as originally published.

*October 13, 1899.—In the present reproduction, as part of my Lecture XVI, of
Baltimore, 1884, I suggest cubic kilometer instead of ‘‘cubic mile’’ in the title, and
use the French metrical system exclusively in the article.

4From Edin. Royal Soc. Trans., Vol. X XI, Part I, May, 1854; Phil. Mag., IX, 1854;
Comptes Rendus, XX XIX, Sept., 1854; Art. LX VII of Math. and Phys. Papers.

October 13, 1899.—Not so now. I did not in 1854 know the kinetic theory of
gases.

‘Trans. R. S. E.; Mechanical Energies of the Solar System; republished as Art.
LX VI of Math. and Phys. Papers.

215

216 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

Joule’s mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit. Thus the value of
solar radiation per second per square centimeter at the earth’s distance
from the sun, estimated at 1,235 cm.-grams, is the same as the mechan-
ical value of sunlight in the luminiferous medium through a space of
as many cubic centimeters as the number of linear centimeters of prop-
agation of light per second. Hence the mechanical value of the whole
energy, kinetic and potential, of the disturbance kept up in the space
of acubic centimeter at the earth’s distance from the sun* is

1235 ig tha <.
3310? OF {ow of a cm.-gram.

Src. 2. The mechanical value of a cubic kilometer of sunlight is
consequently 412 meter-kilograms, equivalent to the work of one
horsepower for five and four-tenths seconds. This result may give
some idea of the actual amount of mechanical energy of the luminif-
erous motions and forces within our own atmosphere. Merely to
commence the illumination of 11 cubic kilometers requires an amount
of work equal to that of a horsepower for a minute; the same amount
of energy exists in that space as long as light continues to traverse
it, and, if the source of light be suddenly stopped, must pass from it
before the illumination ceases.” The matter which possesses this
energy is the luminiferous medium. If, then, we knew the velocities
of the vibratory motions, we might ascertain the density of the
luminiferous medium; or, conversely, if we knew the density of the
medium, we might determine the average velocity of the moving
particles.

Src. 3. Without any such definite knowledge we may assign a
superior limit to the velocities and deduce an inferior limit to the quan-
tity of matter by considering the nature of the motions which con-
stitute waves of light. For it appears certain that the amplitudes of
the vibrations constituting radiant heat and light must be but small
fractions of the wave lengths, and that the greatest velocities of the
vibrating particles must be very small in comparison with the velocity
of propagation of the waves.

Src. 4. Let us consider, for instance, homogeneous plane polarized
light, and let the greatest velocity of vibration be denoted by w; the
distance to which a particle vibrates on each side of its position of

*The mechanical value of sunlight in any space near the sun’s surface must be
greater than in an equal space at the earth’s distance in the ratio of the square of the
earth’s distance to the square of the sun’s radius—that is, in the ratio of 46,000 to 1
nearly. The mechanical value of a cubic centimeter of sunlight near the sun must,
therefore, be

123546000 Fes
— 3x10” or about .0019 of a em.-gram.
»Similarly we find 4,140 horsepower for a minute as the amount of work require

to generate the energy existing in a cubic kilometer of light near the sun.

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. oy

equilibrium by A; and thé wave length by 4. Then, if V denote the
velocity of propagation of light or radiant heat, we have

QV A
Ton

—=9
V N

and therefore if A be a small fraction of A, 7 must also be a small
fraction (27 times as great) of V. The same relation holds for cir-
cularly polarized light, since in the time during which a particle
revolves once round in a circle of radius A the wave has been propa-
gated over a space equal to’. Now, the whole mechanical value of
homogeneous plane polarized light in an infinitely small space con-
taining only particles sensibly in the same phase of vibration, which
consists entirely of potential energy at the instants when the particles
are at rest at the extremities of their excursions, partly of potential
and partly of kinetic energy when they are moving to or from their
positions of equilibrium, and wholly of kinetic energy when they are
passing through these positions, is of constant amount, and must
therefore be at every instant equal to half the mass multiplied by the
square of the velocity which the particles have in the last-mentioned
vase. But the velocity of any particle passing through its position
of equilibrium is the greatest velocity of vibration. This we have
denoted by 7; and, therefore, if o denote the quantity of vibrating
matter contained in a certain space, a space of unit volume, for in-
stance, the whole mechanical value of all the energy, both kinetic and
potential, of the disturbance within that space at any time is 7pv”.
The mechanical energy of circularly polarized light at every instant
is (as has been pointed out to me by Professor Stokes) half kinetic
energy of the revolving particles and half potential energy of the
distortion kept up in the luminiferous medium; and, therefore, v being
now taken to denote the constant velocity of motion of each particle,
double the preceding expression gives the mechanical value of the whole
disturbance in a unit of volume in the present case.

Sec. 5. Hence, it is clear that for any elliptically polarized light the
mechanical value of the disturbance in a unit of volume will be
between 42” and pv’, if w still denote the greatest velocity of the
vibrating particles. The mechanical value of the disturbance kept
up by a number -of coexisting series of waves of different periods,
polarized in the same plane, is the sum of the mechanical values due
to each homogeneous series separately, and the greatest velocity that
can possibly be acquired by any vibrating particle is the sum of the
separate velocities due to the different series. Exactly the same
remark applies to coexistent series of circularly polarized waves of
different periods. Hence, the mechanical value is certainly less than
half the mass multiplied into the square of the greatest velocity

218 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

acquired by a particle, when the disturbance consists in the superpo-
sition of different series of plane polarized waves; and we may con-
clude, for every kind of radiation of light or heat except a series of
homogeneous circularly polarized waves, that the mechanical value of
the disturbance kept up in any space is less than the product of the
mass into the square of the greatest velocity acquired by a vibrating
particle in the varying phases of its motion. How much less in such
a complex radiation as that of sunlight and heat we can not tell,
because we do not know how much the velocity of a particle may
mount up, perhaps even to a considerable value in comparison with
the velocity of propagation, at some instant by the superposition of
‘different motions chancing to agree; but we may be sure that the
product of the mass into the square of an ordinary maximum velocity,
or of the mean of a great many successive maximum velocities of a
vibrating particle, can not exceed in any great ratio the true mechan-
ical value of the disturbance.

Sec. 6. Recurring, however, to the definite expression. for the
mechanical value of the disturbance in the case of homogeneous cir-
cularly polarized light, the only case in which the velocities of all
particles are constant and the same, we may define the mean velocity
of vibration in any case as such a velocity that the product of its square
into the mass of the vibrating particles is equal to the whole mechan-
ical value, in kinetic and potential energy, of the disturbance in a certain
space traversed by it; and from all we know of the mechanical theory
of undulations, it seems certain that this velocity must be a very small
fraction of the velocity of propagation in the most intense light or radi-
ant heat which is propagated according to known laws. Denoting this
velocity for the case of sunlight at the earth’s distance from the sun by
v, and calling W the mass in grams of any volume of the luminiferous
ether, we have the mechanical value of the disturbance in the same space,
in terms of terrestrial gravitation units,

Wins

Sd ;
where g is the number 981, measuring in (C.G.S.) absolute units of
force, the force of gravity om a gram. Now, from Pouillet’s obser-
1235 x 46000
V
for the mechanical value, in centimeter-grams, of a cubic centimeter
-of sunlight in the neighborhood of the sun; and therefore the mass, in
grams, of a cubic centimeter of the ether, must be given by the equa-
tion,

vation, we found in the last footnote on section 1 above,

98 y)
ges i be ae eae a
wV

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 219

fue :
If we assume —- V, this becomes

yy _281X1235X46000 9811285 X46000, 20°64 a
== V3 AN = (3 x 10°) i 102 7 gm. 5
20°64

9

and for the mass, in grams, of a cubic kilometer we have jo" XM

Src. 7. It is quite impossible to fix a definite limit to the ratio
which » may bear to V; but it appears improbable that it could be
more, for instance, than one-fiftieth for any kind of light following
the observed laws. We may conclude that probably a cubic centi-
meter of the luminiferous medium in the space near the sun contains
not less than 516X10-* of a gram of matter; and a cubic kilometer
not less than 51610 of a gram.

Sec. 8. [Nov. 16, 1899.-We have strong reason to believe that
the density of ether is constant throughout interplanetary and inter-
stellar space. Hence, taking the density of water as unity according
to the convenient French metrical system, the preceding statements
are equivalent to saying that the density of ether in vacuum or space
devoid of ponderable matter is everywhere probably not less than
ave

Hence the rigidity (being equal to the density multiplied by the
square of the velocity of light) must be not less than 4500 dynes* per
square centimeter. With this enormous value as an inferior limit to
the rigidity of the ether, we shall see in an addition to Lecture XIX
that it is impossible to arrange for a radiant molecule moving through
ether and displacing ether by its translatory as well as by its vibratory
motions, consistently with any probable suppositions as to magnitudes
of molecules and ruptural rigidity-modulus of ether; and that it is also
impossible to explain the known smallness of ethereal resistance
against the motions of planets and comets, or of smaller ponderable
bodies, such as those we can handle and experiment upon in our abode
on the earth’s surface, if the ether must be pushed aside to make way
for the body moving through it. We shall find ourselves forced to
consider the necessity of some hypothesis for the free motion of pon-
derable bodies through ether, disturbing it only by condensations and
raretactions, with no incompatibility in respect to joint occupation of
the same space by the two substances. ”]

Sec. 9. I wish to make a short calculation to show how much com-
pressing force is exerted upon the luminiferous ether by the sun’s
attraction. We are accustomed to call ether imponderable. How do
we know it is imponderable? If we had never dealt with air except

“See Math. and Phys. Papers, Vol. III, p. 522; and in the last line of table 4, for
See SInehibute: p< 1O— =”
»See Phil. Mag., Aug., 1900, pp. 181-198.

220 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

by our senses, air would be imponderable to us; but we know by
experiment that a vacuous glass globe shows an increase of weight
when air is allowed to flow into it. We have not the slightest reason
to believe the luminiferous ether to be imponderable. [Nov. 17,
1899.-I now see that we have the strongest possible reason to
believe that ether is imponderable.| It is just as likely to be attracted
to the sun as air is. At all events the onus of proof rests with
those who assert that it is imponderable. I think we shall have to
modify our ideas of what gravitation is, if we have a mass spread-
ing through space with mutual gravitations between its parts with-
out being attracted by other bodies. [Nov. 17, 1899.—But is there
any gravitational attraction between different portions of ether? Cer-
tainly not, unless either it is infinitely resistant against condensa-
tion, or there is only a finite volume of space occupied by it. Suppose
that ether is given uniform spread through space to infinite distances
in all directions. Any spherical portion of it, if held with its sur-
face absolutely fixed, would by the mutual gravitation of its parts
become heterogeneous; and this tendency could certainly not be coun-
teracted by doing away with the supposed rigidity of its boundary
and by the attraction of, ether extending to infinity outside it. The
pressure at the center of a spherical portion of homogeneous gravita-
tional matter is proportional to the square of the radius, and there-
fore by taking the globe large enough may be made as large as we
please, whatever be the density. In fact, if there were mutual gravi-
tation between its parts, homogeneous ether extending through all
space would be essentially unstable unless infinitely resistant against
compressing or dilating forces. If we admit that ether is to some
degree condensable and extensible, and believe that it extends through
all space, then we must conclude that there is no mutual gravitation
between its parts, and can not believe that it is gravitationally
attracted by the sun or the earth or any ponderable matter; that is to
say, we must believe ether to be a substance outside the law of uni-
versal gravitation. |

Src. 10. In the meantime it is an interesting and definite question
to think of what the weight of a column of luminiferous ether of infi-
nite height resting on the sun would be, supposing the sun cold and
quiet, and supposing for the moment ether to be gravitationally
attracted by the sun as if it were ponderable matter of density
5x10-'§. You all know the theorem for mean gravity due to attrac-
tion inversely as the square of the distance from a point. It shows
that the heaviness of a uniform vertical column AB, of mass w per
unit length and having its length in a line through the center of force
C, is ;

Mw Mw MVD

CA CB? or CA if :CB=06 ;

Pa

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 221

where m denotes the attraction on unit of mass at unit distance.
Hence writing for mw CA, muwCA CA’, we see that the attraction on
an infinite column under the influence of a force decreasing according
to inverse square of distance is equal to the attraction on a column
equal in length to the distance of its near end from the center and
attracted by a uniform force equal to that of gravity on the near end.
The sun’s radius is 697 10° ems., and gravity at his surface is 27
times“ terrestrial gravity, or say 27,000 dynes per gram of mass.
Hence the sun’s attraction on a column of ether of a square centimeter
section, if of density 5x 10-', and extending from his surface to
infinity, would be 9'4x 10° of a dyne, if ether were ponderable.

Sec. 11. Considerations similar to those of November, 1899, inserted
in section 9 above lead to decisive proof that the mean density of pon-
derable matter through any very large spherical volume of space is
smaller the greater the radius, and is infinitely small for an infinitely
great radius. If it were not so a majority of the bodies in the uni-
verse would each experience infinitely great gravitational force. This
is a short statement of the essence of the following demonstration:

Sec. 12. Let V be any volume of space bounded by a closed surface
S, outside of which and within which there are ponderable bodies; M
the sum of the masses of all these bodies within S; and p the mean
density of the whole matter in the volume V. We have

WANE ward Ooe es cine cat

Let Q denote the mean value of the normal component of the gravita-
tional force at all points of 8. We have

OS 477 Mi 47 AN Vale e.ls. 2 - oe Oe

by a general theorem discovered by Green seventy-three years ago
regarding force at a surface of any shape, due to matter (gravita-
tional or ideal electric or ideal magnetic) acting according to the
Newtonian law of the inverse square of the distance. It is interesting
to remark that the surface integral of the normal component force
due to matter outside any closed surface is zero for the whole surface.
If normal component force acting inward is reckoned positive, force
outward must of course be reckoned negative. In equation (2) the
normal component force may be outward at some points of the sur-
face S, if in some places the tangent plane is cut by the surface. But
if the surface is wholly convex the normal component force must be
everywhere inward.
Sec. 13. Let now the surface be spherical of radius 7. We have

S=477": vee V= 75 CELE ATG (3).

“This is founded on the following values for the sun’s mass and radius and the
earth’s radius: Sun’s mass=324000 earth’s mass; sun’s radius=697000 kilometers;
earth’s radius=6371 kilometers.

222 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

Hence, for a spherical surface, (2) gives
> eg ig in Serie tetera ee

This shows that the average normal component force over the surface
S is infinitely great, if p is finite and 7 is infinitely great, which suffi-
ces to prove section 11.
Src. 14. For example, let

7= 15010" ; 206 10°38 09 10" Janta. ec en he
This is the distance at which a star must be to have parallax one one-
thousandth. of a second; because the mean distance of the earth from
the sun is 150,000,000 kms., and there are 206,000 seconds of angle in
the radian. Let us try whether there can be as much matter as a
thousand-million times the sun’s mass, or, as we shall say for brevity,
a thousand-million suns, within a spherical surface of that radius (5).
The sun’s mass is 324,000 times the earth’s mass, and therefore our
quantity of matter on trial is 3°24. 10" times the earth’s mass. Hence
if we denote by g terrestrial gravity at the earth’s surface, we have
by (4)

.O7 3 2
Q=324. 10" (Far Te WLBT. Lg | eae

Hence if the radial force were equal over the whole spherical surface,
its amount would be 1°37. 10-" of terrestrial surface-gravity; and
every body on or near that surface would experience an acceleration
toward the center equal to

1:37. 10-5 kms. per second per second . . . (4%),

because g is approximately 1,000 cms. per second per second, or ‘01
km. per second per second. If the normal force is not uniform,
bodies on or near the spherical surface will experience centerward
acceleration, some at more than that rate, some less. At exactly that
rate, the velocity acquired per year (thirty-one and a half miltion sec-
onds) would be 4°32. 10° kms. per second. With the same rate of
acceleration through five million years the velocity would amount to
21°6 kms. per second, if the body started from rest at our spherical
surface; and the space moved through in five million years would be
‘17. 10'° kms., which is only °055 of 7 (5). This is so small that the
force would vary very little, unless through the accident of near
approach to some other body. With the same acceleration constant
through twenty-five million years the velocity would amount to 108
kms. per second; but the space moved through in twenty-five million
years would be 4:25.10" kms., or more than the radius 7, which shows
that the rate of acceleration could not be approximately constant for
nearly as long a time as twenty-five million years. It would, in fact,

RS

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 2935

have many chances of being much greater than 108 kms. per second,
and many chances also of being considerably less.

Sec. 15. Without attempting to solve the problem of finding the
motions and velocities of the 1,000,000,000 bodies, we can see that if
they had been given at rest* twenty-five million years ago distributed
uniformly or nonuniformly through our sphere (5) of 3°09. 10" kms.
radius, a very large proportion of them would now have velocities not
less than 20 or 30 kms. per second, while many would have velocities
less than that; and certainly some would have velocities greater than
108 kms. per second; or if thousands of millions of years ago they
had been given at rest, at distances from one another very great in
comparison with 7 (5), so distributed that they should temporarily
now be eqauably spaced throughout a spherical surface of radius 7 (5),
their mean velocity (reckoned as the square root of the mean of the
squares of their actual velocities), would now be 50°4 kms. per second.”
This is not very unlike what we know of the stars visible to us.
Thus it is quite possible, perhaps probable, that there may be as much
matter as a thousand million suns within the distance corresponding
to parallax one one-thousandth of a second (3°09. 10" kms.). But it
seems perfectly certain that there can not be within this distance as
much matter as 10,000,000,000 suns; because if there were we should
find much greater velocities of visible stars than observation shows,
according to the following tables of results and statements from the
most recent scientific authorities on the subject.

*“The potential energy of gravitation may be in reality the ultimate created
antecedent of all the motion, heat, and light at present in the universe.’’ See
Mechanical Antecedants of Motion, Heat, and Light. Art. LXIX of my Collected
Mathematica: and Physical Papers, Vol. II.

»To prove this, remark that the exhaustion of gravitational energy

+O (? +H +H
( e=;-| | R*dx dy dz, Thomson and Tait’s Natural Philosophy, Part
“OJ “Dd ~“D

II, section 549) when a vast number, N, of equal masses come from rest at infinite
distances from one another to an equably spaced distribution through a sphere of
radius 7 is easily found to be 3/10 Fr, wheré F denotes the resultant force of the
attraction of all of them on a material point, of mass equal to the sum of their
masses, placed at the spherical surface. Now, this exhaustion of gravitational energy
is spent wholly in the generation of kinetic energy; and therefore we have

Eo > Fr, and by (7) F=1°37 .10-"m; whence

2 10
amr 3
=a UB Y/N,
=m 5 ‘ :

which, for the case of equal masses, gives, with (5) for the value of r,

=e
v= (¢ 1°37. 10-®, 3-09. 10'®) =50,4 kms. per second,

224

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

[From the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes (Paris, 1901).]

| | Velocities
' Distance perpen-
Maes \from earth | Annual dicular to
nae Name of star. in million | proper | Parallax.) line of
: | million | motions. sight in kil-
kilometers. ometers per
second.
wt "
OF fApagCONtAUris. sn. est sew eecee Sach ecto aus ets 43 3. 62 0. 72 23.9
Ono eI So alae s20.25 secede aa ose eas eres 64 4.75 .48 47.1
8.1] 61 Cygni......2.2. 20sec ecec ic seeec ee reeneeeecnee 7} BT] dd 65.7
—1. AUS occas cokes cic coe ee ieee eae lems ers eee Be ae ,
852s PObOS Are. -GHlizen vss. . ck oe Sables ce acis es Sees cote 88 2.30 .39 31.3
Woo jrod GLOOMPMEEC I ote ec nes sie ae aa t= eae 99 2.83 .3l 43.5
(eB aed DENT ye A ee ee eee ee uP 6.97 . 28 118.5
OES aE TOG VOM meee renee secrete ae 10 1.26 erat 22.2
9. 11677 Arg.-CEltzen 119 3.05 . 26 50. 7
GzD MOA HCCOTOMIKO s sar sct esc nes alae eet a tmetats mai 123 1.43 . 25 oh
Shh) (pol2oselialanders. 6222 fo. sees ee eae wae sl otic 128 4.40 24 87.1
Rta On TOC ONES: cpeiars aot aisias tae ats eae ia arate aaa yaar 128 1.84 .24 36.5
ve n a eee Ps ebb icie eccisleia mie eee oe Rae era ea a re . a a a _
WD al MOVANT LOCO ala ota ws ineialn Lear a nh iteem uae lela ate h : ;
9. | 17415 ate. Gilizen Se NSE PD ae epee nee ep oe ae) eeatee 154 L270 . 20 30. 2
O59 sa PACTS So comes totais oe we titted cathe aie 154 0. 64 AeA) 15. 2
SH GAO Nay Shiloh cia Sen IEE Se ee ea ox aio ee ic 154 4.60 20 109.5
AID) oe WULGAM ws oo oeia ane ses coo sree ae eee ae bee eee 181 4.05 17 118.2
2°48 1B pari Aine Oe oracewsiae satee ite ance to ees ce mained 193 0.57 elG 16.9
il GSE DUTT Ae Me oe ae eee ee a Sa ane Ria wee eee ie 206 0.19 Pals) 6.
ie USSG OremKG- ae See Boe isi ee eee rene era 206 0.42 -15 13.3
se a Opniuchi.ce.. sos e meee eee hoe ee a ae 1 oe
; (6 el, OE te Ort eS Se sche SIE EEE 5 . ;
2.2 | a Urs. Min. (Polaris) 440 0.05 .07 3.4

Stars which have largest of observed velocities in the line of sight.

[Extraet by the Astronomer Royal from an article in the Astrophysical Journal for January, 1901, by
W. W. Campbell, director of Lick Observatory. ]

7
rs ae R.A. Dee. | Velocity.
Kilometer
ap ettts ge per sec.
436, |e ANIOYOMED 88 1. w.2scls smiasetay ein canal sinieimine 2 ates alarm wiaiclaie late cles | 0 33 +28 46 —84
pe CASSIOPelss: 5.5.ce se cee emce aes eee een eee eee eeisee so aL !) +54 20 —97
OsMEPONIS= 2 cA emet eke = Caeser eeeeen ot a or Seen ieee eee reine je ee —20 54 +95
ASS VOM am i SMa OLS a5 pa- sre ertoa tote aioe aio eects Salas toaloi deme iter 6 50 —11 55 +96
CRPE ROS sicemtmrcrny acpi d aces en ine ete Lei ale ez ate ae see ease 21) Ad, +19 23 —76
AIA SAPITCATIIE: cok cose aoa eoeee AeA eo eee eee Eon eee TOTS kere Si —76

The + sign denotes recession, the — sign approach,

it titi

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 225

Motions of stars in the line of sight determined at Potsdam Observatory, 1889-1891

{Communicated by Professor Becker, University Observatory, Glasgow. |

soni.| Velocity ; - | Velocity

Star. ng relative to Star. Moen relative to

©. | the sun. * | the sun.

Kilometer. Kilometer.
cial Won) ee 2.0 ofa Anya ce AUC OUIS vatebaawiore seis eiaee ernie 2.0 —38.5
BIGaSsIOpelss. —. ~~... =e ay + 5.2 || 8 Urse Majoris....--.-.-..... one 293
@Cassiopele:...--------.--.-- var. —15. 2 || a Urse Majoris......-..-....- Zi —11.9
PGRSIOPCL..-----..--------- 2 = Aeon COMIN he serene a a aie terete 2.3 —14.4
fo Gti be mnie SEED PA MGCOUIS Sass eon eee meses 25 —12.2
meres MinoriS 2-2. ...-. 5... 2: —25.9 || y Urse Majoris....-...-...... 83 —26.6
ReAmaromed se .....2.2.-.----- ie. —12.9 || « Urse Majoris............... vi: —30.3
PRI TIS tees cee ccin =| Zz lt a: WATSIMIG ae «Ponce se Soke ilk —14.8
cD SS ee eee eee var. — 1.6 || ¢ Urse Majoris......-........ 2 —31.2
(GAS EI ee 2. —1053) ||) Urs Majoriss--- 22-225. <c 5. PA —26.2
PRAM Core Seba icicciewiew soe! fe AS Dua DOOUSHE cnc scaetaciaccee coe itp — 7.7
ETE se ee eee le EP OAR Me DOOUS = once 2 seisis comets cine = 2s —16.3
Ot Gik 0 eee ils -+16.4 || 8 Urse Minoris .............. a 414.2
ROOTES eee loi eiainin ciclo aisin're =e | 2: SE PAN (edi trl oy eo SN Se ee ees 2 — 9.6

(MI S52 2: SERRE a COLOMED meses -isiptee seats ata Ds +32.
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[eae 2. 426.5 |@ Herculis -.:..-.-c2cc----0-- 2.3 —35.3
BRIO WIGS tao ca calls ewe cies Py, +14,8 || a Ophiuchi....-. Seth sap se ance Ds $19.2
J UCT SESS Bees eseeneens | var. See il Gait: Se oe oe Shes neaeaaee ile —15.3
[2 aU ee 2 SOFTEN bad | rca Mo 0 Vo oak eee ee 1.3 —36.9
wiGenlnorum —..-.-5...-..--- ZS 165.6), || oy) GY Bea wia cee essere = er=is crete 2.4 — 6.4

Pe OonIS MAJOLIS. .-----+------. 1. 1 SMG ray GYM me te. ue =e rece ie 1.6 — &.

MGEIBINOVUM © ..<< 22.5555 2.3 SE) @ THESIS aoe gocecen Soeceeeeases 2 + 8.
TOMI MINOTIS= .-\.>°-<------- 1. OSD lp) BES ASaeracatsoec pine oceans var + €.7
PGRMINOMUID 5.0252. 55-<----- 1133 qe die the Gale Sep egecndencdabeposos + 1.3

PMMDOMIS Sone a ccoess<'s ats ssc25 1.3 — 9.1 |

The velocity of the sun relatively to stars in general according
to Kempf and Risteen is probably about 19 kms. per second. In
respect to greatest proper motions and velocities, Sir Norman Lockyer
gives me the following information:

‘The star with the greatest known proper motion (across the line
of sight) is 243 Cordoba=8’.7 per annum. Velocity in kilometers
not known.

**1830 Groombridge has a proper motion of 7.0 per annum and a
parallax of 0.089, from which it results that the velocity across the
line of sight is 370 kms. per second. Various estimates of the parallax,
however, have been made, and this velocity is somewhat uncertain.
The star with the greatest known velocity in the line of sight is ¢
Hercvlis, which travels at 70 kms. per second.

‘The dark line component of Nova Persei was approaching the earth
with a velocity of over 1,100 kms. per second.”

al
(

This last-mentioned and greatest velocity is probably that of a torrent.
of gas due to comparatively small particles of melted and evaporating
fragments shot out laterally from two great solid or liquid masses collid-
ing with one another, which may be many times greater than the velocity
of either before collision; just as we see in the trajectories of small frag-
ments shot out nearly horizontally when a condemned mass of cast iron
is broken up by a heavy mass of iron falling upon it from a height of
perhaps 20 feet in engineering works.

Src. 16. Newcomb has given a most interesting speculation regard-

sm 1901 15

226 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

ing the very great velocity of 1830 Groombridge, which he concludes
as follows:

‘‘Tf, then, the star in question belongs to our stellar system, the
masses or extent of that system must be many times greater than
telescopic observation and astronomical research indicate. We may
place the dilemma in a concise form, as follows:

‘*Kither the bodies which compose our universe are vastly more
massive and numerous than telescopic examination seems to indicate,
or 1830 Groombridge is a runaway star, flying on a boundless course
through infinite space with such momentum that the attraction of all
the bodies of the universe can never stop it.

‘‘ Which of these is the more probable alternative we can not pre-
tend to say. That the star can neither be stopped, nor bent far from its
course until it has passed the extreme limit to which the telescope has
ever penetrated, we may consider reasonably certain. To do this will
require two or three millions of years. Whether it will then be acted
on by attractive forces of which science has no knowledge, and thus
‘arried back to where it started, or whether it will continue straight-
forward forever, it is impossible to say.

‘*Much the same dilemma may be applied to the past history of this
body. If the velocity of 200 miles or more per second with which it
is moving exceeds any that could be produced by the attraction of all
the other bodies in the univ erse, then it must have been flying forward
through space from the beginning, and having come from an infinite
distance, must be now passing through our system for the first and
only time.”

Sec. 17. In all these views the chance of passing another star at
some ai distance such as one or two or three times the sun’s radius
has been overlooked; and that this chance is not excessively rare seems
proved by the multitude of Novas (collisions and their sequels) known
in astronomical history. Suppose, for example, 1830 Groombridge,
moving at 370 kms. per second, to chase a star of twenty times the
sun’s mass, moving nearly in the same direction with a velocity of 50
kms. per second, and to overtake it and pass it as nearly as may be
without collision. Its own direction would be nearly reversed and its
velocity would be diminished by nearly 100 kms. per second. By two
or three such casualties the greater part of its kinetic energy might
be given to much larger bodies previously moving with velocities of
less than 100 kms. per second. By supposing reversed, the motions
of this ideal history, we see that 1830 Groombridge may have had a
velocity of less than 100 kms. per second at some remote past time,
and may have had its present great velocity produced by several cases
of near approach to other bodies of much larger mass than its own,
previously moving in directions nearly opposite to its own, and with
velocities of less than 100 kms. per second. Still it seems to me quite
possible that Newcomb’s brilliant suggestion may be true, and that
1830 Groombridge is a roving star which has entered our galaxy, and

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. JIT

is destined to travel through it in the course of perhaps two or three
million years and to pass away into space never to return to us.

Sec. 18. Many of our supposed 1,000,000,000 stars, perhaps a great
majority of them, may be dark bodies; but let us suppose for a
moment each of them to be bright, and of the same size and bright-
ness as our sun; and on this supposition and on the further supposi-
tions that they are uniformly scattered through a sphere (5) of radius
3°09. 10'° kms., and that there are no stars outside this sphere, let us
find what the total amount of starlight would be in comparison with
sunlight. Let 2 be the number per unit of volume of an assemblage
of globes of radius @ scattered uniformly through a vast space. The
number in a shell of radius g and thickness dq will be n.47q*dq, and
the sum of their apparent areas as seen from the center will be
7 n.47q°dq or n. 47° a°'dq.

Hence, by integrating from ¢=0 to g=r, we find
ian Sse pda tet NN RN ae te |S

for the sum of their apparent areas. Now if N be the total number
in the sphere of radius 7 we have

(An
n=Ni( 7") SCT wernr

2
CVAD) ; :
Hence (8) becomes N .3n( 4) ; and if we denote by a@ the ratio of

the sum of the apparent areas of all the globes to 47 we have

Soa, (ON
a= iF) - “MV ey ore, Wepre erat bees 6 0)

(1—a) a, very approximately equal to 1/ a, is the ratio of the apparent
area not occupied by stars to the sum of the apparent areas of all their
disks. Hence alpha is the ratio of the apparent brightness of our star-
lit sky to the brightness of our sun’s disk. Cases of two stars eclips-
ing one another wholly or partially would, with our supposed values
of 7 and a, be so extremely rare that they would cause a merely negli-
gible deduction from the total of (10), even if calculated according to
pure geometrical optics. This negligible deduction would be almost
wholly annulled by diffraction, which makes the total light from two
stars, of which one is eclipsed by the other, very nearly the same as
if the distant one were seen clear of the nearer.

Sec. 19. According to our supposition of section 18 we have N=10°,
a=7.10° kms., and therefore 7 a=4'4.10". Hence by (10)

Be es ere nee ae il che ms CUNY:

228 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

This exceedingly small ratio will help us to test an old and celebrated
hypothesis that if we could see far enough into space the whole sky
would be seen occupied with disks of stars, all of perhaps the same
brightness as our own sun, and that the reason why the whole of the
night sky and day sky is not as bright as the sun’s disk is that light
suffers absorption in traveling through space. Remark that if we vary
7, keeping the density of the matter the same, N varies as the cube
of v. Hence by (10) @ varies simply as 7; and therefore to make @
even as great as 3°87/100, or, say, the sum of the apparent areas of
disks 4 per cent of the whole sky, the radius must be 10*.7, or
3:09.10" kms. Now, light travels at the rate of 300,000 kms. per
second, or 9°45.10' kms. per year. Hence it would take 3°27.10", or
about 34.10", years to travel from the outlying suns of our great
sphere to the center. Now we have irrefragable dynamics proving
that the whole life of our sun as a luminary is a very moderate num-
ber of million years, probably less than fifty million, possibly between
fifty and one hundred. To be very liberal, let us give each of our
stars a life of a hundred million years as a luminary. ‘Thus the time
taken by light to travel from the outlying stars of our sphere to the
center would be about three and a quarter million times the life of a
star. Hence if all the stars through our vast sphere commenced
shining at the same time, three and a quarter million times the life of
a star would pass before the commencement of light reaching the
earth from the outlying stars, and at no one instant would light be
reaching the earth from more than an excessively small proportion of
all the stars. To make the whole sky aglow with the light of all the
stars at the same time the commencements of the different stars must
be timed earlier and earlier for the more and more distant ones, so
that the time of the arrival of the light of every one of them at the
earth may fall within the durations of the lights at the earth of all
the others! Our supposition of uniform density of distribution is, of
course, quite arbitrary, and (sections 13, 15, above) we ought in the
greater sphere to assume the density much smaller than in the smaller
sphere (5); and, in fact, it seems that there is no possibility of having
enough of stars (bright or dark) to make a total of star-disk area
more than 10-” or 10-" of the whole sky.

Src. 20. To understand the sparseness of our ideal distribution of
1,000,000,000 suns divide the total volume of the supposed sphere of
radius 7 (5) by 10°, and we find 123°5.10* cu. kms. as the volume per
sun. Taking the cube root of this, we find 4:98.10" kms. as the edge
of the corresponding cube. Hence if the stars were arranged exactly
in cubic order, with our sun at one of the eight corners belonging to
eight neighboring cubes, his six nearest neighbors would be each at -
distance 4°98.10"* kms., which is the distance corresponding to paral-
lax 0°62. Our sun, seen at so great a distance, would probably be

ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 229

seen as a star of something between the first and second magnitude.
For a moment suppose each of our 1,000,000,000 suns, while of the
same mass as our own sun, to have just such brightness as to make it
a star of the first magnitude at distance corresponding to parallax
1”-0. The brightness at distance 7 (5) corresponding to parallax
0’-001 would be one one-millionth of this, and the most distant of our
assumed stars would be visible through powerful telescopes as stars of
the sixteenth magnitude. Newcomb (Popular Astronomy, 1883, p.
424) estimated between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 as the number of
stars visible in modern telescopes. Young (General Astronomy, p.
448) goes beyond this reckoning and estimates at 100,000,000 the total
number of stars visible through the Lick telescope. This is only the
tenth of our assumed number. It is nevertheless probable enough
that there may be as many as 1,000,000,000 stars within the distance 7
(5), but many of them may be extinct and dark, and nine-tenths of
them, though not all dark, may be not bright enough to be seen by us
at their actual distance es.

Sec. 21. I need scarcely repeat that our assumption of equable dis-
tribution is Talis arbitrary. How far from being like the truth is
illustrated by Herschel’s view of the form of the universe as shown in
Newcomb’s Popular Astronomy, page 469. It is quite certain that the
real visible stars within the distance 7 (5) from us are very much more
crowded in some parts of the whole sphere than in others. It is also
certain that instead of being all equally luminous, as we have taken
them, they differ largely in this respect from one another. It is also
certain that the masses of some are much greater than the masses of
others, as will be seen from the following table, which has been com-
piled for me by Professor Becker from André’s Traité d’Astronomie
Stellaire, showing the sums of the masses of the components of some
double stars, and the data from which these have been determined.

One-half major axis—
M+M’
In terms of |,...04 | in units
Parallax. In | Semimajor pened i of the
seconds. | axis of y re sun’s
; “| earth’s mass.
| orbit.
" |
BERRA arao ie ten Ser rae an oe rare ais oi emcee ene 0.75 18.17 | 25 84 2.0
YE enes eee eset ns ce oe meen e: - .44 29.48 68 783 0.5
SLINGS ASR OE See eS OO See eee aa i aoe .39 8.31 24 52 3.2
FAROE Sterne 22 aie ha aialaciw aan waa sire oe oe ae -27 5. 84 4 40 6.3
o* Eridani_ SE SRS ae RS SCORSESE meee mer alte) 5.72 28 176 0.9
2) CBSEUIE DE Sag Sas Sesh e ease Secs o oe sae Ucee See -15 | 8.26 39 190 4.3
Reiger cr Fh tn ge Se Rep “15 4.60 | 30 88 3.6
>) WHOTRIMGET ie goes So ce Seer ae ay cei ris . 058 3.99 79» 194 15
3 LEGS: A a ie Spee ae a ei cr tn . 028 1.98 102» 407 6.5

aParallax calculated from qenaenent ator ations of ratio of semimajor axis of double star’s
orbit to semimajor axis of earth’s orbit.
>» From spectroscopic observations by Belopolsky of Pouleowa, combined with elements of orbit.

230 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER.

Src. 22. There may also be a large amount of matter in many stars
outside the sphere of 3.10" kilometers radius, but however much mat-
ter there may be outside it, it seems to be made highly probable by
sections 11-21 that the total quantity of matter within it is greater
than 100,000,000 times and less than 2,000,000,000 times the sun’s
mass.

I wish, in conclusion, to express my thanks to Sir Norman Lockyer,
to the Astronomer Royal, Mr. Christie, to Sir Robert Ball, and to Pro-
fessor Becker for their kindness in taking much trouble to give me
information in respect to astronomical data, which has proved most
useful to me in sections 11-21, above.

ON BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.*

By Prof. J. J. THomson,

Cambridge University.

The masses of the atoms of the various gases were first investigated
about thirty years ago by methods due to Loschmidt, Johnstone,
Stoney, and Lord Kelyin. These physicists, using the principles of
the kinetic theory of gases and making certain assumptions, which it
must be admitted are not entirely satisfactory, as to the shape of the
atom, determined the muss of an atom of a gas; and when once the
mass of an atom of one substance is known the masses of the atoms of
all other substances are easily deduced by well-known chemical con-
siderations. The results of these investigations might be thought not
to leave much room for the existence of anything smaller than ordinary
atoms, for they showed that in a cubic centimeter of gas at atmospheric
pressure and at 0° C. there are about 20 million, million, million
(2 x 10") molecules of gas.

Though some of the arguments used to get this result are open to
question, the result itself has been confirmed by considerations of
quite a different kind. Thus, Lord Rayleigh has shown that this num-
ber of molecules per cubic centimeter gives about the right value for
the optical opacity of the air, while a method, which I will now
describe, by which we can directly measure the number of molecules
in a gas, leads to a result almost identical with that of Loschmidt.
This method is founded on Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. We deduce
from these laws that the current through an electrolyte is carried by
the atoms of the electrolyte, and that all these atoms carry the same
charge, so that the weight of the atoms required to carry a given
quantity of electricity is proportional to the quantity carried. We
know, too, by the results of experiments on electrolysis, that to carry
the unit charge of electricity requires a collection of atoms of hydro-
gen which together weigh about one-tenth of a milligram; hence, if
we can measure the charge of electricity on an atom of hydrogen we
see that one-tenth of this charge will be the weight in milligrams of

*Reprinted, by permission, from Popular Science Monthly, August, 1901.

231

232 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

the atom of hydrogen. This result is for the case when electricity
passes through a liquid electrolyte. I will now explain how we can
measure the mass of the carriers of electricity required to convey a
given charge of electricity through a rarefied gas. In this case the
direct methods which are applicable to liquid electrolytes can not be
used; but there are other, if more indirect, methods by which we can
solve the problem. The first case of conduction of electricity through
gases we shall consider is that of the so-called cathode rays, those
streamers from the negative electrode in a vacuum tube which pro-
duce the well-known green phosphorescence on the glass of the tube.
These rays are now known to consist of negatively electrified particles
moving with great rapidity. Let us see how we can determine the
electric charge carried by a given mass of these particles. We can do
this by measuring the effect of electric and magnetic forces on the par-
ticles. If these are charged with electricity they ought to be deflected
when they are acted on by an electric force. It was some time, how-
ever, before such a deflection was observed, and many attempts to
obtain this deflection were unsuccessful. The want of success was due
to the fact.that the rapidly moving electrified particles which constitute
the cathode rays make the gas through which they pass a conductor
of electricity; the particles are thus, as it were, moving inside conduct-
ing tubes which screen them off from an external electric field; by
reducing the pressure of the gas inside the tube to such an extent that
there was very little gas left to conduct, I was able to get rid of this
screening effect and obtain the deflection of the rays by an electrostatic
field. The cathode rays are also deflected by a magnet. The force
exerted on them by the magnetic field is at right angles to the magnetic
force; at right angles also to the velocity of the particle and equal to
_ Hev sin 6, where /7 is the magnetic force, ¢ the charge on the particle,
and @ the angle between /7 and vw. Sir George Stokes showed long
ago that if the magnetic force was at right angles to the velocity of
the particle the latter would: describe a circle whose radius is mv/eH
(if m is the mass of the particle); we can measure the radius of this
circle and thus find m/ve. To find » let an electric force / and a
magnetic force /7 act simultaneously on the particle, the electric and
magnetic forces being both at right angles to the path of the particle
and also at right angles to each other. Let us adjust these forces so
that the effect of the electric force which is equal to 7% just balances
that of the magnetic force which is equal to Zev, when this is the case
Fe= Hev or v=F' H. We can thus find v, and knowing from the pre-
vious experiment the value of wm/e, we deduce the value of m/e. The
value of m/e found in this way was about 1077; and other methods
used by Wiechert, Kaufmann, and Lenard have given results not greatly
different. Since m/e=10~, we see that to carry unit charge of elec-
tricity by the particles forming the cathode rays only requires a mass

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 233

of these particles amounting to one ten-thousandth of a milligram, while
to carry the same charge by hydrogen atoms would require a mass of
one-tenth of a milligram."

Thus to carry a given charge of electricity by hydrogen atoms re-
quires a mass a thousand times greater than to carry it by the nega-
tively electrified particles which constitute the cathode rays, and it
is very significant that, while the mass of atoms required to carry a
given charge through a liquid electrolyte depends upon the kind of
atom, being, for example, eight times greater for oxygen than for
hydrogen atoms, the mass of cathode ray particles required to carry a
given charge is quite independent of the gas through which the rays
travel and of the nature of the electrode from which they start.

The exceedingly small mass of these particles for a given charge
compared with that of the hydrogen atoms might be due either to the
mass of each of these particles being very small compared with that of
a hydrogen atom or else to the charge carried by each particle being
large compared with that carried by the atom of hydrogen. It is there-
fore essential that we should determine the electric charge carried by
one of these particles. The problem is as follows: Suppose in an in-
closed space we have a number of electrified particles each carrying
the same charge, it is required to find the charge on each particle. It is
easy by electrical methods to determine the total quantity of electricity
on the collection of particles, and knowing this we can find the charge
on each particle if we can count the number of particles. To count
these particles the first step is to make them visible. We can do this
by availing ourselves of a discovery made by C. 'T. R. Wilson, working
in the Cavendish Laboratory. Wilson has shown that when positively
and negatively electrified particles are present in moist dust-free air
a cloud is produced when the air is closed by a sudden expansion,
though this amount of expansion would be quite insufficient to produce
condensation when no electrified particles are present: the water con-
denses round the electrified particles, and, if these are not too numer-
ous, each particle becomes the nucleus of a little drop of water. Now
Sir George Stokes has shown how we can calculate the rate at which a
drop of water falls through air if we know the size of the drop, and
conversely we can determine the size of the drop by measuring the rate
at which it falls through the air; hence by measuring the speed with
which the cloud falls we can determine the volume of each little drop,
the whole volume of water deposited by cooling the air can easily be

* Professor Schuster in 1889 was the first to apply the method of the magnetic
deflection of the discharge to get a determination of the value of m/e. He found rather
widely separated limiting values for this quantity, and came to the conclusion that it
was of the same order as in electrolytic solutions. The result of the method mentioned
above, as well as those of Wiechert, Kaufmann, and Lenard, make it very much
smaller.

934 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

calculated, and dividing the whole volume of water by the volume of
one of the drops we get the number of drops, and hence the number
of the electrified particles. We saw, however, that if we knew the
number of particles we could get the electric charge on each particle;
proceeding in this way I found that the charge carried by each particle
was about 6.5 X 107” electrostatic units of electricity or 2.17 x 10-8
electro-magnetic units. According to the kinetic theory of gases
there are 2X 10" molecules in a cubic centimeter of gas at atmos-
pheric pressure and at the temperature 0° C.; as a cubic centimeter of
hydrogen weighs about 1/11 of a milligram each molecule of hydrogen
weighs about 1/ (22 x 10") milligrams, and each atom therefore about
1/(44 « 10") milligrams, and as we have seen that in the electrolysis of
solutions one-tenth of a milligram carries unit charge, the atom of
hydrogen will carry a charge equal to 10/ (44 x 10") = 2.27 x 10-°
electro-magnetic units. The charge on the particles in a gas we have
seen is equal to 2.17 x 10-*° units; these numbers are so nearly equal
that, considering the difficulties of the experiments, we may feel sure
that the charge on one of these gaseous particles is the same as that on
an atom of hydrogen in electrolysis. This result has been verified in
a different way by Professor Townsend, who used a method by which
he found, not the absolute value of the electric charge on a particle,
but the ratio of this charge to the charge on an atom of hydrogen, and
he found that the two charges were equal.

As the charges on the particle and the hydrogen atom are the same,
the fact that the mass of these particles required to carry a given
charge of electricity is only one-thousandth part of the mass of the
hydrogen atoms shows that the mass of each of these particles is only
about one one-thousandth of that of a hydrogen atom. These particles
occurred in the cathode rays inside a discharge tube, so that we have
obtained from the matter inside such a tube particles having a much
smaller mass than that of the atom of hydrogen, the smallest mass
hitherto recognized. These negatively electrified particles, which I
have called corpuscles, have the same electric charge and the same
mass whatever be the nature of the gas inside the tube or whatever
the nature of the electrodes; the charge and mass are invariable.
They therefore form an invariable constituent of the atoms or mole-
cules of all gases and presumably of all liquids and solids.

Nor are the corpuscles confined to the somewhat inaccessible regions
in which cathodic rays are found. I have found that they are given
off by incandescent metals, by metals when illuminated by ultra-violet
light, while the researches of Beequerel and Professor and Madame
Curie have shown that they are given off by that wonderful substance
the radio-active radium. ete

In fact, in every case in which the transport of negative electricity
through gas at a low pressure (i. e., when the corpuscles have nothing

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. IS

to stick to) has been examined, it has been found that the carriers of
the negative electricity are these corpuscles of invariable mass.

A very different state of things holds for the positive electricity.
The masses of the carriers of positive electricity have been determined
for the positive electrification in vacuum tubes by Wien and by Ewers,
while I have measured the same thing for the positive electrification
produced in a gas by an incandescent wire. The results of these
experiments show a remarkable difference between the property of
positive and negative electrification, for the positive electricity, instead
of being associated with a constant mass one one-thousandth of that of
the hydrogen atom, is found to be always connected with amass which
is of the same order as that of an ordinary molecule, and which more-
over varies with the nature of the gas in which the electrification is
found.

These two results—the invariability and smallness of the mass of the
carriers of negative electricity and the variability and comparatively
large mass of the carriers of positive electricity—seem to me to point
unmistakably to a very definite conception as to the nature of electric-
ity. Do they not obviously suggest that negative electricity consists
of these corpuscles, or, to put it the other way, that these corpuscles
are negative electricity, and that positive electrification consists in the
absence of these corpuscles from ordinary atoms? Thus, this point of
view approximates very closely to the old one-fluid theory of Franklin.
On that theory electricity was regarded as a fluid, and changes in the
state of electrification were regarded as due to the transport of this
fluid from one place to another. If we regard Franklin’s electric fluid
as a collection of negatively electrified corpuscles, the old one-fluid
theory will, in° many respects, express the results of the new. We
have seen that we know a good deal about the ‘‘electric fluid;” we
know that it is molecular or rather corpuscular in character; we know
the mass of each of these corpuscles and the charge of electricity car-
ried by it. We have seen, too, that the velocity with which the cor-
puscles move can be determined without difficulty. In fact, the
electric fluid is much more amenable to experiment than an ordinary
gas, and the details of its structure are more easily determined.

Negative electricity (i. e., the electric fluid) has mass. <A body
negatively electrified has a greater mass than the same body in the
neutral state. Positive electrification, on the other hand, since it
involves the absence of corpuscles, is accompanied by a diminution in
mass.

An interesting question arises as to the nature of the mass of these
corpuscles which we may illustrate in the following way. When a
charged corpuscle is moving, it produces in the region around it a
magnetic field whose strength is proportional to the velocity of the
corpuscle; now, in a magnetic field there is an amount of energy pro-

236 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

portional to the square of the strength, and thus, in this case, propor-
tional to the square of the velocity of the corpuscle.

Thus, if ¢ is the electric charge on the corpuscle and » its velocity,
there will be in the region round the corpuscle an amount of energy
equal to $6 vw where f is a constant which depends upon the shape
and size of the corpuscle. Again, if 7 is the mass of the corpuscle its
kinetic energy is $v”, and thus the total energy due to the moving
electrified corpuscle is (+f &)v’, so that for the same velocity it
has the same kinetic energy as a nonelectrified body whose mass is
greater than that of the electrified body by fe’. Thus, a charged body
possesses in virtue of its charge, as I showed twenty years ago, an
apparent mass apart from that arising from the ordinary matter in
the body. Thus, in the case of these corpuscles, part of their mass is
undoubtedly due to their electrification, and the question arises whether
or not the whole of their mass can be accounted for in this way. I
have recently made some experiments which were intended to test this
point; the principle underlying these experiments was as follows: If
the mass of the corpuscle is the ordinary *‘mechanical” mass, then, if
a rapidly moving corpuscle is brought to rest by colliding with a solid
obstacle, its kinetic energy being resident in the corpuscle will be
spent in heating up the molecules of the obstacle in the neighborhood -
of the place of collision, and we should expect the mechanical equiva-
lent of the heat produced in the obstacle to be equal to the kinetic
energy of the corpuscle. If, on the other hand, the mass of the cor-
puscle is ‘‘ electrical,” then the kinetic energy is not in the corpuscle
itself, but in the medium around it, and, when the corpuscle is stopped,
the energy travels outward into space as a pulse confined to a thin shell
traveling with the velocity of light. I suggested some time ago that
this pulse forms the Réntgen rays which are produced when the cor-
puscles strike against an obstacle. On this view, the first effect of the
collision is to produce Réntgen rays, and thus, unless the obstacle
against which the corpuscle strikes absorbs all these rays, the energy
of the heat developed in the obstacle will be less than the energy of
the corpuscle. Thus, on the view that the mass of the corpuscle is
wholly or mainly electrical in its origin, we should expect the heating
effect to be smaller when the corpuscles strike against a target per-
meable by the Réntgen rays given out by the tube in which the cor-
puscles are produced than when they strike against a target opaque to
these rays. I have tested the heating effects produced in permeable
and opaque targets, but have never been able to get evidence of any
considerable difference between the two cases. The differences actually
observed were small compared with the total effect and were some-
times in one direction and sometimes in the opposite. The experi-
ments, therefore, tell against the view that the whole of the mass of a
corpuscle is due to its electrical charge. The idea that mass in gen-

eR

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 937

eral is electrical in its origin is a fascinating one, although it has not
at present been reconciled with the results of experience.

The smallness of these particles marks them out as likely to afford
a very valuable means for investigating the details of molecular
structure, a structure so fine that even waves of light are on far too
large a scale to be suitable for its investigation, as a single wave
length extends over a large number of molecules. This anticipation
has been fully realized by Lenard’s experiments on the obstruction
offered to the passage of these corpuscles through different substances.
Lenard found that this obstruction depended only upon the density of
the substance and not upon its chemical composition or physical state.
He found that, if he took plates of different substances of equal areas
and of such thicknesses that the masses of all the plates were the same,
then, no matter what the plates were made of, whether of insulators
or conductors, whether of gases, liquids, or solids, the resistance they
offered to the passage of the corpuscles through them was the same.
Now, this is exactly what would happen if the atom of the chemical
elements were aggregations of a large number of equal particles of
equal mass; the mass of an atom being proportional to the number
of these particles contained in it and the atom being a collection of
such particles through the interstices between which the corpuscle
might find its way. Thus, a collision between a corpuscle and an atom

would not be so much a collision between the corpuscle and the atom

as a whole, as between a corpuscle and the individual particles of
which the atom consists; and the number of collisions the corpuscle
would make, and therefore the resistance it would experience, would
be the same if the number of particles in unit volume were the same,
whatever the nature of the atoms might be into which these particles
are aggregated. The number of particles in unit volume is, however,
fixed by the density of the substance, and thus on this view the density
and the density alone should fix the resistance offered by the sub-
stance to the motion of a corpuscle through it; this, however, is pre-
cisely Lenard’s result, which is thus a strong confirmation of the view
that the atoms of the elementary substances are made up of simpler
parts, all ofewhich are alike. This and similar views of the constitu-
tion of matter have often been advocated; thus, in one form of it,
known as Prout’s hypothesis, all the elements were supposed to be
compounds of hydrogen. We know, however, that the mass of the
primordial atom must be much less than that of hydrogen. Sir Nor-
man Lockyer has advocated the composite view of the nature of the
elements on spectroscopic grounds, but the view has never been more
boldly stated than it was long ago by Newton, who says:

“The smallest particles of matter may cohere by the strongest
attraction and compose bigger particles of weaker virtue, and many of
these may cohere and compose bigger particles whose virtue is still

238 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

weaker, and so on for divers succession, until the progression ends in
the biggest particles on which the operations in chemistry and the
colors of natural bodies depend and which by adhering compose bodies
of a sensible magnitude.”

The reasoning we used to prove that the resistance to the motion
of the corpuscle depends only upon the density is only valid when the
sphere of action of one of the particles on a corpuscle does not
extend as far as the nearest particle. We shall show later on that the
sphere of action of a particle on a corpuscle depends upon the velocity
of the corpuscle, the smaller the velocity the greater being the sphere
of action, and that if the velocity of the corpuscle falls as low as 10%
centimenters per second, then, from what we know of the charge on
the corpuscle and the size of molecules, the sphere of action of the
particle might be expected to extend farther than the distance between
two particles, and thus for corpuscles moving with this and smaller
velocities we should not expect the density law to hold.

EXISTENCE OF FREE CORPUSCLES OR NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY IN METALS.

In the cases hitherto described the negatively electrified corpuscles
had been obtained by processes which require the bodies from which
the corpuscles are liberated to be subjected to somewhat exceptional
treatment. Thus in the case of the cathode rays the corpuscles were
obtained by means of intense electric fields, in the case of the incan-
descent wire by great heat, in the case of the cold metal surface by
exposing this surface to light. The question arises whether there is
not to some extent, even in matter in the ordinary state and free from
the action of such agencies, a spontaneous liberation of those cor-
puscles—a kind of dissociation of the neutral molecules of the sub-
stance into positively and negatively electrified parts, of which the
latter are the negatively electrified corpuscles.

Let us consider the consequences of some such effect occurring in
a metal, the atoms of the metal splitting up into negatively electrified
corpuscles and positively electrified atoms, and these again after a time
recombining to form neutral system. When things have got into a
steady state the number of corpuscles recombining in a,given time
will be equal to the number liberated in the same time. There will
thus be diffused through the metal swarms of these corpuscles; these
will be moving about in all directions, like the molecules of a gas, and,
as they can gain or lose energy by colliding with the molecule of the
metal, we should expect by the kinetic theory of gases that they will
acquire such an average velocity that the mean kinetic energy of a
corpuscle moving about in the metal is equal to that possessed by a
molecule of a gas at the temperature of the metal. This would make
the average velocity of the corpuscles at 0° C. about 10’ centimeters
per second. This swarm of negatively electrified corpuscles when

~

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 239

exposed to an electric force will be sent drifting along in the direction
opposite to the force; this drifting of the corpuscles will be an elec-
tric current, so that we could in this way explain the electrical con-
ductivity of metals.

The amount of electricity carried across unit area under a given
electric force will depend upon and increase with (1) the number of
free corpuscles per unit volume of the metal; (2) the freedom with
which these can move under the force between the atoms of the
metal. The latter will depend upon the average velocity of these cor-
puscles, for if they are moving with very great rapidity the electric
foree will have very little time to act before the corpuscle collides
with an atom, and the effect produced by the electric force annulled.
Thus the average velocity of drift imparted to the corpuscles by the
electric field will diminish as the average velocity of translation,
which is fixed by the temperature, increases. As the average velocity
of translation increases with the temperature, the corpuscles will
move more freely under the action of an electric force at low tem-
peratures than at high, and thus from this cause the electrical
conductivity of metals would increase as the temperature diminishes.
In a paper presented to the International Congress of Physics at Paris
in the autumn of last year, I described a method by which the number
of corpuscles per unit volume and the velocity with which they moved
under an electric force can be determined. Applying this method to
the case of bismuth, it appears that at the temperature of 20° C.
there are about as many corpuscles in a cubic centimeter as there are
molecules in the same volume of a gas at the same temperature and at
a pressure of about one-fourth of an atmosphere, and that the cor-
puscles under an electric field of 1 volt per centimeter would travel at
the rate of about 70 meters per second. Bismuth is at present the
only metal for which the data necessary for the application of this
method exists, but experiments are in progress at the Cavendish lab-
oratory which it is hoped will furnish the means for applying the
method to other metals. We know enough, however, to be sure that
the corpuscles in good conductors, such as gold, silver, or copper,
must be much more numerous than in bismuth, and that the corpus-
cular pressure in these metals must amount to many atmospheres.
These corpuscles increase the specific heat of a metal and the specific
heat gives a superior limit to the number of them in the metal.

An interesting application of this theory is to the conduction of
electricity through thin films of metal. Longden has recently shown
that when the thickness of the film falls below a certain value the
specific resistance of the film increases rapidly as the thickness of the
film diminishes. This result is readily explained by this theory of
metallic conduction, for when the film gets so thin that its thickness is
comparable with the mean free path of a corpuscle the number of col-

240 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

lisions made by a corpuscle in a film will be greater than in the metal
in bulk, thus the mobility of the particles in the film will be less and
the electrical resistance consequently greater.

The corpuscles disseminated through the metal will do more than
carry the electric current, they will also carry heat from one part to
another of an unequally heated piece of metal. For if the corpuscles
in one part of the metal have more kinetic energy than those in
another, then, in consequence of the collisions of the corpuscles with
each other and with the atoms, the kinetic energy will tend to pass
from those places where it is greater to those where it is less, and in
this way heat will flow from the hot to the cold parts of the metal. As
the rate with which the heat is carried will increase with the number
of corpuscles and with their mobility, it will be influenced by the same
circumstances as the conduction of electricity, so that good conductors
of electricity should also be good conductors of heat. If we calculate
the ratio of the thermal to the electric conductivity on the assumption
that the whole of the heat is carried by the corpuscles we obtain a
value which is of the same order as that found by experiment.

Weber many years ago suggested that the electrical conductivity of
metals was due to the motion through them of positively and nega-
tively electrified particles, and this view has recently been greatly
extended and developed by Riecke and by Drude. The objection to any
electrolytic view of the conduction through metals is that, as in elec-
trolysis, the transport of electricity involves the transport of matter,
and no evidence of this has been detected. This objection does not
apply to the theory sketched above, as on this view it is the corpuscles
which carry the current; these are not atoms of the metal, but very
much smaller bodies, which are the same for all metals.

It may be asked, If the corpuscles are disseminated through the
metal and moving about in it with an average velocity of about 10°
centimeters per second, how is it that some of them do not escape
from the metal into the surrounding air? We must remember, how-
ever, that these negatively electrified corpuscles are attracted by the
positively electrified atoms, and in all probability by the neutral atoms —
as well, so that to escape from these attractions and get free a corpuscle
would have to possess a definite amount of energy. If a corpuscle had
less energy than this, then, even though projected away from the metal,
it would fall back into it after traveling a short distance. When the
metal is at a high temperature, as in the case of the incandescent wire,
or when it is illuminated by ultra-violet light, some of the corpuscles
acquire sufficient energy to escape from the metal and produce electri-
fication in the surrounding gas. We might expect, too, that if we could
charge a metal so highly with negative electricity that the work done
by the electric field on the corpuscle in a distance not greater than the
sphere of action of the atoms on the corpuscles was greater than the

ie

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. QAI

energy required for a corpuscle to escape, then the corpuscles would
escape and negative electricity stream from the metal. In this case
the discharge could be effected without the participation of the gas
surrounding the metal, and might even take place in an absolute
vacuum, if we could produce such a thing. We have as yet no evi-
dence of this kind of discharge, unless, indeed, some of the interesting
results recently obtained by Earhart with very short sparks should
be indications of an effect of this kind.

A very interesting case of the spontaneous emission of corpuscles
is that of the radio-active substance radium discovered by M. and
Mme. Curie. Radium gives out negatively electrified corpuscles
which are deflected by a magnet. Becquerel has determined the ratio
of the mass to the charge of the radium corpuscles and finds it is the
same as for the corpuscles in the cathode rays. The velocity of the
radium corpuscles is, however, greater than any that has hitherto
been observed for either cathode or Lenard rays; being, as Beequerel
found, as much as 2X10" centimeters per second, or two-thirds the
velocity of light. This enormous velocity explains why the corpuscles
from radium are so very much more penetrating than the corpuscles
from cathode or Lenard rays; the difference in this respect is very
striking, for while the latter can only penetrate solids when they
are beaten out into the thinnest films, the corpuscles from radium
have been found by Curie to be able to penetrate a piece of glass 3
millimeters thick. To see how an increase in the velocity can increase
the penetrating power, let us take as an illustration of a collision be-
tween the corpuscle and the particles of the metal the case of a charged
corpuscle moving past an electrified body; a collision may be said to
occur between these when the corpuscle comes so close to the charged
body that its direction of motion after passing the body differs appre-
ciably from that with which it started. A simple calculation shows
that the deflection of the corpuscle will only be considerable when
the kinetic energy with which the corpuscle starts on its journey
toward the charged body is not large compared with the work done
by the electric forces on the corpuscle in its journey to the shortest
distance from the charged body. If d is the shortest distance, ¢ and ¢
the charge of the body and corpuscles, the work done is eed; while if
m isthe mass and v the velocity with which the corpuscle starts, the
kinetic energy to begin with is $m; thus a considerable deflection
of the corpuscle, i. e., a collision, will occur only when ¢//d is com-
parable with $v’; and d, the distance at which a collision occurs,
will vary inversely as 7. As d is the radius of the sphere of action for
collision, and as the number of collisions is proportional to the area of
a section of this sphere, the number of collisions is proportional to
d’, and therefore varies inversely as v'. This illustration explains
how rapidly the number of collisions, and therefore, the resistance

sm 1901——16

©
242 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.

offered to the motion of the corpuscles through matter diminishes as
the velocity of the corpuscles increases, so that we can understand why
the rapidly-moving corpuscles from radium are able to penetrate sub-
stances which are nearly impermeable to the more slowly moying cor-
puscles from cathode and Lenard rays.

COSMICAL EFFECTS PRODUCED BY CORPUSCLES.

As a very hot metal emits these corpuscles, it does not’ seem an
improbable hypothesis that they are emitted by that very hot body,
the sun. Some of the consequences of this hypothesis have been
developed by Paulsen, Birkeland, and Arrhenius, who have developed
a theory of the aurora borealis from this point of view. Let us sup-
pose that the sun gives out corpuscles which travel out through inter-
planetary space; some of these will strike the upper regions of the
earth’s atmosphere, and will then, or even before then, come under the
influence of the earth’s magnetic field. The corpuscles when in such
a field will describe spirals round the lines of magnetic force. As the
radii of these spirals will be small, compared with the height of the
atmosphere, we may for our present purpose suppose that they travel
along the lines of the earth’s magnetic force. Thus, the corpuscles
which strike the earth’s atmosphere near the equatorial regions, where
the lines of magnetic force are horizontal, will travel horizontally, and
will thus remain at the top of the atmosphere where the density is so
small that but little luminosity is caused by the passage of the cor-
puscles through the gas. As the corpuscles travel into higher lati-
tudes, where the lines of magnetic force dip, they follow these lines and
descend into the lower and denser parts of the atmosphere, where they
produce luminosity, which, on this view, is the aurora.

As Arrhenius has pointed out, the intensity of the aurora ought to
be a maximum at some latitude intermediate between the pole and the
equator, for, though in the equatorial regions the rain of corpuscles
from the sun is greatest, the earth’s magnetic force keeps these in
such highly rarefied gas that they produce but little luminosity, while
at the pole, where the magnetic force would pull them straight down
into the denser air, there are not nearly so many corpuscles; the
maximum luminosity will, therefore, be somewhere between these
places. Arrhenius has worked out this theory of the aurora very
completely, and has shown that it affords a very satisfactory explana-
tion of the various periodic variations to which it is subject.

As a gas becomes a conductor of electricity when corpuscles pass
through it, the upper regions of the air will conduct, and when air
currents occur in,these regions, conducting matter will be driven across
the lines of force, due to the earth’s magnetic field, electric currents
will be induced in the air, and the magnetic force due to these currents
will produce variations in the earth’s magnetic field. Balfour Stewart

BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. es

suggested long ago that the variation on the earth’s magnetic field was
caused by currents in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and Schus-
ter has shown, by the application of Gauss’s method, that the seat of
these variations is above the surface of the earth.

The negative charge in the earth’s atmosphere will not increase indefi-
nitely in consequence of the stream of negatively electrified corpuscles
coming into it from the sun, for as soon as it gets negatively electrified
it begins to repel negatively electrified corpuscles from the ionized
gas in the upper regions of the air, and a state of equilibrium will be
reached when the earth has such a negative charge that the corpuscles
driven by it from the upper regions of the atmosphere are equal in
number to those reaching the earth from the sun. Thus, on this view,
interplanetary space is thronged with corpuscular traflic, rapidly mov-
ing corpuscles coming out from the sun while more slowly moving
ones stream into it.

In the case of a planet which, like the moon, has no atmosphere,
there will be no gas for the corpuscles to ionize, and the negative elec-
trification will increase until it is so intense that the repulsion exerted
by it on the corpuscles is great enough to prevent them from reaching
the surface of the planet.

Arrhenius has suggested that the luminosity of nebulz may not be
due to high temperature, but may be produced by the passage through
their outer regions of the corpuscles wandering about in space, the
gas in the nebule being quite cold. This view seems in some respects
to have advantages over that which supposes the nebulz to be at very
high temperatures. These and other illustrations, which might be
given did space permit, seem to render it probable that these corpuscles
may play an important part in cosmical as well as in terrestrial physics.

eae

eos

THE EXPLORATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY
MEANS OF KITES.

By A. Lawrence Rorcn,

Director of Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory.

The method of obtaining meteorological observations with kites at
Blue Hill Observatory has been fully described in appendixes to the
Smithsonian Reports for 1897 and 1900, and it will suftice to say, there-
fore, that during the past seven years several hundred records of the
conditions prevailing in the free air have been brought down from an
extreme height of 3 miles. These observations have been obtained in
almost all weather conditions when the velocity of the wind at the
ground was between 12.and 35 milesan hour. Certain types of weather,
technically known as anticyclones, and which are characterized by a
high barometric pressure and light winds, can therefore rarely be
studied aloft, although it is sometimes possible to send up the kites in
advance of these conditions and to descend in the central calm area.
Often while there is sufficient wind near the ground, it fails entirely
at about a mile altitude, near the cumulus clouds, and thus the kites
are prevented from rising higher, although at a greater height there is
almost always a strong wind. It is usually impossible to launch the
kites during the strong gales that attend the coming on and passing off
of deep cyclonic disturbances.

As mentioned in my last paper, the United States Weather Bureau
undertook during the summer of 1898 to obtain observations with kites
simultaneously at a number of places in the central part of the coun-
try, but, as the light winds prevented flights from being made regu-
larly at all the stations, the experiment was abandoned. About the
same time the employment of kites for meteorological research was
taken up on the Continent of Europe, and this work has been most
successfully carried out at the private observatory of M. Teisserenc
de Bort, near Paris, and at the Aeronautical Observatory of the Royal
Prussian Meteorological Institute, near Berlin, which is at the present
time the most completely equipped establishment of the kind in the
world. The systematic exploration of the atmosphere above the Con-
tinent of Europe has been in progress for several years through the

245

246 EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES.

cooperation of an international committee. Balloons with aeronauts
and balloons carrying only self-recording instruments to still greater
heights ascend ona certain day each month in France, Germany, Aus-
tria, and Russia, while kites supply the observations nearer the ground.
It frequently happens, however, that on the appointed day the wind at
the ground is insufficient to raise the kites, although the balloons drift
with the upper currents to great distances.

While, from what precedes, it is evident that the use of kites on
land has hitherto been limited to favorable circumstances, yet, by the
simple expedient of installing the kites on board a steamship, kites
may not only be flown during calms and gales, but also in places above
which no observations have been possible heretofore. Except in very
bad weather kites can always be flown from either a stationary or a
moving ship, since, when the air is calm, by steaming through it at a
speed of 10 or 12 knots, the kites can be raised to the height that they
would reach in the most favorable natural wind, and, on the contrary,
the force of strong winds can be reduced in the same proportion if the
vessel moves with the wind. In the case mentioned, when the wind
fails at a certain height, the motion of the vessel will suffice to pull the
kites through this calm zone and into the stronger upper current that
usually suffices to lift them still higher. Thus kites can be flown on
board a steamer under almost all conditions, and more easily than on
land, since the steadier winds at sea, especially the wind artificially
created, facilitate launching them. Steam power is always available
to operate the kite winch, and the wire from it may be led over a
pulley on a yard-arm capable of being turned so as to bring the kites
clear of the rigging, etc. Wherever these observations in the upper
air may be made, there is always a station at sea level, and not far dis-
tant Gerceamie! with which to compare them.

To test the practicability of this method of flying kites, experiments
were undertaken on August 22, 1901, with the aid of my assistants,
Messrs. Fergusson and Sweetland, upon a towboat chartered for this
purpose to cruise in Massachusetts Bay. Anticyclonic weather condi-
tions prevailed, and a southeast wind blew from 6 to 10 miles an hour,
but at no time with sufficient velocity to elevate the kites, either from
sea level or from the adjacent Blue Hill. With the boat moving 10
miles an hour toward the wind, and within an angle of 45° on either
side of its mean direction, the resultant wind easily lifted the kites
and meteorograph, with 3,600 feet of wire, to the height of half a
mile. In Plate I, figures 1, 2, and Plate II, figure 3, show, respec-
tively, the meteorograph supported by the kite, a nearer view of the
kite, and the hand ree] and meteorograph on deck.

While it is desirable to have a vessel that can be started, stopped,
and turned at the will of the meteorologist, as was the case in the
experiments described, it seemed nevertheless probable that soundings

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Rotch. PLaTeE |.

Fic. 1.—METEOROGRAPH LIFTED BY A KITE.

Fi@. 2.—HARGRAVE KITE IN THE AIR.

'
ay iy

EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. 947

of the atmosphere could often be made from a steamship pursuing its
regular course, and accordingly such were attempted on a steamer
eastward bound across the North Atlantic. With the aid of my assist-
ant, Mr. Sweetland, and through the courtesy of Captain McAuley,
this wasaccomplished on board the Dominion steamship Commonwealth,
which left Boston for Liverpool on August 28, 1901. A view of the
stern of the ship, with the upper deck from which the kites were
flown is shown in Plate LU, figure 4. During most of the voyage
we were within an area of high barometric pressure that was
drifting slowly southeastward and out of which light winds blew.
Although these were insufficient to raise the kites, the ship’s speed of
16 knots created a corresponding wind from an easterly direction that
sufficed to lift the kites on five of the eight days occupied by the voyage
to Queenstown. On one of the three unfavorable days, a following
wind became too light on the ship for kiteflying, and on the two other
days a fresh head wind, augmented by the forward motion of the ship,
was so strong as to endanger the kites, but had it been possible to alter
the course of the vessel a favorable resultant wind might have been
produced every day. The maximum height attained was only about
2,000 feet, but with larger kites and longer wire this could have been
greatly exceeded. Automatic records, were obtained of barometric
pressure, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity, which
did not differ markedly from records obtained in somewhat analogous
weather conditions over the land. The most striking feature was the
rapid decrease of the temperature with increasing height in all but one
of the flights. The fall of temperature was fastest in the first 300 feet,
where it exceeded the adiabatic rate of 1° F. in 183 feet, but in the
last-mentioned flight the temperature rose 6° in 450 feet, and during
the afternoon remained so much warmer than at sea level. The rela-
tive humidity varied inversely with the temperature, the direction of
the wind shifted aloft toward the right hand when facing it, and its
velocity generally increased with increase of altitude. The direction
and velocity of the wind aloft were computed from the observed
position of the kite and the recorded velocity of the wind at this level,
allowing for the speed at which the kite was being dragged through
the air by the vessel. Simultaneous records were obtained from a
meteorograph hung above the deck, with which the upper-air records
were compared.

These are probably the first meteorological observations at a con-
siderable height in mid-Atlantic, and have a special importance, because
they indicate that at sea high-level observations may be obtained with
kites in all weather conditions, only excepting severe gales, provided
the steamer from which the kites are flown can be so maneuvered as
to bring the wind to a suitable velocity. It is evident that such obser-
vations as have been described, even if made like the preceding, only

248 EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES.

when the conditions were favorable, would go far toward showing
whether the conditions prevailing over the ocean differ from those
above the land, and would also furnish information about the upper
air in atmospheric situations that can not be explored with kites at a
fixed station. So far as known, meteorological records had not been
obtained before last summer from kites flown from a moving vessel,
although during the first half of the last century registering thermom-
eters were lifted by kites several hundred feet above the Arctic
ocean, when the vessel was fast in the ice. The German Antarctic
vessel Gauss and the Discovery of the English Antarctic expedition
are each equipped with meteorological kites, which were to be used on
the Southern voyages commenced in August, 1901, but it is to be
feared that this branch of the meteorological work, being subordinate
to the main aims of the expeditions, will always be sacrificed to them.
In any ease, it must be remembered that scientific kiteflying demands
practiced and skillful operators, and without them and much reserve
apparatus must yield mediocre results. To make these observations
properly requires that the vessel be completely under the control of
the meteorologist, who may then explore the heights of the atmos-
phere, just as the hydrographer and zoologist have explored the depths
of the ocean. Had the British Challenger expedition been provided
with our modern kite apparatus and accompanied by meteorologists
trained in their use, it might have accomplished the double task of
sounding the oceans of air and water. ,
Although observations above all the oceans are valuable, the explo-
ration of the equatorial region is the most important, since, with the
exception of a few observations on the Andes and on mountains in
central Africa, we know nothing of the thermal conditions existing a
mile or two above the equator, and only what the clouds tell us of the
currents in which they float. The need of such data to complete our
theories of the thermodynamics of the atmosphere was urged by Pro-
fessor Woeikof, of St. Petersburg, at the Meteorological Congress of
1900 in Paris. North and south of the equator, within the trade-wind
belts, kites might be employed to determine the height to which the
trades extend, and also the direction and strength of the upper winds,
concerning which the high clouds, rarely seen in those latitudes, fur-
nish our only information. Professor Hildebrandsson, of Upsala, who
is an eminent authority on the circulation of the atmosphere, believes
that a meteorologist on a steamship provided with kites, and also with
small balloons to ascertain the drift of the upper winds when there are
no clouds, by making atmospheric soundings between the area of high
barometric pressure in the North Atlantic and the constant southeast
trades south of the equator, and in this way investigating the temper--
ature and flow of the so-called anti-trades above the surface winds,
could solve in three months one of the most important problems in

Smithsonian Report, 1901 —Rotch PLaTE II.

Fic. 3.—KiITE REEL AND METEOROGRAPH ON
DECK.

Fic. 4.—S. S. COMMONWEALTH LEAVING BOSTON.

EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. 949

meteorology. The two Antarctic vessels already mentioned are
unlikely for several reasons, but chiefly because they generally pro-
ceeded under sail, to have contributed important data concerning the
upper air in their voyages across the equator. Although the United
States has taken no part in this international Antarctic campaign, an
opportunity is offered, during the next year or two, without material
expense, danger, or hardship, to cooperate in a study of the general
atmospheri¢ circulation, which is one of the objects of polar explora-
tion. Indeed, for a naval vessel not actually engaged otherwise, the
sounding of the atmosphere in the tropics, whereby the relation of the
upper-air currents to the winds useful for navigation may be ascer-
tained, would seem to be as legitimate a task as sounding the depths
of the oceans and determining the currents and temperatures prevail-
ing there. But if our Navy Department will. not authorize this, a
private expedition should be organized to investigate the questions
mentioned, which are of prime importance for meteorology and physical
geography.

SOLID HYDROGEN.?*

By James Dewar, F. R. 5S.

Before proceeding to discuss the immediate subject of this lecture
it will be advisable to contrast experimentally some of the properties
of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in the liquid condition. The two
vacuum cups (figs. 1 and 2) are charged half full, respectively, with
liquid bydrogen and liquid air. When the cup containing the liquid
air is placed in front of the electric lamp the image thrown on the
screen reveals the continual overflow of a dense vapor round the outer

a
ar

(
OL mys!

walls of the vessel. The saturated vapor coming from the steady
ebullition of liquid air is three times denser than the free air of the
room, and the result is it falls through that air just as if it were a
dense gas, like carbonic acid or ether vapor. To observe this phenom-
enon, the vacuum cup must be shallow; otherwise the vapor gets
heated up before reaching the mouth of the vessel, and no difference
of density in the air coming off is observed. We will now project the

*Reprinted from Proceedings of Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1900. Read
at meeting of Royal Institution, April 6, 1900.
251

259 SOLID HYDROGEN.

image of the cup containing liquid hydrogen, covered loosely in this
case with a glass plate, upon the screen; here no heavy vapor escaping
round the sides is visible. The vapor of the boiling liquid hydrogen
has a density nearly equal to the air of the room, but as it gets very
rapidly heated up by the glass cover the gas that is escaping is seen to
rise in air like any light gas. On now removing the glass plate a very
different phenomenon is observed, which contrasts markedly with the
behavior of the liquid air in the former vessel. The cup and the air
above is filled with a dense surging snowstorm of solid air; the
air, coming in contact with the excessively coid hydrogen vapor, is
suddenly solidified, and a part of it falls into the liquid hydrogen,
causing more rapid evaporation, thereby intensifying the cloud con-
densation. After the mist has disappeared and all the liquid hydrogen
gone the cup contains a white deposit of solid air. This shortly melts,
and on allowing the nitrogen to boil off, the presence of oxygen can be
shown by the ignition of a red-hot splinter of wood. Such effects are
easily understood when we remember that the boiling point of hydro-
gen is proportionally as much below the boiling point of air as the
latter is below the ordinary temperature of this room.

In order to observe the individual behavior of the constituents of
the air at temperatures below their ordinary boiling points, it is
advantageous to place liquid nitrogen and oxygen in separate vacuum
vessels, so connected that they may be simultaneously exhausted, as is
represented in fig. 4. On starting the air pump both liquids enter
into rapid ebullition. As the exhaustion gets higher the temperature
of each liquid gets lower and lower, and if the melting point is finally
reached in either liquid it must shortly begin to solidify. This condi-
tion is quickly brought about in the case of the vessel A, containing
the liquid nitrogen, which passes rapidly into the condition of a dense
white snow; but no amount of time spent in maintaining a good
exhaustion (5 to 10 millimeters pressure) has any effect in changing the
liquid condition of the oxygen in B. Oxygen in fact remains liquid at
temperatures where nitrogen is solid. The snow of solid air produced
by the evaporation of liquid hydrogen in the previous experiment
might thus be made up of solid nitrogen and a liquid rain of oxygen.
To show that the temperature of boiling hydrogen solidifies oxygen,
some of the latter liquid is placed in a vacuum test tube O (fig. 3) and
liquid hydrogen H is poured on its surface, when the liquid oxygen
is quickly transformed into a clear blue solid ice. Both oxygen and
nitrogen, and we shall see later hydrogen, can be changed into the con-
dition of transparent ice as well as into the snowy state. A closed
vessel filled with any gas at atmospheric pressure, of such a form that
a portion of the surface in the shape of a narrow quill tube, can be-
cooled in boiling liquid hydrogen like B, fig. 5, shows condensation of
the gas to the solid state, the only exceptions being helium and hydro-

SOLID HYDROGEN, Obs

gen itself. Here are two vessels of the same shape as A, B, fig. 5.
The first contains helium, showing no condensation when the part B
is cooled; the second is filled with hydrogen, which equally shows no
change of state under the conditions of the experiment. It is easy,
however, to make the hydrogen vessel show liquefaction. For this
purpose the experiment with the hydrogen is repeated, only before
doing so the part A is heated to about 300° C. over a Bunsen burner,
in order to increase the pressure of gas in the interior to above two

Sil M

atmospheres. Now, liquefaction is seen to take place with great
facility. No change is produced by similarly increasing the pressure
in the helium vessel.

The extraordinary command liquid hydrogen gives us over the
transition of state in matter may be best illustrated by the use of a new
kind of cryophorus. Wollaston’s celebrated instrument operates by
forcing the evaporation of water in a closed vessel by condensing’ its
vapor in a part of the receiver at a distance from the fluid, thereby
causing a lowering of temperature in the latter until freezing takes
place. Hence, the name cryophorus or cold-bearer. Instead of using
water we may now show that the same principle may be applied to the
solidification of nitrogen at a distance instead of water. The sole dif-
ference in this case is that the liquid nitrogen must be isolated from

254 SOLID HYDROGEN.

the influx of heat by being placed in a vacuum vessel, and the conden-
sation of its vapor must be effected by the use of liquid hydrogen.

No boiling-out operation is necessary with the cryophorous we are
about to use. The apparatus is shown in fig. 6. The vacuum tube B
contains liquid nitrogen. It is fitted on by an india rubber joint to
a wide piece of glass tubing doubly bent at right angles, A D; and
in order to allow the gas from the boiling liquid to escape before the

TO EXHAUST

experiment begins, an aperture, C, is left which can be closed with
a stopcock. On closing C and inserting a part of the tube A into a
vessel containing liquid hydrogen, the gas within is condensed, and
thereby the pressure of the vapor in the interior of the vessel is

reduced, forcing the liquid nitrogen in the other part of the apparatus —

to boil with great violence. In a few minutes the temperature of the
nitrogen is so much reduced that it passes into the solid state. Many

det lle

SOLID HYDROGEN. 955

other liquid gases might be used to replace the nitrogen in this experi-
ment. In making a selection, however, it is necessary to take only
those bodies that possess a reasonably high tension of vapor at the
melting point. The process would not succeed easily with a substance
like oxygen, that has no measurable tension of vapor in the solid
condition.

In the autumn of 1898, after the production of liquid hydrogen
was possible on a small scale, its solidification was attempted by boil-
ing under reduced pressure. At this time, to make the isolation of
the hydrogen as effective as possible, the liquid was placed in a small
vacuum test-tube, placed in a larger vessel of the same_ kind.
Excess of hydrogen partly filled the annular space between the two
vacuum vessels. On diminishing the pressure by exhaustion the
evaporation was mainly thrown on the liquid hydrogen in the annular
space between the tubes. In this arrangement the outside surface of
the smaller tube was kept at the same temperature as the inside, so.
that the liquid hydrogen for the time was effectually guarded from
influx of heat. With such a combination the liquid hydrogen was
evaporated under diminished pressure, yet no solidification took place.
Seeing experiments of this kind required a large supply of the liquid,
other problems were attacked, and further attempts in the direction
of producing the solid for the time abandoned. During the course of
the present year many varieties of electric resistance thermometers
have been under observation, and with some of these the reduction of
temperature brought about by exhaustion was investigated. Ther-
mometers constructed of platinum and platinum-rhodium (alloy) were
only lowered 13° C. by exhaustion of the liquid hydrogen, and they
all gave a boiling-point of —245° C., whereas the reduction in tem-
perature by evaporation in vacuo ought to be 5° C., and the true
boiling-point from —252° C. to —253° C. In the course of these
experiments it was noted that almost invariably a slight leak of air
occurred which became apparent by its being frozen into an air-snow
in the interior of the vessel, where it met the cold vapor of hydrogen.
When conducting wires covered with silk have to pass through india
rubber corks, it is very difficult at these excessively low temperatures
to prevent leaks, when corks get as hard as a stone and cements crack
in all directions. The effect of this slight air leak on the liquid
hydrogen when the pressure got reduced below 60 millimeters was
very remarkable, as it suddenly solidified into a white froth-like mass
like frozen foam. My first notion was that this body might be a sponge
of solid air containing liquid hydrogen. The ordinary solid air obtained
by evaporation in vacuo isa magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid
oxygen. The fact, however, that this white solid froth evaporated
completely at the low pressure without leaving any substantial amount
of solid air led to the conclusion that the body after all must be solid

256 SOLID HYDROGEN.

hydrogen. This surmise was confirmed by observing that if the pres-
sure, and therefore the temperature, of the hydrogen was allowed to
rise, the solid melted when the pressure reached about 55 millimeters.
The failure of the early experiment must then have been due to super-
cooling of the liquid, which presumably is prevented by contact with
metallic wires and traces of solid air. On the other hand, it is possi-
ble the pressure under which the ebullition took place might never
have been low enough to reach the solid state.

For the lecture demonstration of solid hydrogen the apparatus may
be most conveniently arranged as is shown in fig. 7. The small vacuum
tube B, after being filled with liquid hydrogen, is immersed in a larger
vessel of the same kind filled with liquidair. By this arrangement the
‘ate of the liquid hydrogen evaporation is so much diminished that it
does not exceed that of liquid air in the same vessel when used in the
ordinary way. On gradually applying exhaustion to the liquid hydro-
gen it is forced from its effective heat isolation to pass to a lower tem-
perature, and when the exhaustion reaches 50 millimeters the mass sud-
denly begins to solidify into a froth-like material. In order to ascertain
the appearance of the hydrogen, made by cooling the liquid produced
ina hermetically closed vessel, the following experiment was arranged.
A flask about a liter capacity, to which a long glass tube was sealed,
A, B, fig. 5, was filled with pure dry hydrogen and sealed off. The
lower portion B of this tube was calibrated. It was surrounded with
liquid hydrogen placed in a vacuum vessel arranged for exhaustion.
As soon as the pressure of the boiling hydrogen got well reduced
below that of the atmosphere, perfectly clear liquid hydrogen began
to collect in the tube B, and could be observed accumulating until the
liquid hydrogen surrounding the outside of the tube suddenly passed
into a solid white foam-like mass, almost filling the whole space. As
it was not possible to see the condition of the hydrogen in the interior
of the tube B when it was covered with a large quantity of this solid,
the whole apparatus was turned upside down in order to see whether
any liquid would run down from B into the flask A. Liquid did not
flow down the tube, so the liquid hydrogen with which the tube was
partly filled must have solidified. By placing a strong light on the side
of the vacuum test tube opposite the eye, and maintaining the exhaus-
tion at about 25 millimeters gradually the hydrogen froth became less
opaque, and the solid hydrogen in the tube B was seen to be a trans-
parent ice, but the surface looked frothy. This fact prevented the
solid density from being determined, but the maximum fluid density
has been approximately ascertained. This was found to be 0.086, the
liquid at its boiling point having the density 0.07. The solid hydro-
gen melts when the pressure of the saturated vapor reaches about 55:
millimeters. In order to determine the temperature of solidification
two constant volume hydrogen thermometers were used. One at 0° C.

SOLID HYDROGEN. 957

contained hydrogen under a pressure of 269.8 millimeters, and the
other under a pressure of 127 millimeters. The mean temperature of
the solid was found to be 16° absolute under a pressure of 35 milli-
meters. All the attempts made to get an accurate electric resistance
thermometer for such low temperature observations have been so far
unsatisfactory. Now that pure helium is definitely proved to be more
volatile than hydrogen, this body, after passing through a spiral glass
tube immersed in solid hydrogen to separate all other gases, must be
compared with the hydrogen thermometer. Taking the boiling point
as 21° absolute under 760 millimeters, and the similar value under 35
millimeters is 16° absolute, then the following approximate formula
for the vapor tension of liquid hydrogen below one atmosphere is
derived:
log p=6.7341—83.28/T mm.,

where T is the absolute temperature, and p the pressure in millimeters.
This formula gives for 55 mm. a temperature of 16.7° absolute. The
melting point of hydrogen must therefore be about 16° or 17° abso-
lute. It has to be noted that the pressure in the constant volume
hydrogen thermometer, used to determine the temperature of solid
hydrogen boiling under 35 mm., had been so far reduced that the
measurements were made under from one-half to one-fourth the
saturation pressure for the temperature. When the same thermom-
eters were used to determine the boiling point of hydrogen at atmos-
pheric pressure, the internal gas pressure was only reduced to
one-thirteenth the saturation pressure for the temperatures. The
absolute accuracy of the boiling points under diminished pressure
must be examined in some future paper. The practical limit of tem-
perature we can command by the evaporation of solid hydrogen is
from 14° to 15° absolute. In passing it may be noted that the critical
temperature of hydrogen being 30° to 32° absolute the melting point
is about half the critical temperature. The melting point of nitrogen
is also about half its critical temperature. The foam-like appearance of
the solid, when produced in an ordinary vacuum vessel, is due to the
small density of the liquid and the fact that rapid ebullition is sub-
stantially taking place in the whole mass of liquid. The last doubt as
to the possibility of solid hydrogen having a metallic character has
been removed and for the future hydrogen must be classed among
the nonmetallic elements.

All solid bodies by themselves make very unsatisfactory cooling
agents unless we can use them to cool some liquid. Now, with solid
hydrogen we can cool no liquid other than hydrogen, so that, for
effective cooling we must use the liquid just above its freezing point,
which is about 16°. It will, however, take a long time to exhaust the
wide field of investigation which the use of liquid hydrogen opens up,
so we may proceed to illustrate some of its further applications. In

sm 1901——17

958 SOLID HYDROGEN.

former lectures the relation of electrical resistance to temperature has
been discussed, and it was experimentally demonstrated that the curves
of resistance of the pure metals all pointed to this quality disappear-

ing or becoming exceeding small at the absolute zero. This fact has
been confirmed, even with the most highly conducting metals, down
to the lowest temperature we can command. The experiment illus-
trated in fig. 9 shows to an audience the diminution of resistance of

.

SOLID HYDROGEN. 959

pure copper wire when cooled in liquid hydrogen in contrast to liquid
air. An incandescent lamp C has been placed in circuit with a fine
coil of copper wire A, immersed in liquid air, the resistances being so
adjusted that the filament in C is just visible when the current passes
under these conditions. Now, on removing the coil from the liquid-
air vessel and placing it in another similar vessel filled with liquid
hydrogen, a great increase in the brilliancy of the lamp is observed.
Asa matter of fact, the sample of copper has its resistance in liquid
air reduced to about one-twentieth of what it is at the temperature of
melting ice, whereas in liquid hydrogen the resistance is reduced to
one-hundredth of the same amount. In other words, the resistance in
liquid hydrogen is only about one-fifth of what it is in liquid air. The
interesting point, however, is that theoretically we should infer,
from experiments made at higher temperatures, that at a temperature
of —223° C. the copper should have no resistance or it should have
become a perfect conductor. As this is not the case, even at the
temperature of —253°, we must infer that the curve corelating resist-
ance and temperature tends to become asymptotic at the lowest
temperatures.

Liquid hydrogen is a most useful agent for the production of high
vacua and for the separation of gases from air that may be more vol-
atile than oxygen or nitrogen. An experiment illustrating the produc-
tion of a high vacuum is shown in fig. 10, where A is the large electric
discharging tube, to which has been attached a narrow glass tube twice
bent at right angles and terminating in a bulb at the end for immer-
sion in the liquid hydrogen. The rapidity with which the vacuum is
attained is shown by the rate at which the striation in the tube
changes and the phosphorescent state supervenes. Another rough
illustration of the application of cold to effect the separation of a com-
plex mixture of gases is shown in fig. 8. Coal gas is passed in suc-
cession through the U-tubes F, G, and H, made of ordinary gas-pipe,
having small holes at B, C, D, and E, in order that a flame may be
produced before and after each vessel is passed. Each of the U-tubes
is placed in a vacuum vessel, and the first cooling substance the gas in
its transit meets is solid carbonic acid in F, then liquid air in G, and
finally liquid hydrogen in H. At the temperature of the carbonic-
acid bath all the easily condensable hydrocarbons separate, and conse
qently the flame C is less luminous than B. The Jiquid-air bath con-
denses the ethylene and a large part of the marsh gas and allows the
carbonic oxide and the hydrogen to pass through, so that flame D is less
luminous than C. Finally, after the liquid-hydrogen bath, nothing
escapes condensation but free hydrogen, the carbonic oxide and any
marsh gas being solidified; the result is, the flame E is almost invisible.

A really practical application of liquid hydrogen is the purification
of helium obtained from the gases emitted by the mineral springs of
Bath. Although the helium only amounts to one-thousandth part by

260 SOLID HYDROGEN.

volume—the nine hundred and ninety-nine being chiefly nitrogen—yet
the low temperature method of separation can be successfully applied.

Now that we know definitely the approximate values of some of the
more important physical constants of liquid hydrogen, it is interesting
to look back at the values that have been deduced—say for such a
constant as the density—by various workers using entirely different
methods. The following table gives some of the more important
values of the density of hydrogen under the different conditions in
which it enters into organic and inorganic bodies:

Density of hydrogen in different conditions.

Kopp stabs os. Qreanic. bodies; . yes Wesoed le see oe ee eee 0.18
Amapat....22s= Limit.of gaseous. compression <o. 7. S- — ~<a) obs Sea nee eowels 0.12
Wroblewski ....Van der Waals’s equation (critical density) .../....-.------ 0. 027
Van der Waals. -Supertor limit.or density 23.202 oo. 5 0S eee, Oe
Graham fnsa soe Patlodinm allay70 0c tte ee Siem ee ee See 2.0
Dewars. +3222 Palladium abl yous ote Hee ee eh oe Saree ee is 0. 63
Wewersesc ss ee Liquid hydrogen. at boiling point: 22 _.-2S5222 ein see 0. 07

My density at the boiling point agrees substantially with that which
can be deduced from Wroblewski’s form of the Van der Waals equa-
tion. The deduced densities of Kopp for organic bodies and Amagat
for gaseous compression are both about the same value, and may be
taken as a mean to be twice the observed density of hydrogen in the
liquid state. The conclusions of Graham and myself touching the
density of the hydrogen in the so-called alloy of palladium, must be
regarded as altogether exceptional. Even my value would exceed the
density of the stuff constituting the real gas molecule, according to
the theory of Van der Waals. In order to harmonize ‘the palladium
hydrogen results with those deduced from the study of organic bodies,
we must assume that, during the formation of the so-called hydroge-
nium, a condensation of the palladium sufficient to increase its density
by one-fifth must take place. This is by no means an unreasonable
hypothesis. The mode of determining the density of hydrogen at its
melting point has been previously described, and found to be 0.086.
In the same way the approximate values for the densities of nitrogen
and oxygen at their melting points have been found, their respective
values being 1.07 and 1.27. The following table shows the compari-
son between my results and those given by Amagat for high gaseous
compressions:

Densities.
Pe hae Limiting
Liquid Gas, 3,000
melting | atmos- veer
point. pheres. pheres.

ELV OTOSCH ase face eee caw dies ame ceeseSerr cpt eee eee eat 0. 086 0.097 0.12
NIrOS eNO. bao ease kae sae the eee een ees Bae ee eee hpi ee ited abs 0. 833 0.12
ORV PCDI Sooke feos adie cemien sa elyar abn Oe eaie se ter eee eee eee 7) 1.127 1,525

SOLID HYDROGEN. 261

It will be noted that the density of gaseous hydrogen at 3,000 atmos-.
pheres is actually greater than the maximum density of the liquid
state, but neither in the case of nitrogen nor oxygen does the density
at the same pressure reach the fluid density. Amagat’s limiting value
for oxygen under 4,000.atmospheres would, however, be almost iden-
tical with mine.

During the course of my inquiries sufficient data have been accumu-
lated to construct Waterston formule giving the approximate densities
of liquid hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in each case through a wide
range of temperature. The equation for each substance is given in the
following table:

Liquid atomic volumes.

Hydrogen = 23.3 — 8.64 log (32°—1)
Nitrogen = 30.0 — 11.00 log (127°—+)
Oxygen = 32.6 — 10. 22 log (155°—1)
Absolute Observed at
zero. melting point.

1. Atomic volume of hydrogen 5 - fee

2. Atomic volume of hydrogenf~ *” me

3. Atomic volume of nitrogen =12.8 13.

4. Atomic volume of oxygen =10. 20 12.6

From these formule we find the respective hypothetical atomic vol-
umes of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen at the absolute zero to be
10.3, 12.8, and 10.2. My observed minimum fluid values were 11.7,
13.1, and 12.6. The coefficients of expansion of the liquids, taken in
the same order at their respective boiling points, are 0.024, 0.0056, and
0.0046. Thus liquid hydrogen had a coefficient of expansion five times
greater than that of liquid oxygen. Further inquiry will enable the
constants in these equations to be determined with greater accuracy.
In the meantime, however, they give us general ideas of the order of
magnitude of the quantities involved.

I have to thank Mr. Robert Lennox for efficient aid in the arrange-
ment and execution of the difficult experiments you have witnessed.
Mr. Heath has also heartily assisted in the preparations.

.

UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY .?*

By Rosert H. Tuurston, LL. D., Dr. Eng.,
Director of Sibley College, Cornell University.

Men of science, familiar with the resources of our globe in the
domain of power production and utilization, and especially all who
have considered the origin, extent, and rate of extinction of the quan-
tities of energy available for the purposes of civilized humanity, have,
for many years, concerned themselves seriously with the question,
** When and how shall we reach and pass the critical period at which
the stores of now available latent energy of fossil fuel shall have
become exhausted?”

While this problem is not immediately pressing, it can not be long,
time being gauged by the periods of the historian—it is still more
limited in the view of the geologist—before our stock of coal will be
so far depleted as to make serious trouble in our whole social system.
Professor Leslie, when State geologist of Pennsylvania, and the late
Mr. Eckley B. Cox, estimated the probable life of the coal supplies of
that State, at the present rate of consumption and acceleration, to be
something like a century, and the close of the twentieth century will
be very likely to see an end of such manufactures in that State as
depend upon cheap fuel and proximity to the coal deposits. In Great
Britain the case is probably vastly more serious than in the United
States, for there the coal beds are far more restricted in area, and in
many localities are already extensively depleted, with prices rising as
@ consequence. The same is to be said, in perhaps somewhat less
degree, of the fuels of the continent of Europe—and France, and
particularly Germany, may ere long feel the effect of a stringency in
the fuel market.

Enormous deposits of coal remain untouched in other sections of
the globe, and China can probably supply the world for many years;
but a time must come, and that within a few generations at most, when
some other energy than that of combustion of fuel must be relied
upon to do a fair share of the work of the civilized world, and this
will probably by that time mean the whole of the world.

Water power, which is the next most important source of energy In

* Reprinted, by permission, from Cassier’s Magazine, New York, August, 1901.

263

264 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY.

manufactures, will do much for us, and that will last as long as
humanity survives on this globe; but it is doubtful whether it can be
considered as a possible complete substitute for steam power. Yet
the total available water power of the world will greatly ameliorate
the difficulties likely to arise from extinction of fuel supplies. The
mean annual rainfall of the world is 36 inches, and this means about
50,000,000 cubic feet per square mile per annum falling on the land
of both hemispheres. Taking the mean available height of fall as”
10 feet, and assuming it possible to store the water effectively in
ample reservoirs, this would mean 500,000,000 X 60=30,000,000,000
foot-pounds of available energy, and, if expended in three thousand
working hours, it would give a total of 10,000,000 horsepower per
square mile for such countries as might be able to utilize such a fall.
This, however, is but a small fraction of the inhabited area of the
globe. As a fair estimate, the data for the Mississippi River, in the
United States, may be taken. This stream drains about 1,250,000
square miles, witha rainfall of 30 inches, an average, for each foot of
fall, of 11,000,000,000,000 foot-pounds. per annum. The fall is 6
inches per mile, average, and the energy capable of use for that area
is about a quarter of a million horsepower per square mile.

These figures are enormous, and give the impression that we need
not feel uneasy about our power supply, even though we entirely extin-
guish our fuel deposits. They are, however, of little value; for they
give no idea of the practically available energy of rainfall, since it is
not possible to make use of more than a minute fraction of this total,
and it is not at all probable that we ever can. In the whole length of
the Mississippi River there are but three available water powers—one
with 78 feet fall, at Minneapolis, one with 24 feet, at Des Moines, and
one with 22 feet, at Rock Island. Taking the average flow as a half
million cubic feet per second utilized, the water powers at these points
would be a total of about 7,000,000 horsepower derived from an area
of a million and a quarter square miles, and directly from but a frac-
tion of that area, situated above the lowest fall.

The deduction must evidently be that water power alone can not be
depended upon to provide the energy that will be needed by future
generations should fuel be unavailable, although it is equally obvious
that streams are likely to provide immense quantities of power, and
that manufactures in those coming days will group themselves about
the mili sites or within distances from them which can be spanned by
the electric high-tension wire. Of this process of displacement of
manufactures, Niagara and Buffalo are already giving impressive illus-
trations. As time goes on the part to be taken in power production
by waterfalls will become increasingly important. It is already vastly -
greater and more important economically than is generally supposed.
There are known water powers in the United States able to furnish, if

- ee’
}

UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 265

fully utilized, something like 200,000,000 horsepower. Niagara, at the
falls alone, can supply between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000, and a consid-
erable additional quantity from the rapids above and below the falls,
and numerous other water powers distributed over the hilly and moun-
tainous portions of the country will in time no doubt become centers
of power production and distribution. The one threatening aspect of
the hydraulic power problem is the extreme probability that the con-
tinued destruction of forests and vegetation will make the streams
more and more unreliable for continuous supply.

Wind power is another source of available energy, like water power,
deriving its: origin from the energy of the sun’s rays, which may, as
time goes on, provide a continually larger amount of utilizable energy
for the use of mankind; but it is subject even in greater degree than
water power to the objection that it is variable and unreliable for steady
work. The-winds are continually rising and falling. ‘‘As variable as
the winds” well indicates the uncertainty of atmospheric currents as
a source of power for industrial purposes. Rising to a gale and fall-
ing to a calm, alternately, the portion of the time during which this
power is actually available is small, and, still worse, its available periods
are as likely to come at unsuitable hours and seasons as when wanted.
There is ample wind power for all purposes, undoubtedly, could it be
regulated, stored, and economically availed of; but while no one can
say what may or may not be accomplished by the coming inventor,
mechanic, and engineer, it does not seem likely that this particular
problem will be successfully solved even under the stimulus of van-
ishing fuel supplies.

Tidal power is still another possible source of industrial energy, and
one which also has its own and peculiar difficulties of utilization. It
is a regular and well-measured and well-known quantity; its hours of
rise and fall, and the heights of rise and fall are well established. But
when it is sought to design a system of utilization that shall be cheap,
practicable, reliable, and compact—one that may compete with other
power systems—it is found to be a very difficult and for the time at
least impracticable system of power production.

At the moment, engineers and men of science are studying the art
of reducing to harness the direct rays of the sun, and the solar engine
is exciting special interest. It is no novelty, and many inventors have,
for years past, worked upon this attractive problem; but probably at
no time in the past has this matter assumed importance to so many
thoughtful and intelligent men or excited so much general interest.
John Ericsson, the great inventor and mechanic, when writing, in
1876, the great quarto volume which he intended should be the memorial
of his life’s work, devoted a very large proportion of its space to the
account of his solar engines and of the scientific investigations made
in the course of his work for the purpose of ascertaining the amount

266 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY.

of power thus derivable from the direct rays of the sun. His appa-
ratus was simple—merely a conical mirror or reflector, receiving
the heat of the sun on as large an area as was desired and was found
practicable, and directing it toa focus where was placed a steam boiler
or an air cylinder within which the fluid, heated to a high temperature,
became available for use 1n a steam or an air engine. He reported the
results of his experiments thus: *

‘‘Tt has already been stated that the result of repeated experiments
with the concentration apparatus shows that it abstracts on an average,
during nine hours a day, for all latitudes between the equator and
45°, fully 3.5 units of heat per minute for each square foot of area
presented perpendicularly to the sun’s rays. Theoretically this indi-
cates the development of an energy equal to 8.2 horsepower for an
area of 100 square feet. On grounds before explained, our calcula-
tions of the capabilities of sun power to actuate machinery will, how-
ever, be based on 1 horsepower developed for 100 square feet exposed
to solar radiation. The isolated districts of the earth’s surface suffer-’
ing from an excess of solar heat being very numerous, our space only
admits of a glance at the sun-burnt continents.

‘*There is a rainless region extending from the northwest coast of
Africa to Mongolia, 9,000 miles in length and nearly 1,000 miles wide.
Besides the north African deserts, this region includes the southern
coast of the Mediterranean, east of the Gulf of Cabes, Upper Egypt,
the eastern and part of the western coast of the Red Sea, part of Syria,
the eastern part of the countries watered by the Euphrates and Tigris,
eastern Arabia, the greater part of Persia, the extreme western part
of China, Thibet, and, lastly, Mongolia. In the Western Hemisphere,
Lower California, the table-land of Mexico and Guatemala, and the west
coast of South America, for a distance of more than 2,000 miles, suffer
from continuous intense radiant heat.

‘*Computations of the solar energy wasted on the vast areas thus
specified would present an inconceivably great amount of dynamic
force. Let us, therefore, merely estimate the mechanical power that
would result from utilizing the solar heat on a strip of land a single
mile in width along the rainless western coast of America, the south-
ern coast of the Mediterranean, before alluded to; both sides of the
alluvial plain of the Nile in Upper Egypt, both sides of the Euphrates
and Tigris for a distance of 400 miles above the Persian Gulf, and,
finally, a strip, 1 mile wide, along the rainless portions of the shores
of the Red Sea, before pointed out. The aggregate length of these
strips of land, selected on account of being accessible by water com-
munication, far exceeds 8,000 miles. Adopting the stated length and a
width of 1 mile asa basis of computation, it will be seen that this
very narrow belt covers 223,000,000,000 square feet. Dividing the
latter amount by the area of 100 square feet necessary to produce 1
horsepower, we learn that 22,300,000 solar engines, each of 100 horse-
power, could be kept in constant operation nine hours a day by utiliz-
ing only that heat which is now wasted on the assumed small fraction
of land extending along some of the water fronts of the sun-burnt
regions of the earth.

«Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition, by John Ericsscn, 1876. D. Van
Nostrand, New York.

UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 267

**Due consideration can not fail to convince us that the rapid ex-
haustion of the European coal fields will soon cause great changes
with reference to international relations in favor of those countries
which are in possession of continuous sun power. Upper Egypt, for
instance, will, in the course of afew centuries, derive signal advantage
and attain a high political position on account of her perpetual sun-
shine and the consequent command of unlimited motive force. The
time will come when Europe must stop her mills for want of coal.
Upper Egypt, then, with her never-ceasing sun power, will invite the
European manufacturer to remove his machinery and erect his mills
on the firm ground along the sides of the alluvial plain of the Nile,
where an amount of motive power may be obtained many times greater
than that now employed by all the manufactories of Europe.”

The probable value of the quantity of energy transmitted to the
earth from the sun, according to the conclusion, after extended inves-
tigation of the late Prof. De Volson Wood, the greatest of American
thermodynamists of the nineteenth century, is not far from that
obtained by Langley—133 foot-pounds per square foot of receiving
area per second, about 133 550=0.24 horsepower, or the equivalent of
4 square feet per horsepower.* As actually utilized, Ericsson
reported his solar engine to supply a horsepower from 100 square
feet of receiving area, on a bright, clear day, and other experimen-
talists, with apparently less efficient apparatus, report a horsepower
from about 150 square feet in sunshine.

This figure is confirmed by recent experiments at Passadena, Cal.,
where it is said that the efficiency reached by Ericsson has in some
eases been attained. The California apparatus includes a truncated
conical mirror, 33 feet 6 inches in diameter at the top and 15 feet at
the bottom, which concentrates the rays of the sun received upon its
1,788 facets at a focus where a boiler is placed, and where steam is
made, to operate a steam engine of small power. The whole mass of
glass and iron composing the mirror is moved by a suitably arranged
clock, and is automatically held with its axis directed toward the sun.
The boiler is carried on the same frame and moves with the mirror.
It is 13 feet 6 inches in length, and contains aboyt 10 cubic feet of
water and 8 cubic feet of steam space. The steam pressure is carried
at 150 pounds per square inch. It is rated at 10 horsepower. This
power is utilized in pumping water, but the reported figures are
inconsistent with its rating. To set the machine in operation it is
only necessary to turn the apparatus by hand until its axis points at
the sun’s disk and to set the clockwork in operation. To stop it
requires simply the turning of the mirror away from the sun and the
stopping of the machinery which adjusts it.

* Wood employs this value in his classic and remarkable paper ‘‘On the Luminif-
erous Ether,”’ the first rational determination of the physical properties of the ether,
and a most important and impressive work. Phil. Trans. Magazine, November,
1885. App. to Wood’s Thermodynamics; N. Y., 1887. J. Wiley & Sons.

268 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY.

The uncertainty which the engineer feels regarding this type of
motor is due largely to the difficulties arising from the fact that the
sun is not always available, even by day, and that it is entirely out of
reach for power purposes for one-half the twenty-four hours, and he
has as yet no idea of practical methods of storage, either of the heat
or the power, for use during cloudy periods, hours, days, and weeks
even, when the engine can not be kept in steady operation. It is, of
course, possible that much improvement may be effected in the elec-
tric storage battery, and it is even true that great improvements in
that precious device are apparently already in sight; but even the
ideal and perfect battery, could it be realized, would probably prove
so costly and so enormous, as a part of this system of sun-power
utilization, as to make its use practically out of the question in tem-
perate regions where the sky is overcast so often that not over one-
half the direct heat of the sun is each day, on the average, available,
or in the Tropics, where the rainy season makes it unavailable for
months together. Where, as may occasionally be practicable, storage
may be effected by raising water into extensive and elevated reservoirs
provided by nature, this difficulty may prove less serious; but such
exceptional advantages of location can not be relied upon for any
important aid in securing general utilization of the solar motor.

For necessarily continuous use of power it is thus evident this sys-
tem gives little promise, and a cotton mill, for example, that must go
into operation only when the sun comes out from behind a cloud and
go out of action the instant it disappears again can hardly be expected
to pay dividends. Water power must be its reliance when coal can
not be employed, rather than either sun power or wind power, and its
work must be done where a sufficient amount of fall and flow can be
had to meet its maximum requirements, even at the periodof minimum
flow.

The availability of sunlight and heat for the purposes of the engi-
neer differs greatly in different places, and with every change of lati-
tude, as well as from season to season. This variability is an enor-
mous handicap whére it is sought to employ this energy. The remark
is attributed to Professor Langley that all the coal deposits of Penn-
sylvania, if burned in a single second, would not liberate a thousandth
part as much heat as does the surface of the sun in that unit of time.
Yet it is evident that our coal deposits, so long as they last, are worth
more to us than all the available heat of the sun.

In conclusion, we may thus make the following deductions:

The rapid and rapidly increasing destruction of our stores of mineral
fuel must, sooner or later, bring us to a point at which it will be no
longer possible to derive the power required in the arts from that
source.

That period is likely to be ushered in before many generations, and

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Thurston. PLATE Il.

SUN REFLECTOR.

Blowing off steam with a pressure of 210 pounds. From article ‘‘ Harnessing the Sun,’’ Worlds
Work, April, 1901. By courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.

Cy te

UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 269

is, in fact, in some portions of the world already presenting its pre-
liminary symptoms—difficulty in mining and increased price of the
fuel in the market, as well as the expressed anxiety of statesmen guard-
ing the interests of the great manufacturing districts of Europe.

The ultimate outcome must be the gradual extinction of our fuel
supplies, and if no substitute can be devised by the ingenuity of man,
the compulsory retreat of the civilized races into the tropics, and,
even there, the interruption of the manufacturing industries on the
scale necessary to the maintenance of civilized life as we know it
to-day.

While it may be true, as has recently been estimated, that the belt
extending thirty degrees on either side of the equator may be capable
of sustaining a population of ten thousand millions, over ten times the
number now inhabiting that portion of the globe, such a population
will require correspondingly increased power supplies, if it is to be a
civilized population as we to-day define the word.

The available sources of power remaining are wind and water power,
and the utilization of the energy of the direct rays of the sun. The
last, though apparently most universally available, has hitherto been
unused, while the indirect systems of employment of the sun’s energy
have been very extensively employed, the deduction being that the
former process presents elements of peculiar difficulty.

Water power is, to date, the most available, and the common substi-
tute for the heat engine. When the existing waterfalls are generally
utilized, they will go far toward meeting the needs of the race in power
production, and the coincident use of the electric current for the dis-
tribution of energy from its source is now making this element of the
problem far more promising of solution than previously. Yet it is
doubtful whether water power will suffice for all the requirements .of
later generations, even though the usual result of stimulated brain work,
checking of the growth of population, should hold down the numbers
of the human race to something like those of the present time.

Wind power, although even more generally distributed than water
power, is subject to its own peculiar disadvantages for our purposes,
and, while likely to come more and more into use for purposes like
that of raising water to higher levels, and where steadiness and con-
tinuity of action are not important, will probably be found in great
part unavailable for large powers or for the great majority of uses.
which commonly demand steadiness of power and action.

Solar motors make available an immense quantity of active energy
by direct utilization. They are evidently practicable in the sense that
there is no inherent mechanical difficulty in their construction and
operation. They are subject, however, to the same defects of lack of
steadiness of source of energy, of need for provision for extensive and
prolonged storage, if to be generally employed, and to the serious

270 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY.

objection of large cost per unit of power delivered. Whether this
cost will be so great as to balance the gain coming of free delivery to
the machine of the energy to be transformed can be known only when
we are driven to the serious task of providing substitutes for the heat
engines.

Ericsson made a working steam engine deriving its energy from the
direct rays of the sun, and proved that either steam or air could be
employed in such an engine as the working fluid. He also showed
what is the amount of power practically derivable from the sun’s rays
through this method of utilization of the heat of the sun.

Later testimony, so far as it goes, confirms his statements, and the
mechanical possibility is beyond question that, in future centuries,
when our fuels are gone, we may largely utilize the sun’s energy in
this manner. But it may yet be found that this threatened exhaustion
of our fuel supplies is not the only, or perhaps even the first, limit
likely to be set to the progress of the world of humanity on our globe.
The exhaustion of our iron ores, like our platinum deposits, the min-
gling with the air of the products of combustion of our fuels while they
still last, the pollution of our water supplies, and many other possible
obstacles to progress and growth, will have their effects, individual
and combined, and our most serious problems are quite likely to be
found at an earlier date than that of the loss of our fuels; the last-
named danger is, in fact, already upon us. This generation need not
attempt to cross the first of the bridges on the list, although a very
seductive problem is presented to the engineer. This problem may
be enunciated thus:

To find a system of gathering and storing the energy of the direct
rays of the sun, for utilization in power production, by a special form
of heat motor; to find, next, a method of transforming the energy
thus collected into mechanical power; and to discover a method of
storing, for later use, excess power obtained during periods of sunshine,
tiding over the sunless periods.

The problem will be solved only when the system thus perfected is
so designed and constructed as to be able to provide power for indus-
trial purposes so cheaply that a business profit can be made through
its use.

THE NEW RADIATIONS—CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN,
RAY S.*

By A. Dasrre.

It is generally agreed that one of the characteristic features of our
age is the enormous development of the applications of science. This
is a commonplace truth. We are completely surrounded on all sides
by these applications; they are intimately mingled with all the condi-
tions of everyday life; they take part in our housing, our clothing,
our lighting, our transportation in many ways; they assist us in com-
municating with our friends, far and near; they produce our portraits,
or they simply amuse us, so that they can not be ignored. But this
utilitarian aspect of modern science should not obscure its educational
and philosophic value. Referring, for instance, to contemporary
physics only, the march of ideas has not been less remarkable than the
progress of discovery. Theory and practice have advanced side by
side. Boldness of speculation has attained the same height as skill in
experimentation. It may be said in this connection that the evolution
of theories compares favorably with the marvelous development of
facts, and the philosophy of science with science itself. This we have
previously attempted to show to our readers in our essays on osmose,
on cryoscopy, and on tonometry; here we wish to examine from the
same point of view ideas that have accumulated in recent years con-
cerning cathode rays, Réntgen rays, and on the radio-activity of
matter.

i

The term ‘* cathode rays” was suggested in 1883 by the well-known
physicist, Wiedemann, who had been engaged in studying them, but
the object to which the name was applied was not entirely new.
Cathode rays had several years before occasioned celebrated experi-
ments in the hands of an English scientist, W. Crookes, long well
known through other original investigations. The beautiful experi-
ments of Crookes, disseminated by their author throughout Europe,
had attracted the attention not merely of the majority of physicists,

“Translated from the Reyue des Deux Mondes, Dec. 1, 1901.

271

3(2 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

but of the public itself. Presented to the members of the British
Association at their meeting at Sheflield in 1879, repeated in 1880 at
one of the soirees of the French Association, held in the Observatory
of Paris, these new and brilliant phenomena aroused immense enthu-
siasm. Crookes attributed them toa special condition of matter which
he called ‘‘ radiant matter.” Cathode rays are simply radiant matter
electrified. The English scientist laid great stress on this fourth state
of matter; he believed, and others believed with him, that he had
opened a new path to science.

This hope was vain, or at least deferred for a long time; it was neces-
sary to wait fifteen years until the discovery of X-rays (connected with
cathode rays, as will appear presently) attracted the attention of scien-
tific men. However, investigators had not abandoned this new track;
they had followed it with perseverance in the silence of their labora-
tories. Among these zealous workers must be named in the first rank
the German physicist, Hittorf, to whom must be given the honor of
having discovered cathode rays. He had pointed out their existence
ten years before W. Crookes. In justice to him cathode rays might be
called Hittorf rays, for the same reason and on the same ground that
the X-rays are called Roéntgen rays, and the radio-active rays Bee-
querel rays.

Besides Hittorf should be named Hertz, Wiedemann, and Ebert,
Schmidt, Lenard, and J. J. Thomson, whose researches were grad-
ually developed until 1895. At this period suddenly appeared the
discovery by Réntgen, and investi,ations received a new impulse.
Soon after appeared in different countries the publications of Birke-
land, of Majorana, of W. Wien, and in France those of J. Perrin, of
Villard, of Deslandres, and of H. Poincaré.

These numerous researches had a double object. It was proposed
on one hand to complete the experimental study of the phenomena,
and on the other hand to furnish an explanation of them. The task
in both cases is very attractive, but the interest of the theoretical
question is incomparably greater. On this new field of cathode phe-
nomena was renewed the discussion which for more than a century
had agitated the physicists concerning the interpretation of luminous
phenomena. Cathode rays are not luminous rays, but their explana-
tion was equally opposed to the theory of emission and to the theory
of undulation, to ponderable matter and to ether. The discussion of
the commencement of the century with reference to light was renewed
in its last decade with reference to electricity. Sensational and theat-
rical effects succeeded each other. With Crookes in 1880 the emission
theory triumphed; the cathode ray certainly appeared to be a material
projection, a ballistic trajectory. With Lenard in 1894 (who had
caused the cathode rays to penetrate a vacuum without diminishing
the latter) the theory of an immaterial foundation, rays of ether, was

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. OTS

uppermost. J.J. Thomson in 1897 returned to the emission of par-
ticles, but these projectiles were no longer molecules, atoms or ions—
the smallest division of matter recognized, but the fragments of atoms,
atomic corpuscles. Finally, M. Villard in 1899 determined the nature
of these bodies, and showed that they were formed of hydrogen, in
short corpuscles or fragments of atomic hydrogen. It was shown
that the cathode rays exhibit the spectrum of hydrogen, and if every
trace of this gas is successfully removed the cathode emission is
suddenly suppressed.
if

After this presentation of the theoretical interest of these new rays
it will be well to give a short description of them. Their appearance
is dependent upon conditions of the electric discharge in rarefied
gases. Phenomena of this character are frequently seen, as for exam-
ple, the illumination of Geissler tubes, or of the electric bulb. As
these experiments are among the most brilliant and most attractive
that can be performed with electricity they are shown on every occa-
sion, as much for the beauty of the spectacle as for the instruction of
the spectator.

Let us imagine, then, an electric bulb, an oval vessel of glass in
which are placed two metallic poles, two bulbs or, in short, two
electrodes of some shape or other, separated by smaller or greater
intervals, and charged with electricity. Their electrification will be
maintained, for example, by placing them in connection with the
induction poles of a Ruhmkorff coil. An electrostatic machine can
also be used, if furnished with a condenser whose collector is con-
nected with one of the electrodes. A short tube provided with a stop-
cock allows the ovoid bulb to be exhausted of air. When the electric
tension passes a certain limit a current is established. A flash of
flame passes from the positive electrode (the anode) to the negative
electrode (the cathode). Under these conditions, having a rarefied
gas and suitable charge of electricity, this luminous trajectory, instead
of being blinding white, sharp, rectilinear or zig zag as the ordinary
spark is constituted, appears as a diffuse glow, varied in color accord-
ing to the nature of the gas.

If the bulb or flask which contains the electrodes permits changing
the place of the positive pole and approaching it to different points of
the surface of the glass, the luminous trail is seen always to leave the
wandering point of attachment in order to pass to the fixed negative
pole. The passage will be more or less direct or rectilinear, it will
approach more or less the axis of the bulb, and will vary in conse-
quence with the shape of the same. And by displacing the positive
pole, the current, this trajectory of discharge, can be directed at will.
In ordinary cases this is what usually occurs, especially when the rare-

sm 1901——18

274 - CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

faction is of a moderate degree, when the vacuum is maintained at a few
hundredths, or at most a few thousandths of an atmosphere. One must
not be contented with this degree of exhaustion if it is desired to study
the cathode rays. It is necessary to go further, as did Lenard. and
Crookes, without, however, going too far. The English physicist, in
particular, pushed the exhaustion to a prodigious degree. In the
Crookes tubes, so called, the pressure is only one millionth of an
atmosphere. The pressure of the remaining gas valued in millimeters
of mercury does not reach more than 0.00076. The English scientist
claimed that when exhausted to this point the residue no longer has
the properties of ordinary gases; according to him it is a Aypergas as
different from the true gaseous state as the latter is from the liquid
state, and forming a fourth condition of matter, following the liquid,
the solid, and the gas proper; this he called radiant matter. Crookes,
relying on what the kinetic theory teaches with reference to the con-
stitution of gases, desired to determine the nature of this fourth state
of matter. In reality, the gas, rarefied to the millionth of an atmos-
phere, has not acquired, by this fact alone, an entirely new character;
but it has acquired it most certainly when electrification is added to
the rarefaction, and it is then that it constitutes the emanation or the
cathode ray.

We have said that the vacuum must not be pushed too far, if one
goes beyond the millionth of an atmosphere—and the perfection
of mechanism allows going much further than that—the gaseous
residue can not be electrified; electricity will not pass through; there
is no longer a current. The electric force is incapable of penetrating
absolute vacuum; this resistance of the vacuum to the passage of elec-
tricity is an article of faith among physicists, especially since the
experiments of Walsh, of Morren, and of Schultz. The importance of
this principle is very great from the theoretical point of view; it fur-
nishes, in fact, a new test for matter. But in its application its prac-
tical value is very restricted. The experiments of Lenard, after those
of Hertz in showing us the propagation of certain forms of electricity
in vacuo, instruct as to the nature of these restrictions. We shall
say, with J. Perrin, that it is very probable that recognizable elec-
tricity which can be experimentally detected can not propagate itself
without a material support, but this is not certain.

If now we return to Crookes’s tube, in which the vacuum has been
pushed to one millionth, we shall see that the current behaves itself
rather differently from what it does in the tubes where the rarefaction
is less. The path of the current has lost much of its brilliancy; it no
longer appears as an uncertain glow, wavering, striated, of a hue inter-
mediate between rose and violet. All the remainder of the interior
of the bulb remains dark. The electricity passes again and follows

()

Ou

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 2

the same path as before between the positive electrode and the cathode.
The principal flow has been joined by a secondary one, from all points
of the tube the positive currents are directed toward the cathode,
and go to reenforce the principal current. These positive charges
which descend from all points of the periphery form the counterpart
of the negative charges, which can be seen fixed on the cathode rays.
Their existence, their development, their circulation, result in conse-
quence from the existence, the development, and the inverse circula-
tion of the negative electricity that carries with it the cathode ray.

Such is the cathode afflux; it is composed of the current directed
toward the positive electrode and of secondary currents directed from
all parts of the recipient toward the cathode. M. Villard has made it
very plain that all these obscure or dim emanations are united in the
axis of the bulb to the principal flow.

This cathode afflux has besides the character and the properties that
physicists and chemists attribute to the electric current. It touches
directly the cathode. If it happens that this negative electrode—
which we may suppose to consist of a small, circular, metallic disk—
is perforated with a hole, a portion of the cathode afflux crosses this
opening and pursues its journey beyond, after being discharged in
passing. This neutral electrical current, these discharged rays, form
the Canalstrahlen studied by Goldstein,

All these details with relation to the currents which flow toward the
cathode indicate the care with which physicists have studied the sub-
ject, so that none of the phenomena which take place in Crookes’s tube
may escape them. It might be said, however, that they are foreign
to our principal subject, which is the cathode emission. The afflux
which we have just seen reach the cathode is in fact perfectly distinct
in every respect from the cathode radiation which follows it and which
alone interests us. The latter is formed of a pencil of rays perpen-
dicular to the surface of the cathode. It is in the present case a cylin-
drical pencil having for a base the circular disk; it traverses the tube
in a perfectly straight line without being disturbed by the rays flow-
ing toward the cathode in an opposite direction, of which we have just
been speaking; it passes by them and through them unchecked.

This new pencil implanted normally on the cathode is not luminous.
It is not directly visible; it forms a dark spot in the Crookes tube.
It would entirely escape observation if it did not excite a peculiar
fluorescence opposite to the cathode at the points where it meets the
sides of the tube. The material of the glass becomes illuminated at
these points and presents a luminous brilliant spot of a green color.
Crookes had the idea to arrange in the interior of the tube, in the path
of this pencil between the cathode and the wall, a variety of opaque
bodies, as, for example, a cross of aluminum. He then saw outlined

276 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

upon the clear fluorescent background the exact silhouette of the cross.
In this way perfect geometric shadows of the objects introduced can
be obtained in every case.

This experiment necessitates the conclusion that the cathode emis-
sion is rectilinear. The cathode, the screen, and the silhouette are all
ona straight line. Things occur, in short, as if a single ray left each
point of the cathode, exciting luminosity at the very spot where it
encounters the walls. Without prejudging in any way the nature of
the phenomenon, it is proper to use the expression cathode rays.

A close study of the shadows formed by divers screens, of the sil-
houettes outlined by these rays, leads to a new and instructive point;
it shows that they are implanted at right angles to the surface of the
electrode; they are perpendicular to it at every point. It must be
added, however, following Goldstein, that it is not a strict rule; if
accepted, it results that the shape of the pencil varies in a simple man-
ner with that of the cathode. The latter is sometimes arranged as a
slightly convex disk; thereupon the rays form the trunk of a cone
which strikes the walls of the tube like a circular skullcap. If the
cathode disk is a mirror with spherical concave surface the perpen-
dicular lines at the surface form a conic pencil and converge toward
the center of the image of the sphere, where they form a focus. The
effects peculiar to cathode rays are magnified by this concentration, in
the same manner that the effects of luminous rays are increased in the
focus of a lens. In this manner Crookes was able to show the heating
action of his supposed radiant matter; that is to say, of cathode rays.
He succeeded in fusing, at one of these foci, not only glass, but a wire
of iridium-platinum, an operation which requires a temperature of
more than 2,000°.

It is not only at the end of its path at the point where it strikes the
walls of the glass tube that the cathode pencil can be rendered visible.
Hittorf and Goldstein, in 1876, furnished the means of rendering it
visible at all points of its path by discovering the phosphorogenic
power of the newrays. The illumination which these dark rays excite
in the glass of the bulb they also produce on other bodies placed in
the interior. Rock crystal appears of a blue color, precious stones of
divers colors, rubies project a beautiful red glow, diamonds take on
an extraordinary brilliancy. The earthy sulphides which are naturally
phosphorescent—that is to say, able to store up the luminous rays and
yield them up afterwards—are lighted up most vividly. Wurtzite
(crystallized sulphide of zinc) becomes dazzling. By arranging a frag-
ment of one of these substances in the path of the pencil, the latter
becomes visible throughout. It becomes possible in this way to study
the properties of cathode rays.

The results of this study should be briefly mentioned. In the first
place the two laws already announced are verified—that the cathode ray

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. rere

is rectilinear and that it is quite sensitive perpendicular to the surface
of the electrode. Again, the mechanical effects produced by these
rays are of great interest, owing to the support which they seem to
give to the theory of the emission of matter. They are shown by a
beautiful experiment. Two rails formed of glass rods and placed in
the path of the cathode rays support the axle of a paddle wheel. This
little machine begins to move, revolves continuously as soon as elec-
trical communication has been established, as if the flanges received
blows—a bombardment, according to the expression used by Crookes—
of material particles issuing from the negative electrode. On revers-
ing the direction of the current the wheel revolves in the opposite
direction. The ballistic explanation seems so reasonable that it natu-
rally insinuates itself into the mind and gives rise to a belief in cath-
ode projectiles. However, on reflection, the argument is by no means
conclusive. Everyone has seen in the show windows of opticians the
little instrument which is called a radiometer, which was itself an
invention of Crookes. It forms a kind of windmill, exceedingly light,
and inclosed in a bulb of glass that has been exhausted of air. It
begins to move in the same way as the water wheel of the preceding
experiment, but under the action of luminous rays—that is to say, of
vibrations of the ether, without suggesting this time a bombardment
of projectiles.

A second property of cathode rays, an unexpected and very remark-
able one, is that they are attracted by a magnet. Making the pencil
visible by means of a phosphorescent screen placed within the tube it
is seen to bend away on approaching a magnet; it can be attracted and
repelled at will by varying the position of the magnetic agent. The
amount of the deflection depends partly on the strength of the magnet
and partly on the velocity of the cathode rays, a velocity which can
be determined by varying the pressure of the gaseous residue that
fills the bulb. On giving proper motion to the magnet it is easy to
conceive that one might succeed in twisting the pencil into a spiral.
This obedience to the directive force of the magnet goes so far as to
allow it to form a circle upon itself. In this experiment the cathode
ray behaves like an electric current of which the negative pole would
be the cathode and which runs along a metallic wire. This magnetic
deflection is easily explained by the emission theory; the rays would
be formed by a row of electrified material particles following each
other rapidly and carrying an electric charge. This transportation of
electricity by the transportation of matter is called a current by con-
vection. Rowland, Réntgen, and other physicists have shown that
currents of this nature are similar to ordinary currents by conduction.
On the other hand, deflections produced by a magnet are unknown in
etherial, calorific, luminous, and actinic radiations.

In the third place the cathode ray is electrified. This we assumed a

278 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

little ways back in saying that it was similar to a row of electrified
particles, that is to say, toa current. It is necessary, therefore, that
the charge which it transports should be made manifest. Crookes
believed that he had succeeded in doing this. Ebert and Wiedemann -
showed the fallacy of his demonstration, but it was a young French
physicist, M. Jean Perrin, who, by a very neat experiment, made plain
the essential character of cathode rays, which is that they must be.
charged with negative electricity.

The cathode phenomena, such as we have described them, fills the
whole of the interior of the bulb; within it, it begins and ends. Up
to 1894 it had been impossible to study these rays under the experi-
mental conditions in which they occur. The rays remain shut up in
their birthplace as ina prison. Lenard succeeded in liberating them,
and his beautiful experiments of 1894, which drew these captive rays
from their prison of glass, created a great enthusiasm among physicists.

The cathode rays are stopped by glass; this is well known. Most
other substances act the same way. However, Hertz in 1883 had
announced that metallic plates would permit the passage of these rays
provided they were sufficiently thin; their thickness should not be
greater than a few thousandths of a millimeter (micron).. Lenard sug-
gested replacing the fluorescent portion of the glass tube on which the
cathode pencil strikes by a piece of metal, and it was necessary that
this plate should be stout enough not to yield to the pressure of the
air. Herein lay the difficulty, which Lenard succeeded in overcoming.
He arranged in his Crookes tube a small window, in which he inserted
a plate of aluminium three-thousandths of a millimeter in thickness.
This leaf proved to be capable of resisting atmospheric pressure and
of sustaining the vacuum within. The cathode rays, more subtle than
gaseous molecules, passed through, permitting them to be studied
without.

They behaved without exactly as within the tube; they proved to be
rectilinear, deflected by a magnet and capable of producing fluores-
cence; also equally capable of making an impression on a photographic
plate. Most extraordinarily they had preserved their negative elec-
trification in spite of the thickness of the metal which they had tra-
versed. This fact was unexpected and unexampled. It indicates that
the negative electrical charge is an essential and indelible character of
the cathode ray, and that it can not lose it without ceasing to exist.

These experiments taught at the same time that the cathode rays
possess a very limited power of penetration, even through gases.
Unless these gases are extremely rarefied the rays are quickly stopped
and scattered by molecular obstacles. On the contrary, when the
vacuum is pushed very far they remain unchanged; it has been possi.
ble to follow them the length of a meter and a half without noticing
any diminution of power.

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 279

In conclusion, two other characteristics of the cathode rays must be
noticed. The first consists in the power that they transmit to gases
through which they pass, of conducting electricity. Gases ina dry
state, as is well known, are nonconductors; an electrified body, for
instance, a gold-leaf electroscope or a condenser, holds its charge. If
it sometimes appears otherwise it is because the gas is not dry, and the
diminution should then be attributed to the vapor of water. But if
a cathode ray just comes in contact with air which is really dry,
near this apparatus, the latter is seen to discharge itself at once. The
gas has acquired a certain degree of conductivity. This same prop-
erty belongs, as we shall soon explain, to Réntgen rays and to Bec-
querel rays. This characteristic is common to all these radiations,
and is probably the one which can be easiest investigated, and even
measured. By means of an electroscope inclosed in a box full of dry
air these divers radiations are studied. By this process Mme. and M.
Curie discovered the new radio-active bodies, polonium and radium,
and M. Debierne by the same means discovered actinium.

The last peculiarity is also common to these three kinds of radiation,
as well as to every species of electric current. It consists in this, that
both effect condensation of the vapor of water when the latter is near
its point of saturation, producing a kind of mist. This mist, which
forms instantly on the passage of the current, or of the rays, becomes
a visible and palpable sign of their presence. It is a beautiful lecture
experiment and one easily reproduced for public exhibition, and has
often been repeated within the last two or three years. The invisible
vapor escapes from a narrow tube connected with a flask full of boil-
ing water; on approaching to it a metallic point strongly electrified
and from which the fluid escapes in the form of an aigrette that can
easily be distinguished in the dark. As soon as contact has been made
the jet of steam assumes the aspect of a dense mist or of a thick smoke.

Allusion may be made to the possible applications of this phenom-
enon to meteorology without insisting upon them. There is another
curious application which was made by J. J. Thomson in measuring
the number of cathode projectiles which exist in a given space at a
given moment. By combining this calculation with electro-metric
investigations it has been possible by skillful comparison to determine
the negative charge borne by each cathode projectile, and, finally, its
mass. ‘The latter is extremely small.

The cathode rays of a single pencilare not all identical. The velocity
of propagation is not equal, and that is the reason why a magnet deflects
them unequally, just as a prism bends unevenly the rays which form
a beam of solar light. There is magnetic dispersion and a magnetic
spectrum for the rays emanating from the cathode, exactly like the
luminous dispersion and luminous spectrum formed with the sun’s

280 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYs.

rays. This fact was determined about the same time by Birkeland
and Jean Perrin.

By exceedingly clever experiments it has been possible to measure
the velocity of propagation of the cathode rays, which is, according to
the emission theory, the true velocity of the projectile thrown off by
the electrode. This velocity is enormous and, moreover, varies greatly
according to the circumstances of its production. It may be 200 kms.
a second, which is the lowest limit, and may reach 50,000 kms., which
seems to be the highest limit. or one-sixth the velocity of light.

We can scarcely point out the principles by which this calculation
has been made. It is founded upon the experimental measurement of
the magnetic deflection exerted by a known magnet and by the elec-
tric deflection excited by an electric current having an intensity equally
known. Itis very clear that these deflections depend upon the velocity
and the mass of the cathode projectiles. In short, it is evident that
the magnet or the current will deflect the cathode ray more if it travels
with a feeble velocity and less if the velocity is great.

It is possible, moreover, to diminish this velocity in order to give
greater accuracy to the methods. Lenard made use for this purpose
not only of the rays produced in the Crookes tube but also of those the
existence of which had been discovered by Gustave Le Bon and which
result from the action of light on metals.

The: velocity of the cathode ray is prodigious and can produce
mechanical effects surpassing the imagination, if you consider that the
mass of the projectile is infinitely small and the projectile itself but
the fragment of an atom. Jean Perrin has calculated one of the
effects, the calorific effect which will be produced by the blows of
an appreciable proportion of these projectiles. The quantity of
heat which a kilogram of this matter would generate, when suddenly
arrested by an obstacle in its course, would be sufficient to raise instantly
to the boiling point the water of a lake 1,000 hectares in extent and 5
meters in depth.

The measurement of the cathode velocity brings to bear a final argu-
ment in favor of the ballistic or materialistic theory. If the cathode
were the result of certain vibrations of the ether, instead of resulting
from the projection of matter, it would not be possible to comprehend
that such a disturbance should be propagated with a variable velocity
of 200 kms., since the same medium transmits the solar disturbance
with a uniform velocity of 300,000 kms.

No matter from what side we study this question the advantage
always remains with the theory of material emission. In this discus-
sion which has been renewed in our time between the two systems of
emission and of undulations, this time it is the first that carries off the
palm.

The cathode ray may be considered, then, as formed of a row of

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 281

projectiles negatively electrified. Why should they move in a straight
line perpendicularly to the surface of the cathode? Because they are
repulsed and driven violently by the electric charge of the cathode.

The electro-metric and electro-magnetic measurements, combined
with those of which we have formerly spoken, and which allow the
calculation of the number of cathode projectiles in a given space by
means of the condensation of a mist have led to surprising results
whose accuracy is amazing. By these means the cathode projectile
_ has been found to have a constant mass, equal to the thousandth part
of one atom of hydrogen.

The projectile, then, does not depend upon the cathode, as Crookes
had already determined. It is composed of hydrogen, as proved by
M. Villard without question. It has its origin necessarily in the
breaking up of the atom of hydrogen. This, instead of being the
final expression of simplicity and of lightness, as chemists believe,
appears to be a quite complex edifice and rather heavy, since the cur-
rent of the Crookes tube removes from the stones which represent it
but the thousandth part of its mass. These stones are the fragments
of atoms, or the atomic corpuscles of J. J. Thomson. The atom is no
longer indivisible. Here we shall stop, not pushing the analysis fur-
ther, although the state of science would permit it; but we should
enter upon the subject of the constitution of matter, a subject which
‘an only be incidentally referred to here.

luis

Cathode rays have no practical application. They are produced
under extremely peculiar conditions, ina barometric vacuum, in the
interior of a bulb from which it is almost impossible to liberate them.
We should have no excuse for having entertained our readers so long
had this study offered only the interest of pure curiosity and an
opportunity of proclaiming the cleverness of our physicists. But it
has another bearing. In narrating the history of these rays we have
included that of rays of the same family—Rontgen rays, of which the
applications are so numerous, and Becquerel rays, which are but a
mixture of the two other kinds. In the second place, the cathode rays
are the progenitors and the necessary generators of the others. The
mechanism and the true nature of the latter are better known.

Moreover, cathode rays (and R6éntgen rays as well as those of
Becquerel, which accompany them or emanate from them) are not
merely the simple results of design on the part of physicists; they con-
stitute a natural phenomenon which can not be neglected. Far from
being of rare occurrence they are incessantly produced. Not a single
ray from the sun falls upon a metallic surface, not a flame is ignited,
not an electric spark flashes, not a current of electricity is produced,
not a substance becomes incandescent without the appearance of a

282 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

vathode ray either in a simple or transformed condition. G. Le Bon
deserves the credit of having first perceived the universality of this.
order of phenomena. Although he, indeed, made use of the inappro-
priate term ‘‘black light,” nevertheless he recognized the general
character and the principal properties of this creation. Above all,
he assigned to the phenomenon its true place, transferring it from the
workroom of the physicist to the grand laboratory of nature. P. de
Heen, the well-known professor of the University of Liége, adopted
a similar conception. He considers that nearly all the centers of dis-
turbance of the ether generate emanations similar to those which take
place in a Crookes tube. We shall have occasion to return to this in
connection with the radio-activity of matter.

IV. ‘

The enthusiasm and admiration which the discovery by Réntgen
aroused at the close of the year 1895 is well remembered. The learned
physicist of Wirzburg exhibited photographic silhouettes obtained
through opaque bodies, sheets of pasteboard, leaves of paper, thick
books, dictionaries, and wooden boards several inches in thickness.
He furnished the means of receiving on a screen the fluorescent
shadows of bodies concealed by wrappings, or inclosed in boxes, that
is to say, made it possible to see indirectly through these obstacles.

Very soon useful applications added to the interest of mere curiosity
which was manifested at the start. Radiography was applied to the
detection of the sophistication of certain products, to determining the
contents of a box without opening it, and to similar uses. But by far
the most important of these applications was that made to medicine
and surgery. Everyone has seen these radiographs publicly exhibited.
They portray the malformations, the injuries of the skeleton, the
alterations of bones, the presence in the tissues of foreign bodies,
such as shot, needles, fragments of metal and the like, and in certain
cases they disclose the existence of lesions in the viscera of divers
kinds. When perfected, they will realize the dream and the aim of
normal and pathologic anatomy, which is to show the body sound or
diseased as if it was transparent throughout. It is useless to dwell
further on these particulars; their history is developed right under
our eyes and the daily press details its progress from day to day.

Rontgen rays derive their origin from cathode rays. Crookes’s tube,
the generator of cathode rays, was the means employed by the Ger-
man physicist, and by all investigators who have followed him. But
in this apparatus the only part useful for producing the effects which
we have seen is the fluorescent spot situated opposite to the cathode
from which it receives the emission.

From that point the new rays are projected in all directions and not
merely in the original line. All substances which arrest the cathode

‘

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 983

rays become the starting point of Réntgen rays. It makes little differ-
ence whether a body is placed within the tube or whether it forms the
wall of the tube, nor is it of any importance whether it becomes fluor-
escent or not under the cathode action; from the moment that it
receives and arrests the first ray it generates the second. It has been
found advantageous to arrange a slight modification of the apparatus
in order to increase its power. An electrode is used having the form
of a spherical mirror which concentrates the cathode rays at a single
focus. Near it is arranged a platinum foil or some other infusible sub-
stance which intercepts the cathode emission and arresting it trans-
forms it into Réntgen rays, which pass through the thinnest point of
the tube and may be collected without. This apparatus is called a
focussing tube.

The Réntgen ray is plainly to be distinguished from the cathode
‘ay, which has given it birth by several characters, of which the two
most essential, from a theoretical point of view, are that it is not
attracted by the magnet, and that it is not electrified. The cathode
‘ay, on the contrary, carries an electric current and can be deflected
by a magnet. On these two characteristics has been founded the
theory of its materiality, as we have already said. They are wanting
in the Réntgen ray, therefore we can not be sure that it results from
the emissiom of matter. On the contrary, circumstances are in favor
of its immaterial, etherial, vibratory nature.

To these two distinctive, essential, traits must be added the two
following, which are no less important: The cathode ray has not the
power of penetration. It is immediately absorbed or diffused; whereas
the Réntgen ray is very penetrating and nondiffusible.

We have just seen that the Réntgen rays originate at the point
where the cathode rays encounter solid substances. The violence of
the blow of the cathode projectile against the material molecule dis-
turbs it and increases its calorific energy; at the same time it makes
the surrounding ether oscillate and produces the fluorescence of
Crookes’s tube. The operation which produces the X-ray yields then,
at the same time and accessorily, luminous rays (visible fluorescence),
and at other times chemical rays, ultraviolet rays (invisible fluores-
cence), and probably still other unknown radiations.

Setting aside these accessory radiations—that moreover may be
absent—in order to consider the principal one, we have said that the
latter is disclosed by its chemical action on the salts of silver (photo-
graphic impression) and by its power of exciting the luminosity of
phosphorescent screens. If an opaque body is placed in a straight
line between the source of the ray in the screen its shadow appears
thereon with an astonishing distinctness. The formation of these geo-
metric shadows proves a perfectly rectilinear propagation and justifies
the name of ‘‘ray” here employed.

284 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

At the outset the most surprising characteristic of these rays is
their power of penetration. They pass as easily through a volume of
a thousand pages as a ray of light passes through a window pane.
Both cases exhibit the same prowess of nature; and if the latter fact
no longer astonishes us, it is because, as Montaigne says, ‘* familiarity
with things removes from them their strangeness.” Our surprise
arises in observing the newcomer accomplish that which was impossi-
ble for our old friend, light. We were formerly no less surprised to
learn that the ultraviolet rays of the solar spectrum passed through a
piece of silver foil, which, we may say, parenthetically, made possible for
the first time photography of the invisible. That which is permitted
to one ray is prohibited to another. Réntgen’s ray, which traverses
an oak plank 2 inches in thickness and a plate of aluminum more than
a centimeter thick, is stopped by several meters of atmospheric air,
the passage of which is but a trifle for the ray of light.

There is another difference between the Réntgen ray and the lumi-
nous ray—their conduct in the interior of bodies. Both these rays
are absorbed while on their journey; their nature is changed; they
are annihilated; their energy is transformed into some other foree—
heat. for instance. This end is common to them. But light has
another property which is peculiar to it. In certain bodies having a
granular structure, such as roughened glass and the powder of rock
crystal, the light is diffused; the path of the rays is broken by reflec-
tions and by numerous refractions. Each particle, then, behaves as a
source of light, emitting rays in all directions, and the body is illumi-
nated. It would be useless to increase the intensity of the beam of
light with the expectation of seeing it transmitted; the illumination
would only be increased.

The Roéntgen rays behave very differently. They are only lost
through absorption. By increasing the intensity of the rays they will
be seen to gain more and more in the power of penetration. They
are not diffused. They pursue their path rigidly inflexitle, undoubt-
edly weakened, but never deflected by any obstacle. A ray of light
should not be taken as the type and symbol of ideal rectitude, but
rather the ray of Réntgen.

There are several varieties of Réntgen rays, as there are of cathode
rays. They form an entire scale, and may be distinguished from each
other by their degree of penetration. Some are ultrapenetrating.
Others are extinguished at a distance of a few millimeters from their
origin. This depends upon the generating apparatus, on the current
employed, and on other circumstances controlling their production.

When a Roéntgen ray happens to strike a solid body, particularly a
metal, it gives rise to rays of the same nature, but having less pene-
trating power. They are also much more active from electrie and
photograph points of view. These secondary rays have been studied

CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 285

by M. Sagnac. In the same conditions the secondary rays originate
tertiary, and so on, in such a way that there exists at the surface of
metals struck by Rontgen rays a whole system of radiations, which
form a complicated envelope, conducting electricity and photogenically
active.

It is easy to see that the fact that Réntgen rays are not diffused
entails other differences between them and light, and these are impor-
tant. The rays are not diffused, because they do not submit to reflec-
tion or to refraction. Their reflection has been thought possible at
times, because they were mingled with other elements—for example,
ultraviolet rays. M. Gouy has shown with wonderful accuracy that
in reality they do not suffer the slightest refraction. They do not
exhibit the phenomena of diffraction or of polarization.

Reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization, and interference are
universal characters of ethereal vibrations. They belong to all the
rays of the spectrum, from the slowest to the most rapid. They are
common to hertzian vibrations, to the infra-red or calorific, to the vis-
ible vibrations, and finally to the ultraviolet or chemical vibrations.
As to interference, the opinion of the scientific world is divided on
the point whether Réntgen rays allow this or not. It appears, how-
ever, that the phenomena observed by M. Jaumann, by means of two
parallel electrodes connected with the negative pole of the coil by wires
of equal length, should be regarded as illustrative of interference.

Is it possible after this to compare Réntgen rays with luminous rays,
or even to attribute to them any form of ethereal undulations? This
is the general tendency. Wiedemann and Lenard regard them as
forming a new round in the spectrum ladder beyond the ultraviolet.
Rontgen and Jaumann consider them as the products of longitudinal
vibrations of ether.

Rontgen rays discharge electrified bodies placed in their neighbor-
hood. The rudiments of this electrical property are exhibited in the
spectrum; ultraviolet rays destroy the negative charges of bodies with
which they are brought into contact. This shows a greater or less
analogy between the two kinds of radiations. It is only, however,
under certain conditions that the Réntgen rays may be referred to
small undulations, having the character of undulations of light, and
thus continuing the spectrum beyond the violet. It would be neces-
sary to conceive of these undulations as exceedingly short, or what is
the same thing, that the vibrations are very rapid, which is a means
of rendering the interference less appreciable, and still more so the
diffraction. Besides, the velocity of the propagation can not be dif-
ferent in the air and in the other bodies. A priori, this supposition
is not improbable—it explains the absence of refraction and renders
possible that of reflection. On the other hand, since there is no other
way of realizing polarization except. through recourse to simple or

286 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS.

double reflection, which are here insufficient, it is not surprising that
the Réntgen rays are deprived of this property. Thus deprived of all
its burdens and functions it yet possesses transverse vibrations, which
place it in the family of spectra; but in these surroundings, after all
the diminutions, restrictions, and limitations which it has undergone,
it appears rather like a mangy sheep. We have said that some phys-
icists are contented with this state of affairs.

The same difficulties arise if the longitudial vibrations of the ether
are introduced into the theory, and there is added, moreover, the
uncertainty of the existence of these vibrations. There is nothing to
prove, in truth, that they do not exist; on the contrary, it is evident
that they are formed as soon as luminous rays change their direction
are reflected or refracted. They could not be neglected except by
regarding the ether as strictly incompressible. Some physicists affirm
that it is, and, in short, if one relies upon experimental grounds it is
sufficient to say that the longitudinal component can be neglected,
owing to its insignificance. This is true if one ignores all the: phe-
nomena which can accompany the manifestation of light.

In faet, by disregarding the longitudinal vibration, satisfactory agree-
ment, as is known, is found to exist between theory and experiment.
It is possible that the Réntgen ray may be due to this longitudinal
vibration, but this remains to be proved. Jaumann has endeavored to
demonstrate this, but was refuted by M. H. Poincaré.

Besides these explanations there is a third, which consists in saying,
with M. A. Schuster, that the vibration of the ether which yields the
R6éntgen ray is not strictly periodic; periodicity being a condition of
interference a troublesome objection is thus removed. On the other
hand, explanations founded on the theory of the emission of matter
are also problematical. M. Jean Perrin claims that the Réntgen ray
is due to the vibration of atomic corpuscles, and is produced by their
violent encounter with material molecules. This hypothesis has also
the advantage of taking into consideration the conditions of its pro-
duction. In conclusion, very little is positively known of the nature
of this physical agent, which, to quote M. Bouty, has remained exceed-
ingly mysterious in spite of the united efforts of the scientific world.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marconi. PLate I.

SIGNOR G. Marconi, M. INST. C. E.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
By Signor G. Marcont, M. Inst. C. E.*

When Ampére threw out the suggestion that the theory of a univer-
sal ether, possessed of merely mechanical properties, might supply the
means for explaining electrical facts, which view was upheld by Joseph
Henry and Faraday, the veil of mystery which had enveloped elec-
tricity began to lift. When Maxwell published, in 1864, his splendid
dynamical theory of the electro-magnetic field, and worked out mathe-
matically the theory of ether waves, and Hertz liad proved experi-
mentally the correctness of Maxwell’s hypothesis, we obtained, if I
may use the words of Professor Fleming, ** the greatest insight into
the hidden mechanisms of nature which has yet been made by the
intelleet of man.”

A century of progress such as this has made wireless telegraph
possible. Its basie principles are established in the very nature of
electricity itself. Its evolution has placed another great focal ot
nature at our disposal.

We can not pay too high a tribute to the genius of Heinrich Hertz,
who worked patiently and persistently in a new field of experimental
physics, and made what has been called the greatest discovery in elec-
trical science in the latter half of the nineteenth century. He not only
brought about a great triumph in the field of theoretical physics, but,
by proving Maxwell’s mathematical hypothesis, he accomplished
great triumph in the progress of our knowledge of physical agents
and physical laws.

{ can not forbear saying one word as to the eminent electrician who
was placed in his last home as recently as Saturday last, for it is mani-
fest that several years ago Professor Hughes was on the verge of a
great discovery, and, if he had persevered in his experiments, it seems
probable that his name would have been closely connected with wire-
less telegraphy as it is with so many branches of electrical work, in
which he gained so much renown and such great distinction.

The experimental proof by Hertz, thirteen years ago, of the ema

* Reprinted from Proceedings of the Boval econ of Great teen Vv Ay XVI
Part II, pp. 247-256. Read at weekly evening meeting, Friday, February 2, 1900,
iesaider Siemens, esq., M. Inst. C. E., vice-president, in the chair.

287

288 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

of light and electricity, and the knowledge of how to produce and how
to detect these ether waves, the existence of which had been so far
unknown, made possible true wireless telegraphy.* I think I may be
justified in saying that for several years the full importance of the dis-
covery of Hertz was realized but by very few, and for this reason the
early development of its practical application was slow.

The practical application of wireless telegraphy at the present time
is many times as great as the predictions of five years ago led us to
expect in so short a time. The development of the art during the past
three or four years and its present state of progress may perhaps
justify the interest which is now taken in the subject. Yet only a
beginning has been made and the possibilities of the future can as yet
be only incompletely appreciated. All of you know that the idea of
communicating intelligence without visible means of connection is
almost as old as mankind. Wireless telegraphy by means of Hertzian
waves is, however, very young. I hope that if I pass over the story
of the growth of this new art, as I have watched it, or do not attempt
to prove questions of priority, no one will take it for granted that
nothing is to be said on these subjects, or that all that has been said
is entirely correct.

The time allowed for this discourse is too short to permit me to
recount all the steps that have led up to the practical applications of
to-day. I believe it will probably interest you more to hear of the
problems which have lately been solved, and the very interesting
developments which have taken place during the last few months.

I find that a great element of the success of wireless telegraphy is
dependent upon the use of a coherer such as I have adopted. It has
been my experience, and that of other workers, that a coherer as pre-
viously constructed—that is, a tube several inches long partially filled
with filings inclosed by corks—was far too untrustworthy to fulfill its
purpose. I found, however, that if specially prepared filings were con-
fined in a very small gap (about 1 mm.) between flat plugs of silver,
the coherer, if properly constructed, became absolutely trustworthy.
In its normal condition the resistance of a good coherer is infinite, but
when influenced by electric waves the coherer instantly becomes a con-
ductor, its resistance falling to 100 or 500 ohms. This conductivity is
maintained until the tube is shaken or tapped.

I noticed that by employing similar vertical and insulated rods at
both stations it was possible to detect the effects of electric waves of
high frequency, and in that way convey the intelligible alphabetical
signals over distances far greater than had been believed to be possible
a few years ago.

I had formerly ascertained* that the distance over which it is possi-

@See paper read before the Institution of Electrical Engineers by G. Marconi,
March, 1899.

TE ee

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 289

ble to signal with a given amount of energy varies approximately with
the square of the height of the vertical wire, and with the square root
of the capacity of a plate, drum, or other form of capacity area which
may be placed at t-e top of the wires.

The law governi:g the relation of height and distance has already
been proved correct up to a distance of 85 miles. Many months ago
it was found possible to communicate from the North Haven, Poole,
to Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, witha height of 75 feet, the distance being
18 miles. Later on two installations with vertical wires of double that
length, i. e. 150 feet, were erected at a distance of 85 miles apart, and
signals were easily obtained between them. According to a rigorous
application of the law, 72 miles ought to have been obtained instead of
85; but as I have previously stated, the law has been proved only to be
approximately correct, the tendency being always on what I might call
the right side; thus we obtain a greater distance than the application
of the law would lead us to believe. There is a remarkable circum-
stance to be noted in the case of the 85 miles signaling. At the Alum
Bay station the mast is on the cliff, and there is no curvature of the
earth intervening between the two stations; that is to say, a straight
line between the base of the Haven and Alum Bay stations would clear
the surface of the sea. But in the case of the 85 miles the two stations
were located on the sea level, and between them exists a hill of water,
owing to the earth’s curvature, amounting to over 1,000 feet. If those
wayes traveled only in straight lines, or the effect was noticeable only
across open space, in a direct line, the signals would not have been
received except with a vertical wire 1,000 feet high at both stations. —

While carrying out some experiments nearly three years ago at Salis-
bury, Captain Kennedy, R. E., and I tried numerous forms of induction
coils wound in the ordinary way, that is, with a great number of turns
of wire on the secondary circuit, with the object of increasing, if pos-
sible, the distance or range of transmission; but in every case we
observed a very marked decrease in the distance obtainable with the
given amount of energy and height. Similar results were obtained
some months later, | am informed, in experiments carried out by the
general post-office engineers at Dover.

In all our above-mentioned experiments the coils used were those in
which the primary consisted of a smaller or larger number of turns
of comparatively thick wire, and the secondary of several layers of
thinner wire. I believe Lam right saying that hundreds of these
coils were tried, the result always be’ » that by their employment the
possible distance of signaling was considerably diminished instead of
being increased. We eventually found an entirely new form of induc-
tion coil that would work satisfactorily, and that began to increase the
distance of signaling.

The results given by some of the new form of induction coils have

sm 1901 19

290 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

been remarkable. During the naval maneuvers I had an opportunity
of testing how much they increased the range of signaling with a given
amount of energy and height. When working between the cruisers
Juno and Europa, 1 ascertained that when the induction coil was
omitted from the receiver, the limit distance obtainable was 7 miles,
but with an improved form of induction coil included, a distance of
over 60 miles could be obtained with certainty. This demonstrated
that the coils I used at that time increased the possible distance nearly
tenfold. I have now adopted these induction coils, or transformers, at
all our permanent stations.

A number of experiments have been carried out to test how far the
Wehnelt brake was applicable in substitution for the ordinary make
and brake of the induction coil at the transmitting station; but although
some excellent results have been obtained over a distance of 40 miles
of land, the amount of current used and the liability of the brake get-
ting fatigued or out of order have been obstacles which have so far
prevented its general adoption. |

As is probably known to most of you, the system has been in prac-
tical daily operation between the East Goodwin light-ship and the
South Foreland light-house since December 24, 1898, and I have good
reason for believing that the officials of Trinity House are convinced
of its great utility in connection with light-ships and light-houses. It
may be interesting to you to know that, as specially arranged by the
authorities of Trinity House, although we maintain a skilled assistant
on the light-ship, he is not allowed to work on the telegraph. The work
is invariably done by one of the seamen on the light-ship, many of
whom have been instructed in the use of the instrument by one of my
assistants. On five occasions assistance has been called for by the men
on board the ship, and help obtained in time to avoid loss of life and
property. Of these five calls for assistance, three were for vessels run
ashore on the sands near the light-ship, one because the light-ship her-
self had been run into by a steamer, and one to call a boat to take off
a member of the crew who was seriously ill.

In the case of a French steamer which went ashore off the Good-
wins, we have evidence, given in the admiralty court, that by means
of one short wireless message property to the amount of £52,588 was
saved; and of this amount, I am glad to say, the owners and crews
of the lifeboats and tugs received £3,000. This one saving alone is
probably sufficient in amount to equip all the light-ships round England
with wireless telegraph apparatus more than ten times over. The sys-
tem has also been in constant use for the official communication between
the Trinity House and the ship, and is also used daily by the men for
private communication with their families, ete. |

It is difficult to believe that any person who knows that wireless
telegraphy has been in use between this light-ship and the South Fore-

a

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 291

land day and night, in storm and sunshine, in fog and in gales of wind,
without breaking down on any single occasion, can believe or be justi-
fied in saying that wireless telegraphy is untrustworthy or uncertain in
operation. The light-ship installation is, be it remembered, in a small
damp ship, and under conditions which try the system to the utmost.
I hope that before long the necessary funds will be at the disposal of
the Trinity House authorities, in order that communication may be
established between other light-ships and light-houses and the shore,
by which millions of pounds’ worth of property and thousands of lives
may be saved.

At the end of March, 1899, by arrangement with the French
Government, communication was established between the South Fore-
land light-house and Wimereux, near Boulogne, over a distance of 30
miles, and various interesting tests were made between these stations
and French war ships. The maximum distance obtained at that time,
with a height of about 100 feet on the ships, was 42 miles. The com-
mission of French naval and military officers who were appointed to
supervise these experiments, and report to their Government, were
in almost daily attendance on the one coast or the other for several
weeks. They became intensely interested in the operations, and I
have good reasons to know made satisfactory reports to their Govern-
ment. I can not allow this opportunity to pass without bearing
willing testimony to the courtesy and attention which characterised
all the dealings of these French gentlemen with myself and staff.

The most interesting and complete tests of the system at sea were,
however, made during the British naval maneuvers. Three ships of
the *‘ B” fleet were fitted up—the flagship A/evandra and the cruisers
Juno and Europa. I do not consider myself quite at liberty to
describe all the various tests to which the system was put, but I
believe that never before were Hertzian waves given a more difficult
or responsible task. During these maneuvers I had the pleasure of
being on board the Juno, my friend, Captain Jackson, R. N., who had
done some very good work on the subject of wireless telegraphy
before I had the pleasure of meeting him, being in command. With
the Juno there was usually a small squadron of cruisers, and all
orders and communications were transmitted to the mo from the
flagship, the -/wno repeating them to the ships around her. This
enabled evolutions to be carried out even when the flagship was out
of sight. This would have been impossible by means of flags or
semaphores. The wireless installations on these battleships were kept
going night and day, most important maneuvers being carried out
and valuable information telegraphed to the admiral when necessary.

The greatest distance at which service messages were sent was
60 nautical miles, between the Huropa and the Juno, and 45 miles,
between the /uno and the Alewandra. This was not the maximum

292 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

distance actually obtained, but the distance at which, under all cireum-
stances and conditions, the system could be relied upon for certain and
regular transmission of service messages. During tests messages
were obtained at no less than 74 nautical miles (85 land miles).

As to the opinion which naval experts have arrived at concerning
this new method of communication, I need only refer to the letters
published by naval officers and experts in the columns of The Times
during and after the period of the autumn maneuvers, and to the fact
that the admiralty are taking steps to introduce the system into general
use in the navy.

As you will probably remember, victory was gained by the **B”
fleet, and perhaps I may venture to suggest that the facility which
Admiral Sir Compton Domvyille had of using the wireless telegraph in
all weathers, both by day and night, contributed to the success of his
operations.

Commander Statham, R. N., has published a very concise descrip-
tion of the results obtained in the Army and Navy, illustrated, and I
think it will be interesting if I read a short extract from the admirable
description he has published:

‘‘When the reserve fleet first assembled at Tor Bay, the /wno was
sent out day by day to communicate at various distances with the flag-
ship, and the range was speedily increased to over 30 miles, ultimately
reaching something like 50 miles. At Milford Haven the Luwropa was
fitted out, the first step being the securing to the main topmast head
of a hastily prepared spar carrying a small gaff or sprit, to which was
attached a wire, which was brought down to the starboard side of the
quarter-deck through an insulator and into a roomy deck house on the
lower afterbridge which contained the various instruments.

“When hostilities commenced, the Huwropa was the leading ship of a
squadron of 7 cruisers dispatched to look for the convoy at the ren-
dezvous. The -/wno was detached to act as a link when necessary and
to scout for the enemy, and the flagship of course remained with the
slower battle squadron. The /uropa was in direct communication
with the flagship long after leaving Milford Haven, the gap between
reaching to 30 or 40 miles before she lost touch while steaming ahead
at a fast speed. (This difference between the ranges of communication
on these ships was owing to the Juno having a higher mast than the
Alewandra.)

‘Reaching the convoy at 4 o’clock one afternoon, and leaving it and
the several cruisers in charge of the senior captain, the Hwropa hast-
ened back toward anotber rendezvous, where the admiral had intended
remaining until he should hear whether the enemy had found and
captured the convoy; but scarcely had she got well ahead of the slow
ships when the /wno called her up and announced the admiral coming
to meet the convoy. The /uno was at this time fully 60 miles distant
from the Huropa.

‘‘ Now imagine,” says Commander Statham, ‘‘a chain of vessels 60
miles apart. Only five would be necessary to communicate some vital
piece of intelligence a distance of 300 miles, receive in return their
instructions, and act immediately all in the course of half an hour or

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 293

less. This is possible already. Doubtless a vast deal more will be
done in a year or two or less, and meanwhile the authorities should be
making all necessary arrangements for the universal application of
wireless telegraphy in the navy.”

The most important results, from a technical point of view, obtained
during the maneuvers were the proof of the great increase of distance
obtained by employing the transformer in the receiver, as already
explained, and also that the curvature of the earth which intervened,
however great the distance attained, was apparently no obstacle to the
transmission. The maximum height of the top of the wire attached
to the instruments above the water did not on any occasion exceed 170
feet, but it would have been geometrically necessary to have had masts
700 feet high on each ship in order that a straight line between their
tops should clear the curved surface of the sea when the ships were 60
nautical miles apart. This shows that the Hertzian waves had either
to go over or round the dome of water 530 feet higher than the tops of
the masts, or to pass through it, which latter course I believe would
be impossible.

Some time after the naval maneuvers, with a view to showing the
feasibility of communicating over considerable distances on land, it was
decided to erect two stations, one at Chelmsford and another at Har-
wich, the distance between them being 40 miles. These installations
have been working regularly since last September, and my experi-
ments and improvements are continually being carried out at Chelms-
ford, Harwich, Alum Bay, and North Haven, Poole.

In the month of September last, during the meetings of the British
Association in Dover and of the Association Francaise pour lavance-
ment de Science in Boulogne, a temporary installation was fixed in the
Dover town hall, in order that members present should see the practi-
cal working of the system between England and France. Messages were
exchanged with ease between Wimereux, near Boulogne, and Dover
town hall. In this way it was possible for the members of the two asso-
ciations to converse across the channel, over a distance of 30 miles.

During Professor Fleming’s lecture on the Centenary of the Electric
Current, messages were transmitted direct to and received from France,
and via the South Foreland light-house to the East Goodwin light-
ship. An interesting point was that it was demonstrated that the
great masses of the Castle Rock and South Foreland cliffs lying
between the town hall, Dover, and the light-house did not in the
least degree interfere with the transmission of signals. The result
was, however, by no means new. It only confirmed the results of
many previous experiments, all of them showing that rock masses of
very considerable size intervening between two stations do not in the
least affect the freedom of communication by ether wave telegraphy.*

*See Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, April, 1899, p. 280.

294 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

It was during these tests that it was found possible to communicate
direct from Wimereux to Harwich or Chelmsford, the intervening
distance being 85 miles. This result was published in a letter from
Professor Fleming addressed to the Electrician on September 29. The
distance from Wimereux to Harwich is approximately 85 miles, and
from Wimereux to Chelmsford also 85 miles, of which 30 miles are
over sea and 55 over land. The height of the poles at these stations
was 150 feet, but if it had been necessary for a line drawn between the
tops of the masts to clear the curvature of the earth, they would have
had to have been over 1,000 feet high. I give these results to show
what satisfactory progress is being made with this system.

In America wireless telegraphy was used to report from the high
seas the progress of the yachts in the international yacht race, and I
think that occasion holds the record for work done in a given time,
over 4,000 words being transmitted in the space of less than five hours
on several different days.

Some tests were carried out for the United States Navy ; but, owing
to insufficient apparatus, and to the fact that all the latest improve-
ments had not been protected in the United States at that time, it was
impossible to give the authorities there such a complete demonstration
as was given to the British authorities during the naval maneuvers.
Messages were transmitted between the battle ship Massachusetts and
the cruiser Vew York up to a distance of 36 miles.

A few days previous to my departure from America the war in South
Africa broke out. Some of the officials of the American line suggested
that, as a permanent installation existed at the Needles, Isle of Wight,
it would be a great thing, if possible, to obtain the latest war news
before our arrival on the St. Paul at Southampton. I readily con-
sented to fit up my instruments on the St. Paul, and succeeded in eall-
ing up the Needles station at a distance of 66 nautical miles. By means
of wireless telegraphy, all the important news was transmitted to the
St. Paul while she was underway, steaming 20 knots, and messages
were despatched to several places by passengers on board. News was
collected and printed in a small paper called the Transatlantic Times
several hours before our arrival at Southampton.

This was, I believe, the first instance of the passengers of a steamer
receiving news while several miles from land, and seems to point to a
not far distant prospect of passengers maintaining direct and regular
communication with the land they are leaving and with the land they
are approaching, by means of wireless telegraphy.

At the tardy request of the war office, we sent out Mr. Bullocke
and five of our assistants to South Africa. It was the intention of
the war office that the wireless telegraph should only be used at |
the base and on the railways, but the officers on the spot realized
that it could only be of any practical use at the front. They there-
fore asked Mr. Bullocke whether he was willing to go to the front.

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 995

As the whole of the assistants volunteered to go anywhere with
Mr. Bullocke, their services were accepted, and on December 11 they
moved up to the camp at De Aar. But when they arrived at De Aar,
they found that no arrangements had been made to supply poles, kites,
or balloons, which, as you all know, are an essential part of the
apparatus, and none could be obtained on the spot. To get over the
difficulty, they manufactured some kites, and in this they had the
hearty assistance of two officers, viz, Major Baden-Powell and Captain
Kennedy, R. E., who have often helped me in my experiments in
England. (Major Baden-Powell, it will be remembered, is a brother
of the gallant defender of Mafeking.)

The results which they obtained were not at first altogether satis-
factory, but this is accounted for by the fact that the working was
attempted without poles or proper kites, and afterwards with poles of
insufficient height, while the use of the kites was very difficult, the
kites being manufactured on the spot with very deficient material.
The wind being so variable, it often happened that when a kite was
flying at one station there was not enough wind to fly a kite at the
other station with which they were attempting to communicate. It is
therefore manifest that their partial failure was due to the lack of
proper preparation on the part of the local military authorities, and
has no bearing on the practicability and utility of the system when
‘arried out under normal conditions.

It was reported that the difficulty of getting through from one
station to another was due to the iron in the hills. If this had not
been cabled from South Africa, it would hardly be credible that any
one should have committed himself to such a very unscientific opinion.
Asa matter of fact, iron would have no greater destructive effect on
these Hertzian waves than any other metal, the rays apparently get-
ting very easily around or over such obstacles. A fleet of 30 ironclads
did not affect the rays during the naval maneuvers, and during the
yacht race I was able to transmit my messages with absolute success
across the very high buildings of New York, the upper stories of
which are iron.

However, on getting the kites up, they easily communicated from
De Aar to Orange River, over a distance of some 70 miles. I am glad
to say that, from later information received, they have been able to
obtain poles, which although not quite high enough for long distances
are sufficiently useful. We have also sent a number of Major Baden-
Powell’s kites, which are the only ones I have found to be of real
service.

Stations have been established at Modder River, Enslin, Belmont,
Orange River, and De Aar, which work well and will be invaluable in
case the field telegraph line connecting these positions should be cut
by the enemy.

It is also satisfactory to note that the military authorities have

296 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

lately arranged to supply small balloons to my assistants for portable
installations on service wagons.

While I admire the determination of Mr. Bullocke and our assistants
in their endeavor to do the very best they could with most imperfect
local means, I think it only right to say that if I had been on the spot
myself I should have refused to open any station until the officers had
provided the means for elevating the wire, which, as you know, is
essential to success. :

Mr. Bullocke and another of our assistants in South Africa have been
transferred, with some of the apparatus, to Natal to join General Bul-
ler’s forces, and it is likely that before the campaign is ended wireless
telegraphy will have proved its utility in actual warfare. Two of our
assistants bravely volunteered to take an installation through the Boer
lines into Kimberley; but the military authority did not think fit to
grant them permission, as it probably involved too great a risk.

What the bearing on the campaign would have been if working
installations had been established in Ladysmith, Kimberley, and
Mafeking before they were besieged, I leave military strategists to
state. Jam sure you will agree with me that it is much to be regretted
that the system could not be got into these towns prior to the com-
mencement of hostilities.

I find it hard to believe that the Boers possess any workable instru-
ments. Some instruments intended for them were seized by the
authorities at Cape Town. These instruments turned out to have been
manufactured in Germany. Our assistants, however, found that these
instruments were not workable. I need hardly add that as no appa-
ratus has been supplied by us to anyone, the Boers can not possibly
have obtained any of our instruments.

I have spoken at great length about the things which have been
accomplished. I do not like to dwell upon what may or will be done
in the immediate or more distant future, but there is one thing of
which I am confident, viz, that the progress made this year will
greatly surpass what has been accomplished during the last twelve
months; and, speaking what I believe to be sober sense, I say that by
means of the wireless telegraph, telegrams will be as common and as
much in daily use on the sea as at present on land.

[Mr. Marconi’s experiments in trans-Atlantic telegraphing were thus
described in the New York Herald of Sunday, December 15, and
Tuesday, December 17, 1901:

{Extract from New York Herald, December 15, 1901.]

Sr. Jouns, NEWFOUNDLAND, Saturday, December 1}.

Mr. Marconi announced to-day that he has successfully received by
wireless telegraphy, at the station on Signal Hill, messages from the

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 297

station recently erected near the Lizard, in Cornwall, England. These
messages, Mr. Marconi said, were received on W ednesday and Thurs-
day afternoons. He had arranged with the Cornwall station that the
letter ‘*S” was to be signaled at 6 o’clock in the ev ening, which would
be half-past 2 o’clock here, and signals were received as arranged on
Wednesday and Thursday, though no signal came yesterday or to-day.

MR. MARCONI DESCRIBES THE TEST.

‘**T thought it advisable,” said Mr. Marconi, *‘ with the machinery
which had escaped damage at Cornwall, to see whether it was possible
to obtain signals here from England at the same time I tried experi-
ments with trans-Atlantic liners.

‘* When the kite elevated the wire to a height of 400 feet above Sig-
nal Hill on Wednesday a number of signals, consisting of the letter
‘S,’ which signal was ordered to be sent from Corn vall, were clearly
received on ‘Signal Hill by the receiving instruments. We again
received the signals perfectly on Thursday.

‘*The signals were obtained only when the kite was up to a consid-
erable height. For some reason yesterday nothing was received, and
to-day we “could not get the kite up on account of the weather. It has
been blowing too heavy ily every day for balloons, which would be best
to experiment with.

SUCCESS HAS ALTERED HIS PLANS.

‘*The success of these tests will alter my plans. I intend to sus-
pend further tests with kites and balloons for a short time and erect a
large station here, at a cost of $50,000, having towers, or masts, for
supporting wires. This, of course, prov ided there is no governmental
or other objection. This will necessitate my going back to England
at the end of next week in order to have the necessary equipments
sent here, with suitable transmitting machinery and other require-
ments.

‘* By that time I hope to have the Cape Cod Station in working
order again, so as to complete a regular triangular service. No
doubt the success of my experiments “here will cause a sensation in
telegraphic circles, and many will find it difficult to believe it.

‘“*T myself had very little doubt as to our ultimate success, but I
thought it advisable not to communicate beforehand the exact scope of
these tests, as I considered it would be better to assure myself of suc-
cess before publishing details even of installations at Cornwall and
Cape Cod, and what we hoped to accomplish by them. It is right,
however, that the public should now know of the grand result of my
experiments here.

**I hope in the course of a few months to have a system of direct
communication across the Atlantic in working order, and it can then
be easily ascertained whether the discovery is of practical use for
commercial and other purposes. I have no doubt in the matter, but
I am content to wait and let events prove that I am correct in my
belief.

‘* The instruments I have at present are extremely sensitive, and I
am of the opinion that in order to make the signals absolutely reliable
it will be necessary to arrange for more power at the sending station
in Cornwall, which I will arrange for on my return to Eng land.”

998 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.

Mr. Marconi’s company about a year ago decided to put up two
very large stations, at a cost of $70,000 each, at Cape Cod, Massachu-
setts, and near the Lizard, in Cornwall, England, the object being to
ascertain how much an application of a large amount of power would
increase the practical distance by which it is possible to communicate
by wireless telegraphy.

The stations in Cornwall and Cape Cod consisted of heavy machinery
and 20 poles, 210 feet high, supporting a large number of vertical
wires. The station in Cornwall was practically destroyed during a
heavy gale in September, and was only partially renewed. It will
not be completely repaired for another two or three months. The
Cape Cod Station was also damaged recently.

Sr. Jouns, NEWFOUNDLAND, Saturday.

Confirm that signals were received here Thursday and Friday direct
from Cornwall, receiving wire suspended from a kite.
MARconl. ~
[From the New York Herald, December 17, 1901.]

To the Editor of the New York Herald:

I have to confirm the dispatch of your correspondent regarding the
receipt by me here of signals direct from Cornwall. The exact par-
ticulars are as follows:

Before leaving England I arranged for our long distance station near
the Lizard to signal me the letter ‘‘S” repeatedly for three hours
when I had advised them that I was ready to receive the same. I
cabled on Monday that all was in readiness and asked the signal to be
sent at short intervals between 3 o’clock and 6 o’clock, Greenwich
time, and to be continued each day until ordered to stop. This time
would correspond approximately with half past 11 to half past 2 here.

I received on Thursday indications of-the signals at half past 12, and
with certainty and unmistakable clearness at 10 minutes after 1 quite
a succession of ‘‘S” being received with distinctnes,. A further num-
ber were received at 20 minutes after 2, the latter not so good. Sig-
nals were received Friday at 28 minutes after 1 o’clock, but not so
distinct as on Thursday.

Tam of the opinion that the reasons why I did not obtain continuous
results, were: First, the fluctuations in the height of the kite, which
suspended the aerial wire; and second, the extreme delicacy of my
receiving instruments, which were very sensitive and had to be adjusted
repeatedly during the course of the experiments.

When a permanent station is installed here I will not be dependent
upon fluctuations of the wind, and I am confident of making the signals
strong and reliable—that is, not requiring such delicate and sensitive
receiving instruments by employing much greater power at the sending
station. .

I must go immediately to England to make arrangements for employ-
ing more power at the sending station, and I trust ina very short time
to establish communication between the two continents in a thoroughly
reliable and commercial manner.

Marcon. |

Sr. Jouns, NEWFOUNDLAND, December 16, 1901.

oe a bee eae

TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.*

THE REMARKABLE INVENTION BY WHICH DR. M. I. PUPIN HAS REVO-
LUTIONIZED THE TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY.

By Witir1am A. ANTHONY,

Former President of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

At last the problem of telephoning over long-distance lines and

. ocean cables has been solved, and we may hope soon to be able to talk

across the ocean and recognize the voice of a friend as he replies to us
from London or Paris.

Dr. M. I. Pupin, of Columbia University, after years of patient
labor, has pointed out the way where others had failed, and has accom-
plished what many had believed to be impossible.

To appreciate the importance of what Dr. Pupin has done, it is well

‘to contrast the two problems of transmitting telegraph messages on

the one hand, and of transmitting telephone messages on the other.
In transmitting a telegraph message, the sender closes and opens a key
that makes and breaks an electric circuit, sending to the line electric
impulses that magnetize little pieces of soft iron, and so operate a
lever in the receiving instrument in unison with the key. The alpha-
bet is a combination of dots and dashes. When the key is closed for
an instant only, a very short electric impulse travels along the line,
causing a momentary attraction and depression of the lever, which is
recognized as a dot. When the key is held closed for a little time the
lever is held down for a corresponding period and records a dash.
When the line is long and the electric impulses become weak, so that
the lever responds feebly, a new source of current is introduced; a
new ‘‘circuit” is established, extending on to the more distant point,
and the lever of the receiving instrument in the first circuit is made to
open and close this second circuit exactly as did the key at the begin-
ning. So the message is given to the new circuit with renewed energy,
and goes on again to produce a legible record at double the distance
from the sending station. When the receiving instrument is made

"Reprinted, by courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., from Everybody’s Magazine,
Vol. LV, April, 1901. Copyrighted.
299

300 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.

thus to open and close a new circuit, it is called a repeater, and on a
land line such repeaters may be introduced as often as may be neces-
sary to transmit the message as far as we please.

On an ocean cable, however, it is impossible to introduce repeaters,
and the only thing to be done is to construct receiving instruments of
extreme delicacy, capable of responding to the greatly enfeebled elec-
tric impulses. But the impulses on an ocean cable are not merely
enfeebled. There is another difficulty more serious still. In conse-
quence of what is called the capacity of the cable, the impulses are
spread out or prolonged, so that a momentary impulse started at the
sending end reaches the receiving end much prolonged. It may help
‘to an understanding of what takes place if we consider a case more in
line with every day experience. Suppose we try to transmit messages
by sending puffs of air into a long tube. It is evident that we should
succeed better if the tube be narrow than if it be widened into a
chamber of considerable capacity where the puffs sent into the tube
would make little impression, and where they would find room to
spread out and become not only enfeebled, but prolonged. An ocean
cable is just such a chamber or reservoir for electric impulses. It has
a large capacity for an electric charge. Such impulses as we use on
land lines make little impression upon it, and such effects as are pro-
duced at the receiving end are so prolonged that they lose all their
character as dots and dashes. It is possible, however, to adopt our
sending to this condition. We can wait. We can allow a suflicient
interval between the successive impulses to give time for each to pro-
duce its effect at the receiving end. On an ocean cable we can tele-
graph, but we must telegraph slowly.

Very different is the problem of transmitting speech. Everyone
knows that audible sound is the result of vibrations in the air. The
differences that we recognize between sounds must be due to differences
between these vibrations or sound waves. ‘To each sound must corre-
spond its own sound wave, distinctly different from all the others.
It is wonderful, even when the air alone is the medium, that these dis-
tinctive differences should be preserved and that we should be able to
recognize such a great variety of sounds. It is still more wonderful
when we study the sound waves and find in what small differences the
distinction between different sounds consists. Far more wonderful
still is it when we consider all that must take place in the several trans-
formations between the speaker and the hearer when sound is trans-
mitted by telephone.

We speak against a thin sheet-iron disk a little larger than a dollar.
The vibration is communicated to the disk, and this, through a deli-
cately adjusted mechanism, gives rise to electric waves which traverse ©
the wire and, in the receiving instrument, produce vibrations in another
disk, which communicates them to the air and so to the ear. Through

a

TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. 301

these various transformations all the distinctive characteristics of the
sound must be preserved. The vibrations of the transmitter disk, the
electric waves that traverse the wire, the vibrations produced in the
receiver disk, must retain all the elements that characterized the origi-
nal vocal sounds. This must be, or we could not, as we do, recognize
not only the spoken words, but the tone and modulations of the voice,
and even the mood of the speaker. The imperfections of electrical
conductors not only tend to enfeeble, but to distort the electric waves,
and a little distortion is sufficient to change the character of the sound
as it is reproduced, and render it unrecognizable. What is meant by «
distorted wave may be seen from fig. 1, where @ may represent a
wave as given to a telephone line, and 4, c, d the same wave which has
become distorted by a change in the relation of its elements during
transmission; @ would hardly be recognized as having anything in
common with a.

eee ee
a
a ie ee

Fic. 1.

Let us consider a little further the effect of the conducting line
upon the waves that transmit speech. Speak the words ‘‘ soap” and
“soup,” “‘ mine” and ‘‘mean.” How do you make the distinction ?
By a little more or less opening of the mouth, and a little more or less
pursing of the lips. Helmholtz has shown us in what respect the
corresponding sound waves differ. It appears that it is only in the
little waves superimposed upon the main wave, in the little ripples,
so to speak, on the surface of the larger wave. The wave for the
‘‘ou” in ‘‘soup” might look like this:

And the wave for the ‘‘o” in ‘‘ soap,” like this:

302 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.

The ear distinguishes the difference between these much better than
the eye.
The effect of the long telephone line upon these waves is something

like this:
OR PTR OL reg

FF MO OD le ey AT NE
Fie. 4.

The little ripples that distinguish the sounds die out before the
main wave. Such changes as these render repeaters useless on a tele-
phone wire, for no repeater can restore characteristics that have
already been lost. On an ocean cable this dying out occurs more
quickly than on a land line; and, besides, the main wave is distorted
and flattened so as to lose its identity altogether.

This was the situation in long-distance telephony when Dr. Pupin
attacked the problem six or seven years ago. While tramping
through Switzerland in 1894 he improved his spare moments by read-
ing Lord Rayleigh on the theory of sound. That part relating to the
vibration of strings led him to consider the telephone problem. Sup-
pose a long string attached to a mechanism which can only be operated
by transverse jerks of the string. If the end of the string at a dis-
tance from the mechanism be moved back and forth, waves will travel
along it, and may supply the jerks required to operate the mechanism.
But if the string be very light, and the resistance to its motion great—
if, for instance, it were in a tank of water—the waves impressed upon
it would rapidly die out, and it might be necessary to swing the string
back and forth with all the violence at our command, in order that
they should reach the mechanism at all. Substitute a heavy string for
the light one. Waves imparted to it will have a much greater power
of persistence. It will be necessary to impart a much less violent
motion, and this of itself reduces very much the effect of the resist-
ance of the medium in which the string swings. But we need not use
a string that is uniformly heavy. The effect of the heavy string may
be closely imitated by distributing heavy masses along it at intervals.

Dr. Pupin set himself to solve the problem of the behavior of such
a loaded string in a resisting medium. Its solution had not been before
attempted, for its tremendous intricacy would baffle anyone who had
not at command, as Dr. Pupin has, the resources of the ‘‘ higher
mathematics.” Many perplexing questions are involved. Given a
certain amount of energy, to be transmitted by means of a string
swinging in a given resisting medium, how heavy must be the masses ?

How near together must they be placed? Can they be so placed and ~

proportioned that they will serve equally well for the transmission of
long or short waves; that is, of slow or rapid vibratory motions?

"vee

TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. 3038

It will be asked what this has to do with the transmission of speech
over long telephone lines. Speech is transmitted by electric waves,
and waves are waves, subject to similar laws, whether they occur in a
stretched cord, or in an elastic fluid, or in an electric current. From
energy transmitted by waves in a cord, to energy transmitted by

yaves in an electric current, is only a step. It has long been known
that a conductor wound ina close coil gives to an electric current in
it something of the properties of a massive body. It is hard to start
a current in such a coil, but once started, it is just as hard to stop it.
Coils placed along a telephone line will have an effect similar to the
masses along the cord. Electric waves started on such a line will be
persistent waves, they will not die out, they will retain their form
and characteristics. With such an aid the New Yorker can ask of his
Chicago correspondent, ‘* What will that mine cost?” without fear that
he will understand it: ‘‘ Who was that mean - ae

But this is not the whole story. Let us go back to the weighted cord.
It is plain that a small motion, a comparatively slow movement, given
to the heavy masses would be the equivalent of a much more rapid
movement given to the cord alone. Slow movements always mean
small losses. The cost of carrying a ton from New York to Chicago
on a slowly moving freight train is far less than of carrying the same on
the high-speed passenger train. The slowly moving, heavily weighted
cord will carry from end to end the power imparted to it with little
loss in the resisting medium.

So it is with the electric currents in Dr. Pupin’s line. It is a heavily
weighted current. A very little current, with the high pressure it
can exert in consequence of the action of the coils, may convey as
much power as a much larger current on an ordinary line. Now,
every electrician knows that the loss of power occurring on a con-
ductor is proportional to the square of the current—that is, if you
have only half the current there is but one-fourth the loss; one-fourth
the current, one-sixteenth the loss, ete. Every electrician knows, too,
that the same power may be transmitted by a small current by increas-
ing the electric pressure just in proportion as the current is reduced.
This is recognized wherever electric transmission is employed. At
Niagara power is transmitted to near-by points at a pressure of 2,000
volts; but on the line to Butfalo 10,000 volts is employed, requiring
only one-fifth the current, and therefore one-twenty-fifth the loss if
the same conductors were used. In California, where power is to be
carried 150 miles, a pressure of 60,000 volts will be employed. Dr.
Pupin’s line is another case of transmission by high pressure and small
current, and consequently small losses and little attenuation of the
waves.

It has been said already that Dr. Pupin arrived at his results by
mathematical investigation. There was no haphazard experimenting,

304 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.

no groping in the dark, no lucky discovery. Different forms of appa-
ratus were tried, to be sure, but all were based upon the results of the
mathematical analysis. The last form has the advantage that it is an
exact representation of a standard telephone line with coils arranged
to be inserted every mile at pleasure.

Fig. 5 (PI. 1) is a general view of apparatus which Dr. Pupin has
used in his experiments. On the left is seen one of the 50-mile see-
tions of this line. Other sections are seen in full or in part, in front
and on the left and right. The line proper is contained in the large
case standing on top of the frame, and consists of tin-foil strips of
such width and length as to have the resistance and in such relation as
to have the capacity of the standard line. This makes an artificial
line, having all the characteristics of the standard telephone line,
except the length. This line is subdivided into 50 sections, each
equivalent to one mile of sta dard line. The ends of these are seen
in the maze of wire going from the case to the frame below. On this
frame are the 50 coils, which may be included in the line or left out of
it by removing or inserting plugs. With the coils out of circuit, tele-
phone conversation is distinct up to 30 miles, can be barely made out at
100, and is absolutely unrecognizable at 110 miles. Introducing the
coils, the conversation becomes again perfectly distinct and continues
so through all the sections, equivalent to 250 miles of line.

Fig. 6. (Pl. 1) shows a larger view of one of these 50-mile sections,
and in the foreground a small generator of alternating currents of 600
periods per second, corresponding to about the average frequency of
the vibrations of the human voice. This generator was used for pro-
ducing electric waves for comparing the actual with the theoretical
results. From the resistance and capacity of the artificial line, and
the resistance and self-induction of the coils, the velocity of trans-
mission, and the length of the electric waves corresponding to 600
periods per second, were computed.

The first computation gave for the wave length about 26 miles. A
measurement of the wave length gave about 18 miles. Here was a
wide discrepancy between the theoretical and measured lengths, too
great a discrepancy to be ascribed to any ordinary error of measure-
ment. And since, of course, the wave length determines the proper
distance which should be between these coils in actual work, the mat-
ter was one of prime importance. All the measurements of resist-
ance, capacity, and self-induction were repeated without finding any
errors. ‘The generator was thoroughly studied to see that it really
gave a frequency of 600 periods. All the apparatus for measuring
the wave lengths was subjected to a rigid examination and analysis,
to see if any error could be introduced there. The computations were
reviewed again and again, with always the same result of 26 miles
for the wave lengths. Means were provided for maintaining a per-

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Anthony PLATE I.

FIG. 6.—LARGER VIEW OF 50-MILE SECTION OF LINE SEEN
ON THE LEFT OF Fic. 5.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Anthony. PLATE II

Fia@. 7.—DEVICE FOR PRESERVING UNIFORM FREQUENCY OF
ALTERNATIONS.

Fig. 8.—COILS SIMILAR IN SIZE AND SHAPE TO THOSE WHICH WILL BE USED ON LAND
LINES AND UNDERGROUND CABLES, BUT WOUND WITH DIFFERENT WIRE.

TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. 305

fectly uniform speed of the generator, in order to preserve a uniform
frequency of alternations. (This of itself was a very ingenious device,
and is worth a brief description. It is shown upon the table in fig.
7 (Pi. II.) A stretched piano wire was arranged to be kept in vibra-
tion by magnetic impulses. It emitted a continuous note which was
tuned to unison with a standard tuning fork, seen on the right. <A
telephone connected in circuit with the generator emitted a note cor-
responding to the frequency of the alternating current which the
generator produced. Stretched along the front edge of the table was
a resistance wire connected with the electric motor which drove the
generator. By varying the resistance of this wire, by sliding along
it the weight seen resting upon it, the speed of the generator and the
number of alterations per second could be varied. An assistant sat
at this table with the telephone at his ear, and, by varying this resist-
ance, endeavored to keep the telephone note in unison with that of the
piano wire.) With all these refinements the measured wave-length
still came out 18 miles. All these remeasurements and recomputa-
tions took about three weeks, and it began to look as though the
reconciliation of theory with experiment was hopeless. At last, after
going over the computations many times, it was discovered that a
factor, the square root of two, had been overlooked in the denomina-
tor of one of the fractions. Dividing the 26 miles by this gave for
the theoretical wave length about 18 miles, agreeing with the meas-
ured wave length to about one-tenth of 1 per cent. This wave length
of 18 miles corresponds to a velocity of transmission of these electric
waves of 10,800 miles per second.

On the table in fig. 8 (PI. II), at the left, are shown some coils similar
in size and shape to those which will be used on land lines and under-
ground cables, but wound with different wire. On land lines they
would be placed on top of poles at intervals of one to two miles. On
ocean cables the coils would be much smaller, and placed only about
one-eighth of a mile apart. They would be inclosed in the protecting
sheath, and would appear as swellings on the cable. They add but a
small fraction of one per cent to the weight, and will not interfere
with the laying of the cables. These coils consist of an iron core
made of rings punched from sheet iron two one-thousandths of an inch
in thickness, packed up to form a hollow cylinder of the proper length.
This is wound with the conducting wire by threading it through the
center as the figure shows.

Not only does Dr. Pupin’s line serve for telephone transmission.
There are systems of multiplex telegraphy that depend upon the trans-
mission of electric waves. They work beautifully in the laboratory
over short lines, giving a record on paper of dots and dashes at the
rate of 300 words per minute for each instrument. But as soon as
the line becomes of any length, the waves begin to lose their character,

sm 1901 20

806 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.

the dots and dashes begin to run together, and finally form a continuous
line. Tried on Dr. Pupin’s artificial line without the coils, a few miles
was sufficient to render the record illegible. But on introducing the
coils, the dots and dashes became at once sharp and distinct, and several
messages could be transmitted at the same time over the same line, by
using different frequencies, and instruments each tuned to respond to
one of these frequencies. What an enormous advantage this would be
on an Atlantic cable! The maximum rate of transmission ever reached
on an Atlantic cable, and that only as a test, was 40 words per minute.
This multiplex transmission. would carry this up to 1,500 words, or
many times more than is now possible with all the cables working to
their full capacity.

Such is the invention which scientific study and mathematical analysis
has made possible. Most electrical engineers would have said that coils
of wire, of all things, should be kept out of a telephone line. They
are used in alternating current circuits to hold back the current. They
are called *‘choke coils.” They are often used to regulate the current
flow. But every electrical engineer knows that while the coil does
hold back the current, it does not, like a mere resistance, consume
power. Such current as goes through it, goes with little loss of
energy, and now that it has been pointed out, it is easy to understand
that while a coil does hold back the current, it does not interfere with
the transmission of energy over the line, but, by diminishing the cur-
rent, diminishes in a greater ratio the loss on the line, and, above all,
serves to preserve the characteristics of the electric waves and so
delivers the energy to the receiver in the same form as when it came to
the line.

—_——

THE TELEPHONOGRA PH.*

By Witiiam J. Hamner. ”

The telephonograph, or, as it is sometimes called, the ** tele-
graphone,” the **microphonograph,” and the ‘*magnetophonograph,”
is the invention of a Danish electrical engineer, Mr. Waldemar Poul-
sen, of Copenhagen, Denmark. This beautiful and ingenious instru-
ment was considered by all those who had the opportunity of seeing
and testing it at the recent Paris Exposition to be the most interesting
scientific novelty there exhibited. In principle it is so simple it seems
remarkable that with all our familiarity with electricity and magnet-
ism such an invention should not have been made Jong ago. The
apparatus, which is indicated in figure 1 (Pl. I), consists of a drum of
brass about 113 inches in length by 53 inches in diameter. On this
drum, which is revolved by means of an electric motor, is wound 225
turns of steel piano wire, of a diameter of about 1 mm. Sup-
ported above this wire, and in contact therewith, is a tiny magnet,
such as are shown in figure 2, letters A and C, which are almost nat-
ural size. This magnet is attached to a brass support, mounted
on a shaft, so that as the drum or cylinder carrying the steel wire
revolves, the magnet is caused to move from right to left across the
drum, being guided by a grooved finger resting upon the steel wire
on the drum, each turn in the steel wire passing consecutively before
the poles of the tiny magnet. On reaching the end of the cylinder,

“Washington, D. C., December 6, 1901.

My Dear Sir: I have been much interested in the Poulsen telegraphone, which I
spoke of to you in Paris, and I do not know of anything in the work of recent years
in electricity more worthy of being presented to the readers of the Smithsonian
report. Mr. Hammer’s article, which you show me, seems to be a very satisfactory
popular exposition of it.

Very truly yours,
ALEXANDER GRAHAM PELL.

Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.

» Presented at the 151st meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
New York, February 28th, 1901. Reprinted, by permission, from Vol. X VIII of the

Transactions of the Institute.
307

308 THE TELEPHONOGRAPH.

an arm mounted on the left side of the frame strikes the tiny lever
shown in the illustration, raising the magnet, and causing it to run
rapidly back to the beginning again (the carrier being guided by the
coarse threaded shaft, shown parallel to the supporting shaft) this
operation taking but five seconds. The legs of this magnet are about
seven-sixteenth inch long, and are wound with bobbins of wire of
about the same size as those employed on an ordinary receiving tele-
phone magnet. A cross section of the magnet is shown in fig. 2, let-
ter C. It has been found that a horseshoe form of magnet, as shown
in fig. 2, letter B, will not respond rapidly enough, and it is preferable
to employ two separate magnets electrically connected, as shown in
fig. 2, letter C. In the ribbon form of telephonograph the horse-
shoe magnet shown in fig. 2, letter D, may be used, but even here
two magnets electrically connected are preferable. This recording
electro-magnet, which has a resistance of 100 ohms, is connected in
circuit with an ordinary carbon telephone transmitter, and a couple
of cells of battery, and preferably with an induction coil in the usual
manner. When the transmitter is spoken into, it acts as a tap upon

MACNET FOR RECORDING ON STEEL WIRE. CROSS SECTION OF MAGNET. warner ror RECORDING ON STEEL RIBBON.

im
=
= ig
8
ett o eee boos noe
i “ WIRE-1 MM DIA. RIBEON- 3 WM WIDE.
— 17.58 mm—- A
A B C D
Fic. 2.—Telephonograph magnets.

the battery and causes currents of varying strength, and in propor-
tion to the strength of the sound waves impinging upon the diaphragm,
to pass through the wire wound on the electro-magnet. Now as the
steel wire wound on the drum passes in front of and in contact with
the poles of the magnet, its varying magnetic field magnetizes trans-
versely the steel wire, and the ‘‘lines of force” are permanently
recorded therein. After the steel spiral has been filled, which opera-
tion takes about thirty-nine seconds at an ordinary speed of talk-
ing, and records 100 to 120 words, the tiny magnet is placed at the
point where the record first started, and in place of the transmitting
telephone with which it was connected a Bell receiving telephone is
attached. The cylinder or drum again revolves, and as the magnet-
ized steel wire passes before the poles of the electro-magnet it forms
a species of magneto-electric generator, giving out currents of electricity
of a strength and direction corresponding to the magnetization of the
steel wire, which correspondingly affect the Bell telephone, and repro-
duce the sounds and words originally spoken with absolute fidelity. In
Edison’s phonograph and its modifications, such as the graphophone,
gramophone, etc., a stylus is always employed to indent the surface of

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hammer. PLATE I.

Fic. 1.—POULSEN’S STEEL WIRE TELEPHONOGRAPH.

Fic. 3.—POULSEN’S BAND TELEPHONOGRAPH.

THE TELEPHONOGRAPH. 309

wax, metal, or other yielding substance. The stylus resting upon such
a surface, and being attached as it is to the vibrating diaphragm of the
phonograph transmitter, is affected by the dampening effect of the
needle or its inertia, and the higher harmonics are more or less
destroyed, and there are also false sounds produced, due to the molec-
ular disturbances in the needle and diaphragm itself. Although Mr.
Edison has recently made remarkable improvements in the perfection
of recording and reproducing by means of his phonograph over his
earlier forms, there are difficulties such as I have referred to which it
has heretofore been impossible to overcome. In Poulsen’s telephono-
graph, however, the tiny magnet not being in contact with the steel
wire, the lines of force are silently stored up, and without being affected
by external influences. The author has had considerable experience in
working with various types of phonographs, and was accorded facilities
to examine and operate the telephonograph both at Paris and Berlin,
and still more recently here in New York. In Berlin, Messrs. Mix and
Genest have for some time past been conducting a laboratory for experi-
mental development of the telephonograph, and through their cour-
tesy and that of Director Zopke I was afforded the pleasure of visiting
this laboratory, and saw some very interesting developments in this
promising field. I found the instrument would record and reproduce
the most delicate sounds, even breathing and very low whispering, and
certain words which those who have had experience in working with
the phonograph know have always been very difficult to record and
reproduce perfectly. All have been taken care of most perfectly by
the telephonograph. If it is not desired to retain the record made
upon the steel wire, the recording magnet is placed at the end of the
drum and connected with a couple of cells of battery, which supply a
constant magnetizing current to the magnet, which entirely obliterates
the records which had been stored up in the steel wire, as this wire is
passed before the poles of the magnet. A permanent magnet may also
be employed for this purpose.

Another type of instrument which Mr. Poulsen has designed is shown
in fig. 3 (Pl. I). This consists of two reels, carrying a band or ribbon
of steel about three-sixteenths inch wide and about one-thirty-second
inch thick. This steel ribbon, which may be made of any length and
which may be recorded upon for an hour or more at a time, is passed
from one reel to the other, the reels being operated by a small electric
motor, Above the steel band or ribbon is placed a tiny electro-magnet
of the form shown in fig. 2, letter D, which is connected to a tele-
phone trannsmitter and battery, in the same manner as in the instru-
ment already described, and after a record has been made, is also
connected to a Bell telephone as a reproducing instrument. It is stated
that these steel ribbons after receiving the magnetic record could be
wound in many layers, similar to a spool or bobbin of ribbon, without
affecting the record, and that the record could be reproduced thou-

310 THE TELEPHONOGRAPH.

sands of times. It is said that a record has been reproduced 2,200
times and has still been very. perfect, and such a spool containing a
record could be shipped across the country and placed on another
machine, and would reproduce the sounds which originally caused
the record with absolute perfection, and even a rusty wire contain-
ing a record has been sandpapered and polished without affecting
appreciably the record. In fig. 5, letter D, is indicated, first, how
the steel band is magnetized by the obliterating magnet, then by
the varying field of the recording magnet, and finally by the reversal
in direction. The Poulsen telephonograph in its ordinary form
does not speak louder than an ordinary Bell telephone. I would
suggest the employment of Edison’s ‘‘electro-motograph” or ‘* chalk”
telephone receiver, by means of which it could be made to speak
very loud. (An audience of 5,000 has been able to hear perfectly
this Edison’s loud-speaking telephone.) Mr. Poulsen has suggested
a number of other methods by which the sound could be aug-

i rise

BATTERY. fe
Se Sees, OBLITERATING MAGNET
TELE PHONE
A) f ii}
HAY RECORDING MAGNET. +H
U meat (Swe

SSS

BATTERY.

i a _{ (@)
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Y
P 7 ‘gj 3} F ig ej Bh ay eH Res 4

SUBSCRIBERS REPROOUCING MAGNETS.

AY
wal RECEIVING TELEPHONE.

Fic, 4,—The talking newspaper.

mented. It is claimed that by increasing the speed during reproduc-
tion, over that of the recording speed, the telephone speaks much
louder. This would, however, tend only to increase the pitch, and
not improve the volume of the sound. Other methods suggested
by Mr. Poulsen are indicated in fig. 5, letters A and C. They con-
sist in substance of methods for causing one transmitter to makea
number of records on separate steel wires or bands which, on repeat-
ing, cause the various reproducing magnets to simultaneously affect
the one telephonic receiver. It has also been proposed to utilize the
telephonograph as a talking newspaper. In fig. + is shown a method
which it is proposed to employ. As the steel ribbon which, in this
particular form is endless and which is receiving the record, passes
from one reel to the other, as indicated by the arrows, it passes con- —
secutively before each of the receiving magnets, which are shown in
horseshoe form, but which may also be single pole, and the subscrib-
ers, whose telephones are attached to these magnets, are thus con-

THE TELEPHONOGRAPH. 311

stantly being supplied with the latest news of the day, stock quotations,
ete. After the ribbon or band has passed before these magnets the
obliterating magnet wipes out all of the magnetic lines of force stored
up in the steel band, and it then passes on to receive fresh impressions
from the recording magnet and telephone. In this connection I wish
to say that in Budapest I recently found a talking newspaper system
being run in connection with the supplying of music, and talking from
the theatres by means of the **theatrophone.” During the day the
subscribers were constantly being informed of the latest news of
importance. This service, which supplied many thousands of sub-
scribers, was independent of the regular telephone service. I also
remember equipping the Theatrophone Company in Paris in 1889 with
two Edison phonographs for a like purpose—this being the first
attempt in this direction. Many suggestions have recently been made
for employing the telephonograph in telegraphic and telephonic work,
just as were made many years ago when Edison invented his phono-
graph. It remains to be seen how important the practical applications
of this wonderful scientific instrument will become, but it is self-
evident that any invention possessing such intrinsic merit is certain
sooner or later to meet with important commercial applications. The
author, in common with many others, has used the phonograph in his
office; dictating at his convenience his correspondence upon the eylin-
ders, from which it was later transcribed by the tvpewriter. He was
recently shown and operated a form of Poulsen’s telephonograph,
which had three magnets attached to the recording magnet carrier,
which enabled him to start, stop, and reverse the movement of the
earrier, and also obliterate errors in the wire. In fig. 5, letters B
and E, are shown two methods proposed for duplexing. The two sets
of magnets are shown connected, in the one case, in parallel; and in
the other, in series. ‘These magnets may all be connected in series
or all in multiple, but it is essential that they should be with the proper
polar relation. It is claimed that these two sets of recording magnets
send waves of a different character over the line, and at the receiving
end of the cireuit each reproducing magnet will respond to its proper
wave. I believe the form shown in fig. 5, letter E, has never been
demonstrated to be practicable, but the one employing the two rib-
bons shown in fig. 5, letter B, has been operated successfully. Sug-
gestions have been made for using the telephonograph as a telephonic
relay, and I am informed that some experiments have been made
recently in this direction in Europe, and it may perhaps not be out
of place, in this connection, to call attention to the experiments made
by the author in employing the phonograph as a telephonic relay at
the time of his lecture on Edison and His Inventions, delivered before
the Franklin Institute on February 4, 1889, which experiments were
described in the Electrical World of February 16, 1889, and other

Le THE TELEPHONOGRAPH.

papers, and subsequently more fully described in the Electrical World
and Engineer, of June 3, 1899. The diagram shown in fig. 6 (PI. I)
illustrates very clearly the arrangement of the two phonographs, four
telephones, two sets of induction coils and batteries and other appa-
‘atus, circuits, ete., and these experiments constitute, I believe, the

CARBON
RECORDING
MAGNET. TRANSMITTER,

REPRODUCING Ay
AGNET <= iH

—=-——— FATTERY.

TELEPHONE

” RECEIVING
TELEPHONES.

CARBON
TRANSMITTERS?

MAGNETS (4 PARALLEL.

i SERIES. PARALLEL
BATTERY.

MAGNETS /N SERIES. RECORDING END. REPRODUCING END.

S7EEL BANDS

BSATTERY

S7EEL BAND. RECEIVING
TELE PHONE.

(
CONSTANT CURRENT VARYING CURRENT. ALTERNATING CURRENT

+. -
SERIES Y

BATTERY.

Fic. 5.—Proposed methods for increasing volume of sound and of duplexing.

first practical form of telephonic relay which has ever been constructed,
and which operated with perfect success over 104 miles on the lines of
the Long Distance Telephone Company, between New York and Phila-
delphia. (It is interesting to note that the sound passed through the
air five times, through fifteen separate mediums, and changed its phy--
sical characteristics 48 times in transmission.) “

“See Electrical World and Engineer of June 3, 1899.

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"YSIWVH SLO6GL ‘LYOd3aY NVINOSH_LIWS

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.*
By Sir Wiri1am J. HERSCHEL.

The attempt to reproduce the natural colors of objects in a picture
of them by means of photography may be regarded, according to a
man’s fancy, either as a confession of weakness-——of lack of artistic
power in oneself—or as a laudable ambition to invoke the powers of
nature to do what, with all human skill, no artist can ever expect to
do or ever claims to do. The artist, whether of the pencil or of the
palette, has a liberty of expression which must forever make him
master of the spirits of men when they seek the aid of painting or
drawing to represent any scene to their senses. He alone understands
the spirit that seeks his aid. He alone knows how to minister to it
in the way that will most delight and instruct it. God has given him
a great wealth of materials and the incomparable gift of genius in his
use of them to interpret a scene to his fellow-man. If he fails, as he
often does, in his task, that is no more than human frailty involves.
When he succeeds he has given us a joy which we never dream of
attaining in any other way short of once more beholding the object of
our desires as we saw it in some happy moment of our lives. I am
speaking, of course, only of realities and not of poetical or ideal art.

No one can be more conscious of the vast interval that lies between
himself and the true artist than the humble follower of nature along
the paths of color photography. To describe his position as a student
fully and justly would occupy more tin.e than you can spare me; but
of this I am confident, that no artist can have his feelings more keenly
cultivated, his appreciation of the delicacies of hue and of shading
more exalted, or his ambition to equal nature more excited by the first
fruits of his labors than the patient, watchful handler of the camere
and its adjuncts. The artist, indeed, stands at a strange disadvantage
here. No joy can ever reach him which he has not, in the richness of
his imagination, already tasted before he meets it face to face on his
canvas. But who that has hung in eager expectation over the grow-
ing wonders of the sensitive plate would exchange his happiness when

* Presidential address by Sir William J. Herschel, Bart., to the sixteenth annual
meeting of the photographic convention of the United Kingdom, Oxford, July 8,
1901. Reprinted from the British Journal of Photography, July 12, 1901, pp. 489-441.

313

814 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

success rewards him for that of the artist over his own handiwork;
surprise, gratitude, exhilaration, these are the sudden moods of the
photographer who throws himself into the arms of nature and trusts
to her methods while incessantly pleading for more and more of her
instruction. What shall I say of his many, many disappointments?
Let them pass’ We know their value, and the artist knows this, too.
Our joys and his are not the same, but both are ripples of that avnpr-
Ouov yekaopua, the countless laughter of the ocean on which God’s
great gift of light dances and entrances us.

So it is in the most perfect humility of spirit that we approach the
subject of our discourse this evening—the practical methods now known
to us of producing colored photographs.

These fall into two groups. In the first, as now in our common
possession and practice, come those which employ colored glasses or
films to feed the photographic plate, leaving the latter to take what. it
will, or refuse what it will, according to the high commands impressed
upon it by the sun. Let no one be under the delusion that here is any
room for the color artist, man, to tamper with the result, to distribute
the colors according to his fancy. The very contrary is the case. No
department of photography is so hopelessly bound to perfect honesty
and freedom from trickery as. color photography. A _ first-year
apprentice in the studio of Mr. Herkomer would as soon think of
improving the master’s touches. It would mean ruin to the picture.
Whatever color is supplied is fairly offered to the sun at every pin’s
head of the plate alike; but whether it is to be seen at all, and if seen
whether it is to be seen in its full strength or weakened to any neces-
sary extent, is not in our hands. That rests with the .ight itself to
determine which falls there on the sensitive surface, and woe to the
man who tries to interfere there. He may use some influence in regard
to considerable areas at a time, just as the ordinary photographer can
shade or modify the light to produce general effects, but as to details
he dare not say a word. He might as well try to improve a miniature
with a house painter’s brush.

The first specimens of this kind which I introduce are those of Mr.
Ives’s process.

The three photographic positives here thrown on the screen together
as one picture are plain black and white. They each act in the same
way that the natural object did—they do not, indeed, absorb the color
of the covering glass; but they do what comes to the same thing, they
block it out either totally or in various degrees as each point of the
object did by absorption. The positive was obtained by photograph-
ing the object through a glass of somewhat similar color. That it is
not the very same color is due to the fact that the photographic power
of colored light is not on all fours with its coloring power upon the
retina.

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, HERSCHEL

FROM A DIRECT PHOTOGRAPH

BY PROF. LIPPMAN

IN COLORS

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SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, HERSCHEL Piast

AWOEN @ CO, LITHOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE

FROM A COMPOSITE HELIO-CHROME

BY MR. IVES

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 315

To go into anything like detail on this complex and still debated
part of the science of color photography would be quite impossible—
and I am glad for your sakes that it is so, for only a strong expert
like Mr. Ives or Mr. Sanger Shepherd could lead you aright there.
Suffice it to say that at this point the judgment of the human eye is
the final court of appeal, and no conclusions based upon anything less
than large practical experience can be deemed final. We are still in
the purely empirical stage of knowledge as to the physical connection
between the color and the actinic power of any given light. Weare
not even sure that a given color of a given intensity has a constant
actinic power on a given film. What we see here is the result of Mr.
lves’s immense practical study.

His Kromskop introduces the three colors to the eye, not by super-
position, which, as you will readily see, would put three extinguishers
on the top of each other, but still by true com-position. The mirrors
(sheets of transparent glass) which do this are models of inventive
power. They are not clear glass, but tinted, and the reason for this is
a matter of refined delicacy. The already green image passes through
a transparent green glass, placed on a slope which thus serves on its
front face as a mirror for the blue image. The latter would be
reflected from the back surface also if the glass were clear white; but
being green, it absorbs the second reflection sufficiently (in the double
passage of the blue light) to make it innocuous. The composite blue-
green image passes on to the eye through another sloping transparent
mirror placed to reflect the red image in the same line of sight. The
same danger of a double red image is avoided here by tinting the
mirror blue-green, which lets the blue-green image pass, but kills the
red light which endeavors to get twice through it. The perfection of
the register is thus preserved.

Of a cognate character, but very different in its method, is Mr.
Sanger Shepherd’s process, in which three differently colored films
are superposed one on the other ina single transparency. They are
all positives without any opaque silver deposit to block out light.
The only gradation is from clear white to the deepest color of the dye
on each film—superposed they act as absorbents, and so effect the same
fallibly, as far as Iam aware; but, assuming it to be true, see what it
means; nothing less than this, that we have, by the infinite delicacy of
photography, obtained a definite ocular demonstration of the precise
seat of power which ether waves have over chemical compounds. — If
I hesitate in committing my own belief to this explanation (and my
belief is a matter of absolutely no importance to anyone else) it is
because it is not inconceivable that the disruptive action which does take
place may, after all, occur close round the spot where the stationary
ether of the node, and therefore the matter which is affected, is under
alternate tension and relaxation. However that may be in physics,

316 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

the difference is not of immediate importance to us in photography
that I see. The actinic planes were proved by Wiener to exist.
Lippmann turned them to vital account for us, and gave us, in the way
we all know, true color photography. He used thick films for the
express purpose of securing what Wiener desired to avoid, reduplica-
tion of the actinic planes, and with them the strong creation of color.
Here are some of the most exquisite results of his process. I owe
them to Dr. Neuhauss, who kindly supplied me with a spectrum and a
vivid picture from what I may call still life, and to Mr. Senior, who
has placed his best specimens of a spectrum with the Frauenhofer
lines at my disposal for your service. A more precious one than any
of these is this given me by Dr. Lippmann himself, a tribute to my
father’s memory as a pioneer of photography, which I shall be happy
to show afterwards. It is the simple naked film itself.

Before parting with Lippmann’s process I feel sure that you will
like to see the decisive evidence obtained by Dr. Neuhauss of the pres-
ence in the film of the supposed strata of silver spangles, as I may call
what looks like a brown stain more than anything else, by transmitted
light. He has actually made a microscopic section of the color cradle,
and by means of the most refined conditions has been able to take
once more by aid of photography a visible picture of the subtle work
of light in the interior of a Lippmann film. Here is a copy of it on
the screen which he has sent me himself, with his explanation of its
import and its manufacture. All room for doubt (if science could
cease from doubting its own creeds) would seem removed by this
simple fibrous-looking strip of lines. It is a rare pleasure to be able
to exhibit such brilliant colors, and such surprising demonstrations of
their cause, here in Oxford, and to acknowledge at the same time that
the whole series of investigation and invention which have furnished
these magnificent results is the fruit of French and German industry
and genius.

— Se

—EeEeEE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, HERSCHEL PES tit

FROM A COLOR PHOTOGRAPH BY THE MCDONOUGH PROCESS

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THE HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.®*

By Dr. J. Marry,
Member of the Institute of France.

By chronophotogr aphy ? is meant a method which analyzes motions
by means of a series of instantaneous photographs taken at very short
and equal intervals of time. By thus representing, for example, the
successive attitudes and positions of an animal, this art renders it pos-
sible to follow all the phases of the creature’s gait, and even to con-
struct exact drawings of it to scale. Of late years, chronophotography
has taken another direction—that of the synthesis of motion. The
analytic images are made to appear before the spectators’ eyes in uni-
form sequence, so as to reproduce the appearance of the motion itself.
Everybody is familiar with such animated views.

The International Exhibition of 1900 enabled us to bring together
the documents relating to the invention and successive improvements
of chronophotography.

PART I.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS.

The principal instruments which, in the course of the development
of chronophotography, have been devised by those who have pursued
this art were collected in a large show case (fig. 1).° They were
arranged according to the dates of their several inventions. In addi-
tion four large frames contained photographs resulting from the
application of chronophotography to various branches of science.

Vo. I is Janssen’s astronomical revolver, invented by that astron-
omer in 1875 in order to show successive positions of the planet
Venus near the limb of the sun at her transits.

At the focus of a telescope pointed at the sun was a photographic
camera, and the sensitive plate, which was circular, turned about its
center by leaps, so as to bring into the field a different portion of its

- eeeriatien from pepe men soci enn oe = Taos eas an? Hone de
la Chronophotographie, par le Docteur Marey, Membre de 1’ Institut,’’ printed in
pamphlet entitled Musée Centennal de la Classe 12 (Photographie) 4 l’ Exposition
Universelle Internationale de 1900 4 Paris—Métrophotographie and Chronophoto-
graphie.

»Photochronography was the form of the word originally employed by the writer,
but it has been modified in conformity to a decision of the Congress.

°The exhibits were arranged in chronological order and numbered, but the illus-
tration (fig. 1) in Dr. Marey’s article was on too small a scale to show details and is

here omitted.
317

318 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.,

border at the end of every 70 seconds of time. In that way a series of
images were obtained (fig. 2) which showed the successive positions of
the planet on the sun. She was seen to penetrate the limb, to cross
the disk, and finally to depart; and the interval between the images
being known, the velocity of the movement could be measured. This
experiment seems to have been the earliest achievement of a chrono-
photograph; for though others before Janssen conceived bolder

attempts, there was, in an exhibition of real things, no place to show
plans or projects impracticable at the time of their invention.*

No. 2. Analysis of the motions of animals by the method of Muy-
bridge, 1878.—This celebrated photographer of San Francisco suc-

“Tn an article on the ‘‘ Beginnings of the Cinematograph’”’ in Camera Obscura for
February, 1901, Mr. Charles Niewenglowski refers to an ingenious idea of 1857 of
Charles Adolphe Reville of bringing into a stereoscope a succession of double photo-
graphs of the phases of a phenomenon. But for that purpose it would have been
necessary to take the photographs of the objects in motion, which at that date would
have been impossible, except at the lowest velocities. The same article figures an
apparatus devised in America about 1861 by Coleman Sellers. It was called-a
‘“‘stereophantascope,’’ and was intended to obtain the same result as Reville. The
most remarkable conception was, by all odds, that of M. Ducos du Hauron, who in
March, 1864, took out a patent for an apparatus for photographing any scene with all
the transformations which it might go through in a given time. How to take the photo-

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 319

ceeded in fixing in successive instantaneous photographs all the phases
of the gaits of a horse, even at the swiftest gallop. He studied by the
same method the motions of man, as well as the principal types of
quadruped locomotion.

His arrangement was as follows: Multiple cameras, numbering from
12 to 24, according to circumstances, were arranged in series and
pointed on a track where a horse was galloping. Each camera had a
quick-acting shutter worked by an electro-magnet. In passing along
the track the horse successively broke a series of wires, each of which
in breaking set free the shutter of one of the cameras. Things were
so arranged that, as he passed along, the animal caused the successive
production of a series of instantaneous photographs (fig. 3).*

Muybridge’s method was, shortly after, used by Anschiitz, of Lissa,
who seems to have made some improvements in it. In particular he

(8 9 10 IE 32 33 1g

FIG. 3.

was favored by fortune in being able to use the newly discovered
plates of gelatino-bromide of silver. Some fine series of photographs
by Anschiitz were shown in the glass case.

No. 3. Chronophotography on a plate fixed before a camera obscura,
Marey, 1882.—The analysis of motion by chronophotography was
already worthy of attention in 1882. The apparatus was, however,
too costly, while the measures of distances and times were defective,
when the writer endeavored at once to simplify the experiments, and

graphs and how to project them in animated form is thoroughly explained and fig-
ured in the patent of M. Ducos du Hauron; but the idea was entirely impracticable
at the time.

It may be added, in all these apparatus the perception of movement is due to the
persistence of retinal impressions, which was the principle of Plateau’s phenakisti-
scope of 1833.

* We place the experiments of Muybridge along with those of chronophotography,
although this ingenious experimenter did not succeed in taking his instantaneous pho-
tographs at equal intervals of time. For the velocity of the horse not being quite
uniform, the equidistant wires were not reached at equal intervals of time. Besides,
the wire was more or less stretched before rupture took place. From these causes
there was a certain inequality in the rates of succession which Muybridge did not
succeed in satisfactorily overcoming by letting off the shutters independently of the
horse’s motion.

320 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

at the same time to give them precision. The principle of the first
method employed was as follows:

Suppose an ordinary camera to be pointed at a perfectly dark field,
and that an opaque disk in front of the lens is pierced with narrow
openings and turns about its center. Every time an opening passes
before the objective the light would be admitted, if there were any
light in the field. But there being no light, none penetrates the
camera; and when the plate is developed it is seen not to have been
affected. If a strongly lighted man or animal were to cross the dark
field, each admission of light would produce an image of the animal,
and as the latter moved, photographs of it would be taken on the plate
at different places and in different attitudes. Such an arrangement,
however, would not answer. Fig. + shows the apparatus in its real
form. Within a cubical box is seen the camera with its lens. Behind
it is the plate holder or back, C, which slides in grooves. Between
the plate holder and the
camera revolves the slitted
disk grazing the sensitive
plate—in short, whatis called
a plate-shutter. This disk,
D, with its narrow openings,
f, is worked by a clock move-
ment furnished with a speed
governor, and is set in mo-
tion by a handle. Fig. 5
(Pl. I) shows the flight of a
white duck, which passes
before the dead black back-
ground. The succession of
images is from left to right.
Eight different attitudes are shown during one complete stroke of the
wings. They reveal the details of the mechanism of flight. In order
to appreciate the dimensions of the animal and the extent of its flight,
a divided rule is placed before the dark field. It is photographed and
serves as a scale. Finally, in order to show the intervals of time
between the successive images, at the lower right-hand corner of the
dark field is placed a chronograph, consisting of a dial, which has a
white hand completing an entire revolution in a second. Every time
the shutter disk admits light and causes a photograph of the bird this
hand is likewise photographed. Since it is seen to occupy eight suc-
cessive equidistant positions on the dial, it is evident that the intervals
have all been one-eighth of a second.

No. 4. Dark field for chronophotography on a fived plate.—No body
is quite black. Chevreul showed that absolute blackness can only be
procured by means of a hole into a cavity with blackened walls, upon
which no light is allowed to shine. [That is, there should be another

Fie. 4.

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| aLW1d Aasewj— [05] ‘oday ueiuosy}ziwuc

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. ook

black hole facing the first.| In order to approximate to these ideal
conditions, the writer constructed a deep shed tapestried with black
yelvet and facing so that no light penetrated it. In that way very
sharp images are obtained upon an unclouded background.

a

ans

Fia. 6.

No. 5. Figures in relief obtained by the use of chronophotography.—
A single apparatus only gives the projection of the motions on a plane
perpendicular to the optical axis of the instrument. But if three
chronophotograph cameras are focused on dark fields or dead-black

backgrounds perpendicularly to one another (fig. 6), the animal repre-
sented will be seen from three different points of view, which will
enable us to understand its real attitudes by reference to the three
dimensions of space. Fig. 7 shows a series of bronze figures, united

a O01 ———- 91

oe

329 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

ach to the next, and representing the successive attitudes of a sea-
gull in flight.

No. 6. Photographic gun, 1882.—In the study of the flight of birds
the necessity of operating before a dark field or dead-black back-

Fic. 8.
ground restricts extremely the number of possible experiments. In

order to analyze free flight 1t was requisite to be able to operate in case
of need on the bright sky and to arrange an apparatus capable of being

aimed at a moving bird likea gun. The photographic gun (fig. 8) con-
tains in its barrel a long-focus objective. In its breech there turns a
circular plate, which presents to the focus of the objective different
points of its border. In short the apparatus 1s analogous to the astro-

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 323

nomical revolver of Janssen, with this difference, that it produces
pictures about 800 times more frequently, which calls for a pretty deli-
cate mechanism. Fig. 9 shows the photograph of a gull in free flight.

No.7. M. Londe’s apparatus with multiple objectives, 1883.—Return-
ing to the method of Muybridge, with a very important improvement,
M. Londe, aided by M. Dessoudeix, constructed an apparatus in which
a series of twelve objectives form their images upon different parts of
a rectangular plate of large size. An ingenious arrangement causes
the successive opening of these objectives at equal intervals as shortas
may be desired. The analysis of the motion is consequently very per-
fect. The order of the images can not be deranged, since they are all
obtained on one plate. But the number of pictures is limited by the
necessity of having a separate objective for each. General Sébert by
a similar method analyzes the phases of the motion of torpedoes.

No. 8. Multiplication of the number of pictures: 1. Partial photo-
graphs. 2. Dissociation of the images before the dark fidd. 3. Photo-
graphs on a film ribbon in motion, 18S8S7-SS8.—A perfect analysis of

motion requires that the photographs be taken at as short intervals as
may be, yet for as long a time as possible. If we merely make the
rotation of the shutter-disk faster, the number of images will, it is
true, be augmented, but the animal’s locomotion not being thereby
accelerated, the result will be that the photographs will be taken so
close together that they interfere with one another and produce the
confused effect seen infigure7. <A first way of avoiding this confusion
is to photograph, not the entire body of the subject, but only certain
points or lines whose position is significant of the facts we desire to
know. A man dressed completely in black (fig. 10), and consequently
invisible upon the dead-black background, wears certain bright points
and lines, strips of silver lace attached to his clothes along the axes of
his limbs. When this man, so rigged, passes in front of the apparatus,
photographs will result that will be accurate diagrams to scale (fig.
11), showing without confusion the postures of upper and lower arms,
thighs, lower legs, and feet at each instant, as well as the oscillations
of the head and of the hips. The method also allows the play of the
joints to be studied.

o24 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

Still, it was desirable to multiply the images while showing the
whole body. For that purpose the insufficiency of the advance of the
subject has to be made up for by a displacement of the image on the
plate. This can be brought about in several ways. In the first place,
the camera, with its attachments, can be pivoted on its support and
caused to turn about a vertical axis. The difficulty of moving the
considerable mass uniformly caused, however, the abandonment of this
method in favor of the rotation of a mirror by clockwork, causing the
reflection to strike different points of the plate. In this way a series
of complete photographs are obtained, following one another at
extremely short intervals of time. Indeed, the frequency of the
photographs may be made very great. Their total number is, how-
ever, restricted because the optical axis of the instrument, being dis-

Fic, 12.

placed along the black background, soon reaches the end of it. A
final solution was to take the photographs upon different points of a
tong fillet which moves along the focal plane of the camera and is
stopped long enough for each exposure.

Chronophotography on a film ribbon, Marey, 1887: In consequence
of the invention of the kodak, long paper fillets of gelatino-bromide of
silver had become articles of commerce. A little later transparent
films made their appearance; and these were still more appropriate for
the chronophotography of long series of pictures. Three patterns of
apparatus were exhibited in the case under No. 8. These showed the
successive steps of invention. :

Type a: The apparatus (fig. 12) worked in the red light of the dark -

room. The objective was pointed outward across a conical shade. In
the place of the ordinary plate-holder was placed a shelf carrying a

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 325

clockwork R, which led a long paper ribbon over rollers. The rota-
tion of the disk made an electric contact at each passage of a slit, in
consequence of which an electro-magnet squeezed the band and stopped
it long enough for the exposure.

Type b: It was necessary to avoid the extreme inconvenience of
only being able to photograph within the dark room. A small porta-
ble box, B, was therefore made for the fillet, which, having been filled
in the dark room, could be carried out
with the rest of the chronophotographic
apparatus, as shown in fig. 13. The
results were more satisfactory.

Type c: Ultimately the application of
electricity was given up, and the motion
and stoppages of the film, instead of be-
ing governed by an independent clock-
work, were connected with the move-
ments of the disk.

No. 9. Double-action chronophoto-
graphy.—With a view of obtaining an
apparatus which should, at pleasure,
either work upon a fixed plate or upon & moving film, an instrument
was constructed represented by No. 9 in the glass case. This apparatus
(fig. 14) is composed of a fore part, which slides in grooves. This fore
part carries the objective and is cut so as to allow the shutter-disk to
pass. The movement of the latter is governed by a rod of variable

Fic. 13.

Fig. 14.

length (so as to permit focusing) connecting with clockwork within the
after part of the apparatus. In this after part can be placed an
ordinary plate holder for chronophotography on a fixed plate; or, if
desired, the plate holder being removed, movable films may be intro-
duced. These go into a back chamber, the open lid of which is shown
in the figure. The film ribbons could be inserted in daylight in con-
sequence of their being prolonged at both ends by ribbons of opaque

326 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

paper (fig. 15). When the whole was wound up round its spool before
being put in, the film was protected from light by outer layers of
opaque paper; and when the work was done and the film was wound
upon the other spool it was equally protected by the other terminal of
opaque paper so that it could be removed from the py sony in the
light without becoming clouded.

This apparatus, which was easily used, sufficed for three years for
the writer’s researches into the motions of man and of animals. Like
Muybridge, Anschiitz,
and Demeny, he aimed to
obtain, by Plateau’s
method, the reproduction
of the analyzed motions.
At the exhibition of 1889,
a zootrope moved by elec-
tricity showed animals

in motion, as wellas men,
birds, horses at different gaits. But since the zootrope does not allow
many figures to be shown, the writer was restricted to exhibiting short
movements. He therefore cast about for methods of showing scenes
of long duration.

No. 10. Chronophotographic projector, 1893.—This apparatus carries
an endless belt of photographs to the focus of an objective which pro-
jects them upon a screen. Fig. 16 shows the path of the rays in the
projector. A pencil of parallel rays, reflected by a heliostat comes

Pellicule sensible

des rayons

from S, and falls upon a convex lens /,. This pencil brought to a
focus, passes at ¢ through a hole in a diaphragm, meets the shutter-
disk d, which is turned by a crank, passes through every window that
comes, then diverges and, meeting the lens Z,, similar to the first, regains
its parallelism, is reflected at 45° from a mirror forming the lid of the
box, falls vertically upon another mirror at the same inclination, and
now passes to the objective. But in this last part of its course it

Se

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 327

traverses the film, 7, which carries the positive photographs, and these
photographs, magnified by the objective, are thrown upon the screen.

The motion of the film at its halts at each flash are brought about by
an apparatus not shown in the figure. It is similar to that of the
simple chronophotographic apparatus, with the difference that the
positive film, having its ends fastened together to make an endless
belt, passes over a series of rollers which stretch it taut. The princi-
pal imperfection of the chronophotographic projector was a jerkiness
due to imperfect equality of the intervals.

No. 11. Edison's kinetoscope, 1894.—Mr. Edison found a means of
equalizing the intervals. It was to perforate the sensitive film by a

Tn il

i 1 ie

q

“we

series of equidistant holes and gear it toa pin cylinder. 1t was impos-
sible to procure a kinetoscope to exhibit in the glass case; but every-
body, of late years, has seen this remarkable instrument in action. It
shows living scenes acted out for more than a minute with absolute
precision. In Edison’s apparatus the film-ribbon never was arrested;
but the images were rendered sharp by the extreme brevity of the
illumination, which was only 7595 of a second. A single spectator,
looking through eyepieces, could see the living pictures of the
kinetoscope.

No. 12. Lumieres cinematograph, 1895.—TVhis instrument finally
gave the desired result—that is to say, the projection on a screen of

328 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

living scenes visible to an assembly and presenting a perfect illusion.
The success of this invention was immense, and has not passed away.
Fig. 17 shows the cinematograph open and arranged for taking photo-
graphs. <A film, perforated like that of Edison, is rolled up in a closed
box c'c on the top of the apparatus. It passes, in an intermittent
manner, to the focus of the objective, being drawn forward by a sys-
tem of claws which catch in the holes of the film. The reciprocating
motion of these claws gives intermittency to the motion of the ribbon.
After exposure the film is received in another closed box, invisible
in the figure. It was important to make the claws acquire and lose
their velocity as gradually as possible, so as not to tear the film. The
Messrs. Lumiére succeeded in effecting this by means of a triangular
cam, fig. 18, which is the essential part of the apparatus. During
two-thirds of the whole time the film is at rest.

For the projection of the positives, the Messrs. Lumiére make use
of a special arrangement. A powerful electric lamp brilliantly illu-
minates the film. In this way very bright projections are obtained of
25 by 19 feet (7.75 m. by 5.80 m.), the figures on the film measuring

only 1 by § inches (25 by 22 mm.). In

| the glass case by the side of the cinemato-
graph several ribbons printed on paper
| showed the perfection and happy choice

of the photographs obtained with this
instrument.

The success of the cinematograph gave
birth to many forms of apparatus for the
projection of living pictures. Most of
them differ very little from the instru-
ment of Messrs. Lumiére, and were not
shown. Two types, however, of marked
originality merit special mention.

No. th. Captain Gossart’s apparatus
with oscillating objective, 1897.—This
instrument gives: photographs of very
large dimensions. Its author has applied
it to the study of the gaits of the horse.
Fine specimens of its work were ex-
hibited. It is not adapted to projections.

No. 15. The Alethorama of Messrs. Chéri-Rousseau and Mortier,
1897.—This is a projecting apparatus in which the perforated film-
ribbons, as they pass along, give reflections of their pictures from a
series of prisms. The projections are exceedingly bright and steady,
and altogether make a fine effect. The apparatus, however, seems to
be hard to adjust, and does not appear to have been taken up
practically.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE II.

fp

FiG. 20.--CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHIC GUN.

Pie

=

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 329

No. 16. Analyzing and projecting chronophotograph, Marey, 1898.—
The writer has pushed the improvement of his chronophotographic
apparatus, so as to obtain perfect equidistance of the views, and has
succeeded in doing so while preserving the main principle of not
perforating the films. For perforation, besides wearing, so as no
longer to bring the pictures around regularly, also occupies a zone of
jy of an inch (2.5 mm.) on each edge of the ribbon, a loss which is
more important the narrower the film. The writer has succeeded in
obtaining perfect regularity in exposures by modifying the first pair of
rollers which takes the film. The apparatus is shown in fig. 19 (PI. I).

In making projections, a further difficulty arose, namely, the posi-
tive film undergoes some shrinkage in the successive developments
requisite to obtaining it, in consequence of which the pictures, being
too near together, pass by too soon, and tend to leave the field of
the screen. A simple drag or brake upon the magazine spool corrects
this fault. Positive ribbons of different breadths were exhibited,
showing the sharpness and equidistance of the photographs.

No. 17. Microscopie chronophotography, 1899.—The writer has
adapted the chronophotograph to the study of motions which take
place in the field of the microscope. In order to avoid exposing the
animals studied to the heat of an intense illumination, an arrangement
was adopted in which the shutter-disk only effects the lighting up of
the preparation during the time of exposure, which is about one-
five-hundredth part of a second. This done, the brightest light no
longer produced any injurious effects. Numerous photographs were
exhibited, together with the instrument.

No. 18. Chronophotographic gun with a film ribbon, 1899.—In its
original form the photographic gun only gave twelve views. For a
more extended series an instrument of a new type (fig. 20, Pl. IJ)
was constructed, in which the successive photographs are taken on a
band 66 feet (20 m.) long. The shutter is formed of a light-cock,
which is far less cumbrous than a disk. In the stock of the gun is a
clockwork moved by adynamo. Whenever the trigger is pulled the
circuit is closed and the film begins moving, and does not stop until
the trigger is let go. Light accumulators, or a portable pile, furnish
the necessary current.

PART II.

SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

Animated projections, interesting as they are, are of little advan-
tage to science, for they only show what we see better with our own
eyes. At best, they serve to slow a motion which is too quick for
direct observation, or to accelerate it if its extreme slowness causes us
to miss some of its features.

330 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRA PHY.

In the former case photographs are taken at the rate of 40 or 50 to
the second and are projected in three or four times the original time.
We can thus show a horse galloping or a bird flying so slowly that
the eye can follow the motions of the limbs. In the other case the
photographs are taken at very long intervals and are projected in
rapid succession. For this purpose the writer’s chronophotograph
(fig. 19, Pl. IJ) is furnished with an arbor upon which, if the crank is
fitted, the effect is that only one photograph is taken at each turn.
The slowest, almost imperceptible motions of clouds, taken at long
intervals and rapidly projected, are translated into a rapid and strik-
ing agitation.

What is generally important in the study of a motion is to obtain a
geometrical drawing of it. Chronophotography upon a fixed plate —
gives such a drawing to scale exactly. Chronophotography on a
movable film may do so by the aid of certain devices which will be
described below. Chronophotography on a fixed plate has furnished
the experimental solution of many problems of geometry, mechanics,
physics, and physiology that no other method could so readily have
solved.

Grometry. Formation in space of geometrical figures of three dimen-
sions. —Geometers define this sort of figures by saying that they are
generated by straight lines or curves of different forms displaced in
different ways. Chronophotography realizes this conception com-
pletely. Before the pitch-dark field a white rod, lighted up and sub-
jected to a displacement in space, leaves on the photographic plate the
vestiges of its successive positions. It generates on the plane of the
plate the projection of the figure in three dimensions which it has
formed. In that way has been obtained (fig. 21, Pl. II) the projection
of a sphere on a plane. A band of paper, white on one side, black on
the other, was curved into a semicircular form and rotated about its
chord. The figure so formed would have altogether the appearance
of a solid sphere if a greater frequency of the illuminations had pre-
vented the discontinuity of the surface generated.

Fig. 22 (Pl. I1]), the projection of a [one-sheeted] hyperboloid of
revolution, was generated by a string placed oblique to the vertical
axis round which it turned.

If figures with their relief are sought, the photographs should be
taken with a stereoscopic apparatus. Fig. 23 (Pl. III) shows in this
way an hyperboloid with its asymptotic cone. These examples, taken
from very simple cases of geometry, enable us to imagine what variety
of forms would be obtained with complex curves subjected to varied
motions. There would be very simple experimental solutions of prob-
lems of geometry sometimes most complicated.

Mercuanics.—Mechanics is founded on the laws of motion, laws of
spaces described, of velocities, and of accelerations. The difficulties

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE III

mt m
isthe v1
a N
ah

Fig. 22.

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE IV

Fig. 26.

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF WATER IN MOTION.

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. sow

which Galileo and Atwood surmounted to determine these laws will for
the future be saved in all analogous cases for those who shall employ
chronophotography for the purpose. We shall only have to allow the
body whose motion (fig. 24, Pl. III) is to be studied to fall before the
pitch-dark background, and its positions will be marked upon the sensi-
tive plate; the chronograph will give the interval of time which elapses
between the body’s arrivals at the positions figured; the scale of milli-
meters will measure the distances described. The same arrangement
enables us to make interesting studies of the resistance of the air.

Hydrodynamics is commonly taken to be one of the most compli-
eated sciences. The nature of undulations, the nature of violent
waves, the internal motions of molecules in a shaken liquid, the man-
ner in which stream lines behave when they meet obstacles of different
forms, all these questions are still discussed as if they were difficult.
All these problems find their experimental solution in chronophotog-
raphy.

All that is wanted is to render visible, and alone visible, before a
dark background, those parts of the liquid of which we wish to know
the motion. For that purpose into a canal formed of transparent
plate glass is to be poured some very clear water. A mirror inclined
at a convenient angle and placed under this canal reflects the light of
the sun, which then traverses the liquid mass from below upward. The
water is not illuminated; but at the surface of the water, at the point
where the wall of the glass is moistened by the liquid, a meniscus is
formed, and the under convex surface of this meniscus sends by total
reflection a very bright thread of light, which oscillates like the sur-
face of the liquid itself. The photographic objective will make upon
the sensitive plate a photograph of this line with all its movements.

The interior of the liquid is not lighted up. In order to render cer-
tain points of this mass and to perceive the displacements which they
undergo it is only necessary to put into suspension in the water small
silvered pearls to which has been given the precise specific gravity of
the liquid. These pearls by the agitation which they undergo will
express the motion of the molecules of the water at different parts of
the mass (fig. 25, Pl. IV).

Other phenomena of the same class can be studied by chronophotog-
raphy. Thus, a thin inclined plane being presented to a liquid cur-
rent, the bright pearls will express by the direction of their course the
motion of liquid fillets. By the distances between their images they
will express the rapidity of the current. A scale of millimeters
immersed in the water will measure the extent of the motions, while
the known interval of time which separates the flashes affords the
means of evaluating the velocity. That having been explained, one
glance at the scale diagram (fig. 26, Pl. IV) will suffice to show what
movements will take place at the surfaces of liquids under conditions

332 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

however varied, and also how the molecules themselves will move at
the different points throughout the mass.

Motions of the air.—An analogous arrangement makes it possible to
render visible by means of smoke certain fillets of air in the midst of
aregular current. We ascertain in that case by chronophotography
the changes of direction and of velocity of this current when it meets
obstacles of different forms.

In a large canal having walls of plate glass and before a dark back-
ground a draft of air is created by means of a ventilator. In order
to regulate the current it is filtered through a very fine silk gauze. At
the top of the canal, we set free, by means of a series of little tubes,
fillets of smoke which descend parallel to one another like the three
cords of a lyre. Now, if we place in the interior of the canal obsta-
cles of different forms, we immediately see the threads bend on these
obstacles, slide over them, and form behind them eddies of varied
forms. Figs. 27, 28, and 29 (Pl. V) show the same experiment under
different conditions. In fig. 27 a magnesium flash light illuminates
the phenomenon for a very short time. We see how the fillets of
air lick the plane, slide on it, and form backwater behind it. Fig.
28 shows the same phenomenon with chronophotographic indica-
tions. The series of little tubes which bring the smoke are made to
vibrate ten times a second, so that the smoke no longer appears in
rectilinear fillets but as sinusoidal undulations, more or less elongated
at each point according to the velocity of the current. The motion
slows up upon approaching an obstacle and is accelerated at the sides
of the obstacle. It will be remarked that the conceptions of time and
space which are peculiar to chronophotography are brought together in
this experiment. Finally, in fig. 29 the chronography is suppressed.
The illumination is no longer instantaneous, but is produced by the com-
bustion of magnesium
ribbon, so that a sort of
mean state of the current
is recorded.

Resistance of the air to
lying wpparatus.—One
Sy, Be of the applications of the

SSS previous experiments is

to make comprehensible

= the action of the air on
ree apparatus of different

forms which move in this fluid. Fig. 30 shows more directly the effects
of this resistance. It shows how a little paper soaring model left to
fall vertically behaves and how it receives from the resistance of the air
changes of direction and of velocity which are faithfully represented.

Vibrations of cords.—These motions are easily seen upon bright
cords vibrating before a dark background. Our learned fellow-aca-

a
aa

“SNOILONYLSAO DNISSVWd SLNAYYND IV

62 “Sd 80 “Sh

‘A 3Lv1d *KaseWw— 1061 ‘Hoday ueiuosyyus

‘ae

ay

Hae

4%

ue

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey.

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF HORSES IN MOTION.

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. oud

demician, A. Cornu, succeeded in this way in rendering perceptible in
a cord vibrations of three kinds—the longitudinal, the transversal, and
the torsional. <A very light little mirror attached to the cord indi-
cated these three kinds of motion on a plate having a uniform transla-
tion. Fig. 31 is the negative resulting from this experiment.
PuysroLocy.—It is to the physiological study of the different gaits of
animals and to the functional motions of their different organs that
chronophotography has prin-
cipally been applied. Some
types of the experiments
which it has rendered possible
may here be illustrated.
Terrestrial locomotion.—
The series of photographs
taken on moving films have
represented all the phases of
motion of man and of quadru-
peds. Thus figs. 32, 33, and
34 (PI. VI) represent the three
normal gaits of the horse.
One can easily follow the succession of attitudes during the advance of
the animal. The sequence of time is from above downward, A dis-
puted question of animal mechanics was whether a cat turns over in
falling, and, if so, how she does it without any application of external
force. Experiment has proved that, asa fact, she does so, thus enabling
mechanicians to correct a current error of classical treatises.

‘
‘ rererrrertt tte eee ee Pe eee eee mee eeee

ween ecenesenenee a eegperacereweteresedebacssessrer po seaeeree a

Fig. 31.

Fie. 35.

Locomotion in water has also been studied by film photography.
These photographs are brought together in order to facilitate the com-
parison of them. The locomotion of the eel (fig. 85) shows the pro-
gression of undulations of the body of the animal from head to tail.
Lines are drawn to show the direction of motion and the advance of
the animal.

334 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

In certain fish the undulations take place in the lateral fins. The
ray (fig. 36, Pl. VII) is shown in side view, swimming without advane-
ing, its progress being impeded. The same fish seen from the front
has motions which strongly recall those of a flying bird.

Locomotion in the air.—Not only the flight of birds, but that of
insects, studied by chronophotography, shows the details of its
mechanism. ‘The extreme rapidity of these motions—several hundred
per second—requires extremely short exposures. To avoid any defect
of sharpness due to the velocity of the wing, the writer has reduced
the duration of the flash to less than one twenty-thousandth of a second.
Only isolated photographs have been obtained, but even these are
highly instructive. Fig. 37 (Pl. VI) is a motionless crane-fly; fig. 38
(Pl. VIT) shows it in flight. The torsion of the wing under the resist-
ance of the air, a phenomenon which theory had predicted, and which
explains the mechanism of insect flight, is shown in the picture.

Functional motions.—Independently of acts of locomotion, the dif-
ferent parts of the body execute various movements, the observation
of which is in some cases excessively difficult. In speech and in mas-
tication the lower jaw takes displacements that one would not have
anticipated. The ribs, in respiration, rise and separate in a way that
was of old unknown. In certain joints the bones move about a fixed
center, while in others there is a rolling motion of the condyles over
the surface in contact with them. Chronophotography on the dead-
black background gives a drawing to scale of all these motions.
Bright lines or points fixed to the organ under examination interpret
the trajectory upon the photographic plate.

Thus the motions of the lower jaw in the act of opening the mouth
are represented (fig. 39, Pl. VIII) by those of a rod bent at an angle
and forced to move with the jaw. It will be seen that the motion is
not a rotation round the joint, but takes place about instantaneous
centers in the upright branch, while the condyle itself slides over the
surface of the glenoid cavity, which is convex downward.

In respiration bright points fixed upon the ribs are displaced with
the latter and interpret the motions of the rising ribs on a circular are.

The heart of an animal, laid bare and brilliantly illuminated, gives on
the moving film the succession of systole and diastole of its auricles and
ventricles. The motions of the eyes themselves have been studied at
the physiological station by M. Orchansky. He has chronophoto-
graphed the dotted trajectory of the eyes in reading, and in this motion
has been able to distinguish the components, due respectively to the
ocular muscles and to the displacements of the head.

Motions of the air in the utterance of the vowels.—The eminent phys-
icist, R. Koenig, conceived the idea of making the sonorous vibrations

ie to instruments or to the voice act upon capsules with membranous

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE VII.

Fig. 38.

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF RAY AND CRANE-FLY.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE VIII.

Fig. 40.

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF JAW MOVEMENT, AND OF AIR MOTION IN VOWEL SOUNDS

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. ooD

walls placed on little gas-burners. These ‘‘manometric flames ”
vibrate in unison with the sonorous waves. Their images, dissociated
in a revolving mirror, appear with indented mantling of various forms,
according to the sound. but this fugitive phenomenon could not be
fixed by photography until M. Marage, who has charge of the acoustic
work at the Physiological Station, rendered the flames photogenic by
substituting acetylene for ordinary illuminating gas. He has taken
the photographs by chronophotography on a ribbon of sensitized paper
having a translation of 2 meters per second (100 feet in 0.254 minute).
Fig. 40 (PI. VIII), shows the vibrations of the air for the French vow-
els 7, wu, ou, &, 0, a. At the same time as the vibrations of the vowels,
those of a special burner acted on by a tuning fork of 45 V. D. are
photographed also, so as to determine the pitch.

Representations of motions in scale pictures conformed to separate
photographs.—The impressions by chronophotographs on a moving
film, complete as they are, are hard to utilize, on account of the diffi-
culty of comparing the separate photographs. In some cases this com-
parison can be facilitated by bringing the photographs together. But
it would be more satisfactory to be able to arrange them, each in its
place, on a single picture to scale. The writer has accomplished this
by means of successive projections and counter proofs on the same
sheet of paper.

Let a gymnast throw a weight. (This is chronophotographed on a
ribbon.) Let us project the first photograph and carefully counter-
prove the form of the body.*

After this first projection, let us project the second photograph upon
the same sheet, and then a third, taking care to preserve the registry
exact by fixed points which we have chosen. (That is, the horizontal
line and object 7 will have been sharply drawn on the back of the
drawing paper; and in making subsequent projections care is taken to
have that line and object fall upon precisely the same places.) We
shall thus have obtained a series of counter-proofs representing the
successive attitudes of the gymnast. Fig. 41 has been constructed in
this way. It affords complete information as to the extent and velocity
of each of the motions represented.

In this case only every third photograph has been drawn, in order
to avoid confusion in the picture to scale; but while reducing the num-

“I suppose he means that the perverted negative is projected, or in some way that
the projection is perverted, and that the projection is made on a board. This pro-
- jection must show the fixed object r (at the left of the horizontal line), which, with
the horizontal line, is photographed from nature in all the photographs. Heattaches,
I suppose, to the board a sheet of carbon paper, and over it a sheet of drawing paper,
face down. The projection appears on the back of the latter, and he marks with an
agate stylus the outlines of the gymnast’s body, the horizontal Jine, and the object r.
These outlines are thus drawn correctly on the face of the drawing paper. That is
how | understand his description. —TRANSLATOR.

336 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

ber of images of the athlete we might show all the successive positions
of the weight, which would then have been very numerous. The series
of these positions would have given the law of the motion impressed

mee tree nie etemeeernmalaernme so

Fie. 41.

on the projectile, and the acceleration would have given in its turn the
measure of the forces developed by the gymnast at each instant.

We can even push the analysis of muscular action so far as to give,
in the successive pictures to scale, the positions of the skeleton within

the subject, with the phases of extension and contraction of the prin-
cipal muscles, whose insertions upon the skeleton are, of course,
known. Fig. 42 contains such details.

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 337

This last application of chronophotography is sometimes somewhat
laborious. It is only mentioned to show the extreme power of the
method and the multiplicity of its applications.

In closing it may be added that since the exhibition new applications
of chronophotography have been made at the physiological station,
which promise the experimental solution of certain problems hitherto
looked upon as insoluble.

{Subsequent notes by Dr. Marey, translated from the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences,
Vol. CX XXII, p. 1291, meeting of June 3, 1901.]

Since the communication which I had the honor to make to the
Academy on the 27th of May, 1900, I have seen that my apparatus
needed to be entirely reconstructed in a better form, but the resources
of my own laboratory did not permit it.

Our correspondent, Mr. Langley, who is interested in these studies,
obtained from the Smithsonian Institution, whose Secretary he is, a
subsidy which has permitted me to resume my experiments, and to
present to the Academy these new results. I have also awaited the
result of the remarkable experiments of Professor Hele-Shaw, and it
has seemed to me desirable to bring together these two kinds of
research, which have a common purpose, that of fixing by means of
permanent images phenomena which escape direct observation.

Besides this, since my last communication I have learned of the
labors of Mr. L. Mach, which are so closely related to my own that
I notice them in giving the history of the new methods which seem
destined to numerous applications.

It was on the 11th of March, 1893, that I had the honor of present-
ing to the Academy my first experiments, made by means of chrono-
photography, on liquid waves or movements of the internal molecules
of these waves, and also of the changes of speed and direction in cur-
rents which meet bodies of diverse forms. After Mr. Mach’s com-
munication of his experiments on the behavior of a current of air
under analogous circumstances, he developed this research in a later
communication on the use of an inhaling turbine, passing a steady
current of air into a quadrangular prismatic tube, whose section was
18 by 24cm. The face of this tube, turned toward the observer, was
formed of transparent glass; the opposite face was blackened to form
a dark chamber, and an are lamp projected its light into the interior
of the tube.

Mr. Mach placed bodies of different forms and made of transparent
substances in the air current, and took different ways to render the
movements of the air in the vicinity of the bodies visible. Sometimes
he projected light bits of paper or silk in the air current sometimes
fine dust, sometimes smoke, and sometimes he hung flexible siik

sm 1901——22

338 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

threads, which the current moved along; while sometimes he explored
the direction of the air movements by means of little gas flames, which
he applied at. different points of the bodies that were in the tube. But
the method which gave him the best results was that of Schlieren,
which consists of rendering visible the movements of very small streams
of air by changing the index of refraction, which is done by sending a
current of hot air into a colder current. The small streams or threads,
which are warmed, then show either clearer or darker than the sur-
rounding air, and the magnesium flash light permits us to photograph
the phenomenon.

Mr. Mach’s experiments have given results quite conformable to
those which I obtained in the movements of liquids under similar cir-
cumstances. So, for instance, on meeting the bodies the air current
divides and re-forms behind them without producing many whirlpools,
and when the plane is inclined under different angles and solids of
different forms these disturb the air as if it were water. Mr. Mach
measured the speed of his air currents by means of an anemometer,
regulating the indications of the instrument by an acoustic method
devised by his father, Prof. E. Mach. The vibration caused by a
Koenig flame introduced into the air current gives the appearance of
a cluster of little clouds, which move on while keeping their respec-
tive distance, and as the latter correspond to known intervals of time
they enable one to measure the speed of the current.

Mr. Mach noticed a lack of fixity in the direction of air currents,
which showed continual oscillations, and he attributes these movements
to changes in the aerodynamic pressure.

These studies were not known to me when I presented to the Acad-
emy the result of experiments where I had studied the action of differ-
ent bodies in an air current placed in conditions identical to those
which I had studied with the liquid currents. To follow the move-
ments of the air, I used smoke threads, which, drawn along with the
air by the action of ventilators, entered with it and at the same speed
into the glass tube. The air and smoke were filtrated through fine-
meshed cloth and advanced parallel to each other in the interior of the
tube as long as the current met no obstacle.

These experiments, like those of Mr. Mach, have shown that at the
rates employed air and liquids behave in substantially the same way.

At this time Mr. Bertin, an engineer of the Navy, brought me into
correspondence with Mr. Hele-Shaw, of Liverpool, who had been pur-
suing similar experiments in closed chambers for several years. The
clear images given by photographing colored glycerin threads showed
how the incompressibility of liquids affect eddies in an inextensible
space, while the eddies always occur in different degrees behind bodies
immersed in an air current, or even in a liquid current if it is moving
in an open tube.

HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRA PHY. 339

In the construction of my new apparatus the section of the air tube
was increased from 20 to 50 cm. and the number of threads of smoke
from 20 to 58. The filtering cloths were replaced by silk gauzes with
a very small mesh, and I finally introduced into the experiment a
chronographic system which allows us to measure the speed of each
smoke thread in different parts of its course. For this purpose the
system of little tubes which bring the smoke threads which are about
to be aspired is subject to a lateral shake, repeated ten times every
second. An electric vibrator regulates this movement with the above-
named frequency, and under this influence the smoke threads do not
form straight, parallel lines, but sinusoidal curves. These inflections
are preserved during their whole path. In the interior of the tube a
small scale 20 cm. long, in the same plane as the smoke threads, serves
to measure the space traversed by the molecules of air in each tenth
of a second.

Some examples of the results obtained will enable us to appreciate
the progress which has been made in the new construction.

When there is no obstacle offered to the air current the smoke
threads remain rectilinear and parallel. If we place an inclined plane
in the curreat the smoke threads enlarge in meeting it, which indicates
that they lose velocity before following opposite directions. Some
mount toward the upper edge of the plane, others glide upon each
other without mingling and escape by the lower edge. On each side
of the obstacle the smoke threads continue their motion very close
together, leaving behind the inclined plane a space where the air is
motionless, and only givesasmoky cloud. This space where the eddies
or whirlpools occur is larger in proportion as the obstacle to the air
current is larger.

To note the speed of the air current in different parts of its course
we repeat the experiment, subjecting the smoke threads to the above-
mentioned vibrations, and then the threads instead of being rectilinear
present a series of lateral inflections which are preserved during all
their course. These inflections remain equi distant if the speed of the
current is everywhere the same, but if the current speed diminishes
the inflections are closer; if it is rapid, they are more distant from
each other, and the space moved over in a given time is measured by
means of the metric scale.

The figures which we have just seen are observed by a magnesium
flash; that is to say, in so short a time, that each smoke thread seems
immovable. If the light lasted longer the aspect of the figure would
change and give the further condition of the air current as we see it
in fig. 4", where the light produced by the prolonged combustion lasts
about seven seconds.

“This fig."4 corresponds to fig. 29, Pl. v, of the foregoing paper on chronophotog-
raphy, where are also shown other figures here referred to by Doctor Marey.

340 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY.

We can not enumerate all the numerous applications of this method,
since the form and dimensions of the bodies in the air current and the
velocity of this current itself can be varied without end.

I have never observed the ** jumps” noted by Mr. Mach, as making
the current deviate from one side to another. These ‘*jumps” might
possibly be due to the unequal temperature of the moving air. It
may be regarded, I think, as a proof of the precision of my method
that if an experiment is repeated under the same conditions the
observed images are identical and superposable on each other.

I believe I may add that this method will give the mechanical solu-
tion of many problems relating to propelling apparatus, fluids, and
questions of ventilation, ete.

(To Mr. Marey’s interesting article we add two other illustrations
from his own experiments, since received from him by the Smithsonian
Institution. These are numbered @ and }, a@ being a form producing
very little eddy, while 4 (a form not noticeably different) produces a
very great one. These seem to be well calculated to show the impor-
tance and the delicacy of the method. |

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE IX.

AIR CURRENTS PASSING CURVED OBJECT.

eee ke > +a Ga we yr *

THE AIMS OF THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY
OF GREAT BRITAIN.?

By R. T. Guazesroog, F. RB. S.,

Director of the National Physical Laboratory.”

A speaker who is privileged to deliver an experimental lecture from
this place is usually able to announce some brilliant discovery of his
own, or at least to illustrate his words by some striking experiment.
To-night it is not in my power to do this, and I am thereby at a dis-
advantage. Still, I value highly this opportunity which has been
given me of making known to this audience the aims and purpose of
the National Laboratory.

The idea of a physical laboratory in which problems bearing at once
on science and industry might be solved is comparatively new. The
Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, founded in Berlin by the joint
labors of Werner von Siemens and von Helmholtz during the years
1883-1887, was, perhaps, the first. It is less than ten years since Dr.
Lodge, in his address to Section A of the British association, outlined
the scheme of work for such an institution here in England.

Nothing came of this. A committee met and discussed plans, but it
was felt to be hopeless to approach the Government, and without
Government aid there were no funds. Four years later, however, the
late Sir Douglas Galton took the matter up. In his address to the
British association in 1895, and again in a paper read before Section A,
he called attention to the work done for Germany by the Reichsanstalt,
and to the crying need for a similar institution in England. The result
of this presidential pronouncement was the formation of a committee
which reported at Liverpool, giving a rough outline of a possible
scheme of organization.

* Reprinted, by permission, from Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LX, December,
1901.

» A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution. See also article by Henry 8S.
Carhart in the Smithsonian Report for 1900 giving a description of the Physikalisch-
technische Reichsanstalt with several illustrations omitted from the present paper.—
Epitor.

341

342 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

A petition to Lord Salisbury followed, and as a consequence a
treasury committee, with Lord Rayleigh in the chair, was appointed to
consider the desirability of establishing a national physical laboratory.
‘The committee examined over thirty witnesses, and then reported
unanimously, ‘* That a public institution should be founded for stand-
ardizing and verifying instruments, for testing materials, and for the
determination of physical constants.” It is natural to turn to .the
words of those who were instrumental in securing the appointment of
this committee and to the evidence it received in any endeavor to dis-
cuss its aims. As was fitting, Sir Douglas Galton was the first wit-
ness to be called. It is a source of sorrow to his many friends that
he has not lived to see the laboratory completed. ‘

And here I may refer to another serious loss which in the last few
days this laboratory has sustained. Sir Courtenay Boyle was a mem-
ber of Lord Rayleigh’s committee, and as such was convinced of the
need for the laboratory and of the importance of the work it could do.
He took an active part in its organization, sparing neither time nor
trouble; he intended that it should be a great institution, and he had
the will and the power to help. The country is the poorer by his
sudden death.

Let me now quote some of Sir Douglas Galton’s evidence:

Formerly our progress in machinery was due to accuracy of measure-
ment, and that was a class of work which could be done, as Whitworth
showed, by an educated eye and educated touch. But as we advance
in the applications of science to industry we require accuracy to be
carried into matters which can not be so measured. In the more
delicate researches which the physical, chemical, and electrical student
undertakes he requires a ready means of access to standards to enable
him to compare his own work with that of others.

Or again:

My view is that if Great Britain is to claim its industrial supremacy,
we must have accurate standards available to our research students
and to our manufacturers. I am certain that if you had them our
manufacturers would gradually become very much more qualified for
advancing our manufacturing industry than they are now. But it is
also certain that you can not separate some research from a standard-
izing department.

Then after a description of the Reichsanstalt he continues:

What I would advocate would be an extension of Kew in the
direction of the second division of the Reichsanstalt, with such auxil-
iary research in the establishment of itself as may be found necessary.

The second division is the one which takes charge of technical and
industrial questions.

Professor Lodge again gave a very valuable summary of work which
ought to be done. Put briefly it was this:

1. Pioneer work.

2. Verification work.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 343

3. Systematic measurements and examinations of the properties of
substances under all conditions.

4. The precise determination of physical constants.

5. Observational work, testing instruments.

6. Constructional work (gratings, optical glass).

7. Designing new and more perfect instruments.

Such were the views of those who took a prominent part in the
founding of the institution.

It is now realized, at any rate by the more enlightened of our leaders
of industry, that science can help them. This fact, however, has been
grasped by too few in England; our rivals in Germany and America
know it well, and the first aim of the laboratory is to bring its truth
home to all, to assist in promoting a union which is certainly necessary
if England is to retain her supremacy in trade and in manufacture, to
make the forces of science available for the nation, to break down by
every possible means the barrier between theory and practice, and
to point out plainly the plan which must be followed, unless we are
prepared to see our rivals take our place.

**Germany,” an American writer,* who has recently made a study of
the subject, has said, ‘*is rapidly moving toward industrial supremacy
in Europe. One of her most potent factors in this notable advance is
the perfected alliance between science and commerce existing in Ger-
many. Science has come to be regarded there asa commercial factor.
If England is losing her supremacy in manufactures and in commerce,
as many claim, it is because of English conservatism and the failure to
utilize to the fullest extent the lessons taught by science, while Ger-
many, once the country of dreamers and theorists, has now become
intensely practical. Science there no longer seeks court and cloister,
but is in open alliance with commerce and industry.” It is our aim to
promote this alliance in England, and for this purpose her National
Physical Laboratory has been founded.

It is hardly necessary to quote chapter and verse for the assertion
that the close connection between science and industry has had a pre-
dominant effect on German trade. If authority is wanted, I would
refer to the history of the anilin dye manufacture, or to take a more
recent case, to the artificial indigo industry in which the success of the
Badiche Company has recently been so marked. The factory at Lud-
wigshaven started thirty-five years ago with 30 men. It now employs
over 6,000, and has on its staff 148 trained scientific chemists. And
now when it is perhaps too late the Indian planters are calling in sci-
entific aid and the Indian government is giving some £3,500 a year to
investigation.

As Professor Armstrong, in a recent letter to the Times, says: ‘* The
truly serious side of the matter, however, is not the prospective loss

UProi. HH. S. Carhart,

344 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

of the entire indigo industry so much as the fact that an achievement
such as that of the Badiche Company seems past praying for here.”
Or, to take another instance, scientific visitors to the Paris Exhibi-
tion last year must have been struck by the German exhibit of appa-
ratus. German instrument makers combined to produce a joint
exhibit; a strong committee was formed. Under the skillful editor-
ship of Dr. Lindeck, of the Reichsanstalt, a catalogue was compiled, in
which, by a judicious arrangement of cross references, it was easily
possible to find either the exhibit of a particular firm or the apparatus
of a particular class. This was printed in German, English, and
French, and issued freely to visitors. Dr. Drosten, the representa-
tive of the exhibitors in charge, or one of his assistants, was ever ready
to give information and advice. To one who wished, as I did, to see

ies . s ¢
Gah 2
Spee Mares int Rae be
s Pdetate oe ae MER OMAR SAY usr eens ‘

Sees ere
« mn race
@ e wera =

Mem anaey opine info

Plan of grounds.

the most modern forms of German apparatus, the exhibit was a very
reall hep. 2c
_ And now having stated in general terms the aims of the laboratory
and given some account of the progress in general, let me pass to some
description of the means which have been placed at our disposal to
realize those aims. I here wish, if time permits, to discuss in fuller
detail some of the work which, it is hoped, we may take up imme-
diately.

The laboratory is to be at Bushy House, Teddington. 1 will pass
over the events which led to this change of site from the old Deer Park
at Richmond to Bushy. It is suflicient to say that at present Kew

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Glazebrook. Plate |.

BUSHY House, EAST FRONT.

BUSHY House, SOUTH FRONT.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 8345

Observatory in the Deer Park will remain as the observatory depart-
ment of the laboratory, and most of the important verification and
standardization work, which in the past has been done there, will still
find its home in the old building. The house was originally the official
residence of the ranger of Bushy
Park. Queen Anne granted it in
1710 to the first Lord Halifax. Busty HOUSE
In 1771 it passed to Lord North,
being then probably rebuilt.
Upon the death of Lord North’s
widow, in 1797, the Duke of Clar-
ence, afterwards William IV, be-
came ranger. After his death, in
1837, it was granted to his widow,
Queen Adelaide, who lived here
until 1849. At her death it passed
to the Duc de Nemours, son of
King Louis Philippe, and he re-
sided here at intervals until 1896.
In spite of this somewhat aristo-
cratic history it will make an
admirable laboratory. The build-
ing is very solid and substantial. There is a good basement under the
main central block, with roof of brick groining, which makes a very
steady support for the floor above.

Such is the home of the laboratory. It may be of interest to compare
it with the Reichsanstalt.

The floor space available is
much less than that of the
Reichsanstalt. But sizealone
Oe st oe is not an unmixed advantage;
there is much to be said in
favor of gradual growth and

setae

eer ee

or

Bushy House, ground plan.

Noy A

I was in a position to do the
work thoroughly, but there
isdanger of starvation. Even
with all the help we get in freedom from rent and taxes, outside repairs
and maintenance, the sum at the disposal of the committee is too small.
Fourteen thousand pounds will not build and equip the laboratory.
Four thousand pounds a year will not maintain it as it ought to be

Se mo development, provided the
conditions are such as_ to
ieee : eas ly favor growth. Personally I
BS 3° saa would prefer to begin ina
Some va small way, if only I felt sure

=~ Ss os = 7

Bushy House, basement.

846 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

maintained. Contrast this with the expenditure on the Reichsanstalt*
or with the proposals in America where the bill for the establishment
of a laboratory has just passed, and an expenditure of £60,000 on
building and site and £9,000.a year has been authorized. * * *
Science is not yet regarded as a commercial factor in England. Is
there no one who, realizing the importance of the alliance, will come

{-

Engineering Laboratory, ground plan.

forward with more ample funds to start us on our course with a fair
prospect of success? One real friend has recently told us in print
that the new institution is on such a microscopic scale that its utility
in the present struggle is more than doubtful. Is there no statesman
who can grasp the position and see that, with, say, double the income,
the chances of our. doing a great work would be increased a hundred-

* Capital expenditure on the Reichsanstalt.

DIVISION I.

site the cift of Dr.'Siemens: = - = a2. 2h aes 2 = eee £25, 000
Cast Gt purlings( 5 21) 28 vec Ste neta.) eee aie ey eee eee 34, 275
Bittimestand’ hurnittires oe) 2s eee ce ee Mee ree ae = ee eee 2, 700
Machinery ond instruments: 2— 2 <2 Jc. ee eee eee ee eee 4,100
—— £66,075
DIVISION II.
Site .. 22s Ais 2 Bid, SSAA eS ee Be epee ee ee £18, 600
Buildimgpays Sect A aSe Sea ae ee oe a ee i he ee ees ee 88, 000
Fittingsand furniture." 261422500 Se eee. oh re Bee eee 5, 400
Machinery; and instruments. 5 to eee eee ee amen 23, 550
—— 1385, 550
201, 625
ANNUAL EXPENDITURE.
Salaries and wages. : = (2-2 {J/i.eeiS Ase ce oe ee ee eee £10, 300
Maintenance of buildings, apparatis, ete... 42.2 ee eeeee eee ee 6, 350
16, 650

See description, with illustrations of the Reichsanstalt, by Henry 8. Carhart, printed
in the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 403-415.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN, 347

fold? The problems we have to solve are hard enough; give us means
to employ the best men and we will answer them; starve us and then
yjuote our failure as showing the uselessness of science applied to
industry. There is some justice in the criticism of one of our technical

= 1
ee gat Fates , Ss ¢ ,
SaDahah DAAC TSO ALURN By rags Bt . a s hi oe
“Dect Mocs: : : : : : La ; ;

We

Engineering Laboratory, elevations and Sections.
papers. I have recently been advertising for assistants, and a paper
in whose columns the advertisement appears writes:

**The scale of pay is certainly not extravagant, It is, however, pos-
sible that the duties will be correspondingly light.”

I have thus summarized in a brief manner the aims of the labora-
tory and have indicated the

effect which the application eater ea oe “a 2
@eecience to industry has | (4S 1 |
had on one branch of trade | | |!
in Germany. And now let = |_| oBborsnovs 2 |
me illustrate these aims by | MAIN BUILDING OF SECOND OIVIBION ao
a more detailed account of . & :
some of the problems of in- F ee i2
dustry which have been g| ve be
solved by the application of — =! : 3
science, and then of some z) ib
others which remain un- j
solved and which the labora- | foe Este ant |
tory hopes to attack. The | 7 omnes |
story of the Jenaglassworks — ! ee: |
is most interesting; we will ey i nea eect seer Pai ae Sahel, ee
MARCH STRASSE .

take it first.

An exhibition of scientific
apparatus took place in London in 1878. Among the visitors to this was
Professor Abbé, of Jena, and ina report he wrote on the optical appara-
tus he called attention to the need for progress in the art of glass making
if the miscroscope were to advance and to the necessity for obtaining

Reichsanstalt, general plan.

348 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

glasses having a different relation between dispersion and refractive
index than that found in the material at the disposal of opticians. Stokes
and Harcourt had already made attempts in this direction, but with no
marked success. In 1881 Abbé and Schott at Jena started their work.
Their undertaking, they write five years later in the first catalogue of
their factory, arose out of a scientific investigation into the connection
between the optical properties of solid amorphous fluxes and their chem-
ical constitution. When they began their work some 6 elements only
entered into the composition of glass. By 1888 it had been found possible
to combine with these in quantities up to about LO per cent 28 different
elements, and the effect of each of these on the refractive index and
dispersion had been measured. Thus, for example, the investigators
found that by the addition of boron the ratio of the length of the
blue end of the spectrum to that of the red was increased; the addition
of fluorine, potassium, or sodium produced the opposite result. Now
in an ordinary achromatic lens of crown and flint, if the total disper-
sion for the two be the same, then for the flint glass the dispersion of
the blue end is greater; that of the red less than for the crown; thus
the image is not white, a secondary spectrum is the result. Abbé
showed, as Stokes and Harcourt had shown earlier, that by combining
a large proportion of boron with the flint its dispersion was made
more nearly the same as that of the crown, while by replacing the
silicates in the crown glass by phospates a still better result was
obtained, and by the use of three glasses three lines of the spectrum
could be combined. The spectrum outstanding was a tertiary one and
much less marked than that due to the original crown and flint glass.
The modern microscope became possible.

The conditions to be satisfied in a photographic lens differ from
those required for a microscope. Von Seidel had shown that with the
ordinary flint and crown glasses the conditions for achromatism and
for flatness of field can not be simultaneously satisfied. To do this we
need a glass of high refractive index and low dispersive power or vice
versa; in ordinary glasses these two properties rise and fall together.
Thus crown glass has a refractive index of 1.518 and a dispersive
power of 0.0166, while for flint the figures are 1.717 and 0.0339. By
introducing barium into the crown glass a change is produced in this
respect. For barium crown the refractive index is greater and the
dispersive power less than for soft crown. With two such glasses,
then, the field can be achromatic and flat. The wonderful results
obtained by Dallmeyer and Ross in this country, by Zeiss and Stein-
heil in Germany, are due to the use of new glasses. They have also
been applied with marked success to the manufacture of the object
glasses of large telescopes.

But the Jena glasses have other uses besides optical. ‘‘About
twenty years ago”—the quotation is from the catalogue of the German

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 349

exhibition—‘‘the manufacture of thermometers had come to a dead
stop in Germany, thermometers being then invested with a defect,
their liability to periodic changes, which seriously endangered German
manufacture. Comprehensive investigations were then carried out
by the Normal Aichungs commission, the Reichsanstalt, and the Jena
glass works, and much labor b- ought the desired reward.” The defect
referred to was the temporary depression of the ice point which takes
place in all thermometers after heating. Let the ice point of a ther-
mometer be observed; then raise the thermometer to say 100° and
again observe the ice point as soon as possible afterwards; it will be
depressed below its previous position; in some instruments of Thu-
ringian glass a depression of as much as 0.65° C. had been noted. For
scientific purposes such an instrument is quite untrustworthy. If it
be kept at say 15° and then immersed in a bath at 30° it will be appre-
ciably different from tha+ which would be given if it were first raised
to say 50°, allowed to cool quickly just below 30°, and then put into
the bath. This was the defect which the investigators set themselves
to cure.

Depression of freezing point for various thermometers.

Degree.
RRR L CH c5,) oe et ree ee en ene ty es ee he Ne ie ae ee 0. 06
A TT Eres “TSN SI a are ee a ae a a en age ana .38
5 Ln ARR TOS TSS Ra ec Ce in I Ea ne ne OOS = .44
LT SRE SIAR Big SSIS lea 2 cr GE pret ae ee a . 65
ELIS 5 2A Re A ae OB eee Bee oe ee eee See en ee 15
alt BE e See Sek ee amd Seep ea Se sk ene ree ee eee ee ge ee .08
a er ee eS Soe eee SS rad eee te oe . 05
ne tee et eer | It eek eee Se oe ek Sans ee ok tees . 02

Analysis of glasses.

SiO, Na,O CaO Al,O; ZnO B,O,
167’— 67.5 14 7 2.5 7 2

59”/—72 11 5 12
Weber had found in 1883 that glasses which contain a mixture of
soda and potash give a very large depression. He made in 1883 a
glass free from soda with a depression of 0.1°.. The work was then
taken up by the Aichungs commission, the Reichsanstalt, and the
Jena factory. Weber’s results were confirmed. An old thermometer
of Humboldt’s containing 0.86 per cent of soda and 20 per cent of potash
had a depression of 0.06°, while a new instrument, in which the per-
centages were 12.7 per cent and 10.6 per cent, respectively, had a
depression of 0.65°. An English standard, with 1.5 per cent of soda,
12.3 per cent of potash, gave a depression of 0.15°, while a French
**Ver Deer” instrument in which these proportions were reversed gave
only 0.8°. It remained to manufacture a glass which should havea
low depression and at the same time other satisfactory properties. The
now well-known glass 16’’’ is the result. Its composition is shown in

350 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

the table. The fact that there was an appreciable difference between
the scale of the 16’ glass and that of the air thermometer led to
further investigation, and another glass, a borosilicate, containing 12
per cent of boron, was the consequence. This glass has a still smaller
depression. As a result of this work Germany can now claim that
‘*the manufacture of thermometers has reached in Germany an unprec-
edented level and now governs the markets of the world.”

Previous to 1888 Germany imported optical glass; at that date
nearly all the glass required was of home manufacture. Very shortly
afterwards an export trade in raw glass began, which in 1898 was
worth £30,000 per annum, while the value of optical instruments, such
as telescopes, field glasses, and the like, exported that year was over
£250,000. Such are the results of the application of science—i. e.,
organized common sense—to a great industry. The National Physical
Laboratory aims at doing the like for England.

The question of standardization of patterns and designs is probably
too Jarge a one to go into on the present occasion. Some months agoa
most interesting discussion of the subject took place at the Institution
of Electrical Engineers. To my mind there is no doubt that the
judicious adoption of standard types combined with readiness to scrap
old patterns, so soon.as a real advance or improvement is made, is
necessary for progress. One who has been over some good German
workshop or has contrasted a first-class English shop where this is the
practice with an old-fashioned establishment where standardization is
hardly known, can have no hesitation on this question. It has its dis-
advantages, less is left to the originality of the workman and in con-
sequence they lose the power of adaptation to new circumstances and
conditions. The English mechanic is, I believe, greatly superior to the
German, but the scientific organization of the German shops enables
them to compete successfully with the English.

In 1881 the German Association of Mechanics and Opticians was
formed, having for its aim the scientific, technical, and commercial
development of instrument making. The society has its official organ,
the Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde, edited by one of the staff of
the Reichsanstalt. Specialized schools for the training of young
mechanics in the scientific side of their calling have been formed and
now the majority of the leading firms retain in their permanent service
one or more trained mathematicians or physicists. In this way, again,
the importance of science to industry is recognized. I have thus noted
very briefly some of the ways in which science has become identified
with trade in Germany, and have indicated some of the investigations
by which the staff of the Reichsanstalt and others have advanced manu-
factures and commerce.

Let us turn now to the other side, to some of the problems which
remain unsolved, to the work which our laboratory is to do and by

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Glazebrook.

PLATE II,

Fia. 3.—SECTION OF GOOD
RAIL.

Fia. 4.—SECTION OF BAD
RAIL, SHOWING SUR-
FACE TO WHICH FRAC-
TURE WAS DUE.

Fia. 5.—SECTION OF RAIL
AFTER ROLLING.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 351

doing wnich it will realize the aims of its founders. The microscopic
examination of metals was begun by Sorby in 1864. Since that date
many distinguished experimenters, Andrews, Arnold, Ewing, Martens,
Osmond, Roberts-Austen, Stead, and others have added much to our
knowledge. 1am indebted to Sir W. Roberts-Austen for the slides
which I am about to show you to illustrate some of the points arrived at.
Professor Ewing, a year ago, laid before the Royal Institution the results
of the experiment of Mr. Rosenhain and himself. This microscopic
work has revealed to us the fact that steel must be regarded as a crys-
tallized igneous rock. Moreover, it is capable at temperatures far
below its melting point of altering its structure completely, and its
mechanical and magnetic properties are intimately related to its
structure. The chemical constitution of the steel may be unaltered, the
amounts of carbon, silicon, manganese, etc., in the different forms
remain the same, but the structure changes, and with it the properties
of the steel. Figure 1 on Plate II] represents sections of the same
steel polished and etched after various treatments. “

The steel is a highly carbonized form, containing 1.5 per cent of
carbon. If it be cooled down from the liquid state, the temperature
being read by the deflexion of a galvanometer needle in circuit with a
thermopile, the galvanometer shows a slowly falling temperature till
we reach 1,380° C., when solidification takes place. The changes which
now go on take place in solid metal. After a time the temperature
again falls until we reach 680°, when there is an evolution of heat; had
the steel been free from carbon there would have been evolution of
heat at 895° and again at 766°. Now throughout the cooling molecular
changes are going on in the steel. By quenching the steel suddenly at
any given temperature we can check the change and examine micro-
scopically the structure of the steel at the temperature at which it was
checked.

In the figure (Plate II), with the exception of specimen No. 6, the
metal has not been heated above 1,050°, over 300° below its melting
point.

a Specimen.

1. Raised to 1000°. Worked and cooled slowly. Masses of carbide ground work,
bands of iron and carbide, pearlite structure.

2. Raised to 850° and quickly cooled. Masses disappear.

3. Raised to 850° and quenched in water. Arcicular structure. Martensite, hard
steel.

4. Raised to 1,050° and quenched in iced brine. Martensite and Austenite.

5. Same cooled in liquid air to— 243°. Much like martensite.

6. Heated to near melting point, quenched suddenly burnt steel.

7. Heated to 650°—annealed for a long time at this temperature and slowly cooled,
bands of carbide and pearlite.

8. Any specimen except 6 heated to 850°, worked and slowly cooled, giving us the
structure 1.

Very marked changes might haye been produced in 3 by annealing at 140°.

352 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

At temperatures between about 900° and 1,100° the carbon exists in
the form of carbide of iron dissolved in the iron, at a temperature of
890° the iron which can exist in different forms as an allotropic sub-
stance passes from the y form to the # form, and in this form can
not dissolve more than 0.9 per cent of carbon as carbide. Thus at this
temperature a large proportion of the carbon passes out of the solu-
tion. At 680° the remainder of the carbide falls out of the solution as
lamina.

Thus the following temperatures must be noted: 1,380°, melting
point; 1,050°, highest point reached by specimen; 890°, 0.6 per cent
of carbon deposited; 680°, rest of carbide deposited.

To turn now to the details of the photo, the center piece is the
cemented steel as it comes from the furnace after the usual treatment.

These slides are sufficient to cail attention to the changes which
occur in solid iron, changes whose importance is now beginning to be
realized. On viewing them it is a natural question to ask how all the
other properties of iron are related to its structure; can we by special
treatment produce a steel more suited to the shipbuilder, the railway
engineer, or the dynamo maker than any he now possesses?

These marked effects are connected with variations in the condition
of the carbon in the iron; can equally or possibly more marked
changes be produced by the introduction of some other elements?
Guillaume’s nickel steel with its small coefficient of expansion appears
to have a future for many purposes; can it by some modification be
made still more useful to the engineer?

We owe much to the work of the alloys research committee of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Their distinguished chairman
takes the view that the work of that committee has only begun and
that there is scope for research for a long time to come at the National
Physical Laboratory, and the executive committee have accepted this
view by naming as one of the first subjects to be investigated the con-
nection between the magnetic quality and the physical, chemical, and
electrical properties of iron and its alloys with a view specially to
the determination of the conditions for low hysteresis and nonaging
properties.

At any rate we may trust that the condition of affairs mentioned by
Mr. Hadfield in his evidence before Lord Rayleigh’s commission,
which led a user of English steel to specify that before the steel could
be accepted it must be stamped at the Reichsanstalt, will no longer
exist.

The subject of wind pressure again is one which has occupied the
committee’s attention to some extent. ;

The Board of Trade rules require for bridges and similar structures
(1) that a maximum pressure of 56 pounds per square foot be pro-
vided for, (2) that the effective surface on which the wind acts should

Se ,

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. ao

be assumed as from once to twice the area of the front surface accord-
ing to the extent of the openings in the lattice girders, (3) that a
factor of safety of 4 for the iron work and of 2 for the whole bridge
overturning be assumed. These recommendations were not based on
any special experiments. The question had been investigated in part
by the late Sir Wm. Siemens.

During the construction of the Forth Bridge Sir B. Baker con-
ducted a series of observations.

Table II.

b Small fixed gauge. Large fixed gauge.
Revolving gauge, |_ pie CRED : 2 LR eee 2 B eee BPE.
EERE WIESE Easterly. Westerly. Easterly. | Westerly.
W. Weal W. Wie W. W. |
Oto 5 3.09 3.47 2.92. | 2.04 | Nae Ol
5 to 10 7.58 4.8 Gaul 3.54 4.75
10 to 15 12.4 6, 27 13. 2 4,55 | 8. 26
15 to 20 17.06 | 7.4 17.9 5.5 | 12. 66
20to25 21.0 | 12.25 22.75 8.6 19
PELE. thc O > 1K iererarctchete'sisiwic oh LOCO, all erelcetets iso e Seataee 18.25
BUSOROON GeO ths ssalereals osteo ee Bono yp, | teeictie cee rose 21.5
Above GOO | iteecccteca cantatas BDO ce eerste pit ee ee 35, 25
(One obserya- | |
CLO) OD y,
above 82.5).

The results of the first two years’ observations are shown in Table
II, taken from a paper read at the British Association in 1884. Three
gauges were used. In No. 1 the surface on which the wind acted was
about 13 square feet in area; it was swiveled so as always to be at
right angles to the wind. In No. 2 the area of surface acted on was of
the same size, but was fixed with its plane north and south. No.3 was
also fixed in the same direction, but it had 200 times the area, its sur-
face being 300 square feet.

In preparing the table the mean of all the readings of the revolving
gauge between 0 and 5, 5 and 10, etc., pounds per square foot have
been taken and the mean of the corresponding readings of the small
fixed gauge and the large fixed gauge set opposite, these being arranged
for easterly and westerly winds.

Two points are to be noticed: (1) There is only one reading of over
32.5 pounds registered, and this it is practically certain is due to faulty
action in the gauge. Sir B. Baker has kindly shown me some further
records with a small gauge.

According to these, pressures of over 50 pounds haye been registered
on three occasions since 1886. On two other occasions the pressures
as registered reached from 40 to 50 pounds per square foot. But the
table, it will be seen, enables us to compare the pressure on a small
area with the average pressure on a large area, and it is clear that
in all cases the pressure per square foot as given by the large area is
much less than that deduced from the simultaneous observations on
the small area.

sm 1901

23

354 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The large gauge became unsafe in 1896 and was removed, but the
observations for the previous ten years entirely confirm this result, the
importance of which is obvious. The same result may be deduced
from the Tower Bridge observations. Power is required to raise the
great bascules, and the power needed depends on the direction of the
wind. From observations on the power some estimate of the average
wind pressure on the surface may be obtained, and this is found to be
less than the pressure registered by the small wind gauges.

Nor is the result surprising when the matter is looked at as an hydro-
dynamical problem—the wind blows in gusts—the lines of flow near a
small obstacle will differ from those near a large one; the distribution
of pressure over the large area will not be uniform. Sir W. Siemens
is said to have found places of negative pressure near such an obstacle.
As Sir J. Wolfe Barry has pointed out, if the average of 56 pounds to
the square foot is excessive, then the cost and difficulty of erection of
large engineering works is being unnecessarily increased. Here isa
problem well worthy of attention and about which but little is known.
The same, too, may be said about the second of the Board of Trade
rules. What is the effective surface over which the pressure is exerted
ona bridge? On this again our information is but scanty. Sir B.
Baker’s experiments for the Forth Bridge led him to adopt as his rule
double the plane surface exposed to the wind and deduct 50 per cent
in the case of tubes. On this point, again, further experiments are
needed.

To turn from engineering to physics. In metrology as in many
other branches of science difficulties connected with the measurement
of temperature are of the first importance.

I was asked some little time since to state to a very high order of
exactness the relation between the yard and the meter. I could not
give the number of figures required. The meter is defined at the
freezing point of water, the yard at a temperature of 62° F. Whena
yardand a meter scale are compared they are usually at about the same
temperature; the difficulty of the comparison is enormously increased
if there be a temperature difference of 30° F. between the two scales.
Hence we require to know the temperature coeflicients of the two
standards. But that of the standard yard is not known; it is doubtful,
1 believe, if the composition of the alloy of which it is made is known,
and in consequence Mr. Chaney has mentioned the determination of
coeflicients of expansion as one of the investigations which it is desir-
able that the Laboratory should undertake.

Or, again, take thermometry. The standard scale of temperature is
that of the hydrogen thermometer; the scale in practical use in
England is the mercury in flint-glass scale of the Kew standard ther-
mometers. It is obvious that it is of importance to science that the
difference between the scales should be known, and various attempts
have been made to compare them,

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. oo

But the results of no two series of observations which have been
made agree satisfactorily. The variations arise probably in great
measure from the fact that the English glass thermometer as ordina-
rily made and used is incapable of the accuracy now demanded for
scientific investigation. The temporary depression of the freezing
point already alluded to in discussing the Jena glass is too large; it
may amount to three to four tenths of a degree when the thermometer
is raised 100°. Thus the results of any given comparison depend too
much on the immediate past history of the thermometer employed,
and it is almost hopeless to construct a table accurate, say, to 0.01,
which will give the difference between the Kew standard and the
hydrogen scale, and so enable the results of former works in which
English thermometers were used to be expressed in standard degrees.

Values of corrections to the English glass-thermometer scale to give temperatures on the gas-
thermometer scale found by various observers.

Temp. Rowland. Guillaume. Wiebe.
° ° ie)

0 0 0 0
10 — .03 — .009 + .03
20 — .05 — .009 + .00
30 — .06 — .QO2 +- .O2
40 — .07 + .007 +- .09
50 5 07 ONG Beg
60 2 0G + O14

70 — .04 + .028

80 -—— 02 1 .026

90 — .01 + .O17

100 0 )

This is illustrated by giving the differences as found (1) by Rowland,
(2) by Guillaume, (3) by Wiebe, between a Kew thermometer and the
air thermometer. It is clearly important to establish in England a
mercury scale of temperatures which shall be comparable with the
hydrogen scale, and it is desirable to determine, as nearly as may be,
the relation between this and the existing Kew scale.

lam glad to say that in this endeavor we have secured the valuable
cooperation of Mr. Powell, of the Whitefriars works, and that the
first specimens of glass he has submitted to us bid fair to compare
well with the 16”’. Another branch of thermometry at which there
is much to do is the measurement of high temperature. Professor
Callendar has explained here the principles of the resistance ther-
mometer, due first to Sir W. Siemens. Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen
has shown how the thermopile of Le Chatellier may be used for the
measurement of high temperatures. There is a great work left for
the man who can introduce these or similar instruments to the manu-
factory and the forge, or who can improve them in such a manner as
to render their uses more simple and more sure; besides, at tempera-
tures much over 1,000° C. the glaze on the porcelain tube of the

356 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.

pyrometer gives way, the furnace gases get into the wire and are
absorbed, and the indications become untrustworthy. We hope it may
be possible to utilize the silica tubes, shown here by Mr. Shenstone a
short time since, in a manner which will help us to overcome some of
these difficulties. Here is another subject of investigation for which
there is ample scope.

So far we have discussed new work, but there is much to be done in
extending a class of work which has gone on quietly and without much
show for many years at the Kew Observatory.

Thermometers and barometers, wind gauges and other meteorolog-
ical apparatus, watches and chronometers, and many other instru-
ments are tested there in great numbers, and the value of the work is
undoubted. The competition among the best makers for the first
place, the best watch of the year, is most striking, and affords ample
testimony to the importance of the work. Work of this class we pro-
pose to extend.

Thus, there is no place where pressure gauges or steam indicators
can be tested. It is intended to take up this work, and for this purpose
amercury-pressure column is being erected. Bushy House, from base-
ment to eaves, is about 55 feet in height. We hope to have a column of
about 50 feet in height, giving a pressure of about 20 atmospheres; it
is too little, but it is all we can do with our present building. The
necessary pumps are being fitted to give the pressure, and we shall
have a lift set up along the column so that the observer can easily read
the height of the mercury.

This column will serve to graduate our standard gauges up to 20
atmospheres; above that we may for the present have recourse to some
nultiplying device. A very beautiful one is used at the Reichsanstalt
and by Messrs Schaffer and Budenberg, but we are told we must
improve on this.

Again, there are the ordinary gauges in use in nearly every engi-
neering shop. These in the first instance have probably come from
Whitworth’s, or nowadays, I fear, from Messrs. Pratt & Whitney or
Brown & Sharp, of America. They were probably very accurate when
new, but they wear, and it is only in comparatively few large shops
that means exist for measuring the error and for determining whether
the gauge ought to be rejected or not.

Hence arise difficulties of all kinds. Standardization of work is
impossible. The new screw sent out to South Africa to replace one
damaged in the war will not fit, and the gun is useless. A long range
of steam piping is wanted; the best angle pieces and unions are made
by a firm whose screwing tackle differs slightly from that of the fac-
tory where the pipes were ordered. Delays and difficulties of all kinds
occur which ready means for standardization would have avoided.
Here is scope for work if only manufacturers will utilize the oppor-
tunities we hope to give them.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 857

In another direction a wide field is offered in the calibration and
standardization of glass measuring vessels of all kinds—flasks, burettes,
pipettes, etc.—used by chemists and others. At the request of the
board of agriculture we have already arranged for the standardization
of the glass vessels used in the Babcock method of measuring the butter
fat in milk, and ina few months many of these have passed through our
hands. We are now being asked to arrange for testing the apparatus
for the Gerber & Leffman-Beam methods, and this we have promised to
do when we are settled at Bushy. Telescopes, opera glasses, sextants,
and other optical appliances are already tested at Kew, but this work
can and will be extended. Photographic lenses are now examined by
eye; a photographic test will be added, and I trust the whole may be
made more useful to photographers.

I look to the cooperation of the Optical Society to advise how we
may be of service to them in testing spectacles, microscope lenses, and
the like.

The magnetic testing of specimens of iron and steel again offers «
fertile field for inquiry.

If more subjects are needed it is sufficient to turn over the pages of
the evidence given before Lord Rayleigh’s commission or to look to
the reports which have been prepared by various bodies of experts
for the executive committee.

In electrical matters there are questions relating to the fundamental
units on which, in Mr. Trotter’s opinion, we may help the officials of the
board of trade—standards of capacity are wanted; those belonging to
the British Association will be deposited at the laboratory; standards
of electromagnetic induction are desirable; questions continually arise
with regard to new forms of cells other than the standard Clark cell,
and in a host of other ways work could be found. Tests on insulation
resistance were mentioned by Professor Ayrton, who gave the result
of his own experience. He had asked for wire having a certain stand-
ard of insulation resistance. One specimen was eight times as good as
the specification; another had only one one-hundred-thousandth of the
required insulation; a third had about one three-hundredth.

Mr. Appleyard again gave some interesting examples, the examina-
tion of alloys for use for resistance measurements and other purposes,
the testing of various insulating materials, and the like.

I have gone almost too much into detail. It has been my wish to
state in general terms the aims of the laboratory, to make the advance
of physical science more readily available for the needs of the nation,
and then to illustrate the way in which it is intended to attain those
aims. I trust I may have shown that the National Physical Laboratory
is an institution which may deservedly claim the cordial support of all
who are interested in real progress.

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.*

By Prof. Wirt1am Herserr Hosss.

To discover the origin of the diamond in nature we must seek it in
its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form
characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very
soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond
has been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original
home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the
rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from
their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from their
disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock, to be
at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of the
current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India,
Borneo, and the ‘‘ river diggings” of South Africa either have been
or are now in deposits of this character.

The *‘ dry diggings ” of the Kimberly district, in South Africa, afford
the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found inits
original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral has
been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located in
**pans,” in which is found the ‘‘blue ground” now recognized as the
disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These ‘‘ pans” are known to be
the ‘‘ pipes,” or ‘‘necks,” of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected
by the forces of the atmosphere—in fact, worn down if not to their
roots, at least to their stumps. These remnants of the ‘* pipes,”
through which the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by
a black shale containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is
believed to be the material out of which the diamonds have been formed.
What appear to be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed
within the *‘ pipes” afford evidence that portions of the shale have
been broken from the parent beds by the force of the ascending current
of lava—a common enough accompaniment to voleanic action—and have
been profoundly altered by the high temperature and the extreme
hydrostatic pressure under which the mass must have been held. The

“Reprinted from Popular Science Monthly, New York, Vol. LVI, November, 1899,
by permission of D. Appleton & Co., owners of copyright.

309

360 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

most important feature of this alteration has been the recrystalization
of the carbon of the shale into diamond. ;

This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong
support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond
by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold
water until a firm surface crust had formed. The ‘‘chilled” mass was
then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This
it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the nat-
ural expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted
by the strong shell of ‘‘chilled” metal. The isolation of the diamond
was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid.

The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a
rounded crystal, with eight large anda number of minute faces—a
form called by crystallographers a ‘‘modified octahedron.” Their
shapes would be roughly simulated by the pyramids of Egypt if they
could be seen, combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake,
or, better to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage.
It is a peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded
faces, so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but
gently curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly
in some other regions, diamonds are bounded by 4, 12, 24, or even 48
faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the faces of cut
stones, which are the product of the lapidary’s art.

Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kim-
berley mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the
difference that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of
carbon, which may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the
diligent search that has been made for them.

Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and
in Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and
from the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history
have, with hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent
years a number of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa.
One of these, the ‘‘ Excelsior,” weighed 970 carats, which is in excess
even of the supposed weight of the ‘‘Great Mogul.”

Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than
those specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of
the Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Vir-
ginia and Georgia, some 10 or 12 diamonds, which have varied in
weight from those of 2 or 3 carats to the ‘‘ Dewey” diamond, which
when found weighed over 23 carats.

It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the
greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting
problem of origin is being worked out. No less than 7 diamonds,
ranging in size from less than 4 to more than 21 carats, not to men-

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hobbs R@AtiEsI =

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GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION.

—S | CL ST I EI | Sa
Drittless Areas, Olena asker Wewer Drift
Morainee Glacial Striae. Track of Diamonds
Diamond Localities - “se — Eagle 0, Oregon

K Kohisville O,Dowagiac. M. Milford. PPium Crk. 6 Burlington.

We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above illustration.
Reprinted by permission of D. Appleton & Co.

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EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 361

tion a number of smaller stones, have been recently found in the clays
and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such as to
indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their distant
ancestral home.

In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the
method of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map
of the lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been
found, and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geolo-
gists have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the
Glacial period. During this period, not remote as geological time is
reckoned, an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our
continent, and on more than one occasion it invaded for considerable
distances the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been
described discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the
detection of the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is
bringing with it new evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to
a full solution of the problem.

In 1883 the ‘* Eagle Stone” (PI. I1) was brought to Milwaukee and
sold for the nominal sum of $1. When it was submitted to competent
examination the public learned that it was a diamond of 16 carats
weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth
removed from a well opening. Two events which were calculated to
arouse local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real
nature of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice.
The woman who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compen-
sation brought suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in
order to recover its value. This curious litigation, which naturally
aroused a great deal of interest, was finally carried to the supreme
court of the State of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed
down in favor of the defendant, on the ground that he, no less than
the plaintiff, had been ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of
purchasing it. The other event was the ‘‘boom” of the town of
Eagle as a diamond center, which, after the finding of two other dia-
monds with unmistakable marks of African origin upon them, ended
as suddeniy as it had begun, with the effect of temporarily discredit-
ing, in the minds of geologists, the genuineness of the original
ehnd.”

Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than 4 carats weight
‘ame to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon, Wis. (Pl. 11),
and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had been found
by a farmer’s lad while playing in a clay bank near his home. The
investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought out
the fact that a third diamond, and this the largest of all, had been dis-
covered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was still in the
possession of the family on whose property it had been found.

362 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

As these stones were found in the deposits of *‘ drift” which were
left by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had heen
brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals the
additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all these dia-
monds were found in the so-called ‘* kettle moraine.” This moraine or
ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of bowlders,
gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence indicates
the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was then
extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found had
remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming to
the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years,
respectively, it seems most probable that others have been found,
though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless
still to be found in many eases in association with other local ** curios”
on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity of the
‘kettle moraine.” The writer felt warranted in predicting, in 1894,
that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to light in the
‘kettle moraine,” though the great extent of this moraine left little
room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one
point of it.

In the time that has since elapsed, diamonds have been found at the
rate of about one a year, though not, so far as | am aware, in any case
as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville
diamond (PI. III), a beautiful white stone of 6 carats weight, and also
the Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over 2 carats (PI. IIT).
The former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of
the finder before he learned of its value. In Michigan has been found
the Dowagiac stone of about 11 carats weight, and only very recently a
diamond weighing 6 carats and of exceptionally fine ‘* water” has come
to light at Milford, near Cincinnati (Pl. IJ). This augmentation of
the number of localities and the nearness of all to the ‘‘kettle moraines”
leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the
ice at the time of its later invasion of the country.

Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only
the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period
during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what
paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these
inay be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them ina
direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until
we arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its jour-
ney. If wesucceed in this, we shall learn whether they have a common
home, or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely
separated. From the great rarity of diamonds in nature it would seem
that the hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this
view finds confirmation in the fact that certain marks of ‘* consanguin-
ity” have been observed upon the stones already found.

Smithsonian Report, 190!1.—Hobbs PLATE II

Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz.
Five Views oF THE EaGie Diamonp (sixteen carats); enlarged about three diameters.
(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)
We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and Company, for the illus
trations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds. »

Copyright, 1599, by George F. Kunz.

Four Views oF THE OrEGoN DiAmonp; enlarged about three diameters.
(Owned by Tiffany and Company.)

?

oF,
ii?

AE

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 368

Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge
of morainic material which we know as the ‘‘ kettle moraine,” but it
has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a
simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement,
after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock
to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been
overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they are
often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed upon
earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of the scat-
tered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by geologists,
and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps which give
the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice as a whole, as
well as that of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily studied. Recent
studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of the highest
summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance west of
Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake region,
was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From these
points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the
Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached
the margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their
extent. Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread
out in a great fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it
advanced.

The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which
were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their
home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern
corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice
mantle—a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first
approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the
Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the
moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their
common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as the
wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake
Michigan glaciers coalesced m that region. The small stones found at
Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of
their discovery be taken into consideration, still further cireumscribe
the diamond’s home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which
transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and
Lake Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward
than the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves.

If, therefore, it is assumed that aJl the stones which have been
found have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the
ancestral home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the points
where the several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one
another, and the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the

364 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERIOA.

‘‘fan” of their distribution the nearer to the latter must the point be
located.

It is by no means improbable ‘that when the barren territory about
Hudson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond
mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that
individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes
into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports
of entry. Mother nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored
nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed
the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has
unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she
has sowed them. .

The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while per-
haps not limited exclusively to the ‘‘ kettle moraine,” will, as the
events have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine,
with its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the
final retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy
by the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others,
approximately, as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the
territory of the United States the large
number of observations of the rock scor-
ings makes it clear that the ice of each
lobe or glacier moved from the central
portion toward the marginal moraines,
which are here indicated by dotted bands.
In the wilderness of Canada the observa-
tions have been rare, but the few data
which have been gleaned are there represented by arrows pointed in
the direction of ice movement.

There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the
marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which
may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as
scientific value.

The Wisconsin geological and natural history survey is now interest-
ing itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task
of disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who
reside near the ‘‘ kettle moraine.” With the cooperation of a number
of mineralogists who reside near this ‘‘ diamond belt,” it offers to make
examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected.

The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the
cooperation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel
ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look for
diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and
abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones.

The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced per-
sons to discover the buried diamonds, which in the ‘‘ rough” are prob-

Common forms of Quartz Crystals.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hobbs. PLATE Ill.

TuHreE VIEWS OF THE SAUKVILLE D1amMonp (six carats); enlarged about three diameters.
(Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)
We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for the illustra-
tions showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds.

Turee ViEws or A Leap Cast or THE Mitrorp Stone (six carats); enlarged about three
diameters.
We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the University of Cincinnati,
for the above illustrations.

Four Views or tHe Buriincton Diamonp (a little over two carats); enlarged about three
diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.)

EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 365

ably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of the
search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles,
which are everywhere present, but which are entirely valueless. There
are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from
quartz.

Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms, like ordinary
pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by con-
tact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show,
moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some
resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least
degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most fre-
quently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds
have either 12 or 48 faces. Crystals of most minerals are bounded
by plane surfaces—that is to say, their faces are flat; the diamond,
however, is inclosed by distinctly curving
surfaces.

The one property of the diamond, however,
which makes it easy of determination is its
extraordinary hardness—greater than that of
any other mineral. Put in simple language,
the hardness of a substance may be described
as its power to scratch other substances when |
drawn across them under pressure. Tocom- C__
pare the hardness of two substances We common forms of Diamonds.
should draw a sharp point of one across a sur- _—‘The African stones most resem-

ef , ble the figure above at the left
face of the other under a pressure of the (octahedron), The Wisconsin
fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch —_ tones most resemble the figure
‘ above at the right (dodecahe-
is left. The harder substances will always — aron),
scratch the softer, and if both have the same
hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each other. Since
diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which are harder
than emery, they are the only ones which, when drawn across a rough
emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which will not
take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest to
be referred to a competent mineralogist.

The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds
through the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose
of encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering dia-
monds in the little collections of ‘lucky stones” and local curios
which accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When
it is considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in
the region remained for periods of seven, eignt, and sixteen years,
respectively, in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be
doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as
local curiosities without their reat nature being discovered.

366 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.

If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio,
of western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light
would thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral —
home. More important than this, however, is the mapping of the
Canadian wilderness to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay,
in order to determine the direction of ice movement within the region,
so that the tracking of the stones already found may be carried nearer
their home. The director of the geological survey of Canada is giving
attention to this matter, and has also suggested that a study be made
of the material found in association with the diamonds in the moraine,
so that if possible its source may be discovered.

With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and
the collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian —
territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and definitely _
to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries are drawn
closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its ancestral home, —
there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding its genesis
and its life history.

BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.*

By C. Hart Merriam.

A little more than a century ago the icy waters of Bering Sea were
violently disturbed, and, in a tumult of thunder, earthquake, and steam,
a yoleanic island was thrust up from the deep; and again, in the sum-
mer of 1883, the waters were once more conyulsed, and, shrouded in
‘steam and fog, a companion volcano was born.

The advent of the new voleano seems to have escaped observation,
but the terrific disturbances attending the upheaval of Old Bogoslof
were witnessed by native Aleuts and by a Russian named Kriukof,
resident agent of the Russian-American Company at Unalaska, who at
the time chanced to be on the nearest part of the adjacent island of
Umnak.

Kriukof reported that on May 7, 1796, a storm from the northwest
cut off the outlook seaward, but the following day, when the weather
had cleared, a column of smoke was seen, followed by the appearance
of a black object. During the night fire arose in this place, at times
so bright that every object on the island could be clearly distinguished.
An earthquake followed, accompanied by a terrific roaring, which
seemed to come from the mountains to the south, and the rising island
twice hurled stones as far as Umnak, a distance of 30 miles.

In 1806 Langsdorf passed near it at sea, and said of it: *‘The center
point has on every side the appearance of a pillar and seems entirely
perpendicular. On the northwest side are four rounded summits,
which rise one above the other like steps.”

The new island continued to grow, and in 1817 its circumference
was estimated at 24 miles, its height at 350 feet, and for 3 miles
around the sea was covered with floating stones (pumice). By the
Aleuts it was called Agashigok; by the Russians, Joanna Bogoslova,
after St. John the Theologian.

In 1832 it was described by Tebenkof as about 1,500 feet in altitude,
roughly pyramidal in form, the sides covered with sharp crags, which
threatened to fall at any moment. At this date (1832) Tebenkof made

“Abstract by author of article in Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, pp. 291-
336, October, 1901. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. By permission of E. H.
Harriman.

py ile d
367

368 BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.

a rough sketch (fig. 1; originally published in Lutke’s Atlas in 1836),
which, so far as I have been able to ascertain, is the first published
figure of the island; no others appear to have been drawn until 1873,

iit Ay) ie
df Lip hee

ft .
Fic, 1.—Tebenkof s ekerer — eee 280 7 Bove in 1832. From the Bout!

when Dall made six outline sketches from different positions. One of
these, from essentially the same point of view as Tebenkof’s, is here
reproduced for comparison (fig. 2). It shows how the island had

Fr1G. 2.—Dall’s sketch of Bogoslof and Ship Rock in 1873. From the south.

shortened, and how the elevated central peak had weathered and dis-
integrated until it was hardly higher than the northwest end, which
end had suffered most from the inroads of the sea.

: pains
G. 3.—Old Bosonlel from west spit in 1891.

In 1887, according to Greenfield, the northwest peak was crowned
by a slender pinnacle, which, in 1891, the date of my first visit, had
fallen, In the latter year this peak was a huge, bluntly rounded calles

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Merriam PLATE I.

Old Bogoslof.

New Bogoslof.

BOGOSLOF AND CONNECTING SPIT IN 1884.

Photographs by Lieutenant Doty.

BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. 369

lower than the middle peak, and the depression between the two had
become a long, deeply excavated saddle (fig. 3).

The illustrations already given show the island from the side, and
give a false impression of its stability and form. When seen ‘‘end

” it appears as a narrow-crested ridge. It
was described by Dall in 1873 as ‘ta sharp, ser-
rated ridge, about 850 feet in height, very nar- Hs N\
row, the sides meeting above in a very acute Ws
angle, where they are broken into a number of dd iy / N uN
inaccessible pinnacles” (fig. 4). This extreme _ Fic. 4.—End view of Bogoslof
narrowness has, of course, materially hastened — Yom the southeast mn Isr.
the disintegration of the upper part of the
vyoleano. Some idea of the loss between 1873 and 1890 may be had
by comparing Dall’s sketch (fig. 4) with a photograph taken by the
Albatross in 1890 (fig. 5).

When the Harriman expedition visited Bogoslof on the evening of
July 8, 1899, fog rested so heavily on the summit that the form of the

Fig. 5.—Old and New Bogoslof from the southeast in 1890, From photo by U. 8. Fish Commission.

two highest peaks could not be completely made out, but the ‘lowness
of the ridge as a whole, the small size of the northwest peak, and the
depth of the notch separating it from the rest of the mass, told too
plainly of the rapidity with which the destruction is going on and
foreshadowed the eventual downfall of the peaks.

NEW BOGOSLOF OR GREWINGK."

The towering cliffs of Old Bogoslof no longer battle alone with the
angry storms of Bering Sea, for close at hand a new island has risen.
Its birth was not witnessed by human eye; no earthquake shock
marked its advent, and the date of its upheaval may never be known.
It was first seen by Captain Anderson of the schooner Matthew Turner,
on September 27, 1883, and was then in active eruption, throwing out
large masses of heated rock and great volumes of smoke, steam, and
ashes, which came from the apex and from numerous fissures on the
sides and base, some of which were below the surface of the sea.

“Captain Hague event foe the new ae the name ‘‘ New Beeoalae ue fad Dall,
in an article published in Science in January, 1884, proposed that it be named
““Grewingk,’’ in honor of the Russian Grewingk, who, in 1850, published an impor-
tant compilation of the various early accounts relating to Old Bogoslof,

sm 1901 -—— 24

370 BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.

Large rocks were shot high in the air, and falling Lack into the water —
sent forth steam and a hissing sound. After nigutfall, the vessel |
being then about 25 miles to windward, fire was observed on the island. —
A month later (October 27) Captain Hague of the schooner Dora
approached within a mile, passing through a streak of red water and |
then into a streak of green water. He is quoted as saying that black |
smoke, like that from burning tar, was issuing from the volcano; that —
it threw out flame, smoke, and red-hot rocks, and that among the sea
lions observed near by were a number which had been scalded so that —
the hair had come off. He thinks many were killed.

Fic. 6.—New Bogoslof in September and October 1883. Drawn by Prof. George Davidson from
descriptions by Captains Anderson and Hague.

A short time afterwards both captains returned to San Francisco, |
where they communicated their observations to Prof. George David-
son, of the U. S. Coast Survey, who published a brief account in
Science. They approached the island from opposite directions, passed
close to it, and saw it from all sides. They agreed that the new is!and
was larger than the old, from which it was distant about half a mile;
that it rose precipitously from the sea with very steep sides; that
great steam jets poured out around the base; that the summit wis
hidden by fog or clouds of steam, and that its height was somewhere
between 800 and 1,200 feet. From their descriptions Professor Dayid-
son made the accompanying drawing (fig. 6).

UBIO PY WRT AQ YURLEOJOUd

‘LOGI ‘LL 1snony ‘SSONVOIOA JO71SO90g

“|| 3LV1d "WRIUaIW—' 106] ‘Wodey uBiuosy}iWW
WeW—' L061 uy 1S

i.
.
.
e
-

BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. Sy ell

On October 20, 1883, between the visits of Captains Anderson and
Hague, a shower of fine volcanic ashes or dust fell at Unalaska, con-
cerning which the signal observer there reported: ‘“‘At 2.50 p. m. the
air became suddenly darkened like night, and soon after a shower of
mixed sand and water fell for about ten minutes, covering the ground
with a thin layer. The windows were so covered that it was impos-
sible to see through them.” Another eyewitness stated that a remark-
able black cloud appeared in the north and soon overspread the entire
heavens, settling down very low and cutting off the light of the sun.
It finally broke and disappeared in a shower of ashes.

The first landing on the new volcano, so far as known, was made
nine months after its discovery, by the officers of the revenue steamer
Corwin, Capt. M. A. Healy, on May 21, 1884. The report on this
visit, written mainly by Lieut. J. C. Cantwell, states that the height
of the new volcano was about 500 feet; that its upper third was cleft
by a great fissure or crater, the interior of which could not be reached
or seen, owing to the heat, steam, and fumes of sulphur; that steam
issued not only from the crater, but also and with great violence from

Fic. 7.—New Bogoslof from the northwest in 1884. From Lieutenant Cantwell’s sketch “A.’’ On
the right the northwest cliff of Old Bogoslof may be seen.

rents or areas in the sides of the cone; that the numerous steam vents
were lined with thick deposits of sulphur, and the escaping steam was
suffocating; that the voleano was covered with a thin layer of ashes,
the surface of which, from the action of rain, had been converted into
a crust over which the party found great difficulty in climbing, break-
ing through and sinking ankle-deep to knee-deep into an almost impal-
pable dust which rose in clouds and nearly suffocated them.

At this time the old and new volcanoes were connected by a broad
bar or spit (shown in Lieutenant Doty’s photograph, Pl. I, and in
Cantwell’s chart, Pl. III, fig. 1), from which, near the hase of the new
voleano, rose a tower-like rock 87 feet in height. Barnacles and
water-marks on this rock, 20 feet or more above sea level, indicated
recent elevation.

A week after the visit of the Corwin (May 21, 1884) Lieut. George
M. Stoney, of the Navy, arrived at Bogoslof and spent three days in
taking soundings. Many earthquake shocks were felt on the schooner
as it lay at anchor, and Lieutenant Stoney states that once, when
climbing the volcano, ‘‘a most sensible vibration of the whole mass

took place; rumbling sounds and a dull roar, similar to the discharge
of distant cannon, were heard at intervals; and though flames were —
seen only upon two occasions, yet this is believed to have been due to

the little darkness of the season at that latitude.” 3

In September of the following year (1885) the Corwin paid another
visit to the island, and on leaving in the evening witnessed a most
extraordinary spectacle. The summit of the volcano was enveloped
in a bright sulphurous light, which burst from long rifts in its side
and shone out against the black sky in the ee a striking and
impressive display.

In 1890, when seen by the A/batross, the islands were still connected
by the Pel bar or isthmus, and their collective length was estimated
ata mile and a quarter (fig. 8).

The following year, 1891, it was my good fortune to visit the vol-
eano. Returning from the Seal Islands, which we left on the evening
of August 10, on board the A/batross, we made direct for the volcanoes.
The night was densely foggy, as usual in Bering Sea in summer, and

ore BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.

Fic. 8.—The old and new volcanoes in 1890, from the southwest (being N.} E.). From photograph
by U.S. Fish Commission.

the early morning brought no change. The ship was feeling her way
cautiously, with no land in sight, when suddenly, about 7 o’clock, the
fog lifted, and we saw directly ahead, and hardly a mile away, the bold
front of the new volcano. It was with a thrill of excitement that we
saw the precipitous cliffs of the northern end break through the fog,
and heard the fierce rush of escaping steam, whose roar, when the
engines stopped, drowned all other noises, not excepting the cries of
the myriads of sea birds which swarmed ¢ about the rocks like bees about
ahive. A little farther away, and somewhat to the left, Old Bogoslof
soon came into view. The relations of the two are shown in the accom-
panying reproduction of a photograph (Pl. 11) taken by me from the
deck of the steamer. The bar or isthmus which from 1884 to 1890
connected the two islands had disappeared. From Old Bogoslof an
entirely new and very long spit had formed on the west side, and ex-
tended westerly for about a mile, leaving an open channel a quarter of
a mile wide between the two islands (chart, Pl. II], fig. 2).

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Merriam. PLATE Ill.

| MILE

Fig. 1.—Cantwell’s chart in 1554.

(aa

New Bogoslof

_ Old Bogoslof

UMILE

Fig. 3.—Dall’s chart in 1895.

ROUGH CHARTS OF BOGOSLOF ISLANDS, SHOWING POSITIONS OF
BARS IN 1884, 1891, AND 1895.

rice) a a
pare Sse:

fos

aoe fl

BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. ois

The new voleano was enveloped in steam, which issued from thou-
sands of small cracks and crannies and poured in vast clouds from
a few great fissures and crater-like openings, the principal of which

Inf

Ri)

Se

=

Ss

RII) | Gy
Wie ACN A
(CRATES
Oa
\\ ‘ (

\
\ \

We (a
Fg
Mie Sf
Fig. 9.—In the steam, New Bogoslof, August 11, 1891.
was near the northeast corner, only a few feet above high-water
mark. From this opening, the shape of which we could not make
out, the steam rushed with a loud roaring noise. In most places it

Fic. 10.—Northwest corner of New Bogoslof, August 11, 1891.

was impregnated with fumes of sulphur, and deposits of sulphur,
some in very fine needles, were observed along the margins of the
cracks. Most of the rocks were hot, and pools of hot water occurred
along the beach.

374 BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.

Captain Tanner, who had been there the previous year, expressed
surprise at the altered appearances. Not only had the connecting

spit disappeared, but the island had decreased in height at least 1007

feet, and the pinnacle had fallen and was lying in huge masses on the
steep incline.

In 1895 Bogoslof was visited by Becker and Dall, of the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey. They found the activity of the steam vents greatly
diminished and the top of the volcano lowered and flattened. This
flattened plateau-like form has continued, and is excellently shown in

ae ; SS

Fic. 11.—The islands from a little east of north in 1897. From photograph by Dr. L. Stejneger.

the accompanying illustration from a photograph taken by Dr. Leon-
hard Stjeneger in 1897 (fig. 11).

In 1899, when seen by the Harriman expedition, no change was
observed.

SUMMARY.

Accounts of early navigators and traditions of native Aleuts agree
that long before the upheaval of the modern volcanoes a large pillar-
like rock stood in the place now occupied by Bogoslof Islands. The
dwindling remnant of this large rock, known as Ship Rock, whose
position was between the present islands, fell in 1888 or 1889. In
early times it must have been partly surrounded by low rocks or
spits, for it was always a great resort of sea lions, and these animals
do not remain about perpendicular rocks in the open ocean, where there
is no place to land.

In 1796 a voleanie island (Old Bogoslof) was upheaved about half a
mile southeast of Ship Rock. For some years it increased in size and
then slowly cooled, after which it began to weather and disintegrate,
and to be torn away by the sea.

In 1883 a new voleano appeared close to Ship Rock, but on the oppo-
site (northwest) side. Its summit for the first few years was moun-
tainous and irregular, but between 1891 and 1895 it became flattened
and plateau-like.

For six years (1884-1890) Old and New Bogoslof were completely
connected by a broad spit, or isthmus.

BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. , 875

= on the west aie of Old Bogoslof (fig. 12). The date of its
appearance is unknown, but in 1895 no trace of it was left.

“e

4 n

SEAS

Fic. 12.—Old Bogoslof (on left) and part of New Bogoslof (on right) August 11, 1891. Shows east and
west spits of Old Bogoslof.

~ In 1895 a spit of about the same length reached out in an easterly
direction from New Bogoslof, and in 1899 evidence of its presence
was recorded.

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THE ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA DURING
THE YEARS 1897, 1898, AND 1899. *

By Henryk ArctTowskt,
Of the scientific staff of the expedition.

The Belgian Antarctic Expedition, a member of which I had the
honor to be, was the first to winter amid the ice of the South Pole—
the first of the several expeditions whose combined harvest of scien-
tific results is destined to effect a complete revolution in our knowl-
edge of the antarctic regions. The object of the expedition was not
to pass the extreme points reached by Ross and Weddell. We aimed,
on the contrary, at achieving something new—something which might
better meet the requirements of modern geography.

The expedition was a ee undertaking subsidized by the Belgian
Government. The initiative was due to Commander de Gerlache, who,
from 1894 onward, had Sate tiadel a wish to undertake a voyage of
exploration to the South Pole. Early in 1896 the Brussels Geograph-
ical Society, which gave its patronage to the project, organized a
national subscription. Large and small gifts, and a generous grant
from the Government, amounted to $60,000. With this sum a whaling
vessel and scientific apparatus were purchased and the expenses of the
expedition paid.

The elgica was a three-masted bark, 100 feet long, with a dis-
placement of 250 tons, and auxiliary engines of 150 horsepower. The
hull was protected by a casing of hard wood. Aft, on the deck, were
placed the cabins of the officers and of the scientific staff, while in the
fore part, under the bridge, a laboratory was rigged out.

In three essential points the organization of the expedition was
defective. Firstly, there was no written contract as between the staff
and the leader of the expedition, and the functions of the several
members were not sufficiently defined; secondly, no written instruc-
tions were provided either by the Belgian Government or by the Geo-
graphical Society, or by any other Tae ned body; and, thir dly, no
definite programme for the voyage had been drawn up.

“Reprinted in abstract from the Geographical Journal, London, October, 1901.
Illustrations from photographs kindly lent by Dr. F. A. Cook, a member of the
expedition, by whom they were taken. The illustrations have been previously pub-
lished by Frederick A. Cook, in ‘“‘Through the First Antarctic Night,’’ Doubleday &
McClure Company, New York, and are copyrighted by Doctor Cook.

377

378 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA.

The Belgian Antarctic Expedition maintained, therefore, the char-
acter of a private enterprise, in which the individual liberty accorded
might easily have led to anarchy on board. If I lay stress on this
point, it is because I feel that the example of the Belgica ought not
to be followed. In a similar expedition it is requisite not merely to
make a good choice of the individuals who are to take part in it, but
to do all in one’s power from the outset to secure a proper organi-
zation, to define the duties of each one of the staff, so as to give
stability to the enterprise, and, further, to provide a definite plan—just
what we lacked.

We left- Antwerp on August 16, 1897. The speed of the Belgica,
under steam, being only from + to 5 knots, the crossing of the Atlantic
was slow and of little interest. The vessel was so overloaded that the
deck was scarcely 2 feet above the water line. Dr. Frederick A. Cook
joined the expedition at Rio de Janeiro. We had several desertions
among our Belgian seamen while in South American waters and finally
left Punta Arenas with a quite insufficient crew. The whole comple-
ment of the Belgica was thus reduced to 19 men, as follows:

Adrien de Gerlache, commanding; George Lecointe, second in com-
mand, and Roald Amundsen, officer; Emile Danco, Emile Racovitza,
Henryk Arctowski, and Antoni Dobrowolski, scientists; Frederick A.
Cook, doctor; Henri Somers and Max van Rysselberg, engineers;
Tollewsen, Melaerts, Johansen, Knutsen, Koren, Wiencke, Michotte,
Dufour, Van Mirlo, seamen.

The Belgica left Staten Island on January 14, 1898, and it was
from this date that our voyage of exploration began. We had all the
equipment necessary for oceanographical investigations, and I was
happy to be able at last to commence my researches, which began with
an interesting discovery. South of Staten Island, in the latitude of
Cape Horn, the sounding lead only touched bottom at 2,200 fathoms,
and from this point the depths gradually diminish toward the south.
It is, therefore; toward the east that I think we must look for the pro-
longation of the Andes, since south of Cape Horn we are still in the
Barker basin. The Pacific Ocean ought, therefore, to be extended
beyond the meridian of Cape Horn, for its natural limit will certainly
be found in the submarine ridge of the Andes.

On January 23 we reached Hughes Gulf, the outlines of which are
but vaguely traced on the Admiralty chart from the indications sup-
plied early in the nineteenth century by English and American
whalers. We soon saw that the modern charts of Petermann and
Friederichsen, intended to illustrate the discoveries of the German
Captain Dallmann, were entirely at fault. As the information respect-
ing the lands situated to the south of Cape Horn was extremely scanty,
we all worked our hardest to collect such data as should be obtainable
on the nature and extent of these lands. Captain Lecointe, assisted
by Commander de Gerlache, was busy from morning till night on

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ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 379

survey work, the elgica being moved from place to place in order
that all the details of the coast might be seen from near at hand; Dr.
Cook was constantly at work taking photographs; Racovitza took
notes on the animals and plants which he managed to collect; while I
took every opportunity of landing to collect specimens of the rocks
and study the glaciers of this region, besides taking numerous photo-
graphs.

I will not dwell in detail on our zigzag course through Belgica Strait.
The chart constructed by Captain Lecointe gives an idea of the work
accomplished during the three weeks devoted by the expedition to
cartography. The important point which is brought out by Lecointe’s
map is that the east coast of the strait traversed by us is perfectly con-
tinuous, and that its contours display the characteristic features of a
region of fiords. ‘Toward the south this land (named by us Danco
Land, in memory of Lieut. Emile Danco, who died during the course
of the expedition) is connected with Graham Land, the northern
extremity of which was likewise explored by us. Toward the north,
on the contrary, the continental coast line was not traced by the expe-
dition, for this would have necessitated retracing our steps, whereas,
the season being already far advanced, we had to continue our onward
voyage to the south. But as the inland ice rises to a very consider-
able height east of Hughes Inlet, I have been led to believe that
land must reach in that direction as far as Louis Philippe Land. It
therefore seems likely to me that the coast line is continuous to that
point, and that Louis Philippe Land is in reality the northern termi-
nation of Graham Land, and that the ‘‘ New Greenland” of the first
explorers of this region is not a phantasm. The large islands situated
to the west of Belgica Strait form an archipelago, which has been
named Palmer Archipelago, in order to give a place on the maps to
the name of this intrepid American navigator.

The antarctic lands which we visited are very mountainous, and the
mountains reach to the shores almost everywhere. The region of Bel-
gica Channel bears the characters of a depressed area, so much so that
in spite of one’s self one is driven to the conclusion that the whole
block has sunk into the sea, under the pressure produced by the accu-
mulation of ice, to a depth sufficient to restore equilibrium. By rea-
son of this ice, which seems to be piled up in quantities almost as great
as the extent of the lands permits, the relief of the ground is almost
completely masked. Still there are valleys blocked by immense streams
of ice, and in these valleys there must be sills, since ice falls are to be
seen here and there. Cirques toc occur; so that we find all the forms
characteristic of fluviatile erosion, and I feel no doubt at all that before
the Glacial epoch this region was clear of ice, and that the traces of
relief noticed were produced by running water. This relief can, how-
ever, be only guessed at, at the present day, for the eternal snows have
accumulated everywhere, and it is only by the directions of the glaciers

580 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA.

and the external forms of the snow fields, as well as by the crevasses,
that we can picture to ourselves the form of the ground on which these
ice masses rest.

Still it is possible to trace some of the broad lines of the irregulari-

ties of the relief, due to tectonic causes. The two principal islands of

Palmer Archipelago are traversed in the direction of their length by a
chain of mountains having a well-defined direction from southwest to
northeast, with, I believe, a gentle curvature to the cast. The Biscoe
Islands certainly form the southern prolongation of this chain, while
Trinity Island is possibly that to the northeast. Moreover, from the
few geological data which I could collect this line of mountains forms
likewise a zone of ancient eruptive rocks, with one or more volcanoes
of Tertiary, or possibly even of Recent date. Wiencke Island and the
northern point of the coast of Graham Land form a similar chain,
which runs in a direction parallel to the first. As regards the moun-
tains of Danco Land, they form more important massifs of granites,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, while farther inland there are
also some masses of gneiss, as is shown by the erratics derived from
that part of the country.

lam led to believe that the more detailed we of the geology of
this ‘‘ New Greenland” of the first navigators will bring to light anal-
ogies between the mountain system of these lands ‘ead that of the
chains which form the southern extremity of the Andes, and that we
are now in a position to formulate and discuss the theory of the ‘‘ Ant-
arctic Andes.” The petrographic study of the rocks which I brought
back will give us some data to work from. I propose to call this sys-
tem of mountains the Copernicus Range, and in this way to intro-
duce into our geographical maps the name of the immortal Polish
astronomer.

The glaciers of the antarctic lands visited by the expedition are very
characteristic, and differ completely in appearance from the Alpine, or
even the arctic glaciers. The line of perpetual snow running very
close to the level of the sea, and in places even at that level, one of
the special features of glaciers, and quite the rule in the case of Alpine
and arctic glaciers, is completely absent in the antarctic glaciers.
The terminal portion of the ice stream—that in which it is laid bare
and melts under the influence of solar radiation and the higher temper-
ature of the lower regions to which it has deseended—which we have
come to regard as quite characteristic of glaciers, is almost entirely
absent. To their very extremities they are, in fact, included within
the region of accumulation of snow by atmospheric precipitation.
This fact alone permits the occurrence on the antarctic lands of special
types of glaciers, the most remarkable of which is that of ice caps.
The study of the Alpine glaciers has led geologists to distinguish only
the three forms of ‘‘ valley glaciers,” *‘ hanging” or ‘‘ corrie glaciers,”

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ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 381

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and ‘* regenerated glaciers.” The idea of a glacier thus presupposes
the presence of a valley. This idea is a mistaken one, for it is quite
possible that the ice stream may be wanting. Such is the case in the
antarctic whenever it happens that the collecting ground is sufficiently
near the coast for the glacier to terminate at its greatest breadth in an
ice wall. In the antarctic regions perpetual snow can exist on level
ground in so low a latitude as 65°, so that even small islands may bear
acomplete mantle of perpetual snow. On some small islets of less
than a mile in diameter we found a thick accumulation of ice entirely

covering the inequalities of the ground, and forming in consequence

convex glaciers. These ice caps ended seaward in perpendicular
walls, while on the surface they took the form of huge, perfectly even
sheep’s backs.

It is evident that this form of glacier will be found also on islands of
larger extent, whenever the relief is sufficiently uniform to make it
impossible for a peak to pierce through the glacial cap. As regards
the thickness of these caps, it is plain that it depends on the plasticity
of the ice and the extent of ground on which it rests. To my mind
the only difference which exists between these convex glaciers of the
antarctic and the inland ice of Greenland consists in the incomparably
greater extent of the latter, and in the fact that this does not reach

the coast, but melts up into streamlets, and sends glaciers down toward

the sea only through the valleys. But it is possible that there may be
a sheet of inland ice more extensive than that of Greenland. We may
say that the great ice cap supposed by Croll* may quite well cover the
antarctic continent, since even small islands are seen to have the even
and convex covering of ice laid down by Croll for the whole southern
continent.”

On the other hand, it may seem surprising that the glacial caps are
not the sole type of glacier in these regions, where the line of per-
petual snow is found at sea level.“ The reason is that most of the

*Climate and Time, 4th ed. (London, 1897), p. 374.

»Cf. Arctowski, ‘‘ Les calottes glaciaires des régions antarctiques,’’ Comptes Rendus
Acad. Sci. Paris, December 24, 1900.

*The question of the level of perpetual snow in the region of Belgica Strait is a
very complex one. Professor Penck, who was present at an address that I delivered
at the ‘‘Naturforscher-Versammlung’’ at Aix-la-Chapelle, was tempted to suppose
that there might well be two lines of perpetual snow, one above the other, in that
region. Low-lying fogs are, in fact, very frequent there, and these protect the snow
from the effects of solar radiation, while, on the other hand, the clouds which most
frequently give rise to atmospheric precipitation likewise rest very low. The sum-
mits and upper portions of the flanks of the mountains (1,000 feet and over) are
therefore subject to a climatic régime decidedly different from that which prevails at
sea level. The mean temperature of the air is possibly lower, but, on the other hand,
the amount of atmospheric precipitation is less and the effect of radiation greater.
This would explain the fact that the mountain slopes are sometimes bare of snow at
an altitude of 1,500 feet or even higher. It follows that the idea of two levels of
perpetual snow is quite a plausible one,

382 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. e

islands are too high in proportion to the area occupied by the base,
and that therefore the mountains can not fail to pierce through the
coating of ice. The antarctic glaciers are not stationary, any more
than those of other regions, and though they remain perpetually
under the sway of winter, they still move on. The plasticity of the
ice prevents its accumulation beyond a certain limit of height, and the —
mantles of ice must, even under extremely rigorous conditions of —
weather, be limited in thickness, while all the forms of the antarctie
glaciers must be those of a semifluid mass. There are thus both ice ©
rivers and cascades, and also forms recalling the “‘corrie glaciers.” —
But all are alike buried beneath a mantie of perpetual snow, and bare
ice is nowhere seen. ‘‘Inland ice,” properly speaking, does not exist
on the large islands of the Palmer Archipelago. On the other hand, :
on Danco Land and Graham Land, it is only the mountains situated ©
near the coast which show themselves, while the whole interior of the —
land lying eastward is completely buried under the inland ice. 4
We must not, however, imagine that the antarctic lands are at the —
present day as heavily loaded with glaciers as they might be, for traces —
of a wider extension, dating doubtless from the Glacial epoch, are still
preserved. The presence of these vestiges of the Glacial epoch seems
to me remarkable for various reasons, and on this account I should like
to bring forward some facts in support of my assertion. Gaston
Islet, our eighth antarctic landing place, lying a mile from the coast, is —
a huge roche moutonnée, perfectly polished on the surface. At the
time of our visit it was almost entirely bare of snow. Opposite this —
islet, at Cape Reclus, there rises along the coast a large moraine —
running from northeast to southwest. An examination of the map of —
the lands discovered by the expedition shows that the direction of the
moraine is that of Belgica Strait, and we are led to the conclusion that —
the glacier which produced this moraine must have occupied the strait
itself, which has at this point a breadth of 10 miles and a depth of 342
fathoms. Another argument is supplied by our seventeenth and
eighteenth landings. On Bob Islet, not far from Wiencke Island, we ©
discovered some well-preserved fragments of a moraine, from 15 to 20
feet high, resting against the sloping shore at a height of 80 feet above
the sea. This moraine has the same direction as the channel, and its —
height decreases gradually toward the west. On it were some huge —
blocks of gneiss, perfectly polished. The red granite is in the form —
of rounded bowlders, and the same is the case with other rocks, while —
the diorite is often angular. }
On the other side of Belgica Strait, exactly opposite the former —
spot, we discovered a fine moraine on Banck Island. Its height. was’
65 feet, and its direction parallel to that of the strait. It rested against —
the sloping side of the mountain, which here displayed characteristic _
roches moutonnées. These moraines can only be explained as the prod-

>

\
mes

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Arctowski. PLATE III.

ICE-CAPPED ISLANDS AT SOUTH END OF BELGICA STRAIT.

A TABULAR ICEBERG.

From ‘‘ Through the First Antarctic Night.”’ Photographs by F. A. Cook.

Smithsonian Report, 1901,—Arctowski. PLATE IV.

ICE FLOWERS.

From ‘* Through the First Antarctic Night.’? Photographs by F. A. Cook.

ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 383

uct of an immense glacier which must have flowed through Belgica
Strait westward, i. e., toward the Pacific Ocean. Other proofs of the
former wide extent of the antarctic glaciers are furnished by the erratics
collected in Hughes Gulf, at our third, fifth, and sixth landings, as also
by those found on Antwerp Island at the fourteenth landing place,
where a bank of rolled pebbles and blocks extends fora certain distance
from the shore. Further, in Errera Channel, a remarkable moraine
runs transversely across. Lastly, we frequently saw perfectly polished
roches moutonnées, either along the shore line or on small islands.

The discovery of the former greater extension of the antarctic gla-
ciers seems to me so important a fact to record, that I could not refrain
from entering into these details. The discovery is interesting from
various points of view. I will here merely call attention to a question
which seems to me closely bound up with it—I allude to the climate of
the Glacial epoch. In fact, this question aroused a keen interest in me
from the moment when I noticed the morphologic analogy which exists
between the southern extremity of South America and this northern
point of the antarctic continent, and which suggests the question,
whether the more thorough study of the climates of the two regions
and of the glaciers might not permit us to calculate the point to which
the mean temperature of the air must have fallen during the Glacial
epoch.

This epoch has left its mark in both regions, and the aspect presented
by the antarctic lands in our day seems to afford an indication of the
condition of the channels of Tierra del Fuego during the Glacial epoch.
We are, therefore, justified in asking whether the existing climate of
the antarctic lands in 64° may not be the same as that which prevailed
in latitude 54° during the ice age.*

J am confident that the investigations of the next antarctic expedi-
tions which may visit the two regions will furnish us with the key to
the problem here indicated.

The icebergs of the arctic regions are, in general, of very varied
form, and usually of small dimensions, although heights of 80 meters
(260 feet) are frequently measured, and it seems that as much as 110
meters (360 feet) above sea level may be attained.” The tabular form
has rarely been recorded in the arctics, although the icebergs do show
it near the glaciers from which they are derived, if the slope of the
glacier is slight and the berg retains its original position of equilibrium
after detachment.

The antarctic, on the other hand, is the region of immense tabular
icebergs. In the southern seas bergs several kilometers in length,
and rising to a height of 60 meters (200 feet), have been frequently
met with.

“H. Arctowski, ‘‘A propos de la question du climat de l’epoque glaciaire.”’ Ciel et
Terre, March, 1901.
*E. V. Drygalski, Grénland Expedition, Vol. I, p. 381.

384 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA.

In the seas navigated by the Belgica we have seen as many as 110

icebergs at once, distributed all around the horizon. Forty per cent of

these would be of the characteristic tabular form, while the remainder —
resembled arctic bergs, or some form derived from the tabular. Large —

icebergs were rare; heights of 50 meters (164 feet) were quite excep-
tional, and the tabular bergs averaged only 30 to 40 meters (98 to 131

feet). The tabular icebergs are covered over with nevé, and only shew —
the alternate blue and white bands at the base. I only once had an
opportunity of examining this stratification, in an iceberg which was —

inclosed in the pack and displaced so that the strata dipped at a con-

siderable angle. Both the blue and white bands were formed of glacier —
ice with the characteristic grained structure; the strata were not |
sharply separated from one another, the only difference between blue |
and white being that the ice in the latter was more porous, inclosing a —

large number of air bubbles; the ice in both was compact.

The supposition that tabular bergs are formed of sea ice is entirely

wrong. - The mode of formation of the sea ice shows that its thickness

constantly tends to a limit, supposed by Weyprecht* to be 7 meters |

(23 feet) at a maximum, however low the mean winter temperature
and however great the number of years. I think Weyprecht’s limit
is too great for the antarctic regions. In any case the continental
origin of the antarctic icebergs is indisputable, for the bed of the
Antarctic Ocean is covered with terrigenous deposits and erratic
blocks laid down by the melting of the ice, and these materials are
transported to great distances from the glaciers from which they are
derived.

Our soundings” and those of Ross have shown that the continental |
inland ice does not extend (on the continental shelf) beyond the isobath |
of 400 meters (1,312 feet), and this may be taken as the maximum total |
thickness of the icebergs coming from the pole in the whole antarctic |
area of the Pacific. If one-eighth of the tabular icebergs appear —
above the surface, we go 50 meters (164 feet) as the limiting height —
of the bergs detached from the great ice barrier known to extend from _
Victoria Land to longitude 170° W., and which doubtless continues ©

eastward to the land to south and west of Alexander Land.
As soon as the Belgica entered the Pacific Ocean, the surveys of

the strait discovered being completed, and the season already well —
advanced, de Gerlache did not wish to lose time, and set his course to ©
the southwest in order to cross the pack which we entered in longitude ©

80° W. Several attempts to penetrate the pack failed.

In longitude 85°, however, the edge of the pack was more to the
south, and on February 27 we reached latitude 70° S. without difficulty, ©
the ice being navigable, and, aided by a gale, we made rapid progress |

“K. Weyprecht, Die Metamorphosen dos Polareises, p. 139.

>H. Arctowski, The Bathymetrical Relations of the Antarctic Regions (Geog. |

Journ., July, 1899).

*
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.
%

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Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Arctowski PLATE V.

CUTTING THE CANAL FOR THE BELGICA.

ok PYRIGHT 1899 BY F.A.COOK.
MP 2

ICE CRYSTALS WHICH GIVE ORIGIN TO POLAR ICE.

From ‘‘ Through the First Antarctic Night.’’ Photographs by F. A. Cook.

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ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 385

for twenty-four hours; but the Belgica became altogether immovable in
latitude 71° 30'S. on March 2,1898. This latitude was never exceeded
later by more than a few minutes.

No serious attempt was made to escape from our imprisonment.
Wintering in the antarctic regions was part of the programme of the
expedition, and it was just as well to do so where we were in the moy-
ing pack as to force a way out and return to a land station. Besides,
in the explored land regions we had only seen one place where winter-
ing was practicable—at the twelfth landing in Lemaire Channel.

Lecointe made frequent astronomical determinations of position and
deduced therefrom the direction of drift. Sometimes we moved north-
ward with southerly or southwestly winds; this we heard with joy.
But with change of wind we would again go toward the pole or east-
ward or westward, and so we wandered from place to place, sometimes
back in our old position, sometimes far to the westward. Apparently
we remained immobile, for everything around us followed the same
course; we always took our dreary scenery with us.

The drift of the Belgica with the ice is the longest experienced by
any vessel; the chart shows that the movement of the pack was guided
by an obstacle to the east and south of us, and the existence of land in
those directions is further indicated by our soundings. Depths dimin-
ished to the south and east, and my bathymetrical chart* shows that
during nearly all the time we were on a continental plateau. The pack
in which we were may be regarded as a coastal pack, no doubt of great
extent, but different in every respect (especially with regard to its
movements) from the pack of northern polar regions. It is possible
that in some years the pack becomes detached like that in the Ross
Sea, but the observations of Cook and Bellingshausen, as well as our
own, in 1898 and 1899, indicate that this must be exceptional. I am
of opinion that the great Graham Land peninsula forms an anticyclonic
region, so that, far from driving the ice toward the ocean, the pre-
vailing northeasterly winds of the summer months send it southward;
but in the Ross and Weddell seas the same anticyclonic winds pro-
duce the opposite effect, because, as they come from the southeast,
they are diverted toward the north, Victoria Land being, in all like-

‘lihood, equally a region of high pressure. The forthcoming English

expedition should decide this question.

~ The seals and penguins were our very good comrades from the begin-
ning; they took the greatest interest in all our affairs. The penguins,
particularly the small ones (Pygoscelis Adelize), seemed to us remark-
ably intelligent, and we took great interest in watching them. They
had an almost human appearance when walking across the snow, and,
indeed, they had many human attributes, especially in their social
customs.

“Published in the Geographical Journal, February, 1901.

sm 1901 25

386 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA.

On May 17 we saw the sun for the last time. In the antarctic regions, ©
thanks doubtless to the detestable climate, the disastrous effects of the
polar night are far more marked than in the north. There is a gen-
eral lowering of the system, and the heart acts feebly. Several of us
developed serious symptoms, and without daily care on the part of the
doctor others would not have survived the period of darkness, though
it was relatively short. One part of Cook’s treatment was very effect-
ive and ingenious. Those who were most affected by deficient circu-
lation were made to stand in a half-naked condition close to the red-hot
stove for several hours daily. In this way the action of the solar
radiation was in part replaced by rays of artificial heat—in a manner
admittedly primitive—but none the less beneficial.

The sun reappeared on July 23. With its return our torpor disap-
peared and gave place to general activity. Lecointe, Cook, and
Amundsen even risked a long expedition, taking with them provisions
for fifteen days, a fur sleeping bag for three, and a tent. They stayed
out for a week, but did not make much progress, for after a strong
breeze several channels formed in the ice field, and they had the great-
est difficulty in regaining the ship in safety. We had no kayaks, and
the practical result of this little expedition was to show that without
them all attempts to traverse long distances on the pack must be futile.

It was also made evident that it is impossible to go far from the floe
on which an expedition is encamped without running grave risks of
being unable to find a way hack. For this reason I do not appreciate
the opinion of a German critic, who has expressed surprise that we
did not try to attain a high latitude on the pack by following a direct
route to the pole. The great problem is to find the position of the
ship when it is time to return to it. If we had left the Belgica on
August 10, in latitude 70° 50’ south, longitude 86° 30’ west, we should
have had to find her again one month later, on September 10, in lati-
tude 69° 50’ south, longitude 82° 40’ west, and I greatly doubt if my
German critic, even with the most favorable hypotheses, could have
accomplished this tour de force.

The characteristic feature of the southern pack is the thick layer of
snow which lies onit all the year round. Except for the young ice,
which forms in the open channels, is broken up by every movement
caused by the wind, and often presents a bare, glassy surface, the floes
resemble an immense plain covered by a thick mantle of snow. The
weight of this snow is so great that the ice is often depressed below
the water level, and the base of the snow is transformed into blue,
granular, compact ice, very different in its physical properties (com-
position, structure, etc.) from the ordinary ice produced by the freez-
ing of sea water. The fallen snow is changed into nevé under the
influence of solar radiation and frequent changes of air temperature.
In normal circumstances the field ice may be taken as about 2 meters

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ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 387

(64 feet), or, in the case of ice several years old, not more than 3 to 4
meters (10 to 13 feet) in thickness. The freezing action clearly tends
to a limit which can not be surpassed, however low the temperature.
This is the invariable result of measurements in the arctic regions, and
it is entirely supported by our measurements during our wintering in
the antarctic.

The greatest cold we experienced occurred in September; on the 8th
the thermometer sank to —43° C. (—45.4° F.), an extreme temperature
when one considers that we were very far from land, and only in 71° south
latitude. We took advantage of the sunshine when it came, following
the example of the seals, who lay motionless on the ice for hours together
enjoying sun baths. When there was no wind we felt warm at a tem-
perature of —15° C. (5° F.), and even 25° C. (—13° F.), which is easy
to understand, as evidently
the temperature of the air
did not indicate all the heat
we felt, and we had only to
go into the shadow to feel
the difference.

In the antarctic there are
strong equinoctial storms,
which follow close upon one
another. The storms which
preceded the establishment
of the summer régime were
accompanied by tremendous
snowdrifts, and as the Pel-
gica presented an obstacle to
these, large quantities of 8 v
snow accumulated, and at
length almost buried her. It became necessary to extricate her, and
the work had to be done quickly, as she threatened to sink gradually,
dragged down by the inclosing ice.

Until December we had every confidence that the sun would melt
the ice and break up the floes to such an extent that we could make
our escape easily. But when December had passed, and the sun made
his daily tour of the horizon without melting anything, we felt our-
selves deceived; there we remained,at the mercy of fate, helpless in
the middle of an ice field several miles in circumference. We attacked
our floe with the explosives with which the expedition was provided,
but with no effect. A careful examination of our floe fortunately
revealed an old fracture, close astern of the ship, on which the ice was
only from 14 to 2 meters (4.9 to 6.6 feet) in thickness. Along this we
cut a channel 700 meters (2,297 feet) long, and wide enough to allow
the passage of the ship. The task was long and arduous, but as it was

388 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. '

a matter of life or death to us the work went on cheerily, day and—

night, for a whole month. As we had only three saws we could not —

F

4
5
‘
*

all work together, so we divided into two parties, one working by day, —

the other by night. The method we employed was very simple.
Starting from the edge of our floe, A C, two lines, A B and C D, were

cut, then E F, and the triangle A E F was detached and pushed out of —

the way. Next the line G H was cut and the quadrilateral EC H G
removed; then EK K, and another polygon was free. Thus we got rid
of the ice piece by piece, and as each slab had to be pushed out the
channel already cut was open.

The work was almost completed when a storm came upon us. The
Belgica was nipped between two large floes, and as the swell from the
ocean reached us from outside, these crushed and left the vessel alter-
nately with every wave. We had three days of anguish, but at last
the sea went down, and after some more labor, aided by « free use of
our tonite, the Belgica was finally delivered on February 14, 1899.

We made rapid progress northward for a whole day; but then, on the
edge of the pack, our way was completely barred by a number of small
floes packed close together. A long month’s waiting followed, tossed
about all the time by the ocean swell, before we got a chance to escape
to the open sea, toward which the water sky to the northward had all
the time been showing us the way.

The Belgica left the pack on March 14, and on the 28th we were
back in Punta Arenas.

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THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS.

By ALFrep KIRCHOFF.

[A lecture delivered at the ‘‘ Institut fir Meereskunde,” at Berlin..]

The only absolute power on earth is the sea. The bosom of the
deep brought forth land itself, whose insular fragments only here and
there break the continuity of the all-embracing ocean. The sea alone
constitutes a whole between the atmospheric envelope and the mineral
crust of the earth,and essentially the earth is still a planet surrounded
by the ocean. Again, organic life in its mysterious origins must be
explained as a pregnant result produced by the sea and its movements,
at the period in which there was no land, and a single unbroken ocean
inclosed the terrestrial sphere as a shell, similar to the atmospheric
envelope in turn inclosing the ocean. And if, indeed, evolution of
life on earth follows a uniform plan, then even vegetable and animal
forms on land, inciuding man himself, are descended from marine
ancestors.

However, in the course of sons, land animals adapted themselves
to conditions outside the ocean, and so a vast chasm gradually arose
between creatures of the land and of the sea. Rivers and lakes, by
their nature elements of the land related to the ocean, do,-indeed, in
exceptional instances blur the sharp boundaries confining the fauna
world of the sea. Some fish, like the eel and the salmon, live in either
salt or fresh water, and some sea-fish gradually accustom themselves
to the water at the mouths of rivers, which is less salt than that of the
open sea, and, finally, their descendants, swimming upstream, remain
in fresh water permanently. The little ccelentera, for instance, in
recent years passed from the North Sea, through the brackish waters
at the mouth of the Elbe, into the Elbe and Saale, and even reached
the fresh-water lake at Eisleben. Seals bear on land; sea-birds with
great powers of flight, like the frigate-bird and the albatross, ply their
mighty wings over the sea thousands of kilometers away from the
coast, for days at a time. Nevertheless, in the dispersion of living
creatures the coast remains the sharpest dividing line, and it is obvious

“Translated from Geographische Zeitschrift, Leipzig, 1901, pp. 241-250.
389

390 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS.

that man, whose entire organization points to the fact that his ancestors
in the Tertiary age were fruit-eating inmates of the woods, from the
beginning lived exclusively on land. The coast line of the Eastern
Continent may be considered the uttermost limit of the original home
of primitive man.

Man could have been only affrighted by the sea when it first con-
fronted him in all its inhospitality, with itssudden dangers threatening
his fostering mother earth through high-tossing breakers, flooding
tides, and fearful storms. In the face of this far-superior enemy,
attacking him with elemental power, unprotected man in the first place
felt himself forced into an attitude of defense, especially along flat
coasts, where the rise and fall of the surface of the sea, corresponding
to the incoming and outgoing tides, produced the floods that swept up
far beyond the low land of the coast. Pliny has given a dramatic
picture of a struggle with the ocean such as must have taken place in
prehistoric times. He tells of the North Sea at the time of the Roman
Empire, when the German coast was still unprotected by dikes. Every
day, he says, the flood tide submerged the land of the Chauci, a German
tribe. The people, who took refuge in their huts, resembled seafarers,
and the setting in of the ebb tide lured them out, like castaways, to
catch fish in the receding waters, or to pick up turf washed upon the
damp clay ground by the flood. This example does not present the
most elementary aspects of man’s struggle for existence with the sea,
for the means used were in a measure perfected. The Chauci had
advanced so far as to provide a secure foundation for their huts by
throwing up mounds, Wurten, such as are still used by the inhabitants
of the Halligen, marshy islands off the west coast of Sleswick, which,
on account of their small size, are not provided with dikes. It needed
only the ‘‘ golden circlet” of the dikes along the coast to secure per-
manently to the German mainland the belt of land once the playground
of the shifting tides as a heavy marsh land rich in pastures and wheat
fields. We know from history what a blessing this triumph has been
to the inhabitants of the German and Netherlands coast since the
Frisian tossed up his last spadeful of earth, calling out proudly to the
sea, the blanken Hans (gleaming Hans), now held within strong bonds,

Trutz nun, blank Hans (Do your worst now, gleaming Hans!). Since,

then the boast has been true: Deus mare, Batavus litora fecit. The
success achieved over the opponent hitherto all powerful only con-
firmed the people in their pride of freedom. The construction of the
dikes had required energetic, self-sacrificing effort of many working
for a common end, and the more unremitting the necessity for united
labor in order to preserve them, the hardier the growth of the com-
munal spirit behind this fortification against the tyrant Okeanos, that
spirit which restrains self-seeking individualism and makes for civil
order. Thousands of years before, a similar result had been effected

a

’ THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 391

by the construction of dams and canals on the lower Hoangho, in
Babylonia, and on the Egyptian Nile.

Incomparably more important, however, seems that decisive act of
prehistoric man, when, conquering his terror of the unknown, he
boldly trusted himself to the hostile element, and fared over the
surging limitless waters on a fragile raft, or in a rude dugout, or in
a boat of roughly joined planks. This progressive act, containing
the germ of man’s dominion over the earth, may have been independ-
ently executed on more than one occasion, when the various hordes,
strangers to one another, into which our race had long been split by
extended wanderings, arrived at the shores of the ocean. Where
streams empty into the ocean, the attempt to reach the high seas
might be made in river boats. Elsewhere, the impulse to move upon
the sea for a longer time than swimming permits led directly to the
art of building and guiding ships, the art which, in its wonderful state
of development, enables man, alone among all creatures, to overstep
the limits of the coast line on all sides and reach the most distant
points.

But what could possibly have impelled man to this reckless venture
on the ocean? Hunger, that stern and omnipotent educator of man-
kind, was probably a frequent motive, as may be surmised from the
custom of the Chauci to hunt for fish in the ebb tide. Again, in flight
before a superior hostile tribe, fear may often have made man invent-
ive, and led him to prefer the deceptive sea as a temporary refuge to
the sure fate at the hands of the enemy. Ifa tribe took up its per-
manent abode at the seacoast, two causes may have operated to educate
man to gradual confidence in the once dreaded element: First, the value
of the animals abounding in the waters along the coast; second, the
allurements of an opposite shore. These causes may have operated
separately or together. The lack of food stuffs in the polar lands
would never have tempted the Eskimos to push beyond the eightieth
degree of latitude. This was effected by the promise of food held out
by the teeming animal life of the Arctic Sea; in fact, it was the capture
of seals that led these stout-hearted inhabitants of polar lands to cross
the icy American straits, and penetrate to the most northern point ever
inhabited by man, making of them such unexcelled masters in the
handling of kayaks that a skillful, hardy Eskimo can paddle his boat
from Riigen to Copenhagen in one day. The colonization of the Hel-
lenes progressed from the 2gean Sea, along the shores of the Black
Sea, toward the course taken by the tunny in its wanderings, just as the
colonization of their nautical masters, the Phoenicians, extended to
various places on the shores of the Mediterranean, influenced by the
presence of the shellfish from which they got their purple dye. In
districts where the interior is forbidding (which is the case not only in
the polar regions) through the bareness of sheer rock, the bleakness

392 THE SEA IN. THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. /

of moorlands, and overgrown forests, and where the sea, on the other
hand, with its fish, mollusks, and crabs, presents an inviting bill of
fare, we find people who, like sea birds, live almost exclusively on sea
food and use the land only as their dwelling place. Such are the Terra
del Fuegans, who live at the extreme southern end of the inhabited
earth, and the Tlinkit Indians, along the southeastern coast of Alaska,
which is indented with fiords like the coast of Norway, and cut up into
islands. The latter have become so accustomed to their slender, well-
built boats that they use their feet unwillingly and awkwardly. Sim-
ilarly, in Europe, the Danes have developed into an essentially coast-
inhabiting, seafaring people, since a portion of them, under the
appropriate name of Vikings (people of the fiords), established settle-
ments between a sea teeming with fish and the bare fields of the inland.
The history of the Normans unfolds an impressive picture, showing
how readily the bold seaman turns sea robber. The Normans, their
venturesome spirits lured by the wide freedom of the sea, soon trans-
ferred their predatory expeditions from the home soil to foreign lands.
They sailed up the streams of eastern England, up the Seine and the
Elbe; they harried Cologne on the Rhine, and they entered Sicily as
conquerors. Of the sea the same may be said as of the desert, that
rich booty entices the foolhardy to brigandage, especially when
acquaintance with the lay of the land and a sure hiding place promises
successful rape. The Dalmatian coast, with its concealed coves and
narrow inlets, presents a number of such sally ports and loopholes for
escape along one whole side of Adriatic ship routes. For this reason
it was a constant seat of piracy, even in ancient times, and when Rome
sent a messenger to the Illyrian queen Teuta to demand the cessation
of buccaneering, her proud answer, that it did not concern Rome, that
it was the custom of her people, had a certain geographical justifica-
tion. Opportunity not only makes thieves, but rears a nation of
robbers.

Recently doubt has been expressed, rather hypercritically, of the
value of sinuses and islands as a nautical impulse to the inhabitants
of coast lands. Beyond the even coast line of the Australian and the
African mainland, unfringed with islands, the inhabitants have lived
from the earliest days devoid of all connection with the sea. Yet no
one would venture to say that the negro shows no aptitude for the sea-
faring life. On board our vessels many a black African has done
valiant service as sailor. In fact, the whole race of Kru negroes, on
the seaboard near Cape Palmas, have won world-wide fame as the best
sailors employed in the West African merchant service, though, it
must be confessed, that this is true only since passing European ves-
sels have hired the ‘‘ Kru boys” for the work. However, it seems
significant that the one tribe of negroes that pursue navigation of their
own impulse, the Papel negroes of Portuguese West Africa, south of

THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 393

Senegambia, should have developed precisely at the conduit-like
mouth of the Rio de Geba, opposite to which lies the Bissagos Archi.
pelago. Along those coasts of South America that are almost entirely
bereft of islands and peninsulas the European discoverers encountered
nothing more advanced than rafts, with the exception of the bark
canoes of the Terra del Fuegans. On the other hand, near the mouth
of the Orinoco, at the point where the West Indies start out from the
mainland, the Caribs were using seaworthy vessels, steered with a
helm and catching the wind in cotton sails. They were dreaded pirates,
and had begun the conquest of the Antilles. Again, on the west side
of North America the coast assumes a fiord-like character at the strait
of Juan de Fuca, precisely the point at which the Indian tribes igno-
rant of seacraft meet with those possessing a high degree of marine
attainments. In Asia and Europe alike the acme of nautical develop-
ment displays itself on the most indented edges of the continents.
Among the Asiatic seafaring peoples from Arabia to Japan superiority
was achieved early by those inhabiting the vastest of tropical archi-
pelagos, which occupies the middle position in this chain of countries.
Here, among the Malays, the origin of an excellent art of shipbuild-
ing must be sought, as well as the starting point of the enormous
dispersion of the Malay race over the crowded islands of the South
Sea. Long before the Christian era the migration of the Malays,
slowly consummated, had carried to all parts of the largest of the
oceans one and the same type of rowboat—slender, sharp keeled, often
provided with bowsprits as a safeguard against capsizing, and its speed
increased by matting sails—a type which throughout the whole region
has crowded out the awkward, barrel-form dugout. In such surround-
ings developed the Polynesian variety of the brown race, of all
branches of the human kind, the one most intimately and most vari-
ously connected with the ocean in material and in spiritual life, even
as pictured in poetry and myth. These people upon their tiny coral]
islands, always breathing the balmy sea air, lead an amphibious life,
almost as upon ships riding at anchor on the high seas. They learn
to swim earlier than to walk; as infants they are carried upon the
arms of their mothers through the frothy breakers. Examining the
southwestern part of Asia, the Indian and Arabian peninsulas, we
realize that the never-ceasing alternation of the monsoons has been
the generous promoter of traflic on the Indian Ocean. During the
winter season of the northern hemisphere, the monsoon steadily drove
the vessels to the east coast of Africa, and in the summer the same
force carried them easily homeward to the Indian or Arabian ports.
In these regions, then, earlier than elsewhere, a profitable inter-
course was established across a vast ocean between two continents
and widely different races. Thus it came about that the Indian bride
was adorned with bracelets of African ivory, and the Indian art of

894 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS.

rice-growing was transported by slave dealers as far as the Kongo.
Thus originated the Ki-suahili dialect, the language of the Bantu
negroes intermixed with Arabic elements, and the commerce, brisk
to this very day, between German East Africa and Bombay. And
thus it is explained why Indian capitalists of large means have
never ceased to live on the coast under German protection. Finally,
what a brilliant series of nautical achievements in the course of
ages is summoned before our mind’s eye when we recall Greece,
Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Atlantic coast lands of Europe.
Navigation on the Mediterranean was of earlier date, but navigation
on the Atlantic attained to a higher stage of development in antiquity,
because it was infinitely more dangerous to wrestle with the ocean
than with the sea. Greek or Roman merchant vessels could not pre-
sume to enter the lists with the stout vessels of the Veneti, a Celtic
tribe occupying what is now Brittany. They were built of solid oak
planks, their anchor chains were of iron, and their sails were of
leather. The journeys between Norway and Greenland, accomplished
for centuries by the Normans in their great rowboats, their black-
tarred ‘‘sea horses,” were more valiant achievements than the passage
of the Columbus caravels across the quieter southern ocean, with a
compass as guide. The latter, to be sure, was fraught, historically
considered, with more important results. But it was reserved for
modern times and for the four countries of central location—France,
the Netherlands, England, and Germany—to derive greatest benefits,
in the direction of world-commerce and the establishment of colonies,
from their favorable position on the shores of the most frequented of
the oceans. To bring about this unprecedented rise of seamanship, it
was necessary that America should first be revealed to the eyes of
Europe as a stimulating goal. In the New World, again, the greatest
attainments in modern naval architecture and sea traftic were reached
in those parts in which endless forests supplied shipbuilders with valu-
able wood, and especially in those parts in which the indented coast
line offered bays, inlets, sheltering ports at the mouths of rivers, and
streams navigable many miles inward for moderate-sized vessels; that
is to say, in Canada and the northeastern part of the United States—
another evidence that a causal relation exists between the natural
opportunities granted by coast lands and the nautical activities of their
inhabitants. :

To invest this relation with the compelling force of a natural law
were inane, pseudogeographic fanaticism. Man is not an automaton,
without a will of his own. The suggestions thrown out by the nature

of his birthplace sometimes find him a docile, sometimes an indifferent

pupil. What is now the world-harbor of New York once served the
Indians as nothing but a hunting place for edible mollusks. On the
same rock-bound coast that educated the Norwegians into intrepid

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THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 395

sailors, the Lapps are at present eking out a paltry existence as fisher-
men. The Anglo-Saxons, on their arrival in Britain, were so absorbed
by combats with the native Celts, and later by agriculture and cattle
raising, that they completely abandoned all vocations connected with
the sea. Alfred the Great had to have his vessels built in German
dockyards. To this day few of the inhabitants of the Cyclades take
to a life upon the sea; they plant wheat, cultivate the vine, or pasture
their goats. Since the Dutch have become affluent, the nautical activi-
ties energetically prosecuted by their ancestors in more straitened
circumstances have fallen into neglect, and in the Belgian provinces
of Flanders and Brabant, the Netherlander, more easily winning a
subsistence on his fruitful soil by agriculture, industries, and domes-
tic trade, has always been apt to resign to foreigners the very consid-
erable sea traffic of his country.

If, however, man ventures to pit his strength against the elemental
power of the sea; if he goes further and elects as his vocation the
sailor’s struggle with storm and seething breaker, then the poet’s
word in its full significance may be applied to him: ‘*Man’s stature
grows with every higher aim.” The mariner’s trade steels muscle and
nerve, it sharpens the senses, it cultivates presence of mind. With
each new triumph of human cleverness over the rude force of nature
it heightens the courageousness of well-considered, fearless action.
Observe the weather-beaten countenances of our tars under their
sou’westers, how it has become almost a habit with them to dart
searching looks into the distance. Their manner is taciturn, but
betrays efficiency and alertness. No sooner are their latent reserve
powers challenged than the apparent sluggishness of their inactive
moments is replaced by energy and amazing endurance. In those
countries in which, as in Great Britain and Norway, the sea attracts
votaries from extended circles of the population, and the seafarer’s
calling enjoys respect as a pillar of the commonwealth, the admirable
traits of the seaman’s character stimulate wholesome imitation even
among the landsmen, an effect that is heightened when the coast is but
little removed from the interior, so that seacraft in all its clearly
defined peculiarity is present to the minds of the people. Further-
more, if in the wake of greater intimacy with the ocean, and through
it with all parts of the world, the masses come to entertain transma-
rine commerce and colonization schemes as familiar notions, as so
often happens in the great nations that are the bearers of civilization,
then the people as a whole fall heir, in large part, to the sailor’s fresh,
venturesome spirit; to his daring courage and his wide intellectual
borizon, enlarged by contact with foreigners. A typical illustration
of this truth is afforded by the contrast between the Spartans and the
Athenians of ancient times—the former, brave but narrow-minded,
living a conservative life, walled in by the mountains that define their

396 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS.

valley of the Eurotas, and further debarred from foreign traffic by the —

artificial obstacle of iron coin not passing current abroad; the latter,
the Athenians, the Ionian race of progressive seamen, reveling in the
sea breezes of the AYgean, and, their ambition overleaping the bound-
aries of space, full of the joyous desire of achievement.

Primitive man in all probability was barely acquainted with the

ocean. For later generations it was an object of fear and terror; but.

when men began to inhabit the seacoast, drawing freely upon the
treasures of the deep and making its broad back amenable to their
pleasure in reaching distant shores, they approached it closer and
closer. Yet man never succeeded in confining the sea in the fetters of
slavery; on the contrary, he came to worship it as a creative deity.
The entrancing beauty of the sea when in calm weather the sails glide
peacefully across its mirror-like surface, genially reflecting by day
the brilliance of the sun, and by night the silvery sparkle of the star-
studded sky; or, when the storm whips up the waves, flaming streaks
of lightning flash through the livid dullness of cloud and water, the
breakers beat against the precipitous rock, and the vessel is tossed
about by the tempest; and again, when, after the gale subsides,
nature is once more serene, and deepening colors in many-hued play,
never seen in such perfection on land, are shed harmoniously over sea
and sky. All this not only inspired poetic descriptions in Homer’s
and Ossian’s epics, it reechoes in accents true to nature, in the simple
lyries improvised by the strand folk; and the painters of all seafaring
nations that have attained to distinction in art have immortalized the
awe of man at first sight of the grandeur of the ocean.

Closeness to the sea has powerfully promoted science and technical
skill, if only by urging both the construction of necessary vessels and
steady improvement in the art of building them. To adduce the com-
pletest instance, how multifarious have been the applications of scien-
tific principles and the demands made upon technical ingenuity since
the nineteenth century created the steamboat, which enables man to
cross the ocean in the face of wind and tide. The effort to make navi-

gation as secure as possible has indirectly had a furthering influence |

upon a large number of the sciences. On the Caroline Islands there
are still living, hoary with age, a few members of the remarkable
guild in which certain astronomical knowledge valuable in steering
boats was hereditary. It knew accurately the position of the fixed
stars with regard to the summer and the winter horizon, and at the
same time it had a more precise acquaintance with the relative situa-
tion of islands for many miles around than the geography of the civil-
ized nations contemporary with it could boast. To Italian navigators
our sea service owes the introduction of the compass, based upon thé
peculiarity of the magnetic needle, first noticed in China. Not only
has the compass kept numberless vessels from straying out of their

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THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 397

course in starless nights and foggy weather, but without the huge
mass of observations seamen had made in all zones, by means of the
compass, a Gauss could not have grappled successfully with the prob-
lem of the magnetism of the earth. And if, hundreds of years ago,
the surveyors in the Clausthal mines, consulting their compass by the
light of the miner’s lamp, laid out their subterranean corridors with
unhesitating certainty, then, verily, this is a cultural echo of tumul-
tuous waves dying away in the womb of mountains far removed from
the sea.

But its supreme gift to man lies in the fact that the ocean alone
afforded him a possibility of becoming acquainted with the globe as a
whole; it unveiled the face of the earth for him. Knowledge of every
part was followed by trade with every part, uniting the economies of
single nations and sets of nations into a world economy. Finally, by
means of universal commerce, such as only the all-embracing ocean
can create, the olden separateness of the human races according to
their native continents was wiped out, and the first steps were taken
toward a spiritual alliance comprehending the whole of mankind.
That this consummation shovld have been brought about primarily
through world commerce is due to the not wholly evil power of the
desire for gain. Nearly two thousand years ago Strabo watched sea-
men risk their lives on the tossing billows of the high seas while
transferring wares destined for Rome from merchant vessels to light-
_ ers, because even then the Tiber was too shallow for heavy navigation,
and he exclaimed, ‘‘ Verily, the desire for gain overcomes all difficul-
ties.” Since time out of mind the ocean opened up to man the free-t
and, what is of paramount importance, the cheapest paths around the
velobe. From mines in the province of Sha tung we shall soon be
in a position to deliver cheaper anthracite coal at Tsingtau than could
be offered for sale there if brought from England. On the other h:nd,
Milan, not to speak of the Italian coast, is too distant by the overland
route for German coal to supplant En2lish coal, because the latter can
be transported by sea almost directly from the mines. Italian oranges
ean be bought for less in Hamburg than in Munich or Vienna, as
freight by sea from Sicily to Hamburg is not so costly as freight by
land, say, from Hamburg to Berlin. On account of the low freight
charges, trade by sea 1s everywhere most lucrative. In order not to
shorten the inexpensive sea route unnecessarily by a single kilometer,
the great seaports have arisen in the innermost recesses of ocean
sinuses. So enormous is the profit derived from world commerce by
sea that it yields enough to furnish the vast sums swallowed by the
construction of vessels and needed to reward the hard labor of the
gallant crews who, far away from home, are exposed to constant peril,
biddin » defiance even to the dread typhoon.

**Unfruitful” Homer called the sea. Yet what a wealth of treasure

398 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS.

it showers upon man from out of its never-exhausted fund, and more
still by carrying to his feet the products of the whole earth with the
smallest conceivable injury to their marketable value. The countries
situated on the seacoast, especially in the temperate zones, where
devotion to work is at its intensest, are witness to this truth. The
busiest cities, serving world commerce as seaports; the wharves; the
industrial centers, desiring to have at first hand the raw material pro-
duced in foreign ports, are connected by a chain of smaller coast
settlements, which likewise depend in part upon sea commerce or upon
the coasting trade and the fisheries, and are usually surrounded by
well-cultivated fields, fertile by reason of the mild sea breezes wafted
over them. It is the more easily attained prosperity that lures men |
to the coast. Therefore islands, as compared with the neighboring |
mainland, and smaller islands—conditions on the whole being equal—
as compared with larger ones, are distinguished, in consequence of
their relatively greater coast allotment, by greater populousness.
Wherever land and sea touch each other, there, naturally, are most
apparent the blessings which the sea bestows upon mankind.

Finally, let us cast a rapid glance at the political importance of the
sea. From what has been said it is obvious that every State, as soon
as it realizes the advantages of sea life to its citizens, will strive to
extend its territory to the sea, though it sbould only secure so tiny a
strip of coast as Montenegro recently obtained on the Adriatic. He
who has one foot planted on the ¢ ast can dispatch his vessels over the
whole earth. With but a single port, to what a commanding position
in sea commerce, in dominion over the sea, and in colonization as far
as the most distant shores of the Black Sea, did Miletus attain in
antiquity and Genoa in the Middle Ages. Switzerland, founded in the
heart of Europe on the Alpine battlements, comes to mind as the only
one and as a remarkable example of a State carrying on trade with the
whole world by means of the vigorous industrial enterprise of its cit-
izens, though it can never hope to acquire coast possessions. But,
when disposing of her products and transporting them, how painfully
Switzerland feels her dependence upon the customs regulations and the
railroad rates prevailing in the four great powers encircling her.
Russia, on the other hand, aff rds the most striking instance in history
of a State purely inland in origin advancing with conscious intent,
step by step, to the shores of all the seas in its surroundings and
attaching them to itself until its banners wave from the Baltic to the
Yellow Sea.

But the best, indeed the most indispensable, gifts of the sea to the
state, as such, are these three: independence, unity, and plenitude of |
power. Ratzel properly points out that the sea is absolutely uninhab-
itable, hence constitutes the securest defense of a state. How much
less guaranteed would the freedom of the greatest republic seem if

ll hae el ie ee 1 le bee 8

a i a

i.) eae Lee

ay ee.

THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE’ NATIONS. 399

the United States had not won the Pacific in addition to the Atlantic
littoral. A state with seagirt territory, like Great Britain, Japan,
and now Australia, the new island state, can be assaulted only in spots,
with blockading fleets. By the preponderance of her sea front, France
seems better protected than Germany. In the same way friendly
intercourse can penetrate only here and there, at given points, to the
interior of a state limited bya coast line. Therefore, state houndaries
marked by the sea are ethnically more definite than the vaguer lines
on land, and in this respect superior to them. They are a better aid
in promoting and maintaining the unification of mixed races into a
single nation. History affords a solitary example of the reverse; the
Mediterranean, surrounded by the provinces, instead of itself sur-
rounding them, was the power that bound and kept together the ele-
ments composing the mighty world-empire of Rome. Incessantly the
ocean brings unity and power from without to all states upon whose
edges it breaks, and which understand its admonishing call. Greece
and the Apennine Peninsula, with their mountainous interior, transfer
the better part of their traffic to the coasting trade, which day by day
brings inhabitants and possessions from the north into contact with
those of the south, heightening the community of interests, and at the
same time leading the mind constantly beyond the home shores of the
high seas.

More than anything else sea trade, together with every sort of
activity demanding transmarine effort, whether it be vast industrial
enterprises, technical achievements on sea, or colonization, establishes
an intimate connection between a nation and the great world. At the
same time it welds together, in indissoluble union, the interior of the
state with its coast provinces, the only paths along which lively exchange
is effected with foreign parts. As with hammer blows, it brings home
the realization of kinship and unites the parts into a whole. We Ger-
mans feel this more strongly now than ever. No Hohenstaufen will
again turn his back indifferently upon the German coasts, to cross the
Alps and lead campaigns against Rome. No Hanseatic League of
to-day would have to lower its flag in displeasure for lack of imperial
protection of its glorious deeds. <A fleet of ironclads floating the Ger-
man imperial banner, and growing day by day, guards our merchant
marine on all the seas, and to the furthermost shores within and beyond
the territory under our protection it extends its sheltering arm over
every honest enterprise undertaken by German citizens. Thus,
defended from hostile injury, the goods of the world acquired by Ger-
man industry flow over the threshold of the sea into all the provinces
of our land, raising the prosperity of our people to heights never
before attained, widening its spiritual horizon, and fostering the power
of the state. The glory of the German Empire lies firmly anchored
in the ocean.

tg

x

EE FS

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Pinchot. PLATE I

Fia. 1.—CLEARING OF WESTERN FRONTIER, WASHINGTON.

Fila. 2.—RED FIR REOCCUPYING AN ABANDONED FIELD, WASHINGTON.

FOREST DESTRUCTION.

A.—NOTES ON FOREST DESTRUCTION.

By Girrorp PINcHoT.

The point of view of the agricultural settler in any forest region,
whether in the United States or elsewhere, is that of hostility to the
timber which limits and confines his industry. To get rid of the tim-
ber with him means expansion, progress, and well-being. As _ settle-
ment progresses and the forests disappear, a second phase of opinion
erystallizes and becomes effective. Its center of distribution is in the
towns or cities, and it is largely concerned with purely sentimental
considerations. This school of thought regards the preservation of
the forest as an unmixed good with the same unyielding depth of con-
viction which, among the early settlers, marked the opinion that its
existence was an unmixed evil.

From the point of view of national progress the one opinion is as
mistaken as the other. Both are likely to be survived by that phase
of thought which regards forest protection as a means—not an end;
which contends that every part of the land surface should be given
that use under which it will contribute most to the general prosperity,
and the purpose of whose action is best phrased, in the language of
President Roosevelt, as ‘‘the perpetuation of forests by use.” The
essential reasonableness of this point of view is gaining recognition:
among the adherents of both the schools of thought which preceded it,
and is doing more than any other single factor to call attention to the
wastefulness of forest destruction and to emphasize the essential prac-
ticability of conservative forestry.

As a broad general rule, subject to many exceptions, it may be said
that the destruction of a forest on land better adapted for forestry
than agriculture is not likely to be more than temporary in character.
Ultimately the forest will return, but the time which must elapse

between the destruction of a forest and the reappearance of the same
type of forest on the same ground, however brief geologically, is
often of appalling length from the human point of view.

_ Thus, great areas of land in New England, once cleared, are now

returning, through the gradual spread of the forest in old pastures and

on abandoned hillsides, to a wooded condition. The type of forest
sm 1901——26 401

402 FOREST DESTRUCTION.

that was destroyed may be slow in returning, even after the forest
condition is established, and great length of time, in tens or hundreds
of years of useful growth, may be lost; but, in the great majority of
cases, the type of forest once best adapted to the land will clothe it |
again. }

The destruction of a forest through fire or otherwise brings about |
two results. In the first place, it disturbs the general balance of
nature, sets free geological activities which were previously held in
check, and begins a long process of readjustment. In the second
place, it profoundly modifies the vegetation for a longer or shorter
term of years, both before and after the forest condition is restored.

The chief geological agent set at work by forest destruction is
water. We are already well persuaded in general of the effect of
forests on the flow of streams. Yet an illustration which I may bor-

row from an unpublished paper by Mr. Filibert Roth will serve to set |

the matter in a clear light. If an ordinary desk or table be tilted and
water is sprinkled on its surface, the water speedily runs off. If the
tilted table is covered with an inch or two of loose soil, the water
falling upon it is at first somewhat retarded in its journey to the lower
edge; but soon not only does it find its way there with rapidity, but it
carries with it relatively large amounts of soil. As yet no reservoir
has been established on the sloping surface. If now a layer of cotton
batting, which we may liken to the mat of decaying leaves and twigs |
which constitutes the forest floor, be laid on the surface of the soil
erosion ceases, the water which falls sinks gently into the soil, and
the soil on the surface of the {able has become in effect a reservoir for |
the temporary retention of water. Such a reservoir will continue to |
give out water long after the rain has ceased to fall.

Over large areas of our country, especially in the far West and in
the Southern Appalachians in the East, the water-conserving property
of the forest is for the present, and is likely long to continue, its most
important one. In addition to the loss of water by promoting its
useless waste in floods there is the loss of the soil itself. Fertile soil |
is the product of long geological processes and is perhaps the most
valuable asset of any nation. Forest destruction tends to convert the |
soil of productive fields into costly and dangerous bars at the mouths |
of rivers and harbors, by permitting its transportation by water to the |
sea. The washing away of cleared soil is proceeding with astonishing |
rapidity in many parts of the country. The damage is most visible
in the gullying of hillsides, but it is not less destructive in the removal |
of the surface soil without gullying, where heavy rains and smooth |
steep slopes make the process possible. Estimates of the loss from
this source have been made, notably by Professor Shaler, of Harvard, —
but it is sufficient to say here that the damage is on a gigantic scale _
and that it is steadily increasing in the United States. |

PLATE II

Pinchot.

1901.

rT

Smithsonian Report

Fic. 1.—DAM FILLED WITH SILT, ARIZONA.

FiG. 2.—HOLES OF UPROOTED TREES GRADUALLY FILLING WITH SOIL AND HuMus,

WASHINGTON.

SS

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Pinchot. PLATE III

Fia. 2.—LOD@GEPOLE PINE AND QUAKING ASPEN ON BURNED LAND, COLORADO.

FOREST DESTRUCTION. 403

The forest is then the great moderator of geological action by trans-
portation and here it renders one of its greatest services to man.
Another service, indicated but not yet fully explained by observations
already made, is the preparation, on land suitable for agriculture, of
fertile soil for human use. The introduction of decaying vegetable
matter, with the resulting liberation of carbonic-acid gas at consider-
able depths in the mineral soil when roots die, is one of the means.
Another, far more frequent, geologically speaking, than is apt at first
glance to appear, is the plowing of forest soil by the wind. This
takes place when trees are overturned and their roots carry with them
to the surface considerable quantities of mineral soil as yet little
mixed with vegetable matter. Into the hollow from which this soil
came the leaves are washed and blown. Small quantities of humus
find their way in from the edges and a deposit of fertility is made a
foot or two or three below the general level of the surface. When once
the attention has been called to it, the frequency of the little mounds,
which remain long after the tree itself has entirely rotted away, is seen
to be very great. Positive information is yet lacking by which to
judge of the total effect of this curious function of the forest.

The second effect of temporary forest destruction is to produce what
may be called the preliminary vegetation and afterwards to modify the
character of the forest itself when the latter finally returns. Take, for
example, a recently burned area in the Adirondacks. The surface, if
not too rocky in character, is densely occupied, within a year or two,
with fire cherry, raspberries, and similar short-lived vegetation. In
the shadow of these forerunners young trees start, but they are of
comparatively worthless kinds. Fire cherry and poplar are usually
the most common species. Short-lived, rapidly growing trees of little
value in themselves, their principal use is to prepare a seed bed in
which the seeds of spruce and pine, maple and birch may germinate
and then pass through their delicate infancy under the protective
shadow of trees which will disappear usually before their competition
-has become seriously dangerous, and sustained by the rich humus they
have prepared. These are the wise nurses of the new forest, which
retire when their charges are oid and strong enough to shift for them-
selves. In the Rocky Mountains the lodgepole pine and the quaking

~aspen—the latter one of the trees called poplar or popple in the North-
east—are the principal nurses of more valuable kinds. Both form
pure stands of their ownand both attain subordinate commercial value,
The lodgepole is spreading over enormous areas through the agency
of fire, and with the disappearance of fire it will gradually but inevi-
tably lose its hold.

Not all trees require nurses when their elders have been burned or
cut away. Conspicuous exceptions are the red fir of Washington and
Oregon, the redwood of California, and over large stretches from

404 FOREST DESTRUCTION.

South Dakota to New Mexico and from Colorado to California, the
Western yellow pine. These trees replace themselves. The loss from
their destruction is to be measured in the fertility of the soil, in its
water-storing power, and in amount df production measured by time.

That a manufacturing plant should remain idle is instantly recog-
nized as a loss to any. community. The forest is a manufacturing
plant for the production of wood. That a forest soil should remain
idle from the production of trees, or should produce but a part of the
wood it is capable of making, is as clearly detrimental as for a factory
to be shut down or to be occupied but half the working days.

About one-third of the total stand of forests in the State of Wash-
ington when white men came there, has, since their arrival, been
destroyed by fire. A very large part of this area is still producing
but a fraction of the wood which it is capable of growing. The situa-
tion of such a forest may be likened to that of a machine shop, fitted
to produce shafts, cog wheels, and other mechanical devices, the owner
of which, when he wanted a shaft or a wheel, should remove one from
the machinery of the shop instead of using the shop to produce what
he wanted. Forestry assumes and asserts that forests may be used for
the production of wood without endangering or reducing their pro-
ductive capacity. That this is so, and that forest destruction is a use-
less waste, is being rapidly understood throughout the United States.
When it is not only understood, but generally acted upon, as is now
being done by some of the most progressive among the lumbermen
and other forest owners, the situation in forestry will be secure.

——

A Tt heii eP Cancc SEB ta caliala ht Mi rd it Be

Ae p>

>

Bel Adin? Ale Seat 0

B.—DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST MEANS DESTRUCTION OF THE
FAUNA AND FLORA.

By C. Hart Merriam.

Laat

The destruction of a forest is inevitably followed by a profound
modification—amounting often to annihilation—of the forest fauna
and flora. It goes without saying that when the trees are gone the
birds that live in the trees, as nuthatches, creepers, woodpeckers, war-
blers, vireos, jays, chickadees, and the like, and tree-loving mammals,
as the arboreal squirrels, opossums, raccoons, martens, and others, can
no longer exist.

But a forest fauna is by no means restricted to the species that live”
in trees. In most forests the ground is covered and protected by |
bushes and small plants, which for successful growth and reproduction —

require both shade and moisture, and which in turn furnish food and
shelter to many kinds of animals. When the forest is destroyed, pare
ticularly in regions of scanty rainfall, the undershrubs and other forms —

yt
a?

Stim Acuryh od

“Re

Dae

Smithsonian Report, 1901,—Pinchot.

PLATE IV.

Ae, oe pdney a)
=s +F-Sz _—

4 Ng ‘ °
nora TS ccetmalh es Ss, Pecati

FiG. 1.—REPRODUCTION OF PURE RED FIR ON BURNED LAND, WASHINGTON.

Red alder in the foreground.

a
S.

aoe ee

_—
=<

Fig. 2.—A FOREST WHICH

HAS BEEN LUMBERED CONSERVATIVELY, ADIRONDACKS.

FOREST DESTRUCTION. 405

of lowly vecetation wither and die, and the forms of animal life depend-
ent on tue shelter thus afforded are either destroyed or driven away.
It often happens that this undervegetation is swept away by fire or
devoured and trampled by sheep without immediate serious injury to
the trees. Persons familiar with the forests of our western mountains
do not need to be told that where sheep have been allowed to graze for
several years the undervegetation is destroyed and the surface of the
ground converted into an absolute desert, although the trees remain.
In these cases the extermination of the fauna and flora is almost as
complete as if the forest itself had been consumed. In other words,
the forest fauna, consisting in the main of species dependent on the
protection and food afforded by the smaller plants, can not exist when
these plants are removed. This is true not only of a host of insects
and other lowly forms of animal life, but also of most reptiles and
mammals, and many birds. Birds that nest on the ground or in logs
or shrubbery, such as grouse, sparrows, thrushes, wrens, and others,
are completely exterminated by fire, sheep grazing, and other agencies
which destroy the undervegetation. The same is true of mammals,
for the numerous kinds of mice, shrews, chipmunks, ground squirrels,
wood rabbits, weasels, and others that are dependent on the under-
vegetation of forests disappear when this shelter is removed.

It follows that preservation of the forests implies preservation of
the native flora and fauna. Hence the movement now on foot to set
aside certain forest reserves as permanent game preserves is worthy
of the earnest support of all who have at heart the welfare and per-
petuation of our forest fauna.

IRRIGATION.

By F. H. News 1,

Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey.

With the cessation of Indian wars and of daily news of frontier
strife, the people of our country have come to regard the United
States as settled and no longer affording opportunity for notable
expansion of internal resources. It is true that the frontier of civill-
zation has disappeared as regards the United States proper, and inter-
est in the warfare between the white settler and the savage, or native
occupant of the soil, has been transferred to outlying possessions.
Civilization in its march across the Mississippi Valley to the Rocky
Mountains has reached the Pacific coast (Pl. I), but in so doing took
rapid strides across a third of the continent and left but few footprints
on its course. Now, at the beginning of the twentieth century, when
we come to take account of the progress made, we are surprised to find
that one-third of the whole United States remains vacant land, still
belonging to the people as a whole and at the disposal of Congress.

The question may well be asked, Why is it, with the keen desire for
land ownership possessed by the American people, that this one-third
of the United States should be left untouched? The soil is known to
be as fertile as that of any part of the globe, and the land laws are
extremely liberal, so that there is no difficulty in securing title, and
farms can be had almost for the asking.

The anomalous condition exists that although one-third of the
United States proper, excluding Alaska and outlying possessions,
consists of vacant public land (as shown in fig. 1), yet there is no
longer an outlet for the homeseeker upon these lands. In the past the
vast unoccupied public domain has served as an outlet for surplus
labor and has afforded scope for the energies of thousands of young,
able-bodied men, who, while without financial means, have had the
ambition to become landowners and to grow up with the increasing
development of a new country.

After the close of the Civil War and at times of great industrial
depression, when men sought an opportunity to earn their daily living

407

408 IRRIGATION.

and the doors of factories and machine shops were closed, there was
a steady stream of pioneers, representing the best of the bone and
muscle of the country, going out upon the broad plains and prairies,
building up substantial communities and expanding within our own
borders the area of the highest type of civilization. All this has
passed away. There are no longer to be seen the prairie schooners and
the emigrant wagons filled with household goods, with the children on

‘ >.
2 fe ae JES
Y
Railroad and wagon grants Lands disposed of Indian reservations Forest reservations

Fic. 1.—Map showing location of yacant public lands. [The open or white spaces show the yacant
lands. ]

top or trailing behind. Only the Pike County wanderer, who is always
seeking something better, is still to be found pursuing his aimless
search for the promised land. It is true that the railroads have done
away with the necessity for the overland journey, but the railroads
cover only a very small extent of the vast inland empire of the United
States. Stretches of hundreds of miles of vacant public land lie
between the railroads, but across these fertile plains the homeseeker
no longer travels.

IRRIGATION. 409

Vacant and reserved areas in the western public-land States, in acres.

a. |
State or Territory. | Total area. Vacant. | Percent. Reserved.

MEI Ata Re S28 hoe oe as oe onan soccer tees | 72,268,800 | 48,771, 000 | 67.5 | 18,285, 000
California....... eee Pee. Ske oe eb Se | 99, 827, 200 42, 049, 000 42.1 | 16, 064, 000
oo no. Se 3 ae eee eee | 66, 332, 800 39, 116, 000 59.0 5, 694, 000
ape re ee nee ke eo asa e ke | 58,945,600 | 42,475, 000 Hg) 1, 747, 000
Lis 2 Ee eee en eee 52, 288, 000 1, 085, 000 QF | 988, 000
(Df EEE BS Rs eee i eaten ee | 92,998, 400 65, 803, 000 70.8 12, 348, 000
MERON te st ee, oy Sesh | 49,177, 600 9,927,000 | 20.2 70, 000
ES ee a ee ee ae ear ee 70, 233,600 | 61,322, 000 | 87.3 5, 983, 000
ELST Er ASR ee Ee ee reer ne | 78,374,400 | 55, 589, 000 70.9 6, 385, 000
MNMHBERUCOUA GS so 5222 oo Je Stowe de eenec eal 44,924,800 | 16, 956, 000 S77 3, 370, 000
UST, des Se Si gee ae eee Se 24, 851, 200 4, 654, 000 18.7 7, 158, 000
Tn Tee ee Ee eae ee ae a ae A el 60,518,400 | 33, 784, 000 55.8 5, 500, 000
LTE ATE i a eee | 49,184,000 | 11,869, 000 24.1 12, 803, 000
Ue teen are et ihe Sema te see 52,601,600 | 42,516, 000 80.8 5, 488, 000
aye hy iste Se i ee ene ee anee ere 42,803,200 | 11,913,000 27.8 10, 765, 000
TEC TST Sp ee aS a et ee ee | 62,448,000 | 47, 657, 000 76.3 7, 995, 000
VDT UDI 2522 ae eae ae ne ee aa ae | 972, 777, 600 | 535, 486, 000 | 55.1 | 120, 643, 000

It is not because there is lack of land, for in the Western States
and Territories there are over 500,000,000 acres still vacant, much of
it having the richest soil of any in the United States. It is not because

(?

te ae
ri
!
!
i
“nL

_ Fig. 2.—Map showing arid, semiarid, and humid regions of the United States. [Comparing this with
fig. 1, it is seen that most of the arid region is vacant. ]

the pioneer spirit no longer prevails, for the country is as full of
adventurous spirits as ever, and it requires merely the intimation that
some Indian reservation is to be opened for thousands of people to
gather to make the rush or try their chance in a lottery. There is
_ plenty of land and there are numberless people eager to occupy it.
What, then, is it that prevents their doing so? Simply the lack of
water. The country is dry and the ordinary farm crops can not be
cultivated without an artificial application of water at certain times
and seasons.

410 IRRIGATION.

It must not be supposed that there is no water to be had. On the
contrary, occasional storms occur, sending down yast quantities of
water and inundating the thirsty plain. ‘This rushes off and in a few
hours the channels of the rivers are nearly dry. There are also, at

Fic. 3.—Map showing location of forests and woodlands of the west. [The solid black indicates the
areas where trees valuable for lumber are growing, or recently have stood; the dotted areas show
the open woodlands with seattered trees valuable for fence posts or other farm purposes. ]

long intervals, large perennial streams, but most of these flow in
narrow, deep canyons.

The country under discussion is not wholly uninhabited, but at
nearly every spring and along every river which is not flowing in a
narrow canyon there are to be found ranches and occasional small
towns. All of the easily available sources of water supply have been

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE lI.

a. Irrigated farms in Atanum Valley, Washington.

b. Sunnyside fruit orchard, Yakima Valley, Washington.

DESERT LANDS NEAR PACIFIC COAST RECLAIMED BY IRRIGATION.

IRRIGATION. 4} 1

seized, and in the aggregate over 7,500,000 acres have been brought
under irrigation, this being a little over 1 per cent of the total area
of the remaining vacant lands.

Not all of this 500,000,000 acres can be irrigated, for some of it is
mountainous and covered in part with timber (fig. 3), other portions
are rough and broken, and even if all of the floods were conserved in
great reservoirs and all of the rivers which could be diverted were
turned out from their canyons, there would not be water for more
than 60,000,000 acres, or possibly 100,000,000 acres; but this would
be a great increase—say, ten times—over the area now utilized.

In that portion of the United States where the vacant public lands
lie, and where farms and homes can not be made without irrigation,
there are now living 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 people. If ten times the
amount of land were irrigated it is. possible that the population would
be increased to at least 40,000,000 people, and possibly far more,
because of the other industries which would be developed as more
land is cultivated. The mineral wealth of the region is very great.
Gold, silver, iron, and coal are now produced, the precious metals
having special value. The poorer ores are for the most part neg-
lected, because of the high cost of transportation, labor, food, and
forage. With more land cultivated in scattered areas throughout this
country and with greater population better transportation facilities
must come, also cheaper food material, making it possible to work
some of the low-grade ores. Great deposits which are now practically
valueless could then be worked, affording employment for thousands
of men and adding to the population and wealth of the country. With
a regulated water supply, such as that needed in irrigation, cheap
water power can be had, not only for pumping water to the fields,
but for various industries connected with the handling and reduction
of the ores, and thus, one industry feeding another, the West must
develop its wonderful resources with increasing rapidity.

But the questions may well be asked, Why is this not now taking
place if there are so many people wanting land, and why is it that the
settled area has actually diminished in some portions of the West and
population has tended to concentrate in the towns? It is because the
irrigators and investors in irrigation systems have utilized all the
easily available sources of water and have developed agriculture by
irrigation nearly to the limit of the capacity of the systems. They
have demonstrated that irrigation is not an experiment, but an assured
success, highly profitable to the man who cultivates his own land.
More than this, they have shown by numerous failures that reclama-
tion works on a large scale do not pay financially nor yield the satisfae-
tory returns that the small works have yielded. There are no longer
opportunities for small works, and if the big enterprises can not be
made sources of profit, what then is to be done?

4192 IRRIGATION.

Several instances can be cited where corporations have been formed,
stocks and bonds issued, and a million dollars invested in great recla-
mation works, in building reservoirs, dams, and canals, resulting in
increasing land values in the vicinity to $3,000,000, yet the investors
lost every dollar, because they could not control and bring to them-
selves the profits of the enterprise. These went to the public, and
under existing conditions could not be realized by the men who took
the risk. The people who bought stocks and bonds of irrigation enter-
prises are no longer willing to play the part of philanthropist to bene-
fit the public; and they say that ‘‘although the schemes offered are
equally enticing as those in the past, we will not be led into another
enterprise of this character.” Hence, development has practically
ceased, and compared with what might be done, the country with its
vast opportunities seems almost stagnant.

The following table gives the extent of irrigation at the beginning
and end of the decade 1890-1900, and shows the gradual increase of
this method of tilling the soil:

Area irrigated.

States and Territories. 1890. 1900.
Acres. Acres.

ASIZOND 5 52 Fj eee ve ae owas sa aa eae eas ob nea cs paw see tea eee eee eee 70, 000 180, 000
California: 3. too4 ee Se a ere ee eee: 1, 200, 000 1, 500, 000
Colorgdo 254 ssesce = sake cen 5 aoeee shee ee ee ma eS nie ee ee eee 1,000, 1, 600, 000
G61) ¢(c enka Same! eeeeeer ees Sap See iy) eee eee ae eee Re a oe 230, 000 600, 000
Montaria==- 2-2 02se 555. 5 od Sek Pah ne ers OS SC ee ee IEE eee aS 380, 000 900, 000
Nevada, 2.0.2. a2 i sicaas ESS h ses oe e Des ae eee ee 240, 000 500, 000
New: Mexico: .2: 3 sxsecrs oes ge ae tae eee soe ce eee oe ee eee 95, 000 200, 000
OVvreron rs 22526 FSS Sssege 1k OSS se on eee See ae toe ree 180, 000 400, 000
Utabl co. seco o. soe ate vs Sec ctease eens baabaee Ab eee aon ee ae eee A 600, 000
Washington: 222.5 22.233. sei othe cae ened cud cee ee oee econ ane ee aoe oe eee ee 100, 000 140, 000
WYOMING oon occ ae Feces dae ee Soe ee oe oe ee eee 250, 000 600, 000
Subhamid 2 8 ose cc ses Sa ee ee es Shae a ee eS eee 70, 000 280, 000

Potals 2 3: 3528. Bete ae ee ee eee ee 4,115,000 | 7,500,000

Private enterprise has already accomplished what it can in the utili-
zation of the smaller streams, but there still remain great rivers and

oe

torrential floods whose control is beyond the possibility of individuals —
or corporations seeking pr ofitable financial enter prises. The work of |

reclamation, if done at all, must be through public agencies. (PI. II.)

These facts have been recognized by President Roosevelt in his first
message to Congress, and by his Secretary of the Interior, as well as
by numerous writers upon social and economic questions, who are
beginning to sound the note of warning against further delay, against

the policy of procrastination, which allows the speculative element to —
gradually acquire possession of the places where water can be stored, —
and to render difficult or impracticable the ultimate reclamation of the —

public land and the creation of homes for workers.
President Roosevelt, in his clear-cut, decisive fashion, has reached

to the very heart of the matter and has recommended that the Govy- —

a

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell PLATE Il.

a. Head of Sunnyside Canal, Washington.

b. Along the line of Sunnyside Canal, Washington.

RESULTS OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN BUILDING IRRIGATION CANALS FROM THE
SMALLER RIVERS OF THE WEST.

‘oe
ee

IRRIGATION. 413

ernment, the great land owner, should construct and maintain the
reservoirs as it does other public works. He says that this is properly
a national function, and that it is as right for the National Government
to make the streams and rivers of the arid region useful, by engineer-
ing works for water storage, as it is to make useful the rivers and
harbors of the humid region by engineering works of another kind.

There is a widespread demand on the part of the citizens of the
country, the owners of this vast domain, for the adoption by the Gov-
ernment of some policy leading to the ultimate reclamation of the
West, such as will permit the largest possible nymber of homes.
The labor organizations see in this an outlet for overcrowded condi-
tions; the manufacturing, jobbing, and transportation interests of the
country appreciate the overwhelming importance of this great home
market; the more intelligent farmers see here opportunities for
homes for the younger members of their families and recognize that
the agricultural prosperity of the country rests largely upon increased
growth of manufactures and consequently enlarged demand for prod-
ucts. The one discordant note is from the comparatively few who
do not understand that the development of the Western lands must in
any event proceed slowly, and that the agricultural products of the
arid region do not and never can compete with those of the Kast,
since the character of the crops and the time when placed upon the
market differ widely from those of any other section of the country.

The importance of this potential competition is overstated by some
Eastern farmers. They do not appreciate the fact that wheat, corn,
and other staple products of the East are not raised by irrigation, save
for the most limited local consumption, and never will be, because the
cost of cultivation under irrigation is such that only the highest priced
products can be raised. The citrus fruits and the green and dried
fruits differ from those of the East, and have in no respect reduced
the price or limited the product of apples, peaches, or any other fruit
of the Eastern States. For sugar beets the arid climate has been
found especially suitable, but the amount raised under irrigation, even
under the most favorable circumstances, can not influence the sugar
market, being infinitesimal in comparison with the product of cane
sugar of Louisiana, the Hawaiian Islands, or Cuba.

The fear of some of our Eastern farmers that the development of
the arid West will further reduce the value of agricultural lands and
products arises from a complete misapprehension of the subject. The
great increase in farming area in the United States was from 1860 to

1890, in what is known as the North Central Division, including the

States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Iowa, Missouri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. The
improved area increased from 52,000,000 acres to 184,000,000 acres,
the principal increase being in Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Nebraska,

414 IRRIGATION.

and Kansas. Over 80,000,000 acres were brought under cultivation
during these thirty years in these five States alone. The population
of the United States in 1870 was less than 40,000,000, or about half
what it is at present. The most extraordinary increase in cultivated
area was from 1875 to 1885.

This wonderful increase of improved acreage in the North Central
Division alone, of over 130,000,000 acres in thirty years (the popula-
tion of the whole United States being less than half what it is now),
has had an effect upon land values that can never again take place.
There is no other, area of agricultural land comparable to that of the
Mississippi Valley. In arid regions there are vast tracts which ulti-
mately may support a larger population, but these can not be brought
under cultivation with.anything like the rapidity of that practiced on
the fertile prairies. Even with millions of dollars available it will
not be possible to conserve water for the arid land as rapidly as the
increasing population demands new farms.

At most, water can be conserved for 60,000,000 acres, or possibly
100,000,000 acres. To do this will require one or more, generations.
Streams must be carefully measured year after year, reservoirs sur-
veyed, foundations examined by diamond drill or excavation, plans and
estimates prepared, contracts let and masonry structures built, tunnels
dug through the solid rocks, and a thousand operations be successfully
performed before water can be had. Then the ditches must be dug,
the laterals laid out, the grounds cleared, and the soil plowed and
leveled. There can be no greater contrast, so far as time is concerned,
than is offered between this necessary long preliminary work and the
conditions on the fertile prairies of Iowa, where men have merely to
drive the plow and plant the seed. (PI. III.)

It is now too late to speak of Western competition with Eastern farms.
This competition and its disastrous results to the far East has long since
taken place. The cultivation of the prairies of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska,
and the Dakotas revolutionized agricultural values and put them on a
firm basis from which they can no longer be shaken. The Mississippi
Valley now sets the standard, since the area of new land in the coun-
try which can be brought under cultivation in any one year is almost
inconceivably small when compared with that now cultivated.

The increase of population in the United States is from 2 to 3 per
cent per year. The increase of irrigated area has been less than one-
tenth of 1 per cent per year of- the improved lands of the country.
By the most: strenuous exertions it: will be impossible to increase. the
area of irrigated lands to 1 per cent of the improved lands of. the
country, or less than half the rate of increase of population.

It must not be supposed for a minute that because the increase of
irrigated lands will be relatively so small as to be inappreciable
in agricultural values their importance is correspondingly limited.

“LTINA AIMOTAS SYNLONYLS LVEYH “WVWO ‘cogsIq NVS ‘WVq YSLVML3ESMS

“WI a4tvd *JEMEeN— LOG ‘HOdey URlUOSYWUS

IRRIGATION. 415

While the irrigated lands have never and can never compete with the
rest of the country in agricultural values yet they afford the only

‘remaining opportunity for the creation of homes, and they insure the
highest type of agricultural and social development. The small irri-

gated farm, with intensive cultivation and the suburban conditions

‘made possible under the circumstances, is the most attractive farm

life, and the owners and cultivators of these farms form the most
stable and substantial class of citizens, so that, although the numbers
and the area may be relatively small, yet the opportunities are great.

Fic. 4.—Map of irrigated and irrigable areas. |The solid black spots are the irrigated areas, the
dotted areas are the localities where irrigation may be extended. |

It is estimated that by the construction of storage reservoirs, by
diverting large rivers, and by sinking deep or artesian wells, it will
be practicable ultimately to irrigate nearly ten times the area now
cultivated by irrigation (fig. 4). There is a wide margin as to the
probable acreage, and it has been placed at from 60,000,000 — to
100,000,000 acres ultimately reclaimable within two or three genera-
tions. The amount, however, will depend wholly upon the treatment
now accorded by Congress to the public lands. By leaving matters as
they are, only a small proportion of this extent will ever be irrigated,

416 IRRIGATION.

because of the character of the vested rights now accruing and the
impossibility of entry upon these large works when the sontrol of the
water has passed into the hands of the speculative element.

National aid is not asked to secure the beginning of the work of
irrigation, nor to take up an experimental enterprise. The whole
object of national assistance is along the line of making it possible for
the people of the country to continue to secure homes on the public

POKLA

Fic, 5.—Map of dry farming areas. [The black portions show the localities where crops have been
raised by dry farming.]

domain through the ability to obtain water to be brought to the land
by ditches or conduits built by themselves. It is asked for the same
reason that the settlers called upon the Government to protect them
from the savages, from the overflows of great rivers, and to aid
navigation by establishing light-houses and render it possible. by
dredging bars across the harbors. As before stated, none of these
pay in the sense of a commercial, undertaking, but the Government and
the people as a whole secure a larger share of prosperity through
making possible the opportunities for the pursuit of various industries.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE IV.

a. Ruins of pioneer’s scd house, abandoned from drought.

|

|

|

|

|

\

j

b. Home made possible by irrigation. f
SOD HOUSES OF THE SUBHUMID PLAINS.

IRRIGATION. 417

The National Government has already begun in part the work of
reclamation by setting aside the summits of the mountains from which
issue the rivers most important in irrigation, and creating these into
forest reserves for the beneficial influence exercised upon the stream
flow. It is necessary to go still farther, and build within these forests
certain large reservoirs to store the flood waters and regulate the flow
of the streams. These should never fall into private or speculative
control, but should be administered for the benefit of the communities
situated often in various States.

The people of the country have made strenuous efforts to utilize
some of the lands now waste, and by individual experiment and failure
have demonstrated that certain portions of these crops can be raised
without irrigation. The accompanying small map (fig. 5) shows, in
black, the localities where crops have been and can sometimes be
raised by what is known as dry farming; that is, without the arti-
ficial application of water. East of the 97th meridian nearly all crops
are thus raised, but west of it the dry-farming areas rapidly diminish
in extent. In western Kansas and Nebraska there are comparatively
few places where crops are successful more than three years out of
five. During the years or cycles of unusual moisture settlement has
progressed westward across these States and people have built homes,
using for building material the tough sod which covers the ground,
this being the only available material in a country destitute of trees
and stones. The recurring droughts, however, have compelled many
of these people to abandon their dry farms, and thousands of homes
have been ruined, the only people left in the country being those who
have secured a water supply through wells. The contrasting condi-
tions are illustrated in Pl. IV, showing the ruined sod house and the
successful home, the latter rendered possible by obtaining a water
supply.

The laws and customs governing the riparian rights in the humid and
semihumid portions of the country have been modified or made of no
effect in the States and Territories lying within the arid region. It is
there recognized that water is part of the common stock necessary for life
and industry, to be drawn upon by all in accordance with certain orderly
procedures. The United States, the original owner of the land, and
stili the possessor of the greater part of it, alone has the right and the
ability to conserve the waters for the best interests of the several
States and communities. Proprietorship of water should never be
recognized, but the rights of each person who can put a certain
amount to beneficial use should be clearly recognized and guarded in
the order of priority, beneficial use being the measure and the limit of
any right.

The laws in the different States of the arid region differ widely, but
there are certain underlying principles which are being established by

sM 1901 27

418 IRRIGATION.

court decisions, and through these most of the complications are being
satisfactorily solved. The conditions which arise where a stream =

crosses State borders are, however, beyond the control of local o— a

latures and must come thie the cognizance of Congress.

The cost of irrigation has been as low as from $2 to $5 per aere, irri- o
gated by the original or pioneer ditches. This matter has been —
thoroughly discussed by the Eleventh and Twelfth Censuses, and the —
average cost of bringing water to the land throughout the country is —
shown to have been, in round numbers, $12 an acre. The average
annual cost of ae repairs, or a paid for conveying the —
water has been $1.25 per acre. In case of more expensive works built —
by corporations the cost of reclaiming the lands has ranged as high as
$20 an acre, or even $25. Such land in first cost can not compete —
with that offered for sale in the Mississippi Valley. The expensive
irrigated lands have the advantage of continual cropping, the ground ~
being immediately prepared for seeding as soon as one crop is removed;
or, in the case of alfalfa, one cutting follows another throughout the
year, as many as seven crops being had from an acre. ;

Private enterprise has already gone nearly to its full limit. State —
action has been confined almost wholly to attempted improvement in
legislation and control of the distribution of the water among the irri-
gators. National works are being urged by those who have most thor-
oughly studied the subject, upon the ground that the nation alone is
in a position to conserve the water supply, since it controls the land
and the sources of most of the important streams. It is not suggested
that there should be an interference with vested rights, nor with the
distribution of water to the irrigators by State officials wherever such
exist. Under anv suggested combination of interests in reclamation
the nation must construct the reservoirs, the large tunnels and diver-
sion works from great rivers, the experimental deep or artesian wells —
(Pl. V) which demonstrate the existence of underground supplies in~
desert areas, and other works the magnitude of which entails cost too”
great for private enterprise or too far-reaching for State action.

The recognition of irrigation as a great national problem was first
prominently given by Maj. John Wesley Powell, for more than thir
teen years the Director of the United States Gesloniel Survey. |

In his explorations of the West, made shortly after the Civil War, —
Major Powell became impressed with the magnitude of the resources
of the country, and the dependence of these upon water conservation |
and the largest development of irrigation. His report on the lands of —
the arid region, printed in 1879, is regarded as a classic on the subject.
The weight of his personality and the impress made upon members of
Congress resulted finully in the authorization, in 1888, of specific
examinations of the extent to which the arid Tends can be reclaimed. —
Soon after this work was begun, it was thought by some that this.

PLATE V.

1901.—Newell.

’

Smithsonian Report

ARTESIAN WELLS MAKING PRODUCTIVE LANDS OTHERWISE STERILE.

see

IRRIGATION. 419

larger utilization of the resources of the West would interfere to a
certain extent with other projects, and the cattlemen in particular, who
at that time were not friendly to the development of irrigation, pro-
tested against what they termed national ‘interference’ with their
exclusive use of the lands belonging to all.

A select committee of the United States Senate was appointed to
investigate the whole subject, and made a trip through the arid lands,
accompanied by Major Powell. The report of this committee, in four
yolumes, embodies the observations and testimony, together with a
majority and minority report, the latter outlining the line of action
which Major Powell, from his thorough study of the region, deemed

most feasible.

_ The results of the diversity of opinion developed at that time were

disastrous to immediate progress, but, public interest being aroused,

resulted in the gradual crystallization of ideas along the lines which

Major Powell had suggested, so that by the end of the decade, state-

ments of facts which had aroused violent opposition at the outset were

no longer disputed, but belonged to common knowledge.

It is not too much to say that the people of the United States, par-

ticularly those of the West, owe to Major Powell a debt of gratitude

for the manner in which he brought forward the whole question of
reclamation of the public lands and placed it far in advance of what it
would otherwise have been.

- The investigation of the arid regions was never actually dropped
after it was once begun, although it languished fora number of years.
New life and energy were infused by Major Powell’s successor, the
present Director of the United States Geological Survey, Hon. Charles
D. Walcott, and a great popular movement has been started by an
organization known as the ‘* National Irrigation Association,” com-
posed largely of prominent citizens concerned in public affairs, phil-
anthropists, eastern manufacturers, the representatives of transpor-
ation interests, labor leaders, and others who see in the arid West a
great potential market for goods and for labor, as well as an outlet
for the growing population.

A culmination has finally been reached in the report of the Secre-
tary of the Interior recommending the immediate construction of
certain large works; and most notably in the direct and incisive
message of President Roosevelt, bringing the attention of Congress
and the people to the fact that the utilization of the water resources
of the West is one of the greatest internal questions of the day.

All intelligent legislation is best pronioted when based upon full
knowledge, and an enterprise so vast in its ultimate magnitude should
be undertaken only after thorough study of present conditions and
future needs. The actual work of construction of reclamation proj
ects should be entered upon only after a full knowledge has been had

420) IRRIGATION, a

of the cost and benefits of each, and every individual scheme should
be considered solely upon its own merits and its relation to the full
ultimate development of the country. This work, as above stated, has
already been committed by Congress to the Geological Survey, whic
in 1888 was authorized to begin the investigation of the extent to whick
the arid lands could be reclaimed by irrigation. In the succeeding
years this organization has been systematically measuring streams,
surveying reservoir sites, and has now a fully equipped and experi-

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Fic. 6.—Map showing (by cross lines) approximate location and extent of open range.

enced corps of hydraulic engineers, many of whom have had experi-
ence in the construction of large works. ee,
The necessity for prompt action is shown by the way in which the
remaining public lands are being taken up by speculators. It has
been pointed out by recent students and writers upon the subject tha
although several million acres are being disposed of annually, yet
these are not passing into the hands of people who are making homes
upon them, and that the homestead and desert-land act is being usec
as a means for securing titles to lands which are not brought undet
cultivation. | "

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE VI.

ES

GRAZING LANDS AND WELLS UPON WHICH THEIR USEFULNESS LARGELY DEPENDS.

Dagar ake Sega Ce

pene a

IRRIGATION. 421

The greater part of the arid West is devoted to grazing. The
accompanying small map (fig. 6) indicates the vast extent; the open
grazing land being shown by the cross lining. Herds of cattle and
flocks of sheep range over the public lands, eating the herbage with-
out restriction, the whole country being practically an open common.
This business is at times extremely profitable, and has attracted large
capital, influential companies being formed. The business has in-
creased to such an extent that the ranges have been overstocked, and,
being free to all, there has been a struggle for existence.

Success in the grazing business upon the open land is dependent
largely upon ability to control the water supply. If a man can obtain
possession of a spring or stream he can exclude the cattle or sheep of
other owners from the water, and thus be in a position to monopolize
thousands of acres of grazing land, useless to others because their
animals can not obtain water to drink. By systematically taking up
small tracts along both sides of a stream these can be strung out in
such a way as to control the water frontage, and by fencing contigu-
ous 40-acre tracts a continuous line can be made for many miles, pre-
venting access to water. Cattle companies have employed men with
the understanding that they would thus take up land along the streams,
and a glance at the map of the great unoccupied public domain shows
the 40-acre tracts entered in such a fashion as to include nearly all of
the running water.

The keen competition for grazing brought about by overstocking
the public ranges has thus resulted in putting a premium upon lands
which, while not irrigable nor suitable for farming, yet control access
to water. A recent advertisement in a Western paper illustrates the
condition: ‘* For sale, 160 acres, controlling 10,000 acres of good Govy-
ernment grazing.” No particular harm would result if the lands thus
disposed of by the Government passed into the hands of men who
would make best use of them, but asa rule this is not the case. Areas
which might be made into many farms are held as portions of a great
cattle range, the owners of which can make a larger interest on their
investment by thus holding it than by attempting to conserve the water
and to subdivide the land into small tracts. Many of the best reservoir
sites are being taken up in one way or another by men who confess-
edly do not intend to utilize them, but to hold the land for sale at a
good price whenever water conservation is attempted. Speculations
of this kind are lawful, and may be commendable to a certain degree,
but when they result in tying up some of the best land of the country
and in excluding population they become injurious to the public
welfare.

But the question may be asked, Why should so much interest attach
to the West rather than to the humid East, where an artificial water
supply need not be provided as a requisite for agriculture? The

492 IRRIGATION.

2
j

answer is that the Government is the great landowner of the western
half of the United States, and that it is for the interests of all of the
people of the country to have these lands settled by men tilling their
own farms; but, more than this, agriculture in an arid region yields”
results far greater than in humid climates or those of uncontrollable
moisture. In countries where the sun shines every day the develop-
ment of plant life, with proper moisture, is far greater than in regions”
of prevailing clouds and occasional storms. The yield per acre is”
greater, and where the temperature is favorable crop follows crop _
throughout the year. With unlimited sunshine and properly regu-_
lated moisture the farmer has a far safer and more remunerative |
occupation than in the East.

Irrigation properly conducted means intensive farming, the cultiva-
tion of the soil in the best possible manner, and diversified crops.
The area which any one man can cultivate under such conditions is far
less and the yield per acre correspondingly greater. In the best irri-
gated regions farms are very small, the average size of cultivated
area in Utah being less than 30 acres. Small farms and the economy
which must be practiced in conveying water results in comparatively
dense rural population. In southern California the irrigated tracts
in orchards and vineyards are so small that the farming region takes”
on the appearance of suburban communities. The houses, instead of
being a mile apart, as on the prairies and plains of the central part of |
the country, are within a few rods of one another. Social intercourse
is possible, good roads are assured, and rapid communication through
electric car lines.

Cultivation of arid lands by means of irrigation results in a far
higher type of civilization than is possible on isolated and lonely
farms. Diversified agriculture, the raising of vegetables and small
fruits, and the keeping of various domestic animals also necessitate
greater mental as well as physical activity, continuous employment for
all the members of a family, and many minor industries impossible
where attention is concentrated upon a single crop, such as wheat,
corn, or cotton.

The small farms so successful under irrigation make possible a colony —
life such as that practiced by the Mormons in Utah and exemplified -
in the early history of the Greeley Colony in Colorado. The success
attained has led to a most interesting experiment, that of the Salvation |
Army helping the people to get back to the soil. In their work in
big cities the Salvation Army has come across almost innumerable
men and women who are eager for an opportunity to get away and
start life anew in the open air. Out of the thousands of applications
there have been selected certain families apparently best qualified for’
success, and these have been located upon small irrigable farms. |
Nothing is actually given these people outright except the opportunity :

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE VII.

a. Orange grove irrigated by furrow method.

b. Young orchards under irrigation.

BARREN LANDS RECLAIMED.

CC

IRRIGATION. 493

to help themselves. They are sold a tract of land and a small house,
necessary tools, and seed upon credit, and are given a reasonable time
to repay the loan thus made, with interest. From one aspect the
enterprise might be regarded as money-making, but from the higher
standpoint it is one of the greatest philanthropies yet undertaken.

This work of the Salvation Army in establishing colonies in Colo-
rado and in California is really more than an experiment, for suflicient
time has elapsed to give it trial, and its success may be considered as
demonstrated—sufliciently, at least, to justify further and larger
efforts along this line. It is not believed that the ‘‘submerged tenth”
ean be lifted bodily and put upon the land to become successful farm-
ers, but the weight of humanity above this tenth, the keen struggle of
those a little better off, helps to submerge the despairing portion of
the community and to obstruct every avenue of escape. Relief from
the congested conditions of the cities can come, in part at least,
through furnishing opportunities for those who are able to go out
upon the land and to become independent landowners and citizens.
Ordinary farming can not offer any attraction to these people, who
have spent much of their lives in the cities, as they are largely depend-
ent upon keeping in crowds. The small farm and the suburban life
possible under irrigation alone make it possible for such people to
leave the city environment and become tillers of the soil.

To sum up the problem, we may say that we have a vast extent of
vacant public land of wonderful fertility; we have water which will
make a portion of this productive; we have the people who are seek-
ing an opportunity to make a living, and who would gladly escape
from the congestion of the cities; and we have the public funds and the
public interest toward developing our country to the highest degree;
but we are a long way from bringing these powerful forces to effective
action. We are allowing the lands so necessary to the development of
the nation to drift out of its control; we are allowing the waters and
the opportunities to conserve them to be monopolized and become
subject for speculation; and we are allowing barriers to be gradually
erected shutting off the opportunities for development of our great
internal resources.

THE PALACE OF MINOS.*

By Arruur J. Evans.

Less than a generation back the origin of Greek civilization, and with
‘it the sources of all great culture that has ever been, were wrapped
‘in an impenetrable mist. That ancient world was still girt round
within its narrow confines by the circling *‘stream of ocean.” Was
there anything beyond? The fabled kings and heroes of the. Homeric
Age, with their palaces and strongholds, were they aught, after all,
_ but more or less humanized sun myths?

One man had faith, accompanied by works, and in Dr. Schliemann
the science of classical antiquity found its Columbus. Armed with the
spade he brought to light from beneath the mounds of ages a real
‘Troy; at Tiryns and Mycene he laid bare the palace and the tombs
and treasures of Homeric kings. A new world opened to investiga-
ion, and the discoveries of its first explorer were followed up success-
fally by Dr. Tsountas and others on Greek soil. The eyes of observers
were opened, and the traces of this prehistoric civilization began to
make their appearance far beyond the limits of Greece itself. From
Cyprus and Palestine to Sicily and southern Italy, and even to the
coasts of Spain, the colonial and industrial enterprise of the ** Myce-
neans” has left its mark throughout the Mediterranean basin. Pro-
fessor Petrie’s researches in Egypt have conclusively shown that as
early at least as the close of the Middle Kingdom, or, approximately
‘speaking, the beginning of the second millennium B. C., imported

“Reprinted from the Monthly Review, Vol. II, London, January-March, 1901, pp.
115-132. The most scientific account of the exploration of the Cretan labyrinth is
the official statement of Mr. Evans in the Annual of the British School at Athens,
1899-1900. The following is a brief list of papers on the subject by men who speak
with authority: (1) Paul Walters in Arch., August, 1900, 3, pp. 141-151 (pl.; 6
figs.); (2) Mr. Evans, Biblia, September, 1900; (3) Mr. Evans and Mr. D. E.
_ Hogarth, Biblia, January, 1901 (see also Biblia, November and December, 1900);

(4) Mr. Louis Dyer, the Nation, August 2, 1900; (5) Mr. Evans, Murray’s Monthly
_ Magazine, February, 1901, a'd (6) Mr. Hogarth in the Contemporary Review,
— December, 1900. In Biblia, 1901, pp. 121-128, Mr. Evans describes the recent dis-
‘coyeries at Knossus up to the middle of May; and the Nation, June 27, 1901, con-
_ tains extracts from letters of Mr. Evans to the Times dated May 16 and June 12,
telling of the latest results.

; 425

426 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

fEgean vases were finding their way into the Nile Valley. By the
great days of the eighteenth dynasty, in the sixteenth and succeeding
centuries B. C., this intercourse was of such a kind that Mycenzan
art, now in its full maturity of bloom, was reacting on that of the con-
temporary Pharaohs and infusing a cae European element into the
old conventional style of the land of the Pyramids and the Sphinx.
But the picture was still very incomplete. Nay, it might even be
said that its central figure was not yet filled in. In all these excava-
tions and researches the very land to which ancient tradition unani-

mously pointed as the cradle of Greek civilization had been left out of |

count. ‘To adapt the words applied by Gelon to slighted Sicily and
Syracuse, ‘‘The spring was wanting from the year” of that earlier

Hellas. Yet Crete, the central island—a half-way house between three —
continents—flanked by the great Libyan promontory and linked by

smaller island stepping stones to the Peloponnese and the mainland of
Anatolia, was called upon by nature to play a leading part in the devel-
opment of the early A/gean culture.

Here, in his royal city of Knossos, ruled Minos, or whatever historic
personage is covered by that name, and founded the first sea empire of
Greece, extending his dominion far and wide over the Avgean isles and
coastlands. Athens paid to him its human tribute of youthsand maidens.
His colonial plantations extended east and west along the Mediterranean
basin till Gaza worshipped the Cretan Zeus and a Minoan city rose in
western Sicily. But it isas the first lawgiver of Greece that he achieved
his greatest renown, and the code of Minos became the source of all
later legislation. As the wise ruler and inspired lawgiver there is
something altogether biblical in his legendary character. He is the
Cretan Moses, who every nine years repaired to the cave of Zeus,
whether on the Cretan Ida or on Dicta, and received from the god of

the mountain the laws for his people. Like Abraham, he is described —

as the ‘‘friend of God.” Nay, in some accounts, the mythical being of
Minos has a tendency to blend with that of his native Zeus.
This Cretan Zeus, the god of the mountain, whose animal figure was

the bull and whose symbol was the double ax, had indeed himself a~

human side, which distinguishes him from his more ethereal namesake

of classical Greece. In the great cave of Mount Dicta, whose inmost
shrine, adorned with natural pillars of gleaming stalactite, leads deep —

down to the waters of an unnavigated pool, Zeus himself was said to
have been born and fed with honey and goat’s milk by the nymph
Amaltheia. On the conical height immediately above the site of
Minos’s city—now known as Mount Juktas—and still surrounded by a
Cyclopean inclosure, was pointed out his tomb. Classical Greece
scoffed at this primitive legend, and for this particular reason first
gave currency to the proverb that ‘‘the Cretans are always liars.”
St. Paul, too, adopted this hard saying, but in Crete itself the new

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THE PALACE OF MINOS. ADT.

religion, which here, as elsewhere, so eagerly availed itself of what
might aid its own propaganda in existing belief, seems to have dealt
more gently with the scenes of the lowly birth and holy sepulcher of a
mortal god. On the height of Juktas, on the peaks of Dicta, which
overlooked, one the birthplace, the other the temple of the Cretan
Zeus, pious hands have built chapels, the scenes of annual pilgrimage,
dedicated to Authentés Christos, **the Lord Christ.” In his shrine at
Gaza the Minoan Zeus had already in pagan days received the distin-
guished epithet of Marnas, ** the lord” in its Syrian form.

If Minos was the first lawgiver, his craftsman Deedalus was the first
traditional founder of what may be called a ‘‘school of art.” Many
were the fabled works wrought by them for King Minos, some grew-
some, like the brass man Talos. In Knossos, the royal city, he built
the dancing ground, or ‘‘choros,” of Ariadne, and the famous laby-
rinth. In its inmost maze dwelt the minotaur, or ‘‘ bull of Minos,”
fed daily with human victims, till such time as Theseus, guided by
Ariadne’s ball of thread, penetrated to its lair, and, after slaying the
monster, rescued the captive youths and maidens. Such, at least, was
the Athenian tale. A more prosaic tradition saw in the labyrinth a
building of many passages, the idea of which Deedalus had taken from
the great Egyptian mortuary temple on the shores of Lake Moeris, to
which the Greeks gave the same name; and recent philological research
has derived the name itself from the labrys, or double ax, the emblem
of the Cretan and Carian Zeus.

Mythological speculation has seen in the labyrinth, to use the words
of a learned German, ‘‘a thing of belief and fancy, an image of the
starry heaven with its infinitely winding paths, in which, nevertheless,
the sun and moon so surely move about.” We shall see that the spade
has supplied a simpler solution.

When one calls to mind these converging lines of ancient tradition
it becomes impossible not to feel that, without Crete, ‘‘the spring is
taken away” indeed from the Mycenzan world. Great as were the
results obtained by exploration on the sites of this ancient culture on
the Greek mainland and elsewhere, there was still a sense of incom-
pleteness. In nothing was this more striking than in the absence of
any written document. A few signs had, indeed, been found on a vase
handle, but these were set aside as mere ignorant copies of Hittite or
Egyptian hieroglyphs. In the volume of his monumental work which
deals with Mycenzan art, M. Perrot was reduced to the conclusion
that, *‘ as at present advised, we can continue toaffirm that for the whole
of this period, neither in Peloponnese nor in central Greece, no more
upon the buildings nor upon the thousand and one objects of domestic
use and luxury that have come forth from the tombs, has anything
been discovered that resembles any form of writing.”

But was this, indeed, the last word of scientific exploration? Was

428 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

it possible that a people so advanced in other respects—standing in |

such intimate relations with Egypt and the Syrian lands where some

form of writing had been an almost immemorial possession—should —
have been absolutely wanting in this most essential element of civili- —
zation? I could not believe it. Once more one’s thoughts turned to —
the land of Minos, and the question irresistibly suggested itself—was
that early heritage of fixed laws compatible with a complete ignorance —
of the artof writing? An abiding tradition of the Cretans themselves,

preserved by Diodoros, shows that they were better informed. The |
Pheenicians, they said, had not invented letters; they had simply |

changed their forms; in other words, they had only improved on an —
existing system.

It is now seven years since a piece of evidence came into my hands —
which went far to show that long before the days of the introduction
of the Phcenician alphabet, as adopted by the later Greeks, the Cretans
were, in fact, possessed of a system of writing. While hunting out —
ancient engraved stones at Athens I came upon some three and four —
sided seals showing on each of their faces groups of hieroglyphic and
linear signs distinct from the Egyptian and Hittite, but evidently rep-
resenting some form of script. On inquiry I learned that these seals —

had been found in Crete. A clue was in my hands, and, like Theseus, —
I resolved to follow it, if possible to the inmost recesses of the laby- —

rinth. That the source and center of the great Mycenzan civilization —
remained to be unearthed on Cretan soil I had never doubted, but the —
prospect now opened of finally discovering its written records.

From 1894 onward I undertook a series of campaigns of exploration

chiefly in central and eastern Crete. In all directions fresh evidence

continually came to light—Cyclopean ruins of cities and strongholds, —
beehive tombs, vases, votive bronzes, exquisitely engraved gems—
amply demonstrating that in fact the great days of that ‘‘island story”

lay far behind the historic period. From the Mycenzan sites of Crete |

I obtained a whole series of inscribed seals, such as I had first noticed
at Athens, showing the existence of an entire system of hieroglyphic
or quasi pictorial writing, with here and there signs of the coexistence —
of more linear forms. From the great cave of Mount Dicta—the birth- —
place of Zeus—the votive deposits of which have now been thoroughly |
explored by Mr. Hogarth, I procured a stone libation table inscribed
with a dedication of several characters in the early Cretan script. But

for more exhaustive excavation my eyes were fixed on some ruined |

walls, the great gypsum blocks of which were engraved with curious
symbolic characters, that crowned the southern slope of a hill known
as Kephala, overlooking the ancient site of Knossos, the city of Minos.
They were evidently part of a large prehistoric building. Might one —
not uncover here the palace of King Minos—perhaps even the myste-
rious labyrinth itself

THE PALACE OF MINOS. 429

These blocks had already arrested the attention of Schliemann and
others, but the difficulties raised by the native proprietors had defeated
all efforts at scientific exploration. In 1895 I succeeded in acquiring
a quarter of the site from one of the joint owners. But the obstruc-
tion continued, and I was beset by difficulties of a more serious kind.
The circumstances of the time were not favorable. The insurrection
had broken out, half the villages in Crete were in ashes, and in the
neighboring town of Candia the most fanatical part of the Mohammedan
population were collected together from the whole of the island. ‘The
faithful Herakles, who was at that time my ‘‘guide, philosopher, and
muleteer,” was seized by the Turks and thrown into a loathsome dun-
geon, from which he was with difficulty rescued. Soon afterwards
the inevitable massacre took place, of which the nominal British ** oceu-
pants” of Candia were in part themselves the victims. Then at last
the sleeping lion was aroused. Under the guns of Admiral Noel the
Turkish commander evacuated the Government buildings at ten min-
utes’ notice and shipped off the Sultan’s troops. Crete once more was
free.

At the beginning of this year I was at last able to secure the remain-
ing part of the site of Kephala, and with the consent of Prince George’s
Government at once set about the work of excavation. I received
some pecuniary help from the recently started Cretan exploration
fund, and was fortunate in securing the services of Mr. Duncan Mac-
kenzie, who had done good work for the British school in Melos, to
assist me in directing the works. From about 80 to 150 men were
employed in the excavation, which continued till the heat and fevers of
June put an end to it for this season.

The result has been to uncover a large part of a vast prehistoric
building—a palace with its numerous dependencies, but a palace on a
far larger scale than those of Tiryns and Mycene. About 2 acres of
this has been unearthed, for, by an extraordinary piece of good for-
tune, the remains of walls began to appear only a foot or so, often
only a few inches, below the surface. This dwelling of prehistoric
kings had been overwhelmed by a great catastrophe. Everywhere on
the hilltop were traces of a mighty conflagration; burnt beams and
charred wooden columns lay within the rooms and corridors. There
was here no gradual decay. The civilization represented on this spot
had been cut short in the fullness of its bloom. Nothing later than
remains of the good Mycenzan period was found over the whole site;
nothing even so late as the last period illustrated by the remains of
Mycene itself. From the day of destruction to this the site has been
left entirely desolate. For three thousand years or more not a tree
seems to have been planted here; over a part of the area not even a
plowshare had passed. At the time of the great overthrow, no
doubt, the place had been methodically plundered for metal objects,

430 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

and the fallen débris in the rooms and passages turned over and ran-
sacked for precious booty. Here and there a local bey or peasant had
grubbed for stone slabs to supply his yard or thrashing fi. or. But
the party walls of clay and plaster still stood intact, with the fresco
painting on them, still in many cases perfectly preserved at a few
inches depth from the surface, a clear proof of how severely the site
had been let alone for these long centuries.

Who were the destroyers? Perhaps the Dorian invaders, who seem
to have overrun the island about the eleventh or twelfth century

before our era. More probably, still earlier invading swarms from.

the mainland of Greece. The palace itself had a long antecedent his-
tory and there are frequent traces of remodeling. Its early elements

may go back a thousand years before its final overthrow, since, in the -

great eastern eourt, was found the lower part of an Egyptian seated

figure of diorite, with a triple inscription, showing that it dates back —

to the close of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth dynasty
of Egypt; in other words, approximately to 2,000 B. C. But below
the foundation of the later building, and covering the whole hill, are

the remains of a primitive settlement of still greater antiquity, belong- —
ing to the insular Stone Age. In parts this ‘‘Neolithic” deposit was —

over 24 feet thick, everywhere full of stone axes, knives of volcanic
glass, dark polished and incised pottery, and primitive images, such
as those found by Schliemann in the lowest strata of Troy.

The outer walls of the palace were supported on huge gypsum blocks, |

but there was no sign of an elaborate system of fortification such as at —
Tiryns and Mycene. The reason of this is not far to seek. Why is —
Paris strongly fortified, while London is practically an open town? —
The city of Minos, it must be remembered, was the center of a great sea —

power, and it was in ‘S

wooden walls” that its rulers must have put their —

trust. The mighty biocks of the palace show, indeed, that it was not —

for want of engineering power that the acropolis of Knossos remained —

unfortified. But in truth Mycenzean might was here at home. At
Tiryns and Mycene itself it felt itself threatened by warlike conti-
nental neighbors. It was not till the mainland foes were masters of the

sea that they could have forced an entry into the house of Minos. —
Then, indeed, it was an easy task. In the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida ~
was found a large brooch (or fibula) belonging to the race of northern —

invaders, on one side of which a war galley is significantly engraved.
The palace was entered on the southwest side by a portico and double

doorway opening froma spacious paved court (fig. 1). Flanking the —

portico were remains of a great fresco of a bull, and on the walls of —

the corridor leading from it were still preserved the lower part of a

procession of painted life-size figures, in the center of which was a

female personage, probably a queen,in magnificent apparel. This
corridor seems to have led round to a great southern porch or Propy-

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Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Evans. PLATE II

Fig. 2.—MAGAZINE No. 5, SHOWING GREAT STORE JARS.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Evans. PLATE III.

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THE PALACE OF MINOS. 431

leum with double columns, the walls of which were originally decorated
with figures in the same style. Along nearly the whole length of the
building ran a spacious paved corridor, lined by a long row of fine stone
doorways, giving access to a succession of magazines. On the floor of
these magazines huge store jars were still standing, large enough to
have contained the ‘forty thieves” (fig. 2). One of these jars, con-
tained in a small separate chamber, was nearly 5 feet in height (fig. 3).

Here occurred one of the most curious discoveries of the whole
excavation. Under the closely compacted pavement of one of these
magazines, upon which the huge jars stood, there were built in between
solid piles of masonry double tiers of stone cists lined with lead.
Only a few were opened and they proved to be empty, but there can
be little doubt that they were constructed for the deposit of treasure.
Whoever destroyed and plundered the palace had failed to discover
these receptacles, so that when more come to be explored there is some
real hope of finding buried hoards.

On the east side of the palace opened a still larger paved court,
approached by broad steps from another principal entrance to the north.
From this court access was given by an anteroom (fig. 4) to what was
certainly the most interesting chamber of the whole building, almost
as perfectly preserved—though some twelve centuries older—as any-
thing found beneath the volcanic ash of Pompeii or the lava of Hercu-
laneum. Already a few inches below the surface freshly preserved
fresco began to appear. Walls were shortly uncovered decorated with
flowering plants and running water, while on each side of the doorway
of a small inner room stood guardian griffins with peacocks’ plumes in
the same flowery landscape. Round the walls ran low stone benches,
and between these on the north side, separated by a small interval and
raised on a stone base, rose a gypsum throne with a high back, and
originally colored with decorative designs. Its lower part was adorned
with a curiously carved arch, with crocketed moldings, showing an
extraordinary anticipation of some most characteristic features of
Gothic architecture. Opposite the throne was a finely wrought tank of
gypsum slabs—a feature borrowed perhaps from an Egyptian palace—
approached by a descending flight of steps, and originally surmounted
by eyprus-wood columns supporting a kind of impluvium. Here truly
was the council chamber of a Mycenzan king or sovereign lady. It
may be said to-day that the youngest of European rulers has in his
dominions the oldest throne in Europe (fig. 5).

The frescoes discovered on the palace site constitute a new epoch in
the history of painting. Little, indeed, of the kind even of classical
Greek antiquity has been hitherto known earlier at least than the
Pompeian series. The first find of this kind marks a red-letter day in
the story of the excavation. In carefully uncovering the earth and
débris in a passage at the back of the southern Propyleum there came

432 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

to light two large fragments of what proved to be the upper part of a
youth bearing a gold-mounted silver cup (fig. 6). The robe is deco-
rated with a beautiful quarterfoil pattern; a silver ornament appears 4
in front of the ear, and silver rings on the arms and neck. What is:
specially interesting among the ornarents is an agate gem on the left |

wrist, thus illustrating the manner of wearing the beautifully engraved
signets of which many clay impressions were found in the palace. |

The colors were almost as brilliant as when laid down over three:

thousand years before. For the first time the true portraiture of a.

man of this mysterious Mycenan race rises before us. The flesh:

tint, following perhaps an Egyptian precedent, is of a deep reddish)

brown. The limbs are finely molded, though the waist, as usual in.

Mycenean fashions, is tightly drawn in by a silver-mounted girdle,

giving great relief to the hips. The profile of the face is pure and.

almost classically Greek. This, with the dark curly hair and high
brachycephalic head, recalls an indigenous type well represented still |
in the glens of Ida and the White Mountains—a type which brings.

with it many reminiscences from the Albanian highlands and the

neighboring regions of Montenegro and Herzegovina. The lips are_

somewhat full, but the physiognomy has certainly no Semetic cast.

The profile rendering of the eye shows an advance in human portrait-_

ure foreign to Egyptian art, and only achieved by the artists of clas-
sical Greece in the early fine-art period of the fifth century B. C.—
after some eight centuries, that is, of barbaric decadence and slow
revival.

There was something very impressive in this vision of brilliant
youth and of male beauty, recalled after so long an interval to our

upper air from what had been till yesterday a forgotten world., Even |

our untutored Cretan workmen felt the spell and fascination. They,
indeed, regarded the discovery of such a painting in the bosom of the
earth as nothing less than miraculous, and saw in it the ‘‘icon” of a
saint. The removal of the fresco required a delicate and laborious
process of underplastering, which necessitated its being watched at
night, and old Manolis, one of the most trustworthy of our gang, was

told off for the purpose. Somehow or other he fell asleep, but the |
wrathful saint appeared to him in a dream; waking with a start, he |

was conscious of a mysterious presence; the animals round began to
low and neigh and ‘‘there were visions about;” ‘“ davraCez,” he said,
in summing up his experiences next morning, ‘‘the whole place
spooks !”

To the-north of the palace, in some rooms that seem to have
belonged to the women’s quarter, frescoes were found in an entirely
novel miniature style. Here were ladies with white complexions—
due, we may fancy, to the seclusion of harem life—décolletés, but with

7

fashionable puffed sleeves and flounced gowns, and their hair as elab-_

orately curled and frisé as if they were fresh from a coiffeur’s hands.

PLATE VI.

Evans.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

Fic. 6.—FRESCO OF THE CUPBEARER (ORIGINAL LIFE SIZE).

“WA 34M1d *sueAQ—' 061 ‘Woday ueluosyzUS

THE PALACE OF MINOS. 433

** Mais,” exclaimed a French savant who honored me with a visit, ‘‘ ces
sont des Parisiennes!”

They were seated in groups, engaged in animated conversation, in
the courts and gardens and on the balconies of a palatial building,
while in the walled spaces beyond were large crowds of men and boys,
some of them hurling javelins. In some cases both sexes were inter-
mingled. These alternating scenes of peace and war recall the subjects
of Achilles’ shield, and we have here at the same time a contemporary
illustration of that populousness of the Cretan cities in the Homeric
age which struck the imagination of the bard. Certain fragments of
fresco belong to the still earlier period of gean art, which precedes
the Mycenzean, well illustrated in another field by the elegant painted
vases found by Mr. Hogarth in some private houses on this site. A
good idea of the refinement already reached in these earlier days of
the palace is given by the subject of one fresco fragment in this ‘* pre-
Mycenean” style—namely, a boy, in a field of white crocuses, some
of which he has gathered and is placing in an ornamental vase.

Very valuable architectural details were supplied by the walls and
buildings of some of the miniature frescoes above described. In one
place rose the facade of a small temple, with triple cells, containing
sacred pillars, and representing in a more advanced form the arrange-
ment of the small golden shrines, with doves perched upon them,
found by Schliemann in the shaft graves at Mycene. This temple
fresco has a peculiar interest, as showing the character of a good deal
of the upper structure of the palace itself, which has now perished.
It must largely have consisted of clay and rubble walls, artfully con-
cealed under brilliantly painted plaster, and contained and supported

_ by a woodwork framing. The base of the small temple rests on the

~ huge gypsum blocks which form so conspicuous a feature in the exist-

/ ing remains, and below the central opening is inserted a frieze, recall-
ing the alabaster reliefs of the palace hall of Tiryns, with triglyphs,
the prototypes of the Doric, and the half-rosettes of the ‘*‘ metopes”
inlaid with blue enamel, the Kyanos of Homer.

A transition from painting to sculpture was supplied by a great
relief of a bull in hard plaster, colored with the natural tints, large
parts of which, including the head, were found near the northern gate.
It is unquestionably the finest plastic work of the time that has come
down to us, stronger and truer to life than any classical sculpture of
the kind (fig. 7).

Somewhat more conventional, but still showing great naturalistic
power, is the marble head of a lioness, made for the spout of a
fountain. It, too, had been originally tinted, and the eyes and nos-
trils inlaid with brightly colored enamels. A part of a stone frieze,

_ with finely undercut rosettes, recalled similar fragments from Tiryns
| and Mycene, but far surpasses them in execution.
| sm 1901—28

a

434 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

Vases of marble and other stones abounded, some exquisitely carved.
Among these was one cut out of alabaster in the shape of a great
Triton shell, every coil and fold of which was accurately reproduced. —
A porphyry lamp, supported on a quatrefoil pillar, with a beautiful
lotus capital, well illustrates the influence of an Egyptian model.
But the model was here surpassed.

Among the more curious arts practiced in prehistoric Knossos was |
that of miniature painting on the back of plaques of crystal. A gal-_
loping bull thus delineated on an azure background is a little master-
piece in its way. A small relief on a banded agate, representing a
dagger in an ornamental sheath resting on an artistically folded belt,
to a certain extent anticipates by many centuries the art of cameo
carving. A series of clay seals were also discovered, exhibiting
impressions of intaglios in the fine bold Mycenen style; one of these, —
with two bulls, larger than any known signet gem of the kind, may |
well have been a royal seal. The subjects of some of these intaglios —
show the development of a surprisingly picturesque style of art. We
see fish naturalistically grouped in a rocky pool, a hart beside a water
brook in a mountain glen, and a grotto, above which some small
monkey-like creatures are seen climbing the overhanging crags.

But manifold as were the objects of interest found within the palace —
walls of Knossos, the crowning discovery—or, rather, series of dis-—
coveries—remains to be told. On the last day of March, not far _
below the surface of the ground, a little to the right of the southern
portico, there turned up a clay tablet of elongated shape, bearing on—
it incised characters in a linear script, accompanied by numeral signs.
My hopes now ran high of finding entire deposits of clay archives, —
and they were speedily realized. Not far from the scene of the first |
discovery there came to light a clay receptacle containing a hoard of
tablets. In other chambers occurred similar deposits, which had orig-—
inally been stored in coffers of wood, clay, or gypsum. The tablets
themselves are of various forms, some flat, elongated bars, from about
2 to 74 inches in length, with wedge- like ends; einer! larger and
squarer, ranging in size to small octavo (fig. 8). In one particular
magazine tablets of a different kind were found—perforated bars, cres-
cent and scallop-like ‘‘ labels,” with writing in the same hieroglyphic -
style as that on the seals found in eastern Crete. But the great mass,
amounting to over a thousand inscriptions, belonged to another and~
more advanced system with linear characters. It was, in short, a_
highly developed form of script, with regular divisions between the
words, and for elegance hardly surpassed by any later form of writing.

A clue to the meaning of these clay records is in many cases sup-
plied by the addition of pictorial illustrations representing the objects
concerned. Thus we find human figures, perhaps slaves; chariots and
horses; arms or implements and armor, such as axes and cuirasses;

) a

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Evans. PLATE VIII.

Fia. 8.—CLAY TABLET WITH THE LINEAR PREHISTORIC SCRIPT.

THE PALACE OF MINOS. 435

houses or barns; eas's of barley or other cereals; swine; various kinds
of trees, and a long-stamened flower, evidently the saffron crocus, used
for dyes. On some tablets appear ingots, probably of bronze, fol-
lowed by a balance (the Greek talavror), and figures which probably
indicate their value in Mycenean gold talents. The numerals attached
to many of these objects show that we have to do with accounts refer-
ring to the royal stores and arsenals.

Some tablets relate to ceramic vessels of various forms, many of
them containing marks indicative of their contents. Others, still
more interesting, show vases of metallic forms, and obviously relate
to the royal treasures. It is a highly significant fact that the most
characteristic of these, such as a beaker like the famous gold cups
found in the Vapheio tomb near Sparta, a high-spouted ewer and an
object, perhaps representing a certain weight of metal, in the form of
an ox’s head, recur—together with the ingots with incurving sides
among the gold offerings in the hands of the tributary A¢gean princes—
on Egyptian monuments of Thothmes III’s time. These tributary
chieftains, described as Kefts and people of the isles of the sea, who
have been already recognized as the representatives of the Mycenzan
culture, recall in their dress and other particulars the Cretan youths,
such as the cupbearer above described, who take part in the proces-
sional scenes on the palace frescoes. The appearance in the records
of the royal treasury at Knossos of vessels of the same form as those
offered by them to Pharaoh is itself a valuable indication that some of
these clay archives approximately go back to the same period—in
other words, to the beginning of the fifteenth century B. C.

Other documents, in which neither ciphers nor pictorial illustrations
are to be found, may appeal even more deeply to the imagination.
The analogy of the more or less contemporary tablets, written in cunei-
form script, found in the palace of Tell-el-Amarna, might lead us to
expect among them the letters from distant governors or diplomatic
correspondence. It is probable that some are contracts or public acts,
which may give some actual formulas of Minoan legislation. There
is, indeed, an atmosphere of legal nicety, worthy of the house of Minos,
in the way in which these clay records were secured. The knots of
string which, according to the ancient fashion, stood in the place of
locks for the coffers containing the tablets, were rendered inviolable
by the attachment of clay seals, impressed with the finely engraved
signets, the types of which represent a great variety of subjects, such
as ships, chariots, religious scenes, lions, bulls, and other animals.
But, as if this precaution was not in itself considered sufficient, while
the clay was still wet the face of the seal was countermarked by a con-
trolling official, and the back countersigned and indorsed by an inscrip-
tion in the same Mycenzan script as that inscribed on the tablets them-
selves,

436 THE PALACE OF MINOS.

Much study and comparison will be necessary for the elucidation of
these materials, which it may be hoped will be largely supplemented
by the continued exploration of the palace. If, as may well be the
case, the languge in which they were written was some primitive form
of Greek we need not despair of the final decipherment of these Knos-
sian archives, and the bounds of history may eventually be so enlarged
as to take in the ‘‘heroic age” of Greece. In any case the weighty —
question, which years before I had set myself to solve on Cretan soil,
has found, so far at least,an answer. That great early civilization was
not dumb, and the written records of the Hellenic world are carried
back some seven centuries beyond the date of the first known historie
writings. But what, perhaps, is even more remarkable than this is —
that, when we examine in detail the linear script of these Myceneean
documents, it is impossible not to recognize that we have here a sys-
tem of writing, syllabic and perhaps partly alphabetic, which stands
ona distinctly higher level of development than the hieroglyphs of
Egypt or the cuneiform script of contemporary Syria and Babylonia.
It is not till some five centuries later that we find the first dated exam-
ples of Phcenician writing.

The signs already mentioned as engraved on the great gypsum blocks —
of the palace must be regarded as distinct from the script proper.
These blocks go back to the earliest period of the building, and the
symbols on them, which are of very limited selection, but of constant
recurrence, seem to have had a religious significance. The most con-
stantly recurring of these, indeed, is the labrys or double ax already
referred to—the special symbol of the Cretan Zeus, votive deposits of
which in bronze have been found in the cave sanctuaries of the god
on Mount Ida and Mount Dicta. The double ax is engraved on the
principal blocks, such as the corner stones and door jambs throughout
the building, and recurs as a sign of dedication on every side of every
block of a sacred pillar that forms the center of what seems to have
been the inmost shrine of an aniconic cult connected with this indigen-
ous divinity. :

The ‘‘house of Minos” thus turns out to be also the house of the
double ax—the labrys and its lord—in other words, it is the true Laby-
rinthos. The divine inspirer of Minos was not less the lord of the bull,
and it is certainly no accidental coincidence that huge figures of bulls in
painting and plaster occupied conspicuous positions within it. Nay,
more, on a small steatite relief, a couchant bull is seen above the door-
way of a building probably intended to represent the palace, and this
would connect it in the most direct way with the sacred animal of the
Cretan Zeus.

There can be little remaining doubt that this vast edifice, which ina
broad historic sense we are justified in calling the ‘* palace of Minos,”
is one and the same as the traditional ‘‘labyrinth.” A great part

THE PALACE OF MINOS. 437

of the ground plan itself, with its long corridors and repeated suc-
cession of blind galleries, its tortuous passages and spacious under-
ground conduit, its bewildering system of small chambers, does in fact
present many of the characteristics of a maze.

Let us place ourselves for a moment in the position of the first
Dorian colonists of Knossos after the great overthrow, when features
now laboriously uncovered by the spade were still perceptible amid
the mass of ruins. The name was still preserved, though the exact
meaning, as supplied by the native Cretan dialect, had been probably
lost. Hard by the western gate in her royal robes, to-day but partially
visible, stood Queen Ariadne herself—and might not the comely youth
in front of her be the hero Theseus, about to receive the coil of thread
forhis errand of liberation down the mazy galleries beyond? Within,
fresh and beautiful on the walls of the inmost chambers, were the cap-
tive boys and maidens locked up here by the tyrant of old. At more
than one turn rose a mighty bull, in some cases, no doubt, according
to the favorite Mycenzean motive, grappled with by a half-naked man.
The type of the Minotaur itself as a man-bull was not wanting on the
soil of prehistoric Knossos, and more than one gem found on this site
represents a monster with the lower body of a man and the forepart of
a bull. |

One may feel assured that the effect of these artistic creations on
the rude Greek settler of those days was not less than that of the disin-
terred fresco on the Cretan workman of to-day. Everything around—
the dark passages, the lifelike figures surviving from an older world—
would conspire to produce a sense of the supernatural. It was haunted
ground, and then, as now, ‘*phantasms” were about. The later stories
of the grisly king and his man-eating bull sprang, as it were, from the
soil, and the whole site called forth a superstitious awe. It was left
severely alone by the newcomers. Another Knossos grew up on the
lower slopes of the hill to the north, and the old palace site became a
**desolation and hissing.” Gradually earth’s mantle covered the ruined
heaps, and by the time of the Romans the labyrinth had become noth-
ing more than a tradition and a name.

THE ENGRAVED PICTURES OF THE GROTTO OF LA
MOUTHE, DORDOGNE, FRANCE.*

By M. EmiLe Riviere.
INTRODUCTION, BY O. T. MASON.

The grotto of La Mouthe is in the commune of Tayac, Dordogne,
France. This remarkable valley has yielded some of the most won-
derful results in the history of paleolithic and neolithic man in France.
The valley of the Vezére has been especially fruitful, the following
well-known sites occurring there: Gorge-d’Enfer, discovered by
Lartet and Christy; Cro-Magnon, explored by Massenat; les Eyzies;
La Mouthe, explored by Riviére; and Laugerie-Haute.

In these caverns are found remains and human workmanship belong-
ing to the Mousterian, Solutréan, and Magdalenian epochs. These
three epochs form the close of the Paleolithic period in Europe and
lead to the polished-stone people, especially of the Swiss Lake Dwell-
ings. The following tabulated form, copied from De Mortillet’s Le
Préhistorique, will show the exact position which the discoveries
made by Riviére in the cave of La Mouthe occupied in the series of
epochs covering the entire history of France:

Table of classification.

Times. Ages. Periods. Epochs.

Merovingian. Wabenian.
( Waben, Pas-de-Calais. )

Champdolian.
(Champdolent, Seine-et- Oise. )
Roman. = SSS a —____—
Lugdunian.
(Lyon, Rhone.)
Beuvraysian.
(Mont Beuvray, Niévre.)

Historic.

=|) Tron:

Marnian.
(Département de la Marne.)
Hallstattian.
(Hallstatt, Haute-Autriche.)

Galatian.

Recent quaternary.

Protohistoriec.

Larnaudian.
(Larnaud, Jura.)
Bronze. Tsiganian. =
Morgian.
(Morges, Canton de Vaud, Suisse.)

“Translated from ‘“‘ Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société @ Anthropologie de Paris.’ Sér.
5, Tome 2, p. 509, 1901.
439

440 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. “

Table of classification—Continued. x

i
B
is")
n

S. Ages. Periods. | Epochs.

Robenhausian.
(Robenhausen, Zwrich.)

Neolithic, ae
Tardenoisian.
( Fere-en- Tardenois, Aisne.)

Recent
quaternary.

Tourassian.
(La Tourasse, Haute-Garonne. )
Ancient Hiatus.

Magdalenian.
(La Madeleine, Dordogne.)

Leg erg

Solutré bne-et-Loire.

ee Paleolithic. (Solutré, Sadne-et-Loire. )
Mousterian.

(La Mousier, Dordogne.)

Prehistoric.

Ancient quaternary.

Acheulean.
(Saint-Acheul, Somme.)

Chellean.
(Chelles, Seine-et-Marne. )

Puycournian.
(Puy-Courny, Cantal.)

Eolithic.
Thenaysian.
(Thenay, Loir-et-Cher.)

Tertiary.

For nearly ten years M. Riviére has devoted time to the exploration
of these caves. His first paper was read before the Académie des
Sciences, Paris.

Perhaps the most interesting feature connected with the Dordogne
caves is that upon their walls have been found, from time to time, fig-
ures of animals cut into the rock or painted on the surface with ocher.

In 1878 L. Chiron called the attention of archeologists to a grotto
in the department of Gard, showing many lines cut into the sandstone
wall; but it was in 1895 that M. Riviére explored another grotto or
cavern—that at La Mouthe, Tayac, Dordogne. This remarkable
cavern revealed, along with remains of bear and hyena, deposits of
Mousterian and Neolithic relics, and also its walls and ceilings were
garnished with sculptures cut in the rock and paintings in ocher.

Francois Daleau also brought to the attention of the public his dis-
coveries in the grotto of Pairnon-Pair at Marcamps, Gironde, which
was filled with archeological deposits. Here the walls also were
adorned with figures of animals cut-in, and the interior had been filled
up by Magdalenian deposits quite to the ceiling. This deposit rested
upon Solutréan and Mousterian layers below, and on the walls of these
there were no engravings. This fact locates the engravings some-
where between the Mousterian and the Magdalenian; that is, in or
about the Solutréan, the horse epoch of ancient France.

The carvings Dipteticds in this paper are in continuation of Riviére’s
former explanations. They represent a portion only of the sculptures

revealed; others will be reported on later by him.
O. T. Mason.

ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 441

1 have the honor of presenting to the Anthropological Society of
Paris reproductions of some of the new carvings discovered by me
in the grotto of La Mouthe since my last communication, reserving
still others for subsequent presentation.

I shall not here review the circumstances of the discovery nor the
appearance of the cave when, on June 11, 1895, I penetrated the cham-
bers previously unknown; neither shall I speak of the extensive
labors undertaken at that time, and which I have since pursued each
year in one or more fields of research; nor shall I describe the hearths
of different epochs, Paleolithic and Neolithic, which I have discovered
and in great part explored from the entrance to a certain distance
inward.

Finally, I shall not enter into details concerning the fauna and the
contemporaneous industry of each of those periods, whose dates may
be determined with certainty. This would only needlessly repeat
what I have said on several occasions here at the Institute, at the
French Association, and elsewhere.* I limit myself to the presenta-
tion of the drawings which I submit to you, and to asummary descrip-
tion of the carvings of which they are faithful reproductions.

These drawings are at present only seven” in number, but there are
several other carvings actually discovered, which lack of time has
prevented me from stamping, tracing, or molding.

In the study of La Mouthe, I have simultaneously occupied myself
with the exploration of hearths, the discovery of pictures, and super-
intending the excavation of the clay which fills the cave almost to the
roof, and with greater thickness the further we penetrate.

The engravings of La Mouthe form, so to speak, a certain number
of panels ° on the walls of the grotto. The seven drawings of which I
here present as faithful reproductions as possible, belong to three dif-
ferent panels: one about 97 meters from the entrance of the cavern, the
second at 113 meters, the third at 128 meters. Two of the drawings
belong to the first panel, one representing a bison, the other a bovine
animal with some traces of another species. Three drawings are taken
from the second panel and represent a reindeer, an ibex, and a mam-
moth. The figures from the third panel are of two horse-like animals.

(1) The species of animal represented by the first drawing (fig. 1)
ean not be in doubt, thanks to its enormous hump (its dimensions are
indeed, much exaggerated) and to the beard which it carries under
the lower jaw. It is a veritable bison (Bos priscus). The creature is

* Academy of Sciences, October, 1894; June and July, 1895; April, 1897; Septem-
ber, 1901. French Association for the Advancement of Science, 1897. Anthropo-
logical Society of Paris, June 3, 1897; November 4 and 18, 1897; November, 1899.

» Five of them are the reproductic of tracings executed by me on October 1, 1900;
the other two were made by M. H. Breuil on his second visit to the grotto of La
Mouthe.

*These panels occupy.a surface of several meters, and are separated from each
other by more or less considerable intervals.

442 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 4

engraved in profile at 97 to 98 meters from the entrance and on the
left wall of the grotto. ‘The dimensions of the drawing are far from
being those of the animal (0.91 meter in length from the forehead
to the extremity of the tail with a height of 0.52 meter). The head
is small and well drawn. The horns are well reproduced and almost—

Fig. 1.

meet at their points, forming a nearly complete circle; but they have
not the normal implantation of the horns of the bison. Under the
lower jaw are seen numerous hairs. As to the hump which, above all,
characterizes this bovid, it is enormous and, as just said, out of pro-
portion with the dimensions of the animal. It begins behind the first

Fi@. 2.

cervical vertebre, and extends back of the sacral vertebre or almost
to the origin of the tail. The latter, relatively large at its insertion,
is incuryed in a quite pronounced fashion from above lownward, and
ends in a tapering point. The well-made legs, as well as the hind
quarters, are, however, a little too thin and long. The ventral line is
slightly convex downward.

ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 443

(2) The next drawing is also of a bovid, perhaps even of two bovids,

considering the confusion of the strokes.

In any case, there is no

suggestion of a bison. Here, in fact, there is no trace of a dorsal

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prominence, or of any hump whatever, nor any hair on the chin.
The drawing measures 0.88 meter in length and 0.55 meter in height

(fig. 2).

The two animals which it represents, if two animals there

444 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE.

be, have only a single head. The latter is fine and would seem to be
rather that of one of the Cervide, were it not for the two horns which
surmount the forehead and which are recurved iato nearly a com-
plete circle, the two points being separated by only 33 centimeters,
Between the two horns are seen a sort of ear—the right ear—but badly
inserted. The two front legs are certainly those of a bovid. As to
the hind limbs, they, as well as the rump, appear to belong to a second
animal surmounting the first, and of which we can perceive no more
than the dorso-cervical line which curves back in front, simulating a
head.

The bovid, properly so called, is drawn in left profile, while the
bison is seen from the right, and upon the flank are a few marks,

fo je

\
Fia. 4.
some parallel and others intercrossing, which descend to the ventral
line. By its intricacies this figure offers great analogies with the
drawings engraved on bone or reindeer horn, which are found in the
Magdalenian hearths.

I ought to add that, above this double figure, we still see two
engraved lines joining each other below in such a manner as to resem-
ble the leg of another animal whose picture has been commenced on
the same panel.

(3) The engraving of the reindeer (fig. 3) is one of the most beau-—
tiful known. It measures 1.07 meters in length. The head of the
animal is very well executed, I should say even in a remarkable
manner; consequently it is among the more easily recognizable... It

ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 445

is strong, all striated with a multitude of strokes, either vertical
or slightly slanted from the right downward to the left, some of
which reach the throat. They represent the hair. The head, seen in
profile, is surmounted by a horn with its basal antler directed hori-
zontally from behind toward the front.

The muzzle is very well drawn. On the contrary, the body is pro-
portionally too short, measuring 0.70 meter from the front part of the
neck to the tail. I may add that the animal is incompletely figured,
for the withers scarcely exist and a line only partially indicates the
back and rump.

(4) The picture of an ibex (fig. 4) now follows. Here the whole
animal is given with the exception of the extremities of the front legs.
It measures 0.80 meter in length by 0.77 meter in height. The head
is too small in proportion to the body and is surmounted by a large

horn curved backward in a half circle. The ears are straight and well
formed. The muzzle is well executed, but the jaw is too short. Then
comes a neck much too large, resembling somewhat that of a bovid.
The breast and belly are enormous. The line of the latter descends
very lew in front, while the dorsal line is nearly straight, being
slightly incurved to denote the slope of the rump and then the tail.
The last, directed horizontally, is short and ends in a two-forked tuft.
As to the limbs, the anterior are not terminated, and their length is
about half that of the hind legs, which are thin and very long.

In front of the ibex, and turned toward him so that the two heads
face each other, is seen the engraving of a long-haired elephant.
Although the animal is not complete, it does not seem to us possible
to deny that it is intended for a mammoth. This is, moreover, also
the opinion of those of my colleagues in the society to whom I showed
the drawing (fig. 5) before the opening of the session. The form of

446 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE.

the cranium, the dorsal line, the tail, the origin also of the limbs and
their size, finally the numerous strokes resembling hairs, which pass
downward from the belly, are indeed those of a mammoth; but neither
the trunk of the animal nor its tusks can be discerned. The dimen-

sions of the engraving are much reduced, 0.32 meter in length by
0.25 meter in height, all marks included.
Such are the drawings from this prehistoric panel, selected among
others of which I shall eventually make tracings.
(6, 7) As to the two figures of the panel, situated at 128 meters from

-

ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 447

the entrance, shown in the next pictures, they represent two equids,
entirely different from each other, and appearing to belong to two dis-
tinct species—the horse and the hemione. ‘The one has the head fine,
well drawn (fig. 6), as well as the neck, the breast, and the fore legs,
which are entire, hoofs included, and pretty well proportioned. The
ears are straight and the mane is erect. On the contrary, the but-
tocks are enormous, the belly is very large, pendulous, so to speak, the
line of the withers is straight, without the least incurving; finally the
croup is much too pronounced, and the short tail is drooping. As to
the hind legs, they are barely sketched.

Fic. 7.

The engraving of this equid measures 0.75 meter in length from
the line of the nose to the tip of the tail, and 0.55 meter in height.

The other drawing (fig. 7) is that of a kind of bearded horse whose
long and bristling mane extends almost to the withers. The head is
both long and directed vertically downward, the ears are somewhat
long, the forehead is projecting, and the chin has a tuft of hairs.
In departing from the neck, the body is represented only by a single
line—the dorsal line—which extends from the mane to the tail, figured
here by several strokes about 0.35 meters long. This drawing measures
in all 1.31 meters in length.

It is on this panel of the two equids that several other animals
appear, such, for example, as a sort of bird (genus Anas ¢) recently

448 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE.

discovered; a deer, spotted, or rather in part painted with ocher, whose
reproduction figured last year with that of two other animals—the
bison and a bovid, or equid—at the Universal Exposition in the section —
of megalithic monuments, at the request of the minister of po
instruction.

Such are the seven drawings which I wish to present to you to-day.
I add also the reproduction of the well-made head of an ibex, which
we see on the outer face of the lamp in sandstone from La Mouthe
(fig. 5).

As can be seen from this figure, which is identical in size with the —
original, this head of the ibex is almost as remarkably executed as
that of the reindeer which we have reproduced in fig. 3. The head

Fic. 8.

on the lamp is that of a profile in all its details—nose, mouth, eye,
ear, and finally horns, which are of considerable length, measuring
not less than 12 or 13 centimeters, and strongly curved in a semicir-
cle.* There is nothing, even to the beard of the animal, which has not
been engraved. The oval of the head measures 0.035 meter in length,
and its greatest breadth is 0.023 meter. Two lines of unequal length,
but nearly parallel, one descending from the left angle of the jaw, the
other beginning behind the left ear, seem to attempt the representa-
tion of the neck. On the other hand, the body and the legs are not
figured. We perceive only, behind the line of the neck, several
engraved lines, very much defaced and without any significance.

“The lamp in Sapdatone from the grotto o La Mouthe (Dordogne), by Emile
Riviere, 1899.

" = ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 449

Such is, ina few words, the description of the engraved sketches

soming from the grotto of La Mouthe which I desire to present to you

THE ENGRAVINGS FROM PEUCH, BY M. EMILE RIVIERE.

I desire also to submit to-day for your examination one of the pictures
which I have taken of the very curious engravings executed upon the
yall of rock against which abut buildings of a farmhouse belonging to
the village of Peuch. This presentation is merely to fix the date of
this discovery, which goes back to the 5th of September, 1896, and
was made by me in company with Dr. Burette, who had informed me
of it a few days before.

It represents a human being whose sex is not indicated. The
engraving is very deeply scored in the rock. The individual measures
0.98 meter in height. The head, drawn from the front, is a simple
oval, without eyes, nose, mouth, or ears. The arms are brought
forward in such a way that the right hand is held upon the abdomen
and the left hand hides the sex. The lower limbs end without feet at
the level of the soil.

To what date does this engraving go back? This is a question which
shall examine subsequently in presenting the drawing of a second
human being, engraved likewise in sunken lines, nearly of the same
size as this one—an engraving of which I limit myself to-day to make
the announcement without entering further into details.

sm 1901——29

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THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.*

By Franz Boas.

One of the chief aims of anthropology is the study of the mind of
man under the varying conditions of race and of environment. The
activities of the mind manifest themselves in thoughts and actions,
and exhibit an infinite variety of form among the peoples of the world.
In order to understand these clearly, the student must endeavor to
divest himself entirely of opinions and emotions based upon the pecul-
iar social environment into which he is born. He must adapt his own
mind, so far as feasible, to that of the people whom he is studying.
The more successful he is in freeing himself from the bias based on the
group of ideas that constitute the civilization in which he lives, the more
suecessful he will be in interpreting the beliefs and actions of man. He
must follow lines of thought that are new to him. He must participate
in new emotions, and understand how, under unwonted conditions, both
lead to actions. Beliefs, customs, and the response of the individual
to the events of daily life give us ample opportunity to observe the
manifestations of the mind of man under varying conditions.

The thoughts and actions of civilized man and those found in more
primitive forms of society prove that, in various groups of mankind,
the mind responds quite differently when exposed to the same condi-
tions. Lack of logical connection in its conclusions, lack of control
of will, are apparently two of its fundamental characteristics in prim-
itive society. In the formation of opinions, belief takes the place of
logical demonstration. The emotional value of opinions is great, and
consequently they quickly lead to action. The will appears unbalanced,
there being a readiness to yield to strong emotions, and a stubborn
resistence in trifling matters.

In the following remarks I propose to analyze the differences which
characterize the mental life of man in various stages of culture. It is
a pleasant duty to acknowledge here my indebtedness to my friends
and colleagues in New York, particularly to Dr. Livingston Farrand,
with whom the questions here propounded have been a frequent theme
of animated discussion, so much so, that at the present time I find it
impossible to say what share the suggestions of each had in the devel-
opment of the conclusions reached.

® Address of the retiring president before the American Folk-Lore Society, Balti-
more, December 27, 1900. Reprinted, by permission of the author, from The Journal
of American Folk-Lore, Boston and New York, vol. xiv, Jan.—March, 1901.

451

452 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.

There are two possible explanations of the different manifestations —

of the mind of man. It may be that the minds of different races show
differences of organization; that is to say, the laws of mental activity
may not be the same forall minds. But it may also be that the organ-
ization of mind is practically identical among all races of man; that
mental activity follows the same laws everywhere, but that its mani-
festations depend upon the character of individual experience that is
subjected to the action of these laws.

It is quite evident that the activities of the human mind depend upon
these two elements. The organization of the mind may be defined as
the group of laws which determine the modes of thought and of action,
irrespective of the subject-matter of mental activity. Subject to such
laws are the manner of discrimination between perceptions, the man-
ner in which perceptions associate themselves with previous percep-
tions, the manner in which a stimulus leads to action, and the emotions
produced by stimuli. These laws determine to a great extent the
manifestations of the mind.

But, on the other hand, the influence of individual experience can
easily be shown to be very great. The bulk of the experience of man
is gained from oft-repeated impressions. It is one of the fundamental
laws of psychology that the repetition of mental processes increases
the facility with which these processes are performed, and decreases
the degree of consciousness that accompanies them. This law expresses
the well-known phenomena of habit. When a certain perception is
frequently associated with another previous perception, the one will

habitually call forth the other. When a certain stimulus frequently —

results in a certain action, it will tend to call forth habitually the same
action. If a stimulus has often produced a certain emotion, it will
tend to reproduce it every time.

The explanation of the activity of the mind of man, therefore,
requires the discussion of two distinct problems. The first bears upon
the question of unity or diversity of organization of the, mind, while
the second bears upon the diversity produced by the variety of con-
tents of the mind as found in the various social and geographical
environments. The task of the investigator consists largely in sepa-
rating these two causes and in attributing to each its proper share in
the deyelopment of the peculiarities of the mind. It is the latter
problem, principally, which is of interest to the folk-lorist. When
we define as folk-lore the total mass of traditional matter present in
the mind of a given people at any given time, we recognize that this
matter must influence the opinions and activities of the people more or
less according to its quantitative and qualitative value, and also that
the actions of each individual must be influenced to a greater or less
extent by the mass of traditional material present in his mind.

We will first devote our attention to the question, Do differences
exist in the organization of the human mind? Since Waitz’s thorough

er

ee gale al

ft

THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 453

discussion of the question of the unity of the human species there can
be no doubt that in the main the mental characteristics of man are the
same all over the world; but the question remains open whether there
is a sufficient difference in grade to allow us to assume that the present
races of man may be considered as standing on different stages of the
evolutionary series, whether we are justified in ascribing to civilized
man a higher place in organization that to primitive man. In answer-
ing this question we must clearly distinguish between the influences of
civilization and of race. A number of anatomical facts point to the
conclusion that the races of Africa, Australia, and Melanesia are to a
certain extent inferior to the races of Asia, America, and Europe. We
find that on the average the size of the brain of the negroid races is
less than the size of the brain of the other races; and the difference in
favor of the mongoloid and white races is so great that we are justified
in assuming a certain correlation between their mental ability and the
increased size of their brain. At the same time it must be borne in
mind that the variability of the mongoloid and white races on the one
hand and of the negroid races on the other is so great that only a small
number, comparatively speaking, of individuals belonging to the latter
have brains smaller than any brains found among the former; and that,
on the other hand, only a few individuals of the mongoloid races have
brains so large that they would not occur at all among the black races.
That is to say, the bulk of the two groups of races have brains of the
same capacities, but individuals with heavy brains are proportionately
more frequent among the mongoloid and white races than among the
negroid races. Probably this difference in the size of the brain is
accompanied by differences in structure, although no satisfactory infor-
mation on this point is available. On the other hand, if we compare
civilized people of any race with uncivilized people of the same race,
we do not find any anatomical differences which would justify us in
assuming any fundamental differences. in mental constitution.

When we consider the same question from a purely psychological

_ point of view, we recognize that one of the most fundamental traits

which distinguish the human mind from the animal mind is common
to all races of man. It is doubtful if any animal is able to form an
abstract conception, such as that of number, or any conception of the
abstract relations of phenomena. We find that this is done by all
races of man. A developed language with grammatical categories
presupposes the ability of expressing abstract relations, and, since
every known language has grammatical structure, we must assume
that the faculty of forming abstract ideas is a common property of
man. It has often been pointed out that the concept of number is
developed very differently among different peoples. While in most
languages we find numeral systems based upon the 10, we find that
certain tribes in Brazil, and others in Australia, have numeral systems
based on the 3, or even on the 2, which involve the impossibility of

454 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.

expressing high numbers. Although these numeral systems are very

slightly developed as compared with our own, we must not forget that
the abstract idea of number must be present among these people,
because without it no method of counting is possible. It may be worth
while to mention one or two other facts taken from the grammars of

primitive people, which will make it clear that all grammar presup-.

poses abstractions. The three personal pronouns—l, thou, and he—
occur in all human languages. The underlying idea of these pronouns
is the clear distinction between the self as speaker, the person or object
spoken to, and that spoken of. We also find that nouns are classified
in a great many ways in different languages. While all the older
Indo-European languages classify nouns according to sex, other Jan-
guages classify nouns as animate or inanimate, or as human and not
human, etc. Activities are also classified in many different ways. It
is at once clear that every classification of this kind involves the forma-
tion of an abstract idea. The processes of abstraction are the same in
all languages, and they do not need any further discussion, except in
so far as we may be inclined to value differently the systems of classi-
fication and the results of abstraction.

The question whether the power to inhibit impulses is the same in
all races of man-is not so easily answered. It is an impression
obtained by many travelers, and also based upon experiences gained
in our own country, that primitive man and the less educated have in
common a lack of control of emotions; that they give way more read-
ily to an impulse than civilized man and the highly educated. I
believe that this conception is based largely upon the neglect to con-
sider the occasions on which a strong control of impulses is demanded
in various forms of society. What I mean will become clear when I
all your attention to the often described power of endurance exhib-
ited by Indian captives who undergo torture at the hands of their
enemies. When we want to gain a true estimate of the power of
primitive man to control impulses, we must not compare the control
required on certain occasions among ourselves with the control exerted
by primitive man on the same occasions. If, for instance, our social
etiquette forbids the expression of feelings of personal discomfort and
of anxiety, we must remember that personal etiquette among primi-
tive men may not require any inhibition of the same kind. We must
rather look for those occasions on which inhibition is required by the
customs of primitive man. Such are, for instance, the numerous cases
of taboo—that is, of prohibitions of the use of certain foods, or of the
performance of certain kinds of work, which sometimes require a con-
siderable amount of self-control. When an Eskimo community is on
the point of starvation and their religious proscriptions forbid them to
make use of the seals that are basking on the ice, the amount of self-
control of the whole community which restrains them from killing
these seals is certainly very great. Cases of this kind are very nu-

i --- — -

Si EG SR See eS eed ae ene ae ee ee er

THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 455

merous, and prove that primitive man has the ability to control his
impulses, but that this control is exerted on occasions which depend
upon the character of the social life of the people, and which do not
coincide with the occasions on which we expect and require control of
impulses.

The third point in which the mind of primitive man seems to differ
from that of civilized man is in its power of choosing between percep-
tions and actions according to their value. On this power rests the
whole domain of art and of ethics. An object or an action becomes of
artistic value only when it is chosen from among other perceptions or
other actions on account of its beauty. An action becomes moral only
when it is chosen from among other possible actions on account of its
ethical value. No matter how crude the standards of primitive man
may be in regard to these two points, we recognize that all of them
possess an art, and that all of them possess ethical standards. It may
be that their art is quite contrary to our artistic feeling. It may be
that their ethical standards outrage our moral code. We must clearly
distinguish between the zsthetic and ethical codes and the existence of
an esthetic and ethical standard.

Our brief consideration of the phenomena of abstraction, of inhibi-
tion and of choice, leads, then, to the conclusion that these functions of
the human mind are common to the whole of humanity. It may be well
to state here that, according to our present method of considering bio-
logical and pyschological phenomena, we must assume that these func-
tions of the human mind have developed from lower conditions existing
at a previous time, and that at one time there certainly must have
been races and tribes in which the properties here described were not
at all, or only slightly, developed; but it is also true that among the
present races of man, no matter how primitive they may be in com-
parison with ourselves, these faculties are highly developed.

It is not impossible that the degree of development of these func-
tions may differ somewhat among different types of man; but I do not
believe that we are able at the present time to form a just valuation of
the power of abstraction, of control, and of choice among different
races. A comparison of their languages, customs, and activities
suggests that these faculties may be unequally developed; but the
differences are not sufficient to justify us in ascribing materially lower
stages to some peoples and higher stages to others. The conclusions
reached from these considerations are therefore, on the whole, nega-
tive. We are not inclined to consider the mental organization of
different races of man as differing in fundamental points.

We next turn to a consideration of the second question propounded
here, namely, to an investigation of the influence of the contents of
the mind upon the formation of thoughts and actions. We will take
these up in the same order in which we considered the previous ques-
tion. We will first direct our attention to the phenomena of percep-

456 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.

tion. It has been observed by many travelers that the senses of

primitive man are remarkably well trained; that he is an excellent
observer. The adeptness of the experienced hunter, who finds the
tracks of his game where the eye of an European would not see the
faintest indication, is an instance of this kind. While the power of
perception of primitive man is excellent, it would seem that his power

of logical interpretation of perceptions is deficient. I think it can be —

shown that the reason for this fact is not founded on any fundamental
peculiarity of the mind of primitive man, but lies, rather, in the char-
acter of the ideas with which the new perception associates itself. In
our own community a mass of observations and of thoughts is trans-
mitted to the child. These thoughts are the result of careful observa-
tion and speculation of our present and of past generations; but they
are transmitted to most individuals as traditional matter, much the same
as folklore. The child associates new perceptions with this whole
mass of traditional material, and interprets his observations by its
means. I believe it isa mistake to assume that the interpretation made
by each civilized individual is a complete logical process. We associate
a phenomenon with a number of known facts, the interpretations of
which are assumed as known, and we are satisfied with the reduction of
a new fact to these previously known facts. For instance, if the
average individual hears of the explosion of a previously unknown
chemical, he is satisfied to reason that certain materials are known to
have the property of exploding under proper conditions, and that con-
sequently the unknown substance has the same quality. On the whole,
I do not think that we should try to argue still further, and really try
to give a full explanation of the causes of the explosion.

The difference in the mode of thought of primitive man and of ciy-
ilized man seems to consist largely in the difference of character of the
traditional material with which the new perception associates itself.
The instruction given to the child of primitive man is not based on
centuries of experimentation, but consists of the crude experience of
generations. When a new experience enters the mind of primitive
man, the same process which we observe among civilized men brings
about an entirely different series of associations, and therefore results
in a different type of explanation. A sudden explosion will associate
itself in his mind, perhaps, with tales which he has heard in regard to
the mythical history of the world, and consequently will be accom-
panied by superstitious fear. When we recognize that, neither among
civilized men nor among primitive men, the average individual carries
to completion the attempt at casual explanation of phenomena, but
carries it only so far as to amalgamate it with other previously known
facts, we recognize that the result of the whole process depends
entirely upon the character of the traditional material. Herein lies the
immense importance of folklore in determining the mode of thought.
Herein lies particularly the enormous influence of current philosophie

T=)

“ee

THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 457

‘opinion upon the masses of the people, and herein lies the influence
of the dominant scientific theory upon the character of scientific
~ work.
f It would be in vain to try to understand the development of modern
~ science without an intelligent understanding of modern philosophy; it
~ would be in vain to try to understand the history of medieval science
_ without an intelligent knowledge of medieval theology; and so it is in
_ yain to try to understand primitive science without an intelligent
_ knowledge of primitive mythology. Mythology, theology, and phi-
losophy are different terms for the same influences which shape the
~ eurrent of human thought and which determine the character of the
attempts of man to’explain the phenomena of nature. To primitive
~ man—who has been taught to consider the heavenly orbs as animate
q beings, who sees in every animal a being more powerful than man, to
H whom the mountains, trees, and stones are endowed with life—expla-
nations of phenomena will suggest themselves entirely different from
those to which we are accustomed, since we base our conclusions upon
the existence of matter and force as bringing about the observed
results. If we do not consider it possible to explain the whole range
of phenomena as the result of matter and force alone, all our explana-
tions of natural phenomena must take a different aspect.

In scientific inquiries we should always be clear in our own minds of
the fact that we do not carry the analysis of any given phenomenon to
completion; but that we always embody a number of hypotheses and
theories in our explanations. In fact, if we were to do so, progress
would hardly become possible, because every phenomenon would
require an endless amount of time for thorough treatment. We are
only too apt, however, to forget entirely the general, and, for most of
us, purely traditional, theoretical basis, which is the foundation of our
reasoning, and to assume that the result of our reasoning is absolute
truth. In this we commit the same error that is committed, and has
been committed, by all the less civilized peoples. They are more
easily satisfied than we are at the present time, but they also assume as
true the traditional element which enters into their explanations, and
therefore accept as absolute truth the conclusions based on it. It is
evident that the fewer the number of traditional elements that enter
into our reasoning, and the clearer we endeavor to be in regard to the
_ hypothetical part of our reasoning, the more logical will be our con-
— There is an undoubted tendency in the advance of civiliza-

tion to eliminate traditional elements, and to gain a clearer and clearer
~ insight into the hypothetical basis of our reasoning. It is therefore
_ notsurprising that, with the advance of civilization, reasoning becomes
more and more logical, not because each individual carries out his
thought in a more logical manner, but because the traditional material
which is handed down to each individual has been thought out and
worked out more thoroughly and more carefully. While in primitive

458 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.

civilization the traditional material is doubted and examined by only a
very few individuals, the number of thinkers who try to free them-
selves from the fetters of tradition increases as civilization advances.
The influence of traditional material upon the life of man is not
restricted to his thoughts, but manifests itself no less in his activities.
The comparison between civilized man and primitive man in thi
respect is even more instructive than in the preceding case. A com-
parison between the modes of life of different nations, and particularly
of civilized man and of primitive man, makes it clear that an enormous |
number of our actions are determined entirely by traditional associa-
tions. When we consider, for instance, the whole range of our daily
life, we notice how strictly we are dependent upon tradition that can
not be accounted for by any logical reasoning. We eat our three
meals every day, and feel unhappy if we have to forego one of them.
There is no physiological reason which demands three meals a day, and |
we find that many people are satisfied with two meals, while others
enjoy four or even more. The range of animals and plants which we
utilize for food is limited, and we have a decided aversion against eat- |
ing dogs, or horses, or cats. There is certainly no objective reason |
for such aversion, since a great many people consider dogs and horses
as dainties. When we consider fashions, the same becomes still more
apparent. To appear in the fashions of our forefathers of two cen-
turies ago would be entirely out of the question and would expose one
to ridicule. The same is true of table manners. To smack one’s lips
is considered decidedly bad style, and may even excite feelings of dis-
gust, while among the Indians, for instance, it would be considered as —
in exceedingly bad taste not to smack one’s lips when one is invited to_
dinner, because it would suggest that the guest does not enjoy his
dinner. The whole range of actions that are considered as proper and
improper can not be explained by any logical reason, but are almost |
all entirely due to custom; that is to say, they are purely traditional. |
This is even true of customs which excite strong emotions, as, for’
instance, those produced by infractions of modesty.
While in the logical processes of the mind we find a decided tend-
ency, with the development of civilization, to eliminate traditional |
elements, no such marked decrease in the force of traditional ele-
ments can be found in our activities. These are almost as much con- |
trolled by custom among ourselves as they are among primitive man. |
It is easily seen why this should be the case. The mental processes
which enter into the development of judgments are based largely upon
associations with previous judgments. I pointed out before that this |
process of association is the same among primitive men as among
civilized men, and that the difference consists largely in the modifi- |
cation of the traditional material with which our new perceptions |
amalgamate. In the case of activities, the conditions are somewhat

i

ht > ela.

THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 459

different. Here tradition manifests itself in an action performed by
the individual. The more frequently this action is repeated, the more
firmly it will become established, and the less will be the conscious
‘equivalent accompanying the action; so that customary actions which
are of very frequent repetition become entirely unconscious. Hand
in hand with this decrease of consciousness goes an increase in the
emotional value of the omission of such activities, and still more of
the performance of actions contrary to custom. <A greater will power
is required to inhibit an action which had become well established;
‘and combined with this effort of the will power are feelings of intense
displeasure.

This leads us to the third problem, which is closely associated with
the difference between the manifestation of the power of civilized man
and of primitive man to inhibit impulses. It is the question of choice
as dependent upon value. It is evident from the preceding remarks
that, on the whole, we value most highly what conforms to our pre-
vious actions. This does not imply that it must be identical with our
previous actions, but it must be on the line of development of our
previous actions. This is particularly true of ethical concepts. No
action can find the approval of a people which is fundamentally
opposed to its customs and traditions. Among ourselves it is consid-
ered proper and a matter of course to treat the old with respect, for
children to look after the welfare of their aged parents; and not to do
so would be considered base ingratitude. Among the Eskimo we find
an entirely different standard. It is required of children to kill their
parents when they have become so old as to be helpless and no longer
of any use to the family or to the community. It would be considered
a breach of filial duty not to kill the aged parent. Revolting though
this custom may seem to us, it is founded on an ethical law of the
Eskimo, which rests on the whole mass of traditional lore and custom.

One of the best examples of this kind is found in the relation between
individuals belonging to different tribes. There area number of primi-
tive hordes to whom every stranger not a member of the horde is an
enemy, and where it is right to damage the enemy to the best of one’s
power and ability, and if possible to kill him. This custom is founded
largely on the idea of the solidarity of the horde, and of the feeling
that it is the duty of every member of the horde to destroy all possible
enemies. Therefore every person not a member of the horde must be
considered as belonging to a class entirely distinct from the members
of the horde, and is treated accordingly. We can trace the gradual
_ broadening of the feeling of fellowship during the advance of civiliza-
tion. The feeling of fellowship in the horde expands to the feeling of
unity of the tribe, to a recognition of bonds established by a neigh-
borhood of habitat, and further on to the feeling of fellowship among
members of nations. This seems to be the limit of the ethical concept

460 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN.

of fellowship of man which we have reached at the present time.
When we analyze the strong feeling of nationality which is so potent at
the present time, we recognize that it consists largely in the idea of the
preeminence of that community whose member we happen to be—in
the preeminent value of its language, of its customs, and of its tradi-—
tions, and in the belief that it is right to preserve its peculiarities and —
to impose them upon the rest of the world. The feeling of nationality
as here expressed, and the feeling of solidarity of the horde, are of the
same order, although modified by the gradual expansion of the idea of
fellowship; but the ethical point of view which makes it justifiable
at the present time to increase the well-being of one nation at the cost
of another, the tendency to value one’s own civilization as higher than
that of the whole race of mankind, are the same as those which prompt
the actions of primitive man, who considers every stranger as an enemy,
and who is not satisfied until the enemy is killed. It is somewhat dif-
ficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own
civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization,
and that it has been controlling all our actions since the time of our
birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civiliza-
tions, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilib-
rium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours,
although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without
having grown up under their influence. The general theory of valua-_
tion of human activities, as taught by anthropological research, teaches —
us a higher tolerance than the one which we now profess.

Our considerations make it probable that the wide differences between
the manifestations of the human mind in various stages of culture may —
be due almost entirely to the form of individual experience, which is_
determined by the geographical and social environment of the indi-
vidual. It would seem that, in different races, the organization of the ;
mind is on the whole alike, and that the varieties of mind found in dif-
ferent races do not exceed, perhaps not even reach, the amount of.
normal individual variation in each race. It has been indicated that,
notwithstanding this similarity in the form of individual mental proe-
esses, the expression of mental activity of a community tends to show
a characteristic historical development. From a comparative study of —
these changes among the races of man is derived: our theory of the ;
general development of human culture. But the development of cule
ture must not be confounded with the development of mind. Culture’ .
is an expression of the achievements of the mind, and shows the cumu-_
lative effects of the activities of many minds. But it is not an expres |
sion of the organization of the minds constituting the community, —
which may in no way differ from the minds of a community occupying —
a much more advanced stage of culture.

sa"

;
‘
J

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS—A STUDY IN
PSYCHOLOGY AND INVENTION.

By Orts T. Mason.

That unicorns may be betrayed with trees,
And bears with glasses, elephants with holes,
Lions with toils, and men with flatteries, * * *
Let me work;
For I can give his humor the true bent,
And I will bring him to the Capitol.
ile

—Julius Cesar, 11,

MEANING OF THE TERM AMERICAN.

America, in this connection, embraces all of the Western Hemis-

_ phere visited by the native tribes in their activities associated with

the animal kingdom. It might be allowed to exclude a small number
of frozen or elevated or desert regions untrodden by human feet,
were it not for the fact that most of these were the resorts of zoo-
morphic gods, creatures of the aboriginal imagination. The name

- America must in this study include also those oceanic meadows stretch-

ing out from the continents, whereon were nourished innumerable

creatures, which dominated the activities of the littoral tribes.
DEFINITION OF THE TERM TRAP.

A trap is an invention for the purpose of inducing animals to com-

mit incarceration, self-arrest, or suicide. In the simplest traps the

automatism is solely on the part of the animal, but in the highest
forms automatic action of the most delicate sort is seen in the traps
themselves, involving the harnessing of some natural force, current,
weight, spring, and so on, to do man’s work.

In capturing animals by the simplest methods they are merely taken
with the hand as in gathering fruits. By a second step they are har-
vested with devices—scoop nets, dippers, seines, hooks that are sub-
stitutes for the crooked finger, reatas, dulls, bolas, and many more.
A third step leads to active slaughter with clubs for bruising, knives
and axes for cutting and hacking, and with a thousand and one imple-

461

462 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

ments for piercing and retrieving. In these the hunters are present
and active, making war on the animal.

In the matter of automatism there is no great gulf between the
trapper and the hunter. At both ends and in the middle of the trap’s
activity the man may be present, but not to the victim. Not waiting
for the victim to go to its doom of its own will, the hunter, having
his trap, proceeds to entice and compel the game. He has learned to
imitate to perfection the noises of birds and beasts—it may be of
those he is hunting, of others hunted by them, or their enemies. He

On the contrary, he also knows how to allay suspicions in one direc-
tion, to arouse them in another—always with the trap in his mind.

out of sight. He releases the pent-up force of gravity, of elasticity,
Finally, the result of the trap’s action is to hand the victim over to)
the hunter to carry away or to kill. Often the trap does the killings

grace. The instances are many where the victim must be dispatche
at once, or the trap will be destroyed and the result lost.

THE TRAP AS AN INVENTION.

As intimated, the trap teaches the whole lesson of invention. At |
first it is something that the animal unwittingly treads on (Middle |
Low German, treppen, to tread; tramp is a kindred word). At last |
it is a combination of movement and obstruction, of release and exe- |
cution, which vies in delicacy with the most destructive weapons, _
Gravity and elasticity are harnessed by ingenious mechanical com-—
binations. .

THE TERM PSYCHOLOGY.

6 b)

In this paper the term ‘‘ psychology” stands for all those mental
processes that are caused and developed by trapping. There is the
mental activity of the animal and that of the man. The trap itself is |
an invention in which are embodied most careful studies in animal
mentation and habits. The hunter must know for each species its
food, its likes and dislikes. A trap in this connection is strategy.
Inasmuch as each species of animals has its own idiosyncrasies, and as 4
the number of species was unlimited, the pedagogic influence of this
class of inventions must have been exalting to a high degree for the |
primitive tribes. |

The varieties of execution to be done by the trap were very great. |

It had to impound or encage, or to seize by the head, horns, limbs, |
gills; to maim, crush, slash, brain, impale, poison, and so on, as though

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 463

by

it had reason—the thought of the hunter had to be locked up in its
parts ready to spring at a touch. As population increased, wants
became more varied and animals became more scarce, more intellec-
tual and wary. If any reader of this may himself have been a trapper
he will remember the scrupulous care with which he proceeded at
every point, to make the parts stable or unstable, to choose out of
innumerable places one that to a careful weighing of a thousand indi-
cations seemed best, to set the trap in the fittest manner, and at last
to cover his tracks so that the most wary creature would not have the
slightest suspicion.

To catch a fox it was necessary to win its confidence, and this the
savage knew. So he prepared a trap that was perfectly harmless, and
let Reynard walk about over the ashes or fresh earth or chaff, picking
up dainty bits until all suspicion was removed. Then was the time
to conceal the trap. But all vestiges of human hand or foot must
be removed, and the apparatus must be cleaned and smoked most
effectually.

PARTS OF TRAPS.

The trap has two classes of parts, the working part and the mechan-
ical, manual, animal part. The victim finds itself in a pound, deadfall,

Yi,

Ass!/ Wi
AN
WN Wop
Hi i Wi
LY TLL Re

Fic, 1.—Marmot trap.

cage, hole, box, toil, noose, or jaw; on hook, gorge, pale, or knife,
and so on. This dangerous element, to repeat, may not need any
accessories. The fish swims into a fyke, the animal walks into a pit or
pound, the bird or climbing animal finds itself in a cage with ratcheted
entrance to prevent egress; that is all.

In a higher stage of invention, where the forces of gravity and
elasticity are invoked to do the incarceration, arrest, or execution,

464 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

there has to be found between the lure and the execution a host of
devices, and these form an ascending series of complexities. The
simplest of these intermediary inventions is an unstable prop or sup-
port of some kind; the slightest pull at a bait removes the ticklish
thing, and weight or noose, or other deadly part, is set free. The
trigger and the catch are more complicated and varied; the secret of
them all, however, is that an unstable catch is released by the animal
in passing, in prying curiosity, in gnawing, or in rubbing; this is con-
nected by means of sticks and strings to the last release, since the
operation of releasing is in connection with the device in which the
force is confined and by which the work is to be done. In the highest
forms of weight traps and spring traps there are veritable machines,
since they change the direction and effect of motion. It is on these
that most ingenuity has been expended, and in them is exhibited that
wonderful threefold play of working force, work to be done, and proe-—
esses of reaching the end. Variations in the materials utilized will |
play no mean part, also, in a continent covering all zones save the ant-
arctic, all elevations at which man can live, and all varieties of vegetal
phenomena growing out of temperature and rainfall. To proceed with
some order it will be necessary to divide the Western Hemisphere into
convenient culture areas. The following will serve for a provisional ©
list:

American culture areas.

Areas. Peoples.

Ld Arche 32.2 oa eae ee Eskimo. ;

2... Canadienne fs (Gaya te ee See Athapascan.

3. Atlantic plope.2 2+. oF one Algonquian-Iroquois.

4. Wossissippl, Valley a. «ete t Siouan.

o.. Lonisians: ortrulisce eS ee Muskhogean.

6. Southeastern Alaska.-........---- Haida-Koluschan.

7. Columbian tevion~ 4622-22... ae Salish-Chinookan.

S:clntenior basins hc eee Shoshonean.

9. Califomia resigns .2s eae Very mixed stocks.
10: Pueblo region. 22222 5e0 ee Tanoan-Tewan and Sonoran.
11. Middle Ameri¢an 5-" = sa2eee wee Nahua-Mayan.
12: Cordilleranresion@s 2-55-0445 24s" Chibcha-Kechuan.

3) Antillean recion & -2ee see eee Arawak-Caribbean.

14...,Upper Amazonian... Sates e eee Jivaro, Peba, Puno, ete.
15. Eastern Brazilian region.......-.. Tupi-Guarani, Tapuya.

16. Mato Grosso and southward... -. Mixed people of Brazilian and Andean types. —
17. Argentina-Patagonian region. -.... Chaco, Pampean, and Patagonian stocks.
1g. -Puegian region 6.032. sessee eee Aliculuf, Ona, and Yahgan.

The inquiry will not be raised here whether the traps not made of
metal and found in the hands of the American savages are entirely
aboriginal, or whether there has been acculturation. A good knowl-—
edge of the traps as they exist or existed will go far toward settling
the question of origin.

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 465
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAPS.

Traps are variously classified according to the concept in the student’s
mind. If it be the natural element in which they work, there will be
land traps for mammals, birds, reptiles, and invertebrates; water traps
for mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates; and air traps
for birds and insects.

With reference to their parts, either mechanical or efficient, there
are a multitude of names which will appear in a separate vocabulary.
In the setting they are man set, self-set, ever-set, and victim-set.

For the purpose of this paper traps may be divided into three groups,
namely: (A) Inclosing, (B) arresting, (C) killing. In each of these we
may begin with the simpler forms—those with the least mechanism—
and end with those that are more intricate.

‘l.—Inclosing traps.
(a) Pen—dam, pound, fyke.
(b) Cage—coop, pocket, cone, fish trap.
(c) Pit—pitfalls.
(d) Door—with trigger, fall cage, or fall door.
b.—Arresting traps.
(e) Mesh—gill, toils, ratchet.
(f) Set hook—set line, gorge, trawl.
(g) Noose—snare, springe, fall snare, trawl snare.
(h) Clutch—bird lime, mechanical jaws.
C.— Killing traps.
(7) Weight—fall, dead fall.
(k) Point—impaling, stomach, missile.
(1) Edge—wolf knife, braining knife.

A.—INCLOSING TRAPS.

fnelosing traps are those which imprison the victim, most of them
without doing any further bodily harm, though there may be added
to these some other devices which will injure or kill. There are four
kinds of inclosing traps: (a) Pen traps, (4) cage traps, (c) pit traps, (d)
door traps.

(a) Pen traps.—These include pounds or corrals on land, and dams,
fish pens, and fykes in the water, the idea being simply to inclose. Traps
of this sort have no tops and therefore are not useful for birds. In
connection with other forms, small inclosures are used to surround the
bait and to guide the victim ina certain direction. How the animal
gets in, how it is kept in, and what is done to it afterwards will decide
whether the pound is a trap or a corral or whether it is a reservoir, an
abattoir, or a domesticating device. The simplest form of pound is of
brush or reeds, and confines whatever enters, large or small; but the
perfect form has interstices carefully adapted to retain certain species

sm 1901 30)

466 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. -

the small and young out. The savage tribes, further, could make moy-
able walls of reeds and long nets. Indeed, the great impounding nets
are the last word in the series. Add to the pound an entrance and
there begins another set of inventions around the notion of shutting.
A gateway may be closed by nature or by device. The tide falls and
leaves aquatic creatures imprisoned. Animals get under some obsta-
cele and can not surmount it. They corral themselves. A gateway
may be guarded by sentinels also, but gates may be intentionally shut
or a pound-shaped barrier be set up, so that the return of those which
pass in is impossible. Most pounds, whether in water or on land, have

SESS mn

Hac iH :
IN Preah 3 yarn Q
He i 1 Nee ; ie aint
a cr er ae a = in
et atta lL at Mt Lon

a t

sinta {UCP RRA A Ht

Fic. 2.—Fish weir of the Virginia Indians (after Hariot).

some natural or artificial lane for conducting the game to the gate-
way. On either side may be precipices, trees with ropes or wattles
between wing nets,.or something of the kind, along which animals
pursue their natural course and are lured or driven to the pen (fig. 2).

(6) Cage traps.—In this class must be grouped all forms of coops and
strong house traps on land, and a great variety of cones, pockets,
and ah traps in the waters. All of these are designed for climbing,
flying, or swimming creatures. The cage or coop trap, completely
inclosed on every side, is a step in advance of an open pen, whether
on land or in the water. The majority of cage traps have funnel-
shaped entrances, into which the animal passes easily and unrestrained,
but exit is prevented by means of a pointed strip of wood or other
substance acting as a ratchet; or in the case of nets, the small end of

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 467

the funnel consists of a series of string gates which the animal passes,
_and these close the mouth of the net so as to prevent escape (fig. 3).
Among the Eskimo a unique contrivance for catching foxes was a
net which was made to be set around a burrow. in the corners of which
were long pockets, opening wide into the net, but gradually contract-
ing until the fox could go no farther. Endeavoring to turn back, it
became hopelessly entangled and died of fright and cold.

(ce) Pits.—The digging of pits was not common in America before
the discovery, owing to the lack of metallic excavating tools. Pits
partially dug out and partially built up were seen here and there as a
blind for the hunter, who concealed himself
therein. Boas, quoting Lyon, describes an
Eskimo fox trap in the snow into which the
animal jumped and was unable to extricate
itself.

The central Eskimo, according to the same
authority, dig a wolf trap in the snow and
cover it with a slab of snow on which the
bait is laid. The wolf breaks through the
roof, and as the bottom of the pit is too
narrow to afford him jumping room, he is
caught.

The Cree, in the Saskatchewan country,
place at the end of their deer drives a log of
wood, and on the inner side make an excaya-
tion sufficiently deep to prevent the animal
from leaping back.

Pitfalls are said to have been used by the
Indians of Massachusetts. They are de-
scribed as oval in shape, 3 rods long and 15 oy,
feet deep. Fig. 3—Fish trap.

The Concow Indians of California are said

to catch grasshoppers for food by driving them into pits. The Acho-
mawi, or Pit River Indians, dug deer pitfalls 10 or 12 feet deep by
means of sticks, and carried the earth away in baskets. In southern
Brazil, also, wild beasts were caught in pits dug for that purpose and
covered with leaves.

(d) Door traps.—The last form of inciosing trap to be mentioned
here is also the most mechanical; it includes those in which a door
falls and incloses the animal, or in which a cage, one side of which is
held up by an unstable prop, falls and incloses the victim.

_ Parry describes a small house trap, made of ice and used by the
Eskimo for foxes, at one end of which was a door made of the same
material, to slide up and down ina groove. This door was sustained
by a line which passed over the roof and was caught inside on a hook

. 468 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

of ice by means of a loose grommet to which the bait was fastened.
The fox, pulling at the bait, released the door of ice and found itself —
in prison.

Crantz describes a house trap used by the Greenlanders in which a |
broad stone forms the moyable door. I have seen a trap of similar —
mechanism used by folks in eastern United States, in which a cage or
basket is propped up with a loop of splint; this, pulled inside by the
animal tugging at the bait, brings down the cage over the victim. —
Doubtless this form of imprisoning animals designed to be taken alive —
was quite well spread over the continent.

B.—ARRESTING TRAPS.

The arresting traps are designed to seize the victim.

(e) Mesh nets.—The mesh net is based on the fact that animals, by —
the conformation of their bodies or by the set of the hair, feathers, or |
gills, may rachet themselves. To this class belong ‘‘ toils” for land —
animals, trammels and gill nets for aquatic animals.

Among the archeologic treasures of our National Museum are
many net sinkers, which would lead to the conclusion that netting is
an old art among the aborigines. The majority of netting devices are
for aquatic animals, but tribes on the coast of British Columbia sus-
pend nets between poles in order to capture migratory geese and ducks.
The Eskimo make nets of sinew, of rawhide, and of baleen; these are
set across the rivers in open water, but more ingeniously under the —
ice by means of holes cut at such distances apart as to enable the fish-
ermen to draw the net out and in.

A device somewhat in the nature of this is used by the Eskimo of
Point Barrow for catching seals; four holes are drilled through the —
ice about a breathing hole; from these a net is set under the breathing |
hole, the lines being worked through the four corners of the space;
the net is hung under the ice, and the seal coming to breathe is entan-
gled therein.

Gill nets are set for seal after the ice forms along the shore. Mur-
doch reports that smaller seals are captured also in meshing nets of
rawhide set along the shore in shallow water; he thinks that the mesh-
ing nets in northern Alaska came from Siberia.

Elliott illustrates Eskimo women catching salmon in a gill net con-
sisting of a pole and a triangular net attached. The pole rests ona
stone at the water line, while the net sinks in the water; as soon as a fish —
strikes, the women lift the pole, extricate the fish, and reset the net. —

Mesh fishing is also quite common among the Athapascan tribes, —
both on the Yukon and on the Mackenzie. Charlevoix states that in_
St. Francis River, Canada, the Indians made holes in the ice, through
which they let nets five or six fathoms long; he also describes the |
taking of beaver by means of nets.

Bg ee ns ae ee

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 469

(f) Set hooks.—These may be employed on land or in the water.
A toggle or gorge may be so baited or placed that a duck or a goose,
by diving and swallowing it, may be held under the water and
drowned. A single hook may be set for vermin, or baited and left in
the water, especially for large fish; for the smaller fish, the trawl or
trot line holding several hooks may be stretched across a body of
water, and thus the game may be secured in the absence of the
fisherman.

In one sense, many hooks used in taking birds and fishes are traps.
They are baited and cast into the water or placed in such position on
land that the hunter is out of sight. A line is attached to hooks of
this kind, one end of which may be held in the hands of the hunter or
tied to a buoy or other signal device.

It is interesting to note that fishhooks are not found in many
American areas—large regions are entirely devoid of them, and in
ancient mounds and works such relics are wanting. No picture of a
fishhook is seen in any Mexican or Maya codex, and Von den Steinen
notes the entire absence of fishhooks from large places on the affluents
of the Amazon. The simplest form of this class of devices was seen
by Lumholtz among the Tarahumari in northern Mexico; they catch
blackbirds by tying corn on a snare of pita fiber hidden under the
ground; the bird swallows the kernel, which becomes toggled in its
esophagus, and can not eject it.

In the order of complexity—a removal from the mere action of
hand hooks for capture—hook traps may be divided into the following
classes: The seed on a string; the gorge; hook at the end of a string,
squid hook; baited hooks; compound hooks; barbed hooks; and auto-
matic hooks.

(g) Noose.—This is a most interesting class of traps. <A string or
thong or rope, ora bit of whalebone and sinew, may have one end
looped around itself so as to slip with perfect ease; the other end will
be fastened to some object. This noose may be so placed that the
animal will run its head or its foot into it and be caught; or it may be
attached to a bent sapling or some form of springe which is held down
by a device, to be liberated by the animal coming to seize the bait or
lure. In order to prevent the animal from gnawing the snare, per-
forated sticks may be suspended just over the knot, thus making a
very complicated device. The noose may be used in the air for birds
on the wing, on the land in many ways, and sparingly in the water.

Boas says that among the central Eskimo waterfowl of ail descrip-
tions are caught in abundance in whalebone nooses fastened to a long
whalebone line or to a thong. Hares, ermines, and lemmings are also
taken in whalebone snares. E. W. Nelson describes a noose for catch-
ing Parry’s marmot, which involves a form of release mentioned also
as used among the Iroquois. The victim enters the leadway as usual,

470 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS.

and instead of pulling at the bait to release the spring, it gnaws in two.
a string which holds the snare down and which has something on it —
appetizing to the animal. In the Iroquois rabbit trap the string is
steeped in salt (fig. 1).

The simplest nooses at Point Barrow are made of baleen and set
around where fine gravel has been placed to attract the birds. Ac-—
counts are also given of nooses of whalebone set in water along the
shores where ducks dive for their favorite plants, and which catch
the birds by the neck. This reminds one of the use of the mesh |
net for the same purpose in California. From Nelson and other
observers among the Eskimo, and from the examination of collections —
in the museums, it is learned that the methods and places of setting a
noose are limited only by the habits of the different animals.

In the Mackenzie River country, and wherever the Hudson Bay
Company’s people have prosecuted their work, the snare and the springe
are very commonly employed. Even reindeer and moose are strangled
by means of snares set in their way. Father Morice figures in the
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, 1894, a great variety of appli-
cations of the noose.

In Wood’s New England Canaan we have the quaintest description
of a New England trap:

** The Salvages take these in trappes made of their naturall Hempe
which they place in the earthe where they fell a tree for browse and
when he roundes the tree for the browse if hee tread on the trap
he is horsed up by the legg by means of a pole that starts up and
catcheth him.” *

The gentleman of Elvas” gives the following description of the trap
among the Autiamgue tribes:

‘* With great springes which lifted up their feet from the ground;
and the snare was made with a strong string, whereunto was fastened

a knot of a cane, which ran close about the neck of the conie, because |

they should not gnaw the string.”
Teit, in his account of the Thompson River tribe,° describes deer

fences and springes used in catching large and small animals. Mrs.

Allison describes snares for catching deer and birds in the same

region. This custom prevails also in California among many tribes |

described by Frost and Powers. Zui boys catch blackbirds with —
snares made of horsehair fastened to a rope; these snares are laid on |
the ground and seeds placed between. When the birds alight they |
put their feet into the snare and are drawn up and captured. The —
older Zunis drive sunflower stalks into the ground and fasten a noose —
on the top. When a hawk, watching for field mice, alights on the

“New England Prospect, Prince Society; Boston, 1883, p. 202.

b>“ Hakluyt, Voyages, Vol. III, p. 114.

°Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Anthropology, Vol. II, |
pp. 247-249, figs. 228, 229. oI

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 471

stupidly on its perch and allows itself to be captured.
_ The Tarahumari of Chihuahua are very ingenious in trapping rats,
gophers, and deer. The ancient inhabitants of Copan caught quetzal

at liberty again. In southern Brazil birds were snared by the feet,
by the neck, and by the body. The Fuegians also use baleen nooses,
which are set hidden in the grass for the purpose of catching partridges
and other birds.

— (Ah) Clutching devices are best exemplified by bird lime. The ordi-
nary jaw trap of the hunters may be placed in this class; the common
steel rat trap is a good example. It is possible that spring nets may
have been used in certain parts of America before the discovery, but
the principle involved in the metallic clutching traps was not known,

C.—KILLING TRAPS.

The principles involved in killing traps are those mentioned under
“hunting,” as crushing, piercing, and cutting.

(7) Weight trap.—The simplest form of killing trap is the dead fall,
in which a heavy weight drops suddenly upon the animal, destroying
its life. The most interesting parts of the dead fall are the inventions
for securing an unstable support of the weight and for releasing this
‘support by means of the trigger or bait contrivance. There are few
separate accessory appliances to the dead fall, since the animal is slain
outright.

The fall trap was found in several of the areas mentioned. Essen-
tially, in its least complex form, it consists of five parts: A heavy weight
to crush the animal, a fixed support (perhaps a stake in the ground),
an unstable support on which the weight rests, a catch which prevents
the weight from falling until the bait is nibbled or the string pulled,
and, lastly, the trigger itself. The Central and Western Eskimo form
of dead fall has a slab of ice as a crushing weight. The Hudson Bay
~Company’s native trappers have a great variety of this particular
| type.

Maximilian figures a dead fall used for bears in Pennsylvania. The
animal walks between two logs. Above are two logs fastened firmly
together. These are held up by a crossbar supported between two
sticks. A lever attached to the log passes over the crossbar and is
held down at either end in a ratchet, where there is a bait. The bear
crouches between the logs, pulls the trigger, and releases the lever,
which flies up and lets the ring that supports the fall slip off; then
comes the tragedy.

Similar traps are noted in British Columbia and throughout the
southwestern country, but not in middle America or in South America.
The Hopi of Arizona, according to Dr. Hough, have two very primi-

472 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. %

tive forms of dead fall; one, for foxes, consists of a heavy stone slab
worked between two upright slabs for wings. One end of the prop
rests above against the stone; the other end rests on a cobblestone
beneath. The least touch of the prop rocks the cob-—
blestone and lets the weight down upon the fox. In>
another form, used for taking birds, the box and the
fall, or stone slab, are similar. The release consists of
the following parts: First, the upright and the notched
catch, precisely as in the figure-4 traps. To the bottom
of the notched catch a short string is tied, having at
the other end a small wooden toggle, which is held by —
a little rod resting against it and caught at its other
extremity in the grains of the sandstone slab. The —
least touch overcomes the friction between the trigger
and the slab. This sets free the toggle, which unwinds
from the post, the hook catch flies up, and the weight —
falls.

(k) Point traps of the highest order were not com-
mon in America; that is, the use of arbalest or bow for
vs the purpose of driving an arrow or bolt into the victim
or for impaling, or the use of sharpened sticks in the
pathway of land animals; but the throwing in the way
of carnivorous animals of sharpened whalebone splin-
ters wrapped in fat was practiced.

Bancroft mentions a bear trap, used by the Aleuts,
consisting of a board 2 feet square and 2 inches thick,
furnished with barbed spikes, which was placed in
Bruin’s path and covered with dust. The unsuspecting stepped upon
the smooth surface, when his foot sank and was pierced by one of the
barbed hooks. Maddened with pain, he put forth another foot to

Fic. 4.—Game spits.

Fig. 5.—Fox or wolf trap with sinew spring.

assist in pulling the first away, when that, too, was caught. When all
four of the feet were spiked to the board the beast fell over on its
back and its career was soon ended by the hunter.

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 473

The wolf bait, made of a piece of whalebone sharpened at both ends
and doubled up, has been mentioned by Boas, and examples of the
same device were brought to the National Museum by Nelson from
St. Michael, Alaska (fig. 4).

Lumbholtz says that the Tarahumari catch deer by putting sharpened
sticks in the track and stampeding the animals with dogs.

(1) Edge traps.—There were in America two forms of knife or cut-
ting traps of the most ingenious character. One may be called the
wolf knife. A sharpened blade was inclosed in a frozen mass of fat
and stuck up in a block of ice. The wolf, licking the fat, cut its
tongue. The taste of the blood infuriated the animal, so that by lick-
ing the knife more it caused a larger flow of blood. All the other
members of the pack were attracted to the same spot, devourin
another for the sake of the blood, till all were destroyed.

Another form of edge trap is found in Alaska, where the blades are
attached to one end of a lever, the other end of which is inclosed in a
torsion spring of rawhide. The animal stops to pick the bait, pulls
the trigger, and releases the unstable hook catch; the knives fly over
and the victim is brained (fig. 5).

one

Oo
S

Smithsonian Report, 1901 —Mason PLATE I.

Cates,

TF Ns cing tls ana II II

i i

3 +

f 4

iy ae

,

4

4

x

4

4 j
Q i

\ ;

TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. STEPS OF AUTOMATISM IN THE GRASPING DEVICE.

1, Common dull; 2, dull and tickler; 3, dull and ratchet; 4, complex moose trap.

att ign

Ag te

i Pye Ry

a Aide ee le

THE ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM THE ANDAMAN
ISLANDS.

By Lasur. W. E. Sarrorp, U. 58. N.

The Andaman Archipelago is a small group of densely wooded
islands about 1,760 square miles in area, situated in the Bay of Bengal
near the meridian of 93° east longitude and between the tenth and
fifteenth parallels of north latitude. The group lies about 180 miles
southwest of Cape Negrais, Burma, and is separated from the Nicobar
Islands, lying to the southward, by a channel 60 miles wide.

Great Andaman, the largest and most important member of the
group, is about 140 miles long. Though apparently a single island,
it is divided by narrow channels, or creeks, into several parts, the
principal of which are known as North Andaman, Middle Andaman,
and South Andaman. A short distance to the eastward of South
Andaman lies a group of islands known as the *‘Archipelago;” to the
southward, separated from South Andaman by MacPherson Strait, is
Rutland Island; and south of this are Cinque Islands.

Narcondam and Barren Islands are outlying volcanic islets, the
latter situated about 45 sea miles east of the northern part of the
* Archipelago,” and between Great Andaman and the Nicobar group
lies Little Andaman.

Dr. W. L. Abbott, accompanied by Mr. C. Boden Kloss, visited
the Andamans in January, 1901, collecting objects of ethnological
interest, together with specimens of mammals, birds, and reptiles.
He first touched at Barren Island, which he found overrun with
goats, descendants of animals left there by the English officials of
Port Blair. Forests have spread over the outer slopes of the volcano,
which forms the island, and the slopes of the crater are partially
covered with jungle. The cone in its interior and the lava streams on
the floor are still devoid of vegetation. The island is uninhabited.
After collecting specimens of rodents and of birds on Barren Island
he proceeded to the ‘* Archipelago,” dropping anchor in Kwantung
Straits near Henry Lawrence Island.

At Port Blair, on South Andaman, where the English have a convict
settlement, and a ** refuge house” for the benefit of shipwrecked sailors,
he saw the native Andamanese for the first time. In a letter accom-.

475

476 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

panying his notes on the collections made by him, Dr. Abbott says that —

a small tribe of hostile Andamanese wanders about South Andaman,
and another one inhabits the south end of Rutland Island.

From Port Blair Dr. Abbott went to MacPherson Strait, dropping —

anchor between South Andaman and Rutland Island. Here he set his
traps and caught a Paradovurus, or ‘*musang,” an animal belonging
to the civet-cat family, the bones of which the natives frequently make
into necklaces. Dr. Abbott was struck by the absence of squirrels,
which on the neighboring coasts of the continent and on many islands
adjacent to it are abundant. The next stoppage was at North Cinque
Island, whence he went to Little Andaman, anchoring off the mouth
of Bumila Creek, at the northern extremity. The natives were friendly,
but brought off to the ship with them ‘‘ quantities of a beastly little fly
that made life well-nigh unendurable.” The commissioner at Point
Blair had warned Dr. Abbott not to touch at Little Andaman except at

Bumila Creek, as the natives elsewhere are more or less hostile, ‘‘and —

the first warning of a hostile Andamanese is an arrow whizzing past
you or sticking in your body, while it is utterly impossible to see the
little black men in the dark forest.”

Dr. Abbott’s collection of ethnological material includes a number
of interesting specimens from South Andaman Island, illustrating the
arts and customs of the Bo-jig-ngi-ii tribe. He calls attention to the
decided difference between these articles and those collected by him at
Rutland Island, only 15 miles south of Port Blair. Mr. E. H. Man,
who has written many interesting papers on the Andamanese in the
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, had retired from the Goy-
ernment service shortly before Dr. Abbott’s visit. At that time the
station at Port Blair was in charge of Mr. Vaux, who received his
party and looked after them during their stay.

HISTORY.

From the earliest times the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands
have been considered one of the most primitive and most savage races
on the face of the earth. Fabulous stories have been told of them by
early writers. Accounts of their alleged cannibalism are found in
Chinese writings. It is thought that they were included by Ptolemy
in the ‘‘S¢nsulxe bone fortune” described by him, the inhabitants of
which were ‘‘anthropophagi, whose heads do grow beneath their
shoulders;” and other writers have referred to the natives as having
tails like horses. Whatever may have been the exaggerations of these
early accounts of the personal attributes of the Andamanese, it is
undoubtedly true that they were cruel and merciless savages, who
destroyed all those so unfortunate as to be cast upon their shores.
Their own heads were not situated beneath their shoulders, but they
did frequently wear the skulls of departed relatives suspended by a
band around the neck (see PI. I, figs. 8 and 9); and their ‘*‘ horse-like

eee EO ee ee ne ee

: “eel

ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. AT7

tails” were appendages on their belts of pandanus leaves, the nearest
approach to clothing worn by them (PI. I, figs. 22 and 23), the men
not attempting to conceal their nakedness, but the women through
modesty suspending a few green leaves from their belts in the form
of a very small apron (PI. I, fig. 16).

Dr. Abbott reports that at the time of his visit there were over
10,000 convicts at Port Blair. By means of presents of cloth, food,
iron, and other things dear to the savage heart, the officials cultivate
friendly relations with the natives, who in return render the Govern-
ment the most important services in keeping the convicts in check.
Indeed, without the aid of the natives the station would have to be
abandoned. ‘*The convicts,” Dr. Abbott writes, ‘‘are naturally a
pretty bad lot. Were it not for their fear of the Andamanese escape
would be very frequent, and in the vast, dense forests of the islands
recapture would be almost impossible; but with the Andamanese
recapture is certain. It is great fun for the little black men, who do
not hesitate to kill the runaway if he makes any resistance.”

ENVIRONMENT.

The islands are watered by numerous streams at the mouths of
which, as on all tropical shores, are great areas covered with a tangled
growth of mangroves and their allies, flooded at high tide, but exposed
at low water. From the slimy, muddy tracts thus uncovered, over
which crabs and other shellfish crawl and the strange little air-
breathing fish, Perdophthalm/, hop about, offensive odors rise and
malarial gases are exhaled. Elsewhere along the coast there are
stretches of white sandy beach upon which the natives wade, visiting
the fringing reefs for crustaceans, mollusks, and other marine animals
used by them for food. It is interesting to note that, with the excep-
tion of a few spots, evidently planted by the early colonists, cocoanuts
do not occur in the Andamans, and this is especially remarkable from
the fact that the conditions are favorable for their propagation.

The interior is taken up with an almost impenetrable forest of lofty
trees, many of which yield fruit, fiber suitable for making nets and
cordage, resins, and excellent hardwood.

Unlike the islands lying eastward of the Malay Peninsula, the
Andamans are separated from the continent by deep water. It is not
surprising, therefore, that the fauna should be poor in mammals.
With the exception of bats and, perhaps, a tree shrew, all of the
mammals of the group may possibly have been introduced through
human agency. The wild pig, Sus andamanensis, a small species, of
which the full-grown boars weigh about 90 pounds, is allied to forms
on the mainland and in Sumatra. The palm cat, Paradoxurus tytlerd,
an animal allied to the civets, may have escaped from vessels visiting
the islands or wrecked there, and the rats and shrews were brought
thither by junks.

478 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

THE ANDAMANESE.

The origin of the Andamanese has long been an interesting problem -
to anthropologists. From the observations of Mr. E. H. Man, who,
more than any other, has made the race a study, it appears that —
the Andamanese are Negritos and not Papuans. They are well made
and well proportioned. Their skulls are brachycephalic (see Plate I,
fig. 8), and very few cases of prognathism have been observed. Their
lips are not thick, their profiles are good, and they have no peculiar
odor like that which is found in the African race. Their extremities
are small, but the heel projects slightly to the rear. From measure-
ments of 48 men and 41 women, made by Mr. Man, it was found that —
the average height of the men was 4 feet 102 inches, of the women, 4
feet 74 inches, while the average weights were 984 pounds and 934
pounds, respectively. The maximum height of the males measured
was 5 feet 44 inches, of the female 4 feet 114 inches, and the minimum
heights were 4 feet 5% inches and 4 feet 4 inches, respectively. The
color of the skin of the Andamanese is variable. It is generally bronze,
or dark copper color; often the color of soot, and even quite black.
Their hair is woolly, but its cross section is not always elliptical. It is
a common practice for both sexes to shave the head. Boys attain
puberty at the age of 16 years and girls at the age of 15. Theaverage —
length of life is said to be 22 years. Adult women have a considerable
development of adipose tissue in the region of the pelvis, but it is not
excessive. Laughter is frequent and often immoderate. In a letter
to the Smithsonian Institution, Doctor Abbott says: ‘‘ We liked the
Andamanese very much; they seem such a happy, jolly lot of little
folk.” And, of the inhabitants of Little Andaman, he says: ‘* These
were a happy, merry, little people, infantile both in their looks and
behavior. They are without the rank smell of the negro. The girls
are frequently pretty when young. They are the very blackest peo-
ple I have ever seen.” Of the natives near the settlement of Port
Blair, he says: ‘‘ Unfortunately they are dying out. Contact with
civilization is making the women barren, and there are comparatively
few children. In Little Andaman, which is in statu quo ante, they
are in their original condition and are not dying out.”

Whatever may have been the theories advanced to account for the
presence of these Negritos in the Bay of Bengal, so entirely unlike —
any of their immediate neighbors, says Man, it is now pretty well
demonstrated that they are aborigines and have inhabited the group
from prehistoric times. Their nearest relatives, Wallace thinks, are
the Samang's of the Malayan Peninsula and the Aetas of the Philippines. —
All of the tribes are of the same race, and there is no evidence of their
ever having been crossed with other races. The inhabitants of Little —
Andaman may perhaps differ somewhat from their northern relatives, —

ial

ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 479

but this difference may be attributed to their contact from time to
time with their neighbors, the Nicobarese, from whom they doubtless
learned to build houses.

The Andamanese can not well endure fasting or thirst. They
appear to be very sensitive to cold as well as to the direct action of
the sun’s rays, from which they shield themselves with the greatest
care, often using a palm-leaf screen (fig. 20, Pl. II) for this purpose,
as well as covering their body with a coating of clay.

The voice of the men is: described as being of medium loudness,
growmg deeper and fuller in tone with age. After having passed
their prime, which is apparently about 35 years, it becomes rough,
husky, and tuneless. The boys and women have clear, pleasant voices,

_ but in singing, the voices of the women are of bad intonation. Fal-

> gti D €

setto singing is common in both sexes, though nasal intonation is not
so marked as in many Oriental races. The prevailing male voice is
barytone, the compass usually about an octave. All of the notes of
the women are head tones.

FOOD.

Although the Andamanese do not practice agriculture nor rear ani-
mals, yet they do not lack a bountiful supply of food, which is yielded
to them by the forest, the shore, and the sea. This they obtain with
very little exertion, and, according to Mr. Man, their eagerness in the
chase is induced almost as much by actual love of sport as by the
necessity of obtaining food. Were this not the case they would
hardly be found spending so much time in dancing and singing, in
personal decoration, and in the preparation of their meals, while they
reject with aversion anything that has become at all tainted. Further,
it may be fairly estimated that one-third of the food daily consumed
by them consists of edible roots, fruits, and honey. The remaining
portion of the food is the flesh of one or more of the following,
namely: Pig, paradoxurus, iguana, turtle, fish, and mollusks. with rare
additions of pigeons and jungle fowl.

Their mode of eating meat is to cram a large piece into the mouth,
and then to cut off whatever is in excess with a bamboo or cane (now-
adays generally a steel) knife (PI. II, figs. 6, 7, and 11). Water is
their only beverage. If very thirsty while ona fishing expedition, and
all the fresh water-supply is exhausted, the Aryotoda pour water over
their heads or jump overboard, and even at times try to alleviate their
sufferings by swallowing salt water.

The fruits of mangroves are eaten occasionally. They are first
cooked as found, then peeled and soaked in water for a couple of days
to remove the bitterness, after which they are either baked or boiled.

Some fruits are merely sucked for their flavor, others have fine wood
ashes added to them, the alkali of which reduces their acidity, while a

480 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

few, like the mangrove, the seeds of the Leguminosz creepers and of
the jack fruit, and piers resembling Cashew nuts, are cooked.

Their favorite fruits are those of M/imusops indica, the leaves of
which are used by the womea for aprons; Baccaurea mapas: of which
the seed, as well as the fruit, are eaten, and the rotten logs used for
fuel; Gluta longipetiolata, belonging to the Anacardiacee; Cycas—
rumphit, the seeds of which are eaten; several kinds of Diospyros, and
the mangroves already referred to.

All animal food is thoroughly cooked. Brains and marrow, and the
blood of turtles, which is boiled in the shell, are considered dainties.
All animal food is preferred almost boiling hot. The natives fre-
quently crack marrow bones with their teeth, which are usually sound
and strong.

TATTOOING.

With the exception of tattooing and painting the body, no artificial
deformity is met with. Mr. Man says that every woman is supposed
to be proficient in shaving, tattooing, and scarifying. Those who have
shown special skill in the art are the recognized practitioners. The
operation is not accompanied by any ceremony. Very few children
of either sex attain the age of eight years without having been partially
tattooed. The final operation is usually performed about the sixteenth
or eighteenth year.

BODY PAINTING.

Three kinds of pigment are used by the Andamanese for the adorn-
ment of their bodies: First, pale, olive-colored clay, called ogda;
second, pure white clay, called ¢fala-ogda,; third, kotobda, or burnt —
yellow ocher. The first is mixed with water and smeared over the
body, to denote mourning. After one has become heated by violent
exercise, as in dancing or hunting, a thin coating of ogda is also applied —
to his body. The white clay is more highly prized than the olive-
colored, on account of its great rarity. It is mixed with water and
applied ornamentally, usually with the nail of the forefinger, in fine
tattoo-like patterns, to the cheeks, body, and limbs. It is the duty of
the women to adorn their relatives for festive occasions, and they vie —
with each other in the neatness and variety of their designs. The
burnt ocher is mixed with melted fat, and occasionally with nut oil.
It is used to anoint the bodies of both the living and the dead, but not
upon a person in mourning. Unlike the designs made with white
clay, those made with ocher paint are applied with the finger tips in
rough zigzag stripes all over the body.

TRIBES.

The Andamanese are divided linguistically into at least nine tribes.
In South and Little Andaman each tribe is divided into the coast

’ ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 481

dwellers, or Aryotoda, and the jungle people, or Lvrem-tagada, who
are allied in all respects except in their mode of life. It is impossible
to determine the population, but Mr. Man estimates that the entire
group contains about 4,000 souls.

CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS.

No clothing is worn by either sex. Its place is taken in a measure
by necklaces, circlets for the head, garters, bracelets, and belts. The
materials used are screw-pine leaves, fringes of vegetable fiber, shells,
orchid stems, fine netting, animal, and even human bones. Besides
these, the skulls of the departed, their jaws, ete., usually painted red
with white markings, and ornamented with shells, are worn suspended
about the neck. Two skulls prepared in this way are shown on PI. I,

figs. Sand 9 and PL V. Figs. 11 and 12 and Pl. VI show human jaws
ornamented with shells; fig. 10, a necklace made of the vertebra of a
half-grown child, also painted red and adorned with shell pendants;
figs. 3, 5, 6, necklaces or head circlets of shells; fig. 13, a necklace of
turtle bones; fig. 14, a head circlet of vegetable fiber; and fig. 21, the
stems of an orchid.

The costume of a man consists of garters (figs. 19 and 20), bracelets
(figs. 24 and 25), and wristlets (figs. 17 and 18) of pandanus leaves,
often with the crumpled ends of the leaves forming a kind of tassef
and sometimes ornamented with a fringe of shells (figs. 18, 19, 20); a
folded pandanus leaf or cirelet around the head, and a bodda, or belt
(figs. 22 and 23) about the waist, from which two or four tufts of the
pandanus leaves composing the belt hang down behind.

Women often wear four or five and even eight bod-das. In addi-
tion to the tufts of pandanus leaves, which hang down behind, they
wear a diminutive apron of green leaves (fig. 16), which is kept in

position by the lowest belt. Married women wear the rugun-da (fig.
15), which is a broad belt or hoop of pandanus leaves, ornamented on
the outside by transverse or diagonal markings of red wax. Belts are
sometimes made of simple strips of rattan (fig. 2). Slings are worn
either by men or women (fig. +) in the form of broad straps of bark,
ornamented by red ocher and white clay, and are used for carrying
babies.

The skulls of pigs (PI. I, fig. 7) and fish (fig. 1) are often painted
with red ocher and white clay, and kept as trophies.

SANE CEPR Ey ee

HABITATIONS.

Three kinds of huts are erected by the Great Andaman tribes in
their permanent and temporary encampments. The most durable of
_ these consists of a roof of thatch made from the leaves of a species of
Calamus neatly plaited and fastened together with cane, and laid in

sm 1901——31

482 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

rows on rafters supported on four posts, the two front posts varying’
in height from 6 to 9 feet and the two rear ones from 2 to 3 feet. Huts”
intended to last for a few months only are somewhat similar to the —
above, but smaller and covered with thatch of inferior quality. These :
huts are made by the men. They always sleep on a mat (PI. I], fig.
19) ora bed-of leaves spread under a shelter of one of the three classes _
above described.

The inhabitants of Little Andaman make beehive shaped huts with
roofs coming close to the ground. They probably learned to construct
these from their neighbors, the Nicobarese. In the houses skulls of -
pigs, turtles, and fishes, often ornamented with red paint. are found —
(Pl. I, figs. 1 and 7), and in the vicinity of encampments shell heaps
invariably occur.

| FIRE.

They preserve fire with great care, as they ha,e not the art of pro-
ducing it. In leaving an encampment with the intention of returning
after a few days, besides taking with them one or more smoldering —
logs, they remove a large burning log or faggot to some sheltered spot,
-.where it will smolder for a long time. In each inhabited hut is a fire, —
not only to keep the owner warm, but to drive away the insects, to cook —
food, and to smoke provisions. Fires are generally kindled by fanning 4
the embers with a frond of the bird’s-nest fern (Aspleniwin nidus).
Torches (PI. II, fig. 5) are made by the women by wrapping resin —
obtained from a species of Sferculéa in the leaves of a lily (Crinum —
lorifolium). These are used when fishing or traveling, or when danc- —
ing at night. An inferior kind of torch (PI. I, fig. 14) is made of —
rotten wood.

TOOLS AND UTENSILS.

Stones are used as anvils and hammers, clam shells (Cyrena sp.)
in a variety of ways (PI. II, fig. 12)—as knives for cutting palm leaves —
used in thatching, for making the ornamental incisions on bows, pad-—
dles, ete., for planing and smoothing bows and the wooden portions
of arrows, for sharpening bamboo and cane knives and boar’s tusks —
(Pl. I, fig. 18), for preparing fibers, and as spoons for eating. Area
shells are employ ed for dressing the surface of pottery; pinna shells”

also as knives, as receptacles for white clay, and as plates for food;
nautilus shells serve as drinking vessels. ;

The bamboo is made into water holders (Pi. II, fig. 18) and recepta- —
cles for cooked food when traveling; into shafts for turtle harpoons; -
knives (PI. LI, fig. 7), which are narrow pieces hardened over a fire
and sharpened by means of a cyrena shell; netting needles; tongs
(fig. 17), which consist of a strip of bamboo bent double and pointed —
at the ends; and Bambusa nana furnishes the shafts of the wooden and
iron-pointed arrows.

Patino

i wren

ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 483

The only thing resembling a musical instrument made by the Anda-
mar.ese is a shield-like drum, upon which the performer keeps time
by striking it with his foot.

From the drupe of a pandanus a paint brush is made by removing
the pulp with a cyrena shell. This brush is used for painting the
ornamental stripes on their baskets, baby slings, ete. Neither skins
of animals nor thorns of trees or creepers are utilized by the Anda-
manese in their arts. Fly flaps are made by attaching vegetable fiber
to a wooden handle (PI. I, fig. 1).

TRONWORK.

Forging is unknown to the Andamanese. They obtain iron from
wrecked ships, from old hoops, ete., and make knives (PI. II, fig. 11),
arrowheads, harpoon points, and adzes (PL. II, fig. +) of it, resting the
piece of cold metal on a stone anvil, beating it with a hard, smooth

stone to the required thinness, and shaping it by bending back the

edge and beating it until broken off. The jagged edge is then ground
down on a hone until the required shape is obtained.

POTTERY.

Clay suitable for making pottery is found only in a few places.
This is cleaned of stones, mixed with water,and kneaded to the proper
consistency. The base of the pot is made in the form of a cup. ‘To
this roll after roll of clay is added, and the sides built up, care being
taken to insure uniformity and a proper thickness, and the inner and
outer surfaces are smoothed off with an arca shell, after which the
vessel is ornamented with wavy, checkered, or striped designs by
means of a pointed stick, when it is dried and baked by placing pieces
of burning wood both inside and around the vessel.

BASKET WORK.

Baskets (PI. II, figs. 22 and 23) are made of cane, called pidgada,
which is cut into lengths of 3 or 4 feet, the skin split into strips.
Baskets are much used by men, women, and children. Natives are
seldom seen without them. Specimens were forwarded by Dr. Abbott
both of wicker (fig. 23) and of wrapped (fig. 22) basket work.

WOODWORK,

In addition to the sounding-boards used for keeping time, the Anda-
manese make food trays (PI. I, fig. 2) and buckets (fig. 21) for holding
food.

484 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

CORDAGE.

String is made for their harpoon lines, turtle nets and cables, hand- —
fishing nets, sleeping mats, bowstrings, arrow fastenings, reticules
(Pl. Il, fig. 16), and necklaces. The yellow skin of an orchid (Den-
drobium) is often seen intertwined with the Anadendron string, and is
used as an ornamentation in the lashings of spear heads (PI. III, fig. 8),
etc. Bowstrings are coated with wax.

WEAPONS.

Bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the Anda-
manese both in warfare and in hunting. Besides these, for spearing
turtle and large fish a harpoon is used, and a peculiar fish spear con-
sisting of a number of slender, pointed wooden rods arranged in a
plane and diverging from the handle to the extremities. They are
kept in place by small pieces of wood transversely lashed across them,
as shown in fig. 13, Pl. III. Pig spears (fig. 8, Pl. 3) are of compara-
tively recent introduction.

SIGMOID BOWS.

The S-shaped bows of the Great Andaman tribes are interesting
from their resemblance to those used by the natives of New Ireland
and of Mallicolo, one of the New Hebrides. As held in the hand, the
upper part curves toward the marksman and the lower part away —
from him. Bows used by the tribes of South and Middle Andaman
and in the archipelago are usually ornamented by longitudinal rows
of X-shaped markings cut with a Cyrena shell, and are sometimes |
smeared with red ocher. The bowstring is made of the bark fiber of
Anodendron paniculatum, which is usually coated with black bees-
wax. Those made by the North Andaman tribes (PI. ILI, figs. 16 and 17)
are of a neater and more elegant form. They have long attenuated
extremities, are never ornamented by carving or painting, and are

usually from 5 to 54 feet long. In Middle and South Andaman the —

bows used in the interior for hunting are about 4 feet long. Inthe —
coast and in the open jungle, or when shooting fish, longer ones are |
used; and when made for presentation they are 63 to 7 feet long, and |
are elaborately ornamented with lines of X-shaped incisions made
with a Cyrena shell. On PI. III, figs. 14 and 15, are types of the
bows of South and Middle Andaman and of the archipelago, the latter
being a bow of the usual size for hunting and the former, longer,
broader, and more elaborately decorated (the markings on the flat sur-
face can not be seen), for presentation. As shown in the figure the bow —
is inverted; the lower point is that which is held uppermost in firing.
Figs. 16 and 17 are bows of the North Andamanese. As shown by
fig. 16, the sigmoid curve 1s not so pronounced in this type as in that
of their southern neighbors.

ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. 485
SIMPLE BOWS.

The bows of the Jarawada tribes, inhabiting Little Andaman, Rut-
land Island, snd a few other localities of the group, are simple in shape.
Pl. II, fig. 1, shows a bow collected by Dr. Abbott at Bumila Creek,
Little Andaman, and fig. 5 is a bow used by the Rutland Islanders.
Sometimes bows are made for children of the wood of a mangrove
(Bruguiera gymnorrhiza).

ARROWS.

The arrows of the Andamanese consist of a shaft of dwarf bamboo
(Bambusa nana) and a foreshaft. The latter may be simply of the
wood of a palm (Avecu sp.) or mangrove, hardened by fire and left
blunt for practicing at a mark orsharpened. Wooden-pointed arrows
are used for shooting fish, and by the jungle tribes for other animals.
They are made in great numbers by these people and taken by them
to the coast and bartered for iron-pointed arrows, turtle oil, ete.

Sometimes fish arrows are provided with two or more long, slender,
sharp wooden points. PI. ITI, fig. 2, shows a three-pointed fish arrow
collected by Dr. Abbott at Bumila Creek, Little Andaman; fig. 4 is a
two-pointed arrow picked up by him on North Cinque, an islet on the
southwest coast of Rutland Island; fig. 3 is the simple wooden-pointed
arrow. The foreshafts of fish arrows are frequently iron-pointed.
The point may consist of a piece of stout iron wire or a nail sharpened
at each end, the proximal end extending obliquely backward to form a
barb, *‘ boat-hook fashion,” as seen in figs. 6 and 7, Pl. III, or it may
be provided with a flattened iron head and barbs, as in fig. 12. The
string seizings attaching the head and barbs to the foreshaft are pro-
tected by a coating of red wax. In former times fish arrows were
often pointed with bone; the serrated bone from the tail of a sting-ray,
of such general use in Polynesia, was often used for this purpose.

HARPOON ARROWS.

These are arrows of which the foreshaft is detachable and is con-
nected with the shaft near the end of the latter by a stout, flat lanyard
about 5 inches long, made of the fiber of Anodendron paniculatum.
The foreshaft is provided with an iron head and one, two, or three
barbs (see Pl. III, figs. 9, 10, and 11; also Pl. IV). The seizings
attaching the head and the lanyard to the foreshaft are protected by a
smooth, solid coating of red wax. These harpoon arrows, called e/a-da,
are used for shooting pigs. The foreshaft is thrust into a socket at
the end of the shaft and twisted until the lanyard forms a tight coil
about the upper part of the shaft. When an animal is struck the barbs
of the arrow hold the head with the foreshaft attached firmly in the
flesh, the shaft is knocked loose as the animal rushes through the

486 ABBOTT COLLECTION FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS. \ a

jungle, dragging the shaft behind it; and as the latter is made fast to
the lanyard at some distance from the end, it trails at an angle and is—
soon caught in the bushes, holding the wounded animal until the hunter
comes to dispatch it.

TURTLE HARPOONS,

A turtle harpoon line made of the bark fiber of I/¢lochia arborea,
with the barbed iron point attached, is shown on PI. III, fig. 18. The -
point is set ina sort of conical plug, which fits tightly into a socket —
at the end of a bamboo shaft, often 18 feet or more in length. When
a turtle or large fish is struck the shaft becomes detached, and is
picked up after the animal has been captured.

CANOES.

Both outrigger canoes and simple dugouts are used by the Anda- —
manese. They are propelled by paddles, or, in shallow water, by poles
or the shaft of a turtle harpoon. A narrow projecting bow is con-—
sidered by them to be a great advantage for throwing the harpoon in-
turtle fishing. The anchor is merely a large stone or lump of corral,
the cable a rope of the same fiber as the harpoon line.

For the social life of the Andamanese, their marriage ce
ceremonies, etc., the reader is referred to the work of Mr. E. H..
Man, from oan much of the foregoing information has been obtained.

is,

ie

i

aes

Sey ey

ow

.

® Human skull, suspended by cord of bark

10,

qa:

. Fish skull, painted with red ocher, kept as

. Belt, or waist circlet, of rattan.
. Cirelet of spiral shells on network, worn on

. Band of bark, worn over the shoulder, for
. Necklace of shells (Hemicardium unedo).
. Necklace of calyces of mangrove.

. Pig’s skull, painted with red ocher and white

. Human skull, painted with red ocher and

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.

a trophy.

the head or neck.

carrying child.

clay, kept as a trophy.

white clay, and ornamented with Den-
talium shells, and with Hemicardium
and Solarium shells attached to the tem-
poral arches; worn in memoriam by a
relative of the deceased.

fiber.

Civelet made of vertebree of a half-grown
ehild; worn on the head or about the
neck ir memoriam by a relative of the
deceased.

Human jawbone, worn like the preceding, °
ornamented by strings of Dentalium oclogonum.

. Human jawbone, painted, with red, ocher, and ornamented with Hemicardium

shells; suspended by network of bark fiber.

3. Cirelet of turtle bones, worn about the head or neck.
. Circlet of vegetable fiber, worn on the head.
. Woman's belt, made of Pandanus andamanensium, the ends of the leaves form-

ing four tufts, which are worn behind, the outside of the hoop ornamented
with transverse markings of red wax paint. Several belts are worn by each
woman.

. Tuft ef leaves of Mimusops indica; worn by the women as an apron, held in

piace by the lowest belt.

. Wristlet made of leaves of Pandanus andamanensium.
. Wristlet, or bracelet, similar to the preceding, but ornamented with strings of

Dentalium shells.

. Garter of Pandanus leaves, ornamented with Dentalium shells.
. Cirelet, similar to the preceding.
. Stems of an orchid (Dendrobium sp.), the yellow skin of which is used to orna-

ment cords, and the seizings of pig-spear heads.

. Man’s belt of Pandanus leaves, with two tufts, intended to hang down behind.

. Belt similar to the preceding, but having four tufts of Pandanus leaves.

. Man’s garters of Pandanus leaves, made like the preceding.

. Garter in the form of a flat hoop of Pandanus leaves, made like fig. 15, and

ornamented in the same way.

. Man’s belt, consisting of a fringe of Dentalium shells, coated with red ocher.

488

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Safford. PLATE |

NATIVE ORNAMENTS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

2.

v0.

5.

6, 7. Bamboo knives made by hardening the

1/2:

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fly brush consisting of strips of Pandanus
leaves secured to a wooden handle by a
lashing of rattan.

Food tray of wood.

Fiber of Gnetum edule, from which the pulp
has been removed by scraping the bark
with a Cyrena shell.

Adz (modern) made of iron obtained from
the keel plate of a vessel. Shells were
formerly used, but stones were never used
by the Andamanese for celts.

Torch, made by women, of resin wrapped in
an Amaryllis leaf (Crinum lorifolium).

strips with fire and sharpening the edges
with a Cyrena shell.

Bamboo skewer with shells attached.

Red wax, made by men, of red oxide of iron,
resin obtained from a tree (Celtis?), and
white beeswax; used to form a protective
coating over seizings of arrowheads, har-
poons, ete.; for ornamenting food trays,
buekets, and belts, and sometimes for
closing the seams of canoes and cracks in wooden buckets.

Pinna shell knives, now seldom used, their place having been taken by iron
obtained from hoops, plates from vessels, ete.

Skewer attached to iron knife.

Cyrena shells, the edge sharpened, and used for cutting, carving, and for smooth-
ing bows and arrows.

3oar’s tusk, the inner edge of which has been sharpened with a Cyrena shell.
Used for planing bows, arrows, and paddles.

Torch of resinous wood, from decayed logs of Dipterocarpus levis. They do not
burn so readily as the torch of resin (fig. 5) and are seldom used outside of
the huts.

Fiber of Anodendron paniculatum, of which bowstrings, arrow fastenings, and net-
tings are made.

Woman’s reticule, netted from fine string made of the fiber of Anodendron pan-

iculatum.

3am boo tongs.

3amboo water vessel,

Sleeping mat, made of Calamus strips twined together with string twisted from
the fiber of Gnelum edule, and decorated with lines of red ocher and white
clay.

Palm-leaf screen (Licuala peltata?).

3ucket made of the wood of Stereulia villosa, with a loop of cane to form the
handle, made by means of an adz blade attached to a handle in the form of
a chisel; ornamented with longitudinal markings of red and white.

Wrapped basket with conical bottom.

Wicker basket with reentrant bottom,

490

PLATE Il.

Safford,

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

NATIVE IMPLEMENTS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

1. Simple bow from Little Andaman Island.

2. Three-pointep wooden fish arrow, from
Bumila Creek, Little Andaman. |

3. Fish arrow, foreshaft of wood hardened by
fire and pointed, shaft of Bambusa nana.

4. Two-pointed wooden fish arrow, North Cinque
Island.

5. Simple bow from Rutland Island.

6, 7. Fish arrows, foreshafts pointed with wire
sharpened at each end, extending ob-
liquely backward to form a barb, the
seizings protected by coating of red wax.

8. Three pig spears; iron heads secured by seiz-
ings of Anadendron paniculatum fiber,
and ornamented with strips of yellow
Dendrobium bark.

9, 10, 11. Harpoon arrows’ for killing pigs (see
Pi. TV):

12. Fish arrow with barbed iron head.

13. Many pointed fish spear of wood.

14 and 15. Sigmoid bows used by the natives of
South and Middle Andaman and the
‘‘ Archipelago,’ ornamented with lines of X-shaped incisions made with a
Cyrena shell.

16, 17. Sigmoid bows used by natives of North Andaman.

492 i

PLATE III.

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PLATE IV.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Safford.

Hy fi:

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Loh

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—

HARPOON ARROWS FOR KILLING PIGS.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Safford. PLATE V.

SKULL OF DECEASED RELATIVE, WORN AS A NECKLACE.

PLATE VI.

Safford.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

BEAD-ORNAMENTED HUMAN JAWBONE, WORN AS A NECKLACE.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION.*

By Water Houeu.

Before the period of artificial illumination there were many mani-
festations of light in nature coming to the aid of the denizens of the
earth during the hours of darkness. Of these were the so-called luci-
form appearances, including the aurora borealis and australis, which
enliven the long nights at the polar zones; the magellan clouds of the
Southern Hemisphere; the zodiacal light, whose cause was long a sub-
ject of speculation, and the diffused light of the milky way, known to
the Chinese as the ‘‘river of the sky.”

The light from the stars and planets is not inconsiderable. Under
the clear night sky of the Arizona deserts the atmosphere seems
charged with star mist; eminences miles away may be outlined, the

_ dial of a watch may be read, and a trail followed with little difficulty.

These are the conditions under which night journeys are made to avoid
the burning sun. The planet Venus, at inferior conjunction especially,
sheds light sufficient for the traveler over open country.

There are at times nights of remarkable luminescence. Clouds
become phosphorescent, and often under certain states of electric
stress, during high winds, glimmer with a faint light not amounting
to a discharge of the electric fluid. Frequently successive flashes of
‘heat lightning” aid the traveler in finding his way. It is possible,
also, that the soil over certain regions may become phosphorescent
under the light of the sun and retain the property during the night,
as certain gems are phosphorescent after being submitted to sunlight.
Snow has this property. Gaseous emanations of a phosphorescent
character are occasionally abundant enough to produce temporary
illumination.

Next to the sun in value to man as a light producer is the moon.
Though intermittent in the power and duration of its light, the moon
has proven a valuable auxiliary on the night side of man’s life, and
its period has given a measurement of aggregates of time.

In torrid climates, and at hot seasons of the year, work is often

“Read at the Congres International d’ Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Préhisto-
rigues, XII session, Paris, August, 1900. (Reprinted from the American Anthropolo-
gist (N. S.), Vol. III, April-June, 1901.)

493

494 DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION.

carried on’ by moonlight in order to escape the heat of the day. While
moonlight is 450,000 times less bright than daylight, under certain
favorable conditions the light seems intense and ample for many

purposes. 4

The well-known phosphorescence of lichens has been found to give —
considerable light during warm, moist nights in the summer. Certain —
flowers are phosphorescent, or emit flashes of light, as the tuberose
and moonflower. In the vegetable world there are numerous sources —
of light whose faintness causes them to escape ordinary observation, —
As an aid to man, however, the light from the vegetable kingdom is
far less useful than that yielded by the animal kingdom. P

When the animal kingdom is reached, numerous examples of light —
phenomena connected with vital processes are found. The familiar
firefly of northern latitudes frequently renders summer nights lumi-
nous, while the tropical noctilucide yield an actual and valuable
illumination which has been “utilized as light in several interesting —
ways by the inhabitants of regions in which the insects are found.

The distinguished traveler Kaempfer described the fireflies of Siam
as ‘‘ settling upon the trees like a fiery cloud,” and in Brazil Gardner
compares them in brilliancy with ‘‘stars that have fallen from the
firmament and are floating about without a resting place.” Kidder —
says: ‘‘In the mountains of Tijuca I have read the finest print of —
Harper’s Magazine by the light of one of these natural lamps placed —
under a common glass tumbler, and with distinctness I could tell the
hour of the night and discern the very small figures which marked the
seconds of a little Swiss watch. The Indians formerly used them
instead of flambeaux in their hunting and fishing excursions, and when
traveling in the night they are accustomed to fasten them to their feet
and hands. And they are used by sefioritas for adorning their tresses.
Prescott narrates the terror they inspired in the Spaniards in 1520.
‘The air was filled with ‘‘cocuyos,” a species of large beetle which
emits an intense phosphoric light from its body strong enough to
enable one to read by it. These wandering fires seen in the darkness
of the night were converted by the besieged into an army of match-
locks,’ so says Bernal Diaz.” *

The bearing of the light of the firefly on the light of the future is
very important, and the investigations carried on at the Smithsonian
Institution a few vears ago may introduce a new epoch in illumination.
A brief account in the Philadelphia American states that *‘ some inter-
esting experiments upon the nature and origin of the light emitted by
the firefly have lately been made by Prof. S. P. Langley. From the
spectroscope he finds the light to be of exceedingly narrow range of
refrangibility. The heat given out is scarcely appreciable, being less
than one-half of 1 per cent of that produced by an equal amount of

“Kidder and Fletcher, Brazil and the Brazilians, Phila., 1857, p. 293.

wo

DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION. 495

light from a candle or other common illuminant. That the light is
a chemical product would seem to be established by the fact that
it decreases by products which check combustion (e. g@., nitrogen)
and increases by products which aid combustion (oxygen), and that
the product of the process is apparently carbon dioxide. The subject
of the origin of * phosphorescent’ light is one that may develop very
interesting features, for, as graphically stated by Prof. Oliver JJ.
Lodge, if the secret of the firefly were known, a boy turning a crank
might be able to furnish the energy necessary to light an entire elee-
tric circuit. From this standpoint Professor Lodge regards as enor-
mous the waste of energy in the machinery of electric-light making
now in usc.”

Most of the 150 species of animals which are light-producing inhabit
the sea, where their light is of small importance to man. The wonder-
ful phosphorescence of the tropical seas, which has drawn forth many
descriptions of its beauty, is caused by the collective lights of myriads
of infusoriz on the surface of the water.

The day opens up a vast field of activities requiring light for their
prosecution. Solar light is normal for the carrying on of these activi-
ties, and the night is normal for rest and recuperative processes. The
important phenomena of the day are sunrise and sunset; and the day’s
labor regulates itself to twilight, morning and evening hours, and the
hours of broad day divided by the meridian of the sun. Sunrise is
attended with certain phenomena, which observant people have noticed.

The Hopi tribe of Arizona, for instance, employ the following terms
for sunrise: Sunrise, fv/avaiya; place of sunrise, tawa yum tyak/;
faintest dawn, Aiiyaniptii, first light, tadt7; light of sunrise, taldove;
yellow light of sunrise, sthyaniiptii; before emergence of sun, tawa
hityiva, “*sun appears;” sunup, tawa yama.* Few tribes indeed have
not been impressed with dawn and sunset, and few in the oblique lati-
tudes have failed to mark the seasonal progress of the sun along the
horizon.

There is a wide difference in the amount of sunlight enjoyed by the
dwellers on the earth’s surface, depending on the height and configu-
ration of the land, its absorptive and reflective qualities, the presence
of forests and vegetation, the amount of moisture and dust in the air,
cloud formation, and other elements which suggest themselves to the
reader, producing local and periodical variation. To these must be
added the seasons and the position in latitude determining the length
of the day and the duration of twilight.

The superabundance of sunlight has brought about many devices
for warding off and tempering the rays and ameliorating their heat.
For protecting his eyes from the excessive light man has devised eye-
shades, hats, and parasols; and for shade and protection from the heat,

“Authority of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes.

496 DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION.

shelters of brush, skin, or cloth. In some environments the chief

function of the house seems to be for shelter against a burning sun,

and this points out a probable origin of the house in tropical countries. —

Nowhere is this regulation of daylight more thoroughly carried out

than in our modern houses of the temperate regions, whose develop-—

ment has been along the praiseworthy lines of more light and air.

What the ancients directly accomplished by small light openings |

requires now hangings, lace curtains, inside shutters, blinds, perhaps
sash curtains, outside shutters, and an awning. These may further be
reinforced by shade trees. With all these adjuncts one might be led

to believe that the dim light of the early houses is still preferred by |

the moderns. |

As a corollary of protection from the sun follows the observation
that tribes. living in the shade become lighter in color than their
fellows living in the open country. It is also true that there is a
characteristic facial modification, such as wrinkling and vontorting
about the eyes produced in those who are exposed to the glaring light
of the deserts or the sea.

Without doubt man is a diurnal animal; his eyes have not the con-
densing power of those of the Fé/7dw and other nocturnal beasts. The
man apes are also day animals, and those tribes of mankind retaining
a degree of primitiveness regulate their rest to the setting and rising
of the sun.

With the use of fire begins the history of artificial illumination.
The nocturnal light of nature became then of little moment in com-
parison with fire lights and the burning brand in the hand of man;
the conquest of light over darkness was signalized, and the night side
of man’s life and his progress toward culture became a theme of sur-
passing interest.

There perhaps can not be a satisfactory reconstruction of the period
before the knowledge of fire, and the difficulty persists in the subse-
quent stages of the acquisition and use of fire, and the generation of
fire at will—stages grasped by the philosophic mind of Paul Broca.

One fact stands out clearly—that man unacquainted with fire is
unknown. With the light of the camp fire comes the torch, and from
this starting point, by the help of observations on less civilized peoples,
it may be possible to reconstruct the history of artificial illumination
and to check it in some degree by the aid of archeology.

The following table, briefly epitomizing the development of the
candle, is presented as the result of extended research in this direction:

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANDLE.

Protoillumination in line of torch:

Fireflies used as torches. Fat bodies of birds and fish burned for light.
Prototorch (adventitious and temporary ):

1. Firebrand, branches, resinous wood, bark, leaves, etc.

DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION. 497

Torch (for customary use ):
2. Slivers or other elements tied together in a bundle.
3. Roll of resin wrapped in leaves.
Protocandle:
4. Rope soaked in resin.
5. Fiber soaked in fat or wax.
6. Rush soaked in grease.
7. Stick or splint with grease for lighting.
Candle:
8. Mass of fat formed upon a stick around which is wound a wick of fiber.
9. Candles of wax or fat.
10. Dipped candles.
11. Molded candles; improved and art candles of twentieth century.

While the line of development has proceeded from the rude torch to
the candle, the steps marked in the series are suggestive, embracing
devices used by different peoples and at divers times. There is not
space here to present the results of investigations among different
peoples and in special areas. It will be seen that the purpose for
which light is to be used, the place in which it is to be used, the
period, and the resources of the environment, are among the modify-

_ ing influences on materials and apparatus. Hence the complete steps
_ of the development may not be exemplified in a given area, though a
number of superposed phases of light utilization may exist side by
side. It is true, also, that the growing need for light has brought

a closer association of the means of illumination with tbe life of

man. The smoking torch, for example, is utilized for open-air

illumination, while the candle enters the house and companionship of
the family.

Following the torch in the line of development comes the lamp,
which separated from the stem of the torch at a period when oils and
fat came to be used. This may have occurred (1) as a concomitant
of migration or after the domestication of animals whose fat was
available; (2) at the time of the discovery of mineral oil, (3) or
of the utilization of vegetal oils, such as that of the olive and the
cocoanut.

The lamp appears to have arisen at a period after migrations into
the temperate zones had brought man into new conditions. The prin-
cipal of these was the longer night, and joined to this was the settle-
ment in comparatively permanent habitations. In this view the fire
stick and torch were the essential accompaniments of early migration
and without doubt determined the spread of man over the earth’s
surface.

Since the torch, from its perishable character, is rarely found on

cient sites, there is little to be said as to its archeology. The lamp,

n the contrary, being a higher idea, involves work in stone, pottery,

bronze, or iron, producing objects which survive burial in the soil.
sm 1901 32

498 DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION. ;

Discoveries by French archeologists have shown that the lamp was in
use at the close of the lacustrian bronze age, and up to the present
time these are the most ancient objects which have been found that are
unmistakably lamps.

It would seem that the lamp with a wick had its origin at a culture
plane represented by that of the bronze age, though such employment

of fire might have been prefigured by usages in the age of polished

stone. Again, the latitude and consequent difference in temperature

of stations have exerted controlling influence on the character of the
early lamps which it might be possible to employ. Thus climatic con-

ditions render the fuel supply of the lamp solid or fluid and broadly
determine the form of the reservoir.

It is almost safe to say that the higher types of illuminating appa-
ratus would not have developed except in the temperate zone or the —
region of long nights. The tallow candle is a device of cold regions; —
the same may be affirmed of the open fat lamp. The form of the latter
seems to depend upon the character of its fuel supply, and this cause—
no doubt constantly gives rise to forms of extreme primitiveness in —

the midst of a high civilization, aside from those descending from the

primitive type and retained in use through the working of the large _

body of survivals of custom in every society.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAMP.

The series might have grouped at the beginning devices for produc-

ing a temporary light and those undifferentiated lamps of skulls and —
bones. The bodies of birds and fish burned by means of a wick also —

may be classed with the lamps.

TEMPORARY LIGHT.

1. Oil bag from which oil is thrown on a fire to produce a temporary ;
light. Kwakiutl Indians, British Columbia. Lighting apparatus of —

skulls or bones suggestive of primitive lamps.

2, Lamp. Unworked beach stone with a concavity, supplied with —

oil and having the wick laid along one edge. Aleut shell heaps.
3. Lamp. Hollowed beach stone with moss wick arranged along
one edge. Worked stone lamps. Eskimo.

4. Lamp of pecten shell with oil and wick of rush pith. Ainos, —

Japan. Fusus shell hanging lamp. Orkney islands.
5. Lamp. Terracotta saucer, China. India, etc.

6. Terracotta saucer with edge pinched up into gutter or gutters for q

wick. Syria and India.

7. Lamp. Terracotta. Reservoir almost closed over; spout for —
wick. Lamps of pottery with reservoir closed over, Lamps of bronze —

with one or more wick spouts. Roman.

|
|
|

DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION. 499

8. Lamps of iron of simple shape with plain open or closed reservoir
and with spout, and often having dip catchers and a device for tipping
to allow the oil to reach the wick. There is considerable variety of
such lamps, which were used in Europe before the epoch-making inven-
tion of Argand. Being products of the blacksmith’s hammer, they
present a certain crudity, as of antiquity. However, there is no rea-
son to doubt that they are the survivals of the forms of the iron age.

It may be interesting to briefly pursue the line of the lamp into the
inventive age.

LAMPS OF THE INVENTIVE ERA.

9. Lamp of brass with reservoir mounted on rod and stand; several
curving spouts. Italian. Development from the Roman lamp.

10. Lamp of brass designed to furnish heavy oil to the wick under
hydrostatic pressure. Flemish.

11. Lamp with chimney; draft to flame and heavy oil under gravity
pressure. Argand’s invention and French inventors.

12. Lamp with chimney and Argand burner; heavy oil under forced
pressure of a spring. Devices for heating heavy oil. France.

13. Lamp of glass having one or two tubes; for burning whale oil.

14. Lamp burning ‘*‘ camphene” by means of wick and tubes and
without chimney. United States.

15. Lamp with chimney; ventilated burner; woven wick raising
refined petroleum by capillarity. United States, 1870. Developed
burner to end of century.

At present the destiny of illumination is in the hands of the investi-
gator and inventor. Who knows to what heights their efforts will
lead? But before the inventive era, before Argand, if you please, the
world satisfied its needs for light with the immemorial simple lamp
and smoky torch, increasing the illumination at times by multiplying
the number of lights, and casting over scenes of splendor the flare of
torches little removed in simplicity from those of prehistoric man.

It may be a wholesome correction of our pride in the advance of a
century to reflect that most of the human race is still in the uninvent-
ive period, depending for light on torches and simple saucer lamps.

The epoch-making invention of the chimney and the discovery of
boundless hydrocarbons in the earth have not yet reached the major-
ity of mankind, while the electric light casts its bright rays in a very
small area of immense obscurity. Still there is progress, and grad-
ually tribes from their beginnings unacquainted with more than the
most simple illuminating methods are seeking more light.

It is interesting to note in this connection the education of the Hopi
Indians of Arizona in the use of artificial illumination. The environ-
ment of these Indians is semiarid, and there is such scarcity of fuel in
their isolated country that it must be used sparingly for cooking and

500 DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION.

only as a luxury for illumination. Hence, up to a few years ago, all
avocations ceased at dark. Four years ago the writer, while encamp-
ing at Walpi, noticed only a solitary light at night in the pueblo.
There was at that time a demand for candles. Two years later a num-
ber of lights shone from the windows of the village. Lately coal oil.
has become known; a great many families possess the luxury of a coal-—
oil lamp, and this has worked a great change in the habits of the peo-
ple. This seems in epitome the history of illumination. 4

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hough.

TORCHES AND CANDLES.

‘SdWV] SO SAIYSAS

eee a SRE BA ON

/

et
©

“|| 3LV1d ‘ysnoH—' 1061 ‘Woday ueiUOsY}IWS

ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMAL SHAPIN(
ARTS."

N
I

By W. H. Hotmegs.

Modern science has gone far toward establishing the proposition
that the human race, like the various other groups of sentient beings,
is the product of evolutional processes, and the student of history has
added the corollary that human culture has likewise developed through
a long series of progressive stages from infinitesimal germs up to the
present complex and wonderful conditions. The history of culture
can not, therefore, be complete until the course of its development
has been traced back to the remotest beginnings. The phenomena of
art are the tangible representatives of human progress and achieve-
ment, and upon these we are almost wholly dependent for an insight
into the initial stages of history. Furthermore, there is a shadowy
interval at the very beginning of culture history unrepresented by
art remains. Into this space we seek to extend our vision by the aid
of rays borrowed from other branches of science.

Assuming the general uniformity of nature’s genetic processes, we
conclude that in the beginning there was a period of rudimentary or
instinctive use of materials during which our race carried on its activi-
ties much as the bird builds her nest of sticks and grass and the
badger burrows a home in the ground. But the time must have come
when the hand of this creature, man, was so developed and his brain
so matured that articles supplied by nature, such as sticks and stones,
were held in the hand for throwing, striking, and rubbing. These
things became implements, multiplying the powers of the hand and
finally giving man dominion over nature.

The first stage of implement using would consist in the employment
of articles furnished by nature. The second stage would be entered
upon when the things used began to be modified in shape designedly
to increase their efficiency. The passage from the first to the second
stage would be made possible by unintentional alterations of the
primal utensils brought about through use, and the observation of the
processes of modification by creatures able to profit by these observa-
tions. Thisstage would witness the beginning of those manual opera-
tions to which we give the name ‘‘the shaping arts.” It is these first
necessary steps in art, weak and hesitating and almost infinitely slow
as they must have been, that more than any others demand the atten-
tion of the student of history.

“From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Vol. XLII, 1894.
501

502 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS.

There is little prospect of securing examples of the earliest products
of men’s hands, as they were probably executed in destructible mate-_
rials and have long since disappeared. As soon, however, as the —
shaping operations extended to stone, permanent records were made
and many artifacts, representing all stages and periods, are still extant,
forming the only actual evidence of ie early struggles and achieves
ments of the race. Archeologists are engaged in collecting these
remains and arranging them according to the plan suggested by the
general scheme of evolution, applying the result to the elucidation of
human history.

Consideration of the entire body of phenomena of art in stone is
not possible in the present study, and I shall contine myself to a small
portion of the field—to the initial stages.

A glance at the accompanying synopsis will convey a definite notion
of the relation of the group of phenomena here to be considered to the
whole field of the shaping arts. These arts may be divided primarily
into manual and physical groups. The first includes all those things
shaped directly by the human hand, aided by mechanical appliances;
the second includes those in which the manual operations are assisted
by physical processes or agents, such as heat, acids, and electricity.

The manual arts employ mainly six groups of processes, to which I
have given the names fracturing, bruising, abrading, incising, model-
ing, and constructing. Four of these groups—the four placed first in
the synopsis—are concerned in our studies of the earliest culture, and
pertain to the shaping of stone in its elementary utilization.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SHAPING ARTS.

Splitting,
1. Fracturing

Bc:

breaking,
flaking, ete.
Battering,
2. Bruising --- pecking ete.
bushing,
Grinding,
3. Abrading ---jrubbing,

Manual arts. - polishing, ete.

4. Incising ----4jincising,

piercing, ete.
Molding,

5. Modeling - - psnping
hammering, etc

fins

Shaping arts

Building,
6. Constructing preaving
sewing, ete.
B Heat fracture.
9) -,
Physical arts |?" Eecplosion fracture.
3. Etching.
4. Electro-depositing.

~»

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 503
ORIGIN -OF MANUAL PROCESSES.

Taking the evolutional view of the development of man and his arts,
we must first turn our attention toward the probable activities of the
creature man as he issued from the prehuman stage and began slowly
to make use of the objects with which he was surrounded for imple-
ments and utensils. By the utilization of stone in the form of frag-
ments, nodules, and bowlders, the properties of that material wouid
be gradually revealed to him, and in time four processes of modifying
its shapes would inevitably be suggested and utilized. These are frac-
turing, bruising, abrading, and incising.

FRACTURING PROCESSES.

The fracturing processes are placed first for reasons that will appear
in the sequel. As known to us, they employ two groups of acts, per-
cussion, and pressure. The first of these implies the use of a hard
and heavy implement with which the stone to be shaped is struck,
producing fracture; the second implies an implement of at least mod-
erate hardness, which is pressed against the brittle stone, producing
fracture. These necessary acts—the simple manual operations—are
so elemental as to be within the reach of man in a very low stage of
mental and physical development. The first—percussion—probably
the only act employed in the auroral days, demands nothing more in
the way of skill than that required in the casting or striking of one
stone against another, or that required in the cracking of a skull ora
nut. Inthe operation of this process a hard, compact hammer of stone
or other suitable material having a convex striking surface is essential.
The second process—pressure—is less primal, requiring, before it can
be operated with success, a specially prepared tool of hard wood,
bone, or other compact substance. The several varieties of acts
employed in fracturing are named, according to the nature of the
particular results produced, ** breaking,” *‘ splitting,” ** flaking,” and
“chipping.” The term ‘* flaking” is in common use to represent the
form-elaborating operations of the group. The material shaped must
be measurably compact, homogeneous, and brittle. Such stone is
widely distributed over the habitable world.

BRUISING OR BATTERING PROCESSES.

The acts employed in this class of operations are wholly or in the
main percussive, the impact resulting in a bruising and crumbling of
minute portions of the surface of the stone. The hammer employed
must be hard and tough, and the stone shaped must be sufficiently
tough to practically preclude fracture by the ordinary blow. The
simple act, like that required for fracture, is quite elemental and
within the reach of a creature of low organization. No specialized

504 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS,

tool is necessary, the result being reached by striking one. stone
against another of proper relative durability. The several acts are.
known as ‘‘ battering,” ‘‘bruising,” and ‘‘pecking,” the last term
being in common use for the act by which shaping is mostly accom-
plished by primitive peoples. Materials suitable for shaping by this
process are plentiful and very generally distributed.

ABRADING PROCESSES.

Shaping by abrasion in its most elemental form results from the
rubbing of one object against another with such force as to remove
minute particles from one or both. The operations are generally
expressed by such terms as ‘‘grinding,” ‘‘rubbing,” and ‘‘ polish-
ing.” All stones are abradable, and most stones can be made to serve —
in the active operations of abrading. The act is so simple that it may
be performed by any creature having power to grasp the rubbing —
stone. Its employment in the shaping arts was undoubtedly primal,
although it may be hard to secure tangible evidence on this point.

INCISING PROCESSES.

The incising acts are also simple in their nature. In their most
elementary form they are practiced by all creatures having teeth and
nails. In art they include the shaping of materials by cutting, piere-
ing, picking, scraping, etc. They imply the use of a hard edged or
pointed tool and a substance to be shaped somewhat less hard. Though |
a primal art, it is doubtful whether incising was applied to the shap-
ing of stone in the earliest times. This appears from the permissible

assumption that stone soft enough to be cut and scraped would not be

required in the simple acts of food-getting and defense, and the mak-
ing of vessels, pipes, ornaments, and ceremonial objects did not form
a part of the accomplishments of the early days.

There are a number of well-known shaping operations that combine
one or more of these processes, or that pass imperceptibly from one
into the other. Cutting and drilling often combine the bruising with
the incisive methods. Sawing may be done with an abrading edge or
with serrations that incise. Boring is likewise accomplished either by
cutting or by abrading points and edges.

From this brief analysis of the four simple primal shaping acts, and
a consideration of their relations to the mental and physical powers of
auroral man, as well as to the available materials of his environment,
I believe it impracticable to reach any conclusion as to which of these
acts would first be consciously employed and intelligently and generally
utilized in shaping stone. But there are other criteria which may
assist us in the attempt to place them in their proper sequence and
relations to culture progress.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 505

ORDER OF ARTS DEPENDENT ON MEN’S NEEDS.

A study of the elemental shaping acts does not aid us in determin-
ing what particular art would take precedence or what variety of art
product ought to characterize the earliest periods of human history.
If, however, as appears to be the case, the four shaping processes
were equally within the reach of man when art began, it does not nec-
essarily follow that all would come into general use at or even near the
same time or stage of advancement. It is not the simplicity or dis-
coverability of a shaping process that decides the order of its adop-
tion. The question is rather as to whether or not it is better suited
than any other process for supplying human wants. The simplest
process possible, though in operation before man’s eyes from the
beginning to the end of his career, would never come into use did it
not subserve the requirements of his existence. The assertion may be
safely made, therefore, that, capacity and environment being uniform,
the shaping process that would directly supply a permanent or fre-
quently recurring need not otherwise supplied would be the first proc-
ess generally utilized.

A study of human needs in the auroral days may assist in throwing
light upon the order of succession and course of development prob-
ably taken by the implement-producing arts. Let us inquire what
devices would naturally be called for in supplying primal needs; first
the need of food, second the needs of defense and offense, third the
needs of shelter and clothing, fourth the needs of transportation. The
need of food is a first and ever present incentive to activity, and in
early periods man’s ingenuity must have been constantly exercised in
securing a sufficient and permanent supply. Food getting would lead
to the development of varied activities, and call into use all available
manual aids. It would certainly in time lead to the multiplication and
specialization of utensils, thus opening the way for progress in the
shaping arts and the evolution of culture.

It is necessary, then, to inquire as to the probable nature of the
artificial devices that food getting and preparing would call into exist-
ence. The devices employed would depend on the nature of the
food resources available to primitive man. The question is compli-
cated by the fact that environment is far from uniform, and that the
food resources vary with the habitat. Yet, considering general con-
ditions only, we are able to reach measurably satisfactory results.
Whatsoever man’s habitat, his food resources were limited to the prod-
ucts of animal and vegetable life, or to both combined, and, so far as
the use of stone is concerned in dealing with these substances, it is safe
to say that two classes of implements and only two would be in
constant demand. First, roundish or blunt stones would be needed
for throwing, striking, crushing, breaking, grinding, ete.; second,

506 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS.

sharp or incisive stones would be demanded for cutting, piercing,
digging, scraping, and the like. The same statement may be made
with respect to the stone tools applicable to purposes of defense and
offense, and available in activities pertaining to shelter, clothing, and
transportation.

These two general classes of stone implements fulfilled, so far as
stone could fulfill them, all the requirements of man’s existence in
primal days; and if the question were limited to that of the relative
need of blunt and sharp stones in the practice of the arts, we should”
be compelled to say that no distinction could be made, that one class
could not claim precedence over the other in usefulness or in period
of utilization.

A QUESTION OF SUPPLYING WANTS NOT OTHERWISE SUPPLIED.

But it should be most carefully noted that the question is not one as ~
to the comparative usefulness of these forms of implements, or even —
of the period of their adoption, but of their production as works of
art. Which form would man first be induced to shape for himself,
thus adding a group of artificial utensils to his simple list of adapted
appliances? If, as seems to be the case, both classes of tools, the
blunt and the sharp, are equally essential to man, the question becomes
one of natural supply. If nature furnished all that was required in
the way of tools, art would not be called on to produce them. If
nature supplied one class meagerly and the other abundantly, the
meager class would be added to by artificial means. Now if we review
the various regions of the world that could have served as the abiding
place of auroral man, we find that the rounded stone—the breaking,
bruising, grinding stone—is nearly everywhere more readily obtain-
able than the cutting, piercing stone. The former, being ready at
hand, would be at first most freely utilized and for a long time util-
ized in the natural state, while the latter, being also known and used,
yet comparatively rare, would be artificially produced as soon as the
‘apacity to do so was developed.

The artificial sharp stone, the intentionally shaped sharp stone,
would thus naturally have precedence as an art form over the intention-—
ally shaped rounded stone. It would probably be the first represen-
tative of the shaping art in stone to come into general use. But there
are other points to be considered.

e
OPERATION OF THE PRIMAL SHAPING ACTS.

Incipient stages. —We must now look more fully into the operation
of the four elementary stone-shaping acts—into the beginnings of the —
arts to which they give rise. It is important to note that the act, the
essential element of the process, 1s not necessarily an index of the
simplicity or ease of its utilization. The ease of the first step in along —

es

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 507

and tortuous pathway does not determine the ease of the journey.
The ease of the first shaping act does not determine the ease of opera-
ting it in such a way as to produce a desired and final result. We
observe that in art a desired and definite result may be obtained by a
single shaping act, or that a succession of acts may be required. Itis
also clear that the acts may increase in difficulty as the operations pro-
ceed. The intelligence that directs a first act to secure a detinite and
immediate result may not be equal to the task of directing a series of
acts, howsoever simple, aiming at a remote result. In general it may
be said that a single-act result would be the first designed result reached
and repeated in the shaping arts. <A two-act result would follow,
and would precede those that depend upon ten, twenty, a hundred,
or a thousand acts. Let us examine the four primal stone-shaping
processes, fracturing, bruising, rubbing, and cutting, with respect to
this point. What is each capable of accomplishing under the simple,
elementary conditions that must be assumed for the incipient days of
mind and art? Of the four processes, that which produced an imme-
diate, palpable, available result would be first utilized. The fracturing
act, the blow upon a brittle stone, would beyond all dispute be that
process. Such a blow produces at once one, possibly two, keen-edged
tools having forms admirably suited to the common and ever-present
needs of the man who must rend flesh, dress skins, cut wood and
bone, and dig roots.

On the other hand, the bruising blow, the shaping act by means of
which tough stones are shaped, produces an almost imperceptible effect
on the stone struck; there is no suggestion of a useful result—a result
that could add to the availability of ordinary natural forms. The
nearest useful result is far away and obscure, and withal, even when
reached, not measurably superior to the forms freely furnished by
nature. The dullest mind would be able to understand and utilize the
simple fracturing act, but would hardly grasp the nature and possible
results of a process so obscure as that of bruising or pecking a piece
of rock into definite and unaccustomed shape. This is well illustrated
by the almost total failure on the part of students of archeology to
understand the operation of the pecking process in its details until
elucidated by recent experiments of Mr. J. D. McGuire. The cul-
tural interval between the general practice of the two processes—
flaking and pecking—would cover, in all probability, a considerable
period of progress.

More advanced stages.—The operation of the shaping processes may
be still more fully analyzed and surveyed with relation to actual known
implements. The brittle stone to be more than simply fractured must
be held in the hand and struck with another stone. The stone to be
bruised into shape must also be held in the hand and struck with
another stone. The positions may be the same, the shapes the same,

508 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS.

and the act the same. The brittle stone is struck and is broken, pro-
ducing perhaps a cutting or piercing tool. A second blow produce
a second tool, and also modifies the shape of the stone held in the
hand. A two-blow tool has thus been made in shaping one-blow tools.
By the time ten tools or flakes have been made the portion held in th
hand has been shaped by ten blows not directed to its own development,
but shaping it adventitiously as a nucleus or core. The results are so.
well detined and tangible that they could not escape observation, and
further experiment would be encouraged. Skill to accomplish soon
follows where wants direct the effort, and tangible results are at once
attained. From the initial steps of intentional flaking the way would
be always open to the achievement of higher and higher results,
Advancement could not, however, be rapid; wants had to develop,
conceptions ripen, skill increase, and methods differentiate by infinitesi-
mal increments, and the highly specialized flaked implement is pos-
sibly as far away from the first designed stroke in flaking stone as the
printing press is from the well specialized flaked implement of savage
days.

On the other hand, again, the hard, tough stone fitted for elabora-
tion by pecking is struck by the hammer stone, and the only result is
a slight crumbling of the surface—a little white dust. There is no sug- _
gestiveness, no recognizable step of progress in this result, and even —
if a hundred blows were struck, no measurable progress would be made-
toward any tangible result, for a definite conception must be in the-
mind and a clear notion of how to realize it as well before such result
would be possible. So far, then, as the pecking process of itself is
concerned, it stands little chance of primal utilization as compared with
the flaking process. |

But is it possible’ that a suggestion of the utilization of pecking
could come from outside sources, from practice of the simple opera-_—
tions of food preparation? In cradle nuts or pounding seeds (for
these must have been among the primal activities), the stones employed |
would through wear finally exhibit slight concavities. The stones
used in the hand would also be modified in shape by striking and rub-
bing. Could such suggestions possibly give rise to the independent
use of these operations in shaping implements of stone? It is not) |
quite clear that the shaping accomplished in the mere routine of use
would suggest to the ver my simple mind the idea of shaping in the
abstract, for the shaping in use was adventitious and not necessarily
observed. It seems likely that man would go on indefinitely using
what nature and adventition supplied unless there was some positive
suggestiveness in the results accomplished or some very exceptional j
exercise of forethought. Certainly the tedious pounding and abrading |
processes blindly operated in food preparation would, in primal days, —
stand little chance of being applied to the shaping of tools and utensils

a

|

~~

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 509

of specialized shapes and uses, and especially to the production of
implements with sharp points or cutting edges.

The natural tendency of the pecking blow is to blunt and destroy
all edges, and the process would have to be diverted from its natural
channels by strong forces to make it produce anything like an edged
tool; the conception of such a use would have to be acquired by famili-
arity with edged tools of other classes and materials. The celt, gouge,
and grooved ax are the principal implements made by pecking and
grinding in common use among savage peoples. These can not be
primal forms, as they represent ripened conceptions, specialized tech-
nique, skillful manipulation, and highly differentiated uses and methods
of employment. They are practically without ancestry in their own
line. Altogether there seems to be little or no art produced by the
pecking and grinding processes that could be safely assigned to primal
times, save such adventitious shaping as comes from use. An examina-
tion of pecked tools reveals the fact that in very many cases the process
supplements that of flaking, and it is not impossible that it was first
brought into notice and use as a means of getting rid of irregularities
and excrescences commonly resulting from imperfect fracture. Peck-
ing would inevitably be suggested in the progress of flaking operations,
first, by the effect on the hammer stone, which is modified and special-
ized by repeated contact with the stone flaked; second, by repeated
efforts to remove flakes where the stone happens to be especially
refractory. The repeated blows bruise the stone, modifying its shape,
and suggesting the possibility of shaping by this means. The abrad-
ing processes might also be suggested in similar ways, and especially
by the use of flaked tools in operations which modified and polished
their edges.

Both the pecking and rubbing processes are especially adapted to
elaboration and finish, and are poorly qualified to deal with shapes not
already approximate. They did not attain their highest usefulness
until superstition and wsthetics became factors in art, encouraging
elaboration of form and delicacy of finish.

The accompanying diagram expresses in the most general way my
conceptions of the probable relationships of the four shaping pro-
cesses to the stages of culture progress. The accumulation of addi-
tional data will in time enable us to express these relations more fully
and with more certainty, but the task is beset with difficulties, for the
reason, mainly, that the origin and progress of these arts are not uni-
form among all peoples. The genetic columns can at best but express
generalizations, and are largely hypothetical.

The column representing the development of fracturing arts, so’far
as it relates to the earliest times, is based on the observations and
inferences already presented. The flaking act was a primal act, and
the dotted line descending into the pre-human stage indicates this. On

510 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS.

crossing the line—or soon after crossing the line—separating the pre-
human from the lowest art stage, I assume that the act was first utilized
in the art sense, and that progress began. Being a simple act, and
constituting, as operated in fracturing stone, a simple process giving
immediate, tangible, and available results, I conceive that its use would
increase rapidly through early savage times, dominating the other
stone-shaping processes of that period and culminating in late savage

FRACTURING.
BRUISING
INCISING
ABRADING

‘ENLIGHTENED

CIVILIZED

BARBARIAN

SAVAGE

PRE -ART.

ween ewe
ween eeewe= =<
won ne ewe

Diagram of relative progress.

times. The employment of the group of processes developed from
the simple fracturing act probably decreased to a considerable extent
in barbarian times as other processes came into prominence, but it has
continued in active use, especially in quarrying and roughing out
stone, for all classes of works, architectural, sculptural, and miscella-
neous, up to the present day.

The second column is intended to indicate the development of the
arts which shape stone by bruising and crumbling its surface. I have

cao

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. ek

already explained why the process in its simplest form may be consid-
ered primal, as having its origin in the pre-human stage of man’s
history.

Its use in shaping must have been suggested to man at a very early
stage of art development, and the lines of the diagram are allowed to
expand gradually throughout the savage stages of progress. Observ-
ing the obscurity of the effects of the bruising act, the long series of
operations necessary in producing the simplest art form known, and
the comparative rarity of pecked implements that would fitly charac-
terize the beginning stages of culture, the column has been made to
expand very slowly at first, widening rapidly in barbarian times, dur-
ing which pecked stone seems to have taken the lead among many
peoples as a shaping process. The process in its purity appears to
have fallen somewhat into disuse in civilized and enlightened times,
the acquirement of hard metal tools having given incisive methods a
very decided advantage. The fact is, however, that the shaping of
hard stone by means of metal chisels partakes of the nature of a com-
promise between the cutting and bruising processes.

The germ of the incising arts must have come up with man from the
state of nature as distinguished from the state of art as expressed in
the third column; but the development would be slow, on account,
first, of the absence of hard cutting tools, and, second, the absence
of stone that could be cut with ease into useful forms. An expanding
is indicated in late savage times, during which it is assumed that peoples
began to use soft stones for vessels, ornaments, and ceremonial articles.
The fact that the soft stones had, as a rule, to be quarried, probably
retarded the development of this process. Again, when hard metals
came into common use in late barbarian times and in early civilization
stone cutting took a prominent place in the arts, and has never since
yielded its ground.

The history of the abrading processes is a very interesting one, but
as indicated in the diagram there have been few viscisitudes in their
progress. Beginning near the threshold of art, they advanced but
slowly, serving mainly as an auxiliary to the other processes, being
devoted especially to finish and beautification.

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT.

In discussing a scheme of evolution for the shaping arts, I have
assumed what I conceive to be average conditions of environment;
that is to say, an environment where all ordinary materials are present
and available in like proportions. It is apparent, however, that deter-
minations based on such an assumption, even if correctly made out,
may not agree with the actual order in the earliest development of art.
The environment of the first group of men may have contained all the
ordinary elements of stone art, or it may haye been without one or

LE We DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS.

more of these elements. If it did not contain varieties of stone suit-
able to each process, then there would bé a disagreement between the —
ideal order as here worked out and the real order.

But the race may have been scattered over a wide region at the
period of the birth of art, separate groups having distinct ranges of
mineral resources. Great diversity of art conditions would thus
result. The group deprived of brittle stone would develop its lithic —
art—no doubt very slowly—through the bruising, grinding, and cutting —
process, and flaked objects would be practically unknown. ‘The group
having only brittle stone would have but meager traces of pecking
and cutting operations, and flaked art would have full sway. To
cover the ground fully, a separate culture chart would have to be con-
structed for each group of isolated peoples, for the flaked-stone age of
one would occupy the position on the chronologic scale required for
the pecked-stone period of the other. But the lines between mineral
regions are not usually hard lines, and communities of men, howso-
ever primitive, are not fixed in habitat. Arts change with change of
place and consequent change of environment; and, taking the sum
total of the conditions under which a large number of groups of men
would live, the mean result must, it seems to me, correspond some-
what closely to that expressed in the diagram, which makes the four
primal shaping activities synchronous in origin but indicates different
rates of development.

Although expressing the view that the exclusive use of a single
shaping process or a group of such processes for a long period seems
improbable, I do not wish to antagonize the idea of a flaked-stone
period in western Europe. My diagram allows for such a period, cov-
ering the space from A to B. That sucha period should exist, even in
approximate purity, however, until the highest flaked forms were
developed, as to C, and until a graphic art equal to the realistic deline-
ation of men and animals on bone and ivory, say to D in the incising
column, should exist and flourish, is, in view of the considerations
brought forward in this paper, not within the range of probability.

CONCLUSION.

This brief study can not assume to be more than an outline of the
general subject. Prolonged investigation is essential to the comple-
tion of such a work. I have sought means of approaching and exam-
ining that part of primeval history not within the ordinary scope of
research. Through an analysis of the elementary shaping processes—
the agencies by means of which man gained his sway over nature—I
have undertaken to determine the order in which these operations
would probably originate and develop, and thus to place the varied
art products to which they give rise in their proper relations with one
another and with the successive stages of unwritten history.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 513

Such studies can not add greatly to our actual knowledge of events,
although they may serve a good purpose in confirming or discrediting
conclusions reached by other means, but they will materially assist in
preparing the way for an intelligent consideration of those meager
shreds of history that extend, like the edge of a frayed garment,
back into the realms of the unknown.

The present study suggests the need of conservatism in interpreting
the scattered records available to prehistoric archeology. Where the
conditions under which men have lived are so varied, there must needs
be great diversity in art achievement, and the order of the steps of
human progress established in one region can not be applied with
safety to another or to all, notwithstanding strong tendencies toward
uniformity. Regional art groups must be examined primarily in the
light of local conditions, and general results are to be reached by a
comparative study of these special results. The actual order of pro-
gress of the race in the primal stages can never be absolutely known;
and thus it is that hypothesis is called upon to supply an order of events
consistent with what is known of the laws of life and art.

sm 1901——33

BOOMERANGS.*

By Gripert T. Walker.

Boomerangs may be studied for their anthropological interest as
examples of primitive art” or for the manner in which they illustrate
dynamical principles.° But there is extraordinary fascination in mak-
ing and throwing them, and in watching the remarkable and always
graceful curves described in their flight. Accordingly, my chief object
in the following paper has been to diminish the practical difficulties
of the subject by giving some of the results of ten years’ experimental
acquaintance with it.

The Australian weapons vary enormously in shape and size, while
the skill of the natives in throwing them is great in some districts and
very small in others. The marvelous flights that were described by
former travelers are but rarely seen to-day, and although it is unde-
niable that many a native can make a boomerang go 80 meters away
before returning to his feet, I know of only one trustworthy account
of a much more sensational throw." In this the boomerang described
five circles in the air, traveling to a distance of about 90 meters from
the thrower and rising to a height of 45 meters.

For present purposes it will be convenient to consider two types of
implements. The first (fig. 1) is about 80 cm. in length, measured
along the curve, is bent (at B) almost to a right angle, and has the
cross section shown in fig. 2. It is about 6.5 em. wide and 1 cm. thick
in the center at B, and the dimensions of the cross section diminish
slightly toward the ends A and C. The weight is about 230 grams.
The arms are twisted from the plane A B C after the manner of the

® Reprinted from Nature, No. 1657, vol. 64, August 1, 1901, in which appears the
following note: ‘‘This paper is here published hy permission of the editors of the
Physikalische Zeitschrift, for which it was originally written. A German transla-
tion has appeared in that journal, and from its publishers the accompanying illustra-
tions have been obtained. ”’

»The Native Tribes of Central Australia, by B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen (1899),
ay, XTX:

*E. O. Erdmann, Ann. d. Pyhs. u. Chemie, Vol. CX X XVII, p. 1 (1869); FE.
Gerlach, Zeitschr. d. D. Vereins z. Ford. d. Luftschifffahrt, Heft 3 (1886); G. T.
Walker, London, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXC. p. 23 (1897).

4Mr. A. W. Howitt, Nature, July 20, 1876.

516 BOOMERANGS.

sails of a windmill, being rotated through 2° or 3° in the direction :
of a right-handed screw about the lines B A, B C, as axes. This

a

Fig. 1.

deviation from the plane is subsequently referred to as the ‘‘ twist,” —

and the peculiarity that, as seen in the cross section of fig. 2, one
face is more rounded than the other, is called the ‘* rounding.”

Boomerangs of the sec-

ond type (fig. 3) are about —

70 cm. long and 7 em. wide,

and have a cross section

r similar to that of fig. 2.

The ‘‘twist” is in the op-

posite direction, involving —

a left-handed rotation of

about 3°. The axes of rotation are now D E, F E instead of E D, EF.

&

Fie. 3.

4

RETURNING FLIGHTS.

An implement of the first type is held with the more rounded side to
the left and the concave edge forward. It is thrown, with plane vertical, —
in a horizontal direction, and as much rotation as possible is given to it.
The plane of rotation does not remain
parallel to its original direction, but has
an angular velocity (1) about the direc-
tion of translation, and (2) about a line
in its plane perpendicular to this. z

The effect of (2) is that the path curls ¢
to the left, while owing to (1) the plane
of rotation inclines over to the right
(i. e., rotates in the direction of the
hands of a clock facing the thrower), and
its inclination to the vertical becomes
comparable with 30° in two seconds. The angular velocity (2) will —
now imply that the path bends upward as well as horizontally round —
to the left.

When the boomerang has described a nearly complete circle its pace
has diminished, and it falls to the ground near the thrower. (See

* figs. 4, 5, in which projections on a horizontal and on a vertical plane are

B

b
Fic. 4.—Plan.

BOOMERANGS. 517

given. The direction of the axis of rotation is indicated by siving the
projections of a line of constant length measured along it. The scale
of these diagrams is about 1 : 1000.)
The angular velocity (1) is in- % =

creased by an increase of twistand by
an increase of rounding; 1t also in-
creases when cos 4 increases, where 4
is the inclination of the plane of rota-
tion to the horizontal. The curling to the left (2) is increased by an
increase of twist, or of cos 4, and, in general, by an increase of rounding.

a A

Fie. 5.—Elevyation through C A.

2 a

2
Fic. 6.—Plan. Fic. 7.—Elevation through C E.

If it be desired that the boomerang should describe a second circle
in front of the thrower (figs. 6, 7), it must be thrown much harder, so
that when one circle has been described
it may still have sufficient forward
velocity. When the projectile has
described the first circle and is over
the thrower’s head, the axis of rotation
must point in an upward direction in
front of him: if it pointed behind him
the subsequent path would be behind
his back, and a figure of 8 (figs. 8, 9)
would become possible. For a path
with a second loop in front of the
thrower he should accordingly choose a boomerang with much twist
and much rounding, and throw it with his body leaning over to the
left, so that the angle 4
between the axis of rota-
tion and the vertical may
be slightly in excess of a
right angle. The increased
twist will mean that the
first circle has a smaller
cireumference and that Fic. 9.—Elevation rausiee AG,
there will be more pace
left after it has been described, and the increased rounding will keep
the plane of rotation from becoming horizontal too soon.

Fie. 8.—Plan.

518 BOOMERANGS. 4

For a figure of 8 we should require less rounding, or we might
give more spin in throwing, and aim a little uphill, with 4 rather less

c

Fie. 10.—Plan. - Fig. 11.—Elevation through G F.

than a right angle. There are so many elements capable of variation

that nothing but experience can teach how to get the best results with
any particular boomerang.

e The most complex path that the author has succeeded
in effecting is that of figs. 10 and 11. But it is certain
that these fall far short of what is done by skillful natives
of Australia.

If the angle between the arms is increased and the

: twist and rounding unaltered, the angular velocity (1) is
= increased, and it becomes easier to make a second loop
behind than in front. If the angle exceeds 150° the angu-
yr lar velocity of the first kind is so large that it is very

4 hard to get a return at all.

Fic. 12.—Pian. When the twist is left-handed and the angle large we

have a specimen of the second type (fig. 3), and it must be
thrown with the more rounded side uppermost and the plane of rota-
tion inclined at between 30° and 60° to the horizontal (i. e., 30°<4<60°);
the angle of projection (i. e., inclina-
tion to the horizon of the initial veloc-
ity of translation) must be comparable
with 45°.

The uphill path is nearly straight
until the forward velocity becomes
small; the projectile then returns along
a track close to that of the ascent (figs.
1¥ and 13).

NONRETURNING FLIGHTS.

Fic. 13.—Elevation through A C.

A good boomerang of the second
type will travel an immense distance ina nearly straight line if prop-
erly thrown. The motion should resemble that of an aeroplane or
flying machine; the plane of rotation must remain nearly horizontal,

BOOMERANGS. 519

though slightly uphill, and the trajectory must be flat. There will
thus be an upward pressure of air on the under surface of the imple-
ment, and the force of gravity will be counteracted as long as there is
sufficient forward velocity. The boomerang is thrown very slightly
uphill, the angle of projection not being greater than 12°; the rounded
side is uppermost and @ is initially 30°. The plane of rotation soon
appears to the thrower to become approximately horizontal, and it
remains so during the flight; the projectile rises to a heigbt of about
12 meters from the ground and travels in a nearly straight path until
its forward velocity is almost exhausted; it then strikes the earth ata
distance of about 130 meters from the thrower.

It will be seen that the angular velocity (1) is at first small and posi-
tive, and that it subsequently disappears; the angular velocity (2) is
small throughout. These results are due to the left-handed twist and
the rounding.

Considerable accuracy, both in making and in throwing, is necessary
if the best results are to be obtained. If the plane of rotation slopes
downward to one side, the boomerang will slide down in the inclined
plane of rotation; thus the path will be bent and materially shortened.
The correct relation has to be found between the twist, the rounding,
the angle between the arms of the boomerang, the density of its
material, and the amounts and directions of its initial linear and angu-
lar velocities. An illustration of this is afforded by the first specimen
of this type that I have made; it travels farther against the wind than
with it. In the former case the boomerang keeps quite low, scarcely
rising higher than 6 meters, and being retarded very little by frictional
resistance, travels about 125 meters; in the latter case the body spends
its energy in running uphill to a height of about 15 meters, and falls
to the ground at a distance of about 90 meters.

It is rather difficult to give sufficient spin to keep the motion stable
through a long flight, and I have found it advantageous to wind round
the wood about 60 grams weight of copper wire in three equal por-
tions, of which one is in the middle and one near each end. This
materially increases the moment of inertia about the center of gravity
without interfering seriously with other details. I have thrown a
loaded boomerang of this type 167 meters, and my range with a spher-
ical ball of half the weight is only 63 meters.

MODE OF MANUFACTURE.

A block of straight-grained ash about 90 cm. long, 7 em. (or 7.5 em.)
thick, and of width not less than 7 em., is taken. The block is soaked
in steam, bent to the requisite shape and held in this shape until cool
and dry. It is then sawn into strips 1.3 em. thick. After sufficient
time has elapsed for the wood to be seasoned, each strip is trimmed into
a boomerang, the most useful tool in general being a spokeshave. It
is very important that the outer edge, at any rate in the neighborhood

520 BOOMERANGS.

of the bend, should follow the grain of the wood. When the projec-_
tile falls hard upon one end the stress near the center is very severe, |
and any point at which the direction of the grain meets the convex —
edge obliquely is likely to develop a split and ultimately a breakage.

It is better to cut the material to its final twisted shape rather than
to impart the twist by another steaming and bending. Considerable
care is required in the process, for the removal of a layer of wood a
millimeter thick in such a way as to increase or diminish the twist will
cause a marked difference in the flight. It will be found to facilitate
throwing to cut that end of the boomerang which is held in the hand
to the somewhat square form shown at the right hand of figs. 1 and 3.

There is some difficulty in avoiding warping, for boomerangs are
less likely to get broken if thrown when the ground is damp and soft,
and under these circumstances the moisture is likely to be absorbed
by the wood. It is of great advantage, therefore, to make the surface
of the implements very smooth with fine glass paper and to saturate
them with linseed oil. The additional density thereby produced is
also of service in that it diminishes the effect of the frictional resist-
ance of the air.

I have used artificially bent oak as a material, but have not found it
as heavy or as strong as ash. Oak branches that are naturally bent
are not hard to procure, but boomerangs made from them are liable
to break at places where there are knots or irregularities in the grain
of the wood.

EVOLUTION.

Boomerangs of every variety of shape are still to be found in Aus-
tralia, and it appears impossible to get direct historical evidence as to
the nature of the successive stages of development. But if specula-
tion be allowed, the following series may be suggested:

First, we should have a clumsy kind of wooden sword, curved, but
without rounding or twist, and with one end roughened to form a
handle; when the intended victim was out of reach it would be natural
to throw the weapon, and at short ranges it would be extremely
effective. Bad workmanship would involve the frequent production
of implements of which one side was more rounded than the other,
and it would soon be found that these missiles, when thrown with the
rounded side uppermost, traveled much farther and straighter than
the former.

Boomerangs of this character vary in length from 50 to 110 em.,
and in weight from 200 to 1,250 grams. They are, for the most part,
twisted in a manner that seems quite fortuitous, and form the enor-
mous majority of the present native implements. Light specimens
with a slight left-handed twist may have a fairly straight trajec-
tory of 100 meters, and may return if aimed much uphill, especially

BOOMERANGS. 521

when thrown against a wind.. Those which are bent through a large
enough angle and happen to be twisted (either by carelessness in
manufacture or by subsequent warping") after the manner of a right-
handed screw are returning boomerangs of the first type. In many
of these the twist is so large as to be conspicuous, and when once the
connection between the form and the return flight has been noticed,
the process of development is complete.

“This may be illustrated by the fact that when the author first made boomerangs
he was only aware of the need for rounding; but the first two specimens that he con-
structed happened to have right-handed twist and returned admirably.

THE POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED
UNDER THE EXISTING CONDITIONS OF LAW AND
SENTIMENT.*

By Francis Gatton, D. C. L., D. Sc., F. RB. S.,
London.

In fulfilling the honorable charge that has been intrusted to me of
delivering the Huxley lecture, I shall endeavor to carry out what I
understand to have been the wish of its founders, namely, to treat
broadly some new topic belonging to a class in which Huxley himself
would have felt a keen interest, rather than to expatiate on his character
and the work of his noble life.

That which I have selected for to-night is one which has occupied
my thoughts for many years, and to which a large part of my pub-
lished inquiries have borne a direct though silent reference. Indeed,
the remarks I am about to make would serve as an additional chapter
to my books on Hereditary Genius and on Natural Inheritance. My
subject will be ** The possible improvement of the human race under the
existing conditions of law and sentiment.” It has not hitherto been
approached along the ways that recent knowledge has laid open, and
it occupies in consequence a less dignified position in scientific estima-
tion than it might. It is smiled at as most desirable in itself and pos-
sibly worthy of academic discussion, but absolutely out of the question
as a practical problem. My aim in this lecture is to show cause for a
different opinion. Indeed, I hope to induce anthropologists to regard
human improvement as a subject that should be kept openly and
squarely in view, not only on account of its transcendent importance,
but also because it affords excellent but neglected fields for investiga-
tion. I shall show that our knowledge is already sufficient to justify
the pursuit of this, perhaps the grandest of all objects, but that we
know less of the conditions upon which success depends than we might
and ought to ascertain. The limits of our knowledge and of our
ignorance will become clearer as we proceed.

“The second Huxley Lecture of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland, delivered October 29, 1901. Printed in Nature, November 1, 1901.

523

524 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 5
HUMAN VARIETY.

The natural character and faculties of human beings differ at least
as widely as those of the domesticated animals, such as dogs and horses,
with whom we are familiar. In disposition some are gentle and good-
tempered, others surly and vicious; some are courageous, others timid;
some are eager, others sluggish; some have large powers of endur-
ance, others are quickly fatigued; some are muscular and powerful,
others are weak; some are intelligent, others stupid; some have tena-
cious memories of places and persons, others frequently stray and are
slow at recognizing. The number and variety of aptitudes, especially
in dogs, is truly remarkable; among the most notable being the tend-
ency to herd sheep, to point, and to retrieve. So itis with the various
natural qualities that go toward the making of civic worth in man.
Whether it be in character, disposition, energy, intellect, or physical
power, we each receive at our birth a definite endowment, allegorized
by the parable related in St. Matthew, some receiving many talents,
others few; but each person being responsible for the profitable use
of that which has been intrusted to him.

DISTRIBUTION OF QUALITIES IN A NATION,

Experience shows that while talents are distributed in endless differ-
ent degrees, the frequency of those different degrees follows certain
statistical laws, of which the best known is the normal law of frequency.
This is the result whenever variations are due to the combined action
of many small and different causes, whatever may be the causes and
whatever the object in which the variations occur, just as twice 2
always makes 4, whatever the objects may be. It therefore holds true
with approximate precision for variables of totally different sorts, as,
for instance, stature of man, errors made by astronomers in judging
minute intervals of time, bullet marks around the bull’s-eye in target
practice, and differences of marks gained by candidates at competitive
examinations. There is no mystery about the fundamental principles
of this abstract law; it rests on such simple fundamental conceptions”
as, that if we toss 2 pence in the air they will, in the long run, come
down one head and one tail twice as often as both heads or both tails.
I will assume, then, that the talents, so to speak, that go to the forma-
tion of civic worth are distributed with rough approximation according
to this familiar law. In doing so, I in no way disregard the admirable
work of Prof. Karl Pearson on the distribution of qualities, for
which he was adjudged the Darwin medal of the Royal Society a few
years ago. He has amply proved that we must not blindly trust the
normal law of frequency; in fact, that when variations are minutely
studied they rarely fall into that perfect symmetry about the mean value,
which is one of its consequences. Nevertheless, my conscience is clear

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 525

in using this law in the way Lam about to. I say that 7f certain quali-
ties vary normally, suchand such will be the results; that these qualities
are of a class that are found, whenever they have been tested, to vary
normally to a fair degree of approximation, and consequently we may
infer that our results are trustworthy indications of real facts.

A talent is a sum whose exact value few of us care to know, although
we all appreciate the inner sense of the beautiful parable. I will, there-
fore, venture to adapt the phraseology of the allegory to my present
purpose by substituting for ** talent” the words ** normal talent.” The
value of this normal talent in respect to each and any specified quality
or faculty is such that one-quarter of the people receive for their
respective shares more than one normal talent over and above the aver-
age of all the shares. Our normal talent is therefore identical with
what is technically known as the ‘*‘ probable error.” Therefrom the
whole of the following table starts into life, evolved from that of the
** probability integral.”

Tas_e J.—Normal distribution (to the nearest per ten thousand and to the nearest per

hundred).

| 4°, 3°. On fot He gO Ee S'S igo! 8 P= 40) |

a 5 ca 5 ; = Total.
v and = ; | : - 7 V and

alow! U. iB 8. Te R. Ss. Te U. | above. |
35 | 180 672 1,613 2,500 | 2,500 1,613 672 180 | 35 10, 000
aes
2 7 16 25 7 100

——
9

It expresses the distribution of any normal quality, or any group
of normal qualities, among 10,000 persons in terms of the normal tal-
ent. The M in the upper line occupies the position of mediocrity, or
that of the average of what all have received; the +1°, +2°, ete., and
the —1°, —2°, etc., refer to normal talents. These numerals stand as
graduations at the heads of the vertical lines by which the table is
divided. The entries between the divisions are the numbers per
10,000 of those who receive sums between the amounts specified by
those divisions. Thus, by the hypothesis, 2,500 receive more than
M but less than M+1°, 1,613 receive more than M+1° but less than
M+2°, and soon. The terminals have only an inner limit; thus, 35
receive more than 4°, some to perhaps a very large but indefinite
amount. The divisions might have been carried much further, but the
numbers in the classes between them would become less and less trust-
worthy. The left half of the series exactly reflects the right half.
As it will be useful henceforth to distinguish these classes, I have used
the capital or large letters, R, 5S, T, U, V, for those above mediocrity
and corresponding ztalic or small letters, 7, s, t, vu, v, for those below
mediocrity, 7 being the counterpart of R, s of S, and so on.”

526 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

In the lowest Imes the same values are given, but more roughly, to
the nearest whole percentage.

It will assist in comprehending the values of different grades of
civic worth to compare them with the corresponding grades of adult
male stature in our nation. I will take the figures from my Natural
Inheritance, premising that the distribution of stature in various peo-
ples has been well investigated and shown to be closely normal. The
average height of the adult males, to whom my figures refer, was
nearly 5 feet 8 inches, and the value of their ‘‘ normal talent” (which
is a measure of the spread of distribution) was very nearly 14 inches.
From these data it is easily reckoned that class U would contain men
whose heights exceed 6 feet 14 inches. Even they are tall enough to
overlook a hatless mob, while the higher classes, such as V, W, and X,
tower above it in an increasingly marked degree. So the civic worth
(however that term may be defined) of U-class men, and still more of
V-class, are notably superior to the crowd, though they are far below
the heroic order. The rarity of a V-class man in each specified quality
or group of qualities is as 35 in 10,000, or, say, for the convenience of
using round numbers, as 1 to 300. A man of the W class is ten times
rarer, and of the X class rarer still; but I shall avoid giving any more
exact definition of X than as a value considerably rarer than V. This
gives a general but just idea of the distribution throughout a popula-
tion of each and every quality taken separately so far as it is normally
distributed. As already mentioned, it does the same for any group of
normal qualities; thus, if marks for classics and for mathematics were
severally normal in their distribution, the combined marks gained by
each candidate in both those subjects would be distributed normally
also, this being one of the many interesting properties of the law of
frequency.

COMPARISON OF THE NORMAL CLASSES WITH THOSE OF MR. BOOTH.

Let us now compare the normal classes with those into which Mr.
Charles Booth has divided the population of all London, in a way that
corresponds not unfairly with the ordinary conception of grades of
civic worth. He reckons them from the lowest upward, and gives the
numbers in each class for East London. Afterwards he treats all Lon-
don in a similar manner, except that sometimes he combines two classes
into one and gives the joint result. For my present purpose I bad to
couple them somewhat differently, first disentangling them as I best
could. There seemed no better way of doing this than by assigning to
the members of each couplet the same proportions that they had in
East London. Though this was certainly not accurate, it is probably
not far wrong. Mr. Booth has taken unheard-of pains in this great
work of his to arrive at accurate results, but he emphatically says that
his classes can not be separated sharply from one another. On the

S necnnie ial

—
ane

Se am

GOLAN

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 597

contrary, their frontiers blend, and this justifies me in taking slight
liberties with his figures. His class A consists of criminals, semi-
criminals, loafers, and some others, who are in number at the rate of 1
per cent in all London—that is, 100 per 10,000, or nearly three times
as many as the w class; they therefore include the whole of the » and
spread upward into the ~. His class B consists of very poor persons
who subsist on casual earnings, many of whom are inevitably poor from
shiftlessness, idleness, or drink. The numbers in this and the A class
combined closely correspond with those in ¢ and all below ¢.

Class C are supported by intermittent earnings; they are a hard-
working people, but have a very bad character for improvidence and
shiftlessness. In class D the earnings are regular, but at the low
rate of 21 shillings or less a week, so none of them rise above pov-
erty, though none are very poor. D and. C together correspond to
the whole of s combined with the lower fifth of 7 The next class, E,
is the largest of any, and comprises all those with regular standard
earnings of 22 to 30 shillings a week. This class is the recognized
field for all forms of cooperation and combination; in short, for
trades unions. It corresponds to the upper four-fifths of 7 and
the lower four-fifths of R. It is, therefore, essentially the mediocre
class, standing as far below the highest in civic worth as it stands
above the lowest class with its criminals and semicriminals. Next
above this large mass of mediocrity comes the honorable class /,
which consists of better-paid artisans and foremen. These are able to
provide adequately for old age, and their sons become clerks, ete.
G is the lower middle class of shopkeepers, small employers, clerks,
and subordinate professional men, who as a rule are hard-working,
energetic, and sober. F and G combined correspond to the upper fifth
of R and the whole of S, and are, therefore, a counterpart to D and C.
All above G are put together by Mr. Booth into one class, H, which
corresponds to our T, U, V, and above, and is the counterpart of his
two lowermost classes, A and B. So far, then, as these figures go,
civic worth is distributed in fair approximation to the normal law of
frequency. We also see that the classes ¢, uv, 7, and below are un-
desirables.

WORTH OF CHILDREN.

The brains of the nation lie in the higher of our classes. If such
people as would be classed W or X could be distinguishable as children
and procurable by money in order to be reared as Englishmen, it would
be a cheap bargain for the nation to buy them at the rate of many hun-
dred or some thousands of pounds per head. Dr. Farr, the eminent
statistician, endeavored to estimate the money worth of an average
baby born to the wife of an Essex laborer and thenceforward living
during the usual time and in the ordinary way of his class. Dr. Farr,

528 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

with accomplished actuarial skill, capitalized the value at the child’s
birth of two classes of events, the one the cost of maintenance while a
child and when helpless through old age, the other its earnings as boy
and man. On balancing the two sides of the account the value of the
baby was found to be £5. On a similar principle, the worth of an
X-class baby would be reckoned in thousands of pounds. Some such
‘*talented” folk fail, but most succeed, and many succeed greatly. They
found great industries, establish vast undertakings, increase the wealth
of multitudes, and amass large fortunes for themselves. Others,
whether they be rich or poor, are the guides and light of the nation,
raising its tone, enlightening its difficulties, and imposing its ideals.
The great gain that England received through the immigration of the
Huguenots would be insignificant to what she would derive from an
annual addition of a few hundred children of the classes W and X.
I have tried, but not yet succeeded to my satisfaction, to make an
approximate estimate of the worth of a child at birth according to the
class he is destined to occupy when adult. It is an eminently important
subject for future investigators, fer the amount of care and cost that
might profitably be expended in improving the race clearly depends
on its result.

DESCENT OF QUALITIES IN A POPULATION.

Let us now endeavor to obtain a correct understanding of the way
in which the varying qualities of each generation are derived from
those of its predecessor. How many, for example, of the V class in
the offspring come respectively from the V, U, T, S, and other classes
of parentage? The means of calculating this question for a normal
population are given fully in my Natural Inheritance. There are three
main senses in which the word parentage might be used. They differ
widely, so the calculations must be modified accordingly. (1) The
amount of the quality or faculty in question may be known in each
parent. (2) It may be known in only one parent. (3) The two parents
may belong to the same class, a V-class father in the scale of male
classification always marrying a V-class mother, occupying identically
the same position in the scale of female classification.

I select this last case to work out as being the one with which we
shall here be chiefly concerned. It has the further merit of escaping
some tedious preliminary details about converting female faculties into
their corresponding male equivalents, before men and women can be
treated statistically on equal terms. I shall assume in what follows
that we are dealing with an ideal population, in which all marriages
are equally fertile, and which is statistically the same in successive
generations, both in numbers and in qualities, so many per cent being
always this, so many always that, and so on. Further, 1 shall take no
notice of offspring who die before they reach the age of marriage, nor

‘
9
:
i
;
:
:
;
t
:

t
z
i
i
‘ rs
‘
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fd

=)

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 599

shall I regard the slight numerical inequality of the sexes, but will

simply suppose that each parentage produces one couplet of grown-up
filials, an adult man and an adult woman.

The result is shown to the nearest whole per thousand in the diagram
up to ‘‘U and above.” It may be read either as applying to fathers and
their sons when adult, or to mothers and their daughters when adult,
or, again, to parentages and filial couplets. I will not now attempt to
explain the details of the calculation to those to whom these methods
are new. Those who are familiar with them will easily understand the

STANDARD SCHEME OF DESCENT

aE
22 | 67 | 161 | 250 | 250 | 16t | 67 | 22

PARENTAL GRADES
NUMBER _ IN EACH

1000 COUPLES
BOTH PARENTS OF
SAME GRADE AND!’
ONE ADULT
CHILD TO EACH

REGRESSION OF
PARENTAL TO
FILIAL CENTRES

22 Cuuoren or Z

67

6

| sums | 20 | 66 | 162] 282 | 252] 162 | 66 | 20

exact process from what follows. There are three points of reference in
ascheme of descent, which may be respectively named ‘‘ mid-parental,”
‘‘venetic,” and ‘‘filial” centers. In the present case of both parents
being alike, the position of the mid-parental center is identical with that
of either parent separately. The position of the filial center is that from
which the children disperse. The genetic center occupies the same posi-
tion in the parental series that the filial center does in the filial series.
Natural Inheritance contains abundant proof, both observational and

sm 1901 ot

530 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

theoretical, that the genetic center is not and can not be identical with
the parental center, but is always more mediocre, owing to the combi-
nation of ancestral influences—which are generally mediocre—with
the purely parental ones. It also shows that the regression from the
parental to the genetic center, in the case of stature at least, would
amount to two-thirds under the conditions we are now supposing. The
regression is indicated in the diagram by converging lines which are
directed toward the same point below, but are stopped at one-third of —
the distance on the way to it. The contents of each parental class are
supposed to be concentrated at the foot of the median axis of that —
class, this being the vertical line that divides its contents into equal —
parts. Its position is, approximately, but not exactly, halfway be-
tween the divisions that bound it, and is as easily calculated for the
extreme classes, which have no outer terminals, as for any of the
others. These median points are respectively taken to be the positions —
of the parental centers of the whole of each of the classes; therefore —
the positions attained by the converging lines that proceed from them —
at the points where they are stopped represent the genetic centers. |
From these the filials disperse to the right and left witha ‘‘spread” that |
can be shown to be three-quarters that of the parentages. Calculation
easily determines the number of the filials that fall into the classin which |
the filial center is situated and of those that spread into the classes on
each side. When the parental contributions from all the classes to
each filial class are added together they will express the distribution of
the quality among the whole of the offspring. Now it will be observed
in the table that the numbers in the classes of the offspring are identical
with those of the parents, when they are reckoned to the nearest whole
parentage, as should be the case according to the hypothesis. Had
the classes been narrower and more numerous, and if the calculations
had been carried on to two more places of decimals, the correspondence
would have been identical to the nearest ten thousandth. It was unnec-
essary to take the trouble of doing this, as the table affords a sufficient
basis for what I am about to say. Though it does not profess to be |
more than approximately true in detail, it is certainly trustworthy in
its general form, including as it does the effects of regression, filial |
dispersion, and the equation that connects a parental generation with
a filial one when they are statistically alike. Minor corrections will
be hereafter required, and can be applied when we have a better knowl-
edge of the material. In the meantime it will serve as a standard table
of descent from each generation of a people to its successor.

ECONOMY OF EFFORT.

I shall now use the table to show the economy of concentrating our ~ :
attention upon the highest classes. We will therefore trace the origin
of the V class, which is the highest in the table. Of its 34 or 35 sons

a

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 531

6 come from V parentages, 10 from U, 10 from T, 5 from 5, 3 from R,
and none from any class below R; but the numbers of the contributing
parentages have also to be taken into account. When this is done, we
see that the lower classes make their scores owing to their quantity
and not to their quality, for while 35 V-class parents suffice to pro-
duce 6 sons of the V class, it takes 2,500 R-class fathers to produce 3
of them. Consequently, the richness in produce of V-class parentages
is to that of the R class in an inverse ratio, or as 143 to 1. Similarly,
the richness in produce of V-class children from parentages of the
classes U, T, S, respectively, is as 3, 114, and 55 to 1. Moreover,
nearly one-half of the produce of V-class parentages are V or U taken
together, and nearly three-quarters of them are either V, U,orT. If,
then, we desire to increase the output of V-class offspring, by far the
most profitable parents to work upon would be those of the V class,
and in a threefold less degree those of the U class.

When both parents are of the V class the quality of parentages is
greatly superior to those in which only one parent is a V. In that
case the regression of the genetic center goes twice as far back toward
mediocrity, and the spread of the distribution among filials becomes
nine-tenths of that among the parents, instead of being only three-
quarters. The effect is shown in Table II.

Taste I1.—Distribution of sons.—(1) One parent of class V, the other unknown; (2) both
parents of class V (from Table II, with decimal point and an 0).

Distribution of sons.

SS — —| Total.
Peles (ero) Re Me Ser ade eee alte ve
:: Z >| s z=
BiOne Vi parent ....2-<--s-c---+<----see0se: ONSi ede Ql Seb: le 79: || OeGnleze5 |e se6) (ples 34.3
BME OnV PALO 5c 2am a sn ccs wniciciecie ies) aceon me'= ~si| sie ==. 350] 5.0} 10.0 | 10:0)| 6.0 34.0

Position of the filial center of (1) =1.44, of (2)=2.89; when both parents are T it=1.58.

There is a difference of fully two divisions in the position of the
genetic center, that of the single V parentage being only a trifle nearer
mediocrity than that of the double T. Hence it would be bad economy
to spend much effort in furthering marriages with a high class on only
one side.

MARRIAGE OF LIKE TO LIKE.

In each class of society there is a strong tendency to intermarriage,
which produces a marked effect in the richness of brain power of the
more cultured families. It produces a still more marked effect of
another kind at the lowest step of the social scale, as will be painfully
evident from the following extracts from the work of Mr. C. Booth
(i, 38), which refer to his class A, who form, as has been said, the
lowermost third of our ‘‘v and below.” ‘* Their life is the life of savages,
with vicissitudes of extreme hardship and occasional excess. From
them come the battered figures who slouch through the streets and

532 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

play the beggar or the bully. They render no useful service; they
create no wealth, more often they destroy it. They degrade whatever |
they touch, and as individuals are perhaps incapable of improvement;
* * * put I do not mean to say that there are not individuals of —
every sort to be found in the mass. Those who are able to wash the —
mud may find some gems in it. There are at any rate many very pite-
ous cases. Whatever doubt there may be as to the exact numbers of
this class, it is certain that they bear a very small proportion to the
rest of the population, or even to class B, with which they are mixed
up and from which it is at times difficult to separate them. * * *
They are barbarians, but they are a handful.” He says further: ‘Tt
is much to be desired and to be hoped that this class may become less
hereditary in its character; there appears to be no doubt that it is now
hereditary to a very considerable extent.”

Many who are familiar with the habits of these people do not hesi-
tate to say that it would be an economy and a great benefit to the
country if all habitual criminals were resolutely segregated under
merciful surveillance and peremptorily denied opportunities for pro-
ducing offspring. It would abolish a source of suffering and misery to
a future generation, and would cause no unwarrantable hardship in
this.

DIPLOMAS.

It will be remembered that Mr. Booth’s classification did not help
us beyond classes higher than S in civic worth. If astrong and widely
felt desire should arise to discover young men whose position was of
the V, W, or X order, there would not be much difficulty in doing so.
Let us imagine for a moment what might be done in any great uni-
versity where the students are in continual competition in studies,
in athletics, or in public meetings, and where their characters are pub-
licly known to associates and totutors. Before attempting to make a
selection, acceptable definitions of civic worth would have to be made
in alternative terms, for there are many forms of civic worth. The
number of men of the V, W, or X classes, whom the university was
qualified to contribute annually, must also be ascertained. As was said,
the proportion in the general population of the V class to the remainder
is as 1 to 300, and that of the W class as 1 in 3,000. But students are
a somewhat selected body, because the cleverest youths, in a scholastic
sense, usually find their way to universities. A considerably high
level, both intellectually and physically, would be required as a qualifi-
cation for candidature. The limited number who had not been auto-
matically weeded away by this condition might be submitted in some
appropriate way to the independent votes of fellow students on the
one hand and of tutors on the other, whose ideals of character and
merit necessarily differ. This ordeal would reduce the possible win- —
ners toa very small number, out of which an independent committee

*
>

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 53S

might be trusted to make the ultimate selection. They would be
guided by personal interviews. They would take into consideration
all favorable points in the family histories of the candidates, giving
appropriate hereditary weight to each. Probably they would agree
to pass over unfavorable points, unless they were notorious and fla-
grant, owing to the great difficulty of ascertaining the real truth about
them. Ample experience in making selections has been acquired even
by scientific societies, most of which work well, including perhaps the
award of their medals, which the fortunate recipients at least are
tempted to consider judicious. The opportunities for selecting women
in this way are unfortunately fewer, owing to the smaller number of
female students, between whom comparisons might be made on equal
terms. In the selection of women, when notking is known of their
athletic proficiency, it would be especially necessary to pass a high
and careful medical examination; and as their personal qualities do
not usually admit of being tested so thoroughly as those of men, it
would be necessary to lay all the more stress on hereditary family
qualities, including those of fertility and prepotency.

CORRELATION BETWEEN PROMISE IN YOUTH AND SUBSEQUENT
PERFORMANCE.

No serious difficulty seems to stand in the way of classifying and
giving satisfactory diplomas to youths of either sex, supposing there
were a strong demand for it. But some real difficulty does lie in the
question, Would such a classification be a trustworthy forecast of
qualities in later life? The scheme of descent of qualities may hold good
between the parents and the offspring at similar ages, but that is not
the information we really want. It is the descent of qualities from
men to men, not from youths to youths. The accidents that make or
mar a career do not enter into the scope of this difficulty. It resides
entirely in the fact that the development does not cease at the time of
youth, especially in the higher natures, but that faculties and capa-
bilities which were then latent subsequently unfold and become promi-
nent. Putting aside the effects of serious illness, I do not suppose there
is any risk of retrogression in capacity before old age comes on. The
mental powers that a youth possesses continue with him asa man, but
other faculties and new dispositions may arise and alter the balance of
his character. He may cease to be efficient in the way of which he gave
promise, and he may perhaps become efficient in unexpected directions.

The correlation between youthful promise and performance in
mature life has never been properly investigated. Its measurement
presents no greater difhculty, so far as I can foresee, than in other
problems which have been successfully attacked. It is one of those
alluded to in the beginning of this lecture as bearing on race improve-
ment, and being on its own merits suitable for anthropological inquiry.

534 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

Let me add that I think its neglect by the vast army of highly educated
persons who are connected with the present huge system of competi-
tive examinations to be gross and unpardonable. Neither schoolmas-
ters, tutors, officials of the universities, nor of the State department of
education, have ever to my knowledge taken any serious step to solve —
this important problem, though the value of the present elaborate sys-
tem of examinations can not be rightly estimated until it is solved.
When the value of the correlation between youthful promise and adult
performance shall have been determined, the figures given in the table
of descent will have to be reconsidered.

AUGMENTATION OF FAVORED STOCK.

The possibility of improving the race of a nation depends on the
power of increasing the productivity of the best stock. This is far
more important than that of repressing the productivity of the worst.
They both raise the average, the latter by reducing the undesirables, the
former by increasing those who will become the lights of the nation.
It is therefore all important to prove that favor to selected individuals
might so increase their productivity as to warrant the expenditure in
money and care that would be necessitated. An enthusiasm to improve
the race would probably express itself by granting diplomas to a select
class of young men and women, by encouraging their intermarriages,
by hastening the time of marriage of women of that high class, and by
provision for rearing children healthily. The means that might be
employed to compass these ends are dowries, especially for those to
whom moderate sums are important, assured help in emergencies dur-
ing the early years of married life, healthy homes, the pressure of
public opinion, honors, and above all the introduction of motives of
religious or quasi-religious character. Indeed, anenthusiasm to improve
the race is so noble in its aim that it might well give rise to the sense
of a religious obligation. In other lands there are abundant instances
in which religious motives make early marriages a matter of custom
and continued celibacy to be regarded as a disgrace, if not a crime.
The customs of the Hindoos, also of the Jews, especially in ancient
times, bear this out. In all costly civilizations there is a tendency to
shrink from marriage on prudential grounds. It would, however, be
possible so to alter the conditions of life that the most prudent course
for an X-class person should lie exactly opposite to its present direc-
tion, for he or she might find that there were advantages and not dis-
advantages in early marriage, and that the most prudent course was
to follow their natural instincts.

We have now to consider the probable gain in the number and worth
of adult offspring to these favored couples. First, as regards the effect
of reducing the age at marriage. There is unquestionably a tendency
among cultured women to delay or even to abstain from marriage; they

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 535

dislike the sacrifice of freedom and leisure, of opportunities for study,
and of cultured companionship. This has to be reckoned with. I
heard of the reply of a lady official of a college for women to a visitor
who inquired as to the after life of the students. She answered that
one-third profited by it, another third gained little good, and a third
were failures. ‘*But what becomes of the failures?” ‘‘Oh, they
marry.”

There appears to be a considerable difference between the earliest age
at which it is physiologically desirable that a woman should marry and
that at which the ablest, or at least the most cultured, women usually do.
Acceleration in the time of marriage, often amounting to seven years,
as from 28 or 29 to 21 or 22, under influences such as those mentioned
above is by no means improbable. What would be its effect on pro-
ductivity? It might be expected to act in two ways—

(1) By shortening each generation by an amount roughly propor-
tionate to the diminution in age at which marriage occurs. Suppose
the span of each generation to be shortened by one-sixth, so that six
take the place of five, and that the productivity of each marriage is
unaltered, it follows that one-sixth more children will be brought into
the world during the same time, which is, roughly, equivalent to
increasing the productivity of an unshortened generation by. that
amount.

(2) By saving from certain barrenness the earlier part of the child-
bearing period of the woman. Authorities differ so much as to the -
direct gain of fertility due to early marriage that it is dangerous to
express anopinion. The large and thriving families that I have known
were the offspring of mothers who married very young.

The next influence to be considered is that of healthy homes. These
and a simple life certainly conduce to fertility. They also act indi-
rectly by preserving lives that would otherwise fail to reach adult age.
It is not necessarily the weakest who perish in this way—tfor instance,
zymotic disease falls indiscriminately on the weak and the strong.

Again, the children would be healthier and therefore more likely in
their turn to become parents of a healthy stock. The great danger to
high civilizations, and remarkably so to our own, is the exhaustive
drain upon the rural districts to supply large towns. Those who come
up to the towns may produce large families, but there is much reason
to believe that these dwindle away in subsequent generations. In
short, the towns sterilize rural vigor.

As one of the reasons for choosing the selected class would be that
of hereditary fertility, it follows that the selected class would respond
more than other classes to the above influences.

I do not attempt to appraise the strength of the combined six influ-
ences just described. If each added one-sixth to the produce the num-
ber of offspring would be doubled. This does not seem impossible,

re a
Me

536 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. “4

considering the large families of colonists, and of those in many rural |
districts; but it is a high estimate. Perhaps the fairest approximation
may be that these influences would cause the X women to bring into—
the world an average of one adult son and one adult daughter in addi-
tion to what they would otherwise have produced. The table of descent
applies to one son or to one daughter per couple; it may now be read —
as specifying the net gain and showing its distribution. Should this —
estimate be thought too high, the results may be diminished accordingly.

It is no absurd idea that outside influences should hasten the age of
marrying and make it customary for the best to marry the best. A
superficial objection is sure to be urged that the fancies of young peo-
ple are so incalculable and so irresistible that they can not be guided. |
No doubt they are so in some exceptional cases. I lately heard froma
lady who belonged to a county family of position that a great aunt of
hers had scandalized her own domestic circle two generations ago by
falling in love with the undertaker at her father’s funeral and insisting
onmarrying him. Strange vagaries occur, but considerations of social
position and of fortune, with frequent opportunities of intercourse,
tell much more in the long run than sudden fancies that want roots.
In a community deeply impressed with the desire of encouraging mar-
riages between persons of equally high ability the social pressure
directed to produce the desired end would be so great as to insure a
notable amount of success.

PROFIT AND LOSS.

The problem to be solyed now assumes a clear shape. <A child of
the X class (whatever X signifies) would have been worth so and so
at its birth, and one of each of the other grades, respectively, would
have been worth so and so; 100 X parentages can be made to produce
a net gain of 100 adult sons and 100 adult daughters who wiil be dis-
ributed among the classes according to the standard table of descent.
The total value of the prospective produce of the 100 parentages can
then be estimated by an actuary, and consequently the sum that it is
legitimate to spend in favoring an X parentage. The clear and dis-
tinct statement of a problem is often more than halfway toward its
solution. There seems no reason why this one should not be solved
between limiting values that are not too wide apart to be useful.

EXISTING ACTIVITIES.

Leaving aside profitable expenditure from a purely money point of
view, the existence should be borne in mind of immense voluntary
activities that have nobler aims. The annual voluntary contributions
in the British Isles to public charities alone amount, on the lowest
computation, to £14,000,000, a sum which Sir H. Burdett asserts on
good grounds is by no means the maximum obtainable. (Hospitals
and Charities, 1898, p. 85.) -,

IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 537

There are other activities long since existing which might well be
extended. [ will not dwell, as I. am tempted to do, on the endowments
of scholarships and the like, which aim at finding and educating the
fittest youths for the work of the nation; but I will refer to that whole-
~ some practice during all ages of wealthy persons interesting themselves
‘in and befriending poor but promising lads. The number of men who
have owed their start in a successful life to help of this kind must have
struck every reader of biographies. This relationship of befriender and
befriended is hardly to be expressed in English by a simple word that
does not connote more than is intended. The word ** patron” is odious.
— Recollecting Dr. Johnson’s abhorrence of the patrons of his day, I
turned to an early edition of his dictionary in hope of deriving some
amusement as well as instruction from his definition of the word, and I
was not disappointed. He defines ** patron” as ‘ta wretch who supports
with insolence and is repaid with flattery.” That is totally opposed
to what I would advocate, namely, a kindly and honorable relation
_ between a wealthy man who has made his position in the world and a
youth who is avowedly his equal in natural gifts, but who has yet to
make it. It is one in which each party may well take pride, and I
feel sure that if its value were more widely understood it would become
commoner than it is.

Many degrees may be imagined that lie between mere befriendment
and actual adoption, and which would be more or less effective in free-
ing capable youths from the hindrances of narrow circumstances, in
enabling g girls to marry early and suitably, and in securing favor to
their subsequent offspring. Something in this direction is commonly
but half unconsciously done by many great landowners whose employ-
ments for man and wife, together with good cottages, are given to
exceptionally deserving couples. The advantage of being connected
with a great and liberally managed estate being widely appreciated,
_ there are usually more applicants than vacancies, so selection can be
exercised. The consequence is that the class of men found upon these
properties is markedly superior to those in similar positions elsewhere.
It might well become point of honor, and as much an ayowed object,
for noble families to gather fine specimens of humanity around them
as it is to procure and maintain fine breeds of cattle, etc., which are
costly, but repay in satisfaction.

There is yet another existing form of princely benevolence which
might be so extended as to exercise a large effect on race improvement.
I mean the provision to exceptionally promising young couples of
healthy and convenient houses at low rentals. A continually renewed
settlement of this kind can be easily imagined, free from the taint of
patronage and analogous to colleges, with their self-elected fellowships
and rooms for residence that shall become an exceedingly desirable
residence for a specified time. It would be so in the same way that a
good club by its own social advantages attracts desirable candidates.

a

5388 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED.

The tone of the place would be higher than elsewhere on account
of the high quality of the inmates, and it would be distinguished by
an air of energy, intelligence, health, and self-respect, and by mutual
helpfulness.

PROSPECTS.

It is pleasant to contrive Utopias, and I have indulged in many, of
which a great society is one, publishing intelligence and memoirs, hold- —
ing yearly elections, administering large funds, establishing personal —
relations like a missionary society with its missionaries, keeping
elaborate registers and discussing them statistically with honest —
precision. But the first and pressing point is to thoroughly justify
any crusade at all in favor of race improvement. More is wanted in~
the way of unbiased scientific inquiry along the many roads I have
hurried over to make every stepping-stone safe and secure, and to
make it certain that the game is really worth the candle. All I dare
hope to effect by this lecture is to prove that in seeking for the —
improvement of the race we aim at what is apparently possible to
accomplish, and that we are justified in following every path in a ~
resolute and hopeful spirit that seems to lead toward that end. The
magnitude of the inquiry is enormous, but its object is one of the
highest man can accomplish. The faculties of future generations will
necessarily be distributed according to laws of heredity, whose statis- —
tical effects are no longer vague, for they are measured and expressed |
in formule. We can not doubt the existence of a great power ready
to hand and capable of being directed with vast benefit as soon as we |
shall have learned to understand and apply it. To no nation is a high ©
human breed more necessary than to our own, for we plant our stock |
all over the world and lay the foundation of the dispositions and
capacities of future millions of the human race.

AEE * 2 a ar ee le Cae ees eee OS ee

2°

FO PT FP a et et

eae

Se PY

THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI.
By 8S. P. LANGLEY.

The very remarkable description of the fire walk collected by Mr.
Andrew Lang and others hac aroused a curiosity in me to witness the
original ceremony, which I have lately been able to gratify in a visit
to Tahiti.

Among these notable accounts is one by Colonel Gudgeon, British
resident at Raratonga, describing the experiment by a man from
Raiatea, and also a like account of the Fiji fire ceremony from Dr. T.
M. Hocken, whose article is also quoted in Mr. Lang’s paper on the
“Fire Walk,” in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
Research, February, 1900. This extraordinary rite is also described
by Mr. Fraser in the Golden Bough, and by others.

I had heard that it was performed in Tahiti in 1897, and several
persons there assured me of their having seen it, and one of them of
his having walked through the fire himself under the guidance of the
priest, Papa-Ita, who is said to be one of the last remnants of a cer-
tain order of the priesthood of Raiatea, and who had also performed
the rite at the island of Hawaii some time in the present year, of
which circumstantial newspaper accounts were given, agreeing in all
essential particulars with those in the accounts already cited. Accord-
ing to these, a pit was dug in which large stones were heated red-hot
by a fire which had been burning many hours. The upper stones
were pushed away just before the ceremony, so as to leave the lower
stones to tread upon, and over these, ** glowing red-hot” (according
to the newspaper accounts), Papa-Ita had walked with naked feet,
exciting such enthusiasm that he was treated with great consideration
by the whites, and by the natives as a god. I found it commonly
believed in Tahiti that anyone who chose to walk after him, European
or native, could do so in safety, secure in the magic which he exer-
cises, if his instructions were exactly followed. Here in Tahiti, where
he had ‘‘ walked” four years before, it was generally believed among
the natives, and even among the Europeans present who had seen the
ceremony, that if anyone turned around to look back he immediately

“Reprinted from Nature, London, August 22, 1901.
539

540 THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAMSITI.

was burned, and I was told that all those who followed him through
the fire were expected not to turn until they had reached the other
side in safety, when he again entered the fire and led them back by
the path by which he had come. I was further told by several who
had tried it that the heat was not felt upon the feet, and that when
shoes were worn the soles were not burned (for those who followed
the priest’s directions), but it was added by all that much heat was
felt about the head.

Such absolutely extraordinary accounts of the performance had been
given to me by respectable eyewitnesses and sharers in the trial, con-
firming those given in Hawaii, and, in the main, the cases cited by Mr.
Lang, that I could not doubt that if all these were verified by my own
observation, it would mean nothing less to me than a departure from
the customary order of nature and something very well worth seeing
indeed.

I was glad, therefore, to meet personally the priest, Papa-Ita. He
is the finest looking native that I have seen; tall, dignified in bearing,
with unusually intelligent features. I learned from him that he would
perform the ceremony on Wednesday, July 17, the day before the
sailing of our ship. I was ready to provide the cost of the fire, if he
could not obtain it otherwise, but this proved to be unnecessary.

Papa-Ita himself spoke no English, and I conversed with him briefly
through an interpreter. He said that he walked over the hot stones
without danger by virtue of spells which he was able to utter and by
the aid of a goddess (or devil as my interpreter had it), who was
formerly a native of the islands. The spells, he said, were something
which he could teach another. I was told by others that there was a
still older priest in the island of Raiatea, whose disciple he was,
although he had pupils of his own, and that he could ‘* send his spirit”
to Raiatea to secure the permission of his senior priest if necessary.

In answer to my inquiry as to what preparations he was going to
make for the rite in the two or three days before it, he said he was
going to pass them in prayer.

The place selected for the ceremony fortunately was not far from
the ship. I went there at noon and found that a large shallow pit
or trench had been dug, about 9 by 21 feet and about 2 feet deep.
Lying nearby was a pile containing some cords of rough wood and a
pile of rounded water-worn stones, weighing, I should think, from
40 to 80 pounds apiece. They were, perhaps, 200 in number, and all
of porous basalt, a feature the importance of which will be seen later.
The wood was placed in the trench, the fire was lighted and the stones
heaped on it, as I was told, directly after I left, or at about 12 o’clock.

At 4 p.m. I went over again and found the preparations very nearly
complete. The fire had been burning for nearly four hours. The
outer stones touched the ground only at the edges of the pile, where

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Fire Walk. PLate |.

FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Fire Walk.

FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI.

PLATE JI.

pe aS

Pade sei te ect.

“bl TA Oe 5. a8

a na lta

THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI. 541

they did not burn my hand, but as they approached the center the
stones were heaped up into a mound three or four layers deep, at
which point the lowest layers seen between the upper ones were visibly
red-hot. That these latter were, nevertheless, sending out considerable
heat there could be no question, though the topmost stones were cer-
tainly not red-hot, while those at the bottom were visibly so and were
oceasionally splitting with loud reports, while the flames from the
burned wood near the center of the pile passed up in visible lambent
tongues, both circumstances contributing to the effect upon the excited

. bystanders.

: The upper stones, I repeat, even where the topmost were presently
removed, did not show any glow to the eye, but were unquestionably
: very hot and certainly looked unsafe for naked feet. Native feet, how-
3

ever, are not like European ones, and Mr. Richardson, the chief engi-
__neer of the ship, mentioned that he had himself seen elsewhere natives
standing unconcerned with naked feet on the cover of pipes conveying
steam at about 300° F., where no European foot could even lightly
rest fora minute. The stones then were hot. THe crucial question
was, How hot was the upper part of this upper layer on which the feet
were to rest an instant in passing? I could think of no ready thermo-
metric method that could give an absolutely trustworthy answer, but
‘I could possibly determine on the spot the thermal equivalent of one
of the hottest stones trodden on. (It was subsequently shown that the
stone might be much cooler at one part than another.) Most obviously,
even this was not an easy thing to do in the circumstances, but I
decided to try to get at least a trustworthy approximation. By the
aid of Chief Engineer Richardson, who attended with a stoker and one
of the quartermasters, kindly detailed at my request by the ship’s
master, Captain Lawless, I prepared for the rough but conclusive
experiment presently described.

It was now nearly forty minutes after 4, when six acolytes (natives),
wearing crowns of flowers, wreathed with garlands and bearing poles
nearly 15 feet long, ostensibly to be used as levers in toppling over
the upper stones, appeared. They were supposed to need such long
poles because of the distance at which they must stand on account of
the heat radiated from the pile, but I had walked close beside it a
moment before and satisfied myself that I could have manipulated the
stones with a lever of one-third the length, with some discomfort, but
with entire safety. Some of the uppermost stones only were turned
over, leaving a superior layer, the long poles being needlessly thrust
down between the stones to the bottom, where two of them caught fire
at their extremities, adding very much to the impression that the
exposed layer of stones was red hot, when in fact they were not, at
least to the eye. These long poles and the way they were handled
were, then, a part of the ingenious *‘staging” of the whole spectacle.

542 THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI.

Now the most impressive part of the ceremony began. Papa-Ita,
tall, dignified, flower-crowned, and dressed with garlands of flowers,
appeared with naked feet and with a large bush of ‘‘ti” leaves in his
hands, and after going partly around the fire each way, uttering what —
seemed to be commands to it, went back, and, beating the stones nearest
him three times with the ti leaves, advanced steadily, but with
obviously hurried step, directly over the central ridge of the pile.
Two disciples, similarly dressed, followed him, but they had not the
courage to do so directly along the heated center. They followed
about halfway between the center and the edge, where the stones
were manifestly cooler, since I had satisfied myself that they could be
touched lightly with the hand. Papa-Ita then turned and led the way
back, this time with deliberate confidence, followed on his return by
several new disciples, most of them not keeping exactly in the steps
of the leader, but obviously seeking cooler places. A third and
fourth time Papa-Ita crossed with a larger following, after which
many Europeans present walked over the stones without reference to
the priest’s instructions. The natives were mostly in their bare feet.
One wore stockings. No European attempted to walk in bare feet,
except in one case—that of a boy, who, I was told, found the stones
too hot and immediately stepped back.

The mise en scéne was certainly noteworthy. The site near the
great ocean breaking on the barrier reefs, the excited crowd talking
about the ‘‘red-hot” stones, the actual sight of the hierophant and
his acolytes making the passage along the ridge where the occasional
tongues of flame were seen at the center, with all the attendant cir-
cumstances, made up a scene in no way lacking in interest. Still, the
essential question as to the actual heat of these stones had not yet been
answered, and after the fourth passage I secured Papa-Ita’s permission
to remove from the middle of the pile one stone, which, from its size
and position, every foot had rested upon in crossing and which was
undoubtedly at least as hot as any one of those trodden on. It was
pulled out by my assistants with difficulty, as it proved to be larger
than I had expected, it being of ovoid shape, with the lower end in the
hottest part of the fire. I had brought over the largest wooden
bucket which the ship had and which was half filled with water, expect-
ing that this would cover the stone, but it proved to be hardly enough.
The stone caused the water to rise nearly to the top of the bucket, and
it was thrown into such violent ebullition that a great deal of it boiled
over and escaped weighing. The stone was an exceedingly bad con-
ductor of heat, for it continued to boil the water for about twelve
minutes, when, the ebullition being nearly over, it was removed to the
ship and the amount of evaporated water measured.

Meanwhile others, as I have said, began to walk over the stones
without any reference to the ceremony prescribed by Papa-Ita, and

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Fire Walk. PLATE Il.

FiRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI.

THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI. 543

three or four persons, whom I personally knew on board the ship, did
so in shoes, the soles of which were not burned at all. One of the
gentlemen, however, who crossed over with unburned shoes, showed
me that the ends of his trousers had been burnt by the flames which
leaped up between the stones, and which at all times added so much
to the impressiveness of the spectacle; and there was no doubt that
anyone who stumbled or got a foot caught between the hot stones
might have been badly burned. United States Deputy Consul Ducor-
ran, who was present, remarked to me that he knew that Papa-Ita had
failed on a neighboring island, with stones of a marble-like quality,
and he offered to test the heat of these basaltic ones by seeing how
long he could remain on the hottest part of the pile, and he stood
there, in my sight, from eight to ten seconds before he felt the heat
through the thin soles of his shoes beginning to be unpleasantly warm.

A gentleman present asked Papa-Ita why he did not give an exhibit
that would be convincing by placing his foot, even for a few seconds,
between two of the red-hot stones which could be seen glowing at the
bottom of the pile, to which Papa-Ita replied with dignity, ‘‘ My
fathers did not tell me to do it that way.” Iasked him if he would
hold one of the smaller, upper hot stones in his hand. He promised
to do so, but he did not do it.

The outer barriers were now removed and a crowd of natives pressed
in. I, who was taking these notes on the spot, left, after assuring
myself that the stones around the edge of the pit were comparatively
cold, although the center was no doubt very hot, and those below red-
hot. The real question is, I repeat, How hot were those trodden on?
and the answer to this I was to try to obtain after measuring the
amount of water boiled away.

On returning to the ship this was estimated from the water which
was left in the bucket (after allowing for that spilled over) at about
10 pounds. The stone, which it will be remembered was one of the
hottest, if not the hottest, in the pile, was found to weigh 65 pounds,
and.to have evaporated this quantity of water. It was, as I have said,
a volcanic stone, and on minuter examination proved to be a vesicular
basalt, the most distinctive feature of which was its porosity and non-
conductibility, for it was subsequently found that it could have been
heated red-hot at one end, while remaining comparatively cool at the
top. I brought a piece of it to Washington with me and there deter-
mined its specific gravity to be 2.39, its specific heat 0.19, and its con-
ductivity to be so extremely small that one end of a small fragment
could be held in the hand while the other was heated indefinitely in
the flame of a biowpipe, almost like a stick of sealing wax. This
partly defeated the aim of the experiment (to find the temperature of
the upper part of the stone), since only the mean temperature was
found. This mean temperature of the hottest stone of the upper layer,

544 THE FIRE WALK CEREMONY IN TAHITI. .
as deduced from the above data, was about 1,200° F., but the temper
ature of the surface must have been indefinitely lower. The tem:
perature at which such a stone begins-to show a dull red in daylight
is, so far as I am aware, not exactly determined, but is approximately
1,300 to 1,400° F.

To conclude, I could entertain no doubt that I had witnessed sub-
stantially the scenes described by the gentlemen cited, and I have
reason to believe that I saw a very favorable specimen of a fire walk,

It was a sight well worth seeing. It was a most clever and interes
ing piece of savage magic, but from the evidence I have just given I
am obliged to say (almost regretfully) that it was not a miracle.

‘
4

THE LAWS OF NATURE.?*
By S: P. Lane ey.

We say that nature is unchanging, and so perhaps it is, in the eye
of some eternal being, but not in ours, for the things that we see from
day to day, appear permanent only by comparison to the duration of
our own brief life, and our own little experience.

An inhabitant of the land where nature has just passed through such
an awful convulsion, with a loss of life greater for so short a time
than history has ever recorded, might have said in ‘he morning that
nature never changes, because it had never changed in his own little
experience; but he would not have said so at that day’s close. Now
the experience of the entire human race is far briefer relative to
nature’s duration than that of one of these islanders, who knew the
green mountain with its fresh lakes only as a place of quiet rest up to
the moment when the gates of hell were opened beneath it.

Nature, then, really changes, and would apparently do so if man
were not here; for it is not man’s varying thoughts about nature that
make her change. But there is something quite different from nature
which does change because of man, and which apparently would not
changeif he were nothere. This is what he calls the ‘laws of nature.’
The assumption that there are such things is due to him, and such
‘laws’ are known only through his mind, in which alone nature is
seen.

It is perhaps an hard saying to most that there are no such things
as ‘laws of nature’; but this is the theme on which I have to speak.

These, then, are the laws of his own mind, or the effects of his own
mind, which he projects outside of bimself and imagines to be due to
some permanent and unalterable cause having an independent existence;
and this, not only because his season for observation is but a moment in
the passage of nature’s eternal year, but because with his pathetic sense
of his own weakness, he would gladly stay himself on the word of some
unchanging being. It is because this sense of dependence is strangely
joined with such self-conceit that when he listens to what he himself
says, he calls it the voice of God. From these twin causes, arising both
from his inability as a creature of time to observe what is eternal, and

2 A paper read before the Philosophical Society of Washington, May 10, 1902.
sm 1901 Bd 45

or

546 THE LAWS OF NATURE.

again from his own overweening sense of his own capacity, he looks
for some immutable being whom he believes to have written man’s
own ideas in what he calls ‘the book of nature.’

I am not questioning the existence of such a being as the ‘Author of
Nature’; but asking if such a volume as is imputed to him, ever really
existed. The very phrase, ‘ book of nature’ is a legacy from moribund
medieval notions of a lawgiver; and it, with the vitality of words
which carry to us dying ideas, has lived on to our own time, when we
can no longer believe it, although it is still upon our lips, and to con-
vince ourselves of this we need only pause a moment to ask the
simple question whether there is any authority who has prepared a
clearly written book of statutes, in which we can really read nature’s
laws.

The question answers itself.

I repeat that I am not denying here the existence of such a being as
the imputed author of these laws, but say that, ignorant as we are of
what is being done by him, we cannot read his thoughts in our
momentary vision of what is forever passing.

‘‘For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways
my ways, saith the Lord,” is a caution which, whether believers or not,
would not harm us to consider; and when we say that these ‘ thoughts’
are written in ‘the book of nature,’ this cannot mean that they are
legible there as in a statute book where he who runs may read. Ii
nature is to be compared to a book at all, it is toa book in the hands of
infants to whom it conveys little meaning, for such are we; or rather
it is like a ‘book of celestial hieroglyphs, of which even prophets are
happy that they can read here-a line and there a line.’

I hope what I am trying to say may not bear the appearance of
some metaphysical refinement on common sense. It is common sense
that is intended, and the ‘laws of nature’ that seem to me to be a
metaphysical phrase.

To decorate our own guesses at nature’s meaning with this name
is a presumption due to our own feeble human nature, which we can
forgive for demanding something more permanent than itself, but
which also leads us to have such an exalted conceit of our own opinions,
as to hide from ourselves that it is these very opinions which we call
nature’s laws.

The history of the past shows that once, most philosophers, even
atheists, thus regarded the ‘Laws of Nature,’ not as their own inter-
pretations of her, but as something external to themselves, as entities
partaking the attributes of Deity—entities which they deified in print
with capital letters—as we sometimes do still, though these * Laws’
now are shorn of ‘the glories of their birth and state’ which they
once wore, and are not turning out to be ‘substantial things.’

But are there not really things (like the fact of gravitation, for

THE LAWS OF NATURE. 547

instance) externa. to ourselves, which would exist wnether we were
here or not, and which are part of the order of nature? Apparently,
yes, but part of the /aws of nature, no!

The phrase even yet exercises a wide influence, though it has seemed
to me that a significant change is taking place in the leaders of com-
mon opinion with regard to the meaning that the words convey.

I presume that the greater proportion of us here are interested in
science. I may indeed assume that we all are; and I want to inquire
what lesson for us, as students of nature, there lies in the fact that we
are no longer impressed by her ‘laws’ as were the scientific men of a
former generation.

It is convenient to measure the distance we have passed over by the
fact that one hundred and fifty years ago, one of the acutest of reason-
ers, David Hume, published a still celebrated argument against mir-
acles which within my own recollection was held to be so formidable
that those who were reluctant to believe in his conclusions were still
unable to offer a good refutation. The immense number of attempted
refutations and their contradictory character is perhaps the best testi-
mony for this.

Hume defines a miracle as a violation of the ‘laws of nature,’ and
his argument, concisely stated, is that there must ‘be a uniform expe-
rience against every miracuious event, otherwise the event would not
merit that appellation, and as a uniform experience amounts to a
proof, there is here a direct and full proof from the nature of the fact
against the existence of any miracle.’

Now, while his argument is logically as conclusive as ever, it to-day
convinces only those who are anxious to accept its conclusion.

What is the reason for this great change?

We may ask what the laws of nature really are, and pass from what
they were thought to be by Hume, to what they are beginning to be
understood to be by us, without here inquiring into the intermediate
steps which brought the change about.

It seems to me that the argument which was conclusive not merely
to the learned, but to the common cultivated thought of Hume’s time,
has never been expressly refuted when its premises were admitted,
(and the generation following him admitted them); and yet this com-
pelling argument, as it once seemed, is gradually losing its force to
most minds, not through counter argument, but by an_ insensible
change of opinion in the attitude of the thinking part of our public as
compared with his, a change about certain fundamental assumptions
on which the argument rested, and from his own views of the universe,
to those we are beginning to take.

In the first place, the immensely greater number of things we know
in almost every department of science beyond those which were
known one hundred and fifty years ago has had an effect which

548 THE LAWS OF NATURE.

doubtless could have been anticipated, but yet which we may not have
wholly expected. It is, that the more we know, the more we recog-
nize our ignorance, and the more we have a sense of the mystery of
the universe and the limitations of our knowledge.

I believe it may be said. that if not to Hume, at any rate to the —
majority of those about him, and to his later contemporaries, there
was very much less mystery in the world than we see in it, and if it
were then still occasionally said that there were ‘‘ things in heaven and
earth not dreamt of in ‘their’ philosophy,” these words must have
struck on the self-complacent minds of his generation, as something to
be tolerated as poetic license, rather than as accurate in philosophic
meaning. Compared with ours, that whole century was satisfied with
itself and its knowledge of the infinite, and content in its happy belief
that it knew nearly everything that was really worth knowing. This
‘nearly everything’ which it thought it knew about the universe, it
called the ‘laws of nature.’

It was to this belief in the general mind, I think, that the success of
Hume’s argument was due.

The present generation has begun, if not to be modest or humble,
to be somewhat less arrogant in the assumption of its knowledge. We
are perhaps beginning to understand, not in a purely poetical sense,
but in a very real one, that there may be all around us in heaven and
earth things beyond measure, of which ‘ philosophy’ not only knows
nothing, but has not dreamed.

As a consequence of this, there is growing to be an unspoken, rather
than clearly formulated admission, that we know little of the order of
nature, and nothing at all of the ‘laws’ of nature.

Now if we are, at present at least, disposed to speak of an observed
‘order’ of nature (not carrying with it the implication of necessity
denoted by ‘law’), I think we have some reason to say that there is a
prescience of a change in common thought about this manner, and
that it is owing to this that we are coming to be where we are.

I do not know that there is a less wide belief in the gospel miracles
in our day, but if it were so, the decline in the weight given Hume’s
argument is not due solely to that, for it may surely be said that it
was not merely an argument against gospel miracles, but against all
the prodigies to be found in history, sacred and profane, where he
doubtless had in mind traditions of stones falling out of heaven, cures
wrought by psychological agency, and the like, all ‘superstitions’ to
the men of his day, who, if they no longer believed in a deity, were
none the less shocked by the culpable existence of such vulgar beliefs
in conflict with the deified ‘laws of nature,’ while such ‘supersti-
tions’ have in our day become subjects of modest inquiry.

Let me quote from a later writer, whose point of view is singularly
different from that of Hume and his contemporaries, and who in

THE LAWS OF NATURE. 549

answer to the question, ‘What is a miracle?” begins by reminding us
that the reply will depend very much upon the intelligence of the
being who answers it, or whom the miracle is wrought for.

**To my horse, do I not work a miracle every time I open for him
an impassable turnpike?”

*** But is not areal miracle simply a violation of the laws of nature?’
ask several. What are the laws of nature? ‘Is it not the deepest law
of nature that she be constant?’ cries the illuminated class. ‘Is not
the machine of the universe fixed to move by unalterable rules?’

‘**T believe that nature, that the universe, which no one whom it so
pleases can be prevented from calling a machine, does move by the
most unalterable rules. And now I make the old inquiry as to what
those same unalterable rules, forming the complete statute book of
nature, may possibly be?

‘**They stand written in our works of science,’ say you; ‘in the
accumulated records of man’s experience.” Was man with his experi-
ence present at the creation, then, to see how it all went on? Have
any deepest scientific individuals yet dived down to the foundations of
the universe and gauged everything there? Alas, these scientific
individuals have been nowhere but where we also are; have seen some
handbreadths deeper than we see into the deep that is infinite, without
bottom as without shore.”

‘**Philosophy complains that custom has hoodwinked us from the
first; that we do everything by custom, even believe by it; that our
very axioms, boast as we may, are oftenest simplv such beliefs as we
have never heard questioned. Innumerableare the illusions of custom,
but of all these perhaps the cleverest is her knack of persuading us
that the miraculous, by simple repetition, ceases to be miraculous!”

A lesson for us, as people who are most of us interested in science,
as to how little its most fixed conclusions may be worth, may perhaps
be conveyed in an example. <A century and a half ago, when the new
science of chemistry won its first triumphs, the fundamental discovery
which was to illuminate the whole science, the settled acquisition
which it seemed to have brought to us, the thing which was going to
last, was ‘phlogiston.’

This had everything to recommend it in universal acceptance and in
what seemed to the foremost men of the time its absolute certainty.

*‘If any opinion,” says Priestley, ‘‘in all the modern doctrine con-
cerning air be well founded, it is certainly this, that nitrous air is
highly charged with phlogiston. If I have completely ascertained
anything at all relating to air, it is this.”

I am trying here to say that all laws of nature are little else than
man’s hypotheses about nature.

Phlogiston was then to the science of a former age, in this sense a law

550 THE LAWS OF NATURE.

of nature, and at least as great a generalization as the kinetic theory
of gases is to us; as widely accepted, as firmly believed and as cer-
tainly known—but what has become of it now 4

Can we tell, then, in advance, by any criterion, what a ‘law of
nature’ is?

With a curious begging of the question some answer, * Yes, for laws
of nature have this distinction, that they have never been disproved.’
As if one were to say, Yes, because when they are disproved we deny
that they are laws of nature!

Those of us who are capable of being instructed or warned by the
history of human thought may, then, ask what kind of a guarantee
are we to have for any other ‘fact’ of our new knowledge? May they
not—all these ‘facts’—be gone like the baseless fabric of this vision,
before another hundred years are passed 4

The physical sciences seem to have had less change in their theories
than the mighty displacements in other branches of natural knowledge,
but it is a truism to say that all are changed, and it should be a truism
to add that the ‘laws of nature’ are not to us what they were a hun-
dred years ago.

I repeat that of the ‘order’ of nature we may possibly know a little;
but what are these ‘laws’ of nature? What celestial act of congress
fixed them? In what statute book do we read them? What guaran-
tees them? Our mistake is in believing that there is any such thing,
apart from our own fallible judgment, for the thing which the ‘laws
of nature’ most absolutely forbid one generation to believe, if it only
actually happens, is accepted as a part of them by the succeeding.

Suppose that a century ago, in the year 1802, certain French
Academicians, believing like everyone else then in the ‘laws of
nature,’ were invited, in the light of the best scientific knowledge of
the day, to name the most grotesque and outrageous violation of them
which the human mind could conceive. I may suppose them to reply,
‘if a cartload of black stones were to tumble out of the blue sky above
us, before our eyes, in this very France, we should call ¢Aaz a violation
of the laws of nature, indeed!’ Yet the next year, not one, but many,
cartloads of black stones did tumble out of the blue sky, not in some
far off land, but in France itself.

It is of interest to ask what became of the ‘laws of nature’ after
such a terrible blow. The ‘laws of nature’ were adjusted, and after
being enlarged by a little patching, so as to take in the new fact, were
found to be just as good as ever! So it is always; when the miracle
has happened, then and only then it becomes most clear that it was no
miracle at all, and that no ‘law of nature’ has been broken.

Applying the parable to ourselves then, how shall we deal with
new ‘facts’ which are on trial, things perhaps not wholly demonstrated,
yet partly plausible? During the very last generation hypnotism was

ot

a

THE LAWS OF NATURE. 551

such a violation of natural law. Now it isa part of it. What shall
we say, again, about telepathy, which seemed so absurd to most of us
a dozen years ago? I do not say there is such a thing now, but I
would like to take the occasion to express my feeling that Sir William
Crookes, as president of the British Association, took the right, as he
took the courageous course, in speaking of it in the. terms he did.
I might cite other things, the objects of ridicule only a few years ago,

2

of debate now, but which have not all found supporters who possess
the courage of their convictions.

The lesson for us in dealing with them is not that we should refuse
to believe on the one hand, and sneer at everything that is on trial;
for this, though a very general and safe procedure, is not one to
be recommended to those of us who have some higher ideal than
acquiescence with the current belief.

The lesson for us is that we must not consider that anything is abso-
lutely settled or true.

This is not to say that we are to be blown about by every wind of
scientific doctrine. It is to be understeod as a practical rule of life
that we must act with the majority where our faith does not compel
us to do otherwise; but it seems to me that we must always keep
ready for use somewhere; in the background of our mind, possibly,
but somewhere; the perhaps trite notion that we know nothing abso-
lutely or in its essence; and remember that though trite it is always
true, and to be kept as a guide at every turning of the scientific road,
when we can not tell what is coming next.

How many doctrines of our own day will stand the light of the next
century? What will they be saying of our doctrine of evolution then?
1 do not know; but let me repeat what I have said elsewhere, that the
truths of the scientific church are not dogmas, but something put for-
ward as provisional only, and which her most faithful children are
welcome to disprove if they can. I believe that science as a whole is
advancing with hitherto unknown rapidity, but that the evidence of
this advance is not in reasoning, but in the observation that our doc-
trine is proving itself, by the fact that through its aid Nature obeys us
more and more, as I certainly believe it does.

. Never let us forget, however, that man, being the servant and inter-
preter of nature, as Bacon says, can do and understand so much, and
so much only, as he has observed of the course of nature, and that
beyond this he neither knows. anything nor can do anything. No
walk along ‘the high priori road’ will take him where he wants to
go, and no ‘law of nature’ will certainly help him.

But these ‘laws’, having authority only as fav as they are settled
by evidence and by observation alone, it may be a just inquiry as to
what constitutes observation and, above all, who judges the evidence.

RQ THE LAWS OF NATURE.

If the kinetic theory of gases, for instance, is a matter of inference
rather than of observation, are we sure that we have a better guar-
antee for it than a previous century had for phlogiston? Our good
opinion of ourselves, as compared with our scientific fathers, makes
us think we have. Certainly I think myself that we have; and yet,
remember, it is the same human nature which judged that evidence
then, that judges this evidence now, and remember that however
rapidly science changes, human nature remains very much the same,
and always has a good conceit of itself.

While we are venturing to utter truisms, I repeat, let us take once
more this one, home to ourselves, that there is a great deal of this
‘human nature’ even in the best type of the scientific man, and that
we of this twentieth century share it, with our predecessors, on whom
we look pityingly, as our successors will look on us.

Let us repeat, and repeat once more, that though nature be external
to ourselves, the so-called ‘laws of nature’ are from within—laws of
our own minds—and a simple product of our human nature. Let us
agree that the scientific imagination can suggest questions to put to
nature, but not her answers. Let us read Bacon again, and agree
with him that we understand only what we have observed. Finally
let us add that we never understand even that, in the fullness of its
meaning, for remember that of all the so-called laws of nature, the
most constantly observed and the most intimately and personally
known to us are those of life and death—and how much do we know
about the meaning of them?

WOOd S.N3AYCTIHO

SHOFULIVS Diz SNYOOMIIT 008 NSOHY

load ANIVd ‘L061 ‘LYOdSY NVINOSHLIWS

THE CHILDREN’S ROOM IN THE SMITHSONIAN
ENSTITU LION

By ALBERT BIGELOW PAINE

[Adapted by the author, from his article in St. Nicholas for September, 1901.]

It was Mr. 8. P. Langley, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, who had personally ordered and arranged several successive
attempts to make exhibitions for the especial benefit of children, little
children, who did not care for long, hard names, and who could not
see objects on high shelves.

An attempt which he wished to be final was made, but he could not
personally oversee the work of preparation, and when he did look into
it he was dissatisfied. There were a good many things in the cases
that, as one of the children, he did not care for. Clearly something
must be done.

Dr. Langley, as Secretary, appointed himself as honorary curator
of the children’s exhibit, with instructions to see that a room was
reserved and properly prepared for little children who wished only to
look and wonder, and tind out such things as little people most want
to know. The appointment was accepted by him in the following
terms:

The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution has been pleased to
confer upon me the honorable but arduous duties of the care of the
Children’s Room. He has at his service so many men learned in nat-
ural history that I do not know why he has chosen me, who know so
little about it, unless perhaps it is because these gentlemen may pos-
sibly not be also learned in the ways of children, for whom this little
room is meant.

It has been my purpose to deserve his confidence, and to carry out
what I believe to be his intention, by identifying myself w ith the
interests of my young clients. Speaking, therefore, in their behalf,
and as one of them, I should say that we never have a fair chance
in museums. We can not see the things on the top shelves which
only grown-up people are tall enough to look into, and most of the
things we can see and would like to know about have Latin words
on them which we cannot understand; some things we do not care for
at all, and other things which look entertaining have nothing on them
to tell us what they are about.

* Reprinted by permission of The Century Company.
i yi 4 5

554 CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

In that great work, our very highest authority on the subject (need
we say that ‘*The Swiss Family Robinson” is meant ?), we have always
taken unmixed delight, although some people say that so many kinds
of interesting beasts could never really have been in one island. If
there are any errors there, though, we do not love it for them, but for
its good qualities, and the first of these is that it interests us all
through. We think there is nothing in the world more entertaining
than birds, animals, and live things; and next to these is our interest
in the same things, even though they are not alive; and next to this is
to read about them. All of us care about them, and some of us hope
to care about them all our lives long. Weare not very much inter-
ested in the Latin names, and however much they may mean to
grown-up people, we do not want to have our entertainment spoiled
by its being made a lesson.

Now, I entirely agree with my small friends so far, but I will add
something that they only dimly understand and that some of their
instructors do not understand at all. It is that to interest the young
minds in such things is to lay the foundation for more serious study
in after life. There are spots on the sun, and even the *‘Swiss Fam-
ily Robinson” is not quite perfect as an authority in natural history;
but the ‘‘child is father to the man,” and many a young naturalist
would never have been a student of nature at all if he had not owed
his first impulse to some such work as that, or to the sight of things,
like those in the Children’s Room, arranged for the same minds that
delight in the book.

Some great philosopher has said that ‘‘ Knowledge begins in won-
der,” and there is a great deal in the saying. If I may speak of
myself, I am sure I remember how the whole studies of my life have
been colored by one or two strong impressions received in childhood.
The lying down, as a child, in a new England pasture and looking at
the mysterious soaring of a hen hawk far above in the sky has led me
to give many years of mature life to the study of the subject of tray-
eling in air; and puzzling about the way the hotbed I used to see on
the farm kept the early vegetables warm under its glass roof has led to
many years of study in after life on the way that that great hotbed, the
earth, is kept warm by its atmosphere; and so on with other things.

I wish that all children might, as they grow older, learn the sense
of the poet who has said:

Who is the happy warrior? Who is he

That every man in arms should wish to be?

It is the generous spirit who, when brought
Among the tasks of real life, hath wrought
Upon the plan that pleased his boyish thought.

Doctor Langley has thus told us of his appointment as curator of the
children’s room, but he has not told us of what long years of preparation
have been crystallized into this apparently simple task, what patient,
thoughtful work in every department and detail, with the interest and
the entertainment of the child always in view.

After accepting this somewhat arduous and wholly portionless task,
he undertook to do his best to have such a place provided and install
in it only such things as his friends, the other children, would like.

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, PAINE AG ||

HUMMING BIRDS

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SMITHSONIAN REPORT,

1901,

PAINE

TOUCAN

R&S

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, PAINE Pia

A.HDOEN 8 CO LITHOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE

MANDARIN DUCK

CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 555

It was at once determined that the room to be assigned to this pur-
pose must be a small one; a large room would mean a large collection,
and this in return would result in confused and hasty examination and
the discouragement of the child. It must be a cozy, pleasant room,
with plenty of light and pretty things, as well as a collection of speci-
mens, not many in number, but each object chosen just to give the
child pleasure. If the child received instruction, too, well and good;
but first of all he must be attracted and pleased, and made to wonder,
for in wonder lie the beginnings of knowledge.

This was the Secretary and Honorary Curator’s idea; and with the
gladly and heartily given help of ornithologist, zodlogist, mineralo-
gist, of the whole staff of the Institution in fact, his plans for a chil-
dren’s room in the Smithsonian have been, and still are being, carried
to successful realization.

Located just across from the main entrance, it is a sunny little spot,
with doors and windows opening to clambering vines, grass plots, and
happy trees, where in summer are birds that build and sing. It was
June when I saw it, and perhaps this is the choicest time to go; but
even dark days and cold will not keep us from feeling the cheer of
riotous vines and singing birds.

For they are withinas wellas out. The ceiling is painted to repre-
sent a vine-clad arbor, with sky spaces through which birds of gayest
plumage seem to look down on friends and relatives below.

Indeed, a number of living relatives are just below, where four gilt
cages of song supply a never-ending chorus of nations, the little
singers having been chosen from the many far and near corners of the
whole earth.

Our own redbird, or cardinal grosbeak, is there, as well as the South
American cardinal of Brazil; bullfinches and goldfinches from Europe;
the Japanese robin, who is really not Japanese and not a robin, but a
very nice bird from India; some weaver-birds from Africa; some
Javan sparrows from the East Indies, and some Australian grass-par-
rakeets, such as are trained and used by street seers for telling for-
tunes. They are a happy congress, and it grieves me to relate how
two little cages contain but one bird each, a certain canary and a
hybrid goldfinch, whose names, for their parents’ sake, I will not give,
but who proved to be so wicked and quarrelsome, and made the others
all so very unhappy, that they must now live each to himself, alone,
and yet near enough to see the happiness of the others, who all day
long play, and visit, and sing in undisturbed harmony.

Below the singing birds are the aquariums, a salt-water glass tank,
and a most perfect fresh-water aquarium, so simply and carefully
arranged that even the very little child may look and love and wonder
from every side, where pretty bright fishes and baby turtles wave and
dart and paudle amid feathery green and over the pebbly beds.

556 CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

The aquariums and the gilt cages are the center of the room, and,
because of the happy varicolored life they contain, must always
remain the true center of attraction to little folks—the point to which
they will turn and return, again and yet again, from the fascinating
and eyen more marvelous, but silent, wonders in the cases along the
walls.

The cases themselves are quite low, even the top shelves being
within reach of younger eyes. Arranged above them area number of
prints and water-color paintings, in which some of the furred and
feathered creatures below are shown in action; and this idea is to be
carried still further in the panels of the wall, for these in course of
time are to be filled with interesting and lifelike pictures by artists
who paint lovingly their friends of the wood and field.

But it is within the cases that the child will find the true soul and
purpose of the Children’s Room. Often he may turn to the singing
birds and the darting fish for refreshment, but with the wonders along
the wall he will linger, and the memory of them will cling and blend,
and so become a part in his life that shall not perish or grow dim.

In speaking of the young observer in this article as ‘‘he,” I do
not wish it to be understood that the room is not fully as interesting
and valuable to little girls. Iam only, for the most part, picturing a
boy, such as ‘‘the one I knew best,” who, a good many years ago, was
obliged to learn a good many things vaguely and at long range. I
find that he is still hungry to know some of the things he never could
find out then, and I am fancying what he might have felt and done if
in that far-away time he had found himself, all at once, among these
precious cases.

They are arranged as a child would wish them, and he will begin,
perhaps, with those on the left as he enters—the cases of the birds.
At the first of these he will linger. Within are the ‘* Largest and
smallest birds of prey.” He will look at the great condor of the
Andes, and the bald eagle, and then at the tiny sparrow hawk; and he
will wonder why these are so big and that so little, and if the bald
eagle could whip the condor in a fair fight. He thinks it likely,
because the condor has blunt claws—so blunt, the card says, that he
can not carry off the big animals he sometimes kills. The condor is
bigger than the bald eagle, but he is not so good looking, and the
child does not like him. He likes much better the largest owl, the
great eagle owl, who lives in the vast, trackless woods of northern
Europe and Asia—a monarch of the far, dim stillness; and if the child
is a little girl, she adores the smallest of bis race, the tiny elf owl,
who might well be a real sprite to dart from the leafy, dewy tangle of
evening.

The small observer passes on. ‘* Some Curious Birds” come next,
and he must see them, even if he has to come back to the bald eagle

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, PAINE

TANAGER

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CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. DDT

and the condor, and the different-sized owls, by and by. He wonders
and laughs, too, at the curious birds. Truly they are a funny lot.
Some of them have fans that fold. Others have veils, aprons, crowns,
lappets, armor, and what not. The toucan has such an absurd big bill.
The black skimmer’s flat bill is set the wrong way. A queer paradise
bird has one tail where it should be, besides two very long tails that
are half saw and half feather, and that start from behind his ears.
Then there is a row of little bat-parrakeets that sleep with their heads
hanging down. The child wonders why the blood doesn’t run to their
heads, and how the umbrella bird can see through the thick tangle of
his head covering. Almost all the curious birds have funny attach-
ments, something they don’t seem to need—all except the poor apteryx
from Australia, who has much less than he should have, because he is
left over from some undeveloped age, with paltry, half-formed feath-
ers, and no wings at all. The child pities the apteryx—he looks so
timid and sorry—and the card tells us he is often killed by dogs,
because he can not fly. He is so different from his fine neighbor, the
laughing jackass, whose expression is always humorous, and who seems
always about to make merry with the whole queer lot.

Just below these is a shelf of ** Bright-colored Birds.” If the child
is a little girl, here she will linger long. The vividly blue cotinga of
British Guiana, the beautiful—the most beautiful—parrakeet, the rose
cockatoo of Australia, the elegant minivet, and the crimson-winged
lory—these she will love with all her inborn adoration of beautiful
adornment, and yearn for them in her dreams. I hope she will not
want the wings for her hat, but I should hardly blame her if she did,
for their beauty is the splendid and lavish kind that nature gives to
flowers, and that nature, and nature only, has ever learned how to
bestow. ‘To me the mandarin duck seems the gem of this collection—
a fowl whose dress is so Chinese in its cut and coloring that one won-
ders whether he has really imitated the mandarins or they him.

And now come the ‘**Common Birds of Europe” and the ** Familiar
Birds of the United States.” The child has yearned long to see the
raven, the magpie, the starling, and the jackdaw of his storybooks, and
the English lark and robin from which, long ago, our native meadow
singer and redbreast were named by a people heartsick and homesick
for their own far lands. The curlew, the rook, and the lapwing, these,
too, are among the European birds, while the phoebe, the bittern, the
kingfisher, the bobwhite, and the bobolink are among their Amer-
ican cousins, as well as our own lark and robin, not forgetting the
beautiful but cruel blue jay, and the tiny ruby-throated humming
bird, so familiar to us all.

The child is proud of his own birds. Perhaps he wishes they were
more gaudily colored, and wonders why parrakeets and pink cockatoos
do not dwell in his own woods and fields. Still, there is the gay car-

558 CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. q

dinal and the pretty bluebird, whose color is like a bit of sky. The
child is glad to see that of the poetical quotations, and a number of
these are in various cases, there is a special one for the bluebird—
the pretty lines by Eben Rexford:
Hear it again above us,
And see what a flutter of wings;
The bluebird knows it is April,
And soars to the sun and sings.

In the case next to this are *‘ Birds with Curious Nests and Eggs.”
The heart of the small observer finds great joy in this case. The
smallest and largest eggs in the world, those of the humming bird and
the giant ostrich, or Apyornis, of Madagascar, who no longer lives,
but whose eggs, that were more than a foot in length, are still to be
discovered.

The child ponders long over these eggs. The card tells him that
the “pyornis and the great roc of his storybooks are believed to be
the same bird. He wonders how many times larger the big egg is
than the little one. If he asks, as I did, he will be told that it is
about thirty thousand times as big, and he will picture to himself the
great bird, as tall as a tree, sweeping over the sands with furlong
strides.

Within this case, too, are other curious eggs, large and small, includ-
ing those of the eagle, the ostrich, and the great moa of New Zealand,
while among the curious nests the child sees the homes of the hang-
bird, the weaver bird, and the tailor bird. Much and long he wonders
how these clever house builders wound in and out the threads and
fibers of their marvelously built homes. But just below there is a
nest with eggs. It is not a curions nest, but built ina curious place
in a skull, in fact, and it is the nest of the tiny house wren.

And now beyond these come the ‘‘ water birds”—-the great albatross,
which perhaps the child remembers as having been shot by the Ancient
Mariner; the king penguin of the far white south, the white egret,
hunted for his rare plumage, and the scarlet ibis, whose flaming feath-
ers make him a shining mark for death.

The child is sorry that these rare birds are killed for their wings
and plumes. If a little girl, perhaps she resolves never to wear them.
She remembers that birds have little folks, too, and she wonders what
becomes of them when the parent bird is shot down and can never
return to them with food.

But at the next case these things are forgotten. At the top instead
of a picture there is a lyre bird, with his tall magnificent tail, and a
mounted beaver. The child remembers that Hiawatha was taught _

How the beavers built their lodges.

He thinks this must be one of the same beavers and wonders if it is
full grown and how it is he can use his tail to build with.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Paine. PLATE VII.

LARGEST AND SMALLEST BIRDS OF PREY.

Harpy eagle, 38 inches long; little hawk, 6 inches long.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Paine PLATE VIII.

ap]

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THE CRESTED FLYCATCHER.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Paine PLATE IX.

EUROPEAN ROBIN.
Erithacus rubecula (Linn. ).

Leurepe.

OBIN: RED RREBAS b.-One“or

the best beloved birds of Eng-
land. ‘Chis is the bid of the ballad
of the Babes tu the Wood:

‘©No burial this pretty pair
Krom any man receives,
Till-robin redbreast, piously,
Did cover them with leaves.”’

SPECIMEN OF TECHNICAL LABEL AND LABEL WITH POPULAR
INFORMATION.

—

|

CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 559

Above the beaver is a fine spray of peacock plumes, and in the case
beneath him a kite carrying a snake, some bower birds with their play-
house, and some ptarmigans in both winter and summer dress. The
child rejoices in the bower birds. He has a little book with a picture
of them, but here they are at home with their playthings. There are
several of them, and he wonders if they have invited in friends to see
and play with the pretty shells and colored glass they have found.

But the ptarmigans he can hardly believe real, their winter dress is
so snow-white, while in their summer plumage they are so brown and
mottled, like a pheasant. Still, the cards tell him they are the same,
and though he wonders much, yet he must believe.

Then he passes on to *‘ How Creatures Hide,” the Children’s Room
name—and a very happy one—for protective mimicry. Here the leaf
insects, that are so like the leaves about them as to make the observer
almost *‘ give it up” before he discovers that some of the leaves open
and form wings, while beneath others there lie curious creatures so
near in shape and color to their hiding place that only the sharpest
eyes will find them. Nests there are, too, that might well be a part of
the limb that holds them; and beneath, ina box of sand and pebbles,
are some terns’ eggs and young. And the young terns are so like the
eggs, and the eggs so like the pebbles, that even after he sees them he
must take a second anda third look to make sure.

And now there is a case of ‘* Pretty Shells” and *‘ Strange Insects.”
The wonderful coloring of the sea has found its way into the shells,
while the hues of the air have tinted the wings of butterflies more rare
than any the child has ever chased or captured. The child looks long-
ingly at this collection. There are some things here he would like to
have. But the centipede, and the tarantula with the poor little bird
it has captured and poisoned to death, make him shudder. He is close
enough to these, and he is glad they are dead. He wonders why they
must ever live at all.

Corals and sponges have their separate case, and the specimens range
from the great brain coral and Neptune’s cup to the delicate and beau-
tiful Venus’s flower basket, a superb white sponge from the Philippine
Islands.

And now the child has reached the last case in the room. It con-
tains ** Minerals and Fossils,” and here are some things that make him
wonder indeed. On a block lies a piece of flexible sandstone that
bends by its own weight. Near by isa true model of the largest lump
of gold ever found in the world, and of the largest diamond ever cut.
His eyes dwell long on these things. He wonders about their value,
and if the people who found them were very poor, and how happy
they must have been with that great lump of gold and with that splen-
did diamond. Some day he will go out into the wild mountains and
find gold and diamonds too. He wonders just where he ought to look

560 CHILDREN’S ROOM IN SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

for tnem. Then, au at once, nis eye catenes some woven and spun
asbestos, that nobody can burn up, no matter how hot the fire is, and
he thinks he would like a suit of this material, and so become a fire-
man, and live happy ever after. And now the child has finished the
circuit of the room. He turns once more to the song birds and dart-
ing fish, and before he goes he must have one more look at the cases.
The owls, the swallows, the night hawk, and the whippoorwill—such
things as these he has been glad to see at close range. Heretofore
they have been to him but as darting shadows, or weird voices from the
dusk of evening. He has seen swallows circling about the chimney at
nightfall, diving in one by one, and he has heard them cuddling cosily
together at bedtime. Now for the first time he knows just how they
look, just how they build their nests, and how they cling to the rough
brick with feet that are set too far back on their bodies for them ever
to perch on a limb without toppling over.

And the child goes home at last, glad, and with knowledge, and the
love of knowledge, in his heart. He is happy, and, because his won-
der has been aroused, he has learned. Unless he is a very small child, —
he has been able to read the large, clear type of the simply worded —
labels, on which, with one exception, there are no more Latin names.
The exception is made in favor of a very small humming bird, who
bears bravely his technical title, Rhamphomicron microrhynchum, left
by the honorary curator as the best explanation of why he has not
retained the others. Of all the rest the common names only are given;
and where no common name exists, a literal translation of the Latin
name is made. All the labels the child has been able to read, and he
is not wearied, and he has not been puzzled or confused.

Perhaps the child who has passed an hour or two in this room full —
of interest and pleasure does not know or care to whom his happiness
and his thanks are due. It does not matter. If he only cares for the
thing itself, cares enough to come again, and perhaps bring his par-_
ents, that they too may look and learn with young eyes (and if he is
the child most of us have known best, he will do this), the Secretary
and Honorary Curator will be amply repaid.

Doctor Langley has strenuously opposed all appreciative mention
of himself in this paper, and it is only through my most urgent ©
insistence that I have been permitted to let any portion of the meager
justice of the original article escape the sacrifice demanded by the
modest Curator. .

I note with pleasure the addition of the beautiful color plates of the —
butterflies, insects, humming birds, Mandarin duck, ete., which —
deserve mention not only because of the fascinating subjects which
they portray, but because they represent the very latest developments’
in the art of color reproduction. My only regret is that these hand-
some illustrations could not be presented to the readers of St. Nicho-
las, in which the original article appeared.

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, PAINE PL. X

BUTTERFLIES

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, PAINE

HOW A BUTTERFLY HIDES

OBSERVE THE TWO ON TWIG WITH FOLDED WINGS.

AHOEN A

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PLATE XIII.

Paine

1901.

Smithsonian Report,

PTARMIGAN IN SUMMER PLUMAGE,

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Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Paine. PLATE XV.

A HANGING NEST.

s

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Paine. PLATE XVI.

THE NIGHT HAWK AND ITS EGGS AND YOUNG.

The night hawk makes no nest, but lays its eggs on the bare ground, where eggs and young
birds are both safely hidden by resemblance in color to dead leaves and driftwood.

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SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.*

By M. A. Dastre.

Salt is a universal commodity. It seems to have been used almost
without exception in all places, times, and civilizations. To-day it
seasons the wretched meal of the Soudan negro and the carefully
selected repast of a European table. We find the same predilection
for its use as far back in history as we can go. The Jews offered it to
Jehovah with the first fruits of the harvest and the fruits of the earth;
Homer calls it divine and chronicles its use in the repasts of his
heroes; Tacitus tells of furious wars between the Germanic tribes for
the possession of salt springs near their territories.

Indeed, men have recoiled before no hardship, no sacrifice, and no
danger to procure this precious substance. They have sought to
obtain it by war, by fraud, by the fatigue of long journeys. Some
very primitive peoples have been remarkably ingenious in methods of
procuring it for their own use; for example, the aborigines of the
Sunda Islands have invented rude chemical processes for extracting it
from the mud about their mangrove trees. Mungo Park saw the
inhabitants of the coast of Sierra Leone give all that they possessed,
even their wives and children, to obtain it. It is, in fact, an object
of so general consumption, so necessary to man, that it affords an
assured medium of exchange, and that is what is meant when we say
that salt has been used and is still used for money. This is true for
the different countries in central Africa. It was the same in ancient
times, and, since the Roman soldier received in his ration salt as well
as oil, meat, and cheese, his compensation took the name of salary, a
name extended later to all stipulated wage for material work.

The need, the hunger for salt is not confined to man. Many
animals seek this substance with avidity. Buffon wrote: ‘* Nothing
pleases the appetite of sheep more than salt.” Barrall, Boussingault,
and Desaive have informed us that cattle may suffer cruelly from a

“Translated and condensed from the Reyue des Deux Mondes for 1901, Vol. I,
pp. 197-227.
sm 1901——36 561

562 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. :

lack of salt, and that, on the other hand, tney thrive when it is added
to their ration.*

Reindeer and red and roe deer love to lick the surface of brackish —
puddles and saline efflorescences. In all climates, in all latitudes, wild
ruminants and other hoofed animals resort to salt licks, a cireum-
stance of which hunters take advantage, choosing their shooting covers
either where salt naturally effloresces or where they themselves have
scattered it. :

A predilection so genera: and an appetite so imperative can not be
considered as mere accidents. They doubtless correspond to a natural
need of the system. Modern physiology has attempted to discover the
reason for their existence which must be profoundly based in the ani-
mal organization. It has asked why, among the mineral substances
that form a part.of our food, some of which enter much more exten-
sively into the constitution of our tissues, common salt should be the
only one that man artificially adds to his natural aliment. The salts of
lime and the phosphate of soda, for example, which compose so large
a part of the skeleton or of the liquids of our economy, are not used
at all in cookery. If we sometimes use them in an isolated state it is
merely as medicines. What is the reason for this instinctive and
peculiar employment of common salt over and above the quantity
naturally contained in foods? This brings up the more general ques-
tion of the part which salt plays when once introduced into the organ-
ism; of the physiological phenomena in which it participates; in a
word, of the evolution which it undergoes. * * *

I.

Salt was first used as an aliment at the time of transition from the
pastoral and nomadic stage to sedentary and agricultural life. The
Indo-European languages have no common word to designate salt,
nor have they any for the greater number of the objects that relate to
agriculture. But, on the other hand, they have common roots for all
words relating to pastoral occupations. We may see in this an indi-
cation that the primitive peoples from which our modern races sprang
were separated before they abandoned a pastoral life. They did not
learn the art of agriculture until later, and with it they learned the use
of salt.

There are populations, ethnic groups, and castes that have never
adopted it. The Egyptian priests did not salt their food. Plutarch
was astonished at this strange disdain. Sallust says that the Numid-
ians did not care for salt: Meque salem, neque alia irritamenta gule
querebant. And in the same way we see around us, side by side with —

“In practical agriculture it is generally admitted that there should be given to
each sheep about 2 to 5 grams of salt per day, 30 to 50 grams to a horse, 60 to 100
grams to an ox. In England and in Germany stock raisers much exceed these
amounts.

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 563

animals of tne farm that are very fond of it the dog and the cat that
do not care for it at all.

These exceptions have been for a long time considered as inexpli-
eable. It could not be understood how the need for salt could, in cer-
tain cases, be as imperative as true physiological needs, such as hunger
and thirst, while in others it seemed entirely foreign to the organism.
A learned physiologist, M. Bunge, of Basel, has thrown some light
upon this obscure question. After an extensive investigation, ethno-
graphic, historic, and geographic, he has drawn the primary conclusion
that the use of salt is connected with the kind of diet. Salt is a neces-
sary complement to a vegetarian regimen. Among animals it is the
herbivora that seek it with avidity. Carnivora are indifferent to it or
even regard it with disgust. Among men the appetite for this season-
ing exists especially in those whose food consists of leguminous vege-
tables and cereals; that is to say, among agricultural populations or
at least among those who live ona mixed diet. On the contrary, those
who do not care for it are the pastoral tribes that live upon milk and
meat that they derive from their flocks and herds, hunting tribes that
subsist upon the products of the chase, and fishing populations who,
although they dwell by the sea or at the mouths of rivers, where they
can get plenty of salt, yet do not use it. Now, if this is really the case,
we may at least consider that the correlation between these two phe-
nomena, the development of agriculture and sedentary life on the one
hand and the use of salt with the food on the other, is worthy of
investigation.

All the nomadic tribes of the north of Russia and Siberia abstain
from salting their food. They can readily obtain salt; for deposits,
efflorescences, and salt lakes abound in those regions; still these peo-
ples, who live by the chase and by fishing, have a decided aversion for
this condiment. An explorer who lived a long time with the Kamcha-
dales and Tunguses, the well-known mineralogist, C. von Ditmar,
amused himself by inducing them to taste the salted food which he
himself used and by noting the expressions and grimaces of dislike
which this simple seasoning caused. This was not, however, because
these people had an excessive delicacy of taste. They habitually fed
upon an unnamable mixture made of fish massed in enormous silos
where they putrefied at leisure awaiting the time when they should be
eaten. The Russian Government desired to change these too disgust-
ing and unhealthy food habits. It taught these peoples the art of salt-
ing fish so as to preserve them from putrefaction, establishing for this
purpose curing stations near their encampments and furnishing them
with salt at nominal price. Vain efforts! These docile peoples obeyed.
They salted the fish, but they ate them not.

Similar examples of indifference or antipathy to this apparently
necessary seasoning are found in other latitudes. The Kirghizes of

564 - SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.

Turkestan, who live upon milk and meat in their salt steppes, do not
use salt at all. The Bedouins of Arabia, according to Wrede, find the
use of salt ridiculous, and the Numidians, whom Sallust describes as_
disdaining the use of salt, fed, according to his testimony, upon milk
and meat—lacte et carne ferina.

Africa furnishes still other examples quite as demonstrative. The
Scotchman, Mungo Park, who a century ago explored the region now
ralled the great bend of the Niger, was struck with the eagerness for
salt shown by the negro agricultural populations. This was brought
to them with difficulty and sold at a very high price by caravans that
obtained it from Mauritania, from the sebkha of [ji], halfway between
Senegal and Morocco, or from the deposits of Taudeni north of Tim-
buktu. ‘‘In the interior countries,” he says, ‘‘the greatest of all
luxuries is salt. It would appear strange to a European to see a child
suck a piece of rock-salt as if it were sugar. This, however, I have
frequently seen, although, in the inland parts, the poorer class of
inhabitants are so very rarely indulged with this precious article, that
to say a man eats salt with his victuals, is the same as saying, he isa
richman. Ihave myself suffered great inconvenience from the scarcity
of this article. The long use of vegetable food creates so painful a
longing for salt, that no words can sufficiently describe it.” This is an
important statement. We may compare it with an observation of an
opposite character also recorded by Bunge, which completes and serves
to confirm it. It relates to the astronomer, L. Schwarz, who, after
living some three months with the Tunguses of Siberia on an exclusive
diet of reindeer meat and game, lost the desire and the habit of adding
salt to his food.

In America similar observations have been made. At the time of
its discovery the greater number of the tribes of North America lived
by the chase and by fishing. They used no salt, although it was very
common in their prairies. A small number only were at that time
sedentary and agricultural. These were fond of salt and undertook
frequent wars for the possession of saline springs. Farther south, in”
Mexico, a sedentary people of more cultured character used salt regu-
larly, while in the Pampas, covered with salt lakes and efflorescences,
the Gauchos scorned a vegetable diet and the salt which seasoned it as
food fit only for their beasts.

The examination of what has occurred in the people of the Indian
archipelago and Australia supports anew the law of Bunge. Every-
where it is the populations devoted to agriculture that use salt. Every-
where, also, peoples addicted to the chase, to fishing, or to a pastoral
life either disdain it or refuse to use it. Some European explorers
who have, like Schwarz, adopted an animal diet have become accus-
tomed to do without salt, while others, like Mungo Park, reduced to
vegetable food only, have endured an almost painful hunger for this
substance.

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 565

Il.

There is, then, a weli-established relation between a vegetable diet
and the need for salt and reciprocally between an animal diet and the
exclusion of this article from food. We must now push the matter
further and ask the reason for these remarkable relations. This is the
problem formulated by G. Bunge, who, as a chemist, has advanced a
very ingenious theory for its solution.

The answer might be very easy. If, for example, the difference
between the two diets was that of a difference in the amount of salt
which they respectively contained; if the food of vegetable origin was
poor in common salt and that of animal origin rich in that substance,
the solution would be clear; the law empirically established by Bunge
would have a very evident explanation.

But the matter is not so simple. The two kinds of diet are not distin-
guished from each other by the quantity of salt which they contribute
to the organism. In fact, both kinds are very poor in salt.

If we examine food as it comes from plants or animals we find that
the greater part of it is tasteless and insipid, insufficiently salted for
our taste. The albuminoids of meat, the fats, the starch of cereals and

leguminous plants, do not, by themselves alone, exercise any action

upon our gustative sense. The flavor of our food comes from second-
ary products, from aromatics and odors that are added in some way:
to be exact, from foreign substances existing in very minute quan-
tities, ethers, acids, and essential oils that culinary preparation and
cooking only develop to a greater degree. In general, natural food is
but slightly saline.

Since the small quantity of common salt contained in natural aliments

‘suffices for our needs when the diet is confined to animal food, it ought

to answer for them in the case of a vegetable diet. Why is it other-
wise? Whence comes it that one of these methods of alimentation
requires the artificial addition of salt? Chemists have ascribed the
cause of this peculiarity to the different composition of the two kinds
of food. Although both contain equally small quantities of chloride
of sodium, they are distinguished from each other by another mineral
product which they possess in an unequal though considerable degree.
This is potash. In marked contrast with common salt, this substance,
always abundant, varies very greatly in its relative quantity in different
xinds of food. There are foods that contain a great deal of it, and
these are precisely those that are taken from the vegetable kingdom.
Plants are generally distinguished by their richness in potassic salts.
They accumulate enormous quantities of them, drawing them from the
poorest soils. Indeed, before the discovery of the mines of Stassfurt,
the incineration of green plants was the only source of industrial pot-
ash. Inversely, there are other aliments derived from animals that

566 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.

are generally relatively poor in these compounds. In fine, the capital
difference—we do not say the only one—that distinguishes in the eyes
of the chemist the two modes of diet, is the abundance of potash in the
vegetarian ration and its deficiency in the meat ration. .

If we make a list of foods arranged according to the increasing
quantity of potash which they contain, it will be seen that animal
substances (blood, milk, meat) stand at the head, while lowest are vege-
tables (beans, strawberries, potatoes, clover). Still, there are some
remarkable exceptions. Rice, for example, is very poor in potash, a
kilogram of rice in a dry state furnishing only a gram. It is true that
it furnishes still less soda (83 times less). In this respect a rice diet
approaches an animal diet; and, in fact, provokes but a slight appetite
for salt. On the contrary, a kilogram of potatoes contains 24 grams
of potash and 60 times less of soda. This food approaches, from this _
point of view, the vegetarian type in its perfection.

The information given us by chemical analysis may then be sue-
cinctly stated as follows: The vegetable kingdom furnishes the
economy with much potash and very little soda—about 25 to 150 times
more potash than soda. Onthe other hand, the animal kingdom reduces |
the supply of potash without reducing in the same degree the supply
of soda. It introduces into the economy no more than 2 to 5 times:
as much potash as soda.

All this is perfectly true and interesting in itself, but it may bc
asked what it has to do with the question we are considering, and
what hidden relation there is between the proportion of potash that
distinguishes the two diets and the inequality in the need for salt
which they produce. M. Bunge believes that he has discovered this
relation. His hypothesis is that potash is responsible for our like or
dislike of salt in cookery. This he justifies by a series of closely con-_
nected inductions. The need for salt is the consequence of the loss
of salt from the organism, as thirst is the consequence of the loss of
water due to hemorrhage, transpiration, or other causes. The need —
for salt implies a previous loss of. salt. Secondly, the loss of salt
should be a phenomenon of a chemical nature resulting from reactions
of disintegration. Thirdly, this chemical phenomenon having, as is
proved by experiment, a relation to the different kinds of diet, should
he caused by their chemical characteristics—that is to say, by+the dif-
ference in their proportions of potash. That is his doctrine. Theory
having led him to this point, the rest is a simple matter for the clever
chemist of Basel; he has no difticulty in discovering the mechanism by
which the vibrations of the potash introduced into the system control
the proportion of salt that is eliminated.

When a theorist declares that something should be, he usually sus-
pects that it may be otherwise; this occurs twice in the reasoning
which we have just cited. Hence, there are two weak links in the

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 5Ge

chain of argument. Therefore the principle of this theory is uncer-
tain and may be contested. Indeed, it has been.

It is possible, contrary to the reasoning of Bunge, to increase the
relative and absolute quantity of potash taken into the system with-
out increasing the appetite for salt; indeed, we may even decrease the
desire for it.

An example of this sort is found among the negro tribes of Africa
who use ‘‘ash sa/t.”. The use of this mineral condiment extends
throughout a large part of central Africa in the basins of the Ogove
and Sanga north of the Congo and in the provinces of the Free State
to the south on the opposite side of the river. The lack of sea salt
or rock salt causes these populations to replace this substance by
another saline material which they prepare on the spot by their own
means.

But this is not ordinary salt—chloride of sodium; it is not even a
soda salt. They obtain this spurious salt from the ashes of plants.
Not the first that come to hand, for it is not immaterial what plants
are chosen for this purpose. On the contrary, they are carefully
selected species. They use particularly two plants from the river.
The favorite one is a floating aroid common on the Ogove and deter-
mined by M. Lecomte as the /%st7va stratiotes. It is said that at cer-
tain places this plant is cultivated solely for the purpose of extracting
its salt. The second is a sort of high bamboo that grows in clumps
upon inundated ban':s.

What peculiarity have these plants that causes them to be chosen to
the exclusion of others? We do not know. M. L. Lapieque, from

whom we have derived a part of this information, supposes that it is

the slight proportion of carbonates that they furnish when incinerated,
or as the effect of subsequent treatment. In a product destined for
food, the lack of alkaline carbonates is a decided advantage, for their
nauseous odor and alkaline taste is repulsive to all.

After being harvested the plants are dried and then burned; the
ashes are collected and leached. At Berberati, on the Upper Sanga,
Dr. Herr witnessed this process. The aborigines use for this purpose
a rude filter made of a conical basket, in which the ashes are placed.
Through this water is passed and repassed several times to dissolve out
ull the soluble salts. The solution thus obtained is then evaporated
by heat. The fixed residue forms the ‘* ash sa/t.”

The composition of this salt, at least as to its general features, is
well known. M. Dybowski, in 1893, communicated to the Academy
of Sciences some analyses of it. Its composition varies little from
that furnished by most plants similarly treated. Normally, as has
been already said, potash is greatly in excess of soda in all vegetables.
The proportion varies from 30 tp 150 parts of potash to 1 of soda.
That is what we find in this case; the quantity of soda is very minute.

568 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.

The characteristic features of the chemical composition of these plants
would then be an abundance of chloride of potassium and a scarcity of
carbonates.

This spurious salt tastes much like common salt, but leaves the
sharp after taste of potassic salts. It is not, on the whole, decidedly
disagreeable to a European palate; the aborigines prefer it to common
salt. ;

The strong appetite which these sedentary, agricultural negroes have
for this mineral condiment quite justifies the rule established by
Bunge, according to which the need for salt is connected with agricul-
tural habits and vegetable diet. And if this appetite is manifested
here not only for true common salt but for a sort of spurious salt, the
law is still better exemplified. Bunge goes so far as to say that in this
case observance of the law is carried even to aberration, but, on the
other hand, it will be readily seen that the theory devised by the
chemist of Basle to explain his rule is undermined by this very exam-
ple, for this need for salt being due, according to him, to the waste of
chloride of sodium from the organism, which, in its turn, is indirectly
caused by an excess of potash in the food, should only be remedied by
restoring the lost chloride. But in this case the ash salt that appeases
and satisfies the need is a salt of potash, and so ought, theoretically, to
exasperate it.

The explanation of Bunge is therefore not tenable. All that expe-
rience teaches is that an exclusive vegetable diet causes a need, a par-
ticular appetite, which can be satisfied by substances having the taste
of cooking salt and containing either chloride of sodium or chloride of
potassium. In brief, froma chemical point of view, it is a need for
chlorides; from a physiological point, a need for salty savor; that is to
say, for a particular kind of gustative sensation.

ieee

One of the effects of the progress of civilization has been to sub-
stitute a mixed diet for that of primitive peoples, this latter being
sometimes exclusively animal, at others exclusively vegetable. At
the same time the use of salt has become general and is now a universal
habit, but we have just seen that its use was originally limited to vege-
tarian peoples and had its origin in a need either for a material con-
stituent of the body or for a sensation.

Which of these two alternatives is the true one? Must we admit,
with Bunge, that we have a true chemical need, an appeal, an attrac-
tion of the organism for a substance necessary for its constitution and,
at the time, deficient? Is it not, rather, merely a need of the senses,
a sort of protest of sense against the habitual tastelessness of vege-
table foods which has to be remedied by a condiment otherwise
inoffensive #

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 569

This is the conclusion of the greater number of physiologists. It
is that of M. Lapicque, who sees, in the appetite for salt, a particular
case of a very general taste for condiments common to all populations
that live on vegetables: To the Abyssinians, who counteract with
berberi, a sauce spiced with pimento, the insipidity of their durrha or
Indian millet; to the Hindoos and Malays, who mask with curry the
tastelessness of rice, the basis of their diet. This is also the opinion,
of far greater antiquity, of Sallust, who, speaking of the salt dis-
dained by the Numidians, ranks it among the a/7a ¢rritamenta gulae.

In reality, one may reconcile these opinions and bring Bunge into
agreement with Sallust and M. Lapicque. The sole function of con-
diments is not that of rendering agreeable the enforced task of eating
and of transferring into a pleasure the necessity for food. The
gustatory sensation is not wholly for the pleasure it gives; it is
charged with an important function relating to the operations of the
digestive apparatus. As Professor Pawlow and his pupils have
recently shown, it starts into action the vital energy of the stomach
and induces the secretion of an efficient gastric juice, rich both in
acid and in ferment (pepsin). Even the contact of the food with the
mucous membrane of the stomach, which physiologists have until
recently supposed to be the only means of arousing the secretion of
that organ, does not have as much effect as the sensory excitation due
to sapid substances. The gustatory impression is more efficacious.
It causes a more abundant secretion of gastric juice, which is more
energetic in its action and therefore of greater value.

Condiments and seasonings are therefore found to have a justifica-
tion that is to some degree of a physiological character. They insure
the proper action of the stomach.

Salt does more. At the same time that it puts in motion the secretion
of the stomach it furnishes it with materials, at least with some of
them. Hydrochloric acid, which is characteristic of the gastric juice
and insures its digestive efficacy, is derived from salt, from the chloride
of sodium of the blood. The same origin should be ascribed to the
chlorine compounds found in the juices of the stomach, fixed chlorides
and organic chlorine. In other terms the material for the chlorine
compounds of the gastric juice comes primitively from the salt of our
food.

This is not the place to discuss how, in order to produce this result,
the salt of the blood is decomposed within the gastric glands. This
isa problem that has greatly occupied modern physiological chemists,
and upon which they as yet do not fully agree. Maly has supposed
one kind of mechanism for this reaction, Laudwehr another. The
method matters little. That which should be noted is the fact that
salt is destroyed by gastric digestion, and that the equilibrium of the
organism demands that it be replaced. Lf, then, the loss of salt is not.

570 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.

as Bunge supposes, the primary cause for the need for salt so gen-
eral among all peoples, it is at least its consequence and its physiolog-
ical justification.

Any other chloride than that of sodium susceptible of introduction
into the blood may there participate in similar reactions and play the —
same part.

The ash salt, rich in chloride of potassium, is a good substitute for
cooking salt. Recent experiments have led MM. Dastre and Frouin
to conclude that chloride of magnesium may be used for the same pur-
pose with still more striking results. The secretion of gastric juice,
which increases in quantity by the introduction of common salt into
the blood, is still more increased by the introduction of the magnesium
salt.

The same result would be obtained by the introduction of the
spurious ash salt prepared by the negroes of the Ogove and the Sanga
as by the use of common salt; still better results by the magnesium
salts if other reasons did not exclude their employment. In the
absence of salts belonging to the same group as common salt we may —
even substitute, as has been shown by the well-known chemist, E.
Kiilz, others farther removed, such as the alkaline iodides and bro-
mides. These give rise toa gastric juice acidified by hydriodie and
hydrobromic acid instead of by hydrochloric acid as is normal gastric
juice. Still, if such a substitution in no way affected the functions of
the stomach, it might not be the same in relation to other organs.

EY

Ordinary salt, the chloride of sodium, is one of the constituent ele-
ments of animal organisms, existing everywhere in them. The blood
has a saline taste more or less marked; all the secretions are salty;
the tears themselves are more salty than bitter, whatever good people
may say about them. Salt water, in fact, bathes all living particles
and leaches continually from the organic structure, escaping from all
its issues, carrying with it the waste matters which should be rejected
from the body.

Common salt is more suitable than any other for this purpose. In
au dose of 9 grams per 1,000 it forms a solution innocuous to the ana-
tomical elements, that can circulate around the most delicate of them
without causing the least damage. This close association with salt has
become habitual to them from immemorial usage; they have adapted
themselves to it, and it would lead to some inconvenience if another
mineral constituent should be too abruptly substituted for it. In cer-
tain animals that have been bled to exhaustion, life may be kept up
for some time if the blood is replaced by a saline solution, named,
because of its properties, the physiological solution. A turtle ora
frog in whose veins this fluid circulates continues to live for a con-

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 571

siderable time. Certainly this is not a generous liquor; the living
alimentary particles find in it nothing by which they can be nourished
and sustained, and they can live in it only as long as their own reserves
may last, but at least it does them no harm.“

We may now begin to comprehend what becomes of the salt
we consume in obedience to the curious need of which we have
spoken. It is easy to predict its destiny. The greater part of it will
remain in simple solution; the remainder will enter into combination,
more or less intimate, with living matters. The former will penetrate
into the circulating liquids, lymph and blood, and will with them pass
through all the systems of the body without taking any direct part in
the vital changes, but, on the contrary, act merely as a filling, neutral-
izing by the number of its molecules the danger which the cellular
community would incur if the medium in which it lives were too much
diluted, and it will finally pass out by the natural emunctories, invari-
able, unchanged, but having performed the service of removing from
the economy the effete products of cell life. This eliminated salt
must be replaced. Its loss, reacting upon the organism, is the pri-
mary cause of the need for salt.

The second and smaller portion of the salt taken into the body will
penetrate into the elements themselves, will make an integral part of
them, will participate in their chemical changes, not only those which
give rise to the gastric juice, but also others, finally becoming
destroyed and lost to the organism. The void left by this continual
elimination has doubtless some weight in the sensation of need for
salt, which the animal feels. It is a second element of it.

V,

The necessity for common salt in the food results from this series
of changes. The organism could not be maintained, or, in other
words, health would be impaired if that which was lost were not
restored. Mineral aliments are therefore a necessity. It is necessary
that we should have salt. There are some physiological functions in
which common salt may be replaced by another, as we have seen in the
case of the gastric secretion, but there are others for which such substi-
tution is, probably, impossible. A modicum of chloride of sodium is
indispensable to life.

In truth neither men nor animals have to occupy themselves in

*A solution of this character, having the proportions of about 6 parts of chemically
pure sodium chloride to 1,000 parts of distilled water, rendered aseptic and warmed
to 100° F., is in common use in surgery and medicine, being known as the ‘‘normal
salt solution.’? Readers will doubtless recall that it was used in the lamentable case
of President McKinley, both for the cleansing of the abdominal cavity during the
surgical operation and later as a hypodermatic injection. It was also used some
months before with good effect in the treatment of Mrs. McKinley, who was suffer-
ing from a disorder that had drained the blood of its fluid. —TraNsLator.

572 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. a

finding this modicum. It is exceeded by the quantities normally exist-
ing in natural foods. The difficulty, then, is not in obtaining the
nutritive substances which contain this modicum; it would rather be
in devising a food sufficient in other respects, that is to say, as regards
nitrogenous, fatty, and starchy matters, in which this modicum did
not exist.

Nevertheless a physiologist, Forster, in 1864, was able to do this.
He utilized the waste from meat powder derived from the manu-
facture of Liebig’s extract, treating it several times with boiling
water, so as to wash away almost all the soluble salts. With this
leached meat, together with starch and fat, he formed a ration in which
there was wanting nothing but the mineral salts.*

Animals nourished with this ration in reality suffered from mineral
inanition. The experiment of Forster, carried out at Munich under
the direction of Voit, is, in fact, a typical one of this kind and perhaps
the only one performed until latterly, when Bunge and other physi-
ologists took up the matter again.

The necessity for mineral alimentation was affirmed as a general
principle as early as 1861 by Liebig in his Letters on Chemistry. It
is true that Chossat and Boussingault had called attention to the neces-
sity for lime and that Becquerel and Rodier had spoken of the need
for iron; but these were only special studies. Liebig stated the gen-
eral principle: animals require for their proper maintenance albumen-
oids, fats, either starches or sugars, and mineral aliments; but it was
not Liebig who demonstrated this, it was Forster.

In fact, the experiment of Forster relates to the entire sum of min-
eral matters, not specially to the chloride of sodium. It is an example
of complete mneral inanition, not of sa//ne inanition. It furnishes,
however, some information as to the consequences which may follow
from the suppression of salt in alimentation. As soon as the regimen
was established, the animal showed a considerable diminution in the
quantity of salt rejected by the emunctories, though the urea and the
organic waste products maintained their usual proportion. The organ-
ism, then, retained its mineral matters; the mutations of chloride of
sodium engaged in organic combinations were slight. After twenty-
six days of this method of alimentation the animal had lost but 7 |
grammes of this chloride of sodium in combination. Its health, how-
ever, was much impaired. It grew more feeble day by day. Nervous
troubles appeared, consisting at first of habitual inertia, paralysis of
the limbs, and later of convulsive seizures and attacks of madness.

The gastric secretion diminished at once. Toward the last it no longer |
contained hydrochloric acid. Graye digestive disturbances finally — .
intervened. The animal, however, lost but little in flesh; its pining
away, its corporeal and physical failure, was but the result of the

inde) Stanek

> perrribaa

“There remained but eight-tenths per cent of the dry weight. ;

SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES. 573

suppression of mineral salts. The lack of common salt was, doubtless,
but a single factor in the production of these phenomena. The absence
of other salts, particularly of the phosphates, had also something to
do with it. Nevertheless, it is striking to see what violent disturb-
ances may result from slight variations. In fact, the animal suc-
cumbed more quickly from the deprivation of mineral elements alone
than it would have done from total inanition, that is to say, from the
suppression of all aliments except water.

The necessity for a modicum of common salt is shown by these
experiments. Chloride of sodium is then a plastic aliment. It is
placed by Munk and Ewald in the category of nutritive salts together
with the alkaline and earthy phosphates and the salts of iron. Accord-
ing to statistical data the daily consumption of salt in Europe is on the
average 17 grams per capita. Of these about 2 grams are necessary
to cover the loss by disassimilation. These two grams represent
nutritive salts. The remaining 15 grams would then represent on the
one hand 8 to 10 grams carried away by excretions and necessary
for restoring the constitution of the circulating liquids, and a surplus;
but, considering the influence of salt upon the secretions, it would not
be prudent to say that this surplus is a sacrifice made to the pleasures
of appetite.

We have just seen the ill effects of a deprivation of salt. We should
perhaps say a word about those which result from its excessive use.
It is known that if taken in amounts beyond the average it causes
thirst, and an increase in the renal excretion. It has been shown that
this increase remains about the same whether or not the subject drinks.
The water excreted is then taken from the tissues.

If the absorption is pushed beyond moderate quantities, vomitings
and intestinal disturbances ensue. This kind of excess has rarely been
observed unless we regard as authentic the story of those midshipmen
who are said to have been compelled by Peter the Great to drink sea
water for the purpose of inuring them to a sailor’s life and who died
as a Consequence.

VI.

Besides taking an active part in certain of the vital phenomena, com-
mon salt fulfills better than any other substance the conditions of a
medium that is indifferent and yet suitable for the physiological neces-
sities of living matter. In animals as well as in plants, in the mobile
corpuscles of the blood as well as in the fixed elements of the tissues,
living protoplasm is always rich in potassic salts. The interior
medium which bathes it abounds, however, in sodic salts, particularly
the chloride of sodium, resembling in this respect sea water, which
might, if properly diluted, circulate in the veins and replace for a
time the plasma of the blood, as we have seen may be done with the

574 SALT AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL USES.

physiological solution. Some naturalists, recalling the circumstances
under which life appeared on the globe, and the manner in which it
was for a long time maintained in the saline waters of the Paleozoic
seas, have thought they perceived in this fact the survival of an
ancestral condition.

From this point of view chloride of sodium would be an element.
handed down from remote times, belonging to a medium suitable to
animal life, to the blood and to the organic humors; and salted food,
by introducing it about the anatomical elements of the body, would
recall the marine origin of animal life, would connect, as one may say,
the physiology of the present with that of the past. * * *

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Lyle. PLATE |.

THE AIR SHIP ‘““SANTOS-DUMONT V” CIRCLING THE EIFFEL TOWER.

‘“ Bringing together man’s two ways of getting into the air, the one from a century just closed,
the other from a century just beginning.’”’ [The balloon was really no higher than the second
platform; but the camera, pointed upward, made it appear to be near the top. ]

ye ee

Ps

[Re = nt eset = Kl Wt ee raglan a

1 eran al

*,

rita

sin vader dey,

Nitec sl aE A a eller aS Nas

SANTOS-DUMONT CIRCLING THE EIFFEL TOWER IN
AN AIR SHIP.*

By Everner P. Lye, Jr.

As early as 3 o’clock of the morning of July 12, 1901, a curious
procession emerged from a hillside inclosure on the bank of the Seine
and proceeded toward the silent race course of Longchamp across the
river. besides several correspondents, this party was composed
mostly of young Parisians, who slowly steered their automobiles while
they bent their heads back and looked upward. Following them,
a few yards in the air, there floated a strange, mysterious shape, dim
and yellowish against the hazy dawn. Several men on foot guided the
aerial contrivance by ropes which they clung to jealously. Their care
was natural, for they held in leash the first flying machine; and by
‘flying machine” is meant one that really has flown, and which
deserves its name literally, being far, far removed from the monotony
of the many failures gone before. But the young Parisians did not
know as yet that it would fly, for this was to be its first trial—its
debut in the air—and not one among those gathered to witness it sus-
pected that he was to assist at a spectacle which history may possibly
compare with the launching of Fulton’s steamboat or with the firing
of the first locomotive.

At the race track the balloon was pulled down till the framework
rested on the ground. A young man, 25 years of age, went hurrying
about the air ship, tinkering at it here and there till the very last
moment, while his comrades of the Automobile and Aero clubs looked
on and respectfully let him have his way. He was a very little man,
in-shirt sleeves and a high collar, with an a!most effeminate speech, and
very amiable, but he seemed to know pretty well what he was about.
When he had examined the tube which connects a cigar-shaped gaso-
line tank with the motor, he wrapped a strap around a wheel of the
motor, pulled the strap off again with a sharp jerk, and thus set the
motor going. Involuntarily the spectators Jumped back, for the gaso-
line engine with its four cylinders starts with a crashing explosion, so
closely followed by others that the deafening, bursting combustion is
almost continuous; yet through the framework there is scarcely any
vibration at all, only a slight quivering.

“Reprinted from Everybody’s Magazine, Philadelphia, November, 1901. Copy-
I ybody gazine, phia, ; PY
righted, reproduced by permission of Doubleday, Page & Co.

576 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.
FOR THE FIRST TIME IN HISTORY AN AIR SHIP OBEYS HER RUDDER.

Before climbing into his basket, the slender little aeronaut took a
final look up at the sky. He had spent the last two nights near his
balloon, patiently waiting for favorable weather. He seemed satisfied
now, and climbed into his tiny car, which is just a narrow crating of
willow fixed into the forward nose of the triangular framework. The
guide rope was slackened and the balloon lifted him slowly from the
ground, He gave asignal and the guide rope was released. The bal-
loon bounded into the calm air. Those below, bending back their
necks, saw in the stern two big fans, the screw of the vessel, begin to
turn. They watched breathlessly, for the question of that moment
was, Would those fans serve as wings, or would the balloon prove only
a balloon after all, obeying no will other than that of the breeze?
That has ever been the question when some outlandish contrivance
would mount into the air, and hitherto the answer at best bas been
only a sadly qualified negative. But this latest contrivance of the
series appeared to be acting deliberately and rationally. She pointed
her nose slightly upward and rose higher. Her rudder shifted and she
slowly began to turn, and, following the track, made the circuit of
the race course. On nearing the spectators the vessel pointed her
nose downward and slowly descended. A moment later the little
aeronaut climbed from his basket to the ground as one might alight
from a bicycle. But the blood was stinging in his face, and joy fairly
burned in his eyes. He appreciated, though only vaguely, what he
had done. He had been striving to do this same thing with one bal-
loon after another for a number of long, patient years. Before night
of that day his name was known all over the world.

Once more, then, this little Brazilian aeronaut, Alberto Santos-
Dumont, climbed back into his basket. He said that he would make
the round again, and with a gesture indicated his intended landing
place. He mounted as easily as before, swept around the track, and
descended neatly on the spot he had pointed out. This was certainly

an accumulating of evidence, and he had to believe that this last air |

ship of his, the Santos- Dumont V, had proved a success on her first
trial. It was as simple as spinning around the track on an automo-
bile. Four more times he did the same thing. His chariot was per-
fectly manageable, and answered the rudder as docilely as a good
horse does the reins. During all the experiments of that morning he
had no recourse whatever to ballast, and was yet entirely master of his
altitude. This was due to the guide rope, a heavy cord several hun-
dred feet long, hanging from the forward nose of the car. By pulling
it toward the center of equilibrium or letting it out again, he could
incline the axis of the balloon, pointing her up or down, and then, by
propulsion of the fans, he could mount higher or drop lower at will.
Sometimes he attained a speed of 25 miles an hour.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Lyle. PLATE II.

FIRST FLIGHT AROUND LONGCHAMP, FRIDAY, JULY 12, 5 A. M.

“This latest contrivance * * * appeared to be acting deliberately and rationally. She pointed
her nose slightly upward and rose higher.”

THE RETURN FROM THE SECOND FLIGHT AROUND LONGCHAMP, JULY 12, 5.35 A. M.

“Swept around the track, and descended neatly on the spot he had pointed out.”

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CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 577

These triumphs tending to make him more ambitious, he bade his
friends au revoir and sailed off for the near-by station of Puteaux,
returning very soon without touching ground. It was now that he
declared for the little flying trip around Eiffel Tower. He refilled
his petroleum can and off he started at an encouraging rate, while his
friends stared after him, still too dazed for the hysterics of enthusiasm
which were soon to possess them.

FROM LONGCHAMP TO THE EIFFEL TOWER THROUGH THE ATR.

The distance from Longchamp to the tower is a little more than 3 miles,
but the airship made it in ten minutes, keeping at an altitude of from
100 to 300 yards. It is difficult to imagine what must have been the
astonishment of early-morning visitors on the tower when they saw a
man in a flying machine come soaring near them and genially waive
them his greetings.

The bizarre traveler rounded the tower and was returning whence
he came when one of the gear cords of his rudder broke. So, as
naturally as a wheelman dismounts to repair a puncture, he came down

into the Trocadéro Gardens, borrowed a ladder, climbed up the side of
his balloon, tied the cord, and remounting, proceeded on his way back
to Longchamp. Counting in the delay, he had been gone one hour
and six minutes.

By this time the party at the race course had recovered sufticiently
from their amazement for more or less intelligible congratulations.
He had solved the fatuous problem of aerial navigation—that was their
refrain. And almost the entire press of that day supported their
words. He had undoubtedly steered a balloon. The two essentials
were there, and they had worked effectively, namely, the propeller
and the rudder. He had sailed the four points of the compass, he had
sailed in circles, and he had sailed up and down, and the bulky aerostat
of Count Zeppelin over Lake Constance was now rated as an insignifi-
cant step, while the real, great stride had just been achieved by the
young Brazilian. So his companions insisted that he should try at once

for the Grand Prix.

THE BALLOONISTS GRAND PRIX AND ITS CONDITIONS.

Now it should be explained that the Grand Prix referred to is the
official goal of balloonists. A wealthy member of the Aero Club,
Henry Deutsch, founded the prize last year. The amount is $20,000,
but the conditions seemed too preposterous; very ingenious, only
impossible. The conditions prescribe that the winning aeronaut shall
start in his airship from the Aero Club Park (the inclosed hillside on
the Seine near Longchamp), sail to and around the Eiffel Tower, and
return and land in the park, a trip of about 8 miles, without touching

sm 1901 37

578 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

ground or aught else in the meantime, and all within the maximum |
time limit of a half hour. Although this offered a definite incentive
to plunge into what was one of the most fascinating impossibilities of -
the future, only the flying-machine inventors—the synonym of a disor-
dered mind-—r egarded flying machines with any respect. This faseina-
tion had long enslaved the rich young Brazilian, when one day the
Grand Prix was founded, and he constructed his ‘Santee Due V i
to win it, seeking thereby the official recording of a definite triumph.
For him the $20,000 would be merely a little purse for the building 0° 0
more air ships. But before he housed his aerial pet, Santos- Dumont V
in the balloon shed at the park that morning of July 12, he announce
to his friends that he would try again for the Grand Prix,

A SECOND FLIGHT: TO THE TOWER BEFORE THE PRIZE COMMITTEE, -

At 4 o’clock the next morning, July 13, the sky was mottled with |
clouds, while a choppy wind blew from the west; but as there was no—
change for the worse by 5 o’clock, Santos-Dumont began making
preparations for his flight. Long before he was through with testing _
the parts of his machine, a crowd had begun to gather in the park—
wheelmen, chauffeurs, photographers, and correspondents. At 6.20—
the great sliding doors of the balloon house were pushed open, and
the massive inflated occupant was towed out into the open space of the —
park. The big, pointed nose of the balloon and its fish-like belly —
resembled a shark gliding with lazy craft from a shadow into light
waters. In the basket of the car stood the coatless aeronaut, who
laughed and chatted like a boy with the crowd around him. The prize —
committee was there and expressed its hopes for a successful trial. —
This committee is composed of Count Henri de la Vaulx, the vice-pres-
ident of the Aero Club, who intends shortly to cross the Mediterr:
nean in a balloon ; Prince Roland Bonaparte; Henry Deutsch, and tw
members of the National Institute, MM. ‘Bouquet de la Gave an
Cailletet.

From the very first the conditions did not show themselves ‘ais
able for the attempt. The wind was blowing at the rate of 6 a
7 yards a second. The change of temperature from the balloon |
house to.the cool morning air had somewhat condensed the hydrogei
gas of the balloon, so that one end flapped about in a sadly flabb
manner, Air was pumped into the air reservoir, or ballonet, insid
the balloon, but still the desired rigidity was not attained: But, more
discouraging yet, when the motor was started, its contmuous explo
sions gave to the practiced ear signs of eaiee el discord. Itshould —
be stated that this motor can be started only from the ground, by the
strap twisted around the wheel, as already mentioned. Once the
motor stops while in air, there 1s no way to set it going again without \

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RETURN FROM THE TROCADERO, JULY 12, 8.10 A. M. SANTOS-DUMONT CRAWLING OUT OF
HIS BASKET.

‘““He had solved the fatuous problem of aérial navigation—that was their refrain, and almost the
entire press of that day supported their words.”

IN THE PARK OF THE AERO CLUB. SANTOS-DUMONT PREPARING FOR HIS FIRST OFFICIAL
TRIAL AROUND THE EIFFEL TOWER, JULY 13, 6.30 A. M.

“The big pointed nose of the balloon and its fish-like belly resembled a shark gliding with lazy craft
from a shadow into light waters. Inthe basket of the car stood the coatless aéronaut, who laughed
and chatted like a boy with the crowd around him. The prize committee was there and expressed
its hopes for a successful trial.’’

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 579

Nevertheless, Santos-Dumont, with his sleeves rolled up, fixed him-
self once more in his basket with much the same air as a workman
seats himself before his lathe for the day’s work. His eye took a
careful survey of the entire air ship lest some preliminary had been
overlooked. He counted the ballast bags under his feet in the basket,
he looked to the canvas pocket of loose sand at either hand, then saw
to his guide rope. Everything appeared to be all right. Several!
friends shook his hand, among them Mr. Deutsch. Count de la Vaulx,
with watch in hand, stood ready to begin counting the official time.
The chattering stopped, and the place was very still as the man hold
ing the guide rope awaited the signal to let go. Then the little man
in the basket above them raised his hand and shouted. On the second
the timekeeper (Count de la Vaulx) called off 6.41, and man and balloon
would have to be back by eleven minutes after 7.

At first it did not look like a race against time. The balloon rose
sluggishly, and Santos-Dumont had to dump out bag after bag of
sand, till finally the guide rope was clear of the trees. All this gave
him no opportunity to think of his direction, and he was drifting
toward Versailles; but while yet over the Seine he pulled his rudder
ropes taut. Then slowly, gracefully, the enormous spindle veered
round and pointed its nose toward the Eiffel Tower. The fans spun
energetically, and the air ship settled down to business-like traveling.
It marked a straight, decided line for its goal, then followed the chosen
route with a considerable speed. Soon the chug-chugging of the
motor could be heard no longer by the spectators, and the balloon and
var grew smaller and smaller in its halo of light smoke. Those in the
park saw only the screw and the rear of the balloon, like the stern of a
steamer in dry dock. Before long only a dot remained against the sky,
but the dot was still moving. Steadily it neared the shadowy obelisk line
which was Eiffel Tower, then scarcely visible in the heat mist of Paris.
Suddenly the dot vanished behind the tower, thus bringing together
man’s two ways of getting into the air, the one from a century just
closed, the other from a century just beginning.

To the throng waiting in the park the dot seemed blotted from sight
for a long while, but at last they could distinguish it emerging from
the foggy ladder-shape outlined against the sky. They could not tell,
however, whether it had really gone around the tower. If Santos-
Dumont had not doubled the tower, then the greater interest in his
return was lost. It would be no longer a race. Still the people
kept count of the minutes as they watched the speck grow larger and
larger, and gradually evolve into the form of an air ship. The morn-
ing sun caught on the burnished copper of the petroleum reservoir,
and the man could be seen in his car, and then a messenger in an auto-
mobile raced up to the park gate. He brought the marking of the
official timekeeper on Eiffel Tower, and his announcement laid all

580 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

doubts. The Santos-Dumont V had doubled the tower, he announced,
passing 20 yards to leeward, time 6.54. That meant half the journeys
in thirteen minutes, a gain of two minutes.

WAS THE GRAND PRIX WON? as

The crowd gazed upward to the still distant balloon, and some in
their enthusiasm yelled to the aeronaut to hurry, hurry faster. The »
grand prix was won, of that everybody was certain. But as the min-
utes were counted off, and the balloon did not seem to be approaching
with the speed expected, doubts began to grow among the eager ones, .
Only four minutes left, only three. Was he going to lose, after all? !
There he was, steering far above the river, and they , could even hear +
_the popping of his motor. Evidently something was wrong. The }
air ship labored desperately in the face of the wind, and when at last ©
it hovered over the park the time was 7.22—eleven minutes late.
And yet he had not landed. Instead, the wind swept him back across |
the river. Twice he returned with extreme difficulty; and then, sud- -
denly, the motor stopped. With that the Santos-Dumont V was as—
an ordinary balloon, and she went with the wind, off over the Bois de |
Boulogne. A moment later she came down heavily and disappeare

in the trees.

A CATASTROPHE IN THE GARDEN OF BARON ROTHSCHILD AND THE RESCU
BY A PRINCESS.

A dozen friends sprang to their automobiles and raced away in that
direction. Each one dreaded finding Santos-Dumont probably mangled
and lifeless. They found him on his feet, with his hands in his pock-—
ets, reflectively looking up at his airship among the top branches of |
some chestnut trees in the grounds of Baron Edmund de Rothschild, , .
Boulevard de Boulogne. 4

‘*T should like to have a glass of beer,” he announced, which called | |
forth a nervous laugh of Tahiot ai

Now, next door to Rothschild lives His Royal Highness, the Comte
d’ Eu, and from a window Her Imperial Highness, the Comtesse VEu |
had been watching the antics of the flying machine and its finale. Her
imperial highness is a daughter of Dom Pedro, of Brazil, and conse-
quently a compatriot of young Santos-Dumont. As there ought to be |
a princess somewhere in an airship story, it proved quite convenient |
that her imperial highness lived next to the Baron Edmund de Roths-
child, for she sent over a hamper of champagne and refreshments, with
kind inquiries. Santos and his rescuers disposed of the champagne |
and refreshments; and then Santos, coatless, dusty, and mussed up, |
hurried over to thank the princess. Her highness spoke words of |
encouragement and pointed to Dom Pedro’s picture, and then Santos |
went back to untangle his air ship from the chestnuts. ‘

eee

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Lyyle. PLATE VI.

THE START ON THE FIRST OFFICIAL TRIAL AROUND EIFFEL TOWER, JULY 13, 6.41 A. M.

“The little man in the basket above them raised his hands and shouted. On the second the
timekeeper (Count de la Vaulx) called off 6.41, and man and balloon would have to be
back by eleven minutes after seven.”

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TAKEN FROM THE EIFFEL TOWER, JULY 13, 1901. THE BALLOON IS OVER THE
TROCADERO, ABOUT ONE HUNDRED YARDS AWAY.

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4 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 581

When he had cut the wires between the balloon and the ear, he dis-
covered, greatly to his surprise, that the damage was really nothing.
The delicate skeleton framework was unhurt, except for a slight sprain-
ing of the propeller shaft. Then the young man was jubilant, for his
treasure had certainly looked like a wreck. He could listen. to ques-
tions at last, and he gave his story of the flight and fall, which you may
be sure was listened to eagerly. To say nothing of the strong wind
he had to fight against in coming back, his chief trouble was with his
motor. Soon after going up one of the cylinders had stopped, and a
little later a second. As he could not restart them, his motive power
was thus cut down one-half for the rest of the trip, the motor at last
giving out altogether. The wind, of course, carried him back over
the river, and as he did not wish to come down in the streets of
Boulogne beyond, and perhaps on top of somebody, and be taken up
for reckless ballooning, he decided to come down quick where he was,
So he ripped out a panel of silk and found himself in the tree tops.

But, after all, the only thing that kept him from winning the prize
was the time limit. It must be considered, however, that the donor
asks the competitors to do something ina half hour which has never
been done before, although men have been trying for a century, and
that is to steer a balloon. Weighed against a century, a delay of
eleven minutes can not count for much against success.

PREPARATION FOR A THIRD TRIAL.

Within a week the Santos- Dumont V was all shipshape again, and
awaiting good weather for another try at the Grand Prix. The
weather, though, had been unobliging, and Parisians had haunted the
Aero Club Park in vain. Sunday, August 4, Santos-Dumont did, in
fact, start for another trial, but he had not gone a quarter of the dis-
tance when he turned around and came back. The guide rope was
not working right. Another spectacle, however, rather offset the
popular disappointment. When fully 600 feet in air, the plucky little
fellow climbed out of his basket and moved around on the slender
framework to adjust a cord that did not suit him.

THE TRIAL AROUND THE EIFFEL TOWER AND BACK.

It was on August 8, 1901, that M. Santos-Dumont made a third trial
for the Grand Prix, with the odd-looking air ship constructed of two
eigar-shaped balloons, with the car for the basket and motors sus-
pended between them. Instead of disaster and destruction, he began
with every prospect of success, and strengthened his claim as a navi-
gator of the air. He started from the park at 6.12 a. m., under the
best of conditions. His balloon rose quickly in the almost absolute
calm, so that without loss of time he started the screw and veered
round in a straight line for Eiffel Tower. The trip there was as a

582 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. ; ~~

bird’s flight, clean-cut and unswerving. He gained and rounded the |

tower in nine minutes, a gain of four minutes over his first trial, or |

less than one-third of the time limit. He had, therefore, twenty-one
minutes in which to make the same trip back. It would be stubborn

hard luck ‘that could keep him from the prize. But that is what —

happened.

The tower was no sooner rounded than difficulties seemed to begin. —
Without apparent cause the air ship suddenly pointed upward, and—

mounted 100 yards higher in air. Then it began to sink toward the

roofs, bereft of buoyant force or vitality. It was beyond control,and —
its navigator was being tossed in midair, more helpless than a sailor —

clinging to a plank. He started the ventilators, to inflate the ballonet
with air and make the balloon rigid, but as a climax to despair the

ventilators would not work. The balloon became flabby, and even its —

ends doubled on itself like a pocketknife. This brought the wires that
suspend the framework into trouble with the turning screw, and ina
moment several of them snapped. Just in time to save himself from
being cut away from the balloon entirely and dashed to the ground,
Santos stopped the screw, and then the unwieldy air ship dragged
lower to the earth, and was soon skimming over some high hotels

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t

that had been built for the exposition. Once he was jolted against —

a cornice, and once again he was so low that his guide rope coiled
along the ground. <A carpenter seized the end and wrapped it around
the iron bars of awindow. But the breeze carried the balloon on, and
with a jerk the guide rope tore out the iron bars. On the edge of the
next hotel roof the balloon was stranded and wrecked. The frame-
work, though, holding the heavy motor and the man, dangled from its
wiring over the wall of the building. A moment it hung suspended,
then its lower end settled on the roof of a two-story restaurant next

"Whos

door, and its upper end against the wall of the hotel. There was a_

space between the two buildings, and the framework spanned this
space almost perpendicularly. The delicate wooden beams strained
and cracked, ready to break and bring its load to the ground.

A company of firemen were on hand almost at once, and from the
top of the hotel they threw a rope to Santos-Dumont, who tied it
around his waist and allowed himself to be drawn up. He had not
suffered a seratch, but he suffered much more than that when the fire-
men began to extract his beloved air ship. With each cracking of

wood he shuddered as though it were a bone; yet despite his anxiety

and the care of the firemen, the framework broke into halves, and was
soon found to be irreparable, and the same fate met the balloon. The
only consolation was the motor, which seemed to be unhurt.

‘*Now what are you going to do?” one of his friends demanded. —

‘*Why, begin again, of course. One has to have patience.”

And that same day he gave orders for another balloon, which will
be the balloon of the air ship Santos-Dwmont VI. The new air ship

Smithsonian Report, 1901 —Lyle. PLATE VII

THE Air SHIP ABOVE THE PARK, TURNING TO THE LEFT, PREPARATORY TO HEADING FOR
THE EIFFEL TOWER. THE OFFICIAL TRIAL OF JULY 13.

“Then slowly, gracefully, the enormous spindle veered round and pointed its nose toward the
Eiffel Tower.”’

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 583

will be on the same pattern as the old, except with a slightly greater
cubic capacity. It can hardly be ready for a prize trial, however,
before the contests next spring. Still, Santos-Dumont knows now
that he can navigate the air, and he is merely going to do again what
he has already done.

But M. Santos-Dumont will soon have competitors, among them M.
Deutsch himself, who expects to put in the field within a short time a
colossus 65 yards long, with a capacity of over 2,500 cubie yards, and
a gasoline motor of 60 horsepower.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE AIR SHIP.

Recall the flying machine of your imagination, and you will have
ready-made for your mind’s eye a likeness of this Santos-Dumont V.
It is simply that conventional creature pictured in the usual wild tale
of the future, the regulation cigar-shaped thing ’mid a vague compli-
cation of wings and rudders and cords and cylinders. The gas bag is
a tremendous cigar, while the framework beneath for basket and
motor is a smaller tremendous cigar. Now, there is a reason for this
shape quite apart from the demands of twenty-first century romances.
It would be as absurd to try to steer a spherical balloon as to guide a
spherical steamboat. The spindle form offers less resistance to air
currents, so almost from their earliest experiments the flying-machine
architects have adopted the cigar fora model. To secure rigidity they
put an air balloon, or ballonet, inside the gas balloon, and when a
cooling cloud or change of temperature contracts the gas, they pump
air as needed into the ballonet, which makes the entire bag tight and
snug. Santos-Dumont first fills his balloon as full as possible with pure
hydrogen, and the inner balloon lies empty in the belly of the big one.
He thus has as a margin against condensation the ballonet’s capacity,
50 cubic yards. The ballonet fills with air automatically from a pump
worked by the motor, and in case of expansion and too great pressure
the springs in the valves are forced open and the air is let out first, and
the gas afterwards, if necessary. In the photographs you may see the
air duct hanging from the balloon to the pump.

The tiny steel threads that suspend the framework seem absurdly
inadequate. Near the ends they are twisted into springs, which allow
for a slight rocking caused by the motor’s vibration. A few yards
away the fine piano wires are invisible, and then the man in his aerial
car appears to follow as a satellite under the balloon. The great
yellowish bag of hydrogen, 373 yards long, 64 yards in diameter,
with a capacity of 715 cubic yards, looks sleek and peeled, like the
pigskin of an enormous Rugby football, and nothing at all like silk.
Each panel in the texture has been rigorously tested under pressure
and is capable of the maximum strain exacted. The elongated, trian-
gular car beneath is constructed of three slender unpainted pine

=
584 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 2

beams with cross-pieces. When examined as it lies stalled the long

length of the balloon house, this car appears altogether too delicate
for carrying a man and an engine several hundred yards over the
house tops. Though over 59 feet long, it weighs only 110 pounds,
and early in the spring of 1900 the inventor was able to pack it in his
trunk by sections, bringing it from Nice, where it had been made during
the winter, to Paris. The carefully chosen strips, bent to form the
long curves of the triangular frame complete, are never thicker than
two of your fingers put together. During this spring he remounted
them in his workshop at the Aero Club park, the workshop being also
the great barn of a balloon house. He made the joints of aluminum
and fastened the cross-pieces with thin steel wire. About 8 yards
from the stern he suspended the gasoline automobile motor from the
upper beam of the triangle by piano wires. Here the compact little
engine of 4 cylinders and 16 horsepower hangs like a spider in the
center of her web. Over each cylinder spins a ventilating fan to
prevent overheating. The motor turns a shaft, and attached to the
shaft is a propeller, exactly like the screw of a ship. The two wings
of the screw are of silk stretched over their frames like the head of
a drum. They measure 43 yards. Ordinarily the industrious little
motor spins the shaft around at the rate of 200 revolutions to the
minute; but since putting things into shape after his descent of July
13 the inventor has been able to increase the speed to 210 revolutiors
a minute. The whirling pinions then have a striking force of 175
pounds. Above the propeller and under the tail of the balloon is the
rudder, a curved triangular blade made in the same way as the wings.
As both propeller and rudder are thus placed at the stern, the forward
end is left free for the guide rope, by which the air ship may be
inclined upward or downward. By this device the aeronaut may
ascend or descend. In his former balloons he used sliding ballast
bags at either end to maintain his equilibrium, but in this last balloon
he has been able to discard these.

To readjust the balance against the motor, as well as to equalize the
strain on the wires suspending the framework, the basket is placed
forward of the center by nearly 8 yards. This basket is a deep, nar-
row affair of open willow work. A larger man than the wiry aeronaut
would have to squeeze to climb into it.. On either side a narrow
wooden bar stretches out 3 or 4 yards, which is designed to prevent
undue tipping to one side or the other. As the pilot stands there in

his basket he resembles a performer on a tight rope with his balancing

pole. Since the head of the concern is in the basket, all the many
wires that operate one thing or another communicate with this central
administrative bureau like the nerves with the brain. On the front
edge of the basket is a wheel, really the pilot’s wheel, but placed hori-
zontally as on an automobile. This operates the rudder. To switch

wet yy

an

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Lyle. PLATE VIII.

OFFICIAL TRIAL, JULY 13. PHOTOGRAPHED FROM
THE EIFFEL TOWER.

**Steadily it neared the shadowy obelisk line which
was Eiffel Tower.”

ses ame <itatewel

OFFICIAL TRIAL, JULY 13. RETURN TO PARK AT 7.20 A. M. PHOTO-
GRAPH TAKEN FROM DIRECTLY BENEATH.

‘There he was, steering far above the river.”

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 585

the propeller shaft from the motor and stop the fans there is an electric
key. For each of the valves in the belly of the balloon there is a wire
end at the basket, besides still another one for the big valve in the top
should the balloonist wish to descend rapidly,.and, yet again, there is
an emergency cord which tears a panel out of the silk and lets the gas
fairly pour out. It was this cord that Santos-Dumont pulled when he
chose the Rothschild chestnut trees between the Seine and the streets
ot Boulogne. As to ballast, he has small bags of sand under his feet
and a canvas bag on either hand, about 100 pounds in all. Thus, it
will be seen that he has several things to think about at the same time.
Though seemingly very complicated, this air ship that really navigates
the air is, after all, a simple machine, and by the side of the wonder-
fully made air ships that yet do not navigate the air it is a child’s toy
for simplicity. It is one-fourth as large as the Zeppelin balloon. In
fact, it is the smallest motor aerostat that has been constructed up to
date. The entire car complete weighs but 550 pounds.

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE INVENTOR.

To arrive at this result, which is conceded to be the first actual steer-
able air ship, Santos-Dumont has tinkered away some five preceding
balloons. He came to Paris expressly to make his career in the air.
He bade farewell to the plantation of his father, the Brazilian coffee
king, where as a boy he had speeded locomotives, real compounds,
over the premises. He abandoned these toys and took up with what
the French love to call the most French of inventions, flying machines.
He allied himself with those rich young Parisians who seek amusements
more chic than gilded dissipation; that is, the more intellectual, though
scarcely more rational, pursuit of bizarre methods of locomotion.
Though able to have stables, and yachts, and palace cars, they prefer
automobiles and balloons. The youthful Alberto began by climbing
Mount Blane to see what high altitudes were like. Then, in 1898, he
ordered himself a balloon and cafled it the Brés7//. It was a ludicrously
small affair, of not more than 145 cubic yards. He would return from
a trip with the balloon in his grip. But he was not content. The
Brazil was spherical, unsteerable—in a word, old fashioned. He put
the motor of his automobile into the basket, and was thus the first to
apply gasoline to aerial navigation. But as yet the results were not
important. That same fall he launched the Santos- Dumont I, the first
of his cigar-shaped experiments. But the weight of the basket 10
yards beneath made the balloon cave downward, and air ship and man
tumbled 500 yards to earth without getting hurt—a mere incident.
Next year appeared the second Santos- Dumont, of the same form, but
a little longer. He went up Ascension Day, became dissatisfied, and
began work on his No. 3. This one was 22 yards long, with a capacity

586 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

of 650 cubic yards. The motor worked well, and he made several
encouraging ascensions near Eiffel Tower.

Last year, with his No. 4, he had tried for the Deutsch prize, but
was awarded only the annual interest of about $760 on the principal

amount for having done the most for aerostation during the year.

He promptly returned the money and founded a new prize with it, to
be awarded for the first trip around Eiffel Tower, no time limit. He
had the foresight to bar himself from this competition. The Santos-
Dumont IV had a capacity of 546 cubie yards, with a 9-horsepower,
2-cylinder motor giving 100 revolutions a minute to the screw. The
engine and a bicycle saddle were perched on a bar suspended under the
balloon. He started the engine by working the pedals under the sad-
dle, and by cords he controlled the electric lighting of the motor and
the management of the rudder, ballast, and equilibrium. He made
almost daily flights with this balloon, then later on put in a 16-horse-
power engine. This, of course, made a larger gas bag necessary, but
he simply cut in half the one he had and lengthened it to 36 yards, as
you would a dining-room table. Soon after this the autumn air gave
him pneumonia, and he had to go to the Riviera, where he began work
on No. 5, his latest pet.

THE SECRET OF THE SUCCESS OF THIS LATEST AIR SHIP.

Now that you have followed the inventor through the whole story,
you are beginning to demand where, after all, is the great monumental
and mysterious secret of aerial navigation that has been discovered.
You have not stumbled upon the trace of one. There has not been a
single new mechanical principle involved. The fact is, there has been
no secret to discover. The secret of aerial navigation was already dis-
covered when the first automobile with a gasoline motor was built.
When Santos-Dumont robbed his automobile of its motor and strapped
it into the car of his balloon, he was on the right track. But he cer-
tainly had achieved nothing that he could patent. The secret may
also have been discovered when the steam engine was invented, or
again when electricity was chained down to man’s service, only up to
the present there is this fact, namely, no one so far has been able to
make a steam engine or an electric battery run an airship. That may
happen later, but meantime the gasoline motor does the work for Santos-
Dumont. And now the question is, Why does it, rather than either
steam or electricity? The entire answer lies in this one word—
** weight.”

When away back in 1783 the crinoline skirt of Madame de Mont-
goltier, drying before the fireplace, filled with hot air and puffed up
to the ceiling, this same word, ‘‘ weight,” became the keynote of bat-
tle and the problem in ballooning. Joseph Montgolfier had beheld
the antics of his wife’s skirt, and the word that involves the riddle

a ea

1.—Lyle. PLATE IX.

SIXTEEN-HORSEPOWER PETROLEUM MOTOR OF SANTOS-DUMONT V, GIVING SCREW 200
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE.

M. SANTOS-DUMONT’S QUARTERS ARE MORE COMMODIOUS ON EARTH THAN IN THE AIR.

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 587

and the solution spelled itself on his brain. That is, he reflected that
the inflated crinoline had become lighter than air. So he set to work
and astounded the world with the first balloon, an humble paper
globe filled with hot air that soared upward but a few yards. Thus
having once got into the air, man has ever since been trying and try-
ing to steer himself while there. But any motor that would be
powerful enough has always made the balloon heavier than air. For
instance, Henri Giffard in 1852 tried steam as motive power, and he

yas the first to adopt the cigar-shaped bag, but his engine would not
propel the balloon, simply because it had to be too light for the power
exacted of it. Twenty-five years later Dupuy de Lome went back to
first principles and tried manpower, but the man was even less ade-
quate than Giffard’s feeble engine. In 1883 another Frenchman, Tis-
sandier, experimented with electricity, but as his batteries had to be
light enough to be taken up in the balloon, they proved effective only
in helping to weigh it down to earth again. Krebs and Renard, mili-
tary aeronauts, succeeded better with electricity, for they could make
a small circuit with their airship, provided only that no air was
stirring. Enthusiasts cried out that the problem was solved, but the
two aeronauts themselves, as good mathematicians, figured out that
they would have to have a motor eight times more powerful than their
own, and that without any increase in weight, which was an impossi-
bility at that time.

Shortly after this, though, people began to drive round in carriages
without horses, and their motive power was the gasoline engine. Tis-
sandier’s electro motor weighed 375 pounds per horsepower; Santos-
Dumont’s petroleum motor, 12 pounds per horsepower. In both cases
fuel and all accessories are included. Now, just exactly in this enor-
mous difference of weight lies the secret of aerial navigation as solved
the other day by the young Brazilian.

The explanation why the petroleum motor is such a tremendous
giant for its size is very simple. The greater part of its fuel is in the
air itself, and the air is all around the balloon, all ready for use. The
aeronaut does not have to take it up with him. If he did, he would
be crushed to earth with the weight of his reservoir. But that pro-
portion of his fuel that he must carry, the coal-oil can, 1s compara-
tively insignificant. The difference between carrying this fraction
and carrying all the fuel, as for steam or electricity, makes the differ-
ence between the newer kind of motor and the two old kinds. A few
figures will prove startling. Two and one-half gallons of gasoline,
weighing 15 pounds, will make a 24 horsepower autocycle cover 94
miles in four hours. Santos-Dumont’s balloon needs less than 54 gal-
lons for a three hours’ trip. It weighs but 37 pounds, and occupies
the slender cigar-shaped brass reservoir which you will notice near
the motor. Now, then, an electric battery of the same power would

588 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

weigh 2,695 pounds, and yet would last only twenty-five minutes. If
we consider the weight and volume of fuel in the air which the gaso-
line motor does not have to carry up, we will see, on accepting chemis-
try’s word, that a liter of gasoline (34 pints) consumes during com-
bustion 5.45 pounds of oxygen in the air, which means 274 pounds of
air. Imagine, therefore, a balloon carrying a reservoir of air for its
motor. One liter of gasoline would require an air magazine a yard
square and as high as a four-story house. For Santos-Dumont’s oil
‘an this magazine would have to be 1,000 feet high, or about big
enough to hold the Statue of Liberty.

As to what this last air ship really means for aerostation, French
opinion differs to the overheating point. Again ‘‘ weight” is the
battle cry raised in the two opposing camps of balloonry. One camp
maintains that the balloon lighter than air is the beginning and end
of the question, and consequently they hold that Santos-Dumont has
found the ultimate solution, because he can steer his inflated chariot.
Their opponents give the Brazilian big credit for making a dirigible
flying machine of any kind, but they contend that the problem rests
unsolved so long as the air ship is not heavier than air. The discus-
sion has grown quite ardent. There are liable to be some duels most
any time if cold weather does not set in.

The lighter-than-air people argue that on an aeronef or aeroplane
(heavier-than-air machine) the operator would be at the mercy of his
motor. If the motor stopped, the air ship would come down like a
clod, having, of course, no gas bag to hold it up. The heavier-than-
air contingent admit that this is a point to be considered, and that,
therefore, the motor will have to be a very reliable motor indeed.
And then they proceed to point out that the aerostat (lighter-than-air
machine) can never be of any practical use anyhow, even if you can
steer it. For war purposes it offers too large a target for the enemy.
The risk of a motor stopping on a small aeroplane would be much
healthier. For private promenading it would be too costly. And as
for general transportation—not to be considered at all. The Santos-
Dumont V requires 550 cubic meters of gas for one little man of 120
pounds, and eyen then the little man can not take on more luggage
than his life and his nerve, with a fair chance of losing both before he
gets back. Therefore a balloon with the passenger list of a small
trans-Atlantic steamer would have to be some twenty times larger than
Barnum’s biggest tent, and the balloon house would cover a fair-sized
city. Only the traveler with a million to spare could book a passage
thereon, and all the other millionaires would go bankrupt financiering
such an enterprise. The gentlest breeze would prove a tempest for
the fabulously stupendous gas bag, and the pressure under ordinary
conditions would make a metal covering absolutely necessary. On the
other hand, the aeroplane—when found—may be of a size more in

Bian hoe

wimel

A

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Lyyle. PLATE DOG

LANDING OF THE BALLOON AMONG THE TREES IN THE GARDEN
OF BARON EDMUND DE ROTHSCHILD, JULY 13.

‘The delicate skeleton framework was unhurt, except for a slight
spraining of the propeller shaft.”

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 5S8Y

proportion to the carriers on sea and land, and by inclinations of its
surface it need not fear a gale much more than does a ship.

In conclusion it seems that the Santos- Dumont V may be correctly
‘ated as the last evolution from Madame de Montgolfier’s crinoline
skirt. It is the culmination of balloons lighter than air. It is the
first to make a trip ina breeze and come back to a point indicated
beforehand. In a word, it is steerable. Of course there remains
room for improvement, but hardly for further evoiution. In aero-
nautics all evolution from now on must begin from the bird and end
in the aeroplane. And perhaps that will involve a new principle of
mechanics. The genius who discovers it will be a colossus, beside
whom the clever and daring craftsman who applied an automobile
motor to an inflated spindle will be but the merest pigmy. The aero-
plane, though, has not left the ground yet. But the Santos- Dumont V
has. The neighbors have already made complaint. They protest
against the early morning flights, when the popping of the motor a
few yards over their roofs breaks in on their slumber. There you
have a foretaste of the future.

SANTOS-DUMONT WINS THE DEUTSCH PRIZE.*

Now that the efforts of Santos-Dumont have been crowned with sue-
cess, it may be of interest to retrace the steps by which the intrepid
young aeronaut has been able to accomplish his present great triumph,
which is, of course, only the first step in the work which he expects to
carry out. Santos-Dumont is a Brazilian by birth, and was born in
1873. His father, who was of French descent, had a vast coffee
plantation which employed as many as 6,000 men in the fields and
establishments. It was upon the 40 miles of railroad which passed
around the plantation that Santos-Dumont learned to conduct. the
small locomotives, and thus obtained his first knowledge of mechanics.
He came to Paris while still quite young, and had already turned his
attention to aeronautics. He at once commenced to work, and
employed his large fortune and his talent in this direction. The
result is that within three years he has constructed three spherical
balloons and six air ships. He began by making the record for
the smallest spherical balloon, the ‘* Brésil,” which gauged only 140
cubic yards and had a diameter of 18 feet. It was made of fine
Japan silk with cotton cordage and an extremely light wicker basket,
and the whole weighed but 50 pounds. When it rose from the
Jardin d’Acclimatation on the 4th of July, 1898, it seemed like an
immense air bubble. After ascending out of sight, Santos-Dumont
reappeared with the envelope packed in the basket. With this and

“Reprinted by permission from the Scientific American, November 16, 1901.

590 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

similar balloons he made a number of interesting ascensions, vut

soon began the study of dirigible balloons. His *‘ No. 1” is the.

first of the series, and started from the Jardin d’Acclimatation on
the 18th of September, 1898. It was torn at the start on account
of a false maneuver by the aids, but was soon repaired, and on
the 20th he made a number of evolutions. But the small interior
air balloon, designed to keep the envelope always swelled out,
was only insufficiently supplied by the ventilator, and thus the bal-
loon, which was cigar-shaped, became more or less collapsed and
folded upon itself under the tension of the weight. On this occasion
the aeronaut had a fall of 1,200 feet at the rate of 12 or 15 feet a
second, which, as M. Emmanuel Aimé says, is a record in itself. He
came down on the Bagatelle training ground, however, without
damage.

The Santos-Dumont No. 2 was launched-on the 11th of May, 1899,
but during a rainstorm the balloon folded upon itself and could not be
further maneuvered. An instructive test of the motor (gasoline type)
and the helice was, however, made on this occasion. With this expe-
rience to guide him, he next built the ‘‘ No. 3.” It gauged 620 cubic
yards, and was the first of the series to pass around the Eiffel Tower,
starting from the Aerostatic Park of Vaugirard on the 13th of Novem-
ber. The ‘‘No. 4” is an improvement of this type, and gauged 525
cubic yards. It was finished on the Ist of August, 1900. He went
through a number of evolutions with this air ship, notably on the
occasion of the Aeronautic Congress, on the 19th of September, at
the Aerostatic Park of the Aero Club. At the beginning of this year
he finished the Santos-Dumont No. 5, which made such a brilliant
performance. It will be remembered that he started from the Aero-
static Park, crossed the Seine to the Lonchamps race track, and then
took the air ship ten times around the track. He then came to the
Trocadero, and after an accident to the rudder he started again, went
around the Eiffel Tower, came back to Longchamps, and thence
recrossed the Seine to the Aerostatie Park.

It was the Henri Deutsch prize that made the tower the goal of the
aeronauts, as the conditions of the prize of $20,000 were that the start
should be made from the park or vicinity, the aeronaut to pass around
the tower and return to the starting point within half an hour.
Accordingly, Santos-Dumont, the day after the above experiments,
started from the park and passed the tower, coming back in forty
minutes. But owing to a strong wind and an accident to the motor
he could not land in the park, but came down in the trees of M. de
Rothschild’s garden. It was after this that he had his famous acci-
dent, where, after passing around the tower (8th of August) the motor
stopped and the balloon was broken almost to pieces against the roofs
of the Trocadero Hotel. Only twenty-two days after this catastrophe

CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP. 59]

the aeronaut, whose courage is proverbial, finished his ‘t No. 6,” with
which he at last succeeded (October 19) in passing around the Eiffel
Tower and returning within the half hour, or twenty-nine minutes and
thirty seconds. Some time before this, however, the committee of
the Aero Club had modified the original rules so that the air ship was
not only to come oyer the park, but its guide rope should be grasped
by an attendant, this constituting a landing. Santos-Dumont was not
able to comply with this rule, as before the rope could be grasped he
was obliged to remount to avoid being carried by the wind against the
balloon shed, and he came down forty seconds after the allotted time.

The committee decided on November + as to this much disputed
question, and Santos-Dumont was accorded the prize.

M. SANTOS-DUMONT WINS THE DEUTSCH PRIZE. *

The committee in charge of the distribution of the Deutsch prize
decided on November 4 that M. Santos-Dumont was entitled to it by
his achievement of October 19. At eighteen minutes to 3 o’clock he

EIFFEL
TOWER

made the start, and in nine minutes the Santos- Dumont No. 6 had
reached the Eiffel Tower on the north side, made a complete turn
around it and made for the starting point. Our diagram gives an idea
of the course which was followed. At 3:12:40 the guide rope was
seized, and, according to the rules which were recently formulated by
the committee, M. Santos-Dumont had lost by forty seconds. He
claimed, however, that he had begun his experiments under conditions
in which the guide rope did not figure, and he at once protested against
the decision of the judges. The matter was left to a committee, which
decided in favor of M. Santos-Dumont on November 5.

He donated 50,000 francs, or one-half of the sum, to the poor of
Paris. He then gave 30,000 franes to his assistant, M. Aimé, and the
remaining 20,000 franes to the aeronaut’s other colaborers.

While M. Santos-Dumont has performed a notable feat, it does not
necessarily follow that he has acomplished anything of very great

* Reprinted by permission from Scientific American Supplement, November 16, 1901

592 CIRCLING EIFFEL TOWER IN AIR SHIP.

value. He has demonstrated the fact that witha very costly and deli- 4
cate apparatus a skillful aeronaut may, under favorable conditions of

wind and weather, rise froma given point, make a circle and return

to the spot from which he started without being killed, if he has good
luck. The event, pleasant as it is, does not, however, mark a stepin
the direction of the practical realization of aerial navigation. It is
probable that the solution of the problem of aerial flight will never be
reached in a way which will have any commercial value until the dirigi-

ble balloon idea is abandoned and that of a mechanism built ona strictly — q

mechanical basis substituted.

AUTOMOBILE RACES.

].—THE AUTOMOBILE.*
By Henri Fournier.

Undoubtedly the automobile has come to stay and to do, as the
years go on, more and more of the world’s work.

The fact that I went a mile in 514 seconds on the Coney Island
boulevard the other day shows the swiftness we have already attained
with these machines. and it must be remembered that they are as yet
only in their infancy. Six years ago we were making very bad auto-
mobiles in France and Germany—almost as bad as those the American
makers are now turning out. Now France and Germany make fine
autos, and I have come to this country to make fine autos here.

We French are manufacturing better automobiles than the Ameri-
cans because we began first and because our conditions are more
favorable for development. Coney Island boulevard is as good as any
road in France, but in France they have thousands of miles like it,
while here there are very few.

Of course, our good roads helped the automobile, as also did our
comparatively bad railroads. Here, on the other hand, there are good
railroads stretching everywhere through a brand new country, where
the wagon ways are still rough.

The conditions for automobile development are therefore not so
favorable here as in France. But they are improving very rapidly.

Not so with American-made automobiles. 1 do not see any
improvement in them since I was here three years ago. The machine
in which I made the mile record of 514 seconds was of French make,
as also was that in which Mr. Foxhall Keene did a mile in 543 seconds.

The makers here started wrong. Instead of taking the best French
and German models and trying to improve on them, they set out to
produce something original, and thus went over all the ground previ-
ously traversed by European manufacturers, and fell into the errors
out of which the latter had laboriously struggled. It is a shame, for
their trouble and expense were quite unnecessary. They should have

“Reprinted, by permission, from The Independent, New York, Vol. LIII, Dec.
12, 1901.

sm 1901——388 593

594 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

taken advantage of the experiments and experiences of those who had
preceded them.

The greatest change which I believe will be made in your cities by
the perfect automobile will be in the wagon service. ‘The old horse
and wagon and horse and cart will have to go; the automobile is so
much better, quicker, surer, cheaper. This will make a great differ-
ence, as it will just about abolish all stables throughout the city, and
by clearing horses off the streets will at once render them much
cleaner. It will also make imperative the extension of smooth paving
like the asphalt, which in certain weather is unfavorable for horses,
but always good for the automobiles.

In addition to this the new machines will greatly increase the wagon
capacity of city streets, because they are so much shorter than a horse
and wagon, and travel so much more swiftly. With the horse ban-
ished and complete auto service throughout the city the capacity of
the streets would be at least quadrupled, which would do away with
the blockades that now are so frequent on some of the narrow water
front streets.

Then, of course, for conveyance to and from business and for coach-
ing and pleasure riding the automobile is far superior to the old car-
riage, coach, or cab. It is not necessary that anyone should travel at
the rate of 70 miles an hour. He need not race unless he so desires
and the time and place are proper for racing. ‘Twenty miles an hour
is a good pace, although : afer with the automobile than going 8 miles
an hour behind a horse. And it is delightful to travel in an automo-
bile going 20 miles an hour. The sensation is most exhilarating—like
that of flying, as I imagine—and there are no ill effects.

Twenty miles an hour behind an automobile is safer than 8 miles
behind a horse, because the auto is so very much shorter, so powerful,
and so easily controlled. I can teach anyone to manage an automobile
in half an hour, and though it is going at high speed, one can stop the
machine on its own length. Anybody can manage it, and it turns,
twists, and dodges about so easily that accidents are avoided which
would be disastrous if you were sitting behind a horse. During all
the time that I have been driving these machines I have only had one
accident. That was the collision with the train of the Long Island
Railroad Company which occurred several weeks ago. I have never
yet been hurt, though constantly racing, which, I think, goes to show
that there is comparatively little hazard about running an auto.

For conveyance of people on short journeys or pleasure jaunts the
automobile in this country has a great mission to fulfill, and this will

be constantly extended as the good roads which the machines demand —

are given.
Some people anticipate that the automobile will drive out the elec-

tric car and so rid our streets of the tracks and the overhead wires.

© elem SO 48 PC

~y

| Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Automobile Races. PLATE lI.

i

!

HENRI FOURNIER.

HENRI FOURNIER AND HIS RACING AUTOMOBILE.

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 595

I, however, am not among those who believe that that will be done—at
least not soon.

An automobile service carrying passengers throughout the city for
5 cents would have many advantages. The vehicles, not being limited
to tracks, could not be blocked as they now are, and an accident to one
of the 5,000 or 6,000 which would be necessary to the service would
have no effect upon the others.

However, the automobile surface car to take the place of the trolley
is still so far in the future that it can safely be left for future
discussion.

In war the auto would not cut much of a figure so far as this coun-
try is concerned, though it might be of considerable service in Europe,
where they have such perfect roads. America’s lack of military high-
ways would place the machine at great disadvantage as compared with
a horse.

There has been some suggestion of field guns carried about by auto-
mobiles, but I feel sure that they would not doat all. Field guns have
to go through very rough places, plowed fields, for instance, and they
need a pull from the front, such as the horse gives, in order to get
them along.

The power of the automobile is applied directly to the wheels and
does not pull the machine at all. Thus, in a plowed field the wheels
would revolve quickly enough, but they would only make a hole in the
ground, while the machine stood still.

This same reason would also prevent the auto from doing much for
the farmer.

On the other hand, in countries like France and Germany, where
there are many good roads, I believe that the automobile could be of
the greatest service for moving ammunition and provisions, as well as
for carrying scouts, dispatch bearers, or generals, or even the convey-
ance of troops.

I].—NEW AUTOMOBILE SPEED RECORDS.*

Twenty-five thousand persons lined Ocean Parkway, Brooklyn, for
a distance of 24 miles on Saturday, November 16, 1901, and saw the
most sensational automobile 1-mile speed tests ever made on either
side of the Atlantic. A mile a minute on the highway is no longer an
automobile dream; for no less than three of the contestants finished
within that time. Fournier, the winner of the Paris- Berlin race, twice
broke the world’s record, and was closely followed by Foxhall P.
Keene, A. C. Bostwick, and A. L. Riker. The course was a specially
prepared dirt strip of the old Coney Island Boulevard, having a slight
down grade. The contestants went over the course singly, their time
being taken at the start and at the finish by members of the Second

“Reprinted, by permission, from the Scientific American, November 30, 1901,

596 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

Signal Corps, U. S. A. Over a mile was allowed to the chauffeurs to
get under way, and about a quarter of a mile to slow up after passing
the finish line. The race was a contest by some of the best chauffeurs
in the world for the 1-mile record.

At his first attempt Fournier, in his 40-horsepower Mors racer,
sped over the mile in the remarkable time of fifty-two seconds. Not
content with this performance, he returned to the start for another
trial, and succeeded in reducing the record made but a few minutes
before by one-fifth of a second. Foxhall P. Keene, ina Mors carriage
exactly similar to that of Fournier, covered the mile in fifty-four
seconds. American-built vehicles were not much behindhand. A. C..
Bostwick, in a 40-horsepower Winton gasoline carriage, made the mile
in fifty-six and two-fifths seconds at the first trial, and in one minute
three-fifths seconds at the second trial.

Good as the road undoubtedly was, it was not altogether free from
slight, almost unnoticeable depressions and projections. At a speed
of 20 miles or even 30 miles an hour an automobile will ride over a
slight elevation with no appreciable effect. But at the enormous
velocity of nearly 70 miles an hour the carriages could not yield to
the slight, scarcely perceptible hollows, and at times every wheel
would be clear of the road. And yet, despite this peculiar effect, they
kept their course with remarkable precision and with no evident
oscillation.

The vehicles driven by Fournier and Keene were both 40-horsepower
French gasoline carriages made by Mors. That a gasoline carriage
would make the best record was inevitable. But no one foresaw that.
an electric car would also lower the previous world’s record of one
minute six and two-fifth seconds made by Winton. The carriage in
question was designed and driven by Mr. A. L. Riker, and was a dis-
tinctly American type of machine. It was a racing machine pure and
simple, an electromobile reduced to its lowest terms, a wheeled frame
and a battery, with seats for two men arranged in tandem. Current is
derived from 60 cells of the lead-zine type, giving a maximum voltage
of 130 and a discharge of 100 amperes. The battery weighs 900
pounds, and the entire carriage 1,850 pounds. With a start of only
one-quarter of a mile Mr. Riker covered the mile in one minute and
three seconds, the armatures of his motors making about 3,300 revo-
lutions per minute. The exact power of the vehicle has not been
determined, but Mr. Riker informs us that the horsepower is between
15 and 20. When it is considered that the French carriages of Four-
nier and Keene were equipped with motors rated at 40 horsepower,
Mr. Riker’s performance is all the more remarkable. At the same
time, it is but just to the other vehicles to state that while they were
all capable of long-distance touring, the electric machine was capable
of maintaining its maximum effort apparently for only a single dash

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‘AUTOMOBILE RACES. 597

over the mile course. It was towed to the course, towed back to the
starting point after the trial, and charged its batteries immediately
before its trial run from an adjoining electric car. By a special rheo-
stat, with which he has fitted his racing machine, Mr. Riker is enabled
to divert part of the current from the tield coils to the armature, after
speeding up, so that the rotary speed of the armature shaft is consid-
erably increased. Since the racing machines of Fournier and Keene
have already been illustrated in these columns, we have pictured only
the carriage used by Mr. Riker.

The arrangements for timing the contestants seem to have been
somewhat unusual. The timers at the finish were informed by the
click of a telegraph instrument that a machine had started. An
instant later an *‘O. K.” signal was given to confirm the start. The
timers consequently started their watches with the first click and
caught the machines as they whirled past the finish line. If no
**O. K.” signal was given, the watches were turned back for the next
signal. As a result of this arrangement some machines ran over
the course without being timed, no additional signal having been
given. Foxhall P. Keene was one of those who suffered. His first
trial was credited with a speed of one minute and twenty-one and two-
fifths seconds, which was clearly an error. S. 'T. Davis, who made
the mile in one minute and fifteen seconds in a steam carriage, and
thus broke the previous steam carriage record of one minute and
thirty-nine seconds, was also mistimed in one of his attempts.

These are the most remarkable contests ever run on a public high-
way. They have shown that only a specially built locomotive engine
running on steel rails can beat a modern racing automobile.

IJ].—THE PARIS-BORDEAUX RACE. *

The classic race between Paris and Bordeaux is practically a history
of progress in the automobile industry, since it is in this great event
that we are able to see the new developments in motors and carriages,
and the rivalry of new firms who take advantage of this exceptional
opportunity to prove what their vehicles are capable of doing. Noth-
ing is more eloquent of the marvelous advance of the industry than a
comparison between the race of 1895, when Levassor astonished the
world by driving a 4-horsepower car between Paris and the capital of
the Gironde in a little more than twenty-two hours, and the race on
Wednesday of last week, when a 20-horsepower Mors reduced this
time to six hours, and covered the 327% miles at the average speed of
53.3 miles an hour. Six years ago the racing car was fitted witha
motor of 6 horsepower, but last week there were several vehicles of
28 nominal horsepower, while in one or two cases they were said to

“Reprinted from the Autocar, London and Coventry, England, Vol. VI, No. 293,
June 8, 1901.

598 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

have 60 or 70 horsepower. We say that these powers are nominal,
because they merely represent a type of carriage, and are by no means
the actual power developed. Makers are rarely disposed to take the
public. into their confidence over the details of these special racing
machines. The indicated power of the vehicles is kept a secret, but it
may safely be said that a car entered as 24 horsepower is capable of
giving considerably more. Even accepting the figures stated, the
increasing of the motive power fourfold in five years is a remarkable
achievement, the more so as the weight of the cars has not even been
doubled in the same period. Whether this rate of progress can be
continued much further is a question that can only be solved by the
forthcoming races. The competitions have already shown makers
how to get the best out of their motors, and it is at a moment when
they are anxious to settle an interesting problem in weight and speed
that an attempt has been made in some quarters to suppress racing
altogether. The success of the Paris-Bordeaux event has evidently
brought these people round to see the error of their ways, for the
newspapers which have been the most uncompromising in their anti-
racing crusade are actually admitting that if proper precautions are
taken, a race, after all, may be both interesting and instructive.

THE GORDON-BENNETT CUP.

To a certain extent it may be said that the open race was merely
intended to be a pendant to the Gordon-Bennett cup competition, but
as it turned out the cup had to pale its ineffectual fires before the
open race. If the cup competition had been run off separately, as
was the case last year, it would have been an utter fiasco. At first it
seemed as if this international triangular match were going to be one
of the biggest events of the year. Both England and Germany had
entered vehicles, and after the brilliant performances of the Mercedes
cars at Nice there was every promise of the competition with the new
French fliers proving of absorbing interest. But unfortunately the
owners of the Mercedes vehicles withdrew on the ground that the
Automobile Club of Germany made their selection too late to enable
the cars to be ready in time, and neither Benz nor Canello-Diirkopp
would take their place. At the last moment Tischbein entered a vehi-
cle, which, however, could not be got off in time for the race; and then
Mr. W. K. Thorn, president of the Automobile Club Bearnais, offered
to place his Mercedes at the disposal of Tischbein if the French car-
riage body could be replaced by one of German manufacture. They
went all over Paris in search of this body, but no carriage builder
had one on hand. Then among the English Napiers, the Hon.

C. 5. Rolls and Count Zbrowski declared forfeit, and the only one ~

to turn up was Mr. S. F. Edge. The English representative drove
his car from Bologne to Paris, and had so much trouble with his Eng-

4
|
|

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 599

lish tires that he saw it was useless trying to go to Bordeaux unless he
could get fresh ones. As this was not possible in the time, he replaced
them with French tires, which, of course, disqualitied him for the cup
competition, and he decided upon starting in the open race. As the
Napier arrived at the premises of the Automobile Club, where it had
to undergo the process of marking, it attracted a vast amount of atten-
tion, and there is no doubt that it created a strong impression among
the Frenchmen by its powerful lines. It looked heavier and bigger
than the French vehicles, partly due to the fact that it has not such a
low center of gravity as the new cars. If, as was stated, the Napier
developed 70 or 75 horsepower, it was by far the most powerful of
the competing vehicles, for though the new Mors was at first said to
be fitted with engines of this force, it was entered as 28 horsepower,
and it may therefore be supposed to give something like 35 horsepower.
All the foreign competitors having scratched, the cup race became a
run over for the French vehicles, but even then things did not go
smoothly, as there was trouble between Charron and Girardot and the
makers whose vehicles they were to drive. Fortunately, matters were
satisfactorily arranged, and Charron and Girardot, on their new 24
horsepower Panhards, and Levegh, on his 28-horsepower Mors. turned
up at the start.
THE FETE DE NUIT.

The vehicles were to be sent off at 3.30 in the morning, and to pass
away the still small hours a féte was organized at the Chalets du Cycle
in the Bois de Boulogne, where all the automobilists who had not gone
down to Bordeaux were present. And then there was a nocturnal pro-
cession up the Suresnes hill toSt. Cloud. The sight was an extremely
picturesque one, as hundreds of cyclists with their colored lanterns
kept prudently to the side of the road, while the big cars flashed their
headlights up the hill. On arriving at the starting place beyond St.
Cloud, we found the road to Versailles in possession of the gendarmes,
and a squadron of cavalry guarded the approaches, though why they
were there is a mystery that is yet unsolved. The auto cars lined up
on each side of the road according to their numbers, and photographers
flashed magnesium light to get views of the competing vehicles. Still
another light leaped out of the darkness through one of the spectators
coming to the assistance of Fournier with a match while he was filling
up the petrol tank. The spirit caught fire, and it was only by Four-
nier’s presence of mind that the flame was prevented from reaching
the tank. The gendarmes were busy seeing if the papers of the com-
petitors were in order. The officials had a lively time of it during this
operation. Some of the chauffeurs, including Levegh and Gilles Hour-
giéres, had not brought their certificates, and the police insisted that
they should not start, but as the result of an interview with the prefect
the objection was overruled, though two competitors had to turn discon-

600 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

solately homeward. A lot of time was wasted over these formalities,
and it was not until 4 0’clock that the start was given to the cup vehicles.
Charron was sent off first amid cheers, but he had not gone many yards
up the first hill when he stopped and hurriedly arranged something,
and then resumed his journey. ‘Two minutes afterwards the word was
given to the favorite, Levegh, who simply flew up the hill with his
powerful Mors car, and after a similar interval Girardot was sent off
and made an equally favorable impression by the way in which he
tackled the gradient. The departure of the cup triumvirate was fol-
lowed by an interval of eleven minutes. At 4.15 8S. F. Edge, the first
competitor in the open race, received the word, and the Napier car
jumped forward and climbed the hill at a speed which considerably
opened the eyes of the public. The others were sent off every two
minutes. Giraud on his light Panhard carriage, Voight on a 24-horse-
power Panhard, André Axt ona 20-horsepower Panhard, Gilles Hour-
giéres on one of the'new 28-horsepower Mors, Fournier on a 20-horse-
power Mors, De Caters also on a Mors, were started in that order, and
then followed the other big cars, light carriages, voiturettes, and motor
cycles in the order of entry, the total number sent off being 63.

THE RACE,

As at all the towns along the route, Versailles was neutralized; that
is to say, the vehicles were not allowed to exceed the legal limit of
speed, and they were given a quarter of an hour to pass through the

town, this, of course, being deducted from the total time. Levegh ~

had already passed Charron, who began to have trouble with his valves,

and just outside Versailles he stopped about twenty minutes to adjust _

them. On leaving the town, the competitors were started at the bot-
tom of a very steep hill, which was naturally not to the liking of the
motor cyclists with their 8-horse power motors, as a sharp turning just
here did not allow of their tackling the hill by getting up speed on the
level. Baron de Turckheim on his De Dietrich got stuck on the hill,
and one of the competitors in a light carriage began to experience the
glorious uncertainty of pneumatic tires, while the motor cyclist
Osmont met with a painful accident through a stone flying up and
smashing his glasses, when a piece of glass entered his eye. This was
removed and the eye bandaged, and he continued his journey. At
Limours, Levegh was still leading two minutes ahead of Girardot, but
Edge had been passed by Voigt and Giraud, and then followed
Hourgiéres, Charron, and Fournier. The last-named improved his
position up to Chartres, and got in front of Edge; while Charron was
constantly stopping on account of his valves, and he again lost a lot of

time on leaving the town. One of the light Hanzer carriages came to’

grief through the bursting of a tire, which caused the vehicle to turn
right round and smash the two off side wheels, and the two oceupants

iin

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 601

with the valves of his Decauville motor. Altogether 55 vehicles passed
through Chartres in the official time. On nearing Chateaurenault the
little De Boisse three-wheeled vehicle ran into the gate of a level
crossing which was closed, and was so far damaged as to compel the
driver to give up the race. Levegh and Girardot were fighting out a
grand battle, and the Panhard representative seemed to be gaining on
the Mors vehicle up to Chateaudun—77 miles—but the most remark-
able thing was the driving of Fournier, who was now leading in the
open race, and was only three minutes behind Girardot. Voigt was
close up, but he found it a disadvantage in having only three changes of
speed, while the others had four. André Axt followed eighteen min-
utes afterwards, with Edge and Girardot at his heels. Charron was
eighth, and Maurice Farman ninth. Edge lost his position through
stopping fifteen minutes at Chateaudon. Another accident, due to a
level crossing, occurred to a Godard-Demarest light carriage, which
arrived just as the gate was closing, and in the collision the driver
was thrown out with considerable force, and was so far injured that
he had to be attended by a doctor. Girardot, who had _ been
getting marvellous speed out of his Panhard, now began to
have trouble with his friction clutch, and he reached Venddme—
102 miles—twenty minutes after Levegh, who arrived there
at 6" 27". Fournier was only three minutes behind Girardot, and
then came Voigt, Gilles Hourgiéres, André Axt, Maurice Farman,
Giraud, and Edge. Charron found that it was hopeless to con-
tinue when he had to stop every few miles to see to his valves,
and he gave up the race. The first motor cyclist (Teste) reached Ven.
dome at 7". 34". The weather was hot and heavy, and the roads thick
with dust, which rose in dense clouds as the autocars sped along at 50
and 60 miles an hour. Levegh was going strongly, and reached Tours
—1387 miles—at 7”. 19™., and Fournier, who arrived twenty minutes
afterwards, had actually beaten him by three minutes. Voigt was
third. Girardot stopped to fix up his friction clutch. He was already
hopelessly out of it for the cup, and was philosophically letting the
Mors vehicle increase its lead. After Girardot came Maurice Farman,
André Axt, and Edge, and the motor cyclist Teste. Gilles Hourgiéres,
who was expected to do great things with his new Mors, lost a lot of
time through tire punctures. The situation of the leaders remained
unehanged up to Saint Maure—159 miles—except that Edge had
retreated to the rear and Girardot had fallen a long way behind, but a
few miles farther on an accident happened to the Mors cup vehicle,
which struck a gulley across the road with so much force that the fore-
part of the car was smashed. It is supposed that the cause of this is
the curved axle, which brings the motor case down to within a few
inches of the road, and is very liable to be caught by an obstruction.

were thrown out, but sustained no injury. Thiéry also had trouble

602 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

Fournier now went ahead, but when about a couple of hours after-
wards Girardot, whose bad luck is proverbial, saw Levegh’s Mors
stranded by the wayside, fate for once in a way smiled upon him.
Fournier reached Chatellerault at 8". 37"., followed thirteen minutes
afterwards by Voigt, while Maurice Farman was third, André Axt
fourth, and Giraud fifth. Despite the sweltering heat, enormous
crowds of people waited for hours along the route to see the autocars
pass, and special precautions had to be taken to prevent spectators
from crossing the road until the cloud of dust that rose up after the
passage of each vehicle had cleared away. Couche-Verac—223 miles—
was reached by Fournier at 9". 58™., preceding Voigt by twent-four
minutes. Maurice Farman passed through at 10". 45™., André Axt at
11". 4™., and Giraud at 11". 12". Pinson, Teste, Girardot, Osmont,
and Gleizes followed in that order, and then came S. F. Edge, who
reached the town at 12". 4". Close at his heels was Gilles Hourgiéres,
who had picked up Levegh and his companion. He was constantly
puncturing his tires, and had given up all hopes of finishing in the
first flight. There was no change in the positions of the leaders up to
Ruffec—242 miles—which was reached by Fournier at 10". 25™., half an
hour in front of Voigt, and an interval of twenty-one minutes separated
Voigt from Maurice Farman. The sun was hot and stifling as the
first lot passed through Ruffec, but in the afternoon a violent thunder-
storm burst over the district and thoroughly soaked those unfortunate
competitors who were still behind. Many of them gave up the race
from this cause. Voigt punctured a tire, and only arrived at Angou-
leme—269 miles—nine minutes in front of Maurice Farman, and Pinson
also had a similar misfortune. 8. F. Edge did not get to Angouleme
until after 2 o’clock, and as he went through without stopping at the
control he was obviously no longer racing. Up to Barbezieux—291
miles—Maurice Farman was able to pass Voigt for the second place, but
Fournier was still increasing his lead, and got to Barbezieux forty-nine
minutes before Farman. Fournier now had matters all his own way,
and steadily augmented his advance, while Maurice Farman was improy-
ing his advantage on Voigt, who had up till now been going wonder-
fully well. On leaving Libourne, the motor cyclist Gleizes had a
serious accident through trying to light a cigarette when traveling full
speed, On letting go the handle bar, the machine went off at a tangent,
and the unfortunate rider was badly knocked about. He remained
unconscious for four hours. Interest in the race, which had been
growing all along the course, culminated in enthusiasm at Bordeaux,
where Fournier got a magnificent reception as he arrived at Pavillons
at 1", 9" 45° his net time for the full distance of 3274 miles being 6"
11™ 44°, which is equal to an average of 53.3 miles an hour. Maurice
Farman finished nearly an hour afterwards, followed after an interval
of five minutes by Voigt. Then there was a pause of thirty-three

“ee = +

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 603

minutes until Axt completed hislong journey in good style, and Giraud
had a great success with the splendid performance of his light Panhard
carriage. His average was 39.7 miles an hour. The only cup arrival,
Girardot, finished eighth, his average being 37 miles an hour. The 4
Renault voiturettes ran with remarkable regularity, and finished close
together, the winning car in this category, driven by M. L. Renault,
making an average of 36.16 miles an hour. The De Dion-Bouton
machines took the first five places in the motor cycle class, and the
average speed of the winner (Teste) was 40.7 miles an hour. Alto-
gether, 36 vehicles reached Bordeaux before the control was closed.

The results of the different categories are as follows: Gordon-
Bennett cup race—Girardot, 24-horsepower Panhard, 8"51"59°. Paris-
Bordeaux race—cars weighing more than 650 kilos: Henri Fournier,
20-horsepower Mors, 6" 11™ 44°; Maurice Farman, 24-horsepower
Panhard, 6" 41" 1°; Voigt, 24-horsepower Panhard, 7" 16™ 118; Pin-
son, 24-horsepower Panhard, 7 46™ 515; André Axt, 20-horsepower
Panhard, 7" 47" 17°; Gilles Toaieideca, 28-horsepower Mors, 8"
37” 39°; Henry Farman, Panhard, 8" 53"; De Crawhez, Panhard,
8» 55™ 34°; Berteaux, Panhard, 11" 10"; Léon Lefebvre, Bolide, 11"
53™. Light carriages of 400 to 650 kilos: Giraud, Panhard, 8" 9™
48*; Baras, 28-horsepower Darracg, 8" 42™ 52°; Edmond, 28-horse-
power Darracq, 10° 25"; Béconnais, Béconnais carriage, 10" 41™ 25°;
Théry, Decauville, 11" 11"; Sanz, Boyer, 11" 12”; Rudeaux, Darracgq,
11° 49"; Ulhman, Decauville, 12" 18"; Filtz, pate et Foy, 13517:
fedirieres, Decauville, 14° 5™. Voiturettes of 250 to 400 aloe:
L. Renault, Renault Fréres, 9" 32" 27°; M. Renault, Renault Fréres,
9" 40™ 14°; Oury, Renault Fréres, 9" 46™ 50°; Griis, Renault Fréres,
9° 52”; Lot, Liberia, 16"°4™. Motor cycles: Teste, De Dion, 8" 1™;
Ganont, De Dion, 8". 3"; Bordeaux, De Dion, 8" 54"; Collignon, De
Dion, 9" 11”; Bardin, De Dion, 10" 30"; Gasté, Liberator, 10" 32™;
Holley, De Dion, 10" 33"; Cormier, De Dion, 11” 34"; Rivierre,
Werner bicycle, 12" 30"; Bucquet, Werner bicycle, 12" 47™.

THE FINISH OF THE CUP AND THE PARIS-BORDEAUX RACE.

On the off chance that an English car might start in, and the still
more remote chance might win, the Gordon-Bennett cup race, we
resolved to be represented at both ends of the course by members of
our staff, and the writer, who journeyed as far afield as the finish,
considers that a few words in supplement to the brief telegram last
week may be of interest. We crossed on Whit-Monday in company
with Mr. Worby-Beaumont, who could not deny himself the pleasure
of witnessing the start, and after calling at the handsome quarters of
the A. C. of France, and subsequently at the Hotel Brighton, where
the majority of the A. C. G. B. party were staying, and where we
found Mr. Mark Mayhew and the Hon. C. 8. Rolls, we learned that the

604 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

French clubmen had shown most sporting feeling toward the English
ear, and had unofficially informed those most nearly interested that
the car would be started, timed, and checked, although she would, so
far as the race itself went, obviously be disqualified before she moved.
The conditions of the race laid down definitely that every part of a
competing vehicle must be built in the country by it represented, and
the use of foreign tires of course crabbed the deal. The above
arrangement was all that the English club or the owner or makers of
the car could desire, and it was felt by the whole English party present
that the French club had met them in their difficulties in a particu-
larly handsome and generous manner. If the English car had won,
well, the fact that she ran on Michelin tires would not have militated
in the smallest degree against the renown and glory that would have
been hers, and it is only by bearing this in mind that the sporting action
of the Automobile Club of France can be thoroughly appreciated.
Upon reaching Bordeaux we found Messrs. A. C. Harmsworth, Alfred
Bird, and Max Pemberton, the well-known novelist, whose brilliant
lately concluded story Pro Patria is still fresh in everyone’s mind.
These three gentlemen had driven down from Paris, as to Messrs.
Harmsworth and Bird in the former’s new 12 horsepower Serpollet
steam car, and as to the author of Footsteps of a Throne in Mr.
Harmsworth’s 12 horsepower Panhard, driven by Engineer Lancaster,
than whoma better exists not. Colonel Crompton and Claude Cromp-
ton swelled the party later, having cycled from Paris.

Mr. Harmsworth was good enough to take us out to the finishing
point about 23 to 3 miles from the city at a crossing of ways called
Les Quatres Pavillons, 345.89 miles from the starting point at Saint
Cloud, in his Serpollet, and though 3 miles is little enough to have of
so entrancing a vehicle, it was enough to convince us that that car is
quite the most luxurious road-traveling vehicle in which we have yet
ridden. Owing to the absurdly optimistic prophecies of Le Vélo and
L’Auto Vélo, we ran out over the horridly paved Bastide Bridge, and
the full mile of tram-lined pavé beyond, and climbed the hills out to
the Quatre Pavillons, so as to be there before 10 o’clock. As the fly-
ing Fournier never arrived until nine minutes past 1, the odd hours
were made to pass as well as might be by watching and criticising the
automobiles which went speeding outward toward Libourne in order
to take up favorable positions. Verily we believe every car in Bor-
deaux was requisitioned for the finish of this great event, for they
swept by in battalions and clouds of dust. In the intervals inquiries
were made as to what was known anent the progress of the race, and
occasional telephone messages to the house of M. Journu, of the

Automobile Club Bordelaise, which was hard by, were made known. -

First we heard that Fournier and his Mors were leading well at
Chattellerault, 166 miles away, having passed Levegh, and that Gi-

.

i
;

ltt ie he

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 605

rardot, the ultimate cup winner, had smashed his clutch at Chartres.
Later came the news that Fournier was leading the next man Voigt
at Ruffec, 101 miles away, by twenty-five minutes, and that lots of
punctures, owing to nails on the roads, had been suffered by many
competitors. The time wore slowly on in the great heat and dust,
until another message came through to the effect that Fournier had
left Libourne, 15 miles away. Then the crowd, which made up in
enthusiasm what it lacked in numbers, braced themselves with the
expectation of excitement. The minutes passed almost in silence, so
tense had the feeling become. Even the camelots ceased to cry Le
Vélo, and like all the rest strained their eyes upon the brow of the
hill over which the petrolic Jehu speeding toward them must come.
Suddenly a cry went up from the high bank on the right, Le voila!
and at the top of the narrowed way between the poplar tops as they
descended the reverse side of the slope were seen to be blotted out
as with a cloud. The cloud, as it appeared, surged over the top of
the hill, descended with awful rapidity, and whirled toward us. It
showed a black eye, which every instant increased in size. The eye
was the Mors, whose wildly whirring engine was now distinctly audible.
Machine, men, and cloud, which blotted out all behind, rushed up
the winning slope, and amid the wild cries of all who witnessed, com-
pleted the most remarkable automobile run yet accomplished. Over
an hour and a half elapsed before the second man was in, and the same
wild scene of welcome was enacted, though in lesser degree with each
arrival. The following table gives these as they occurred; also the
average speed per hour throughout the journey:

Cuiass 4.—Cars weighing 12% hundredweights and over.

|
Character of machine. Chauffeur. | Net time. ner Lon
| eae Ss

SPEOESC DUO WETS NLOIS fet in 2 ceemciaeeine Sete ees kcteecicdaest WOWNILEY 2/5 <2 Sts se- se | 6 7 44 | 53.51
40 horsepower Panhard-Levassor ..............-...----- Warman. .\- Se ossac soc 6 37 15 49.95
LD) 2]. SRB ate Rect beeen te ee MODs eee fpabeints 45. 54

DOs SSE SS = Sa Pinson = 2250-seeee ae 7 42 51 | 42.51

Dia Ae MD ns 2 Bio so oyoecle amb aen ea AX Th Se) ee Seem 7 43 17 42.38

OR ee Renee rps a ne eee ek eco debe aost we Hourvieres)-2..4- 8 39 39 37.87

DG er A Te Re Sn ANN EL to ere Sie cra eget aE DelCrawhe7Z 2-22-2652 8 51 34 37.02

LU Win S38 SSE BeR ae oe ee eee, Oe eee eee ee FAPMAN) 3) senses =e 9 27 50 34. 65

LDP i en eS or De:-Berteaux.:..<.-5-. 11 6 39 29. 50

[Duis - seat Soe Se Oe ae ae Se en ee ee eerste eee Lefebvre: -ss45--222 5 11 38 50 28.10

Panhard-Levassor : Giratidi.-.nee eee sae 8 21 48 39. 21
Darracq -|| Baras= 2° se 8 38 5 37.98
Do. Bamondr eh. tees oo 10 21 4 31. 68
Béconnais 2 eo PBCCONMAIS «27 -2e sec eee 10 37 25 30. 87
| Sea SHU Zee etek Bae eee se i626 4] 29.53
Decauville.. Bho IBD ERW seer aen ease ih Dye | 29.47
arracg RUG CMI: Soe sore 3s 11 45 58 27.87
1b yo) Willenan2 ese aoe sae 12-12-20 26. 87

DO css MA zenes Sheets Sense och 13 53 59 23. 59
Decauville Ghapnieréssatco: 24- ee g Vn Ieee! 23. 39

606 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

Cuiass 2.—Cars from 44 hundredweights to 7} hundredweights.

. = : Miles
Character of machine. Chauffeur. Net time. per hour.
H.M. S.
Renault certs oie 5_ 6a coe cee ee tess teeeuers ie Renaultic2.sc..cee- 9 28 27 34. 62
DOs Sri ee eee Se hte Bee eae | Mi Renault Soe52 iS. 9 36 14 34.15 .
Diss ere 32) at Bee Meee eee te era eee P OuUryseses she oe 10 40 50 30.71
DOL Seas hated awit eee ee eS Oe Gne SOU EEE Oe ees Grus 22 52....< Se ase 10 50 41 30. 25
Dots eer eee ee Se se eee eee Ge BGG eas eee 1551: 4 20. 69
Crass 1
De Mion-Bowtomtviriey elec. ..2- foes ee oe eee Resletsns.s< ssc osha Tobias0 42.39.08
1D Yo) Sree a SE ee eee Ee an OM on om AE 3 Osmond? 73 f.2s3553 25: 7 59 27 41.04
1 Do Gees SERENE SO aire, apes COP me) pene e ted i. Collignon <=: ..--vse 9 5 33 35. 89

Ey a tricycles came through at various intervals, the last being Buquet, who occupied

The average mileages of the first seven arrivals will be found to be
less than those we cabled from Bordeaux, but at that time we were
not in possession of the total distance neutralized by the controls, and
the times given us by the timekeeper were less 2" 37™ the time of
neutralization. The distance so neutralized was 17} miles, which
accounts for the reduction of the averages previously given. Although
Messrs. Harmsworth, Bird, and Pemberton were members of the
A.C.G.B. and I., and Mr. Bird was actually nominated as one of
the judges by the French club, while Colonel Crompton represented
the British war office committee, they received very scant courtesy
at the hands of the clubmen. Mr. Bird at least might, we think,
have been offered something more than the hospitality of the road,
wherein he remained throughout the day. It was only after meet-
ing with our old friend M. Paul Rousseau, the director of Le Vélo,
that we obtained access to the timekeeper, and were able to get the
particulars always freely offered to representatives of the press.

The little party of the six English returned to Paris on the follow-
ing day per the Paris rapide, which occupied 1° 26™ 16° more in
making the journey than had Fournier on the previous day.

1V.—PARIS TO BERLIN. *

On the 27th of June, 1901, at half-past 3 in the morning, the official

starter of the forear ar ae Club of France sent off the first automoule
from Paris for Berlin, and in turn, every two minutes, 108 vehicles
followed after the first.

The day before, all these vehicles had been put in first-rate order by
the attendants of the automobile club and the proprietors had paid to
the customs as a guaranty that they would be brought back to France _
12 per cent of their value, which amounted to the handsome sum of
1,250,000 franes.

«Translated from L’I!lustration, Paris, July 6, 1901,

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Automobile Races. PLATE III.

FOURNIER ON THE ROUTE TO BERLIN.

rai
ay

pes

‘Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Automobile Races.

PLATE IV,

THE AUTOMOBILE OF BARON ZUYLEN, PRESIDENT OF THE AUTOMOBILE CLUB OF FRANCE.

PRUSSIAN TRUMPETER ANNOUNCING THE APPROACH OF AN AUTOMOBILE.

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 607

A sporting event of such evidently exceptional importance had
stirred up all the automobile world. The French constructors had
gained in a very little time a notable place in the new industry and the
machines from their workshops had hitherto led all others. Few for-
eign competitors had entered before, but this time England and Ger-
many came forward prepared for a serious struggle.

The route chosen in the east of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and
Germany was hard and dangerous, being 748 miles, in three divisions
(285 miles from Paris to Aix-la-Chapelle, 278 miles from Aix-la-Cha-
pelle to Hanover, and 185 miles from Hanover to Berlin). In the
second and third divisions the narrow, uneven, and only partly paved
roads offered very unfavorable conditions to the pneumatic tires and
there were no expectations of reaching the 80 kilometers an hour which
had easily been obtained on the good roads. There was especial need
to show prompt decision and coolness, especially as the populace along
the road, still unfamiliar with the new method of locomotion, was
crowding to see the new vehicles, prompted by a curiosity which only
created an additional trouble for the drivers.

In spite of all these difficulties the winner of the race, Fournier,
mounted on a French automobile supplied by the Mors Company, fur-
nished with Michelin pneumatic tires, reached Berlin in 16" and 6",
gaining one hour and a half on the Northern Express; and this exploit
was not the only one, for following it Girardot arrived in 17" and 1”,
René de Knyff in 17" 4", while among the light vehicles Giraud took
about 19" and 33", Louis Renault, in the Voiturette, 19° 16™ and 255,
and Osmont, on a simple motocycle, in 18" 59™ and 50°.

We have endeavored to present graphic pictures of this closely
fought contest, and to bring out thereby its notable characteristics.

At Aix-la-Chapelle, Fournier arrived in the midst of the frenzied
shouts of thousands of spectators, the crowd pressed on the track for
more than three kilometers, refusing to obey the soldiers who were
there to secure order, and closing the entire roadway up to the very
last minute, when a trumpeter in pointed helmet sounded a call at the
same time to warn the troops of the approach of the vehicles and the
too enthusiastic spectators to get out of the way. The automobiles
were afterwards taken to the park, where they were to be kept under
military guard until next day, and around the yet hot vehicles still
pressed the crowd. Outside the barrier there was great excitement on
the arrival of every new automobile. The constructors sent mechanics
charged with the urgent repairs out at every stage of the road, and
they were pressing their way to the barriers, eager to get to work, for
the drivers have just a quarter of an hour to indicate what work to do,
and just a quarter of an hour only to repair all the injuries suffered by
the machines on the road. These fifteen minutes elapsed, at the com-
mand of the constructor, the drivers must quit the spot, after which

608 AUTOMOBILE RACES.

comes the turn of the mechanical specialists for the repairs of the
‘*pneus,” change of air chambers, and like delicate work, which they
accomplish with a dexterity which is almost miraculous. Finally, it is
ouly after they have looked for all these things, after the grooming,
so to speak, ofthe racer, that the chauffeur in his turn is at liberty to
think of taking a bath and of enjoying an hour of well-earned sleep.

At Hanover the crowd is also considerable, and the reception equally
enthusiastic, and the park where the vehicles are taken swarms like-
wise with hurried people, dusty machines, and long rows of oil cans.
At each stage, the number of vehicles sensibly diminishes; of the
109 which left Paris, 77 only reached Aix-la-Chapelle, 62 Hanover,
and only 45 got to Berlin. The arrival at Berlin took place on Satur-
day, the 29th of June, at the Hippodrome of the West End Railwiy,
4 miles out of town. Everybody in the city of Berlin was present,
and uniforms were mixed with pretty toilets, and everything ranging
from automobile costumes to the most extraordinary garments being
seen together.

The morning breeze which brought up clouds of fine dust gilded by
the sun, united in the same folds the French and the German banners.

At 11" 45™ 22°, Fournier arrived at full speed, and in an instant was
covered with tri-color crowns, taken from his automobile, and carried
off in triumph. A similar ovation attended the second, Girardot. At
this time the enthusiasm was indescribable.

At 3 o’clock the automobiles went through Berlin in one long pro-
cession saluted in their*passage by frenzied acclamations. They
made a sensational entry to the barracks of the grenadiers of the
‘*Kmperor Alexander,” where they were to be classed before their
departure for the exhibition of automobiles just opened in Berlin, of
which they were to be the leading feature. It was one of the most
striking circumstances that these pacific machines should go into this
German barrack with its prison discipline, and it was curious to see
with what wondering, laughing eyes the stiffly moving soldiers looked
at their strange visitors.

The prizes to the winners of the different classes were awarded as
follows: To Fournier, the prize of the Emperor of Germany, of the
King of the Belgians, of the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and of the
city of Hanover. Werner, the Sevres vase given by the President
of the French Republic. Girardot, the prize of the Grand Duke of
Luxembourg.

The first of the voiturettes, Louis Renault, was awarded the prize of
the ministry of commerce.

This great exhibition of automobilism will doubtless be the last one
of its kind which we shall see, for it has caused several accidents,
doubtless inevitable, one of which was quite severe, a child having
been crushed at Rheims by one of the automobiles on its passage, and

“ANI SHL SASSOHO SH Sv “YSNNIMA BHL ‘YaINYNOY ONINOOD TA AA

*s9ORY a|IqoWOjNyY—'*|06| ‘oday ueiuosy}iWws

male eae ame NE,

=

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Automobile Races. PLATE VI

THE VICTORS IN THE GRENADIER BARRACKS.

AUTOMOBILE RACES. 609

the President of the Chamber of Deputies was obliged to reply to Mr.
Gérault-Rechard who had spoken for those affected by the fatal drama,
that the Government shared the anxiety of the public, and that it
would try to prevent the recurrence of any such sad accidents, so that
probably we shall see no more of such races as this. -

We shall not greatly regret it. These tests have done great service
to the constructors and to industry in general, and we shall have no
future need of demonstrating that an automobile can go a hundred
kilometers an hour when it is exceptionally well constructed and
driven by an exceptional man. We shall be able to find other and
simpler methods of demonstrating the celerity, regularity, and endur-
ance which we have a right to demand after the first year of trial of
this new locomotion.

sm 1901——39

THE ERECTION OF THE GOKTEIK BRIDGE.*
By Day ALLEN WILLEY.

What is known as the Gokteik Viaduct, recently completed in
Burma, Asia, is notable for its height, length, and the remarkably
short time in which it was built, considering the obstacles to be over-
come. As the bridge was planned and the material made in this coun-
try, and most of the important work was done by Americans, it forms
another indication of the progress which our bridge-building industry
is making abroad. The structure, which is located about 80 miles
from Mandalay, connects portions of the line of the Burma Railway
Company between Mandalay and Rangoon. It is one of the long
railway bridges of the world, being 2,260 feet in length, and, with
two exceptions, it is the highest, the railway track being 320 feet above
the natural bridge which forms its foundation. The famous Loa Via-
duct in South America is 336 feet high, but only 800 feet in length.
The Pecos Viaduct in Texas is 321 feet in height, but 80 feet shorter
than the Gokteik structure, while it contains but 1,820 tons of metal.
The new Kinzua bridge on the Erie Railway in Pennsylvania is but
2,035 feet long and 19 feet lower at its highest point, although it con-
tains 8,250 tons of metal.

The erection of the bridge was begun December 1, 1899, and com-
pleted on October 16, 1900, the construction force consisting of 35
employees of the Pennsylvania Steel Company, which took the con-
tract; 15 Europeans, and about 450 native laborers, secured princi-
pally from the vicinity of Calcutta, India. The plans, which were
prepared by Mr. J. V. W. Reynders, superintendent of bridge con-
struction of the Pennsylvania Company, called for a series of 14 single
towers, one double tower, and a rocker bent, which, with the abut-
ments, carry ten 120-foot truss spans and seven 60-foot plate-girder
spans. The viaduct, for 281 feet at one end and 341 feet at the other
end, is curved to a radius of 800 feet, and between these two curyes
there is a tangent of 1,638 feet. The height of the structure above
the ground is 130 feet at one end and 213 feet at the other end. The
viaduct was designed to carry a double-track road and a foot walk, but
the floor system for the foot walk and one track only is constructed at

*Reprinted, by permission, from the Scientific American, August 17, 1901.
611

612 ERECTION OF THE GOKTEIK BRIDGE.

present. The single towers consist of two transverse trestle bents,
braced together in all directions. The double tower consists of three
trestle bents. So far as practicable, the members of all bents were
made interchangeable.

Except seven plate-girder spans, located at the ends of the viaduct,
all of the connecting spans are made up of two 120-foot deck trusses.
These trusses carry. 27-inch plate-girder floor beams spaced 13 feet

iN

Traveler supporting columns during tower construction.

apart, which in (urn support the track stringers. The top flanges of
the trusses, floor beams, and stringers are made flush, and are covered
over with a solid floor of five-sixteenth inch flat plates.

To handle the material a special traveler was designed and con-
structed at the works of the Pennsylvania Company, shipped to Asia
with the bridge material, and put together at the gorge. This is by
far the largest traveler ever built, having an overhang of 165 feet

ERECTION OF THE GOKTEIK BRIDGE. 613

» }

and weighing 80 tons. Its maximum lifting capacity is 30 tons.
It consists of 3 trusses, two of which are connected by transverse
bracing, built on the cantilever plan, each being 219 feet in length,
40 feet in height, and separated by a width of 243 feet. The lower
chords of the traveler supported four trolleys, each provided with
a chain hoist having a lifting capacity of 16 tons. Powerful clamps
were especially designed for holding the rear end of the traveler
to the girders of the viaduct, and it was supported on a series of
wheels enabling it to be easily moved as the work progressed.
Most of the material was lowered from above by the traveler. In

Gorge and main towers with bridge under construction.

erecting the towers crossing the deepest portion of the gorge a tem-
porary track was built on a wooden trestle at an elevation of about
100 feet above the base, and material for the lower parts of the towers
hauled to the spot and transferred to their positions by special derricks.

An idea of the quantity of material placed in position can be gained
when it is stated that it comprised most of the cargoes of three steam-
ships, and when loaded on the cars at Steelton, Pennsylvania, repre-
sented a solid train 1$ miles long. The erection plant alone weighed
250 tons, and, in addition to the traveler, included three hoisting
engines, a series of air compressors, a telephone system for communi-
cation between the gangs working at each end of the viaduct, and the

614 ERECTION OF THE GOKTEIK BRIDGE.

necessary chisels, hammers, and other tools for bridge construction.
At the outset heavy rains interfered considerably with the progress
of the work, the violence of the storms being so great that it was sel-
dom possible to do any work between noon and sundown. The tem-
perature ranged from below the freezing point at night to over 90°
in the shade in the forenoon. Another delay was caused by the refusal
of the native laborers, on account of their superstition, to use com-
pressed air in riveting, and nearly all of this was done by hand, although
the plans called for 192,000 rivets in the field work alone.

The usual plan followed in bridge construction of indicating the

locations of different parts by numbers and letters could not be fol-
lowed in this case owing to the ignorance of the natives; so a color
scheme was adopted, by which each column and girder was given a
distinctive color, and the joints between the columns painted with a
combination of stripes. All the erection outfit was painted black to
distinguish it from the bridge material proper. In this way the thou-
sands of pieces were handled and put in position without difficulty.
In beginning the construction of the viaduct the steel was hauled to
the end of the track and deposited in a temporary storage yard in such
a manner that it could be lifted by the traveler. Thus the first towers
were erected. As these were placed in position the superstructure was

Pin ee

ERECTION OF THE GOKTEIK BRIDGE. 615

fastened to them and the traveler moved forward. Then the material
was loaded on flat cars, pushed out upon the bridge, and transferred
from the cars into position.

Owing to the height of the bridge and the extreme cnanges in tem-
perature careful provision had to be made both for the wind pressure
and the unusual contraction and expansion of the metal. The bridge
was built to carry a load of 2,240 pounds to each linear foot of track,
in addition to two locomotives, each weighing 54 tons. It is to with-
stand a wind pressure of about 34 pounds per square foot when a train
is upon it, and about 56 pounds per square foot at other times. These
calculations were made by the consulting engineers of the railway
company—Messrs. Sir Alexander Rendel & Co., of London, repre-
sented by Mr. W. H. Clark. The viaduct was erected under the
supervision of Mr. D. Duchars, chief e1 EINeer, and Mr. J. A. White,
resident engineer.

As already stated, a portion of the viaduct is located upon a natural
bridge. This is a rocky formation which is just wide enough to safely
support the towers. Two hundred feet below its summit flows a river
which has forced a channel beneath the formation, so that the total
height of the bridge above the water is 520 feet.

THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.*

By Francis Fox, Esq., M. Inst. C. E., M. R. I.

The subject for this evening’s discourse is that of the three great
tunnels through the Alps, viz, the Mont Cenis, the St. Gothard, and
that which is now in course of construction—the Simplon.

But before dealing with the details of these particular works it will
be desirable to consider what tunneling is, and also some of the more
remarkable instances of it in bygone days.

One great drawback in connection with the subject—so far as a dis-
course is concerned—is its unsuitability for the photographic art.
Unlike a battle ship, or a splendid bridge, or a grand block of build-
ings, which can be made into fine views and pictures, the work of the
mole is hardly adapted to the sensitive plate. I therefore propose to
make use of the ‘‘ language of the pencil,” and to make a few rough
sketches on the blackboard. By these means I trust I may be able to
explain some of the difficulties which have to be encountered, and also
show how a tunnel is constructed. The child’s definition of drawing,
‘*first you think and then you draw a line round your think,” will
come to our aid.

The art of tunneling dates back to very remote ages, and there are
records of such works which were constructed five hundred to six hun-
dred years before the Christian era.

An interesting account is given by one of your most distinguished
members, in an article in the Encyclopedia Britannica, of the tunnel
under the River Euphrates, at Babylon. This city, similar in some
respects to London, lay half on one side and half on the other side of
the river. High walls, penetrated by occasional gates, surrounded the
city and lined each of the banks of the river. These gates (of which
a pair of the great hinges can be seen in the British Museum) were
closed at night and during war; and a tunnel was constructed below
the bed of the river by means of what is technically known as the
‘‘cut-and-cover” system. In those days the Greathead shield was
unknown, and consequently the river had to be diverted so that the
excavation could be made in the dry bed and cut open to daylight, the

*Reprinted from Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol. XVI,
Part I, 1901. Read at weekly evening meeting, Friday, May 25, 1900, His Grace the
Duke of Northumberland, K. G., F. S. A., president, in the chair.

617

618 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

arch being built, the ground restored, and the river allowed to resume
its former course. ‘The tunnel is said to have been 15 feet in width
and 12 feet in height, built of brick.

Herodotus gives an account of the diversion of the river into a great
excavation or artificial lake 40 miles square, and states that the besieg-
ing enemy, so soon as the water was drawn off, entered into the city
by the river bed. It is believed that this same excavation was made
use of for the construction of the tunnel. It is, however, desirable to
state that doubts have been thrown on the subject, and it is possible
that it may have to be relegated to mythology.

The next instance of a tunnel is that referred to by Herodotus in

the Island of Samos,* and it is satisfactory to know
\N that although very considerable doubts were expressed
as to the accuracy of his statements, recent investi-
gations prove that he was exactly correct. The
description given by him, when expressed in English
words and figures, is as follows:
‘*'They have a mountain which is 910 feet in height;
entirely through this they have made a passage, the
SS length of which is 1,416 yards. It is, moreover,
S 8 feet high and as many wide. By the side of this
there is also an artificial canal, which in like manner
goes quite through the mountain; and though only 3
feet in breadth, is 30 feet deep. This, by the means
of pipes, conveys to the city the waters of a copious
spring.”

++ ---30 feet ------ 77-77

The commentators on this passage say that Hero-
Nez dotus must have made a mistake, but the Rey. H. F.
Fic. 1.—Cross section L0zZer, in his book The Islands of the AXgean, page

of the Aqueduct of 167, gives the results of a personal visit.

Heater tarne ® He says the tunnel is 7 to 8 feet in width; that

two-thirds of its width is occupied by a footpath, the
other third being a water course, 30 feet deep at one end. He and
other writers consider that insufficient allowance was made for the fall
of the water, and that the water channel had to be deepened. To
describe it in more modern language, the resident engineer evidently
made a mistake in his levels, necessitating a much deeper excavation
than was at first anticipated.

Another and, if possible, a more interesting instance of tunneling
is that described in the Proceedings of the Palestine Exploration
Society, in connection with the Pool of Siloam, made by Hezekiah,
B. C. 710, 2 Kings, xx, 20.” (See fig. 2.)

About 710 B. C. a tunnel was driven from the spring to the well—
by actual tunneling—the work being commenced at the two ends, and
by shafts, and the workmen met in the middle. The tunnel was only

* Herodotus, III, p. 60. > Palestine Exploration, 1882, p. 178.

THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 619

2 feet in width, and 3 feet in height, except at the probable point of
meeting, where the height is 4 feet 6 inches. The length is 1,708 feet,
and there is a fall of 1 foot in this distance. About the middle of its
course there are apparently two false cuts, as if a wrong direction had
been taken; but possibly these were intentional, and provided passing
places for the workmen and material.
On the soffit of the tunnel is carved an inscription, of which the fol-
lowing is a translation:
‘*Behold the excavation. Now this had been the history of the
excavation. While the workmen were still lifting up the pick, each
toward his neighbor, and while 3 cubits (4 feet 6 inches) still remained
to cut through, each heard the voice of the other, who called to his
neighbor, since there was an excess of rock on the right hand and on
the left. And on the day of the excavation the workmen struck each
to meet his neighbor pick against pick, and there flowed the waters
from the spring to the pool for 1,200 cubits (1,820 feet), and 100 cubits
(151 feet) was the height of the rock over the head of the workmen.”
A Roman engineer gives an account of a tunnel which was being
driven under his directions for an aqueduct. And as he was only

Point of Meeting
< 6
POOL OF aes
PES oe

SILOAM

K 2
Fst Share 2 Shast The Virgins
30 Fe. Wed

(Noe to Scala)
Fic. 2.—Plan of Tunnel from Spring to Pool of Siloam.
able to yisit the work occasionally, he describes how on one of his
visits he found the two headings had missed each other, and he says
that had his visit been deferred much longer there would have been
two tunnels.

The accurate meeting of the headings or driftways of a tunnel can
only be attained by the exercise of great care, both as regards direc-
tion as well as level.

We need not go very far to find instances of such an error as inac-
curate meeting, but there is one well-known case on an important
main line in the Midland ccunties where the engineers failed to meet,
and to this day reverse curves exist in the tunnel to overcome the
difficulty.

To attain this accurate meeting fine wires are hung down the shafts
of a tunnel, with heavy plumb bobs suspended from them in buckets
of water, or of tar, to bring their oscillations to rest, the accurate direc-
tion being given by means of a theodolite or transit instrument on the
surface.

The wires are capable of side movement by means of a delicate
instrument (which is on the table), and are gradually brought exactly

620 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

into the same vertical plane; hence, if they are correct at ‘* bank,” or
surface, they must also be correct below ground. The engineers
below have to drive the galleries or headings so that only one wire is
visible from their instrument; so long as one wire exactly eclipses the
other wire, the gallery is being driven in the right direction.

As regards accuracy in levels, this is done by ordinary leveling; but
it will be seen at once how much depends on care being devoted to
both these operations.

Assume two shafts, 1,000 yards apart, between which a gallery has
to be driven, and allowing a distance of 10 feet between the wires,
which are one-fortieth inch in diameter, an error of the diameter of
the wire at the shaft will cause a mistake of nearly 4 inches at the point

of meeting, or of 7} inches if a similar error occurs at the other shaft:
in the opposite direction. The trickling of water down the wires —

increases their diameter so appreciably, and therefore conduces to
further inaccuracy, that it is found necessary to fix a small shield or
umbrella on the wire to deflect the water. (This shield is to be seen
on the table.)

Some years ago, a tunnel which had been commenced, but not fin-

Fic. 3.—Plan.

ished, had to be completed. The first thing to be done by the engi-
neers was to make an accurate survey of the then condition of the
work—this rough sketch (see fig. 3) indicates what was discovered.
The explanation given by the former ‘* ganger” was, that he found
the rock too hard, and he thought that by bearing round somewhat to
the right he might get into more easily excavated material!

When the wires are hung down the shaft it is sometimes almost
impossible to prove that they are not touching, and consequently
being deflected from the true vertical line by some rope or pipe, stag-
ing or timber in the shaft. To overcome this, an electrical current
was passed down the wire—a galvanometer being in circuit. If the
wire proved absolutely silent, and no deflection was obtained in the
galvanometer, the conclusion could be safely drawn that the wire was
hanging freely and truly.

In driving the necessary adit or heading for drainage purposes
beneath a subaqueous tunnel, a rising gradient from the shaft bottom
of 1 in 500 is allowed, to enable the water at the ‘‘ face” to flow away
from the workmen to the pumps in the ‘‘sump” or shaft bottom (see
fig. 4).

THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 621

When the heading is driven sufficiently forward to justify the
commencement of the main tunnel, a fresh difficulty presents itself.
This main tunnel has to be driven down hill, and consequently the
water collects at the working face A; the bottom can not therefore be
removed until a bore-hole is put down from A to a. When this is
done the remaining excavation can be taken out, and a further length
of tunnel driven to B. A bore hole is now sunk from B to 4, whilst
that from A to @ can be plugged up; and thus the tunnel is gradually
advanced.

By the adoption of the Greathead shield much of this difficulty can
be avoided; but one subaqueous tunnel through water-bearing strata,
at considerable depth, is sufficient for a lifetime.

As an illustration of the danger to which men are exposed in such
work, it is stated, with much regret, that in a certain tunnel, notwith-

Theodolite

Wire | Were

SORA °oyg PON SN
evel (for
N

Ns MQY WS \ (Not to Scale)

Fic. 4.—Diagrammatie section to illustrate method of constructing tunnel below river bed.

standing every precaution being taken, all the men engaged in driving
the drainage heading by means of a tunneling machine have died;
and in the case of the first Vyrnwy tunnel crossing of the River
Mersey—driving by Greathead shield under pressure—the mortality
was great.

Having explained in very general terms some of the difficulties of
tunnel construction, we will proceed to the case of the great tunnels
through the Alps, and for the purpose of rendering the subject more
easily intelligible, the following particulars may be given:

Byeere eee | Arlberg. |Simplon.
Mem aatoly tina Oban less o..2)\s asi le Sac coy ha aehe ea seceees 9.3 7.98 6.36 12. 26
North or east portal above sea level...........-. eyteseren feet... 3, 639 3, 766 4, 296 2, 254
South or west portal above sea level.,..............--- dor... 3, 707 4,164 3, 998 2, 080
ESS), [COGS ard etree ea cere PS ae ae Tee en as 3, 788 4, 248 41,300 2,314
Maximum grade in tunnel per 1,000............2............-- 5. 82 30 15 : 7
Maximum height of mountain above tunnel .......... feet... 5, 598 5, 428 2, 362 7,005
Possible maximum temperature of rock ......... deg. Fahr.. 85 85 65 104

622 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.
MONT CENIS TUNNEL.

The Mont Cenk, or as it is more accurately called, the Frejus Tun-
nel, is nearly 8 miles in length. It is for a double line of way, width
being 26 feet and height above rails 20 feet 6 inches. The construe-
tion is of excellent character, and it is lined throughout with either
masonry or brickwork, except for two lengths of 100 meters and 70
meters, respectively. In these two lengths solid white quartz was
encountered, and two years were occupied in penetrating it. The gal-
lery of direction is straight throughout the actual tunnel, being curved
away to the portals.

The system of setting out will be described in more detail when we
come to consider the case of the Simplon, but in passing we may
remark one peculiarity which does not attach to the other tunnels, viz,
that the gallery of direction on the Italian side is shut off by a massive
grating from the railway tunnel, and is occupied by guns and Gatlings
and by a detachment of artillery, the French portal being commanded
by an armor-plated fort.

The approaches to the tunnel, both on the Italian and French sides,
are severe, amounting to 30 per 1,000 or 1 in 33 on the former, and 25
per 1,000 or 1 in 40 on the latter.

Owing to an alteration during construction on the Bardonnechia
side, it became necessary to introduce an ascending gradient for about
1 kilometer in length at the Italian end of the tunnel, and this has
resulted in seriously compromising the ventilation

A rough diagram will serve to give an idea of the ee and the
consequent difficulty in working the traffic.

Trains coming from France with an ascending gradient of 1 in 40
against them for a length of 7 kilometers, when followed by a current
of air in the same direction, produce a most disastrous state of things.
In this tunnel, as in all other steep tunnels, engines having a heavy load
behind them go through with their regulator full open, ejecting great
volumes of smoke and steam, which travel concurrently with the train,
and the inconvenience and discomfort produced are very great.

At each kilometer in the tunnel a refuge or ‘‘ grande chambre” is
provided for the men, and this is supplied with compressed air, fresh
water, a telephone in each direction out, a medicine chest, barometer,
and thermometer.

The custodians of the tunnel go in pairs, and if one man is affected
by the want of oxygen or dense smoke, the other can render assistance
or telephone for further help. The men can retire into these cham-
bers, close the door, turn on the air, and wait either for the tunnel to
clear or for a locomotive to fetch them out. ;

The temperature in the middle of the tunnel remains nearly con-
stant, summer and winter, and is about 19° to 20° C. = 66° to 68° F.

The altitude of the tunnel is 4,248 feet above sea level, and the

Pate |.

Fox.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

THE METHOD OF TRANSPORTING THE

MINERS ABOUT TO ENTER THE TUNNEL AT BRIGUE, IN THE RHONE VALLEY.

SIMPLON TUNNEL.

SMALL HAND TUNNEL WAGONS UPON LARGER TRUCKS IS SHOWN.

<=

THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 623

height of the mountain above the tunnel is 5,428 feet; the temperature
of the rock is greatly influenced by this latter fact.

The question of the temperature of the rocks passed through in the
construction of a tunnel

is one of great interest, jeres 3.000 Smerres

10 20 36 40 50 60 70

as it depends upon sey- ree tt sae

OF ae We, NTAL ve iy (ae ere |
eral conditions: (1) The tae ee see ;
character of the rock; /

(2) the inclination of the
beds, those which attain
a vertical or nearly ver-
tical position being less
able to confine the heat
than those which are
more or less horizontal];
(3) the height of the
mountain above the tun-
nel, or, in other words,
the thickness of the

2 000:
blanket.
A diagram is shown
(see fig. 5) giving the 600

temperature actually
encountered in the St.
Gothard and Arlberg ve
tunnels, and from these,
aided by the carefully
prepared geological sec- mour cens Ie

1333 Metres a ARLBEAG

16.2

tion along the- center 300 LE 310 mecres
line of the Simplon Tun- s ke
nel, an approximate line [182 Metres
(in red) is given of the 00 ie
temperatures which are tye 3
expected.
The possibility of oe
cooling the rocks and 800
the air of the tunnel will ; ee.
be dealt with later on, o
but there is in addition Fats

; Fic. 5.—Curves showing depths corresponding to an increase in
a permanent lowering temperature of 1° C. for the Mont Cenis, Gothard, and Arlberg

of the temperature after enh curve of probable temperature for the Simplon
the tunnel is complete,

particulars of which will be given under the description of the St.
Gothard.

For each 144 feet of superincumbent rock or earth the increase is
found to be 1° F.

624 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL.

This, which is at present the longest railway tunnel in the world, is
9.3 miles in length, and constitutes the summit of the ‘‘Gothard
bahn”—that is, the railway which runs from Lucerne to Chiasso on
the Italian frontier. There are about 100 tunnels in all, most of which
are for double line of way, the permanent way Reing very heavy, the
rails weighing 100 pounds to the yard.

The altitude of the tunnel at its north portal is 3,639 feet, and at its
south portal 3,757 feet above the sea. A eallany of direction was
driven throughout, and the gradient of the rails is only such as to pro-
vide for efficient drainage, viz., 5.82 per 1,000, or about 1 in 172.

The following table may be of interest, giving the result of investi-
gations as to the cooling of the rocks:

TEMPERATURE OF THE ROCK IN THE ST. GOTHARD TUNNEL.

[Degrees are centigrade. ]

7.3 kilo. from the north 7.05 kilo. from the south
portal. portal.
Date. Lowering. | Lowering.
Temper- >|) CMP Clan eee ==
ature. Succes- | my¢, ature, Succes-
Rigen Total. cinae Total.
(eo) fe} fe) (eo) ° fo}
April and May, 1880, the year when the tun-

Melwas PLeELCeds fc iaeta nee meee es eee SOs 46.5.) siecle tee 90/08) |e cian oe | eee
VINE PROS O es cea See eee ete cites aEeetae 23.73 GAY Cia Gee ase 23.39 pk Meee
DIT ABS S terse eee = tke eee ee eta Se Fe 22. 20 1.53 8. 26 23.1 0. 29 7.48

|

Although the works were carried on with energy, and with all the
best appliances then known, the time occupied was ten years; but the
most serious feature of the work was the heavy mortality among the
men. No less than 600 deaths occurred, including those of both the
engineer and contractor.

From the experience then gained great improvements have been
introduced into the works of the Simplon, as will be described later

n; but the heavy loss of life in the St. Gothard was due to insufficient
ventilation, the high temperature, the exposure of the men to the
Alpine climate after emerging from the tunnel, the want of care as to
the changing of the men’s wet mining clothes, and the poor character
of he food with which the men supplied themselves. All this has
been greatly ameliorated, and even in English tunnels certain improve-
ments have been introduced which were brought from Switzerland.

The traffic through the tunnel has so largely increased that the ques-
tion of ventilation became of pressing impor ance, and the system of
Signor Saccardo, the well-known Government inspector of railways
and engineer of Bologna, has been installed, which is an ingenious

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THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 625

appucation of the injector system. One of the first introductions of
this method was in the case of the Pracchia Tunnel, on the main line
between Florence and’ Bologna, through the Apennines. This is a
railway of single line, and was built many years ago by the late Mr.
Brassey. There are 52 tunnels in all, but those on the eastern side
are of comparatively little importance. On the western slope the
gradient nearly throughout is 25 per 1,000 (or 1 in 40), a d it is here
the greatest difficulty exists. There are several tunnels whose lengths
approximate to 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 yards, and the traffic is both
heavy and frequent, the locomotives very powerful, with eight wheels
coupled.

Under any conditions of wind the state of the longest tunnel is bad,

Ce coretia oe Lee
; 1U Ske AIR CHAMBER

CURRENT
—+»

im

SS SSNS SANANAANAR NAA ANAS AAAS BS

INDUCTION

Fig. 6.—The Saccardo system of ventilating tunnels.

but when the wind is blowing in at the lower end at the same time
that a heavy goods or passenger train is ascending the gradient a state
of affairs is produced which is almost insupportable, and one might as
conveniently travel in a furnace flue.

A heavy train of dining and sleeping carriages, with two engines,
conveying one of the crowned heads of Europe and suite, arrived at the
exit of Pracchia tunnel with both enginemen and both firemen insen-
sible; and in other cases passengers have been seriously affected.

Owing to the height of the mountain, no shafts are available; but
Signor Saccardo places a ventilating fan near the mouth of the tunnel
and blows air into it through the annular space which exists between
the arch of the tunnel and the gauge of maximum construction. (See

sm 1901——40

626 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

fig. 6.) The results are remarkable; the volumes of air thrown into
the tunnel per minute being as follows:

Cubie feet.

Direct from the fants. <2: 2.2024 524 ech eee Oe eee ee eee 161, 860
Induced. drait' through open’ tummel mouth == 22 spe oe eee eee 48, 140
Total! ee. 2 SE ee 210, 000

or 100 cubic meters per second.

The temperature of the tunnel air before the fan was started was

107° F., with 97 per cent of moisture, whereas after the fan had been ~
running a few minutes the temperature was 81° F., or a lowering of —

26° F., and the tunnel was cool and free from smoke and vapor.

One can travel through with both windows open and feel no incon-
venience, the only remark of the brakeman riding on the top of the
wagons and carriages being that he finds it almost too cold.

This application is without doubt the solution of the difficult prob-
lem of tunnel ventilation under high mountains and elsewhere where
shafts are not available and where electric traction is not applicable.

This system has within the last twelve months been brought into
operation on the St. Gothard, with the most satisfactory results. Care-
ful experiments are being made, but there is no doubt that the prob-
lem has been solved.

In addition to these tunnels, the Saccardo system has been applied
to the Giovi Tunnel, near Genoa—3,300 meters in length—and is being
installed on the Giovo Tunnel on the Genoa-Roneco Railway, 8,303
meters in length, besides on some seven other tunnels in Italy, and
plans are being prepared for the Mont Cenis.

THE SIMPLON TUNNEL.

This tunnel is now in rapid course of construction, the total length
of gallery driven up to end of April being as follows:

Yards. -
On the north, or Brigue;, side ofthe: Alps’: - 25> S2e 55 2 eee ee ee 3, 228
On the'south, or Isellé;. side‘of the Alps.-3. 2: S255. 0-5 ee eee ee 2, 350.

or over 3 miles in little more than eighteen months, including the necessarily slow
progress at the commencement.

The total distance between the two portals will be 21,564 yards, or
12.26 miles. A gallery of direction has been driven at both ends until

the actual tunnels are reached, so as to form a directly straight line —

for the accurate alignment of the work, from end to end.

This great undertaking will consist of two single-line tunnels run-
ning parallel one to the other, at a distance apart from center to center
of 55 feet 9 inches; and one of the chief features is the much lower alti-
tude of the rails above sea level than any of the other Alpine tunnels.
This altitude is at its highest point 2,314 feet, being 1,474 feet lower
level than that of the St. Gothard, 1,934 feet lower than that of the

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THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 627

Mont Cenis, and 1,986 feet lower than that of the Arlberg. This is a
matter of great importance in the question of haulage of all the traftic.

The tunnel enters the mountain at the present level of the railway
at Brigue, so that no costly approaches are requisite on this side; but
on the Iselle side, the connecting line with the existing railway at
Domo d’Ossola necessitates heavy work with one helical tunnel. The
gradient on the northern portion of the tunnel will only be that sufli-
cient for drainage, viz, 1 in 500, but on the southern portion the
gradient will be 7 per 1,000, or 1 in 142.

Admirable arrangements have been made for the welfare of the
men, to avoid the heavy death rate which occurred on the St. Gothard,
and it may be interesting to state what some of these are. For every
cubic foot of air sent into the latter tunnel, fifty times as much will be
delivered into the Simplon. Special arrangements are made for cool-
ing the air by means of fine jets of water and spray.

The men on emerging from their work, wet through and fatigued,
are not allowed to go from the warm headings into the cold Alpine air
outside, but pass into a large building which is suitably warmed, and
where they change their mining clothes and are provided with hot
and cold douche baths. They put on warm dry clothes, and can
obtain excellent food at a moderate cost before returning to their
homes. Their wet and dirty mining clothes are taken charge of by
appointed custodians, who dry and clean them ready for the morrow’s
work. These and other precautions are expected to reduce the death
rate to a very great extent.

With a view to the rapid advancement of the work, the late M.
Brandt, whose death is greatly to be deplored, devised after his long
experience on the St. Gothard his now well-known drill. As details
of this have been published, and as they would be too technical for
this evening’s discourse, it will only be necessary to refer to them
briefly. This drill is nonpercussive, nor is it armed with diamond.
It is a rotary drill 3 inches in diameter with a pressure on the cutting
points of 10 tons moving at slow speed, but capable of being acceler-
ated at pleasure, and of being rapidly withdrawn. It is armed with a
steel tool with 3 cutters, of which samples are on the table. The car-
riage on which it is mounted enables it to work in any direction. The
face of the tunnel is attacked by 10 to 12 holes in the case of the
hardest rock, those in the center being 3 feet 3 inches in depth, while
those round the circumference are 4 feet 7 inches. The drills are
driven by hydraulic pressure of 100 atmospheres, or 1,470 pounds, to
the inch, and the cutter having a three-quarter-inch hole along its
center, all the waste water is discharged right onto the cutting edges,
thus keeping them cool and washing out the débris.

The time taken for each portion of the attack in the hard Antigorio
gneiss is as follows: Bringing up and adjustment of drills, twenty

628 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

minutes; drilling, one and three-fourths to two and one-half hours;
charging and firing, fifteen minutes; clearing away débris, two hours;
or a total of between four and one-half to five and one-half hours,
resulting in an advance of 3 feet 9 inches, or a daily advance of
nearly 19 feet 6 inches.

The progress of each of the two faces during the month of April last
has averaged 17 feet 34 inches per day, and is a remarkable corrob-
oration of the speed estimated by the engineers four years ago. The
estimate was as follows:

Daily progress at each face: Feet.
Mirst. years Sitio. 32 oes See eee ee ee ee ee 8. 85
Sevond year ons .cseui 5. Bost eee Ree es ee 17. 22
Mbird year's cs syste ae bes Fase Ee Be ee Dee eee ee 19. 18
Fourth Years 25..7. << 2 nck eee e Beee ee ees oe a ee eee a aoe 21. 32
Put year... Fos2t feece sce hat One ae ee ees Boe eee a eee re 31. 16

The work is now in its second year, so that the estimated speed is
being exceeded. In other words, the tunnel is being driven through
granite at a higher speed than is attained in London clay.

Water power is abundant, and the waters of the Rhone are har-
nessed to the work, whilst those of the Diveria, provide the power at
Iselle.

Views are given of the intake from the Rhone, the concrete aque-
duct, the metallic conduit pipes, 3 feet, and 3 feet 2 inches in diameter,
which carry a pressure of 250 pounds to the inch. The further neces-
sary increase in pressure is obtained by high-pressure pumps in the
power house.

It was at one time intended to sink a 20-inch bore hole from the
village of Berisal to the tunnel, a depth of some 2,400 feet, for the
purpose of delivering water at high pressure for the works. This
may still be done, but the meandering of the tool might result in the
awkward dilemma of having to search for it, in solid rock, below
ground.

Some few years ago a rather amusing incident occured in connec-
tion with a tunnel, which is worth recording. A certain railway com-
pany were constructing a tunnel beneath and nearly at right angles to
an existing tunnel of one of the large English railway companies. As
the legal formalities were not actually completed, the engineers were
requested to stay proceedings until all was in order, and they instructed
the contractors accordingly, but the latter were anxious not to incur
any delay, and they quietly and surreptitiously continued to drive
their heading through. The engineer of the existing railway suspected
this, and sank a bore hole on the center line of the new work, expect-
ing his tool would, at the correct level, drop into the heading, ata
depth of 70 feet. The contractors looked for a similar result, and
therefore placed a sheet of steel on the roof of their drift, so that the

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THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS. 629

tool, when it encountered the steel plate, would simply grind away on
the top.

But, to the mutual surprise of both the engineer of the existing
company and of the contractors for the new work, no drill was
encountered, although it had gone to a lower depth than was necessary,
some 90 feet. The engineer thereupon lowered, in a foolhardy man-
ner, an explosive charge, and blew in the side of the heading, the
tool having meandered several feet to one side. Fortunately no one
was hurt, but the engineer was still in ignorance as to what had hap-
pened. A bright idea struck him—namely, to lay on the town fire
supply of water down the hole to see if he could fill it. The result
was, he nearly washed the men away in the heading!

Hlectrie traction.—lIt is desirable to point out how very necessary
it may be, in the case of this and other long tunnels, that electric trac-
tion should be adopted. Abundant power close at hand already exists;
the air of the tunnel would not be vitiated—a matter of great impor-
tance where briquette fuel is used—and the rapidity of conducting the
traffic would be improved.

In Baltimore an electric locomotive is attached to the through
expresses, which takes them through, steam engine and all, at 50 to 60
miles an hour. No stoppage of the express is required at the farther
end, the electrical locomotive running ahead into a siding; and some of
the very heaviest freight trains, including the locomotive and tender
(far heavier than are ever seen in Great Britain), are hauled against a
gradient of 1 in 138 at 15 miles an hour.

In fact, in England, we are most lamentably backward in the
employment of electricity, and unless the central and the local author1-
ties can be aroused from their lethargy, and from their opposition to
all such enterprises, England will continue to lag in the rear of other
nations, instead of, as in past years, teaching them a more perfect
method.

In conclusion, may I ask for the sympathy, nay more, for a silent
prayer on behalf of our tunnel and railway heroes, when we are pass-
ing along some of the great railway works of the country or of the
world.

Need I refer to that young resident engineer who, when a length of
a certain tunnel during construction through quicksand fell in, burying
11 men, volunteered at the risk of his life, in consequence of the men
being panic-stricken, to go down the shaft and rebuild the damaged
work with his own hands and alone? And to that ganger who, having
held back for a time, seeing that the engineer was determined to do
the work, jumped into the bucket with some strong language to the
effect ‘‘ that he wouldn’t see the master killed alone,” and went down,

and they two completed the next length before the men would return
to work.

630 THE GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS.

There are heroes on our railways as there are in our army and navy, _
and they deserve better recognition. May I plead on behalf of our
inspectors and superintendents of our great railway stations, who are
in many cases almost worked to death, and yet have to be attentive
and courteous to all; albeit, except in certain honorable exceptions,
they are unable to make proper provision for old age? And shouid it
be necessary for a station master, after six years’ work at a great rail-
way junction, to drop into his graye with the simple epitaph ‘‘ tired
out?”

Pee Mad tHE

THE MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES.
By Cyartes A. WHITE.

During the sixth and seventh decades of the century just closed there
occurred so great a change in methods of scientific thought and prac-
tice among biologists that it may be properly designated as a revolution.
It was caused mainly by the writings of Charles Darwin, in which he
promulgated his theory of the evolutional origin of species by natural
selection. No theory pertaining to natural-science ever called forth
more bitter and uncompromising controversy among both scientists
and the people at large, and none was ever more earnestly advocated.
Some naturalists eagerly accepted it for all, and even more than, the
author claimed for it; but some of the older and ablest of those students
of nature were then willing to accept it only as a working hypothesis.
Although it has necessarily always remained purely a theory, unsup-
ported by any practical demonstrations or experimental observations,
it explained so many things pertaining to the genesis of organic forms
as natural phenomena, and explained them so much better than had
ever been done before, that during the last quarter of a century the
Darwinian theory may be said to have had universal acceptance. Still,
there has not been wanting from time to time the expression of more
or less plausible, and even valid, objections to portions of that theory
on the part of sincere and able naturalists, of which all honest investi-
gators have taken due cognizance.

None of the obiections referred to, however, has hitherto seemed to
materially modify the prevailing confidence in the Darwinian theory,
which confidence has doubtless been increased by the powerful influence
which that theory has exerted in the adoption of evolutional methods in
the study of all branches of natural as well as of social science. Still,
a revulsion of opinion concerning all mere theories is always liable to
occur, and while no true naturalist will ever desire the least diminution
of the fame of Darwin, and none will ever abandon the fundamental
principles of evolution, it is not improbable that the now prevailing
estimation of his theory of the origin of species by natural selection
will eventually be modified in some important respects. In the course
of the year 1901 there was published in the German language the first
volume, in separate parts, of an exhaustive work* which is evidently

“Die Mutationstheorie. Versuche und Beobachtungen tber die Entstehung yon

Arten im Pflanzenreich. Von Hugo de Vries. Leipzig, 1901.
631

632 MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES.

destined to make a strong impression of that kind upon biologists
because of its eminently scientific presentation, and because it promul-

gates a theory of the origin of species by mutation that is in materiak

disagreement with the Darwinian theory of their origin by natural
selection. The work is to consist of two volumes, the second of which
will probably not be fully published before the end of 1902. The
mutation theory therein enunciated, however, has been foreshadowed
in previous lesser publications by the same author, it is so fully stated
in the already published parts of the present work, and is so remark-
able in its character, that it is thought proper to present a brief state-
ment of its leading features at this time.

The subject-matter of this work is arranged under two principal
heads for the two volumes, respectively, namely, ‘‘The Origin of
Species by Mutation,” and ‘* Elementary Hybridity.” Necessarily,
only the first volume can now be considered, but that contains the
only part which I should care to discuss at the present time, even if
the other volume were now published. In fact, I shall discuss only
that portion of Volume I which contains the formal exposition of the
mutation theory. The author presents his subject strongly and une-
quivocally, but with evident candor and sincerity of purpose and after
long and patient investigation. As I wish to give the author’s views
of his mutation theory as far as possible in the English equivalent of
the language used by him, the following quotations are selected alter-
nately and translated from the author’s preface, introduction, and text,
respectively:

‘The doctrine of the origin of species has hitherto been a conven-
tional science. It is generally believed that this important occurrence
ig withdrawn from actual observation, or at least from experimental
treatment. This conviction is founded upon the prevailing conception
concerning specific characters and upon the opinion that species of
plants and animals are always produced from one another by extremely
slow degrees. It is thought that these metamorphoses are so slow
that a human life is not long enough to witness the production of a
new form. The purpose of the present work is to show the opposite
view—that species originate by sudden starts, and that each one of
these saltatory occurrences is, as good observations show, a true
physiological process; that all such suddenly produced forms are sepa-
rated from one another by at least as sharp and numerous characters
as are most of the so-called minor species, and as are many of the
nearly reiated forms of the best systematists. It is thus made pos-
sible to learn by means of actual observation, cultivation, and experi-
ment the laws which govern the production of new species. These
laws are evidently as applicable to animals as to plants. ‘As a botan-
ist, I have confined myself to the latter, but in the confident hope that
my results will later be also employed in the study of animals.

‘*'The whole subject of variability falls under two heads—variability
in the narrow sense and mutation. The first is variously designated
as common, individual, and fluctuating, or gradual variability.
Mutation forms a special division of the methods of variation. It does

MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES. 633

not occur flowingly, but in steps, without transition, and it occurs less
frequently than do the common variations, which are continuously and
constantly at hand. The contrast between the two kinds at once
appears if one considers the proposition that the attributes of organ-
isms are built up of fixed and sharply detined units. These units com-
bine in groups, and in the kindred of species the same units and
groups are reproduced. The origination of a new unit signifies a
mutation. Every addition of a unit to a group constitutes a step,
originates a new group, and separates the new form sharply and fully
as an individual species from the one out of which it has been pro-
duced. The new species is at once such, and originates from the
former species without apparent preparation and without gradation.
Each attribute, of course, arises from one previously present, not by
their normal variation, but by one small yet sudden change. Pro-
visionally, one may compare these changes, but only in the simplest
manner, with chemical substitution.

‘**In the first section of this book the mutation theory is contrasted
with the selection theory. The latter assumes the common variability
to be the starting point of the origin of a new species, but according
to the mutation theory the two processes are quite independent of each
other. Common variability, as I hope to show, does not lead, by even
the sharpest persistent selection, to any real transgression of the limits
of species, much less to the origin of new and constant attributes.”

It is in the first section of Volume I that the author discusses at
length selection and mutation, mutability and variability, all the vari-
ous theories of evolution that have been proposed, the effects of cli-
mate and of horticultural breeding, the limitations and characteristics
of species and varieties, and other pertinent subjects. He concludes
that section of the volume with the following summary concerning the
nature of his theory:

‘**(1) The doctrine of morphological and historical descent deals with
the origin of the Linnean, or collective species, the genera, families,
and higher groups. The doctrine of experimental descent deals with
the origin of elementary species, or, more strictly speaking, with the
origin of specific characters.

**(2) * The true danger reef of the Darwinian theory is the transition
from artificial breeding selection to natural selection.’ (Paul Janet.)
This reef can only be avoided when one recognizes the improvement of
races and the origination of new forms as two entirely different occur-
rences, only apparently passing into each other. For Darwin, they
stand side by side, the one in no way excluding the other, although, as
a rule, he has not sharply differentiated them.

** (3) ‘No two individuals of any planting are entirely alike.’ This
well-known proposition is to be confined to the province of real fluctu-
ating variability. It stands in no relation to the doctrine of descent,
if one accepts the mutation theory.

**(4) ‘Species have originated by natural selection in the struggle
for existence.’ But this statement needs explanation. The struggle
for existence—that is, competition for existence—embraces two entirely
different points. Whenever the contest occurs between individuals of
one and the same elementary species, it also occurs between the differ-
ent species as such. The first-mentioned contest pertains to the

634 MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES.

doctrine of variability, the second to that of mutation. In the first-
mentioned case those individuals survive which find their life condi-
tions most favorable, and they are therefore generally the most
vigorous. By this process local races originate, and by it acclimati-
zation is made possible. If the new life conditions cease, then the.
adapted races revert to the original type.

‘* Natural selection in the struggle for existence between the newly
originated elementary species is quite different. These originate sud-
denly, unmediated, and multiply themselves if nothing stands in the

yay, because they are for the most part completely, or in a high
degree, heritable. If, then, the increase leads to a struggle for exist-
ence, the weaker succumb and are rooted out. According as the older
or the younger form happens to be the better suited for the life condi-
tions will one or the other survive. By this struggle for existence
species are no more likely to originate than they are by the struggle
between the variants of one and the same type, but evidently from
quite a different cause. To be able to come into competition with
one another, species must exist. The contest decides which of them
shall survive and which shall perish. These ‘species selections,’
the course of their evolution, have, without doubt, rooted out immense
numbers and retained only a small proportion. Briefly stated, I
assert, of course on the ground of the mutation theory, that by the
struggle for existence and by natural selection species do not origi-
nate, ‘Dut perish.

ie (5) Herbert Spencer’s well-known expression, *the survival of the
fittest,’ is of course divisible into two propositions: The survival of
the fittest individuals within the constant species, or the formation of
local races, and the survival of the fittest species as the foundation
of the doctrine of descent. The two propositions are independent of
each other and belong to different categories.

‘**(6) According to the mutation theory, species have not originated
by gradual selection, continued through hundreds or thousands of
years, but by sudden steps, even if the changes are very small. Unlike
the variations, which are progressive changes i in a direct line, those
metamorphoses which are designated as mutation branch off in new
directions. Furthermore, so far as experience goes, they occur at
random—that is, in the most diverse directions. They appear only
from time to time, and then probably under the operation of determi-
nate causes.”

It should be borne in mind that throughout this work the author
always restricts the term ‘‘ mutation” to the designation of sudden phy-
logenetic changes, which he distinguishes sharply from all forms of
mere variation, however pronounced they may be, and also that in the
following remarks I also use that term in the same restricted sense.
The bortientinral forms of variation are especially discussed in the
closing section of Volume I.

The second section of Volume I is entitled ‘‘The origination of
elementary species in the genus Cinothera,” and constitutes its larger
part. It consists of an elaborate statement, with numerous illustra-
tions, of the author’s experimental studies of the subject of mutation
which he instituted in a systematic manner in 1886, and which he has

MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES. 685

pursued uninterruptedly ever since. It appears that his first and
guiding proposition in connection with his experimental work was
that, in the different periods of their chronological life history, all
plants vary greatly in the ratio of their mutability; that is, all species
and genera, while they are always subject to the full range of fluctuat-
ing variability, exist at times in a mutable and at times in an immuta-
ble condition, the latter condition being much the more prevalent.
Indeed, so prevalent is the immutable condition among plants that only
a small proportion of the species embraced in the flora of any given
region may be found existing in their mutable period. Furthermore,
it was to be expected that some plants, even when in the fullness of
their mutable period, would exhibit their mutability more readily than
others. The germ of this theory is contained in the author’s little
book on intracellular pangenesis,* written just before he began his
experiments, wherein he gives the reasons which led him to believe
in mutability. His experimental studies here referred to were under-
taken for the purpose of discovering mutating plants and of demon-
strating his theory upon them.

Professor de Vries’s first effort was therefore toward the selection
of suitable plants for his experimental studies from the flora, both
native and introduced, which he found growing in the northern part
of Holland. For that purpose he placed under special cultivation in
experimental gardens at Amsterdam more than one hundred species of
plants, and prosecuted his preliminary experiments upon them. This
special cultivation was not for the purpose of producing horticultural
yariation in those plants, but for the purpose of protecting and aiding
such of them as should prove to be in their mutative period.

At the same time he also made numerous observations upon many
other plants in their natural habitat, with the same object in view.
The result of these preliminary experiments was that the so-called
Evening Primroses were found to respond more readily to mutative
influences than would any of the other species that came under his
observation. These are American species of plants, of the genus
(Enothera, that had been introduced into Holland, where they thrived
like native plants, both under cultivation and in a wild state. About
the year 1875 one of them, 0. Lamarckiana, began a most vigorous
multiplication and dispersion, especially from a center near the town
of Hilversum. This unusual exhibition of generative and dispersive
force was apparently correlated with the mutative impulse, for there
soon appeared among those plants two distinct species of Cnothera
that were before unknown, although the flora of that and other regions
had long passed under the severe scrutiny of Professor de Vries and
other able botanists. The inference seemed to be legitimate that those

636 MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES.

two species referred to originated from them then and there by spon-
taneous mutation. The latter inference accords with the author’s
proposition, that in their wild condition mutating plants produce many
new species; that most of these perish in the struggle for existence, and
that artificial cultivation protects all the new forms from destruction,
but is not of itself the cause of the origination of any.

It seems to have been this exhibition of mutative vigor in the Even.
ing Primroses that led its distinguished observer to adopt those plants
as the chief subjects of his experimental studies, and it is for this
reason that so large a part of his book is devoted to the exhaustive
exploitation of plants belonging to the genus nothera. The results
plainly show the wisdom of that choice, for by careful protection and the
aid of artificial pollination he succeeded in obtaining from them a con-
siderable number of new species, which are as well defined in all their
attributes as are any of the other species of that genus. Moreover, he
continued from year to year his experiments with the new species thus
produced, as well as with the original forms, and he asserts without
hesitation that in all their attributes the new forms are not only
sharply defined but that those attributes are entirely constant from
and after the moment of their origin; and, furthermore, that all those
attributes are as heritable as are those of any of the other species.
He practiced both inter and intra specific artificial pollination, but,
although he obtained the reproduction of some of the new forms under
the former method, the origination of species de novo under his experi-
ments seems to have been wholly by aid of the latter method; that is,
his experiments seem to prove that cross fertilization is not only not
necessary to mutation, but that mutation is not materially accelerated
by it. It is well known that some authors claim that thousands of
species of living plants have originated by hybridization. The
second volume will treat fully of that subject and of its relation to true
mutation.

The author supports all his statements with the most minute account
of his experiments, the results of which he also discusses fully. These
facts and discussions are of such a character that it seems difficult to
see how one can avoid accepting his conclusions without denying his
facts. Indeed, it may be frankly stated that should one accept his
conclusions the author will be thereby recognized as not only the pro-
pounder of a new and important biological theory, but the discoverer
of new and vital facts and principles relating to the origination and
perpetuation of organic forms. Furthermore, by accepting that theory
and admitting the facts upon which it is based, one must necessarily
regard the question of the origin of species as thereby removed from
the purely theoretical to the concrete; that is, from an undemonstrable
hypothesis to a series of concrete propositions and practical demon-
strations. These are strong statements, but they indicate what one

ll te

MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES. 637
must be prepared to admit who accepts the proposed mutation theory.
I may add that for reasons which I will state further on I am much
inclined to view this theory with favor, but the affirmative manner in
which I present this sketch of it may be regarded as indicating my
purpose to discuss the subject from the author’s standpoint.

This theory does not require that one should go back to the view
held by devout naturalists before Darwin’s time, that species are cate-
gories of creative thought in the Divine mind, but it does require that
one shall regard species as having a more real entity than he has been
accustomed to conceive of in connection with the theory of natural
selection. Professor de Vries expressly ciaims that mutation, although
suddenly accomplished, is strictly a physiological process, coincident
in its incipient manifestation with the function of reproduction. It is
therefore plain that his theory does not in any way oppose the funda-
mental fact of evolution, but offers a new theoretical explanation of
the method of its accomplishment.

Considering the completeness and success of the experimental studies
made by Professor de Vries with (Enothera, one naturally infers that
other plants also now exist in the fullness of their mutative period,
and that these would yield similar results under similar treatment.
Perhaps, also, certain species which are immutable in some regions
will be found to be mutable in others. Indeed, results that evidently
belong in the same category with those obtained by Professor de Vries
have, from time to time, been obtained by naturalists and horticultur-
ists from various plants, but those cases have not hitherto received the
interpretation that will be given to them by the mutation theory,
although they were known to be incompatible with the theory of nat-
ural selection. I have lately recorded a case of this kind,* and several
others have more or Jess fully engaged my personal attention.

Professor de Vries is confident that his theory is as applicable to
animals as to plants, and that conclusion is plainly a logical one; but
he makes no suggestion as to methods of experimental studies of that
kind, and I can make none. I have, however, in my paleontological
studies, been often confronted with facts with relation to both animal
and vegetable fossil forms that seem to be quite inconsistent with the
theory of their origin by the slow process of natural selection. _Dem-
oastrations of the truth of the mutation theory must, of course, always
he made with living organisms, but as much of its support must doubt-
less come from apriori reasoning, especially with reference to extinct
organic forms, I will close by mentioning a few of the many paleonto-
logical facts referred to. These seem to relate with peculiar force to
the primary proposition of the mutation theory, that all species have
originated from one another suddenly, and not by slow degrees; and,
also, to two of its secondary propositions. The first of these two is,

“See ‘‘Science,’’ Vol. XVI, n. s., Nov. 29, 1901, pp. 841-844.

638 MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES.

that the mutation theory is as applicable to animals as to plants, and
the second, that the ratio of the mutability of species and, by implica-
tion, also, of the higher groups, varies in the course of their chrono
logical life history. It is necessary to mention here that according to
the mutation theory each newly originated species, while possessing
distinctly separate attributes, is never very widely different from the
parent form. Wide differences result from the extinction of inter-
vening species and repeated mutations; and because newly mutated
species may themselves be immediately mutative, wide differences may
occur in a comparatively short time. This view of the subject has an
important bearing upon the following remarks.

The earliest known fossil faunas, those of the Cambrian age,
embrace remains representing five of the six animal subkingdoms,
namely, the Protozoa, Coelenterata, Annuloida, Annulosa, and Mol-
lusea. Furthermore, these fossil remains indicate a high degree of
faunal development, and proportionately wide differentiation in each
of those subkingdoms. That is, fossil remains of well-developed
faunas pertaining to all the animal subkingdoms, except the Vertebrata,
are found in the earliest known fossiliferous strata of the earth; and
the occurrence of remains pertaining to those five subkingdoms in all
subsequent subdivisions of the geological scale shows that their
genetic lines have come down without a break to the present day.
We know absolutely nothing of any earlier life than that represented
by those Cambrian forms; and we must assume their sudden, or at least
rapid, origination, or, by applying the theory of natural selection,
construct an evolutional parallax that, by its inconsiderable angle, will
carry back the origin of life upon the earth to a chronological point
inconceivably remote. It therefore seems unreasonable to apply the
theory of natural selection to this case.

The wonderful flora of the Carboniferous age stands out prominent
and unique from all the other known floras of the earth, and yet we
know little or nothing of its ancestry or of its genetic succession. Its
introduction and extinction were apparently too sudden and complete
to be satisfactorily explained by the theory of natural selection.

The earliest known remains of the great subclass of dinosaurian—
reptiles are found in the earlier Mesozoic strata, and the latest known
representatives of that subclass barely survived the close of Mesozoic
time. Those earliest dinosaurs existed in multitudes, and suddenly —
became the ruling animals of the earth. A large proportion of them
were of titanic size, and the grade of their organization was of the high-
est of their class. They were differentiated into flesh eaters and plant
eaters and into denizens of land and water respectively. We know —
absolutely nothing of their genetic origin; but their introduction upon —
the earth was evidently so sudden and their differentiation so great
and various that the theory of natural selection is plainly insufficient —

MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES. 639
to explain it. Furthermore, one can by no means feel confident that
the utter extinction of that great subclass was due to what has come
to be designated as the struggle for existence, because before that
occurrence. it had long ruled the animal life of the earth and was
apparently able to maintain its supremacy both upon land and water.

In the earlier Mesozoic strata remains of fresh-water molluscan
faunas are found that contain distinctly modern types. Among them
are species of the true genus (/n/o, which is one of the most widely
dispersed and characteristic fresh-water genera now living, and remains
of species belonging to it are found in other fresh-water deposits of
both Mesozoic and Tertiary age. That genus has therefore existed con-
tinuously and unchanged during all that stretch of geological time in
which all the mammals, all the birds, all the teleost fishes, and all the
exogenous plants of the earth were introduced and in which the dino-
saurs culminated and became extinct. Those earliest known speci-
mens of the genus Un/o are fully characteristic, but we know nothing
whatever of their origination or of any earlier related forms. It seems
impossible to assume that this genus was not suddenly produced, and
it seems equally evident that upon its introduction it passed at once
into its immutable state, which has continued until now, at least in a
main line.

The case seems to have been very different with other forms of ani-
mal life that are now extinct, especially with the placental mammals.
These apparently had no existence before the beginning of Tertiary
time, but they then suddenly appeared and assumed faunal dominion
of the earth in forms nearly or quite as highly organized and diverse as
are those which now exist; but every one of those earlier mammalian
forms, with many others of later origin, are now extinct. The muta-
tive period of each of those forms was probably coeyal with at least the
greater part of its faunal existence, and it seems necessary to assume
that the origination of all of them was of a rapid, if not saltatory char-
acter. The case of these mammals, on the one hand, and that of the
fresh-water mollusca that have been mentioned, on the other, may be
taken as extreme examples of the difference in the chronological ratio
of phylogenetic mutation among organic forms that existed in geolog
ical time.

Not only the placental mammals, but the birds of modern types, the
teleost fishes, and the exogenous plants, were also introduced with an
apparent suddenness that is inconsistent with the theory of natural
selection. It is true that the foreshortened view which we necessarily
get by tooking back into geological time may make the periods in
which those evolutional changes took place appear shorter than they
really were, but a different view would not change the proportional
elements of the problem.

One of the strongest arguments that have been used in support of

640 MUTATION THEORY OF PROFESSOR DE VRIES. a

the assumed extreme antiquity of the habitable condition of the earth —
has been drawn from the theory of the origination of organic forms —
by the slow process of natural selection. Indeed such extreme antiq- —
uity has been assumed expressly to meet the demands of that theory. —
A general acceptance of the mutation theory will remove that question —
from such discussions, and geological science would probably not suffer —
by the loss. _ 3

The great master, Darwin, in one of his aphorismic utterances, says —
that in ‘‘ scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypoth-
esis, and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts
it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory.” One can not doubt —
that if he were now living he would be among the first to give the ©
mutation theory respectful consideration. }

Whatever the final verdict of biologists may be concerning the theory —
that Professor de Vries has so elaborately proposed, the subject is so
important and the presentation is so carefully made that no student of
any branch of biology can afford to ignore it.

THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS.*
By F. A. Lucas.

‘* Shapes of all sorts and sizes, great and small.’’

A few million years ago, geologists and physicists do not agree
upon the exact number, although both agree upon the millions, when
the Rocky Mountains were not yet born and the now bare and arid
Western plains a land of lakes, rivers, and luxuriant vegetation, the
region was inhabited by a race of strange and mighty reptiles upon
whom science has bestowed the appropriate name of Dinosaurs, or
terrible lizards. : :

Our acquaintance with the Dinosaurs is comparatively recent, dating
from the early part of the nineteenth century, and in America, at
least, the date may be set at 1818, when the first Dinosaur remains
were found in the valley of the Connecticut, although they naturally
were not recognized as such, nor had the term been devised. The
first Dinosaur to be formally recognized as representing quite a new
order of reptiles was the carnivorous Megalosaur, found near Oxford,
England, in 1824.

For a long time our knowledge of Dinosaurs was very imperfect
and literally fragmentary, depending mostly upon scattered teeth,
isolated vertebrae, or fragments of bone picked up on the surface or
casually encountered in some mine or quarry. Now, however, thanks
mainly to the labors of American paleontologists, thanks also to the
rich deposits of fossils in our Western States, we have an extensive
knowledge of the Dinosaurs, of their size, structure, habits, and gen-
eral appearance.

There are to-day no animals living that are closely related to them;
none haye lived for a long period of time, for the Dinosaurs came to
an end in the Cretaceous, and it can only be said that the crocodiles,
on the one hand, and the ostriches, on the other, are the nearest exist-
ing relatives of these great reptiles.

For, though so different in outward appearance, birds and _ reptiles
are structurally quite closely allied, and the creeping snake and the

* Reprinted, with the accompanying illustrations, by permission of McClure, Phil-
lips & Co., from Animals of the Past.

sm 1901——41 641

642 THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS.

bird on which it preys are relatives, although any intimate relation-
ship between them is of the serpent’s making, and is strongly objected
to by the bird.

But if we compare the skeleton of a Dinosaur with that of an
ostrich—a young one is preferable—and with those of the earlier birds,
we shall find that many of the barriers now existing between reptiles —
and birds are broken down, and that they have many points in com-—
mon. In fact. save in the matter of clothes, wherein birds differ from
all other animals, the two great groups are not so very far apart.

The Dinosaurs were by no means confined to North America,
although the western United States seem to have been their head-_
quarters, but ranged pretty much over the world, for their remains
have been found in every continent, even in far-off New Zealand.

In point of time they ranged from the Trias to the Upper Cretace-
ous, their golden age, marking the culminating point of reptilian life,
being in the Jurassic, when huge forms stalked by the seashore,
browsed amid the swamps, or disported themselves along the reedy
margins of lakes and rivers.

They had their day, a day of many thousand years, and then passed
away, giving place to the superior race of mammals which was just
springing into being when the huge Dinosaurs were in the heyday of —
their existence.

And it does seem as if in the dim and distant past, as in the present,
brains were a potent factor in the struggle for supremacy; for, though
these reptiles were giants in size, dominating the earth through mere
brute force, they were dwarfs in intellect.

The smallest human brain that is thought to be compatible with life
itself weighs a little over 10 ounces, the smallest that can exist with
reasoning powers is 2 pounds; this in a creature weighing from 120
to 150 pounds.

What do we find among Dinosaurs! Thespesius, or Claosaurus,
which may have walked where Baltimore now stands, was 25 feet in
length and stood a dozen feet high in his hare feet, had a brain smaller
than a man’s clenched fist, weighing less than 1 pound.

Brontosaurus, in some respects the biggest brute that ever walked,
was but little better off, and Triceratops and his relatives, creatures
having twice the bulk of an elephant, weighing probably over 10 tons,
possessed a brain weighing not over 2 pounds. ;

How much of what we term intelligence could such a creature
possess—what was the extent of its reasoning powers‘ Judging from
our own standpoint and the small amount of intellect apparent in some
humans with much larger brains, these big reptiles must have known
just about enough to have eaten when they were hungry; anything
more was superfluous.

However, intelligence is one thing, life another, and the spinal cord

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THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS. 643

with its supply of nerve substance doubtless looked after the mere
mechanical functions of life; and while even the spinal cord is in
many cases quite small, in some places, particularly in the sacral
region, it is subject to considerable enlargement. This is notably true
of Stegosaurus, where the sacral enlargement is twenty times the bulk
of the puny brain—a fact noted by Professor Marsh, and seized upon
by the newspapers, which announced that he had discovered a Dinosaur
with a brain in its pelvis.

In their great variety of size and shape the Dinosaurs form an inter-
esting parallel with the Marsupials of Australia. For just as these
are, as it were, an epitome of the class of mammals, mimicking the
herbivores, carnivores, rodents, and even monkeys, so there are car-
nivorous and herbivorous Dinosaurs—Dinosaurs that dwelt on land
and others that habitually resided in the water, those that walked
upright and those that crawled about on all fours; and, while there
are no hints that any possessed the power of flight, some members of
the group are very bird-like in form and structure, so much so that
it has been thought that the two may have had a common ancestry.

The smallest of the Dinosaurs whose acquaintance we have made
were little larger than chickens; the largest claim the distinetion of
being the largest known quadrupeds that have walked the face of the
earth, the giants not only of their day, but of all time, before whose
huge frames the bones of the Mammoth, that familiar byword for all
things great, seem slight.

For Brontosaurus, the thunder lizard, beneath whose mighty tread
the earth shook, and his kindred were from 40 to 60 feet long and 10
to 14 feet high, their thigh bones measuring 5 to 6 feet in length,
being the largest single bones known to us, while some of the vertebrae
were 45 feet high, exceeding in dimensions those of a whale.

The group to which Brontosaurus belongs, including Diplodocus
and Morosaurus, is distinguished by a large, though rather short,
body, very long neck and tail, and, for the size of the animal, a very
small head. In fact, the head was so small and, in the case of Diplo-
docus, so poorly provided with teeth that it must have been quite a
task, or a long-continued pleasure, according to the state of its digestive
apparatus, for the animal to have eaten its daily meal.

An elephant weighing 5 tons eats 100 pounds of hay and 25 pounds
of grain for his day’s ration; but, as this food is in a comparatively
concentrated form, it would require at least twice this weight of green
fodder.

It is a difficult matter to estimate the weight of a live Diplodocus or
a Brontosaurus, but it is pretty safe to say that it would not be far
from 20 tons, and that one would devour at the very least something
over 700 pounds of leaves or twigs or plants each day—more, if the
animal felt really hungry.

644 THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS.

But here we must, even if reluctantly, curb our imagination a little
and consider another point: The cold-blooded, sluggish reptiles, as we
know them to-day, do not waste their energies mM rapid movements,
or in keeping the temperature of their bodies above that of the air,
and so by no means require the amount of food needed by more
active, warm-blooded animals. Alligators, turtles, and snakes will go
for weeks, even months, without food, and while this applies more
particularly to those that dwell in temperate climes and during their
winter hibernation practically suspend the functions of digestion and
respiration, it is more or less true of all reptiles. And as there is little
reason for supposing that reptiles behaved in the past any differently
from what they do in the present, these great Dinosaurs may, after
all, not have been gifted with such ravenous appetites as one might
fancy. Still, it is dangerous to lay down any hard and fast laws con-
cerning animals, and he who writes about them is continually obliged
to qualify his remarks—in sporting parlance, to hedge a little. and in
the present instance there is some reason, based on the arrangement
of the vertebre and ribs, to suppose that the lungs of Dinosaurs were
somewhat like those of birds, and that, as a corollary, their blood may
have been better aerated and warmer than that of living reptiles.
But to return to the question of food.

From the peculiar character of the articulations of the limb bones
it is inferred that these animals were largely aquatic in their habits,
and fed on some abundant species of water plants. One can readily
see the advantage of the long neck in browsing off the vegetation on
the bottom of shallow lakes, while the animal was submerged, or in
rearing the head aloft to scan the surrounding shores for the approach
of an enemy. Or, with the tail as a counterpoise, the entire body
could be reared out of water and the head be raised some 30 feet in
the air.

Triceratops, he of the three-horned face, had a remarkable skull
which projected backward over the neck, like a fireman’s helmet, or a
sunbonnet worn hind side before, while over each eye was a massive
horn directed forward, a third, but much smaller horn being some-
times present on the nose.

The little ‘‘ horned toad,” which isn’t a toad at all, is the nearest sug-
gestion we have to-day of Triceratops; but, could he realize the
ambition of the frog in the fable and swell himself to the dimensions
of an ox, he would even then be but a pigmy compared with his
ancient and distant relative.

So faras mere appearance goes he would compare very well, for
while so much is said about the strange appearance of the Dinosaurs,
it is to be borne in mind that their peculiarities are enhanced by their
size, and that there are many lizards of to-day that lack only stature to
be even more bizarre; and, for example, were the Australian Moloch

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THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS. 645

but big enough, he could give even Stegosaurus ** points” in more
ways than one.

Standing before the skull of Triceratops, looking him squarely in
the face, one notices in front of each eye a thick guard of projecting
bone, and while this must have interfered with vision directly ahead
it must have also furnished protection for the eye. So long as Tri-
ceratops faced an adversary he must have been practically invulner-
able, but as he was the largest animal of his time, upward of 25 feet
in length, it is probable that his combats were mainly with those of his
own kind and the subject of dispute some fair female upon whom two
rival suitors had cast covetous eyes. What a sight it would have been
to have seen two of these big brutes in mortal combat as they charged
upon each other with all the impetus to be derived from ten tons of
infuriate flesh! We may picture to ourselves horn clashing upon horn,
or glancing from each bony shield until some skillful stroke or unlucky
slip placed one combatant at the mercy of the other, and he went down
before the blows of his adversary ‘‘as falls on Mount Alvernus a
thunder-smitten oak.”

A pair of Triceratops horns in the National Museum bears witness
to such encounters, for one is broken midway between tip and base;
and that it was broken during life is evident from the fact that the
stump is healed and rounded over, while the size of the horns shows
that their owner reached a ripe old age.

For, unlike man and the higher vertebrates, reptiles and fishes do
not have a maximum standard of size which is soon reached and rarely
exceeded, but continue to grow throughout life, so that the size of a
turtle, a crocodile, or a Dinosaur tells something of the duration of its
life.

Before quitting Triceratops let us glance for a moment at its skeleton.
Now among other things a skeleton is the solution of a problem in
mechanics, and in Triceratops the head so dominates the rest of the
structure that one might almost imagine the skull was made first and
the body adjusted to it. The great head seems made not only for
offense and defense; the spreading frill serves for the attachment of
muscles to sustain the weight of the skull, while the work of the
muscles is made easier by the fact that the frill reaches so far back of
the junction of head with neck as to largely counterbalance the weight
of the face and jaws. When we restored the skull of this animal it
was found that the center of gravity lay back of the eye. Several of
the bones of the neck are united in one mass to furnish a firm attach-
ment for the muscles that support and move the skull, but as the move-
ments of the neck are already restricted by the overhanging frill, this
loss of motion is no additional disadvantage.

To support all this weight of skull and body requires very massive
legs, and as the fore legs are very short, this enables Triceratops to

646 THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS.

browse comfortably from the ground by merely lowering the front of
the head.

These forms we have been considering were the giants of the group,
but a commoner species, Thespesius, though less in bulk than those
just mentioned, was still of goodly proportions, for, as he stalked
about, the top of his head was 12 feet from the ground.

Thespesius and his kin seem to have been comparatively abundant,
for they have a wide distribution, and many specimens, some almost
perfect, have been discovered in this country and abroad. No less than
29 Ieuanodons, a European relative of Thespesius, were found in one
spot in mining for coal at B rnissart, Belgium. Here, during long
years of Cretaceous time, a river slowly cut its way through the coal-
bearing strata to a depth of 750 feet, a depth almost twice as great as
the deepest part of the gorge of Niagara, and then, this being accom-
plished, began the work of tiling up the valley it had excavated. It
was then a sluggish stream with marshy borders, a stream subject to
frequent floods, when the water, turbid with mud and laden with sand,
overflowed its banks, leaving them, as the waters subsided, covered
thickly with mud. Here, amidst the luxuriant vegetation of a semi-
tropical climate, lived and died the Iguanodons, and here the pick of
the miner rescued them from their long entombment to form part of
the treasures of the museum at Brussels.

Like other reptiles, living and extinct, Thespesius was continually
renewing his teeth, so that. as fast as one tooth was worn out it was
replaced by another, a point wherein Thespesius had a decided advan-
tage over ourselves. On the other hand, as there was a reserve supply
of something like 400 teeth in the lower jaw alone, what an opportu-
nity for the toothache!

And then we have a multitude of lesser Dinosaurs, including the
active, predatory species with sharp claws and double-edged teeth.
Megalosaurus, the first of the Dinosaurs to be really known, was one
of these carnivorous species, and from our West comes a near relative,
Ceratosaurus, the nose-horned lizard, a queer beast with tiny fore legs,
powerful, sharp-clawed hind feet, and well-armed jaws. A most
formidable foe he seems, the more that the hollow bones speak of
active movements, and Professor Cope pictured him, or a near rela-
tive, vigorously engaged in combat with his fellows, or preying upon
the huge but helpless herbivores of the marshes, leaping, biting, and
tearing his enemy to pieces with tooth and claw.

Professor Osborn, on the other hand, is inclined to consider him as
a reptilian hyena, feeding upon carrion, although one can but feel that
such an armament is not entirely in the interests of peace.

Last, but by no means least, are the Stegosaurs, or plated lizards;
for not only were they beasts of goodly size, but they were among
the most singular of all known animals, singular even for Dinosaurs.

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THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS. 645

but big enough, he could give even Stegosaurus ** points” in more
ways than one.

Standing before the skull of Triceratops, looking him squarely in
the face, one notices in front of each eye a thick guard of projecting
bone, and while this must have interfered with vision directly ahead
it must have also furnished protection for the eye. So long as Tri-
ceratops faced an adversary he must have been practically invulner-
able, but as he was the largest animal of his time, upward of 25 feet
in length, it is probable that his combats were mainly with those of his
own kind and the subject of dispute some fair female upon whom two
rival suitors had cast covetous eyes. What a sight it would have been
to have seen two of these big brutes in mortal combat as they charged
upon each other with all the impetus to be derived from ten tons of
infuriate flesh! We may picture to ourselves horn clashing upon horn,
or glancing from each bony shield until some skillful stroke or unlucky
slip placed one combatant at the mercy of the other, and he went down
before the blows of his adversary ‘‘as falls on Mount Alvernus a
thunder-smitten oak.”

A pair of Triceratops horns in the National Museum bears witness
to such encounters, for one is broken midway between tip and base;
and that it was broken during life is evident from the fact that the
stump is healed and rounded over, while the size of the horns shows
that their owner reached a ripe old age.

For, unlike man and the higher vertebrates, reptiles and fishes do
not have a maximum standard of size which is soon reached and rarely
exceeded, but continue to grow throughout life, so that the size of a
turtle, a crocodile, or a Dinosaur tells something of the duration of its
life.

Before quitting Triceratops let us glance for a moment at its skeleton.
Now among other things a skeleton is the solution of a problem in
mechanics, and in Triceratops the head so dominates the rest of the
structure that one might almost imagine the skull was made first and
the body adjusted to it. The great head seems made not only for
offense and defense; the spreading frill serves for the attachment of
muscles to sustain the weight of the skull, while the work of the
muscles is made easier by the fact that the frill reaches so far back of
the junction of head with neck as to largely counterbalance the weight
of the face and jaws. When we restored the skull of this animal it
was found that the center of gravity lay back of the eye. Several of
the bones of the neck are united in one mass to furnish a firm attach-
ment for the muscles that support and move the skull, but as the move-
ments of the neck are already restricted by the overhanging frill, this
loss of motion is no additional disadvantage.

To support all this weight of skull and body requires very massive
legs, and as the fore legs are very short, this enables Triceratops to

646 THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS.

browse comfortably from the ground by merely lowering the front of
the head.

These forms we have been considering were the giants of the group,
but a commoner species, Thespesius, though less in bulk than those
just mentioned, was still of goodly proportions, for, as he stalked
about, the top of his head was 12 feet from the ground. ;

Thespesius and his kin seem to have been comparatively abundant, |
for they have a wide distribution, and many specimens, some almost
perfect, have been discovered in this country and abroad. No less than

29 Iguanodons, a European relative of Thespesius, were found in one
spot in mining for coal at B rnissart, Belgium. Here, during long
years of Cretaceous time, a river slowly cut its way through the coal-
bearing strata to a depth of 750 feet, a depth almost twice as great as
the deepest part of the gorge of Niagara, and then, this being accom-
plished, began the work of tilling up the valley it had excavated. It
was then a sluggish stream with marshy borders, a stream subject to
frequent floods, when the water, turbid with mud and laden with sand,
overflowed its banks, leaving them, as the waters subsided, covered
thickly with mud. Here, amidst the luxuriant vegetation of a semi-
tropical climate, lived and died the Iguanodons, and here the pick of
the miner rescued them from their long entombment to form part of .
the treasures of the museum at Brussels.

Like other reptiles, living and extinct, Thespesius was continually
renewing his teeth, so that. as fast as one tooth was worn out it was
replaced by another, a point wherein Thespesius had a decided advan-
tage over ourselves. On the other hand, as there was a reserve supply
of something like 400 teeth in the lower jaw alone, what an opportu-
nity for the toothache!

And then we have a multitude of lesser Dinosaurs, including the
active, predatory species with sharp claws and double-edged teeth.
Megalosaurus, the first of the Dinosaurs to be really known, was one
of these carnivorous species, and from our West comes a near relative,
Ceratosaurus, the nose-horned lizard, a queer beast with tiny fore legs,
powerful, sharp-clawed hind feet, and well-armed jaws. A most
formidable foe he seems, the more that the hollow bones speak of
active movements, and Professor Cope pictured him, or a near rela-
tive, vigorously engaged in combat with his fellows, or preying upon
the huge but helpless herbivores of the marshes, leaping, biting, and —
tearing his enemy to pieces with tooth and claw. '

Professor Osborn, on the other hand, is inclined to consider him as —
a reptilian hyena, feeding upon carrion, although one can but feel that
such an armament is not entirely in the interests of peace.

Last, but by no means least, are the Stegosaurs, or plated lizards;
for not only were they beasts of goodly size, but they were among
the most singular of all known animals, singular even for Dinosaurs.

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THE DINOSAURS OR TERRIBLE LIZARDS. 647

They had diminutive heads, small fore legs, long tails armed on either
side near the tip with two pairs of large spines, while from these
spines to the neck ran series of large but thin and sharp-edged plates
standing on edge, so that their backs looked like the bottom of a boat
provided with a number of little centerboards. Just how these plates
were arranged is not decided beyond a peradventure, but while orig-
inally figured as having them ina single series down the back, it seems
much more probable that they formed parallel rows.

The largest of these plates were 2 feet in height and length, and
not more than an inch thick, except at the base, where they were
enlarged and roughened to give a firm hold to the thick skin in which
they were imbedded. Be it remembered, too, that these. plates and
spines were doubtless covered with horn, so that they were even
longer in life than as we now see them. ‘The tail spines varied in
length, according to the species, from 8 or 9 inches to nearly 3 feet,
and some of them have a diameter of 6 inches at the base. They were
swung bya tail 8 to 10 feet long, and, as a visitor was heard to
remark, one wouldn’t like to be about such an animal in fly time.

Such were some of the strange and mighty animals that once roamed
this continent from the valley of the Connecticut, where they literally
left their footprints on the sands of time, to the Rocky Mountains,
where the ancient lakes and rivers became cemeteries for the entomb-
ment of their bones.

The labor of the collector has gathered their fossil remains from
many a Western canyon; the skill of the preparator has removed them
from their stony sepulchres, and the study of the anatomist has restored
them as they were in life.

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THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

By 8. P. LANG ey.
(Introducing a paper by F. A. Lucas. )

A question of interest to all who are attracted to the subject of aerial
navigation by flying machines (or things heavier than the air, and which.
therefore, do not float like a balloon, but are dependent entirely on
some mechanical power for their support) is, “* What has nature her-
self done in the way of large flying machines, and are the birds which
we see now the limit of her ability to construct them?”

In former epochs of our planet’s history there were larger flying
creatures than now, notably the Pterodactyl, **a brother to dragons,”
a reptile rather than a bird, but a reptile with enormously great wings.
We do not know just how great this was in the living creature, except
conjecturally, for we have only the skeleton. To take the expanse of
the wing skeleton of a bird as giving us the expanse of wing of the
actual bird would be to greatly underestimate it, the stretch of the
skeleton being much less. The skeleton (which is all we have left of
the Pterodactyl, a featherless reptile, and in that important respect
different from a bird) will be more nearly in expanse that of the
living creature.

We have here in the illustration (Pl. I) a larger than ordinary speci-
men of Ornithostoma, a Pterodactyl whose skeleton indicates a spread
of wing of about twenty feet.

It is compared with that of the condor, nearly the largest bird now
on the planet.

For my immediate purpose I will recall to the reader that birds are
divisible into two classes: (1) those who soar with little motion of
their wings, and yet in some mysterious manner keep their generally
weighty bodies afloat on the yielding air, and (2) those who flap their
wings.

Ornithostoma belongs almost unquestionably to the first of these
classes. Its weight is not to be exactly estimated, but from a variety
of considerations, part of which are quoted by Mr. Lucas in the ensu-
ing paper, it is possible that the average specimen of Ornithostoma,
in spite of its great wing space, did not weigh over thirty pounds.

649

650 THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

Now we wish for our especial purpose of comparing this bird with
other flying things, to know (a) the supporting area in square feet, ()
the weight, and (c) the power for (1) a flying machine of man’s inven-
tion, which has actually flown for comparatively long distances, (2)
like facts for this the largest of nature’s flying machines, and (3) for
some of our present birds. To recapitulate, we need for our special
purpose at least the following data for any flying thing, namely, (1) the
supporting area in square feet, (2) the weight in pounds, and (3) the
horsepower which drives it through the air.

It is evidently impossible to exactly recover all of these for the
Pterodactyl, and hard to definitely establish all three even in living
specimens, but we may assume in the case of the horsepower that it is
proportioned to the area of the attachment of the muscles which moved

Diagram of the Aérodrome.

the bird in flight, an assumption which is doubtless only approximately
true, but may serve our immediate purpose. With this understand-
ing I present, together with an instantaneous photograph of a steel
flying machine in actual flight (Pl. 11) (repeated here from a previous
publication), a diagram (Pis. Il, IV) representing the above three
facts in the case of (1) the flying machine, (2) the Pterodactyl (Ornitho-
stoma), (3) the condor, and (4) the buzzard, all soaring things, and (5)
the wild goose, (6) the pigeon, and (7) the humming bird, which last
three fly by moving their wings.

This steel flying machine shown in the instantaneous photograph
had a supporting area of 54 square feet, a weight of 30 pounds, devel-
oped 14 horsepower, and repeatedly flew from one-half a mile to
three-quarters of a mile. These facts are represented in the diagram
by the three rectangular figures whose areas are proportional to these
values. Immediately after it comes nature’s greatest flying machine,

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Greatest Flying Creature PLATE Il.

LANGLEY’S AERODROME No. 5 IN FLIGHT, May 6, 1896.

From instantaneous photograph by A. Graham Bell, esq.

THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 651

the Pterodactyl. This may have been quite 20 feet from tip to tip of
wing. The paleontologist says that approximately the wing surface
was 25 square feet, the weight something like 30 pounds, and I infer
from the consideration just quoted that the power was probably less
than 0.05 horsepower; the immensely greater economy and efliciency
of nature in the respect of power being most strikingly shown by the
size of the small rectangle as compared with that in the flying machine
of man’s invention.

After this comes the condor, preeminently a soarer. Its stretch of
wing is 9 to 10 feet, its supporting area very nearly 10 square feet,
its weight 17 pounds, and the approximate horsepower it develops
(inferred from the facts already stated) scarcely 0.05.

Next comes the turkey buzzard, whose stretch of wing is 6 feet,
its supporting area a little over 5 square feet, its weight 5 pounds,
and the approximate horsepower it develops (as above) 0.015.

All the above are soaring birds. I now pass to another order of
birds, wnich flap their wings. The wild goose, with a supporting
area of 2.7 square feet, has a weight of 9 pounds, and needs a propor-
tionately greater power of nearly 0.026 horsepower to drive it, as
against scarcely 0.02 horsepower in the last example.

Next we have another familiar bird, the pigeon, which drives itself
by flapping the wings. This has an area of about 0.7 of 1 square foot,
a weight of | pound, and a horsepower of 0.012.

Below this we come to the humming bird, whose area, being shown
on the same scale as the others, is almost too small to be distinguished
on the page, but which has a supporting surface of nearly 0.03 of
a square foot, a weight less than 0.02 of a pound, and a horse-
power of probably not over 0.001. (AIl these values, as we have
already said, are but approximative. )

Particular attention is to be paid to the fact that regarding the
ratios of supporting surface to weight supported, these ratios are not
only not the same in all the birds, but themselves differ greatly, but
systematically, with the absolute weight. If we inquire how much
1 horsepower would support, for instance, supposing the ratios of
sustaining surface (i. e., wing area) to weight to be constant, we find
that 1 horsepower would, in the flying machine, support 20 pounds
with 36 square feet area of wing (i. e., 1$ square feet to a pound);
and that, passing to the flapping birds, if the wild goose were to pre-
serve the same relations on an enlarged scale, its 1 horsepower would
support 346 pounds of weight with the use of 101 square feet of wing
surface or 0.29 square feet to the pound; that in the pigeon 1 horse-
power would support 83 pounds of weight with the use of 58 square
feet of wing surface or 0.7 square feet to the pound, and that in the
humming bird 1 horsepower would support 15 pounds of weight with
the use of 26 square feet of wing surface or 1.73 square feet to the
pound. So that, broadly speaking, so far as these few examples go, the

652 THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

larger the creature the less relative surface and power is needed for
its support.

From the obvious mathematical law that the area in bodies in gen-
eral increases as the square of their dimensions, while their weight
increases as the cube, it is an apparently plain inference that the larger
the creature or machine the less the relative area of support may be
(that is, if we consider the mathematical relationship, without reference
to the question whether this diminished support is actually physically
sufficient or not), so that we soon reach a condition where we can not
imagine flight possible. Thus, if in a soaring bird which we may
suppose to weigh 2 pounds we should find that it had 2 square feet of
surface, or a ratio of a foot to a pound, it would follow from the law
just stated that in a soaring bird of twice the dimension we should
have a weight of 16 pounds and an area of 8 square feet, or only half
a square foot of supporting area to the pound of weight, so that if
flight is possible in the first case it would appear to be highly improb-
able in the second. The difficulty grows greater as we increase the
size, for when we have a creature of three times the dimensions we
shall have twenty-seven times the weight and only nine times the
sustaining surface, which is but one-third of a foot toa pound. This
is 2 conseguence of a mathematical law, from which it would appear
to follow that we can not have a flying creature much greater than a
limit of area like the condor, unless endued with extraordinary
strength of wing.

But this apparently necessary mathematical consequence is not the
law of nature, for while it is found that in the larger bird a smaller
area for each pound of the weight is given under the law than in the
smaller bird, it is also found (what is another thing) that this smaller
area is nevertheless sufficient, and that from. the mathematical law
just cited there does not follow the apparently obvious consequence
(notably in the larger creatures like the condor, perhaps less notably
in such a creature as the Pterodactyl) that the bird can not be sup-
ported, and while the fact is certain that it can, the cause of this does
not seem to be clearly known.

Special cases, it may be said, may furnish an exception to what in
the nature of things must be the general rule. Such, however, again
does not seem to be the fact. This anomaly which is even now not
generally appreciated seems to have been first noticed by a French
observer, M. de Lucy, who about 1868 published a memoir, which I
have not seen in the original, but an English translation of which was
published in the Fourth Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society
of Great Britain for 1869, and an extract from which is here repro-
duced. The same facts are given at greater length in an article by
Dr. Karl Miillenhoff, of Berlin, in the Archiv fiir die Gesammte
Physiologie, Volume XX XV from which Plate V is taken.

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THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 653

M. de Lucy’s table.

[From the Fourth Annual Report of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain for 1869, page 63.]

INSECTS.
Square
feet of
= wing sur-
Bom | face per
| pound of
weight.
NOE ote ieiniein cis ciclo =:n'ssise = ane Seine oe a meee tees saine Psa eee See ae a aale eC Sees sais wloem eee | 49
GPR ERO TIMELY Ss (RENTSLL I) ict e een Soe oe, Sel a ce eens aia oh telah ssa aise ie ee eee Bets oe SPS ee 30
Coccinella (ladybird) .......-.. eee eee eo sees eee ein Shas eweSore Sosa oe aes 26.6
EPS GEL Vane COITLIDL DIN) et ere eee a nia ine ee es eae mine, wane eens seank wees. etek 21.6
TURE TTLIG YS Coa eo Va hel Foy eta eres a A en 14.5
Sea ee i a eer es Ie ee cette me cictata icin Caleimie cia min tc aise Mike e Sawle 8 oe oe | ROIs)
UP Sa et ane mee aoe erent a5 os cea ices Senin ce meteor mace sa eig ek Wee oe ae cree Sons oleae cece / 5.6
TDS een (ENG) 2S See eS As eS See aan a Ae ee en ee SE ee Se ee 5.08
MSR TUTE Ty, See oan cate eS ets Snarate yee = sles w/a/aseis aYolereis miei aoe ines sie Sawdon acces debeedecwtees Joetces byl,
Pupusa rmlestae Deane, (LEMaAle)) eo. caacace ee Ns eeeee cee = seta s acces ngs seackcspseecsee 4.66
PH COLy ss SLaeDeeble, (MAG) <--eanssocs et ae cee votes ae poe eaemie oc NS wear 3.75
Pe OCETOS I DCCULGISs atecites aes ceca tee eee ncaa sien snes acteee eta ebinen does sweaters’ secs eeawe 3.14
BIRDS.
STUDIOS Ge A as SS a SIR SE te eR ee eee ee ne a hes 4,82
SYD RO AYR G2 i ae 7 a ee a AG Se gi a a i a 2D
Sea Trl CIC ee tN aia Se a oe eras ete re eae =e wef cine ae Sew erin bs Oe eset waS ee eee oh eis Zag
(SU ELC Dg Abs sent ie a ec oR SS Se ics) a Pe ee a ie Pee se Ws2b:

in all its existing proportions till it weighs 1 pound. The surface
dimensions of its wings will then be as given.

The above insects and birds vibrate their wings and do not soar.
The table shows that the law (i. e., the law that the larger the creature
the less the necessary relative area of support to a given weight) holds
not only in the case of the large soaring bird, but in the case of smaller
ones which flap their wings, and even in the case of insects. The
explanation may be very near at hand, but it is not to me evident.

The accompanying table, from Mouillard’s L’Empire de L’Air,
deals with the same facts, and exhibits the paradoxical law that the
greater the creature the smaller the (relative) supporting surface:

Table showing weight, wing area, and square feet of wing surface which sustains 1 pound
of weight. *

: Square feet

Tos : fing sur- | of wing
Latin name. Common name. W ie } facein |surface per

ae: ~ ‘square feet.) pound of

weight.
SAE CIEZ OTOP Sereech owl: -<-.<22-te- eee 0.33 | 0.776 2.35
RUCIDILEH MISUSE 8. a2 2B aioe Se oe | sparrow, naw. -22 24s 336 | 69 2.05
Larus melanocephalus.............- Black-headed gull ....-.... | — .619 | 92 1.49
Rae PALIN DAES 255.2 Fe mse 25) Gosshaiwits--3-=e oe sae — .641 . 84 1.31
Meuse pracn VOUS 1-2-2222 2024 -~ cs | Short-eared owl ...-.--_.... { — .67 | 1.50 2.24
Moiswaleinelius: .:. 2:2 5.2. oscceecu~ Glossy lbiss2 sss eeseteeece| — .806 | 1, 24 1.54
MGMT CORKE St 2 gs tee eee Rayenl.o.--Sc2n: dense eecceee ; — 1.34 2.50 1.87
Milyusimepyptiacus.......-.---.--.--- Kite ee ee ca oe — 1.41 3.02 2.14
Bandiom DANAetus 2. - obsess oes ivishihaiwiktss sts ae see coe — 2.80 | 3. 1.08
Neophron perenopterus. ...-..-.---- | Scavenger vulture.......... — 3.83 af .95
CONTIG VES G7) 6: Yee ae Turkey buzzard. 35.2... — 9.6 3. 95
Pelecanus onocrotalus...........-.-- Wibiteipelicaniass2= 2. --en-- — 6.66 6. 95
Pheenicopterus antiquorum ........ Ic hasthty7o) oes ee ae — 6,34 3.£ 5d
NERA WEIS opt so ccnais wichos Sic ire vote Sei Grifiont vultures: 6-2. 2652. —16. 52 Wee 68
Sarcorhamphus gryphus.........-.- | Coma oneaae nn LAs 8 ee 3 Mc —16. 52 9. AY
Otogyps auricularis.................. | Eared vulture —17.76 11 68

aData compiled chiefly from Mouillard, L. P., L’Empire de L’ Air, Paris, 1881.

654 THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

The curve (Plate V) shows the same facts in a graphic form, and they
seem to me to deserve a fuller explanation than has yet been given to
them.

I now invite the reader’s attention to Mr. Lucas’s interesting paper.

S. P. LANGLEY.

THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE, THE GREAT PTERODACTYL
ORNITHOSTOMA.

By F. A. Lucas,

United States National Museum.

No one animal combines all the best features of weight, power, and
wing area needed in a flying machine, for those with the greatest ex-
panse of wing are by no means the heaviest and strongest, while the

most powerful birds are not those of the longest sustained flight or

those which fly to the best advantage if considered from an economical
standpoint. The Frigate Bird, which is perhaps the bird of all others
most at home in the air, lacks carrying capacity, being so far as mere
muscle goes comparatively weak, sailing by skill and not by strength.
Birds of prey, on the other hand, which can carry away a quarry of
very nearly their own weight, fly when they do this by labored strokes
of their powerful pinions, with an apparent expenditure of considera-
ble power, sailing or soaring only when not encumbered by extra
weight.

The Albatross, which has a maximum weight. of 18 pounds and a
spread of wing of 11 feet 6 inches, is the most notable example we
have of long sustained flight in a heavy bird,* and it is the more
remarkable from the fact that as the wing is extremely narrow its
area is very small, not exceeding 7 square feet. The surplus lifting
power of this bird is quite small, since the wing muscles on whose
area we must base our estimate of the amount of force exercised in
flight are comparatively small. Both the Albatross and Frigate Bird,
however, are of double interest from the very fact of their great ex-
tent of wing and small amount of muscle, since they thus throw some
light on the question of the length of wing that may be manipulated
with a given force.

“Sailors sometimes catch an Albatross, fasten to it a tag bearing the name of the
to) c=)

ship, date of capture, latitude and longitude, and then release the bird. A specimen -

thus tagged and subsequently taken by another ship is preserved in the museum of
Brown University, show‘ng that in twelve days it had traversed a distance of at least
3,150 miles, probably more, since the Albatross rarely flies in a direct line.

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THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 655

The Condor, and his cousin, the California Vulture, weigh about
the same as an Albatross,* but the broad, rounded shape of their wings
gives them a much greater area, and this difference is, in turn, related
to differences in flight, for the great vultures soar high in the air,
while the Albatross skims the sea, rarely rising to an elevation of 150
feet.

It is to be noted, however, that the question of food has something
to do with the mode of flight, since the one bird seeks its food from
the surface of the water, while the other mounts aloft to scan the earth
in search of something eatable.

Humboldt is credited with having seen a Condor soaring above the
summit of Chimborazo; but that this or any bird ever attains such an
altitude” is more than questionable, and Whymper, the most recent
and most careful observer, puts the range of the great Vulture at from
7,000 to 15,000 feet.

The Condor is said to attain a spread of wing of 15 feet, but no bird
of anything like this size is preserved in any collection, and even 10
feet 6 inches from tip to tip may be looked upon as exceeding the
normal or average size.“ As the Albatross averages 10 feet from tip
to tip, and is said by good observers to reach 12 or even 14 feet, it
may be pretty safely set down as having the greatest stretch of wing
of any animal now living. Certainly the Albatross stands first in length
of wing bones, for these measure 8 feet 3 inches in the great wander-
ing Albatross. while the bones of a large Condor have a combined
length of but 6 feet | inch. Moreover, the Albatross inhabits the
wind-swept seas of the Southern Hemisphere, one of the stormiest
regions of the globe, and is continually called upon to wield its pinions
in the teeth of gales, and the successful manner in which this is done
calls forth the admiration of the observer.

So far as carrying weight is concerned, the Trumpeter Swan stands
at or near the head of the list, for this bird attains a weight of 28
pounds, and carries this far and fast with a spread of wing of 8 feet.
Its mode of flight is entirely different from that of the Albatross, being

*A California Vulture, 1 year old, in the National Zoological Park, weighed 183
pounds. ©

"Birds are known to migrate at a very considerable elevation, but it is believed
that none have as yet been recorded so high as4 miles. The height of Chimborazo is
20,494 feet.

© A fine Condor from Patagonia had a spread of only 8 feet 8 inches, and the Cali-
fornia Condor in the National Zoological Park at Washington measures but 9 feet 23
inches across the wings. Like most large animals, Condors shrink wofully before a
tape line.

*The largest of four Albatrosses measured by the writer had a spread of wings of
only 10 feet 5 inches, but these were birds of 1 year and 2 years old, and many of
the old birds seen were certainly much larger. The ship’s carpenter claimed to have
measured a bird of 12 feet spread.

656 THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

performed by powerful wing beats, while the latter bird rarely flaps
its wings, but sails over the water with little apparent expenditure of
muscular power. In default of these birds the Wild Goose (Bernida
canadensis) and Turkey Buzzard may serve as representatives of differ-
ences in method and apparatus of flight.

The goose, like his relative the swan, flies by means of the strokes
of his wings and carries a weight of 9 pounds, with a wing area of
2.65 square feet and a muscle area of 8.84 square inches; the sailing
buzzard, with a weight of 5 pounds, has a wing area of 5.3 square feet
and a muscle area of 5.12 square inches. Thus the one bird has 0.3
square foot area of wing per pound of weight, while the other has 1.06
square feet per pound of weight. Or, if we wish to compare the area
of wing to the area of sternum, we may say that in the goose this
ratio is 48 to 1 and in the buzzard 149 to 1. The minimum of wing
area, both positively and comparatively, is reached in the humming
birds, which may be typified by a species common in Barbados (udam-
pis chlorolemus). This little bird, weighing 0.015 pound, has a wing
area of 0.026 square foot, and a muscle area of 0.33 square inch, a
ratio of 11.4 to 1, while, if brought up to ounces, the wing area per
ounce would be but 0.76 square inch.

These differences are dwelt on at some length in the introduction to
this paper, where they are graphically expressed by means of diagrams
and compared with the weight, horsepower, and supporting area of
a flying machine.

The buzzard may be compared to a racing yacht with small hull and
great spread of canvas; the humming bird, like a torpedo boat, is
mainly engine.

Mammals may be practically left out of consideration in discussing

large flying creatures, for while many of the bats fly with the utmost
dexterity, none of them attain any considerable size, the largest of the
fruit bats (Pteropus edulis) weighing under 3 pounds and haying a
spread of wing of 5 feet. Almost everyone is acquainted with the
rapid fluttering flight of small bats, and it need only be said that the
large species fly with measured wing beats not unlike those of a crow.

Such are some of the flying forms of to-day, and, with few exceptions,
they seem not to have been exceeded by any creatures of the past.
THarpagornis, the extinct eagle of New Zealand, was larger and more
powerful than any existing bird of prey, although the South American
harpy eagle is a near second;* but the more notable exceptions were
the great flying reptiles, or pterodactyls, which abounded on the shores
of the inland sea that during Cretaceous time extended from the Gulf
of Mexico up the Mississippi Valley and northwesterly through Kansas.
And as the huge dinosaurs were the largest creatures that ever walked,

*A specimen of this bird, Thrasaétus harpyia, in the National Zoological Park,
weighs 193 pounds,

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THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 657

so the greatest of these pterodactyls were the largest creatures that ever
flew, their outstretched wings having a spread of 20 feet from tip to tip.

There is one possible rival, a bird supposed to be a relative of the
pelicans, described by Professor Cope under the name of Cyphornis;
but as this bird is known from a small fragment only and its wing area
very far from certain, Cyphornis may be ruled out of competition.

The greatest of the pterodactyls, Ornithostoma ingens (Pl. VI), has
been described at some length by Prof. S. W. Williston, of the State
University of Kansas, and from his articles have been taken the facts
relating to this curious creature that are herein embodied.

The great moa marks one extreme of specialization, the dispropor-
tionate size of the hind as compared with the fore limbs, for this big
bird had legs 6 feet long and no fore legs at all; Orn¢thostoma marks
the other extreme with a wing 9 feet in length and a leg so small and
weak as to be of little use save for spreading the wing membrane.
For, like other pterodactyls, whose wings are accurately known from
their impressions in the fine-grained lithographic stone of Solenhofen,
this species doubtless had a membranous wing something like that of
a bat. As for the body, being that of a reptile, it must have been
naked and possibly covered with small scales like those on the body of
an iguana, so that on a small picture the skin would appear quite
smooth. While the body was small in comparison with the extent of
wing, the head, which was principally beak, was very nearly 4 feet
long, extending backward to form a large but thin crest. This has a
direct relation to the enormous length of the beak, since it furnished
a point of attachment for muscles whose pull counterbalanced the lever-
age of the front part of the head. The beak was dagger-like, being
very narrow, pointed, and quite toothless. Whether this beak was
covered with a thin, hard skin, like the epidermis on the head of a
crocodile, or with horn, like the bill of a bird, is not positively deter-
mined, but the weight of evidence is in favor of the former, since none
of the pterodactyls yet found show any traces of a horny bill. In the
peculiar shape of the lower, back portion of the beak there is a sug-
gestion of the former presence of a small pouch, like that found in
cormorants, and this would be in accord with the supposed fish-eating
habits of Ornithostoma. ike other animals with long, narrow wings,
Ornithostoma doubtless sailed somewhat after the manner of the alba-
tross. This is inferred not only from the size and shape of the wing,
but from the comparatively small size of the breastbone, to which
were attached the muscles used in flight. Birds which fly by strokes
of their pinions have the breastbone deeply keeled to furnish room for
the attachment of the wing muscles, and the size of this keel is in
direct relation to the rapidity of the wing strokes, reaching its maxi-
mum in the humming birds, in which the wings are vibrated so rapidly
as to be invisible. Birds which sail have the breast muscles much

sm L9OL 42

658 THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE.

reduced, and the extreme of reduction is found in the frigate bird,
which, with a spread of wing of 6 feet 4 inches, has. a muscular area
of only 3.50 square inches. *

There is another point in the anatomy of Ornithostoma besides
length of pinion that lends strength to the supposition that it sailed,
and this is found in the structure of the fore limb. It was pointed out
by Mr. Huffaker that in spite of the deficiency of muscle shown by
soaring birds the support of the wing was very strongly built; thus the
frigate bird with its small breastbone has the bones of the shoulder
joint firmly united with one another and with the breastbone. In the
albatross strength is gained by shortening and widening the bone to
which the wing is directly fastened and giving it a broad base for
attachment to the breastbone. In the great pterodactyls strength
was obtained by bracing the shoulder blade against the backbone, in the

manner shown in the diagram; thus the
body, so to speak, was slung from the
wings. In addition, three sections of
the backbone were united in one piece
in order to give a firm point of attach-
ment, the whole arrangement curiously
suggesting the fore leg of a turtle.

In spite of its great extent of wing,

Ornithostoma was not a heavy animal,
7 possibly not so heavy as the trumpeter
SEED, swan, for the body was small and the

How the wing of gb de issup- bones reached the extreme of lightness,

eee being far lighter than inany bird. This
may be appreciated by quoting Professor Williston’s remark that the
bones were almost papery in their character, one of the finger bones
26 inches long and 2 inches in diameter being no thicker than a cylin-
der of blotting paper. The same authority, basing his estimate on this
extreme lightness of structure and the small size of the body, places
the weight of one of these pterodactyls at only 25 pounds, and with
this weight and its great spread of wings the creature must have flown
as lightly asa butterfly. Even if we increase the estimated weight by
20 per cent, we have a creature weighing but 30 pounds, so that the
body was even more an appendage to the wings than in the frigate
bird, and seems to have been just heavy enough to counterbalance the
weight of head and neck and insure equilibrium.

"This is stated with some hesitancy, as no sternum of a large albatross is available,
and it may be that, all things considered, the albatross has the least amount of wing
muscle. The ratio of wing muscle to wing is smaller in the turkey buzzard than in
the frigate bird, being, respectively, 1:125 and 1: 114, this owing to the much broader
wing of the buzzard. On the other hand, the great humming bird (Patagona gigas)
has a ratio of muscle to wing area of 1:23, and a small species a ratio of but 1:11.39.

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THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 659

As Ornithostoma was capable of long sustained flight, and as its bones
are found under conditions indicating that it went far out to sea, it is not
improbable that it fed largely or entirely on fish. That they formed a
part of its diet is certain, for fish bones and scales are found with the
remains of pterodactyls, and it is easy to imagine this great reptile
gliding over the sea, with outspread wings, snatching up fish right and
left with its long beak as easily as a museum assistant picks them out
of a jar of alcohol witha pair of forceps. The bird in the foreground
is represented in our illustration as just turning to its right, the left
wing being advanced and raised to cause the turn.

With its small body and enormous wings Orn/thostoma may be
looked upon as the king of flying creatures, and as more highly spe-
cialized than any flying animal before or since his time.

Finally, it is an interesting question as to whether or not the con.
dor, the albatross, and the pterodactyl mark the limit of size attain-
able by flying creatures—are the mechanical difficulties in the way of
using wings so great that evolution stops at a weight of 30 pounds and
aspread of wing of 20 feet? Would animals above that size have
trouble in manipulating their wings and be unable to compete with
smaller and more active forms, or is it that the exigencies of life have
never called for the development of a larger creature /

These are queries that may not be settled offhand, and it may only
be said that the vast majority of birds are small and agile, and that,
although birds and pterodactyls flew side by side over the Cretaceous
seas and shores, the birds never reached the size of their reptilian
associates, and, so far as we know, these mark the limit of size among
ilying animals.

Pha
ser

SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, JOHNSTON PL. |

H. H. JOHNSTON PINX AHOEN & CO,LITHP CAUSTIC, BALTIMORE

THE OKAPI.
(OKAPIA JOHNSTONI)
REDUCED ONE HALF FROM SIR HARRY JOHNSTON’S ORIGINAL PAINTING

REPRODUCED FROM PROCEEDINGS ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON, 1901. VOL. II

THE OKAPI; THE NEWLY DISCOVERED BEAST LIVING
IN CENTRAL AFRICA.*

By Srr Harry H. Jounsron, K. C. B.,

Special Commissioner for Uganda, British East Africa; the discoverer of the Okapi.

The author of this article remembers having encountered in his
childhood—say, in the later, sixties—a book about strange beasts in
Central Africa which was said to be based on information derived
from early Dutch and Portuguese works. The publication of this
book was more or less incited at the time by Du Chaillu’s discoveries
of the gorilla and other strange creatures on the west coast of Africa,
and its purport was to show that there were in all probability other
wonderful things yet to be discovered in the Central African forests.
Among these suggested wonders was a recurrence of the myth of the
unicorn. Passages from the works of the aforesaid Dutch and Portu-
guese writers were quoted to show that a strange, horse-like animal
of striking markings in black and white existed in the very depths of
these equatorial forests. The accounts agreed in saving that the body
of the animal was horse-like, but details as to its horn or horns were
very vague. The compiler of this book, however, believed that these
stories pointed to the existence of a horned horse in Central Africa.

Somehow these stories—-which may have hada slight substratum of
truth—lingered in the writer’s memory, and were revived at the time
Stanley published his account of the Emin Pasha expedition, In Darkest
Africa. A note in the appendix of this book states that the Kongo
dwarfs knew an animal of ass-like appearance which existed in their
forests, and which they caught in pitfalls. The occurrence of any-
thing like a horse or ass—animals so partial to treeless, grassy plains—
in the depths of the mightiest forest of the world seemed to me so
strange that I determined to. make further inquiries on the subject
whenever fate should lead me in the direction of the great Kongo
forest. Fate was very kind to me in the matter. In the first place,
soon after I arrived in Uganda, I was obliged to intervene to prevent
a too-enterprising German carrying off by force a troop of Kongo

“Reprinted, by permission, from McClure’s Magazine, September, 1901, pages
497-501.

661

662 THE OKAPI OF CENTRAL AFRICA.

dwarfs to perform at the Paris Exhibition. These little men had been
kidnaped on Kongo Free State territory. The Belgian authorities
very properly objected, and as the German impressario had fled with
his dwarfs to British territory, they asked me to rescue the little men
from his clutches and send them back to their homes. This I did, and
in so doing, and in leading them back to the forests where they dwelt,
T obtained much information from them on the subject of the horse-
like animal which they called the ‘‘okapi.”* They described this
creature as being like a zebra, but having the upper part of its body
a dark brown. The feet, however, they said, had more than one hoof.

When I reached Belgian territory, on the west side of the Semliki
River, I renewed my inquiries. The Belgian officers at once said they
knew the okapi perfectly well, having frequently seen its dead body
brought in by natives for eating. They informed me that the natives
were very fond of wearing the more gaudy portions of its skin; and
calling forward several of their native militia, they made the men show
me all the bandoliers, waist belts, and other parts of their equipment
made out of the striped skin of the okapi. They described the animal
as a creature of the horse tribe, but with large, ass-like ears, a slender
muzzle, and more than one hoof. For a time I thought I was on the
track of the three-toed horse, the hipparion. Provided with guides,
I entered the awful depths of the Kongo forest with my expedition,
accompanied also by Mr. Doggett, the naturalist attached to my staff.
For several days we searched for the okapi, but in vain. We were
shown its supposed tracks by the natives, but as these were footprints
of a cloven-hoofed animal, while we expected to see the spoor of a
horse, we believed the natives to be deceiving us, and to be merely
leading us after some forest eland. The atmosphere of the forest was
almost unbreathable with its Turkish-bath heat, its reeking moisture,
and its powerful smell of decaying, rotting vegetation. We seemed,
in fact, to be transported back to Miocene times, to an age and a cli-
mate scarcely suitable for the modern type of real humanity. Severe
attacks of fever prostrated not only the Europeans, but all the black
men of the party, and we were obliged to give up the search and return
to the grass lands with such fragments of the skin as I had been able
to purchase from the natives. Seeing my disappointment, the Belgian
officers very kindly promised to use their best efforts to procure me a
perfect skin of the okapi.

Some months afterwards the promise-was kept by Mr. Karl Eriks-
son, a Swedish officer in the service of the Kongo Free State, who
obtained from a native soldier the body of a recently killed okapi.
He had the skin removed with much care, and sent it to me accom-

“As a matter of fact, the dwarfs pronounced the word ‘‘o’api,’’ but the big blaek
tribes of the forest called the creature ‘‘ okapi.”’

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Johnston. PLATE I]

HEAD OF THE OKAPI.

Drawn by Sir Harry H. Johnston.

THE OKAPI.

Drawn by Sir Harry H. Johnston. From Mr. Rowland Ward’s * 3uilding up of the Animal in
the British Museum.’

THE OKAPI OF CENTRAL AFRICA. 6638

panied by the skull of the dead animal, and a smaller skull which he
had obtained separately. The skin and skulls were forwarded to Lon-
don, where they arrived after considerable delay. The British Museum
intrusted the setting up of the okapi to Mr. Rowland Ward, of Picca-
dilly, and from the mounted skin and other data I have made the
drawings which illustrate this article. 1 also give a photograph, taken
by myself, of a bit of forest where the okapi was found. Before
sending this skin to Europe, and while it still retained some indica-
tions of the shape of the animal, I made the colored drawing which
appears as the frontispiece to this issue of McClure’s Magazine, and
which will also be given in the Proceedings of the London Zoological
Society. This colored drawing differs in some particulars from the
appearance of the okapi as set up by Mr. Rowland Ward, and as rep-
resented in the illustrations of the presencarticle. Until the okapi has
been photographed alive or dead, and its exact shape in the flesh is
thus known, it is difficult to say which of my two drawings is the more
correct. In the first illustration, which appears as the frontispiece, I
have given the creature a more horse-like build. In the sketch which
accompanies this article, and which is in the main drawn from Mr.
Rowland Ward’s building up of the animal from the flat skin, the shape
of the body inclines a little more to the giraffe, the okapi’s nearest
ally.

The size of the okapi is that of a large stag. It stands relatively
higher in the legs than any member of the ox tribe, otherwise i should
compare its size to that of an ox. Like the giraffe, this creature has
only two hoofs, and no remains whatever of the other digits, which
are represented in the deer, oxen, and in most antelopes by the two
little ‘‘ false hoofs” on either side of the third and fourth toes.

The coloration of the okapi is quite extraordinary. The cheeks and
jaws are yellowish white, contrasting abruptly with the dark-colored
neck. The forehead is a deep red chestnut; the large, broad ears are
of the same tint, fringed, however, with jet black. The forehead
ranges between vinous red and black in tint, and a black line follows
the bridge of the nose down to the nostrils. The muzzle is sepia col-
ored, but there is a faint rim or mustache of reddish-yellow hair round
the upper lip. The neck, shoulders, barrel, and back range in tone
from sepia and jet black to rich vinous red. The belly is blackish,
except just-under the knees. The tail is bright chestnut red, with a
small black tuft. The hind quarters, hind and fore legs are either
snowy white or pale cream color, touched here and there with orange.
They are boldly marked, however, with purple-black stripes and
splodges, which give that zebra-like appearance to the limbs of the
okapi that caused the first imperfect account of it to indicate the dis-
covery of a new striped horse. The soft parts of the animal being

664 THE OKAPI OF CENTRAL AFRICA.

as yet unknown, it can not be stated positively that the okapi pos-
sesses a prehensile tongue like ie giraffe, but the long and flexible
lips would seem to atone for the very weak front teeth. It is prob-
ably by the lips and tongue that the creature gathers the leaves on
which it feeds, for according to the accounts of the natives it lives
entirely on foliage and small twigs. Like all living ruminants (except
the camel), it has no front teeth in the upper jaw. The molars are
very like those of the giraffe.

My first examination of the skull and skin of the okapi caused me
to name it tentatively ‘‘ Helladotherium.” The helladotherium was a
giraffe-like animal that existed in the Tertiary epoch in Greece, Asia
Minor, and India. In India the helladotherium attained a very great
size, but the Greek specimens were not quite as large as the modern
giraffe. The helladotherium was hornless, like the okapi, and in
another point it resembled this animal, because the neck was not dis-
proportionately long, and the fore and hind limbs were nearly equal
in jength. The okapi bears on its skull remains of three horn cores,
once no doubt as prominent as those in the existing giraffes. The
process of degeneration, however, has set in, and in the living okapi
the horn cores have been worn down to two small knobs on the fore-
head, covered outwardly with little twists of hair, and one less con-
spicuous knob or bump just between the eyes. Though the okapi
bears certain superficial resemblances to the helladotherium, it is prob-
able, on the whole, that it comes nearest in relationship to the giratte.
Being, however, sufficiently different from both, it has been constituted
by Prof. Ray Lankester a separate genus, to which he has given the
name Ocapia.

So far as is yet known, the existing range of the okapi is confined
to the northern part of the Kongo forest, near the Semliki River.
The okapi is found in the little territory of Wisco: which is an out-
lying portion of the Uganda Protectorate. It is also found in the
adjoining territory of the Kongo Free State. This same forest, I
believe, conceals other wonders besides the okapi, not yet brought to
light, including enormous gorillas. I have seen photographs of these
huge apes, taken from dead animals which have been killed by the
natives and brought in to the Belgians. A careful search might
reveal several other strange additions to the world’s mammalian
fauna.

Quite recently fossil remains of giraffe-like animals have been found
in Lower Egypt, as well as in Arabia, India, Greece, Asia Minor, and
southern Europe. It is possible that the okapi and the giraffe are the
last two surviving forms of this group in tropical Africa. The giraffe.
has escaped extermination at the hands of carnivorous aninale by its de-
velopment of enormous size and by its wary habits. The giraffe, unlike

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Johnston. PLATE Ill.

THE HOME OF THE OKAPI, SEMLIKI FOREST, EASTERN KONGO FREE STATE.

From a photograph taken by Sir Harry H. Johnston.

THE OKAPI OF CENTRAL AFRICA. 665

the okapi, prefers relatively open country, dotted with the low acacia
trees on which it feeds. Towering up above these trees, the giratfe
with its large eyes can from 20 feet above the ground scan the sur-
rounding country and detect the approach of a troop of lions, the only
creature besides man which can do it any harm. Man, of course—the
British and Boer sportsmen well in advance of the others—is doing
his level best to exterminate the giraffe, as he has exterminated the
mammoth, the Ur ox, the quagga, the dodo, and the auk. But for
the presence of man, the giraffe might have been one of the lords of
the earth. The defenseless okapi, however, only survived by slinking
into the densest parts of the Kongo forest, where the lion never pene-
trates, and where the leopard takes to a tree life and lives on monkeys.
The only human enemies of the okapi hitherto have been the Kongo
dwarfs and a few black negroes of the larger types who dwell on the
fringe of the Kongo forest. How much longer the okapi will survive
now that the natives possess guns and collectors are on the search for
this extraordinary animal, it is impossible to say. It is to be hoped
very earnestly that both the British and Belgian Governments will
combine to save the okapi from extinction.

The group of ruminants to which the Ocapza belongs includes at the
present day the giraffe and possibly the prongbuck of North America.
Far back in the history of the Artiodactyla,* when in a section of
them horns became the dominant characteristic, these appendages were
developed mainly in two different fashions. The deer tribe grew bony
appendages which started from knobs on the frontal bones, and these
appendages fell off and were renewed every twelve months. When
the horns of the stag fall, they leave only a bony knob, which rises
very little above the level of the skull. The Bowide, or oxen-ante-
lope group, developed first long bony prominences which went on
growing year by year up to the age of full maturity. These bony
prominences came in time to be cased by horny coverings, and thus
we have the hollow-horned ruminants; for when these horny coverings
are removed from the long bony socket they are found to be hollow:
they are not solid bony antlers growing from the top of a horn core.
But midway between these two main groups there is a third, of which
the giraffe and the prongbuck are two divergent specimens. Here was
an intermediate stage between the deer and the oxen. Bony promi-
nences, like those of the Lowide, but not so long, grew out from the
skull and were covered with hair. From the top of these prominences
(as in the case of the prongbue ‘k, the extinct Sivatherium, and probably

«Most of the Paes of McClure’s Magazine are aware that ie pane ty fi are a
suborder of ungulates in which the middle toes are equally developed. This group
includes the hippopotamus, the pigs, camels, deer, giraffes, oxen, sheep, goats, and
antelopes.

666 THE OKAPI OF CENTRAL AFRICA. i

in the ancestors of the giraffe) grew antlers or horns which were shed —
from time to time, as in the deer. This is the case with the modern

prongbuck, and in all probability this was the case with the ancestors —
of the giraffe and other early members of the giraffine family. To-day —
the giraffe only retains the long horn cores or sockets, from the end of

which in all probability antlers once sprang. In the case of the okapi, —
as already remarked, these bony prominences have gradually dwindled —
to scarcely discernible bumps. In other respects, however, the new

beast of Central Africa represents pretty nearly the primitive type —
from which the giraffe rose in exaggerated development of neck and —
limbs. .

OBSERVATIONS ON TERMITES, OR WHITE ANTS.
ByoG. edd avananp, M.A. MM. B., oF. 1:°8.*

The Termitide, commonly known as ‘* white ants,” are insects feed-
ing on wood and dead vegetable matter, living socially in colonies
of sterile and fertile individuals, which grow very slowly and have no
pupa stage. Antenne situated in a shallow fossa at the side of the
head just above the base of the mandibles. Mandibles powerful,
except in the soldiers of some species. Maxillee with double chitinous
hooks and long 5-segmented palpi. Head hinged to the prothorax by
means of a pair of lateral cervical sclerites. Tarsi of 4 segments, the
distal as long as the three proximal together. Pronotum, mesonotum,
and metanotum distinct. Abdomen of 10 segments; the ventral plate
of the basal segment absent; that of the apical segment divided, and
bearing at the lateral ends a pair of short cerci; that of the 9th seg-
ment in the larva, and often in the adult, with a pair of small papille
near the center of its posterior border.

Males with a pair of compound eyes placed just above the antennal
fosse, and for the most part a pair of ocelli situated near their inner
borders. Frequently there is a median fenestra. When young there
are: two pairs of large, membranous, nearly equal wings, which in
rest are superposed and project far beyond the apex of the abdomen.
These wings are used in flying from the nest, and then shed across a
transverse basal line, leaving subtriangular wing stumps. The vas
deferens opens behind the ventral plate of the 9th abdominal segment.
The males live permanently along with the females, but there are no
copulatory organs.

Females when young closely resemble the males. The ventral
plates of the 8th and 9th abdominal segments are divided, and the
halves are smail and separated. When the female becomes the mother
of a colony her abdomen enlarges by dilatation of the cuticle between
the chitinous plates, and sometimes there is secondary chitinization
extending forward from the anterior borders of the plates.

The soldiers are sterile, wingless, and for the most part blind.
Their head is chitinous and strong, peculiarly and variously modified

“From Journal Linnean Society, Zoology, Vol. XX VI, 1897-98.
667

668 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

for defense. The segments of the antennz are more elongate than in
the males and females, and fewer, generally in the proportion of
8to9. The mandibles are very various in the different species, but very
characteristic of each species, and quite different from those in the
males and workers. The gula is large and firmly united to the head,
generally for the greater portion of its length. The cervical sclerites
are larger than in the males and workers. The thorax and abdomen
are generally but little chitinized. The latter is generally more
quadrate than in the workers. Some individuals have rudiments of
ovaries, and some of testes; but the ventral plates of the 8th and 9th
abdominal segments are always entire.

The workers are wingless and for the most part blind; they are but
little chitinized, and larval in appearance. The head is round, the an-
tenn are shorter than in either male or soldier, and the number of
segments intermediate. The mandibles are short and powerful and
covered by the obtuse labrum. In species which nest in the wood on
which they live the form is cylindrical, and the legs shorter than the
abdomen In species which wander much in search of food the thorax
is considerably narrowed, and the legs longer than the abdomen.

Termites inhabit all the warm regions of the earth in countless num-
bers. They are unable to withstand a prolonged winter’s frost. Their
ereatest enemies are ants. Their chief means of defense is their power
of burrowing and building.

CLASSIFICATION.

In the matter of genera I have followed Hagen. His genera admit
of distinctions common to every caste. The genus Zermes contains
numerous species of very diverse forms and habits, yet it can not be
subdivided by characters common to every caste. * * *

The genus Zermes is so large that Hagen, who tried to make several
genera of it, failed owing to the incompieteness of his material. I
also have failed, and think that in the interests of naturalists the
attempt should be postponed. The genus does, however, present nat-
ural groups and these I have attempted to define, but more material
and further examination will alter the definitions and limits I have
given. The groups can seldom be distinguished by characters common
to every caste, nor are the limits of the groups the same if we rely on
the soldiers as if we rely on the males.

The largest forms of the genus are fungus growers. There is an
American group of large termites, represented by 7. dzrus, which are
almost certainly fungus growers; the soldiers have a pair of lateral
horizontal spines on the pronotum. There are three Old World groups
of fungus growers. The most important is represented by 7Z. deldi-
cosus; it builds tall mounds; the imago and soldiers are of large size.

ee

ee EE oo oer errr eee ee a eee

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS. 669

and the latter have a transparent tip to the labrum and a toothless
margin to the mandibles. The second is represented by 7. vulgaris;
it builds insignificantly small mounds or none at all; the imago is large,
but the soldiers are of moderate size, have a few bristles at the tip
of the labrum and a minute tooth at the middle of the cutting margin
of each mandible, or at any rate of the left one. The last group, repre-
sented by 7) dncertus, has individuals of moderate size and quite differ-
ent habit from those of the previous groups.

A remarkable group, in which the soldiers have a very large foramen
in front of the head, from which when angry they can discharge a
copious viscid milky fluid, has been given the subgeneric name Copto-
termes by Herr Wasmann. The group is quite worthy of generic
rank.

Another remarkable group, in which the soldiers have a minute
foramen in front of the head and a long labrum reaching to the tips
of the strongly toothed mandibles, was given the subgeneric name
Rhinotermes by, Dr. Hagen. This group also is worthy of generic
7) I cena

These groups, the fungus-growers, Coptotermes and Lhinotermes,
have soldiers with pronotum more or less flat, and antenne of usually
more than 14 segments, and abdominal papillae usually easily visible.
They have imagos in which the wings show the median nerve midway
between the submedian and subcostal. The remaining groups, con-
taining much the larger number of the species, have imagos, in which
the wings show the median nerve much nearer the submedian than the
subcostal, and soldiers whose antenne have seldom more than 14 seg-
ments. It is to these that Dr. Hagen gave the subgeneric name
Lutermes; they comprise numerous groups, with difficulty recognized
by the imagos, but readily recognized by the soldiers. The uterime
had been previously applied by Heer to some fossil forms of the genus
Termes, known only from the imago, and in one case only from the
wings. The name was limited by Dr. Fritz Miller to a much smaller
group, that in which the soldiers have rudimentary mandibles and a
long, conical rostrum. He raised this group to generic rank. It is ¢
natural group, worthy of generic rank, if indeed it be not worthy of
forming several genera, but its was not in this sense that Heer or Hagen
used fhe name Mutermés..*- * .-*

The species of the genus 7ermes seem in some cases to be very distinct
and readily distineulshablo. and in other cases to pass indistinguish-
ably into one another. In the groups in which the species are not easily
distinguishable, I have not attempted to outdo nature in distinctness;
indeed, in this respect I am conscious of shortcomings. In every case
I trust that more reliance will be placed on my specimens than on my
descriptions.

670 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

CHARACTERS.

The enormous number of individuals in a nest, all of whom may be
considered as the children of the same parents, provides material for
the study of normal variation and of specific limits scarcely to be met
with elsewhere. The great difference of character in the different
castes also introduces new conditions in the classification of species,
and in the study of heredity, not often to be met with.

In the genus 7ermes the soldier is by far the best caste to determine
species from; not only is the soldier easier to determine than the
male, but it is found in almost every nest, and usually wherever the
workers go. Though the imago was the caste on which Hagen founded
most of his species, though it is the form found fossil in amber,
though it is the form caught flying round a lamp at night, yet it is
generally absent from the nests, and is often insufficient for the deter-
mination of species. I have not found the cheracters of the wings
very useful or reliable. In one case I have based species on differ-
ences in the imago, though I could see no difference whatever in the
soldier; but as a rule my species are based chiefly on apparent differ-
ences in the soldiers.

There are two external characters, which are correlated in the
soldiers and the males of the genus Zermes. The abdominal papille
show a corresponding degree of development, and the number of
segments of the antennz is approximately in the proportion of 8 to 9.
The characters of the antenne are probably more important than any
others in the determination of the species. It is easy enough with a
little care to determine whether the apical segments are present or, as
often happens, are broken off, for the apical segment is of a different
shape from the others. Although the segments of the antennx are
fewer in soldier than in the male, they are generally longer and more
cylindrical, so that the antenne of the soldiers are often as long as or
longer than those of the imago. The antenne of the workers, on the
other hand, are always much shorter, yet the number of segments
which compose them is never less than in the soldier and never more
than in the male. The actual length of the antenne in the genus
Termes seems to be but little correlated with the actual number of
segments which compose them, whether we compare the different
species, or whether we compare the different castes. Long antenne
go with long legs, and this is true whether we compare caste or spe-
cies. Long legs and long antenne go with much walking and forag-
ing; and this is true when we look to differences between species, but
not when we look to differences between castes. Soldiers with long,
slender legs belong to species which forage for food at a distance from
the nest; soidiers with short, stout legs belong to species sluggish in
their movements, and which venture but little from home.

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Oe a ee a rae

|

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS. 671

Blindness amongst the soldiers and workers is more universal than
it is inants. There seems no reason to doubt that the blindness is
connected with the mode of life. The impossibility of attributing the
blindness to the inherited effects of disuse, seeing that none of the
parents in any of the species are blind, utterly discredits such an
explanation in the case of other blind animals.

In all the castes the abdomen varies greatly in size and appearance,
according to the nature of the contents.

The winged imagos have an unconquerable desire to leave the nest
and to run the risk of dangers from which not one in many thousands
escapes. By this means it is that interbreeding and distribution are
effected. Dr. Fritz Miller aptly compared the winged individuals
to perfect flowers, and the neoteinic individuals to cleistogamic
flowers. The comparison may be carried a step further. In temper-
ate climates the winged forms appear in early summer. In equato-
rial regions they appear for the most part in simultaneous swarms at
favorable seasons, while in some species they seem to be constantly
produced in small numbers the whole year round. The problems of
when to swarm and how many imagos to produce seem to be solved
in nearly the same ways as the problems of when to flower and how
many flowers to produce.

They fly but feebly, allowing themselves to be carried by the wind,
and could scarcely cross more than a mile or two of water.

The wings are soon shed across a transverse basal line. The method
of breaking off the wings is to elevate them. This will be found
effective in dead insects. The live insect uses its legs and abdomen to
elevate its wings, or in other cases pushes them against some object;
yet in some cases the live insect will shed all four wings with inexpli-
cable rapidity. Their wings not only prevent their burying them-
selves and hiding, but on a perfectly level surface are a danger to
them, for birds are seen to pick up those with wings in preference to
those without.

At the time of swarming the males and females of the genus 7ermes
pair, the male following the female and often clinging to her abdomen,
but there are no copulatory organs, and the sexual organs are not at
that stage mature. In Zermopsis and Calotermes it seems that the
males and females do not run about in pairs.

In most if not in all species a pair of termites can found a nest
without assistance. Smeathman, however, states that in 7. bel/Zcosus
such pairs are protected by any soldiers ana workers who may find
them, and are by them treated as kings and queens. * * *

The females do not differ from the males in head and thorax,
though careful measurements may find the male to be the smaller.
The abdomen of the females becomes at the last molt different from
that of the males on account of a characteristic change in the ventral

672 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

plates of the 7th, 8th, and 9th abdominal segments. In all species of
the genus Zermes the abdomen subsequently swells to many times its
original size; but this swelling is not accompanied by any molting;
the chitinous plates do not alter, but become separated by the disten-
sion of the intervening cuticle. * * * In most groups there are
present a number of minute lateral thickenings, usually colored, and
bearing each a hair.

When, as in most species, the queen is inclosed in a royal cell from
which she is too large to escape, a familiarity with the nest and habits
of the species will lead to her discovery without much trouble; but in
all species other than the fungus-growers the king can leave the royal
cell, and generally does so when he finds the nest is being opened.
In many species, however, the queen wanders about the nest, and she
then seeks, like the king, to avoid observation when the nest is being
opened. In such cases there is only one way of searching method-
ically for her. Remove the nest with as little disturbance as possible
to a convenient place free from the attacks of ants; a large table with
its feet standing in water is the best place. Break the nest into frag-
ments, remove each fragment one by one, examine it carefully, and
put it aside in a safe place, so that the search may, if necessary, be
gone through a second time. If the nest has been broken into frag-
ments before it has been much disturbed, the king will be found in the
same fragment as the queen. If the nest is broken into fragments
gradually, the king, if found at all, will generally be found in the
fragment last examined. The longest time I spent searching through
one nest was three days. I found a king; the queen escaped me, but I
feel confident that was due to my want of care, and she was really there.

I have found colonies which I believed to be, through some accident,
queenless, and there are, no doubt, species in which a single colony owns
several nests; but the rule is that every nest has a true royal pair. I
have found as many as six true royal pairs; they were, as is always
the case, in the same royal cell; their tarsi were injured, presumably
as the result of quarreling.

When there is a true queen, she is, so far as my observations go,
always accompanied by a true king. When there is more than one
true queen, the number of true kings is generally equal to them; but
often it is less, and occasionally it is greater. The king has no copu-
latory organs. From Professor Grassi’s observations, it is probable that
in Calotermes copulation nevertheless does take place. In Zermes ma-
layanus I have reason to think that the king fertilizes the eggs after
they are laid; mdeed, copulation in the case of kings and fully grown
queens of most species of the genus Zermes is apparently impossible.

L raised neoteinic forms artificially in two species of Calotermes. In
species of the fungus-growers neoteinic forms hive never been found.
In five cases I removed the royal pairs from the nests of 7. malayanus,

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS. 673

and after three or four months again examined the nests. In three out
of the five cases substitution pairs exactly resembling the original ones,
with well-formed wing stumps, were present; in the other two cases I
could not find a royal cell, and believe that the loss had not been
repaired.

Natural neoteinic forms are very abundantly found in some species,
especially in those whose soldiers have a saddle-shaped pronotum and
are mandibulated. In forms with nasute soldiers I found neoteinic
queens in only two species, 7) borneens?s and 7. matangensis. Neo-
teinic queens are generally raised in considerable numbers, and become
fewer in number as they grow older. They are always found in the
same part of the nest, although, unless few in number, they can not
all occupy the same cell.

By neoteinic individuals I mean fertile individuals the condition of
whose thorax makes it clear that they have never been capable of
flight. Though the true queens are always accompanied by kings,
the neoteinic queens are often consortless. They may be accompanied
by one or more true kings, or by one or more neoteinic kings; but
the kings are almost invariably less numerous than the queens, and are
in many cases wholly absent. This last conclusion indeed rests on
negative evidence only, and in the case in which I am most positive
(7. matangensis, Nos. 358 and 359) neither eggs nor young larvee were
present in the nests, though wingless males and females were abundant.

The function of the soldiers I believe to be defense, and defense
only. Some able observers have arrived at a different conclusion,
but on what grounds I am not clear. There is a vast difference in
functions of offense and functions of defense; the most successful
defense is to prevent attack; defense has half failed when attacks
must be repulsed. The great enemies of termites are ants; and the
functions of the soldiers seem to me to be to defend any openings in
the nests by putting their heads in the way whilst the workers build
fortifications. Those soldiers which have a saddle-shaped pronotum
and well-developed mandibles are very sluggish, and seem quite use-
less when a nest is opened. It is the nests to which these belong that
birds are most fond of; but while broken nests may be used to bait
bird traps, unbroken nests seem sufficiently strong to resist the birds.

Those soldiers which have a saddle-shaped pronotum and rudimen-
tary mandibles secrete a clear viscid fluid from a sac which occupies a
great part of the head, and opens by a duct which passes down the
rostrum. The soldiers may be seen to dab a little of the fluid on the
antenne of their enemies by a quick movement which is clearly a
modification of the shaking movement so often seen in worker ter-
mites. By this means such enemies as ants are placed hors de combat
when they do not, as they generally do, avoid these soldiers. But
such a mode of defense would seem quite useless in dealing with birds

sm 1901——48 |

674 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

and mammals. However, all the species of the section to which 7.
umbrinus belongs traverse the jungle, returning home by daylight
exposed in long lines which take an hour or more to pass one spot, the
soldiers walking beside the laden workers. In most of the species the
soldiers and workers retreat when disturbed; but in 7. longipes the
behavior is unusually active. The workers vanish at once beneath
sticks and leaves; and if specimens be not quickly secured, they will
soon be very hard to find. The soldiers, on the other hand, rush to the
attack, not in line, but singly; climbing every leaf and stalk, they
stand with unlifted rostrum challenging the enemy. But these species
with rostrum and rudimentary mandibles are not the only ones which
secrete a viscid fluid from the head. The soldiers of 7. foraminifer,
which have a saddle-shaped pronotum and long crooked mandibles,
also have a minute orifice in the front of the head. In all the species
of Rhinotermes the soldiers have a similar foramen and a shallow
groove which runs from it to the tip of the labrum. 7. malayanus
has a similar minute foramen, the orifice of a sac occupying the mid-
dle of the head. Most soldiers of the fungus growers and also those
of 7. sulphureus, when angry, discharge a viscid fluid from large sali-
vary vesicles opening into the mouth. The most remarkable form of
orifice in the front of the head is in the section Coptotermes. The sol-
diers of both 7. gestroi and 7. travians have very large orifices in the
front of the head from which, when angry, they emit a copious white
viscid fluid which runs down to the mandibles. The soldiers of 7°
gestro’ are very ferocious. The species is one which deliberately
attacks and destroys live trees. The workers build up a thick earthy
crust round the stem of the tree for the height of 7 or 8 feet from the
ground; beneath this crust they leisurely seek out weak spots and
penetrate to the center of the tree. If the crust be broken, the
workers very quickly retreat; but the soldiers rush to the attack, a
white milky fluid standing between their open jaws; they lift them-
selves up and then hammer their heads against the tree, producing a
rattling sound. If left alone they soon retire under cover; but if one
breaks into their retreat, out they come again in great excitement, |
hammering their heads, opening and shutting their jaws, and discharg-
ing their milky secretion. In the section of the fungus growers to
which 7. bellicosus belongs the workers run away to their subterranean
passages when the nest is being opened, while the soldiers stay to
defend the nest; generally the smaller soldiers are more active than
the larger, for they run about while the larger occupy the crevices of
the nest and the cavities of the fungus buds, where they wait and bite
at anything which comes in reach. The soldiers of this group can
generally produce the rattling sound. In this accomplishment 7:
carbonarius has reached the highest stage of development, for the
soldiers can hammer in rhythmic unison. At first a few begin irreg-

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS. 675

ularly, then they get into time, and the others take it up. Every
soldier in the exposed portion of the nest stands up and hammers with
his head; the blow is given thrice in very quick succession, and then
there is an interval of two seconds. The noise they produce reminds
me of wavelets lapping on a shore. This trick of hammering with
the head is seen in only a few species; it is clearly a modification of
the shaking movement so often seen in workers.

Ihave not found a species without soldiers, though Dr. Fritz Miiller
found some in America. I have rarely found a nest without soldiers,
though in 7° /obatus I have done so. * * *

To the workers I have not paid much attention. The amount of
coloring and chitinization is correlated with the period during which
they are exposed to light. A broad head, slender legs, and arched
abdomen go with activity and the habit of foraging for food. A nar-
row head, short stout legs, and fusiform abdomen go with a sluggish
habit. The workers not only collect the food and build the nest, but
also nurse the young, and may be seen carrying the eggs and young
larve to places of greater safety. In some species they certainly
take care of the queens. * * *

The structure and position of termites’ nests are very various.
They agree in having the outer part closed so as to exclude their great
enemies, the ants; the entrances are generally few and well protected.
There are, however, some exceptions to this rule, of which the most
remarkable is the nest of 7. /atericius, which has two or three vertical
shafts, an inch or two in diameter and about three feet deep, opening
on the surface of the ground. 7. hospital/s also has one or more
large openings at the summit of the nest. Several species of the
group to which 7. dacessitus belongs, and which build round nests on
the branches of shrubs, may also have several exposed openings into
the nests.

The different groups of the genus Zermes build nests of different
characters; the most remarkable that I have seen are those of the
fungus growers, so well described by Smeathman in the case of 7:
bellicosus. The nests of the American fungus growers seem unfortu-
nately never to have been described. It was noticed by Smeathman
that in some cases the nests of nearly allied species were more easily
distinguished than the insects which built them. This is especially
true of the species allied to 7. nemorosus, which builds turret nests
described by Smeathman. On the other hand, the appearance and
shape of the nests are much modified by conditions; thus the mound
builders can live without a mound in cultivated ground, where mounds
are not permitted.

All the species whose soldiers have a distinctly saddle-shaped
pronotum seem to use proctodeal discharges in the building of their
nests. The fungus growers, on the other hand, do not do so, but

676 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

moisten the pellets of clay which they bring with fluid from their
mouths. In species of Coptotermes and Rhinotermes, and in Termes
tenuior, I did not see what manner of cement was used. 7) planus
lived in shallow chambers eaten in the wood, much after the manner
of Calotermes, and had no buildings.

Observers in America and Europe have concluded that the same
colony often possess several nests, only one of which is inhabited by
fertile individuals, whose eggs and young are carried to the other
nests. Ido not doubt that this is so with a few species; I believe it
to be so with 7. gestroc¢; nevertheless it is not so with the great
majority of species which I have collected. Further, the evidence for
such conclusion is, for the most part, negative, and therefore to be
treated with great caution. As the search for king and queen goes
on hour after hour without success, exhausted patience induces strong
wish for a conclusion; and it is then that the difficulty arises of keep-
ing the influence of wish from upsetting the even balance of judgment.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.
Nest of Bornean white ant.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Hodotermes Havilandi. Soldier. 3.

2 Under side of soldier’s head. 3.
3. Calotermes domesticus. Soldier (side view). 6.

4, Under side of soldier’s head. 8.
5. Imago. x 6.

6. Wing. xX 6.

7. Termes natalensis. Soldier. > 4.

8. Under side of soldier’s head. Gos
9. Imago. 4.

10. Wing: x .2.

11. Termes vulgaris. Soldier. 8.

ps Under side of soldier’s head. x 8

i Imago. X 3.

14. Wing: x< 1s

15. Termes incertus. Soldier. > 8.

16. Under side of soldier’s head. 8.
IF Imago. xX 4.

18. Wings) <2:
19. Termes travians. Soldier. >< 10.

20. Under side of soldier’s head. 12.
AN. Imago. 6.

D2: Wine. X.3.

23. Termes translucens. Soldier. 4.

24. Under side of soldier’s head. 6.
25. Imago. X 4.

26. Wings <3:

Fi

IS

Fig.

bo

fie
28.
29.
30.
31.
o2.
33.
od.
3d.
36.
3/.
38.

39.

73.

75.

TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS.

PLATE III.

Termes xqualis. Soldier. > 10.
Under side of soldier’s head. 10.
Neoteinic queen. >
Termes planus. Soldier. > 8.

Under side of soldier’s head.
Imago. 10.
Wanger. > 85
Termes tenwior. Soldier. 8.
Under side of soldier’s head. ™ 8.
Imago. X 8.
Wing. xX 8.
Termes dubius. Soldier. ™ 8.
Under side of soldier’s head. > 12.
Imago. xX 8.
\WemoYeay .< 1oy
Termes sulphureus. Soldier. X 8.
Side view of soldier’s head. 10.
Imago. X 8.
Termes dentatus. Soldier. 8.
Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 8.
Imago. 6.
Wing. xX 4.
Termes bilobatus. Soldier. < 6.
Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 6.
Imago. » 6.
WWamnoqemchas
Termes nemorosus. Soldier. 6.
Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 6.
Imago. & 6.
Wing. x 4.

PLATE IV.

Termes setiger. Soldier. 6.
Side view of soldier’s head. & 8.
Imago. X 6.
Wing. x 4.

Termes comis. Soldier. ™ 8.
Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 8.
Imago. X 8.
Wine x5:

Termes foraminifer. Soldier. 8.

Side view of soldier’s head. >< 10.

Imacos <8:
Wang, >< 6:
Termes fuscipennis Soldier. 8.
Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 8.
Iimaso. << 6:
Wangs 673:
Termes regularis. Soldier. 6.
Imago. ™ 6.
Wing. 4.

ae |

=I

. Termes singaporiensis. Soldier. > 10.

Side view of soldier’s head. X 10.
Imago. xX 6.
Wing.” 503.
Termes lacessitus. Soldier. 8.
Side view of soldier’s head. 8.
Nymph. x 6.

. Termes hospitalis. Soldier. 8.

Side view of soldier’s head. 8.
Imago. xX 6.
Wing. X 3.

PLATE I.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland.

NEST OF BORNEAN WHITE ANTS.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland. PLATE II

MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES.

Explanation of plate on page 676.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland. PLATE III.

MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES.

Explanation of plate on page 677.

ee

PLATE IV.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland,

MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES.

‘a

ge 677.

Explanation of plate on pa

THE WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO.’

The Indian government has recently formed dairy farms to supply
milk and butter for the use of the troops. The fine breeds of Indian
cattle are used in these dairies, but cow buffaloes are also kept on
account of the richness of their milk. Europeans sometimes object
to use it, as the domesticated buffalo is often kept as a sort of scayen-
ger to the cow byres of the Indian cities, and eats the litter and refuse
of the farmyards. But properly fed the buffalo is by no means the
bovine pig which it becomes when kept in Hyderabad or Benares. It
is not only a first-class dairy animal, but the strongest beast of draft
in the world except the elephant. Great areas of rich river delta and
marsh in three continents are maintained in cultivation by buffaloes
when no other animal could possibly be used to plow the rice fields or
drag carts over and through miles of liquid mud. The value of this,
probably the latest of all large animals to be domesticated, is so well
known in the East that it has for centuries past been carried to places
>o remote from its original home and apparently so inaccessible that
the extent of its involuntary migrations in the service of man has a
peculiar interest. Besides this it is one of the very few domesticated
animals which, like the yak and the gayal (possibly a tame form of the
gaur), are still found in their original wild state, with form and habits
scarcely altered. The wild buffalo is among the most dangerous and
formidable of the big game of India, never hesitating to charge when
wounded, and noted for the persistency with which it seeks to destroy
the person who has injured it. Its natural home is in the grass jungles
and swamps of India, Nepaul, and Assam. It is also found wild in
the island of Formosa. It is a huge black beast, with no hair, a skin
like black gutta-percha, immense horns, sometimes measuring more
than 12 feet along the curve, though not spreading like a shield over
the forehead as in the Cape buffalo, but set like a pair of scythes on
each side of its head. A bull stands 6 feet high at the shoulder—
eighteen hands, that is; its bulk is enormous, and its great spreading
feet are well adapted for walking in the swamps. By choice it is semi-
aquatic. A herd will lie for hours in a pool or river with just their
eyes, horns, and great snub noses above water. Anyone who blunders

“Reprinted from The Spectator, August 31, 1901, pp. 278-279.
679

680 WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO.

onto a buffalo in a wallowing-hole and frightens it out may be excused
for imagining that he has just come on a mud volcano at the moment
of eruption.

This is the real buffalo—called in India the arnee—and not to be
confounded with the gaur or the banteng, the wild oxen of India and
the Far East. It will be seen that the buffalo in its wild state is limited
to a not very large area, namely, the country south of the Himalayas,
and extending for some distance, the limits of which are not perfectly
known, in the territory of the Indo-Chinese states. Yet this enor-
mously powerful and fierce animal has been so completely domesticated
by the Hindoos that the tame herds are regularly driven out to feed in
the same jungles in which wild buffaloes live, the bulls among which
will often come down and, after giving battle to the tame bulls, annex
the cows fora time and keep them in the jungle. The only striking
difference in appearance between the tame and wild buffalo is that the
horns of the former do not grow to the size attained in the wild speci-
mens, and alter their curve and pitch. Mr. Lockwood Kipling notes
the curious effect of the grove of long horns above a herd of these
animals, no two buffaloes having them of the same pattern. Traces of
the lateness of the date of their apprenticeship to the service of man
are seen in their power of self-defense and combination when threat-
ened with attack by tigers or leopards, by their mating with the wild
stock, and by the uncertainty of their temper, especially toward
Europeans. Wherever they are used by oriental races these outbreaks
of savageness are always in evidence from time to time when the white
man encounters them. In China they have been known to chase Kuro-
peans when the latter were riding, as well as when passing on foot.
They will do the same in India, in Egypt, and in Burmah. Yet in
India they are generally taken out to pasture by some small boy, who
is their tyrant and master, and will protect him, their calves, and
themselves from the tiger. An account appeared recently in Country
Life of the use of a herd of these animals to beat the jung'e for a
wounded tiger which had killed a native. The buffaloes were driven
up and down for a whole day, beating the ground in a compact body,
until they found the tiger, whose hiding place was shown by the
excitement of the herd, at which it charged almost as soon as they
observed it, and was shot by the guns following them.

As a beast of draft the buffalo has astonishing powers of hauling
heavy traffic over bad roads. It can plow in mud over its hocks.
It is most docile. It can swim a river going to and from work, tow
barges along canals and streams, sometimes walking in the shallow
water by the banks, like the horses did on the Lower Thames before
the towpath was made. It will eat anything it can get, and asks only
for one indulgence, a good hour’s swim or mud bath in the middle of
the day. The rice fields which feed so great a percentage of the popu-

WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO. 681

lation of eastern Asia could scarcely be cultivated without its aid, and
it is so valuable as a dairy animal that the percentage of butter in its
milk equals that of the best breeds of English dairy cattle. The result
is that it has become an equal favorite with the Hindoo, the Arab, and
the Chinaman, and plays a most important part in the agriculture of
the Lower Nile Valley.

The great distance from its original home in India at which we now
find the buffalo established is evidence that the animal has a history of
an exceedingly adventurous kind, were it possible to trace the story of
its travels. Starting from the Indian jungles, and then domesticated
on the Indian plains, this erstwhile wild beast has reached and been
domesticated and plays a most important part in Egypt, Palestine,
southern Italy and the Campagna, the south and east of Spain, Hun-
gary, Turkey, and western Asia as far as the borders of Afghanistan.
By some unknown route it has reached the west coast of Africa, and is
established as a beast of draught and cultivation on the Niger. It has
traveled far up the Nile, and will go farther, for it would be invalu-
able on the great swamps Fashoda way. In the Far East the Chinaman
has made it his own peculiar pet, having, it is believed, first learnt its
value in the rice grounds of the south. It has been taken to Japan,
where it now works in the rice grounds; to the Philippines and the
islands of the Malay Archipelago; and there is no doubt that it would
be useful in British Guiana. Possibly the Italians who are crowding
over into America will introduce it in the Lower Mississippi Valley;
but it is by nature a brown and yellow man’s beast, and only appre-
ciated in Europe by the South Latin races.

How did the buffalo get from India to Africa? Who first took it to
Egypt? How did it get from Egypt round to the West Niger? And
who brought it to Italy, and from whence‘ All these are most inter-
esting questions, and as the distance of time which has elapsed since
the animals were introduced into Europe does not fall beyond the
historic period, may possibly be answered. In Egypt, for instance,
there exists a pictorial record on the tombs and elsewhere, covering
many thousands of years, in which pictures of animals play an
important part. If the first appearance of the water buffalo in these
paintings were noted, the date of its importation from India to Egypt
would be known. From inquiries kindly made by M. Maspero at the
suggestion of Lord Cromer, it appears that nowhere in the long ‘‘ pic-
ture history” of ancient Egypt does the water buffalo appear. The
African buffalo is seen there; not so the domesticated Asiatic one.
This is very interesting negative evidence that this domesticated animal
was not known in ancient Egypt. It is surmised, probably rightly,
that it was imported after some great epidemic of cattle plague, or it
may have been taken from the west coast of India up the Euphrates
Valiey, and thence down the Jordan Valley to Egypt. Arab dhows

682 WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO.

have for ages done a regular trade in carrying horses from the west
coast of India to the Persian Gulf. It is probably one of the oldest
forms of shipping which exists, and the Arabs who now ship horses
from Bombay to the Persian Gulf may have been in the cattle trade
in very early days. It is also probable that in the era of Hindoo
maritime enterprise these creatures were taken both to the Far East
and to the east coast of Africa. The circumstances which led to their
introduction into Italy and Spain are probably to be found in some
existing record; but it is not one generally known, the nearest surmise
being that they may have been given to a Longobardian king with
other animals by the chief of a horde of Asiatic invaders. They were
not known in Italy in Roman times. But if they had*been introduced
as recently as the camels which are still used on one of the royal estates
in Tuscany (an enterprise due to the Medici), the fact would probably
have been matter of common knowledge.

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ON THE PRESERVATION OF THE MARINE ANIMALS OF
THE NORTHWEST COAST.

By Witu1am H. Dat.

I have been requested by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion to record any facts in my possession bearing on the preservation
from extinction by the hand of man of the various marine animals of
the northwestern coast of America.

The preservation of wild animals in menageries and zoological gar-
dens is necessarily of a most temporary nature, since many of them
will not breed in captivity and all require the greatest care to preserve
them in.even moderately good health. It is very rare that we find
among the carnivores a large mammal which has reached a point as
near domestication as the lion, of which a reasonable supply of cubs
bred in captivity are generally available. Even the European bison,
which has been preserved in the forests of eastern Europe in small
numbers for several centuries in a state as near as possible to that of
untroubled nature, are now, it is reported, on the point of extinction
from disease and weakness due to constant inbreeding.

Unless actually domesticated this is what may be reasonably
expected to occur in time with any limited number of uncivilized men
or wild animals. If the stock is kept pure it will perish from breed-
ing in and in; if it is mingled with other blood the original type grad-
ually fades out. We may, therefore, look forward to a time, nearer
perhaps than we suspect, when all large animals and most of the
attractive wild birds will be known only from pictures or the rare and
precious specimens preserved in museums. Those animals capable of
domestication in large numbers, like certain deer, will alone survive
to represent to future generations the varied fauna of large wild
animais of to-day. The boreal swamps may still afford a refuge to
some of the more hardy fur-bearing creatures, but the use of furs
taken from wild animals will by that time be wholly superseded by
still more beautiful products of the loom.

The tovers of nature and the uncommon (which includes the greater
part of the civilized races) can not contemplate such a state of affairs
with equanimity. Like the man who committed suicide because he

685

684 _ MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST.

was tired of buttoning and unbuttoning, the average citizen would find
such monotony unendurable. The day when circuses are shorn of
their attendant menageries will sensibly diminish the gayety of nations
and deprive the youthful of a most cherished source of amusement
and instruction. Without its bears and wolves, leopards and tigers,
elephants and hippopotami, the natural world would have far less
interest and the distant day of its final extinction would be palpably
foreshadowed.

It is said of man that he shall inherit the earth; and as population
grows this prophecy is gradually being fulfilled. Though there are
deserts in the south, swamps and tundra in the north, and mountain
ranges everywhere, where-man can not find a subsistence or create a
home, no doubt can exist that in the fullness of time all productive
regions of the earth’s surface will be occupied; and only such animals
in the wild state as can secure subsistence from the most inhospitable
areas can be expected to survive.

The sea, however, is different. Here man, who began by fishing
from the shore, then whitened the ocean highways with the canvas of
his sailing ships, and now blackens them from the smoking funnels of
the sea tramp or the majestic liner, is distinctly a temporary sojourner,
He embarks upon the sea because he must cross it, or carry the goods
of others across it; because for a brief season he enjoys trying his wit
and strength against the forces of nature and defying her barriers;
or because he seeks to wrest her treasures from the sea. However
crowded the continents may be, it seems improbable that men, away
from their shores, will ever make their homes upon the sea.

There is then some hope for the marine animals. There will always
be food for them, always a vast extent of ocean for them to roam in
undisturbed, and’no man will grudge them the occupancy of the reefs
and sandbars which they may seek, at certain seasons, to bring forth
their young or lie untroubled in the sunshine.

Whatever may be the ultimate fate of the purely terrestrial animals,
in a sense competitors with man, there is no sufficient reason why the
marine animals may not survive on the globe as long as man himself.
The latter, from a geological standpoint, but recently feral himself,
still preserves in great strength certain primal instincts. There is a
legend of two Englishmen who, hunting in the wilds of central Asia,
during the temporary absence of the seraphic guardians, ignorantly
came to pitch their tent in the Garden of Eden. Waking with the light
of dawn when the descendants of the animals named by our first par-
ent were in primevai amity, wandering peacefully over the green
slopes before him, one of the intruders looked from the door of his
tent and shouted to his comrade, ‘Wake up! wake up! Here is a
chance to kiil something!” Whether this be authentic or not, it is cer-
tain that the desire to kill is one of the most general and strenuous

a ee

MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. 685

instincts in man, even of the highest civilization. For unnumbered
centuries his subsistence depended upon his ability to kill, and his very
existence upon the power to restrain, by killing first, those who would
kill him. It is not to be expected that these instincts can be changed
or eliminated in afew generations. Nevertheless, the desire to kill
for the sake of killing has been modified in the more intelligent of
civilized men to a desire to kill for some definite purpose, such as the
accumulation of property, the protection of domestic animals. or the
elimination of vermin.

We may hope that the more intelligent body of those who make
and enforce the laws may so restrain the less intelligent, who kill in
wantonness or for a trifling gain, as to defer the extinction of the
sea animals indefinitely. It is entirely possible, though up to the
present time effective measures of protection have, so far as inter-
national law would admit, been carried out solely for one animal—the
fur seal. Others, like the sea otter and salmon, have been legislated
for, but it is universally believed on the northwest coast that no
honest attempt to enforce this legislation has ever been made, and
certainly none has been efficient. The prospect would indeed be dark
if we could hope for nothing better than the conditions which have
heretofore obtained.

But there is no reason why conditions should not improve, and the
writer believes that if the American public were fully aware of the
present state of things they would insist on a change; and if any
general appreciation of what the present destructiveness implies could
be brought about, the merest commercial self-interest would force a
reform in the absence of other motives.

The marine animals which may be considered in this connection are
as follows:

The sea elephant, Macrorhinus angustirostris;

The walrus, Rosmarus obesus;

The sea lion, Humetopias stelleri;

The lesser sea lion, Zalophus californianus;

The fur seal, Callotaria ursina;

The hair or harbor seal, Phoca largha;

The ringed seal, Phoca fetida;

The harp seal, Phoca grenlandica;

The saddleback seal, Histriophoca fasciata;

The bearded seal, Hrignathus barbatus;

The sea otter, Enhydris marina.

The fur seal has been the subject of so much writing and has excited
so much popular interest from its commercial value and other causes
that it will not be further referred to in this discussion, except to say
that there is no question in the mind of anyone qualified to judge that
if the destructive pelagic sealing were stopped, the seals would, in
the course of eight or ten years, increase so as to restore the valuable
industry now approaching extinction.

686 MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST.

The sea elephant, formerly ranging from the vicinity of San Fran-
cisco, at Point Reyes, to the we-t shore of the peninsula of Lower
California, is believed to be, if not actually extinct, at least reduced
to a few individuals which are finding a temporary refuge among the
reefs of Lower California. No one knows of any living specimens
and the species, for present purposes, may be left out of consideration.

The bearded seal is supposed to occur very rarely on the coast of
Eastern Siberia near Bering Strait. It is a common Atlantic species
and may be merely a straggler in the Far West. The saddleback, a
remarkably handsome and very rare animal, is believed to be confined
to Kamchatka, the Okhotsk Sea, and the Kurile Islands. These two
may also be dismissed from our reckoning.

The harbor seal is common in the colder waters of the coast, and
colonies occur where the glaciers of southeastern Alaska drop their
shattered ice blocks into bays and inlets. The mass of the species,
however, is more northern and frequents the region of Bering Strait
and the polar sea, especially about the edges of floe ice. It is a small
species and largely utilized by the natives of those coasts Tor many
purposes.

The ringed seal, a somewhat larger and handsomer animal, exists
under nearly the same conditions and is hunted by the natives for the -
same purposes.

The harp seal, a much larger animal, is also of great importance to
the native population and occupies the same region, though it never
occurs in the vast numbers which make its pursuit by the Newfound-
land sealers of commercial importance in the Atlantic.

These three are speared through the ice, at their blowholes in win-
ter, or caught in nets ingeniously spread under the ice by the aid of
long poles. They are shot or lanced near the edge of the floe in
spring, and supply food, oil for fuel, soles for foot wear, coverings
for boats, and a multitude of other articles essential to the existence
of the native population. The number killed, though large in the
total, is not so great as to disturb the balance of nature; and with the
rapid decrease of the native population, due to introduced diseases, it
will be less and less, year by year. They do not exist at present in
numbers sufficient to tempt commercial slaughter, and so we may
regard these species at least as practically safe under existing con-
ditions.

The lesser sea lion is a native of the coasts of California, where it
exists in large rookeries at a few places, especially on the Farallones
Islands—fortunately a Government light-house reservation. Here
they are not disturbed, though every few years a foolish agitation.
arises among the fishermen of San Francisco calling for their destruc-
tion on the ground that they are destroying the salmon, or other fish.
No one has ever found a piece of salmon in the stomach of a sea lion

MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. 687

in the wild state, and the danger appears to be wholly imaginary, as
the sea lions have existed as long as the fish, and, until man with his
disregard of the future and his desperate endeavors to get rich rap-
idly, entered the field prepared to capture and kill wholesale for
immediate profit and the subsistence of nations beyond the sea, there
was fish enough and to spare. However, the sea lions are in no imme-
diate danger, and a better knowledge of their food and habits will
probably remove what seems to threaten in the future.

The great sea lion of Steller has been less fortunate and his fate has
_been curiously bound up with the sea-otter fishery, now in such a state
of decay as to be almost negligible. The sea lion, in the absence of
the larger hair seals, has been the chief reliance of the Aleutian otter
hunters for the hide, with which they cover their hunting kyaks. This
hide is far inferior to that of the seal, and must be renewed every
year. Without sea-lion skins the hunters could not go to sea on their
perilous hunting trips among the reefs for the precious otter fur.
Control of the supply of sea-lion hides means more or less control of
the hunting. So competing traders attacked the sea-lion rookeries,
partly to get hides to trade to the hunters or supply their own fleet of
kyaks; partly to destroy those they did not need, so that competitors
for trade should not be able to get sea-lion skins, and thus should have
their business crippled.

The shy and elusive otter in the strenuous competition was soon so
generally killed off that the trade has diminished to a point where it
is dying for want of skins. The natives, diminishing at an astonish-
ing rate from measles, influenza, and other introduced diseases, are
obliged to earn a living otherwise than by hunting. So the devastated
sea lion rookeries are slowly recovering, and as their value and num-
ber are too small to tempt destruction on commercial grounds by the
whites, we may regard the danger point as passed. The burly mon-
arch of the island reefs is no longer in need of immediate protection.

The strong arm of Russia, guided by expert knowledge, has pro-
vided and efficiently protected a reserve on the Commander Islands,
where the sea otter is now flourishing and a valuable industry slowly
reviving. When a single good skin is worth $400 at any furrier’s,
the whole power of the United States, as at present exerted in such
matters (witness the buffalo in the Yellowstone Park), is incompetent
to protect or preserve an animal or an industry against the poacher
on her own soil. Spain may recoil in defeat, but the poacher boldly
scorns the guardians of a reservation and jingles the dollars in his
pocket. We may therefore give up the case of the sea otter as hope-
less. Democracy has its disadvantages.

There remains the case of the walrus. There were, a few years ago,
several small herds of this animal existing at little-frequented points
in Bering Sea. This animal seems to be able to change its habits. At

688 MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST.

least, the main walrus population has always lived on the edges of
the floe ice, which advances in winter to the latitude of the Pribilof
Islands and retreats with the melting pack ice in summer to the Polar
Sea. Yet certain small colonies have in historic times always existed
in certain localities winter and summer, perhaps attracted by an excep-
tional abundance of their favorite food. A small bunch of walrus for
many years occupied Walrus Island, of the Pribilof group, but this
was an assembly of a peculiar character. It was entirely composed
of old males driven away from the herds by the competitive valor of
their younger and more active congeners, and forming a sort of old
gentleman’s club, existing in torpid dignity away from an atmosphere
of irritating disrespect. We are informed that this retreat is now
untenanted and the assembly scattered or destroyed.

The walrus feeds on clams, sea snails, and other mollusks of the kind
which frequent sand banks in shallow water. These are rooted out of
the sand by the aid of the powerful tusks and swallowed whole, with
a stone or two to aid digestion. The shells pass through the body in
the natural way and are discharged on the rookeries, largely in an
unbroken state. It is therefore necessary that the herd should have a
large area to dig over, as such enormous animals must require a large
supply of food. Thev appear to increase slowly, and being, when
well fed, of a rather sluggish disposition, fall an easy prey to the hun-
ter intent on ivory or oil. 1 understand that the Secretary of the
Treasury has forbidden the wanton shooting of these animals by trav-
elers bound to Nome, who, while waiting on board ship for the ice to
open, formerly amused themselves in this way. The number of the
animals has very greatly diminished owing to destruction by whalers
unable to get any whales, who a few years ago attempted to make up
for other deficiencies by filling up with walrus oil and ivory. This
has not been done of late years owing to the great distress the absence
of walrus brought upon the natives of the Arctic coast, who were very
dependent upon them for food and coverings for their boats. The
diminished numbers of the animals, of whom 11,000 were killed in a
single season at the height of the fishery, have also tended to make
their pursuit unprofitable.

It is evident that the walrus can not be preserved in confinement,
nor could a herd flourish in a restricted area. Their preservation, in
the case of the small herds referred to as stationary, is a very simple
matter. If they are let alone, they will take care of themselves, as
hitherto. If protected from the poacher, they need no other care.
The way to keep them in existence is not to kill them. They will do
the rest.

—

—

SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.*

By F. G. AFLALO.

Those who freely criticise the scant accommodation allotted to many
inmates of the London Zoo are, no doubt, expressing a very com-
mendable sentiment; but they do not appear to realize that it is a case
of little or nothing, and that, circumscribed as it is by public property,
not a fraction of an acre can be added to that corner of the Regent’s
Park already covered by the familiar paddocks and buildings. It is
another matter altogether when private gentlemen, with the right
tastes and opportunities, give over their parks to beautiful and inter-
esting animals of all lands, and accord them, amid enchanting sur-
roundings, a liberty which, little more restricted than in their natural
homes, knows little of the perils of nature and nothing of the cruelties
of sport. The majority of men and women like to surround them-
selves with favorite animals; and if we must sometimes regret the
proclivity when we see larks beating their wings vainly against jealous
bars, we can have nothing but appreciation for such private zoos as I
have selected for notice in the present article. There is, as a rule, no
ulterior motive beyond the mere pleasure in seeing these animals well
and happy in their new homes, though in some few instances, it 1s
true, the fostering of science or sport has been at the bottom of such
experiments in acclimatization.

The Duke of Bedford seems, with his hundreds of wild deer and
antelopes, cattle, sheep, and goats, which tuxuriate at Woburn in amaz-
ing herds, to have taken over the scientific research once projected, but
since abandoned, by the society of which he is president. The Jardin
d’Acclimatation in Paris is similarly interested in the practical side of
introducing useful or ornamental exotic animals. Sport, again, has
been responsible for the introduction into these islands, at more or less
remote dates, of the pheasant, red-legged partridge, and carp.

If we have borrowed, we have also lent; and our red grouse, once
found only in the United Kingdom, has succeeded so well in parts of
Belgium and Germany that new game laws are now necessary for its
preservation on the continent. The only government, however, which

“Reprinted, by permission, from Pall Mall Magazine, London, Vol. XXV, Sep-
tember, 1901. ~

sm 1901——44 689

690 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.

concerns itself with such operations is, if we except the more or less
private undertakings of more than one reigning sovereign, that of
America, in which the game and fisheries departments of the a
States devote considerable sums of money to the introduction of suit- °
able game beasts and birds.

Private enterprise takes with us the place of public usefulness, and —

we thus have in our midst a number of sportsmen and natur alee who |
extend their protection to foreign animals, and spend their money in ~

giving them every chance of doing well amid their new surroundings.
I have chosen four of these zoos, situated in widely different parts
of the country, to illustrate some points of interest in the man-
agement of such establishments, and all of these I have visited per-
sonally. My scheme does not include the aforementioned preserve of
Woburn, nor have I seen the famous Japanese deer at Powerscourt,
where Viscount Powerscourt was the first to acclimatize that graceful
species as a park animal. At the same time, I think it may be shown
that these four animal sanctuaries—they are Tring, Vaynol, Haggers-
ton, and Leonardslee—on the resources of which I have drawn for
these notes, have succeeded under sufficiently marked differences of
soil, climate, and situation to encourage anyone who may contemplate
establishing yet another reserve in no matter what district of England.
Each of them has its prominent feature, and in each there is some lack
that we tind supplied in one or other of the rest.

I suppose that of all four Leonardslee comes nearest to the ideal for
the purpose. Sheltered by the South Downs its sandy soil throws up
a luxuriance of flowering shrubs and appears to favor all manner of
foreign trees, no matter whence Sir Edmund Loder brought them in
the seed. Its hilly tracts are in parts so wild that London might well
be 400, instead of merely 40, miles away. Its climate is more equable
than would be expected so near the home counties; and the higher
portions of the estate are bracing, while the lower hold an abundant
supply of water that not even the caprices of its famous beavers can
divert.

Touching Tring, there is, I think, nothing of extreme importance to
be noted with reference to its climate or situation; but Vaynol and
Haggerston present diametrically opposite physical conditions, their
only drawback in-common being, perhaps, a too heavy rainfall in the
wet season. While the latter lies between the imposing slopes of
Snowdon and the Menai Strait, amid scenery of great variety, and in
a soft western climate, the more northerly estate is on the lowlands of
the Northumbrian coast, exposed to every cold and violent wind that
blows across the neighboring North Sea, while equally bitter winds
reach it from the southwest, straight from the Cheviot Hills, that are
often snow clad until early summer.

The feature of the Hon. Walter Rothschild’s collection at Tring is,

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Afilalo. PLATE |.

WILD CATTLE. VAYNOL.

THE HON. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, M. P., DRIVING ZEBRA.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo. PLATE Il.

A CORNER OF SiR E. LODER’S MUSEUM.

SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 691

of course, the excellently ordered private museum, the stocking of
which keeps his collectors busy in all parts of the world. Mr. Roths-
child has, indeed, deposited so many of his animals in the London Zoo
that it is not easy to form any adequate idea of all the curious creatures
that he has brought to England without visiting both. It is in London,
indeed, that we find most of his gigantic tortoises, rescued from a near
extinction in the southern islands, where once, cut off from the evil-
doing of man and his dogs, they contrived to grow to such mighty
measurements. Tring Park has, however, its interesting inhabitants
as well; and kangaroos and emus roam so obviously at large that, but
for the more pleasing variety in the vegetation of the northern hemi-
sphere, one might well picture it a corner of Australia. At Hag-
gerston, on the other hand, there is the prospering herd of American
bison, of which Mr. Christopher Leyland takes every care; while at
Vaynol Mr. G. W. Duff Assheton Smith has his wild white cattle.

Visitors to Leonardslee, too, will find just such an assemblage of
horned game as, roaming at liberty up and down hills intersected by
game paths, might be expected to conjure up pleasant scenes to a
famous traveler whose rifle made top score in an all-England eight.
The Leonardslee Museum, too, though less systematic in its arrange-
ment than that at Tring, is more purely sporting, showing a fine col-
ection of its owner’s trophies.

Unless, as in the case of the wild white cattle, there is any techni-
cal objection to interbreeding, it is in most cases usual to allow the
different kinds of animals to intermingle without restraint; and now
and then, even in the seclusion of cage or paddock, some strange part-
nerships are the result. At Vaynol, for instance, a young Sambur
deer and pony are boon companions, and have a field to themselves;
while in the building in which Mr. Assheton Smith keeps his pumas
and monkeys there is a most entertaining trio in the shape of two
white wolves and a little Malayan bear. Whenever the horseplay of
the wolves becomes unendurable, the bear, not without a parting cuff,
makes his way up a tree and out into the open air above, whither,
since dogs can not climb, the wolves are unable to pursue.

It will easily be understood that so varied a collection of animals as
inhabits each and all of these zoos includes individuals of various
degrees of shyness, and not all the animals may be seen at the first
attempt. Only on my sixth night at Vaynol, for instance, did I see
the wild roe deer that hide away in the dense cover beneath the
heronry; and the Leonardslee beavers are still more secretive than the
prairie dogs that burrow in their sandy inclosure on the hill close
beside the house, baffling all but the most skillful and patient pho-
tographers. It is to Mr. R. B. Lodge that I am indebted for the
accompanying picture of one of these interesting little hermits, most
of which utter their angry squeal and dive below as soon as the
intruder comes within 20 yards of their watchtowers.

692 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.

Haggerston lies, as I have said, on the bleak coast of Northumber-
land, and the visitor must alight at the little station of Beal, changing
out of the express, which ignores it, into a slower local train that runs
from Newcastle to Berwick. The lodge gates adjoin the station, and
on either side of the winding track that leads to the castle are inquisi-
tive wapiti, bison (both pure and half-breed), genus, and other strange
creatures. The crowning success of acclimatization is fully attested
by the numbers of young animals intermingled with their sires and
dams (for the Nilghai antelopes often produce twins); and there are the
calves of the zebu and, one had almost added, of the gnu, but that, in
spite of its ox-like exterior, the gnu is an antelope and its young are
in consequence styled fawns.

Although we see before us miles of wire fence and inclosed buildings,
there is liberty, too, for the Haggerston animals; and at one turn of
the road Mr. Tait, who has charge of them all, points out a rock-
wallaby reclining lazily in the branches of a low tree, leafless this
January afternoon. These rock-wallabies are also very fond of the
cedars, which they ascend to a great height. Bennett’s wallabies and
great kangaroos gaze stolidly at the emus and black swans, maybe
with memories of a distant home that they have no cause to regret.
Right through the grounds goes the sluggish Low, its waters holding
numbers of small trout, and the moaning of the North Sea can be
heard whenever the wind blows from the east. The emus and rheas
(their South American cousins) have bred less satisfactorily these past
three years, a falling off which Mr. Leyland attributes to excessive
rains, and more particularly to late frosts, during incubation. This
year, however, there are again some young emus. Japanese apes run
free in a large inclosure, but no families have so far blessed their cap-
tivity. Mr. Leyland tells me that he started this wonderful collection
some twenty years ago in Wales, with emus, kangaroos, pheasants,
waterfowl, and various small birds. Some ten years ago their owner
moved north and took with him his herds of wapiti and bison. It is
with the last named that animal lovers must always associate his work.
Thanks to American railroad enterprise and Indian greed, the bison
has long been a vanishing type. Indeed, the absolutely wild condi-
tion knows it no longer, which sad fact makes it the more gratifying
that the Haggerston herd is slowly but surely on the increase. Mr.
Leyland has crosses between bison bull and Highland cow, and the
heifers have for two generations been bred back to pure bison bull.
The larger birds kept in the paddocks include no fewer than five kinds
of cranes; but only one, the Demoiselles, have ever mated, and even
they did not hatch. ,

Having visited Tring in December, Haggerston in January, and
both Leonardslee and Vaynol in the loveliest time of spring, I offer
comparisons with all reserve. Tring, however, if it does not perhaps

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo. PLATE III.

YOUNG SAMBRU AND PONY. VAYNOL.

PRAIRIE DoGs. LEONARDSLEE PARK.

Smithsonian Report, 1901,—Aflalo. PLATE IV.

EMUS AND YOUNG. HAGGERSTON.

SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 693

offer any striking variety of scenery, never, on the other hand, looks
as dour as the north country, in the barrenness of which the master of
Haggerston has made his paradise. In addition to its sheep and cattle
and shire horses, domesticated types that stand apart from the wilder
subjects of these notes, Tring has close on a hundred Japanese and
fallow deer, about thirty kangaroos and wallabies, rather less than a
score of emus, and some rheas and cassowaries. These great struthi-
ous birds do not all accommodate themselves to captivity with the
same thoroughness. Thus, while the emus hatch out regularly year
after year, the cassowaries never get beyond the laying stage.

The private museum at Tring, which was mentioned above, must be
one of the finest of its kind in the world, I have met Mr. Rothschild’s
collectors at work in southern islands and continents; and on one
occasion I traveled some 12,000 miles in company with mysterious
chests addressed to him, the contents of which I subsequently had the
pleasure of seeing in their new quarters. In the working rooms of
his museum he studies and writes about the pheasants and other
groups of birds in which he takes a special interest, and his pheasant-
ries contain half a dozen species, including the elegant pheasant, not
found elsewhere alive m Europe except at Berlin. It would be unpar-
donable to write, however briefly, of Mr. Rothschild and Tring with-
out some allusion to his successful domestication of the Burchell zebra,
which he was in the habit of driving in harness. Those who know
anything of zebra morals will admire his enterprise. Those who have
aregard for him and his work will not be sorry to hear that he has
handed the contumacious brutes over to a cousin who resides in
France.

I have already admitted that my visits to both Leonardslee and Vay-
nol were made under seasonal conditions that showed those beautiful
places at their fairest. The memory of Leonardslee on the last day of
April is as of a corner of the Kew hothouses gone astray, with all their
wealth of rhododendrons and camellias, » wild conglomeration of half
the zoological and botanical regions that lie between the Tropics and
the Poles. Here we stand beneath a 90-foot fir tree from the icy
north and gaze on prancing gazelles from the Arabian Desert; we
move into the slighter shade of dwarf firs from the Atlas Mountains;
wallabies from Australia and axis deer from the East gaze wonder-
ingly at us from behind bushes of American origin. The trees and
shrubs, like the beasts and birds, have apparently made themselves
quite at home on a soil so poor that nature would seem to have destined
it for the maintenance of nothing above mean and lowly heaths. A
closer inspection of the Leonardslee Zoo reveals the thorough wildness
of the animals. Here, within 5 miles of Horsham, representative
groups of the fauna of three continents run as free as in their own
lands. The skill of the vet can never reach them; Dallmeyev’s tele-

694 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.

photographic lens alone could imprison the image of more than one or
two of the most trusting. Only when their race is run and their per-
verted morality calls for the euthanasia of an unerring rifle does their
owner seek them out and end each doomed career. The most interest-
ing members of this assorted family—the eight beavers of Montana
stock—do not put in an appearance until daylight wanes, and those
with thoughts of evening engagements in town and return trains must
be content with the sight of their wonderful dams and take the engi-
neers themselves on trust. Further negative and positive evidence,
too, of their restless energy they may find in the spectacle of splen-
did trees either sheathed with iron mail against those untiring teeth
or else gnawed through more than a moiety of their thickness. The
wood that is given to them every day provides both nourishment and
exercise, since the saplings of beech or fir are propped upright in the
earth, and the beavers have to work hard for each meal of bark.
Nature has furnished the beaver so that it must either labor unceas-
ingly or sicken to the death, and work they do beyond any other
creature on earth. No strikes, no eight-hours’ creed; but an aston-
ishing application to the work of destruction. The woods provided
for the colony at Leonardslee are not of the hagdest, but Sir Edmund

Loder has in his museum a mighty fragment of British oak, the iron

hardness of which was no match for their teeth. Indeed, one would
not at first sight gather the meaning of that unobtrusive specimen of
damaged wood, hidden away as it is in that jostling crowd of elephant,
boar, tiger, antelope, goat, and gazelle, all brought back by the owner
from the sands and snows of four continents. The Leonardslee beavers
have so dammed the water in which they make their home, that no
visitor would be likely to trace unaided its original course to the sea.
Nature is, however, sometimes stronger than even the beavers, and
there was a sorry spate two years back that washed the beavers a dis-
tance of 2 miles into some eel traps, from which they were presently
rescued and restored to their anxious owner. Old female beavers
occasionally make mischief in the otherwise peaceful little colony; for
like old hen grouse, they grow very jealous of their juniors once they
have done with the softer emotions of life, and their pugnacity is
incurable. When their case is thus past remedy, they are eliminated.
An operation is also sometimes needed for the overgrowing teeth, and
it takes five men to hold a self-respecting beaver still enough for the
purpose, one gripping each leg, while a fifth keeps the ever-ready teeth
gripped on a piece of soft wood. It would, I imagine, take a Mussul-
man to photograph beavers in the natural state. The ordinary patience
of Western photographers is not equal to the ordeal. But your Mus-
sulman would uncomplainingly sit beside his subject’s dwelling for a
month or two, never leaving his post for such petty considerations as

rest or refreshment, and he would, with a whispered ‘‘ Inshallah!” of —

Se

ee ee es ee ee ee ee

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo.

BISON BULL.

HAGGERSTON.

PEATE: Ve

CASSOWARY. TRING.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Afilalo. PLATE VI.

TELEPHOTOGRAPH OF STAG. SURRENDEN

KANGAROOS. LEONARDSLEE.

SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 695

eternal hope, but otherwise without a murmur, waste dozens of plates,
and at length success would be his.

At the antipodes of shyness, as of homeland, are the great kangaroos.
Now, the kangaroo is in its own country anything but confiding. Its
impressive 20-foot leaps have kept me on hands and knees, with a heavy
Winchester rifle slung over my neck, by the hour, and it never reposed
inme that perfect trust which would have enabled an easy shot. Fluk-
ing kangaroos at 300 or 400 yards is not exhilarating sport, as anyone
might understand if he tried catapulting grasshoppers at 50. The con-
ditions as to movement and size of the target would approximate. At
Leonardslee, however, the only rifle that ever breaks the stillness is
that with which Sir Edmund Loder practices at his private ranges;
and the beasts have got to know and disregard its voice. So the kan-
garoos come quite close to even the stranger, and have in consequence
no secrets from the camera. The Japanese deer, on the other hand,
which seem to have learnt their leaping tricks, remain out of focal
range, and nothing but the telephotograph, one of which Mr. Walter
Winans has kindly sent me from his deer park at Surrenden, will
avail. The big game of Leonardslee, however, is usually collected on
a high, grassy plateau on the farther side of some pheasant coverts,
and our sudden appearance round a bend sends herds of browsing
moufflon and Barbary sheep, in a moment of forgotten confidence,
prancing over the sky line. Among the rarities mention should per-
haps be made of a pair of Marica gazelles, the only living specimens,
I believe, in Europe.

The best known protégés of the Squire of Vaynol are perhaps his
wild white cattle, of Sir John Orde’s old Kilmory stock with a cross
of Athol bull. Visitors to the Zoological Gardens during the past
year or so must have noticed the Vaynol cow, with her little white calf
by a Chartley sire. The remaining herds of British wild cattle are
not more than three or four in number, and those at Vaynol were
established there by the present owner. Though never aggressive,
they are very wild in the sense of resenting the close approach of
strangers, as the unsatisfactory result (given at the head of this arti-
cle) of several hot days of stalking them in various parts of the park
will bear witness. There is usually a herd of deer mingled with the
cattle, and both graze close to the house and round the lake. Just
before my stay, a cow had come to grief right under the windows,
and had to be shot; and for several nights after the event a mighty bull
fight took place in the moonlight on that spot—an episode that might
perhaps have been valued more at a less restful hour of the twenty-
four. The calves are noticeably whiter than their elders, which seem
to assume a varying degree of yellow or cream-color as they advance
in years. Of hares, Vaynol has three kinds (the English, Scotch, and
Irish), and, for all 1 should care to swear to the contrary, about three

696 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.

million of them. There are other dwellers in the park, however; and
there is room for them, seeing that the wall inclosing it runs a good
8 miles under its chevaux-de-frise of slate. There are Indian pigmy
cattle (a very recent addition), sheep from Iceland and St. Kilda, emus,
rheas, herons, wild roe, and an appalling abundance of game and
domestic stock that would break the heart of a census enumerator.
Then, too, there are the wild boar recently presented by His Majesty
the King. Lassisted (in the French sense of the word) from the security
of a high wall in their liberation from the crates in which they had
traveled overnight; and they are now accommodated in an ideal pig-
gery—fourteen acres of dry and sloping woodland fenced in and over-
looking the carriage drive—which Mr. Assheton Smith had specially
constructed for their reception. Of all that disbanded Windsor herd,
none, I trow, will find better quarters. Vaynol has no museum, for
the Squire likes his animals alive; but there is a bijou menagerie, from
which the London Zoo might learn. The monkey house, for instance,
has optional outdoor playing grounds, reached by way of trees and a
tunnel; while the golden and imperial eagles are able to stretch their
wings in large inclosures, and look very different from the pictures of
misery usually presented by these great fowl in captivity. And this,
I take it, is the striking note of difference between the private and the
public zoo. The latter must always, whether it be the property of a
scientific society or whether it be run as a syndicate investment, be
conducted on economic lines that promise a return on capital sunk in
its construction and upkeep. The private zoo, on the other hand, is
kept up solely for the comfort of the animals and the pleasure of the
owner In seeing them happy and prosperous. There is no question of
restricted quarters, insufficient food, inadequate artificial heating or
ventilation. As much as possible is left to nature, and the rest is
very carefully adjusted in close imitation of her best conditions in

the lands from which these attractive strangers were originally

brought.

rss ee ee ee eS ee ee eee ee eee

a) oo ees

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo. PLATE VII.

MARICA GAZELLE. LEONARDSLEE.

DEER. VAYNOL.

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON,’ A STUDY OF ITS
ANIMALS IN RELATION TO THEIR NATURAL ENVI-
RCNMENT.

By Ernest THOMPSON SETON.

I.

At the beginning of this century the continent of North America
was one vast and teeming game range. Not only were the buffalo in
millions across the Mississippi, but other large game was fully as
abundant, though less conspicuous. Herds of elk, numbering 10,000
or 15,000, were commonly seen along the Upper Missouri. The ante-
lope ranged the higher plains in herds of thousands; whitetail deer,
though less gregarious, were seen in bands of hundreds; while bighorn
sheep, though still less disposed to gather in large flocks, were rarely
out of sight in the lower parts of the eastern Rockies, and it was quite
usual to see several hundred blacktail in the course of a single day’s
travel.

But a change set in when the pioneer Americans, with their horses,
their deadly rifles, their energy, and their taste for murder, began to
invade the newly found West.

The settlers increased in numbers, and the rifles became more deadly
each year; but the animals did not improve in speed, cunning, or
fecundity in an equal ratio, and so were defeated in the struggle for
life, and started on the down grade toward extinction.

Aside from sentimental or esthetic reasons, which I shall not here
discuss, the extinction of a large or highly organized animal is a serious
matter.

1. It is always dangerous to disturb the balance of nature by remoy-
ing a poise. Some of the worst plagues have arisen in this way.

2. We do not know, without much and careful experiment, how
vast a service that animal might have done to mankind as a domestic
species.

The force of this will be more apparent if we recollect how much
the few well-known domestic species have done for the advancement of

* Reprinted, by permission of the author and of The Century Company, from The
Century Magazine, vol. lix, March, 1900; vol. Ix, May, 1900. Copyrighted, 1900.
697

698 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

our race. Who can decide which has done more for mankind, the
cow or the steam engine, the horse or electricity, the sheep or the
printing press, the dog or the rifle, the ass or the loom? No one,
indeed, can pronounce on these, yet all on reflection feel that there is
reason in the comparisons. Take away these inventions, and we are
put back a century, or perhaps two; but further, take away the domes-
tic animals, and we are reduced to absolute savagery, for it was they
who first made it possible for our aboriginal forefathers to settle in
one place and learn the rudiments of civilization.

And it is quite possible, though of course not demonstrable, that
the humble chuckie barn-fowl has been a larger benefactor of our race
than any mechanical invention in our possession, for there is no inhab-
ited country on earth to-day where the barn fowl is not a mainstay of
health. There are vast regions of South America and Europe where
it is the mainstay, and nowhere is there known anything that can take
its place, which is probably more than can be said of anything in the
world of mechanics.

Now, if the early hunters of these our domestic animals had suc-
ceeded in exterminating them before their stock was domesticated,
which easily might have been, for domestication succeeds only after
long and persistent effort and, in effect, a remodeling of the wild
animal by select breeding, the loss to the world would have been a
very serious matter, probably much more serious than the loss of any
invention, because an idea, being born of other ideas, can be lost but
temporarily, while the destruction of an organized being is irreparable.

And we to-day, therefore, who deliberately exterminate any large
and useful, possibly domesticable, wild animal, may be doing more
harm to the country than if we had robbed it of its navy.

This is the most obvious economic view of the question of extermi-
nation. But there is another, a yet higher one, which, in the end,
will prove more truly economic. We are informed, on excellent
authority, that man’s most important business here is to ‘* know
himself.”

Evidently one can not comprehend the nature of a wheel in a
machine by study of that wheel alone; one must consider the whole
machine or fail. And since it is established that man is merely a
wheel in the great machine called the universe, he can never arrive at
a comprehension of himself without study of the other wheels also.
Therefore, to know himself man must study not only himself, but all
things to which he is related. This is the motive of all scientific
research.

There is no part of our environment that is not filled with precious
facts bearing on the ‘great problem,’ and the nearer they are to us
the more they contain for us. He who will explain the house spar-
row’s exemption from bacteriological infections, the white bear’s

ee ee es ee

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 699

freedom from troubles that we attribute to uric acid in the blood, or
the buffalo’s and the flamingo’s immunity from the deadliest malaria,
is on the way to conferring like immunities on man. Each advance
of science enables us to get more facts out of the same source, so that
something that is studied to-day may yield a hundred times the value
that it could or did ten years ago; and if that source of knowledge
happens to be perishable, one can do the race no greater harm than by
destroying it.

The Sibylline books were supposed to contain all necessary wisdom;
they were destroyed, one by one, because the natural heir to that
wisdom did not realize their value. He did waken up at last, but it
was too late to save anything except a fragment. What Tarquin did
to the books offered by the Cumzan Sibyl, our own race in America
has done to some much more valuable books offered by nature. To
illustrate: Each animal is in itself an inexhaustible volume of facts
that man must have, to solve the great problem of knowing himself.
One by one, not always deliberately, these wonderful volumes have
been destroyed, and the facts that might have been read in them have
been lost.

It is hard to imagine a greater injury to the world of thought,
which is, after all, the real world, than the destruction of one of these
wonderful unread volumes. It is possible that the study of ** man”
would suffer more by the extinction of some highly organized animal
than it did by the burning of the Alexandrian library. This is why
men of science have striven so earnestly to save our native animals
from extinction.

In 1878 there were still millions of buffalo in the West. That year
the Northern Pacific Railroad opened up the Missouri region, and
the annual slaughter was greatly increased. In 1882 there were still
thousands of buffalo. In 1884 all were gone but a few small, scattered
bands. In 1885 there were probably less than five hundred buffalo
left alive in the United States. In 1886 an expedition fitted out by
the Government secured with great difficulty enough specimens to
make the mounted groups in the 1 National Museum, and it was then
clear that unless the authorities took immediate and vigorous steps,
the buffalo, within a year or two, would cease to exist.

About this time there appeared a number of articles by well-known
observers, calling attention to the fact that the buffalo’s fate was also
awaiting, in the near future, all our finest animals, the probable order
of extinction being buffalo, elk, antelope, moose, bighorn sheep,
mountain goat, mule deer, Virginia deer; and the farthest probable
date for the ruthless consummation was put at twenty years hence. —
It required no great argument to convince the public of the truth of
these writers’ main statements. It was obvious that no possible good
was to be gained by exterminating these harmless animals, for the

700 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

love of slaughter, not the need for their skin, flesh, or range, was the
incentive; and the public, though not yet able to look on these animals
as the student does, nevertheless realized that it was about to be robbed
of something valuable by a few mean-spirited and selfish hunters.

Additional point was given to the obvious moral by the circumstance
that, through its far-reaching system of correspondence, the Smith-
sonian Institution was continually receiving gifts of living animals,
which, for lack of space to keep them, had either to be turned into
dead specimens or given away to outside zoos, or else returned to their
donors.

This was the state of affairs in 1887, when the newly appointed Sec-
retary of the Institution, Mr. S. P. Langley, who, though an astrono-
mer and a physicist, had been very strongly impressed by the fact
that all our largest and most interesting native animals were rapidly
approaching extinction, conceived the idea of securing a tract of coun-
try, as primitive as possible, that might be made a lasting city of
refuge for the vanishing races. This was the main idea, when first
Mr. Langley went before Congress to urge the establishment of a
national zoological park.

In all ages it has been the custom of patentee to keep a collection
of wild animals for their amusement, and the American people, being
their own ruler, had numberless precedents before them when urged
to make this much-needed collection of animals.

In such a case the advantage of a monarchy is that only one man
must be convinced, whereas in the republic the consent of a majority
of seventy millions had to be obtained.

This took time. Fierce battles had to be fought with ignorant and
captious politicians. One objected that he did not see why the people
should pay ‘‘to have the Nebraska elk and Florida alligators cooped
up.” If they had to spend money for it they would want things they
could not see at home—dog-faced baboons, kangaroos, man-eating
tigers, etc. Another, a fervent patriot, objected to any money being
spent on exotic species, as it was contrary to the spirit of the Consti-
tution to encourage or import foreigners!

Altogether the Secretary of the Smithsonian found it no easy bill to
carry, though it was indorsed by nearly every scientist and educator
in the country.

After three years of persistent effort, involving vastly more worry
than the management of the whole Smithsonian Institution for three
times that period, Mr. Langley succeeded in carrying both Houses of
Congress over the successive stages of ridicule, toleration, and favor-
able consideration, to the point of accepting and providing for the
* scheme.

An appropriation was made for a national zoological park to be
established in the District of Columbia for the ‘‘adyvancement of

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. TOA

science and the instruction and amusement of the people,” as well as ¢
city of refuge where those ‘‘native animals that were threatened with
extinction might live and perpetuate their species in peace.”

An appropriation of $200,000 was made, but it was clogged with
several irksome conditions. One-half the expense was to be paid by
the District of Columbia, thereby giving the commission a control
which changed the plan, making the collection more like the ordinary
menagerie. No animals were to be bought, which was much like a
rich man building himself a picture-gallery, and saying, ‘* Now, if my
friends choose to present me with pictures, all right, ll house them;
but Pve done enough for myself in building the gallery.” And yet,
though falling short of its promoter’s original wish, the scheme has
notably progressed, and no one who is capable of measuring the future
of the institution can doubt that in founding this park, where those
‘native animals that were threatened with extinction might live and
perpetuate their species in peace,” Congress has done more for the
learning, science, and amusement of the nation than it would in
expending a much larger amount in a university, a theater, and a
choice library combined; for the fields of the three are already well
covered, but the park, by preserving the nation’s heritage of wild
animals, has opened important regions of biological research and
zoological art.

He was a wise old farmer who said to his son, ** John, make sure
of your land, and everything else will take care of itself.” The whole
appropriation was wisely expended in securing land, and although
scientists have not the highest reputation for business sense, the
Park’s projector was enough of a business man to secure land that
would now fetch at least ten times what was paid for it ten years ago.

It comprises 167 acres of land, beautifully diversified with woods
and streams, in the suburbs of the city of Washington—land which
the Secretary had discovered years before when on rides for recrea-
tion, and the absolute fitness of which for the purpose in hand had
been helpful in developing the original plan. It included the histor-
ical grounds and building of the Quincy Adams Mill and the classical
old Holt House; but, better still, it secured a region that had always
been a familiar resort of the native birds and quadrupeds of the Dis-
trict of Columbia, affording the best of expert testimony in favor of
its salubrity. Mr. Langley recognized the merit of Mr. W. T. Horna-
day, the well-known naturalist and taxidermist, and obtained his able
and energetic superintendence during the earliest formative period of
the park; and when he was called to duties elsewhere, Dr. Frank
Baker took up the burden, and, under the direction of the Secretary,
whose other duties have never interfered with the attention he has
given to his own creation (the park), it has been carried on with all the
success that could be expected under conditions of inadequate support.

702 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

Thus the National Zoo was founded under conditions that illustrate
in a curious way the adage that the onlooker sees more than the
players. Gcethe, the poet, surrounded by zoologists, was the first to
point the true way for zoological science; it was for Franklin, the
philosopher-printer, to teach his contemporaries how a perfect fire-
place might be made; and so also Langley, the physicist, though sur-
rounded by zoologists, has been the first to discern the pressing need
of the study of American zoology.

The circumstances which led up to the idea were then unusual, as the
plan itself was unique. There have been many menageries in which the
animals were confined in box cages, and there have been many game
parks where the various animals inclosed have wandered at will, with
no barrier but the outward wall of the grounds; but this was to be the
first zoological collection in which each kind of animal was to have a
park of its own, where it could live as its race should live, among
natural surroundings, with as little restraint as was compatible with
its safe-keeping. The available acreage was barely enough to allow of
the park scheme being extended to our more important native animals,
so that the foreigners, particularly those from the tropic regions, are
perforce managed as in the better class menageries elsewhere. But
the glory of the place is in its individual parks. The fencing used is
of the invisible kind, which rarely intrudes itself on the observer, and
yet is strong enough to restrain the biggest buffalo. The ample
stretches of woods and hills in each inclosure are unmarred by its lines,
and the effect is as nearly as possible of seeing animals in the open.

Here they live, and no doubt enjoy their lives, and the observer has
a chance to see them pretty much as they were in their native range.
They group themselves naturally among trees and rocks, while the
uneven ground induces attitudes of endless variety, and the close
imitation of natural conditions causes the animals to resume the
habits native to their lives in a wild state, thus affording the zoologist
and the artist an opportunity for study never before equaled among
captive animals.

The scheme is of course in its infancy yet. Wonders have been
done with small appropriations, but many of its essential divisions have
not yet been touched.

The antelope are provided with a little plain, and the deer have a
small woodland where none can harm them or make them afraid.
The buffalo has its little rolling prairie land, where it may bring forth
its young without fear of the deadly omnipresent rifle, and regardless
of its ancient foe, the ever-near gray wolf, that used to hang on the
outskirts of the herds to kill the mother at her helpless time, or fail-
ing, to sneak around, ready, like an arrow in a bent. bow, watching his
chance to spring and tear the tender calf.

Here, indeed, the elk can bugle his far-sounding love-song in the

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON 703

fall, without thereby making his stand the center of a rush of ruthless
hunters. But many of our forest animals are still unprovided for.
The bighorn sheep, the coast blacktail, the mule deer, the moose, and
the mountain goat, as well as the grizzly bear, so rapidly following
the buffalo, have as yet no refuge in the National Zoo.

It is too late to talk of such species as the great auk, the Labrador
duck, and the West India seal; and in one year, or at most two years,
unless Congress is willing to devote the price, or at least half the price,
of a single big gun to it, the world will have lost forever the great
Alaskan bear, the largest and most wonderful of its race.

ys

The paddock immediately to the left on entering by the west gate of
the Zoological Park brings us face to face with the first game animals
that met the eyes of the Pilgrim Fathers, as well as those of the first
settlers of Virginia; and it is tolerably certain that General Washing-
ton himself hunted the superb creature, the Virginia deer, over this
very ground where it is now protected in the city of Washington and
assured a little land of lasting peace.

Of all the American game animals the Virginia or whitetail deer is
the greatest success as a species; that is, it has developed a better com-
bination of hardiness, fecundity, speed, intelligence, keen wits, and
adaptability than any of its relatives, and therefore maintains itself
better in spite of the hunter. Its ancient range covered all of the
United States east of the Rockies, as well as part of Canada, and
to-day, notwithstanding guns, more numerous and deadly each year,
there are whitetail deer in every part of their original range that still
contains primitive woods.

In the list giving the probable order of extinction of our great game
it will be seen that the Virginia deer stands last, despite the fact that
it is the only one in that list whose home is in the thickly settled East-
ern States. An incident will show the respect in which hunters hold
the whitetail’s gift for taking care of himself.

During October of 1899 I was staying at a camp on the east side of
the Rockies. One morning a miner came in and reported that he had
started four deer less thana mile away. Meat was scarce, and a hunter
present became keenly interested.

** Whitetails or blacktails?” said he.

** Whitetails,” said the miner.

**That settles it,” said the hunter, resuming his seat by the fire.
‘If they were blacktails ’d get one within a mile, but a scared white-
tail knows too much for me.”

Although some of the deer in this paddock were born in the park,
they show many of their wild habits. During the heat of the day they
lie hidden among the bushes at the back end of their range; but early

in the morning or late in the evening they come to the watering place
in the open, and if alarmed there they make for the trees, raising and
waving as they go the ‘‘ white flag” famous in all hunting lore.

This conspicuous action might seem a mistake in an animal that is
seeking to escape unnoticed; but the sum of advantage in the habit is
with the deer, or he would not do it, and its main purpose will be seen
in one very important and frequent situation. A mother deer has
detected danger; she gives a silent but unmistakable notification to

704 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. ' .

her fawns by raising the ‘‘danger flag,” a white one in this case; and
then when she leads away through the woods they are enabled to keep
sight of her in the densest thickets and darkest nights by the aid of
the shining beacon, which is waved in a way peculiar to this species,
and is not therefore liable to be mistaken for the white patch on any
other animal.

In the sign language of the Indians the gesture for whitetail deer is
made up of the general sign for deer, and then a waving of the flat
open hand with fingers up, in imitation of the banneret as it floats
away through the woods.

The form adopted for the whitetails’ paddock is the result of expe-
rience. It was found that the animals became alarmed sometimes and
dashed along the invisible fences, until suddenly met by another at
right angles, and in this way several were hurt; but the improved
plan of substituting obtuse angles, or a curve at the corners, causes
them to be turned aside without injury.

One can not linger many minutes by the Virginia deer paddock
without seeing some of those gorgeous Asiatics, the peacocks, walking
about among the thicket or negotiating the wire fences with absolute
precision whenever it suits their purpose to do so. The original half
dozen birds have increased to a hundred, and the vast stretch (several
hundred acres for them) of broken, wooded country is so perfectly
suited to their needs that they give us a very good imitation of life in
the Indian jungle. During the winter they roam about in promiscu-
ous troops, but when the early spring comes and the cock is in his full
regalia the-mating instinct prompts them to scatter, and each family
withdraws to a part of the jungle—the park, I mean—that is under-

stood to be theirs, and to defend which the cock is ready to do battle

with all feathered intruders.

Close to the deer paddock is a sunny open glade that was for long
the special domain of one particular peacock. All about it is thick
shrubbery, where the soberly dressed hens might have been seen quietly
moving about, paying no obvious heed to their gorgeous partner, who
mounted habitually on a little sand bank and spread and quivered his
splendid jewelry in the sun, turning this way and that way to get the
best effect, occasionally answering the far-away call of some rival with
a defiant ‘‘qua,” or replying to the dynamite explosions in a near

a ee a ee ee,

———— |

ee

Smithsonian Report. 1901.—Seton. PLATE |.

STUDIES OF ANTELOPE HEADS.

Smithsonian Repoit, 1901.—Seton. PLATE II.

se

AN ANTELOPE POSE

THE CHRYSANTHEMUMS IN BLOOM.

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. TO5

quarry with a peculiar ‘* bizz,” the exact meaning of which I have
failed to discover.

The daily display here and in many parts of the park gives the
observer a chance to see the geometric perfection of the pattern made
by the ‘“‘eyes” when the peacock’s train is raised. I reproduce a dia-
gram of this made and published some years ago, when first I discov-
ered the mathematics of this miracle in feathers. (Plate III.)

On crossing the road from the deer paddock toward the middle and
more open part of the park the stranger is likely to come suddenly
on a band of antelope. They seem to be grazing along their native
upland prairie, not far from timber, and the visitor, if he have any of
the feeling of the hunter-naturalist, is sure to feel the same little thrill
that would come if he met with them thus in the wild West. He has
ample time to admire and watch their changing and picturesque group-
ing before he realizes that between him and them is the slight but
necessary wire fence. The effect of this invisible fence is seen on
the animals if they have been undisturbed for some hours, as well as
on the onlooker; for the sudden appearance of a human being close
at hand, with no massive screening barrier between, causes them to
behave for a moment much as they did when wild and free, and their
startlement is expressed in pose and act exactly as it might have been
on their native wilds; but they soon realize that they are safe and no
harm is done. The erected mane and rump patch sink and the ani-
mals resume their feeding, leaving, nevertheless, on the air a peculiar
musky odor that is quite strong when one is on their lee side.

Some years ago, while riding across the upland prairie of the Yel-
lowstone, not very far from where these very antelope had been cap-
tured, I noticed certain white specks in the far distance. They showed
and disappeared several times, and then began moving southward.
Then, in another direction, I discovered other white specks, which
also seemed to flash and disappear. A glass showed them to be ante-
lope, but it did not wholly explain the flashing or the moving which
ultimately united the two bands. I made note of the fact, but found
no explanation until the opportunity came to study the antelope in the
Washington Zoo. I had been quietly watching the grazing herd on
their hillside for some time; in fact, I] was sketching, which is quite
the best way to watch an animal minutely. 1 was so quiet that the
antelope seemed to have forgotten me, when, contrary to rules, a dog
chanced into the park. The wild antelope habit is to raise its head
every few moments while grazing, to keep a sharp lookout for danger,
and these captives kept up the practice of their race. The first that
did so saw the dog. It uttered no sound, but gazed at the wolfish-
looking intruder, and all the long white hairs of the rump patch were
raised with a jerk that made the patch flash in the sun like a tin pan.
Every one of the grazing antelope saw the flash, repeated it instantly,

sm 1901——45

706 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

and raised his head to gaze in the direction where the first was gazing.
At the same time | noticed on the wind a peculiar musky smell—a_
smell that certainly came from the antelope.

Some time later the opportunity came to make a careful dissection

of the antelope’s rump patch, and the keystone to the arch of facts was _
supplied. My specimen, taken in Jacksons Hole, was a male under
six months old, so that all the proportions, and indeed the character,
are much less developed than in the adult. (Plate III.)
. The fresh skin was laid flat on a board, and then the pattern and
mechanism of the rump patch were clearly seen. The hairs at the
upper part of the patch (A) were 3% inches long, grading to the—
center (4) and lower parts, where they were only 1% inches long, all
snowy white, and normally lying down flat, pointing toward the rear.
At the point 4, among the roots of the hair, was a gland secreting a
strong musk. On the under side of the skin was a broad sheet of mus-
cular fibers, which were thickest around B; they have power to change
the direction of the hair, so that all below # stands out, and all above
is directed forward. As soon, therefore, as an antelope sees some
strange or thrilling object, this muscle acts, and the rump patch is
changed in a flash into a great double disk or twin chrysanthemum of
white, that shines afar like a patch of snow; but in the middle of each
bloom a dark brown spot, the musk gland, is exposed, a great quantity
of the odor is set free, and the message is read by all those that have
noses to read.

Of all animals man has the poorest nose; he has virtually lost the
sense of smell, while among the next animals in the scale scent is their
best faculty; yet even man can distinguish this danger scent for many
yards down wind, and there is no reason to doubt that another ante-
lope can detect it a mile away.

Thus the observations on the captive animals living under normal
conditions prove the key to those made on the plains, and I know now
that the changing flecks in the Yellowstone uplands were made by this
antelope heliograph while the two bands signaled each other, and the
smaller band, on getting the musky message, ‘‘ Friends,” laid aside all
precaution and fearlessly joined their relations.

This animal has five different sets of glands about it, each exuding a
different kind of musk for use in its daily life, as a means of getting
and giving intelligence to its kind. These are situated one on each
foot between the toes, one on each angle of the jaw, one on the back
of each hock, one on the middle of each disk on the rump, and one at
the base of the tail. ;

Those on the jaw seem related to the sexual system, as they are
largest in the buck; those on the rump, as seen, have a place in their
heliographic code; and the purpose of the others, though not yet fully
worked out, is almost certainly to serve in conveying the news. To

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton.

PLATE III.

DIAGRAM OF ANTELOPE’S
RUMP PATCHES.

DoG AND WOLF
TYPE OF EYE.

PLAN OF THE PEACOCK’S TRAIN, TO SHOW THE GEOMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT WHEN
EACH FEATHER IS PRESENT IN PERFECT CONDITION.

From Mr. Seton-Thompson’s ‘‘Art Anatomy of Animals.”’

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 707

illustrate: An antelope passes along a certain plain, eats at one place,
drinks at another, lies down at a third, is pursued by a wolf for half a
mile, when the wolf gives up the unequal race, and the antelope escapes
at hisease. A second antelope comes along. The foot scent from the
interdigital glands marks the course of his relative as clearly for him
as the track in the snow would for us. Its strength tells him some-
what of the time elapsed since it was made, and its individuality tells
him whether his predecessor was a stranger or a personal friend, just
as surely as a dog can tell his master’s track. The frequency of the
tracks shows that the first one was not in haste, and the hock scent,
exuded on the plants or ground when he lay down, informs the second
one of the action. At the place where the wolf was sighted, the sudden
diffusion of the rump musk on the surrounding sagebrush will be per-
ceptible to the newcomer for hours afterwards. The wide gaps between
the traces of foot scent now attest the speed of the fugitive, and the
cause of it is clearly read when the wolf trail joins on. This may sound
a far-fetched tale of Sherlock Holmes among the animals, but not so
if we remember that the scent faculty is better than the sight faculty
in these animals, while their sight faculty is at least as good as ours,
and that, finally, if all this had been in the snow we also could have
read it with absolute precision.

The pronghorned antelope, or prongbuck of books, is the only
horned ruminant in North America that has only two hoofs on each
foot. Nature’s economic plan has been to remove all parts that cease
to be of use, and so save the expense of growing and maintaining them.
Thus man is losing his back or wisdom teeth since civilized diet is
rendering them useless. The ancestor of the antelope had four hoofs
on each foot, like a deer or a pig, but the back pair on each foot has
been dropped. Atan earlier step the common ancestor of antelope
and deer had five well-developed toes on each extremity, but it seems
that while this makes an admirable foot for wadding in treacherous
swamps, it is for mechanical reasons a slow foot; the fewer the toes
the greater the speed. The deer still living in swamps could not
afford to dispense entirely with the useful little hind or mud hoof.
There they are still for bog use, though much modified from the original
equal-toed type, more nearly shown in the pig. But the antelope,
living on the hard, dry uplands had no use for bogtrotters, and
exchanged them fora higher rate of speed, so that it now has only two
toes on each foot.

The horse family went yet further, for they lived in a region where
evolution went faster. They shunned the very neighborhood of swamps;
all their life was spent on the firm, dry, level country; speed and sound
feet were their very holds on life, and these they maintained at their
highest pitch by adopting a foot with a single hoof-clad toe.

There is one other remarkable peculiarity of the antelope to note,

708 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

and that is its horns. The ox and sheep tribes of the world have sim-
ple horns of true horny material permanently growing on a bony core
which is part of the skull. The deer have horns of branched form
and of bony material sprouting from the head, but dropping off to be
renewed each year. Our antelope is the only animal in the world
whose weapons are of true horn growing on a bony core, as in the ox
tribes, yet branched and dropping off each year, as in the deer.

It is now an axiom of science that not the smallest detail is without
a distinct purpose, for which it has been carefully adapted after ages
of experiment; yet long ago Darwin, the apostle of the belief, con-
fessed himself puzzled by the form of the antelope’s horns. It seemed
as though a simple, straight spike would be so much more effective.
If the great philosopher had been with me in the Washington Zoolog-
ical Park that day, his puzzle would have been solved for him by two
of the antelopes themselves. They were having one of their period-
ical fights for the mastery; they approached with noses to the ground,
and after fencing for an opening they closed with a clash, and as they
thrust and parried the purpose of the prong was clear. It served the
antelope exactly as the guard on a bowie-knife does a Mexican or that
on a foil does a swordsman, for countless thrusts that would have
slipped up the horn and reached the head were caught with admirable
adroitness in this fork.

And the inturned, harmless-looking points! I had to watch long
before I saw how dangerous they might be when the right moment
arrived. After several moments of fencing one of the bucks got under
the other one’s guard, and making a sudden thrust, which the other
failed to catch in the fork, he brought his inturned left point to bear
on the unprotected throat of his opponent, who saved himself from
injury by rearing quickly, though it seemed to me that such a move
could not have stopped a fatal thrust if they had really been fighting
a deadly duel.

III.

it is a common saying among keepers that, averaging one animal
with another, a menagerie must be renewed every three years. Yet
I know of one manager who kept most of his animals, those of Wood-
ward’s Gardens, San Francisco, alive, healthy, and happy from the
beginning of his time to the end, sixteen years later, when the estab-
lishment was broken up, and the animals were ordered to be shot in
their cages. The great secret of his success, he tells me, was caring
for their minds as well as for their bodies.

It is a well known fact that lions and many other animals in traveling
circuses are healthier and live longer than those in ordinary menage-
ries. At first one might think that the traveling animals get more
fresh air and exercise than the others. Yet this is not the case, for the
circus cage is always very small and cramped. While traveling it is

EE ee

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 709

usually shut up, and when showing it is in the tent, always a drafty,
ill-ventilated, foul-smelling place. The great advantage of the circus
is the constant change of scene—the varied excitements that give the
animals something to think about, and keep them from torpid habits
and mental morbidness.

It has long been known that caged animals, especially the highly
organized kinds, suffer from a variety of mental diseases. Mr. Ohni-
mus, the superintendent referred to, informs me that camels and several
other species commonly end their cage lives in lunacy. The camels
turned loose in Arizona some years ago were reduced at length to one
oldmale. In course of time his solitary life affected his brain. Accord-
ing to local tradition, he went crazy, and used to attack every living
creature near, until he was killed by a mounted cowboy whom he had

pursued with murderous intent.

Captive bears are apt to fall into a sort of sullen despondency.
Foxes and cats often go crazy, and no matter how obviously mental
the disease, it is usually set down to hydrophobia, and the unanswered
question is, How did they get it? Dogs that are constantly chained
up commonly become sullen and dangerous. The higher apes and
haboons rarely thrive in cages. Soon or late they become abnormally
vicious, or else have a complete physical breakdown. All this is so
human, and so emphasizes the great truth of evolution, that the wise
keeper seizes on the cue, and in his management of his charges treats
them like human beings of a lower development than himself.

Many a man shut up in a cell has saved his mind by inventing some
trifling amusement. It is recorded that one set a daily watch on the
movements of a spider. Another tried how many times he had to toss
five pins before they fell in just the same way. Another tried to run
10 miles each day in his narrow limits. Yet another busied himself
inventing new arrangements for the two or three articles of furniture
in his cell. Many have paced up and down each day for a number of
hours. And whatever they did, all alike were seeking to put in time,
to while away the awful tedium of their monotonous lives, to respond
to the natural craving for exercise, and to save their minds and bodies
from actually withering from disuse.

If instead of *‘ human captives” we read ** wild animals” in all this,
we shall have a very fair portrait of what we may see every day in an
ordinary menagerie. Why does the elephant swing to and fro forever
from his chain picket? Why does he gather from the floor all the
straw he can reach, throw it over his back and over the stable, to be
regathered later? Why does the squirrel enter and work for hours
the aimless treadwheel, and the marten leap listlessly half a day from
point to point—floor, perch, slat, box; floor, perch, slat, box—again
and again, with monotonous sameness day after day? Why does the
lone ostrich waltz far more than does his wild kinsman that has many

710 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

admiring spectators of his own kind, and why do the fox and the
wolverene trot miles and miles of cage front every day? Why does
the bear roll and tumble for hours over the same old wooden ball as if
it were a new-found chum; or, if no ball is supplied, swing back and
forth on pivotal hind foot for hours each day? Why does the rhi-
noceros keep on forever nosing at some projection that his horn can
almost fasten under, till it gets more and more elusive through the
smoothening of perpetual use? Why do wolves and monkeys put in
hours and hours over humble duties that in their wild state were the
work of a few minutes at most? To all, the answer is the same as to
the similar query about the man prisoner. They are putting in time.
They are responding to the natural craving for exercise. They are
trying to pass the tedium of their hopeless lives. They are doing
anything—everything—their poor brains can suggest to while away
the weary drag of dull, eventless days. Their bellies are well cared
for, or at least are always plentifully cared for, but how few keepers
have learned that in each animal is a mentalitv, large or small, that
ought to be considered!

Here is where Ohnimus scored. He tried to make their lives inter-
esting. The excitement of the chase must necessarily be denied those
animals whose nature prompts them that way, but one of his first and
most successful moves was made in consideration of their special case.
He divided the single meal of all flesh-eating animals in two; the same
in quantity each day, but a light morning meal and a light afternoon
meal. Thus, he ‘‘gave them something more to think about.” It
made two breaks in the day’s monotony, and in time it unquestionably
bore good fruit.

Another variation was made by changing them into new cages. An
animal soon learns a cage by heart. He knows every bar and bolt,
and every trifling roughness in wall or floor. He can walk to and fro
without his eyes if need be. But putting him into a new cage is like
opening to him a new life. Everything new and to be learned must
naturally create new interests, and be of corresponding benefit, unless
it has come too late.

There is a pathetic story of an old tiger that had passed his life in a
traveling cage until in a railway accident his car and his cage alike
were overturned and broken open. The tiger was unharmed, and he
passed out through the broken grating, and for the first time since he
left India as a cub he was free, standing untrammeled, with the whole
world open to him. But all his splendid powers were gone or were
dwarfed. He seemed appalled by the new responsibilities. After a
moment’s hesitation he declined the freedom that had come too late
and crawled back again into his narrow cage, realizing that this was
the only thing that he was fit for now.

One of the best expedients of all to enliven and brighten the lives of
the caged animals is friendship with the keeper. There was no such

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton, PLATE IV.

TIGER IN WRECK OF CAGE.

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 711

thing as solitary confinement in Woodward’s Gardens. Every pris-
oner there had at least one powerful friend who was always near and
ready to attend to all his wants, including the craving for sympathetic
companionship which few animals are entirely without.

But all these allayments are mere expedients. The real plan is to
restore the natural conditions. We are slowly grasping the idea,
taught by the greatest thinkers in all ages, that the animals have an
inalienable, God-given right to the pursuit of happiness in their own
way as long as they do not interfere with our happiness. And if we
must for Pant reasons keep them in prison, we are bound to make
their pee ition tolerable, not only for their sakes, but for our own,
because all the benefit that we can get out of them in bondage is
increased in proportion as we slacken their bonds within the limits of
judicious restraint.

If a Chinaman after going through Sing Sing were to say, ‘‘ I have
heard much of the high mentality, the attainments, and the refinement
of the white race, but these seem to me merely a lot of sullen, stupid
brutes,” it would about parallel the case of an ordinary menagerie
viewed by an ordinary onlooker. If we wish to enjoy the beauty of
the animals, or study their development and learn how it bears on our
own, we must see them living their lives. This can not be done in
box cages, is very difficult in the wilds, and is easily possible only in
a zoological park.

Occupation and plenty of good food are not the only things needful
to a well-rounded life. No matter how cared for, fed, and housed,
the occupants of every well-known monkey house were formerly
afflicted with coughs, colds, and lung diseases, that made their abode
like a hospital and carried off the inmates at plague rates, so that but
few monkeys saw their second season in confinement. All sorts of
remedies were tried without avail; hothouses with natural accessories,
continual medical treatment, and all, failed to lower the death rate.
At last it occurred to the monkey keeper of a European zoo that all
this coddling would be very bad for a human being, so why not bad
for monkeys‘ He decided to treat them like fellow-creatures; he dis-
carded the stuffy hothouses; he gave his monkeys free access to the
pure air and the sun, in a cage as large as he could get it, large enough
to give room for exercise, and the eoealt was that coughs and ee
began to disappear. The death rate rapidly fell; each month and yea
that passed gave fuller indorsement to the idea. In short, he had
learned the art of monkey-keeping.

Each advance of knowledge has emphasized these great principles
that the lower animalsare so like ourselves that to keep them in health
we must give some thought to their happiness, and in aiming at both
we must accept the ordinary principles obtained from study of
ourselves.

These are among the considerations that shaped the scheme of the

T19 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

National Zoo at Washington; or, more comprehensively put, the
restoration of the natural conditions of each animal was the main
thought in Mr. Langley’s plan—a plan that, though not yet fully
realized, has been more than justified by the results,

IV.

In the center of the park is the coon tree. This very tree had
undoubtedly been climbed many a time by the wild coons, within a few
years, before it was selected to be the center of a little coon kingdom.
It is now the abode of over 30 thrifty specimens, which live their lives
here much as they once did in the woods, and there is no reason to
suppose that they suffer in any way, since all their needs—food, shel-
ter, companionship, and amusement—are cared for. They have indeed
all the good things that their wild brethren have, excepting only that
there is a limit to their liberty.

Usually they may be seen all day sunning themselves in the high
crotches, and the sunnier the day the higher the crotch, so that they
are a living barometer. When there is a prospect of continued fine
weather the coons climb up as far as they can safely go, and at a dis-
tance they look like fruit still hanging on the tree. But in doubtful
weather they sit lower and nearer the trunk; there they look more
like nests, and give the tree the appearance of a rookery; while, in
a storm, all descend and huddle together in the great hollow trunk
that lies on the ground below and at all times serves as the bedroom
of the colony.

The scientific name of the coon means ‘* washer,” and one of his pop-
ular names is ‘‘ wash bear,” from the peculiar trick he has of carefully
washing all his food. This interestingly Mosaic habit the coons keep
up in captivity, no matter how clean the morsel or how doubtful the
water may be; and as their tactile paw is busied soaking the next piece
of provender, their eyes take in the surroundings as though they were
not needed in the supposed purification of the food. These, of course,
are habits learned in the woods. The coon feeds along the edges of
the creeks and ponds, picking up crawfish, frogs, and other mud-
dwellers. Then, having secured them, he is careful to clean them off
in their native stream, so as not to eat mud with every course. And
this being a matter he can very well leave to his very sensitive fingers,
his eyes are judiciously employed in scanning the woods about, either
for more game or to guard against being made game of himself by
some powerful enemy.

Those who have seen the little ones when they are old enough js be
brought to the water by their mother, and there receive their first
lessons in frog hunting, describe them as doing everything just as she
does, copying her in all things, dabbing their paws in the mud as their
watchful eyes rove about scanning the neighboring woods.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton, PLATE V

THE COON FAMILY.

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. t15

Another microcosm, and even more picturesque than that for the
coons, is the one planned for the mountain sheep, but still delayed for
lack of means. Mr. Langley proposes to inclose a tract of several
acres of rocky, hilly land, more or less covered with timber, and
therein to establish a miniature of the Rocky Mountains, where the
bighorn sheep and his neighbors, the calling hare and the mountain
marmot, may live together and show us how they used to live at home.

There are many obscure problems of life history and environment
that might demonstrate themselves in an inclosure of this sort. To
illustrate the complexity of such questions: The presence of the peli-
cans on Pelican Island, Yellowstone Lake, is declared by authority to
be essential to the life of the parasites that infest the trout of the same
waters, since at one stage the parasite lives in the bird. This case is
of a type that is common. No man can say now whether or not the
general failure in other zoos to preserve the mountain sheep in con-
finement is due to the need for any one element of its native environ-
ment, but the way to find out is by restoring the proper surroundings,
animate as well as inanimate, as far as possible. Experiments of this
sort must increase our knowledge of the laws of life, and in time will
solve the problem of successfully maintaining our mountain sheep in
captivity.

For the bears also is planned. a roomy park with restored enyiron-
ment. Bears are restless, roving animals, much more so than deer, or
indeed than most of our large quadrupeds, and they suffer propor-
tionately when shut up. Many carnivorous animals breed in captivity,
but bears are among those that do not, not more than two or three
cases being on record. This is an evidence of the great pathological
disturbance from caging in the ordinary way. The added feature of
a geological disturbance in the small bear pen near the south entrance
resulted in a little ripple of excitement some yearsago. <A heavy rain
storm during the night washed down from the cliff into the unfinished
pen such a pile of rocksand sand thata young grizzly mounting on it was
enabled to climb up and escape into the open. He hid himself in the
thickest shrubbery of the park and for a day or two eluded recapture,
to the consternation of numerous mothers whose children going to school
had to pass near the park. Each one, of course, could in imagination
see her own particular offspring suffering the fate of the naughty
children who scoffed at the baldheaded prophet. But those who saw
the grizzly during his brief spell of liberty say that he was so over-
whelmed by the novelty of his situation that he was quite the most
timorous of all concerned in the affair.

The buffalo was one of the American animals chiefly in view when
the idea of the park occurred to Mr Langley. The present herd is a
fine one, but the amount of ground available for them is not sufficient
for ideal conditions.

714 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

I have heard it said that a little enmity in the life of a caged animal
is better than absolute stagnation; but of course the enmity must be
within limits. The buffalo herd had so far reverted to the native state
that the old bull ruled for several years, much as he would have done
on the plains. He was what the keeper called ‘* not a bad boss;” that
is, he was not malicious in his tyranny. One of the younger bulls
made an attempt to resist him once, and had to be punished. The
youngster never forgot or forgave this, and a year or so later, feeling
himself growing in strength, he decided to risk it again. He advanced
toward the leader, ‘‘ John L.,” and shook his head up and down two or
three times, in the style recognized among buffalo asa challenge. The
big fellow was surprised, no doubt. He gave a warning shake, but the
other would not take warning. Both charged. But, to the old bull’s
amazement, the young one did not go down. What he lacked in weight
he more than made up in agility. Both went at it again, now desper-
ately. After two or three of these terrific shocks the old one realized
that he had not now his old-time strength and wind. As they pushed
and parried, the young bull managed to get under the other, and with
a tremendous heave actually pitched his huge body up into the air and
dashed him down the hillside. Three times the old bull was thus thrown
before he would yield, and then he sought to save his life by flight.
But they were not now on the open plains; the pen was limited, and
the victor was of a most ferocious temper. The keepers did what they
could, but stout ropes and fences interposed were no better than straws.
The old bull’s body was at last left on the ground with 63 gashes, and
his son reigned in his stead. This is one of the melancholy sides of
animal life—the weak to the wall, the aged downed by the young. It
has happened millions of times on the plains, but perhaps was never
before so exactly rendered for human eyes to see.

A more peaceful and pastoral side of life is to be seen among the
waterfowl ponds. At one time the park waters were a favorite rest-
ing place of the gulls and ducks that passed over in the migrating
season, a few of the ducks remaining to breed. But the encroachment
of the city frightened all away, until the establishment of the park
resulted in a new arrangement, whereby gulls, swans, ducks, geese,
etc., instead of passing over in spring and fall merely, are induced to
stay as permanent residents. Food, protection, and cover are pro-
vided for them, that they may live their lives before us; and, in order
that they may not forget their part of the supposed bargains, a deft,
slight operation is performed on the tip of one wing. It leaves no
sign of mutilation, but it effectually induces them to remain perma-
nently in the park.

Among the birds of prey many old friends of the woods and plains
are to be seen, though not taking to their cage lives as do the more
cheerful waterfowl.

The familiar red-tailed buzzard is here, but his eye has ever kept

PLATE VI.

Seton.

1901.

Smithsonian Revort

AMONG THE BUFFALO.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. PLATE VII.

A BUFFALO Cow.

a

PLaTe VIII.

Seton.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.

«

BUFFALO CALF A WEEK OLD.

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. PLATE iX.

A BUFFALO DUEL IN THE ZOO.

THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. LED

the look of untamed savageness; he has no appearance of being even
partly at home in his cage. None of his race has ever been known to
accept submissively the prisoner’s condition, so that the species does
not breed in captivity, nor do his relatives and fellow-captives, the
buzzard hawk and the serpent eagle. Doubtless this is simply another
case where it is necessary to restore the wild condition in order to
know the perfect bird. Some day we may have a cage large enough
to give them a chance really to use their wings, and then they may
condescend to show us how their forbears built their nests and reared
and trained their offspring for the chase.

The fine collection of wolves, still in small quarters, gives a good
opportunity of seeing how near they are to dogs in their general
habits and appearance.

Zoologists have long discussed the origin of the dog. Some con-
sider it the descendant of a wolf; others, of an extinct species; and
some say that the jackal is the wild stock it came from. There are
many good arguments against the second theory. To-day it is believed
that either the wolf or the jackal was the wild ancestor of the dog. I
am convinced that the jackal is the stock parent, though a strain of
wolf blood has certainly been infused in some countries.

It long ago struck me that reversion is the best evidence in a dis-
cussion of this kind, and my own observations on dogs that have
reverted, or gone back, to their ancestral form point very uniformly
to one conclusion.

The general color of a wolf is grayish, with a black or dark tail tip,
rarely with light-colored spots, or ‘‘ bees,” over its eyes, and with a
height at the shoulder of about 26 inches.

The general color of a jackal is yellowish, with more or less white
hair in the tip of its tail, and invariably with bees over its eyes. Its
height is about 20 inches at the shoulder.

All the largest breeds of dogs show signs of overdevelopment, such
as faulty teeth, superfluous toes, frail constitutions, etc. All dogs
that have any white about them have at least a few white hairs in the
tip of the tail; and when allowed to mongrelize freely—that is, to
revert—the dog always becomes a small, yellowish animal, with brown
bees over its eyes, a white tail tip, and a height at the shouider of
about twenty inches—that is, it resumes the jackal type.

Another argument, which I have not seen in print, is this: Although
the wolf was abundant in Europe during the old stone age, the dog
was unknown till it appeared on the scene with the Neoliths, a race
that came from the home of the jackal.

My observations on the habits are evidence for the jackal theory.
Wolves rarely turn around before lying down; dogs and jackals usually
do. Wolves rarely bark, while jackals, as is well known, do fre-
quently bark after the manner of dogs.

While sketching among the jackals in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris,

716 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON.

in 1895, I discovered an interesting bit of evidence on the question.
Wolves’ eyes are set obliquely, as in figure 2, plate III, and dogs’ eyes
are set straight, as in figure 1. This, of course, is well known. But
of the 9 jackals then in the menagerie 2 had their eyes set wolf-
fashion, and the remaining 7 had them set like those of a dog. Of
course, the fact that both styles*are found in the same animal takes
from its weight as proof, and yet great stress has been laid on this
different angle of the eyes as an important difference between dog and
wolf. What weight, then, this argument has, is for the jackal.

While making these notes among the animals of the Washington
Zoo, I used to go at all hours to see them. Late one evening I sat
down with some friends by the wolf cages, in the light of a full moon.
I said, ‘‘ Let us see whether they have forgotten the music of the
West.” I put up my hands to my mouth and howled the hunting song
of the pack. The first to respond was a coyote from the plains. He
remembered the wild music that used to mean pickings for him. He
put up his muzzle and ‘‘ yap-yapped” and howled. Next an old wolf
from Colorado came running out, looked and listened earnestly, and,
raising her snout to the proper angle, she took up the wild strain.
Then all the others came running out and joined in, each according to
his voice, but all singing that wild wolf hunting song, howling and
yelling, rolling and swelling, high and low, in the cadence of the hills.

They sang me their song of the West, the West:
They set all my feelings aglow;
They stirred up my heart with their artless art,
And their song of the long ago.

Again and again they raised the cry, and sang in chorus till the whole
moonlit wood around was ringing with the grim refrain—until the
inhabitants in the near city must have thought all the beasts broken
loose. Butat length their clamor died away, and the wolves returned,
slunk back to their dens, silently, sadly I thought, as though they
realized that they could indeed join in the hunting song as of old, but
their hunting days were forever done.

PLATE X.

Seton.

}
|

190

Smithsonian Report

|
ac
vu j

GRAY WOLF WATCHING HIS CHANCE.

“JIOM ONINNOAY VW

ive 3aLV1d *‘u0j}aS—'| 061 poday ueluOsuyIWS

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton.

PLATE XII.

RED-TAILED BUZZARD. SERPENT EAGLE.

BuZZARD Hawk.

Smitnsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. PLATE XIII.

THE WALTZING OSTRICH.

-

;

i

|

)

|

THE SUBMARINE BOAT: ITS VALUE AS A WEAPON OF
NAVAL WARFARE.

By Grorcr W. MELVILLE,
Rear-Admiral, Engineer in Chief, United States Navy.

The advocates of the submarine boat during the past year have con-
siderably modified their claims as to the aah of this type of naval
construction as a future weapon of war. The zeal of the new convert
is proverbial, but those who have had experience either in the man-
agement or construction of this type of craft are making fewer prom-
ises, and are quite content with the accomplishment of performances
that can in no wise be regarded as of an extraordinary nature.

It is thus along more conservative lines that those who have faith
in the ultimate efficiency of the boat are now working. The demand
is not now seriously made to build these boats by the score. The
more modest request is urged that we should authorize sufticient con-
struction to hold together the skilled workmen that are required to
build this type of craft. This is a very fair proposition so long as it
is not restricted to building boats of a special firm.

DEVELOPMENT STILL IN AN EXPERIMENTAL STAGE.

Fortunately for the interests of the Government, there were but
few practical naval architects, marine engineers, or distinguished

_naval officers who were carried off their feet by the exaggerated state-

ments made as to the capabilities of this type of craft. As a result of
a conservative policy, we have only eight boats built, building, or
authorized. As to whether this number is sufficient for present pur-
poses, the views of Admiral Dewey, written a month ago, probably
reflect the general sentiment of the Navy. Upon this matter Admiral
Dewey tiiaa wrote to a member of the Committee on Naval Affairs,
House of Representatives, May 27, 1902:

**The next two questions which you ask relate to the necessity and
advisability of providing now for the construction of additional boats
of the Holland type. With regard to this matter, I concur with the
Secretary of the Navy in the opinion expressed in his letter of Jan-
uary 9, 1901, to your committee, to the effect that as a number of
boats of this type are now under construction, it is wise to await their
completion before providing for others.”

717

718 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.
UNITED STATES STRENGTH IN SUBMARINES ONLY EXCEEDED BY FRANCE,

Our strength in submarine boat construction is only exceeded by
that of France and England. Without taking into consideration the
strength of France and England, the United States possesses or has
authorized more submarine boats than all other naval powers com-
bined. Compared with most countries, we are, therefore, in advance in
this form of naval construction. Our only regret should be that all
of our boats are of a particular type, and that this type should not
have yet been proved to have developed beyond the experimental
stage. The fact that not one single boat of the Holland type con-
tracted for in August, 1900, and which should have been completed —
July, 1901, has yet bad an official trial, conclusively shows that boats
of this design have not yet been developed to a stage that makes them
reliable weapons of war.

CHARACTER OF EXAGGERATED CLAIMS ADVANCED.

There have been some wonderful claims made for the submarine. |
Only a year ago it was maintained that one of the boats under con-
struction would be able to steam across the Atlantic. Less than a
month ago, in an official hearing before the Committee on Naval Affairs,
House of Representatives, on submarine boats, an expert of the Hol-
land Company testified that the air-supply storage, which is 69 cubic
feet at a pressure of 2,000 pounds, is sufficient for a crew of seven or
eight men for three months for submerged work. When questioned
upon this point the expert said: ‘*I not only think it, I am quite sure
of it.” Even a distinguished naval architect is very fond of stating’
‘*The boat performs in a way that can best describe it asa fish of steel
with the brains of aman.” Such are the character of the exaggerated —
claims that have been made as to the efficiency and performance of —
these boats.

It is not surprising, in view of such testimony, that the subject -
appeals very strongly to the imaginative. The reaction, however, has —
already commenced. The admiralty officials of the several countries
have discovered that the capabilities of these boats have been so
greatly magnified, and their weaknesses:so adroitly passed over, that
there is now a tendency to construe contract requirements very strictly,
and to demand that promises will turn into performances.

ABSURD SECRECY ENVELOPING THE QUESTION OF SUBMARINES.

There has been an absurd and pedantic secrecy enveloping the sub-
marine which has caused the general public to attach great value to
the boat as a weapon of war. Comparatively few naval officers have
had an opportunity to estimate its powers for offensive and defensive
work. A few specialists have written of the tactical value of these

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. 719

boats, and considerable weight has been given to their opinion by rea-
son of the mystery which has been ascribed to the construction and
operation of the craft. Any tactical value that the boats may possess
will be dependent upon the speed when running upon the surface or
submerged, the ability to maneuver, the power to find the enemy,
the facilities for discharging and taking on board a torpedo, and the
radius of action when submerged. These factors will be dependent
upon the structural arrangement of the boat and the character of the
auxiliaries installed, and therefore any mystery surrounding the boat
would be very short lived.

TIME AND EXPERIENCE MAY DEVELOP AN EFFICIENT CRAFT.

The naval battles of the future will be won by the nation which has
made preparation for a conflict, and which has supplied itself with
every possible weapon of war. Although an implement may not do
all that it was designed to perform, yet it is possible that by develop-
ment its capabilities may be increased to an extent that was not orig-
inally deemed probable. Many experts are doubtful as to the value
of ordinary surface torpedo boats, and yet as long as rivals possess
them, no nation would think of dispensing with this form of con-
struction. We can anticipate the same experience with the subma-
rine. As few things are impossible, the submarine may be developed
in time to a state of efficiency and reliability that will cause a revolu-
tion in the composition of fleets. Such a result, however, can only
be brought about by encouraging competition. Every individual
inventor who has made a distinct advance in improving the efficiency
of the submarine should be substantially rewarded. Under no cir-
cumstances should the opinion be permitted to prevail that any one
design of boat is an accomplished fact, and that no further develop-
ment is possible.

NO NATION CAN RETAIN A MONOPOLY OF PERFECTED DESIGN.

As the several naval powers are seeking new weapons of war, it
will not be possible to prevent the use of any appliance that has a
military value. Neither conservative officials nor national jealousy
could stand in the way of the adoption of any appliance that could be
used for offensive and defensive work by military or naval authorities.
In the struggle for naval supremacy, the inventive genius of the
American, the practical experience of the English, the application
of the Russian, the exact science of the French, and the profound
thought of the German are being exercised. The desire and passion
for military strength is so great upon the part of all powers, that
there is no hesitancy, upon the part of any, to copy from the other
any plan or process which makes for increased military efficiency or
wider field of action.

720 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.
SKEPTICISM AS TO THE POLICY OF FRANCE CONCERNING SUBMARINES,

The fact that France alone places great reliance in this particular
weapon can be viewed from two standpoints. There are those who
will believe that her experts have made a great military discovery,
and that she has greatly augmented her naval strength for both offen-
sive and defensive work by building a great number of this small craft.

There are others who will believe that the French Admiralty has
made a great mistake in giving encouragement to any form of naval
construction that will interfere with the building of battle ships and
cruisers. One does not have to read very far back into French history
to learn that in 1870 the French military authorities believed that in
the possession of the mitrailleuse France had a field weapon which
would solve the question as to who would be the conqueror in case
she became involved in war with a neighbor.

In the contemplation of her experience with the mitrailleuse France
may well ponder whether or not other nations are blind to the merits
of the submarine. A cursory reading of the French naval journals
shows that even her experts are still at work overcoming inherent dif_i-
culties connected with the submarines. Even when the boats are used
for surface work there are questions of habitability and navigability
that do not seem fully solved.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION SIMPLE IN CHARACTER.

There is extreme fascination to many people in contemplating the
scope and operation of a weapon of war that can be used for either
surface or submerged work. The general public neither attempts
nor cares to solve the mystery. The whole subject is treated as one
of the wonders of the century, and the skeptic is classed with those
who ridiculed the work of Watt, Fulton, and Stephenson.

There is no mystery in the submarine boat. The craft of to-day is
practically of the same design as that of a century ago. There is
increased efficiency and wider range of action, because we now pos-
sess materials of construction which are lighter and stronger and
which can be better manipulated than the material of a previous cen-
tury. The auxiliary and motor of to-day can be encompassed in a
fraction of the space that was required for one of the same power in
the days of Fulton. The machine tool has a capacity and capability
far surpassing that of its counterpart of fifty yearsago. The advances
that have been made in making the submarine boat more efficient have
been almost altogether along engineering lines. It is because the
capabilities of the engineer are progressively increasing that still fur-
ther advance will be made in the development of the submarine boat.
There are hundreds of scientists investigating the possibilities of per-
fecting a storage battery that will be more compact and of greater
power. There are metallurgists who are conducting extended tests

—_

Meee ti eee Tee ee

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. (|

to discover a metal that will be noncorrosive, nonmagnetic, of lighter
weight, and yet of greater strength. It is to be hoped a petroleum
motor can be substituted for the gasoline engine for surface work.
There are other weaknesses of the submarine which the engineer in
part will yet overcome.

Neither the marine engineer nor the naval architect perceives any-
thing mysterious in either the design, equipment, or operation of the
boat. The few men who operate these boats can not attach any sub-
stantial value to the craft by ascribing some tactical attributes to their
use. In general, the boat is a parabolic spindle with a conning tower,
the hatch of which can be hermetically sealed. This spindle contains
a gasoline engine for surface work, and a storage battery for sub-
merged operations. There are ballast tanks which can be rapidly
filled and emptied, and by manipulating the ingress or egress of water
into these tanks the buoyancy is destroyed or secured. Such a craft
must necessarily have limitations. It has been the effort of inventors
to overcome weaknesses rather than revolutionize the design in the
effort to extend the field of operation of this possible weapon of war.

BOATS OF THE DIVING TYPE HAVE LITTLE LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.

On boats of the diving type but little advance has been made in
securing increased stability. Where a boat is designed to dive like a
‘porpoise, it is practically impossible to secure longitudinal stability.
When the craft is in condition for diving, the center of gravity must
be near the center of buoyancy, otherwise the influence of the hori-
zontal rudders would not affect the boat. With an exceedingly well-
skilled and resourceful man at the steering wheel, with a well-trained
and efficient crew, and with favorable conditions as to wind and sea, a
boat of the diving type can submerge and rise with considerable suc-
cess and certainty. Where such favorable conditions do not exist, it
is extremely improbable that the boat can steer a desired course, or
that she will be fully under the control of the operator. A submarine
boat of this type will undoubtedly be thrown off her course by the
effect of currents, tides, or waves, in case she has not sufficient speed
to overcome the strength of strong local eddies. In the absence of a
guiding medium, such a boat simply gropes about. In commenting
upon this weakness of the submarine boat, Captain Mahan writes:

**T should be interested to see some demonstration that the subma-
rine boat will not find a practically insuperable difficulty in discerning
her prey—in seeking it, I should rather say.”

ENDURANCE OF CREW AN IMPORTANT FACTOR.

It should ever be remembered that the actual limit of the operations
of the submarine boat is a limit of endurance of the crew. The skilled
artificer in charge of the motor can not escape breathing, at least a
small portion, of the products of combustion when the gasoline engine

sm 1901——46

729 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

is in operation, for gasoline is a great searcher, and constant difficulty
will be found in keeping the joints tight. It may be maintained that
it will be an easy matter to change crews. It will be a rather difficult
undertaking, for it requires a man of unusual nerve, skill, endurance,
and readiness of resource to operate the machinery of a submarine
boat for general work. In boats of the diving type the man at the
wheel must have experience, skill, pluck, and judgment, for the craft
will do very little porpoise-like work if you have anything but an
exceptional steersman. Any interchange of crews will have to take
place in the harbor, for the picket boats of the blockading squadron
would be on the alert to prevent such a transfer.

On the official surface-endurance trial of the //olland, when the
conning-tower hatch was open during the entire run, one of the
causes assigned for requiring forty-eight hours to make a trip of 148
miles was the delay experienced in giving the crew necessary rest.
When the hatches are closed and the storage battery is in use, noxious
fumes will collect from gasoline leaks and the exhalations of the crew,
as well as by chemical action in the battery cells.

CHARACTER OF SUBMERGED TEST OF FULTON.

It is true that a submerged test of the /u/ton has been made, but
one may ask, Was that test made under seagoing conditions? By plug-
ging the gasoline tanks, by preventing chemical action in the cells,
and by taking other precautions the crew of a submarine might
remain under water a considerable time. In analyzing this perform-
ance the following facts are noticeable: The boat was sunk in 16
feet of water, the top of her conning tower being about 6 feet below
the surface. The boat remained quietly at rest. Surely the same
work could be done in a diving bell. In fact much more severe con-
ditions are imposed in caisson work in the building of tunnels under.
river beds.

When submerged the /udton has a displacement of 120 tons. In
this condition she has about 2,000 cubie feet of space which contains
only pure air. In addition she has 12 welded steel storage tanks with
a total capacity of 69 cubic feet, and the air is pumped into these tanks
up to a pressure of 2,000 pounds. The air tanks under this pressure
actually hold about 130 tank volumes of air at atmospheric pressure.
In other words, there are 9,000 cubic feet of reserve air. With at
least 2,000 feet in the boat there is a total of 11,000 cubic feet to
draw upon. The eight men that constituted the crew of the boat had,
therefore, each about 1,400 cubie feet to draw upon. This would
mean a room about 10 feet high and 12 feet square for one to live in
for a period of fifteen hours. This, of course, is not any too much
space, but it is plenty for sanitary purposes.

It should be taken into account that the gas exhalation is much

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. 423

heavier than fresh air, since it is carbonic acid, and not a mechanical
mixture of nitrogen and oxygen. By simply keeping in the upper
portion of the vessel the crew would almost have comparatively fresh
air nearly the entire time. Quite a different tale would have been told
if the Filton had been made to get under way. She would then have
had to use her electric motors, and a drain would have been made upon
her storage batteries. From this cause noxious vapors would have
been generated and the various compartments would have been unin-
habitable after a fraction of the period that would have been required
to make the boat unendurable from the human exhalation.

It is on record that one individual ina New England town several
months ago actually entered a metallic burial casket and was sealed
up for a period of one hour. He simply demanded that the glass plate
over the head piece be not covered and that the individuals conducting
the test should look through the head plate at intervals, so that he could
smile at them. It was rather a ghastly test, but it was a successful
one, although the individual undergoing the operation lost 5 pounds
in the undertaking. In this test the man did not probably have 2
cubic feet of air to draw upon. To appreciate exactly what was
undergone by those who went down in the ton, the crew had sim-
ply to enter a hermetically sealed room of the dimensions recorded.
It did require physical courage, however, for eight men to remain in
a submarine boat under those circumstances, since derangements were
possible which might have prevented the boat rising.

COMPASS UNRELIABLE IN BOATS OF DIVING TYPE.

For the past ten years the advocates of the submarine have been
telling at intervals of a discovery whereby the submarine boat can
be navigated with precision when under way. One of the ablest
compass experts in the Navy has given special attention to this matter.
In the investigation of this subject he found that a reputable adjuster
of compasses from New York, who corrected the compass of this sub-
marine boat, furnished the Holland Company with nine different devia-
tion tables, to be used as a disposition of the disturbing torpedoes
necessitated. It is his opinion that, in general, the compass on the
submarine boat must be regarded as more or less unreliable. Placed
near to or within an iron or steel mass, it is subjected not only to
large disturbing influences, but also to a serious decrease of directive
force. Any change in magnetic conditions within the vessel itself, as
well as accidental extraneous influences, will attack the weakened
compass with a force inversely proportional to the directive force.
The inclination of the boats of the diving type is a great disturber of
the compass, and must be very carefully corrected. This expert
maintains that the magnetic compass ina submarine boat will be so
unreliable that the craft will frequently be compelled to rise to the

724 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

surface to recorrect the course steered, as well as to ascertain whether
the object to be attacked has not changed her position. In boats of
the //olland type, the plan of furnishing a large number of deviation
tables, to cover all possible conditions within the craft, will certainly
lead to poor results in the excitement of action, even if the enemy is
unwise enough to maintain a fixed station.

It will not be the particular province of the battle ship to seek
destruction. On the contrary, she will take means to avoid such a
catastrophe. The submarine will then be compelled to seek her. It
will seldom be the case that the blockading battle ship is not kept under
way, and as her speed will be greater than the submerged boat, the
opportunity will be certainly remote when the submarine can discharge
her torpedo.

TIME REQUIRED TO PREPARE THE HOLLAND BOAT FOR DIVING.

One would presume from a cursory reading of the literature upon
submarines that boats of the diving type only require a few seconds
to go from the surface to the submerged condition. It will require
minutes rather than seconds to perform the evolution, and during this
period the submarine boat will be exposed to the fire of the magazine
and quick-firing guns of the blockading squadron: When the sub-
marine boat is running on the surface and using her gasoline engines,
it will require some minutes to unship ventilators, fill the compensat-
ing tanks, and exhaust the gasoline fumes from the hull compartment.
In fact, she will have to run in the awash condition for some time to
fully prepare her for submergence.

The French Admiralty ought to have some pretty positive informa-
tion upon this question. In fact, one of the most serious objections
urged to the submergible type of submarines has been the length of
time necessary to effect submergence. In the boats of the Warval
class it took half an hour to perform the operation. Only two years
ago the Varval was considered the most efficient of all the Frerich
submarines. In the S7rene class the time was reduced to a little over
ten minutes. The S/rene was authorized June 20, 1899. She has
been in commission about eight months. It is hoped that the time of
submergence will be reduced to five minutes in the boats that have
just been laid down in France. The knowledge of the experts of the
French Admiralty must be exceedingly limited if her experts are con-
tent to design a boat that will require five minutes for submergence,
while the //o/land only requires five seconds (4) to perform the same
evolution.

As a matter of fact, the French experts measure the time from run-.
ning on the surface to the time of disappearance. Some of our
experts are content to measure the period from the time when all prepa-
rations have been finished to the time when she goes under the water.

It may only require a second to discharge a submarine mine. It

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. 725

may require hours to lay the mine in a harbor where strong tides are
running. It is just as logical to maintain that you can fire a 12-inch
gun in a fraction of a second, as it is to contend that a submarine
boat can dive from a surface run to a submerged run condition ina
few seconds.

UNCERTAINTY OF ACTION OF WHITEHEAD TORPEDO WHEN LAUNCHED
FROM A SUBMARINE BOAT.

The torpedo which is carried by the submarine boat has yet to show
for submarine work the practical utility for its existence. Next to
the arrangement of the mechanism of a watch or a clock, there is
probably no contrivance where more appliances are installed in a
limited space than in a Whitehead torpedo. The workmanship must
be of the finest character and the adjustments of a delicate nature, in
order to make the torpedo take the desired course. It will be admitted
that at the torpedo station, or at the establishment where they are
manufactured, some very reliable work is secured from them, but
when they are placed on board ship and receive other than ordinary
care, they perform all manner of strange evolutions when launched
from a tube, and often go astray. When there is actual need to fire
these torpedoes there is not at command the skillful mechanics and
adjusters that are intrusted with the experimental work at the torpedo
station. During the fourteen years that I have been at the Navy
Department I have personally asked hundreds of observing officers if
they knew of one case in actual warfare where a torpedo, launched
from a ship at a moving target, has been effective. Official records
have been examined, but no evidence can be adduced that a single
torpedo has sunk a ship that was in motion.

There have been cases where torpedo boats have sunk practically
abandoned vessels. There are instances where ships at anchor have
neglected to keep a lookout, and have in this way been struck by a
torpedo. Itisalsoa matter of record that in some instances torpedoes
have successfully drifted down on ships at anchor and crippled or
destroyed them. The unreliability of the torpedo in actual practice
is a factor of importance in determining the worth of the submarine
boat. Due to the fact that improper adjustments have been made in
the mechanism of Whitehead torpedoes, many either go under the
target, sink to the bottom, or take a different course from that intended.
The friends of the submarine would have people believe that the action
of a torpedo is as certain as that of a rifle shot, and that you have sim-
ply to launch the weapon from the tube within striking distance to
secure the effect desired.

DANGER OF USING GASOLINE.

The best propelling agent now available for surface work in a sub-
marine is undoubtedly gasoline, but it is to be hoped that petroleum

726 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

motors will be so perfected that they can be substituted for this spe-
cial work. Statistics show that the loss of life due to gasoline explo-
sions is appalling. Careful investigation proves that these explosions
can be ascribed to spontaneous combustion or to molecular changes
due to special conditions. It is true that thousands of gasoline
launches are in use, but these launches are nearly all open boats, and
the gasoline tanks are often pipes which are placed on the outside of
the boat something similar to a keel condenser.

In the submarine boat you have the storage battery in close prox-
imity to the gasoline reservoirs. The switches, fuses, and electrical
contacts necessary for the operation of the incandescent lights and
various motors must of necessity be open to the air. Sparks form
when these electrical appliances are started or stopped, and a single
flash may be all that may be necessary to explode gasoline fumes.

GASOLINE TANKS SHOULD NOT BE KEPT WITHIN THE HULL OF
SUBMARINE.

Gasoline is a great searcher, and as long as the tanks of gasoline are
kept within the boat itself it will be practically impossible to prevent
some leakage. In starting the gasoline engine some of the gas is
likely to escape through stuffing boxes, check valves, and joints. It
would not be necessary to have much free gasoline in the boat to
cause an explosion. In the case of oil-carrying ships, it is when the
tanks are well nigh or quite empty that explosions are most likely.
The record of accidents to oil-carrying ships proves that explosions
nearly always occur when the vessel is in port, and that the danger is
greatest when the tanks have the least oil in them. It is not the
amount of gasoline carried that constitutes the danger. It is the
leakage which is the greatest menace, for when the liquid volatilizes
and combines in certain proportions with the air, and is followed by a
spark, it is quite certain that an explosion will result. In fact this is
the action of a gasoline engine.

Where the gasoline is kept within the hull the reservoirs are often
built-up tanks, i. e., tanks which are built between the frames. It
will be extremely difficult to make these tanks perfectly tight, on
account of the difficulty of properly calking the seams. It is well
known that gasoline is ordinarily kept in cylindrical reservoirs where
there are but few seams to leak.

The danger from gasoline is not imaginary. The crew of the //ol-
land were almost asphyxiated from this cause. Constant trouble from
inhaling gasoline is being experienced with the French boats. The
Engineer, of London, in its issue of June 20, 1902, makes reference
to an accident of this character: .

** Life in French submarines is not apparently ‘all beer and skittles.’
The submarine S//wre recently went out on trial, and the crew began

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. 727

to get insensible. * Whereupon,’ says the French paper from which
we quote, ‘several of our brave sailors began to ask, Is all well?’
The answer apparently was in the negative, so the rest went home-
ward, with three men well-nigh suffocated.”

GASOLINE TANKS COMPARATIVELY SAFE WHEN STORED IN SUPER-
STRUCTURE.

It has been maintained that as the gasoline tanks are stored in the
superstructure the boats are likely to be destroyed by a fragment of
shell hitting the tanks. Such would not be the case. Liquid gasoline
is difficult to explode. The shell might rupture the tank and permit
the liquid to run into the sea. It might even be set on fire. You
would then simply use gasoline from another tank or else turn on elec-
tric power and steam out of the region of the burning oil.

As an illustration of how difficult it is to explode liquid gasoline,
the burning of a valuable gasomobile at Sewickley, Pa., will afford
some pretty positive information. The machine not working prop-
erly, the chauffeur and the owner dismounted to ascertain the cause.
They found the gasoline tank leaking, and while they were examining
the appliance the liquid suddenly ignited. A bystander pulled a fire-
alarm box and two fire companies were quickly on the scene. Both
chemical extinguishers and water were played on the flames, but they
were not extinguished until the machine was ruined. There was no
explosion, simply a slow burning of the liquid fuel.

THE ANTIDOTE TO THE SUBMARINE.

For the past three years considerable thought has been given to the
subjectas to the best manner of disabling the submarine. The British
Admiralty regard with considerable favor a device in the form of a
spar torpedo, electrically dischargeable, easily dropped, and composed
of powerful explosives. Some experiments have already been made,
and while the principle embodies no certainty, there are experts who
believe that its action is as reliable as that of a Whitehead torpedo,
for the torpedo is more than likely to fail in its purpose when dis-
charged from a boat that is somewhat blind, and from a craft whose
speed is so slow that a strong eddy would change its direction.

There are other experts who believe that fast-running boats will be
able to run the submarines down. As the submarines are slow in
speed, and are not easily maneuvered, the picket boats or fast tugs
would find the submarine in the same way that you killa whale. The
whale being slow inaction, and being compelled to rise to the surface at
intervals, can not maneuver as quickly as a skillfully worked boat, and
is thus caught unawares. Thus it might be with the submarine—
being slow. in action, and deficient in maneuvering qualities, the picket
boat would have an opportunity to run over them before the subma-

728 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

rine could disappear or discharge its torpedo with effect. Under such
circumstances the presence of a tug would produce considerable moral
effect upon the submarine.

The submarine can also expect that the rapid-fire and machine guns
of the blockading fleet will be kept in readiness to welcome them, and
it is quite certain that no commanding officer would be sparing of
ammunition when on the lookout for one of these boats.

There are many who believe that a submarine boat of the diving
type will prove to be more dangerous to its own crew than to the
crew of the vessel attacked, and, like the flying machine, it will have
very little endurance.

ATTITUDE OF NAVAL POWERS UPON THIS QUESTION.

Probably the best way to show the progress that has been made in
the development of the submarine boat during the past few years will
be to show the extent of construction by the several naval powers and
their attitude in regard to encouraging inventors.

EXTENT OF SUBMARINE CONSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.

France continues to lead all naval powers in the number of boats
built and building. Her experts attach most value to the general
worth and usefulness of the craft. At the end of the year 1901 France
possessed fourteen submarine boats ready for experimental service.
The following eight boats were stationed at Cherbourg: Marval, Morse,
Francais, Algerien, Sirene, Triton, Silure, and Espadon. Four boats
were used for the defense of Rochefort— /arfadet, Korrigan, Gnome,
and Lutin. Two other boats, the Gustave Zede and Gymnote, were
stationed at Toulon.

These fourteen boats may be grouped thus:

Submarines.—Which are propelled by electrical power. It is not
intended that these boats shall have a great steaming radius. Their
sphere of action is to defend seaports, or to be carried or towed to the
projected scene of operation. Boats of this type are the /vanca7s and
Algerien, of 146 tons; also the Hurfaudet, Korrigan, Gnome, and Lutin,
of 185 tons.

Submergibles.—Boats which use an electric motor for moving under
the water, but which use steam, gasoline, petroleum, or some other
power for traveling on the surface. The French experts are at vari-
ance as to which types are the best. The preponderance of opinion
in France, however, is in favor of the submergible, since the tendency
is to develop the boat for distant work. The Morse, Narval, Espadon,
Silure, Sirene, and Triton ave examples of the submergibles. :

During the year 1901, twenty-three submarine boats of 68 tons each
were authorized. There were also several boats in process of building.
According to the naval programme voted by the legislative chambers

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. 729

of France in the year 1900, there were to be built between that year
and the close of 1905, forty-four submarine vessels. Since that time
additional construction has been authorized which would give a total of
sixty-eight submarine vessels to be completed before 1906.

FRANCE ENCOURAGES COMPETITION IN THIS FORM OF CONSTRUCTION.

It is strikingly significant that in seeking authority for the further
construction of these boats the minister of marine invariably tells of
the hope that is reposed in some new form of development. In that
country, therefore, where the submarine is looked upon with the most
favor no type has yet been regarded as an approved one, but there is
an inclination to encourage all inventors to submit original plans. In
furtherance of the policy of seeking to develop the submarine craft,
the French Admiralty gives special encouragement and holds out sub-
stantial inducements to inventors to work along new lines. By keep-
ing the field of competition open the friends of every type of subma-
rine construction are compelled to keep abreast of the times. The
Admiralty is thus prevented from being saddled exclusively with the
design that is less efficient than that possessed by a rival nation. — It
may not be amiss to state that France does not possess a single boat
of the Holland design. ; ;

FRANCE WILL POSSESS TEN DIFFERENT DESIGNS BEFORE 1906.

The French Admiralty already announce that of the thirteen sub-
marines that are to be commenced this year her experts will experi-
ment with three boats, each of a new and special design. France
already possesses seven different types of those built and building.
This is quite substantial evidence that she does not think that the
problem is solved. If the Admiralty of that country is to be judged
by its acts, then France more than any other naval power believes
that submarine-boat construction is in an experimental stage, other-
wise an approved type would have been selected ere this. It is strik-
ingly significant that of the ten different designs in her possession she
has not yet built a boat of the Holland design. As both England and
Norway have been supplied with boats of the Holland design, and as
both Russia and Japan have been urged to purchase a boat of this con-
struction, it is fair to presume that France could have secured a Hol-
land boat if her experts deemed the type of much value.

ENGLAND HAS NINE BOATS—BUILT AND BUILDING.

Great Britain has five submarine boats in process of construction.
These boats were contracted for in the fall of 1900, although the
British Admiralty did not let the fact be known until the spring of
1901. The English boats are of the Holland type, and are practically
counterparts of those being built for the United States Navy. It has

730 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

been twenty-one months since Vickers’ Sons & Maxim were author-
ized to construct these boats; and the fact that such a firm has failed
to deliver the boats on time conclusively shows that unexpected diffi-
culties have been experienced. It has only been within a month that
the first of these boats has been accepted, and an expert from the
United States maneuvered her during the official trials.

It has been officially reported that the second of the submarine
flotilla under construction in the yard of Messrs. Vickers’ Sons &
Maxim will be different in minor respects from the first boat. The
fact that alterations have been made in the construction of submarine
boat No. 2, taken in connection with the fact that some of the boats
will be a year late in delivery, ought to afford pretty conclusive
evidence that the English boats are not beyond the experimental
stage.

The British naval estimates for the year 1902-3 provide for four
additional submarine boats. The engineering journals of Great
Britain state that the new boats will be an improvement upon those
authorized in 1900, since Mr. Maxim will make some important
changes that will improve their efficiency. The British Admiralty,
therefore, does not rest content with having the new construction of
the same character as the old. England demands progressive improve-
ment, and we should not rest content with those that have not yet
proved their efficiency.

GERMANY GIVES NO ENCOURAGEMENT TO THIS FORM OF NAVAL CONSTRUCTION.

The German Admiralty is experimenting with a launch of small
tonnage. The naval periodicals of that Empire, in reflecting the
opinion of the officers of the naval service, show that Germany regards
submarine development as even in an early experimental stage. In
discussing the submarine question with one of the staff of Prince
Henry in New York, this official informed me that the Americans
had done very well in going slowly in building such boats. He fur-
ther remarked that the German Admiralty had done better, for they
had refused to build any.

RUSSIA EXPERIMENTING WITH A SMALL BOAT OF TWENTY TONS.

The Russian Government is experimenting with a small boat of
about 20 tons, which can be carried on the deck of a battle ship. The
length of the craft is 50 feet, while its diameter is only 4 feet.
The boat is composed of nine sections joined together by bolts, thus
permitting the craft to be taken apart and stowed in the hold of a ship.
It is said of this boat that when it is inclined 90 degrees it rights itself
immediately, and this claim is characteristic of many others that have
been set up in behalf of the submarine. It is reported that a boat
something like this type, and of the diving design, sunk by the bow
and stood on end. If it were not for the fact that she sank in quite

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THE SUBMARINE BOAT 731

shallow water, and that an accompanying tug got hold of her stern
and pulled her nose out of the mud, the boat would have been lost.

NORWAY PROPOSES TO BUILD ONE,

The Norwegian Government proposes to build one boat of the
Holland type. This matter was referred to a board of naval experts.
A minority of the board insisted that the present development of the
eraft did not warrant its introduction into the naval service. The
technical journals of Europe state a majority of the board based their
conclusion upon the fact that the United States Government had
settled upon an approved type, and that Norway should experiment
with this design.

SUBMARINE CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES.

The United States has one submarine boat in commission. This
boat was built four years ago. Seven other boats are in process of
construction.

The names, dates of contract, and contract time of completion cf
these eight vessels are as follows:

Date of Contract

S Te | Should have been
ee Name. contract. time. completed.
Months. |

3A, |S) B03 UES AS by ieee ie eee anes ie eg eee eat SS eRe AG] Ae BAe SC el Bee eer In commission.
|) AEM SVG VSS ily came So eninge AS See i pie a eee eT Aug. 25,1900 | 8 | April, 1901.
PARADIS US cry rack ioe cs fo riae Soe ene oecsines echoes a GOsscecse 8 | Do.

31.1) TR BLOG NOS Se ee eae ar a eae eee (soy ee See 9 | May, 1901.
Rena Wes Se ee SA Se cence ne teases oadeeeelleme sis dons. a. 9 |} Do.

aE OUOGIRO Roe Bot ge ones cues Sek ae cae lxcte Saale. = doss 10 | June, 1901.

Pau esshieat Kame. Ja teen a en ae ae eens Coe tee Ane cleans doeenste- 11 | July, 1901.

i |) PUWUGVE as Se ee SE Oe eee ete Se ne a en eee Noy. 19,1900 | 11 | August, 1901.

DELAY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOLLAND BOATS EVIDENCE OF FACT
THAT BOATS OF THIS TYPE ARE NOT BEYOND THE EXPERIMENTAL
STAGE.

It is pertinent to ask what has been the cause of this delay. If the
boats are beyond the experimental stage, then rapid construction would
have resulted very advantageously to the Holland Company. In fact
if the boats had been completed, and had satisfactorily met. official
requirements, Congress would probably have authorized a considerable
number. It was this delay in delivering boats that caused many
Senators and Representatives to be convinced that the craft are still
in an experimental stage.

Before completing these seven boats for the Government, the Hol-
land Company have on their own account constructed the /ulton. It
was this trial horse, the //ton, which sunk in Peconic Bay early in the
winter, and which came to grief several months later at the Delaware
Breakwater. Since the British naval authorities, as well as our own
naval experts, are looking forward to the results of the official trials
of the boats contracted for about two years ago, it seems strange that

732 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

work should have been pushed upon an experimental or trial boat if
the type had already been developed to a satisfactory stage. It would
rather appear as if the Holland Company had encountered unexpected
obstacles, and that an experimental boat was necessary in which tests
could be conducted independent of naval inspectors.

PROGRESSIVE ADVANCE CAN ONLY BE SECURED BY ENCOURAGING
COMPETITION.

In the construction of surface torpedo boats the Navy Department
invites and encourages the several shipbuilders to submit designs. In
advertising for bids for battle ships the Department permits bidders
to submit plans of their own. Experience shows that by inciting a
rivalry between designers of every kind of naval craft, the Govern-
ment is a great beneficiary. Any policy which would settle upon an
approved type of battle ship, cruiser, ram, surface torpedo boat, or
submarine, without taking into consideration the fact that progressive
development might be expected, would soon give us a navy whose
ships were inferior to those possessed by other powers. Such a policy
would develop rather than delay the construction of submarines. In
maintaining a progressive advance there would be no reaction of senti-
ment. There should be just as much encouragement to individuals to
develop the submarine as to develop the surface torpedo boat.

SUBSTANTIAL AWARD AWAITS WINNER OF COMPETITIVE TEST.

During the next six months the United States will secure some very
positive information as to the practical value of these boats. The
seven boats now under construction by the Holland Company ought
to have had their official trials. If these boats are able to fulfill con-
tract requirements, then it will be possible for the Department to
commission them without delay, and make extended experiments so
that not only the efficiency but the endurance of the craft can be
determined. Before the last of these Holland boats is turned over to
the Government, it is highly probable that the Department officials
will have an opportunity of passing judgment upon the efficiency and
Sufficiency of the Lake submarine boat, now building at Bridgeport,
Conn. <A contest between these boats should be welcomed by the
owners of both craft. It is certain if either boat shows a marked
superiority over the other for naval purposes, the fact will be heralded
throughout the world, and the successful boat will probably be regarded
by many naval officers as the highest type of submarine construction
extant. As it is quite certain that both the Lake and Holland people
have a pretty accurate knowledge of the capabilities of the rival com-
pany’s craft, the boat that is the superior will force a contest. Since
it is to the interest of the Navy Department to bring about competition
between these boats, it can be expected that the Department will not
permit either company to avoid a competitive test.

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The test should be a very complete one. Each company might pre-
scribe conditions for the other to meet. The Navy Department should
finally demand requirements that would show whether or not the boat
was a useful weapon of war.

COMPETITION WOULD ADVANCE RATHER THAN DELAY CONSTRUCTION.

The policy of competition would not make for delay in submarine-
boat construction. It would advance the number and efficiency of the
craft that we shall possess within the next five years. It will prevent
the Navy being exclusively saddled with the design of an inferior type.
It will stimulate invention along this line. It will not only prove to
the officers of the service, but to individual inventors, that the Navy is
not wedded to the belief that technical skill in this line is possessed by
few persons. It will compel those securing one contract to keep
abreast of the times by making progressive improvements. If you
have such competition, you will absolutely discover the character and
efficiency of this type of naval construction, and for this reason, if no
other, such a policy should be pursued.

Such a policy should be pursued because it is founded upon patriot-
ism and common sense. It may interfere with the purse and prestige
of individuals, but such individuals can afford to sacrifice something
to increase the efficiency of the Navy, particularly if for a time they
have had an opportunity to fatten themselves at the public crib.

The builders of these boats may be very sincere as to the efficiency
of their respective types, but of necessity such people must give
ex parte testimony. The Department should, therefore, be sustained
in its contention that performances and not promises should be the
factors in determining the advisability of extensively entering into
this form of construction.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION SHOWN THE HOLLAND COMPANY.

The Holland Company has been specially favored. The first boat
that this company attempted to build was the Plunger. This construc-
tion was a Government contract. The Navy Department expended
about $90,000 in partial payment before it was evident to the con-
tractors that the boat could not meet official requirements. The
company advanced but comparatively little money in taking that con-
tract. Then the //olland was built by the company with its own
funds. ‘This was an enterprising performance; but it must be remem-
bered that the company was $90,000 in debt to the Government, and
therefore further risks were taken to protect the interests and sustain
the prestige of the company. Afterwards six additional boats were
authorized by Congress at a cost of $170,000 each, the same price that
was paid for the Holland. The Chief Constructor of the Navy has testi-
fied that a proper cost of building these boats exclusive of the use of the
patents (to which he attaches very Jittle value) will be about $90,000.

734 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

Although the last six boats contracted for are nearly a year late in
delivery, friends of the Holland Company made the modest request of
the Congress that the Secretary of the Navy be required to contract
with the Company for thirty of its most improved types of submarine
boats. A still more modest request was presented that no contract
shall be made with the said company for thirty boats until one of the
Holland boats now being built for the Navy Department shall have
been accepted by the Secretary of the Navy.

The Department certainly expects that all the six boats under con-
struction will be compelled to make contract requirements. In case —
of failure the contractors have recourse for relief by officially appeal-
ing to the Department. It certainly would be a remarkable precedent
to establish to contract for more boats of this type after only one of
the six under construction performed in a satisfactory manner.

THE HOLLAND AND LAKE COMPANIES CLAIM TO BE DESIROUS OF
ENTERING THEIR BOATS INTO COMPETITION.

The Holland boats now nearing completion will have to contend for
superiority during the coming year with a boat of the Lake design.
These rival boats are of quite different type. The issue at stake is of
moment to both companies and to the naval service. In an official
hearing on submarine boats before the Senate Committee on Naval
Affairs, a representative of the Lake Company declared:

‘**As has been said, we are merely on the verge of submarine knowl.
edge. Wedo not know much about it yet, and much will be a mat-
ter of experiment; but of the two boats we are very confident that the
Lake boat, all around, is a superior boat to the Holland: and if itis
not, the gentlemen who are back of it, and who have confidence in. it,
are willing that the $250,000 that they have invested shall go on the
scrap heap. They have confidence to believe that their boat has mer it,
and all they ask is that it shall be submitted to a test.”

At the same hearing on submarine boats a representative of the
Holland Company spoke thus in regard to the outcome of a possible
test:

‘*We do not object to competition in the slightest degree. If Mr.
Lake has a better boat than ours, if he will conform to all the require.

- ments that have been required of us, let him come in; and if he beats
us, we will simply go out of business.”

CONSTRUCTIVE FEATURES OF THE LAKE AND HOLLAND BOATS.

As the Lake design is the latest Richmond in the field of submarine-
boat construction, although its inventor has given twenty years of
study to the question, it may be pertinent to show in a comparative
and comprehensive manner the constructive features of the rival types.

THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

Lake boat.

Length over all, 65 feet.

Breadth of beam, 11 feet.

Displacement afloat, 115 tons.

Surface buoyancy, 55 tons.

Engine horsepower 250, applied direct
to shaft.

hours.

Twin screw.

Hull sufficient strength to submerge
150 feet.

Armament, 3 Whitehead torpedo fir-
ing tubes.

Means of submerging, 3. Admitting
water ballast, submerging with the use of
hydroplanes, and hauling down to the
bottom or to any desired depth by anchor
weights.

Means of coming to the surface. 4.
Discharging water ballast by either com-
pressed air, power or hand pumps; by
the hydroplanes, when under way; by
lowering the anchor weights and by re-
leasing the drop keel.

Fuel-carrying capacity, 1,400 gallons.

Speed (estimated), 10 to 11 knots.

Submerged speed (estimated), 7 knots.

Means of traveling on the bottom.

Submerges on a level keel.

Means to enable divers to leave and
enter the vessel while submerged.

Automatic and positive maintenance of
trim.

Means to measure distance traveled
when submerged.

Invisibility in a semisubmerged con-
dition.

Capability of steering long and correct
courses.

Automatically controlling
submerging.

Means forcutting cables and for mining
and countermining purposes.

A water-tight superstructure affording
deck space and sufficient buoyancy to
make her seaworthy and also afford
space for storage of fuel, air tanks, ete.

Automatic drop keel and other auto-
matic features to prevent submerging
below a safe depth, :

depth of

735

Holland boats.

Length over all, 63 feet 4 inches.

Breadth of beam, 11 feet 6 inches.

Displacement afloat, 105 tons.

Surface buoyancy, 15 tons.

Engine horsepower 160, less a consid-
erable loss due to driving indirectly

_ through gearing.
Battery capacity, 75 horsepower forfour |

Battery capacity, 70 horsepower for four

| hours.

|
|
|
|
|
|
}
|

|

Single screw.

Strength of hull approximately the
same.

Armament, 1 Whitehead firing tube.

Means of submerging, 2. Admitting
water ballast and driving with horizontal
rudders.

Means of coming to the surface, 2.
Discharging water ballast and use of
horizontal rudders when under way.

Fuel-carrying capacity, 850 gallons.
Speed (estimated ), 8 knots.
Submerged speed (estimated ), 7 knots.

Dives by the bow at varying angles.

736 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

Lake boat—Continued. Holland boats—Continued.

Gasoline fuel carried in superstructure Fuel, gasoline, carried in tanks in the
where escaping gas or leakage would not | living quarters of the boat.
injure crew.

Ample officers’ and crews’ quarters
with cooking and sleeping facilities.

Provision for escape of crew in case
of partial disablement of vessel while
submerged.

NAVAL EXPERTS DIFFER AS TO THE RELATIVE MERITS OF THE LAKE
AND HOLLAND BOATS FOR NAVAL PURPOSES.

The Lake boat has also to turn promises into performances. A
representative of the Bureau of Steam Engineering, however, who
was specially directed to visit Bridgeport, Connecticut, upon repeated
occasions, to report upon the Lake boat, and has given special study
of the subject, thus officially testifies as to her probable performance:

‘*In my opinion the Lake boat will be shown before the end of the
year to be a far superior craft for naval purposes than the Holland.
Her superiority will not only rest in special contrivances that are
fitted to the boat, but in the manner in which the propelling and other
appliances have been installed.”

In opposition to this testimony is the evidence of the naval con-
structor who supervised the building of the Holland boats. This
officer stated that in his opinion ‘‘the Holland boat is far superior for
military purposes.” He also said:

‘*The Holland boat is designed as a submarine torpedo boat. The
Lake boat, if we allow the inventor all he claims, everything he claims
to-day, becomes in effect a dirigible self-supporting diving vessel,
which would be useless for a torpedo boat compared with the Holland
type; and the use of a diving boat—that is, for countermining—is of
very small military value compared with the successful use of the tor-
pedo boat.”

Further construction of submarines should be delayed until a com-
petitive test of the Lake and Holland boats can be made. In view of
the conflict of opinion upon the part of counsel of the respective sub-
marine boat companies, and of expert testimony upon the part of
naval officers, the Department is justified in withholding all contracts
until it is definitely determined whether the Lake boat should be
consigned to the scrap heap, or whether the Holland company should
go out of business. In the fight to a finish between these companies
the Department will be the beneficiary. It is manifestly to the inter-
est of the Department to always encourage competition, for the new
competitor can only win by giving the Navy something better than
it has possessed heretofore.

THE SUBMARINE BOAT. ind

SPIRITED COMPETITION IN SUBMARINE-BOAT CONSTRUCTION EXTREMELY
BENEFICIAL.

The advent of the Lake company into the field of submarine-boat
construction has been of incalculable advantage to the interest of the
Government. The strong presentation of the merits of this boat has
materially assisted in preventing the naval service from being saddled
with dozens of boats of a type whose efficiency and utility has yet to
be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Board of Construction of
the Navy Department, as well as to the Congress.

The problem of a submarine may not only involve a change in naval
construction, but a revolution in naval tactics. That nation will fall
behind in relative naval strength of every description which refuses
to encourage competition among designers, and which is wedded to
the belief that in this mechanical age the solution of any technical
problem can only be solved by a few persons.

THE POLICY OF EXPERIMENTATION A WISE ONE.

Before the Congress again assembles the Navy of the United States
should have some definite knowledge as to the capabilities and possi-
bilities of submarine boats. The boats now under construction should
be commissioned immediately after they have met contract require-
ments. Then they should be subjected to surface and submerged runs
which will not only show their endurance in these respects, but also
the limit of endurance of the working crews. It can be expected that
the several young officers placed in charge of the boats will be intent
upon making their individual commands the most efficient. By*thus
creating a spirited rivalry between these young commanders the prac-
tical advantage and disadvantage of the craft will be ascertained.

Our policy as regards further construction should therefore be in
the direction of finding out the actual military value of the boats that
we have contracted for. We should also determine the relative worth
of these boats as compared with craft of different designs.

Time is not an essential element in this matter, for by offering a
premium for rapid speed construction it will be possible to induce
many shipbuilders to construct them within six months. If the
inducement is made sufficiently attractive, there are shipbuilders who
will guarantee to do the work in four months.

The policy of determining the substantial worth of the boats now
under construction before authorizing more of this special type has
been urged by the Board of Construction of the Navy. This Board
consists of the chiefs of the Bureaus of Ordnance, Steam Engineering,
Construction and Equipment, also the Chief Intelligence Officer of the
Navy. Such a board should have opportunities for securing reliable
information upon the subject. The General Board of the Navy, pre-

sm 1901——47

738 THE SUBMARINE BOAT.

sided over by Admiral Dewey, also believes in the policy of finding
out the possibilities of the boats that are nearing completion. The

Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, the President of the War College, —

and several of the gallant captains who fought at Manila and Santiago
are members of this Board, and surely such men have the best interest
of the service at heart. The Secretary of the Navy approves such a
policy of experimentation. The Congress of the United States, after
carefully considering the matter, refused to authorize any further
construction. Such a proposition must favorably commend itself to
all fair-minded and business men, even though it may be opposed by
those who have wares to sell.

AN APPROVED TYPE OF SUBMARINE HAS NOT YET BEEN DEVELOPED FOR
THE NAVY.

The Navy can well afford to wait before settling upon an approved
type of submarine boat. The more haste that is exercised, the more
liable the naval service is to be misled by the promises of promoters.

There is practically no conflict of opinion in the Navy as to the value
and efficiency of the battle ship. The same general testimony will be
cheerfully paid to the work of the submarine when it is developed to
a state where it is an efficient and reliable weapon of war.

No attempt has been made in this monograph to tell of the advan-
tages of an efficient and reliable submarine. The possibilities are only
limited by the imagination of the reader.

WASHINGTON City,
June, 1902.

=

ai
.
=

Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Mendenhall. PLATE I.

HENRY A. ROWLAND.

Born, November 27, 1848; died, April 16, 1901.

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.*

By Dr. THomas C. MENDENHALL.

[The colleagues, pupils, and friends of the late Professor Rowland
assembled Saturday, October 26, 1901, at 12 noon, in the lecture room
of the physical laboratory, to commemorate the life and services of
the distinguished physicist. An address, which is printed below, was
delivered by Dr. Thomas C. Mendenhall, recently president of the
Worcester Polytechnic Institute. |

ADDRESS OF PROFESSOR MENDENHALL.

In reviewing the scientific work of Professor Rowland one is most
impressed by its originality. In quantity, as measured by printed
page or catalogue of titles, it has been exceeded by many of his con-
temporaries; in quality it is equaled by that of only a very, very
small group. The entire collection of his important papers does not
exceed 30 or 40 in number, and his unimportant papers were few.
When, at the unprecedentedly early age of 33 years, he was elected
to membership in the National Academy of Sciences, the list of his
published contributions to science did not contain over a dozen titles,
but any one of not less than a half-dozen of these, including what may
properly be called his very first original investigation, was of such
quality as to fully entitle him to the distinction then conferred.

Fortunately for him, and for science as well, he lived during a
period of almost unparalleled intellectual activity, and his work was
done during the last quarter of that century to which we shall long turn
with admiration and wonder. During these twenty-five years the
number of industrious cultivators of his own favorite tield increased
enormously, due in large measure to the stimulating effect of his own
enthusiasm, and while there was only here and there one possessed
of the divine afflatus of true genius, there were many ready to labor
most assiduously in fostering the growth, development, and_ final
fruition of germs which genius stopped only to plant. A proper
estimate of the magnitude and extent of Rowland’s work would
require, therefore, a careful examination, analytical and historical,

“Reprinted, by permission, from Johns Hopkins University Circulars, Vol. X XI,
No. 154, Baltimore, December, 1901.
739

740 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

of the entire mass of contributions to physical science during the past
twenty-five years, many of his own being fundamental in character and
far-reaching in their influence upon the trend of thought, in theory
and in practice. But it was quality, not quantity, that he himself most
esteemed in any performance; it was quality that always commanded
his admiration or excited him to keenest criticism. No one recognized
more quickly than he a real gem, however minute or fragmentary it
might be, and by quality rather than by quantity we prefer to judge
his work to-day, as he would himself have chosen.

Rowland’s first contribution to the literature of science took the form
of a letter to The Scientific American, written in the early autumn of
1865, when he was not yet 17 years old. Much to his surprise this
letter was printed, for he says of it, ‘‘ I wrote it as a kind of joke and
did not expect them to publish it.” Neither its humor nor its sense,
in which it was not lacking, seems to have been appreciated by the
editor, for by the admission of certain typographical errors he practi-
cally destroyed both. The embryo physicist got nothing but a little
quiet amusement out of this, but in a letter of that day he declares his
intention of some time writing a sensible article for the journal that so
unexpectedly printed what he meant to be otherwise. This resolution
he seems not to have forgotten, for nearly six years later there appeared
in its columns what was, as far as is known, his second printed paper
and his first serious public discussion of a scientific question. It was
a keen criticism of an invention which necessarily involved the idea of
perpetual motion, in direct conflict with the great law of the conserva-
tion of energy which Rowland had already grasped. It was, as might
be expected, thoroughly well done, and received not a little compli-
mentary notice in other journals. This was in 1871, the year following
that in which he was graduated as a civil engineer from the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, and the article was written while in the field at
work on apreliminary railroad survey. A year later, having returned
to the institute as instructor in physics, he published in the Journal of
the Franklin Institute an article entitled ‘‘ Illustrations of resonances
and actions of a similar nature,” in which he described and discussed
various examples of resonance or ‘‘sympathetic” vibration. This
paper, in a way, marks his admission to the ranks of professional stu-
dents of science and may be properly considered as his first formal
contribution to scientific literature. His last was an exhaustive article
on spectroscopy, a subject of which he, above all others, was master,
prepared for a new edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, not yet
published. Early in 1873 the American Journal of Science printed a
brief note by Rowland on the spectrum of the Aurora, sent in response
to a kindly and always appreciated letter from Prof. George F. Barker,
one of the editors of that journal. It is interesting as marking the
beginning of his optical work. Fora year, or perhaps for several

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 741
years, previous to this time, however, he had been busily engaged on
what proved to be, in its influence upon his future career, the most
important work of his life. To climb the ladder of reputation and
success by simple, easy steps might have contented Rowland, but it
would have been quite out of harmony with his bold spirit, his extraor-
dinary power of analysis, and his quick recognition of the relation of
things. By the aid of apparatus entirely of his own construction and
by methods of his own devising, he had made an investigation both
theoretical and experimental of the magnetic permeability and the
maximum magnetization of iron, steel, and nickel, a subject in which
he had been interested in his boyhood. On June 9, 1873, in a letter
to his sister, he says: ‘tI have just sent off the results of my experi-
ments to the publisher and expect considerable from it; not, however,
filthy luere, but good, substantial reputation.” What he did get from
it, at first, was only disappointment and discouragement. It was more
than once rejected because it was not understood, and finally he ven-
tured to send it to Clerk Maxwell, in England, by whose keen insight
and profound knowledge of the subject it was instantly recognized and
appraised at its full value. Regretting that the temporary suspension
of meetings made it impossible for him to present the paper at once to
the Royal Society, Maxwell said he would do the next best thing, which
was to send it to the Philosophical Magazine for immediate publication,
and in that journal it appeared in August, 1873, Maxwell himself hav-
ing corrected the proofs toavoid delay. The importance of the paper
was promptly recognized by European physicists, and abroad, if not
at home, Rowland at once took high rank as an investigator.

In this research he unquestionably anticipated all others in the dis-
covery and announcement of the beautifully simple law of the mag-
netic circuit, the magnetic analogue of Ohm’s law, and thus laid the
foundation for the accurate measurement and study of magnetic per-
meability, the importance of which, both in theory and practice during
recent years, it is difficult to overestimate. It has always seemed to
me that when consideration is given to his age, his training, and the
conditions under which his work was done, this early paper gives a
better measure of Rowland’s genius than almost any performance of
his riper years. During the next year or two he continued to work
along the same lines in Troy, publishing not many, but occasional,
additions to and developments of his first magnetic research. There
was also a paper in which he discussed Kohlrausch’s determination of
the absolute value of the Siemens unit of electrical resistance, fore-
shadowing the important part which he was to play in later years in
the final establishment of standards for electrical measurement.

In 1875, having been appointed to the professorship of physics in
the Johns Hopkins University, the faculty of which was just then
being organized, he visited Europe, spending the better part of a year

~I

42 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

in the various centers of scientific activity, including several months
at Berlin in the laboratory of the greatest Continental physicist of his
time, Von Helmholtz. While there he made a very important investi-
gation of the magnetic effect of moving electrostatic charges, a ques-
tion of first rank in theoretical interest and significance. His manner
of planning and executing this research made a marked impression
upon the distinguished director of the laboratory in which it was done,
and, indeed, upon all who had any relations with Rowland during its
progress. He found what Von Helmholtz himself had sought for in
vain, and when the investigation was finished in a time which seemed
incredibly short to his more deliberate and painstaking associates, the
director not only paid it the compliment of an immediate presentation
to the Berlin Academy, but voluntarily met all expenses connected
with its execution.

The publication of this research added much to Rowland’s rapidly
growing reputation, and because of that fact, as well as on account of
its intrinsic value, it is important to note that his conclusions have
been held in question, with varying degrees of confidence, from the day
of their announcement to the present. The experiment is one of
great difficulty and the effect to be looked for is very small and there-
fore likely to be lost among unrecognized instrumental and observa-
tional errors. It was characteristic of Rowland’s genius that with
comparatively crude apparatus he got at the truth of the thing in the
very start. Others who have attempted to repeat his work have not
been uniformly successful, some of them obtaining a wholly negative
result, even when using apparatus apparently more complete and
effective than that first employed by Rowland. Such was the experi-
ence of Lecher in 1884, but in 1888 Réntgen confirmed Rowland’s
experiments, detecting the existence of the alleged effect. The result
seeming to be in doubt, Rowland himself, assisted by Hutchinson, in
1889 took it up again, using essentially his original method, but
employing more elaborate and sensitive apparatus. They not only
confirmed the early experiments, but were able to show that the
results were in tolerably close agreement with computed values. The
repetition of the experiment by Himstedt in the same year resulted
in the same way, but in 1897 the genuineness of the phenomenon was
again called in question by a series of experiments made at the sug-
gestion of Lippmann, who had proposed a study of the reciprocal of
the Rowland effect, according to which variations of a magnetic field
should produce a movement of an electrostatically charged body.
This investigation, carried out by Crémieu, gave an absolutely nega-
tive result, and because the method was entirely different from that.
employed by Rowland, and therefore untikely to be subject to the
same systematic errors, it naturally had much weight with those who
doubted his original conclusions. Realizing the necessity for addi-

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 743

tional evidence in corroboration of his views, in the fall of the year
1900 the problem was again attacked in his own laboratory, and he had
the satisfaction, only a short time before his death, of seeing a com-
plete confirmation of the results he had announced a quarter of a
century earlier, concerning which, however, there had never been the
slightest doubt in his own mind. It is a further satisfaction to his
friends to know that a very recent investigation at the Jefferson
Physieal Laboratory of Harvard University, in which Rowland’s meth-
ods were modified so as to meet effecti ely the objections made by his
critics, has resulted in a complete verification of his conclusions.

On his return from Europe, in 1876, his time was much occupied
with the beginning of the active duties of his professorship, and espe-
cially in putting in order the equipment of the laboratory over which
he was to preside, much of which he had ordered while in Europe. In
its arrangement a great many of his friends thought undue prominence
was given to the workshop, its machinery, tools, and especially the
men who were to be employed in it. He planned wisely, however, for
he meant to see to it that much, perhaps most, of the work under his
direction should be in the nature of original investigation, for the suc-
cessful execution of which a well-manned and equipped workshop is
worth more than a storehouse of apparatus already designed and used
by others.

He shortly found leisure, however, to plan an elaborate research
upon the mechanical equivalent of heat, and to design and supervise
the construction of the necessary apparatus for a determination of the
numerical value of this most important physical constant, which he
determined should be exhaustive in character and, for some time to
come, at least, definitive. While this work lacked the elements of
originality and boldness of inception by which many of his principal
researches are characterized, it was none the less important. While
doing over again what others had done before him, he meant to do it,
and did do it, on a scale and ina way not before attempted. It was one
of the great constants of nature, and, besides, the experiment was one
surrounded by difficulties so many and so great that few possessed the
courage to undertake it with the deliberate expectation of greatly excel-
ling anything before accomplished. These things made it attractive to
Rowland.

The overthrow of the materialistic theory of heat, accompanied as
it was by the experimental proof of its real nature, namely, that it is
essentially molecular energy, laid the foundation for one of those two
great generalizations in science which will ever constitute the glory of
the nineteenth century. The mechanical equivalent of heat, the num-
ber of units of work necessary to raise 1 pound of water 1° in tempera-
ture, has, with much reason, been called the golden number of that
century. Its determination was begun by an American, Count Rum-

744 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

ford, and finished by Rowland nearly a hundred years later. In prin-
ciple the method of Rowland was essentially that of Rumford. The first
determination was, as we now know, in error by nearly 40 per cent;
the last is probably accurate within a small fraction of 1 per cent.
Rumford began the work in the ordnance foundry of the Elector of
Bavaria, at Munich, converting mechanical energy into heat by means
of a blunt boring tool in a cannon surrounded by a definite quantity of
water, the rise in temperature of which could be measured. Rowland
finished it in an establishment founded for and dedicated to the increase
and diffusion of knowledge, aided by all the resources and refinements
in measurement which a hundred years of exact science had made pos-
sible. As the mechanical theory of heat was the germ out of which
grew the principle of the conservation of energy, an exact determina-
tion of the relation of work and heat was necessary to a rigorous proof
of that principle, and Joule, of Manchester, to whom belongs more of
the credit for this proof than to any other one man, or, perhaps, to all
others put together, experimented on the mechanical equivalent of
heat for more than forty years. He employed various methods, finally
recurring to the early method of heating water by friction, improving
on Rumford’s device by creating friction in the water itself. Joule’s
last experiments were made in 1878, and most of Rowland’s work was
done in the year following. It excelled that of Joule, not only in the
magnitude of the quantities to be observed, but especially in the greater
attention given to the matter of thermometry. In common with Joule
and other previous investigators, he made use of mercury thermome-
ters, but this was only for convenience, and they were constantly com-
pared with an air thermometer, the results being finally reduced to the
absolute scale. By experimenting with water at different initial tem-
peratures he obtained slightly different values for the mechanical
equivalent of heat, thus establishing beyond question the variability
of the specific heat of water. Indeed, so carefully and accurately was
the experiment worked out that he was able to draw the variation
curve and to show the existence of a minimum value at 30° C.

This elaborate and painstaking research, which is now classical, was
everywhere awarded high praise. It was published in full by the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences with the aid of a fund origt-
nally established by Count Rumford, and in 1881 it was crowned as a
prize essay by the Venetian Institute. Its conclusions have stood the
test of twenty years of comparison and criticism.

In the meantime Rowland’s interest had been drawn, largely per-
haps through his association with his then colleague, Professor Hast-
ings, toward the study of light. He was an early and able exponent
of Maxwell’s magnetic theory, and he published important theoretical
discussions of electro-magnetic action. Recognizing the paramount
importance of the spectrum asa key to the solution of problems in

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 745

ether physics, he set about improving the methods by which it was
produced and studied, and was thus led into what will probably always
be regarded as his highest scientific achievement.

At that time the almost universally prevailing method of studying
the spectrum was by means of a prism or a train of prisms. But the
prismatic spectrum is abnormal, depending for its character largely
upon the material made use of. The normal spectrum as produced by a
grating of fine wires or a close ruling of fine lines on a plane reflecting
or transparent surface had been known for nearly a hundred years,
and the colors produced by scratches on polished surfaces were noted
by Robert Boyle more than two hundred years ago. Thomas Young
had correctly explained the phenomenon according to the undulatory
theory of light, and gratings of fine wire and, later, of rulings on
glass were used by Fraunhofer, who made the first great study of the
dark lines of the solar spectrum. Imperfect as these gratings were,
Fraunhofer succeeded in making with them some remarkably good
measures of the length of light waves, and it was everywhere admitted
that for the most precise spectrum measurements they were indispen-
sable. In their construction, however, there were certain mechanical
difficulties which seemed for a time to be insuperable. There was no
special trouble in ruling lines as chose together as need be; indeed,
Nobert, who was long the most successful maker of ruled gratings, had
succeeded in putting as many as 100,000 in the space of a single inch.
The real difficulty was in the lack of uniformity of spacing, and on
uniformity depended the perfection and purity of the spectrum pro-
duced. Nobert jealously guarded his machine and method of ruling
gratings asa trade secret, a precaution hardly worth taking, for before
many years the best gratings in the world were made in the United
States.

More than thirty years ago anamateur astronomer in New York City,
a lawyer by profession, Lewis M. Rutherfurd, became interested in
the subject and built a ruling engine of his own design. In this
machine the motion of the plate on which the lines were ruled was
produced at first by a somewhat complicated set of levers, for which a
carefully made screw was afterwards substituted. Aided by the
skill and patience of his mechanician, Chapman, Rutherfurd con-
tinued to improve the construction of his machine until he was able to
produce gratings on glass and on speculum metal far superior to any
made in Europe. The best of them, however, were still faulty in
respect to uniformity of spacing, and it was impossible to cover a
space exceeding two or three square inches in a satisfactory manner.
When Rowland took up the problem, he saw, as, indeed, others had
seen before him, that the dominating element of a ruling machine was
the screw by means of which the plate or cutting tool was moved along.
The ruled grating would repeat all of the irregularites of this screw

746 COMMEMORATION OF PROF, HENRY A. ROWLAND.

and would be good or bad just as these were few or many. The prob-

lem was, then, to make a screw which would be practically free from

periodic and other errors, and upon this problem a vast amount of

thought and experiment had already been expended. Rowland’s solu-’
tion of it was characteristic of his genius; there were no easy advances

through a series of experiments in which success and failure mingled in

varying proportions; ‘‘fire and fall back” was an order which he

neither gave nor obeyed, capture by storm being more to his mind.

He was by nature a mechanician of the highest type, and he was not

long in devising a method for removing the irregularities of a screw,

which astonished everybody by its simplicity and by the all but abso-

lute perfection of its results. Indeed, the very first screw made by

this process ranks to-day as the most perfect in the world. But such

an engine as this might only be worked up to its highest efficiency

under the most favorable physical conditions, and in its installation

and use the most careful attention was given to the elimination of

errors due to variation of temperature, earth tremors, and other dis-

turbances. Not content, however, with perfecting the machinery by

which gratings were ruled, Rowland proceeded to improve the form

of the grating itself, making the capital discovery of the concave grat-

ing, by means of which a large part of the complex and otherwise

troublesome optical accessories to the diffraction spectroscope might
be dispensed with. Calling to his aid the wonderful skill of Brashear
in making and polishing plane and concave surfaces, as well as the

ingenuity and patience of Schneider, for so many years his intelligent
and loyal assistant at the lathe and workbench, he began the manufac-

ture and distribution, all too slowly for the anxious demands of the

scientific world, of those beautifully simple instruments of precision

which have contributed so much to the advance of physical science

during the past twenty years. While willing and anxious to give the

widest possible distribution to these gratings, thus giving everywhere
a new impetus to optical research, Rowland meant that the principal

spoils of the victory should be his, and to this end he constructed a
diffraction spectrometer of extraordinary dimensions and began his

classical researches on the solar spectrum. Finding photography to

be the best means of reproducing the delicate spectral lines shown by

the concave grating, he became at once an ardent student and, shortly,

a master of that art. The outcome of this was that wonderful ‘‘ Pho--
tograhic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum,” prepared by the use of

concave gratings 6 inches in diameter and 213 feet radius, which is

recognized as a standard everywhere in the world. As a natural sup-

plement to this he directed an elaborate investigation of absolute wave--
lengths, undertaking to give, finally, the wave-length of not only every

line of the solar spectrum, but also of the bright lines of the principal

elements, and a large part of this monumental task is already com-

pleted, mostly by Rowland’s pupils and in his laboratory.

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. (47

Time will not allow further expositions of the important conse-
quences of his invention of the ruling engine and the concave grating.

Indeed, the limitations to which I must submit compel the omission
of even brief mention of many interesting and valuable investigations
relating to other subjects begun and finished during these years of
activity in optical research, many of them by Rowland himself and
many of them by his pupils, working out his suggestions and con-
stantly stimulated by his enthusiasm. A_ list of titles of papers
emanating from the physical laboratory of the Johns Hopkins
University during this peried would show somewhat of the great
intellectual fertility which its director inspired, and would show,
especially, his continued interest in magnetism and electricity, leading
to his important investigations relating to electric units and to his
appointment as one of the United States delegates at important inter-
national conventions for the better determination and definition of
these units. In 1883 a committee appointed by the Electrical Congress
of 1881, of which Rowland was a member, adopted 106 centimeters as
the length of the mercury column equivalent to the absolute ohm, but
this was done against his protest, for his own measurements showed
that this was too small by about three-tenths of 1 per cent. His
judgment was confirmed by the chamber of delegates of the Interna-
tional Congress of 1893, of which Rowland was himself president,
and by which definitive values were given to a system of international
units.

Rowland’s interest in applied science can not be passed over, for it
was constantly showing itself, often, perhaps, unbidden, an uncon-
scious bursting forth of that strong engineering instinct which was
born in him, to which he often referred in familiar discourse, and
which would unquestionably have brought him great success and dis-
tinction had he allowed it to direct the course of his life. Although
everywhere looked upon as one of the foremost exponents of pure
science, his ability as an engineer received frequent recognition in his
appointment as expert and counsel in some of the most important
engineering operations in the latter part of the century. He was an
inventor, and might easily have taken first rank as such had he chosen
to devote himself to that sort of work. During the last few years of
his life he was much occupied with the study of alternating electric
currents and their application to a system of rapid telegraphy of his
own invention. A year ago his system received the award of a grand
prix at the Paris Exposition, and only a few weeks after his death the
daily papers published cablegrams from Berlin announcing its com-
plete success as tested between Berlin and Hamburg, and also the
intention of the German postal department to make extensive use
of it.

But behind Rowland, the profound scholar and original investigator,
the engineer, mechanician, and inventor, was Rowland the man, and any

748 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

estimate of his influence in promoting the interests of physical science
during the last quarter of the nineteenth century would be quite inade-
quate if not made from that point of view. Born at Honesdale, Penn-
sylvania, on November 27, 1848, he had the misfortune, at the age of
11 vears, to lose his father by death. This loss was made good, as far
as it is possible to do so, by the loving care of mother and sisters dur-
ing the years of his boyhood and youthful manhood. From his father
he inherited his love for scientific study, which from the very first
seems to have dominated ail of his aspirations, directing and controll-
ing most of his thoughts. His father, grandfather, and great-grand-
father were all clergymen and graduates of Yale College. His father,
who is described as one ‘‘ interested in chemistry and natural philoso-
phy, a lover of nature and a successful trout fisherman,” had felt, in
his early youth, some of the desires and ambitions that afterwards
determined the career of his distinguished son, but yielding, no doubt,
to the influence of family tradition and desire, he followed the lead of
his ancestors. It is not unlikely, and it would not have been unrea-
sonable, that similar hopes were entertained in regard to the future of
young Henry, and his preparatory school work was arranged with this
in view. Before being sent away from home, however, he had quite
given himself up to chemical experiments, glass blowing, and other
similar occupations, and the members of his family were often sum-
moned by the enthusiastic boy to listen to lectures which were fully
illustrated by experiments, not always free from prospective danger.
His spare change was invested in copper wire and the like, and his
first five-dollar bill brought him, to his infinite delight, a small gal-
vanic battery. The sheets of the New York Observer, a treasured
family newspaper, he converted into a huge hot-air balloon, which, to
the astonishment of his family and friends, made a brilliant ascent and
flight, coming to rest, at last, and in flames, on the roof of a neighbor-
ing house, and resulting in the calling out of the entire fire depart-
ment of the town. When urged by his boy friends to hide himself
from the rather threatening consequences of his first experiment in
aeronautics, he courageously marched himself to the place where his
balloon had fallen, saying, ‘‘ No, I will go and see what damage I have
done.” When a little more than 16 years old, in the spring of 1865,
he was sent to Phillips Academy at Andover to be fitted for entering
the academic course at Yale. His time there was given entirely to the
study of Latin and Greek, and he was in every way out of harmony
with his environment. He seems to have quickly and thoroughly
appreciated this fact, and his very first letter from Andover is a ery
for relief. ‘*Oh, take me home,” is the boyish scrawl covering the
last page of that letter, on another of which he says, ‘‘ It is simpty
horrible; I can never get on here.” It was not that he could not learn
Latin and Greek if he was so minded, but that he had long ago become

sp

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 749

wholly absorbed in the love of nature and in the study of nature’s
laws, and the whole situation was to his ambitious spirit most artificial
and irksome. Time did not soften his feelings or lessen his desire to
escape from such uncongenial surroundings, and, at his own request,
Dr. Farrand, principal of the Academy at Newark, New Jersey, to
which city the family had recently moved, was consulted as to what
ought to be done. Fortunately for everybody, his advice was that the
boy ought to be allowed to follow his bent, and, at his own suggestion,
he was sent, in the autumn of that year, to the Rensselaer Polytechnic
Institute at Troy, where he remained five years, and from which he
was graduated as a civil engineer in 1870. ;

It is unnecessary to say that this change was joyfully welcomed by
young Rowland. At Andover the only opportunity that had offered
for the exercise of his skill as a mechanic was in the construction of a
somewhat complicated device by means of which he outwitted some of
his schoolmates in an early attempt to haze him, and in this he took no
little pride. At Troy he gave loose rein to his ardent desires, and his
career in science may almost be said to begin with his entrance upon
his work there and before he was 17 year. old.

He made immediate use of the opportunities afforded in Troy and its
neighborhood for the examination of machinery and manufacturing
processes, and one of his earliest letters to his friends contained a clear
and detailed description of the operation of making railroad iron, the
rolls, shears, saws, and other special machines being represented in
uncommonly well-executed pen drawings. One can easily see in this
letter a full confirmation of a statement that he occasionally made
later in life, namely, that he had never seen a machine, however com-
plicated it might be, whose working he could not at once comprehend.
In another letter, written within a few weeks of his arrival in Troy,
he shows ina remarkable way his power of going to the root of things,
which even at that early age was sufficiently in evidence to mark him
for future distinction as a natural philosopher. On the river he saw
two boats, equipped with steam pumps, engaged in trying to raise a
half-sunken canal boat by pumping the water out of it. He described
engines, pumps, etc., in much detail, and adds, ‘‘ But there was one
thing that I did not like about it; they had the end of their discharge
pipe about 10 feet above the water, so that they had to overcome a
pressure of about 5 pounds to the square inch to raise the water so
high, and yet they let it go after they got it there, whereas if they
had attached a pipe to the end of the discharge pipe and let it hang
down into the water, the pressure of water on that pipe would just
have balanced the 5 pounds to the square inch in the other, so that they
could have used larger pumps with the same engines and thus have
got more water out in a given time.”

The facilities for learning physics, in his day, at the Rensselaer Poly-

750 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

technic Institute were none of the best, a fact which is made the sub-
ject of keen criticism in his home correspondence, but he made the
most of whatever was available and created opportunity where it was”
lacking. The use of a turning lathe and a few tools being allowed, he

spent all of his leisure in designing and constructing physical appa-

ratus of various kinds, with which he experimented continually. All

of his spare money goes into this and he is always wishing he had more.

While he pays without grumbling his share of the expense of a class

supper, he can not help declaring that ‘‘it is an awful price for one

night’s pleasure; why, it would buy another galvanic battery.” Dur-

ing these early years his pastime was the study of magnetism and elee-

tricity, and his lack of money for the purchase of insulated wire for

electro-magnetic apparatus led him to the invention of a method of

winding naked copper wire, which was later patented by some one

else and made much of. Within six months of his entering the insti-

tute he had made a delicate balance, a galvanometer, and an electrom-

eter, besides a small induction coil and several minor pieces. A few

weeks later he announces the finishing of a Ruhmkorff coil of consid-

erable power, a source of much delight to him and to his friends. In

December, 1866, he began the construction of a smal] but elaborately

designed steam engine which ran perfectly when completed and fur-

nished power for his experiments. <A year later he is full of enthusi-

asm over an investigation which he wishes to undertake to explain the

production of electricity when water comes in contact with red-hot
iron, which he attributes to the decomposition of a part of the water.

Along with all of this and much more he maintains a good standing in

his regular work in the institute, in some of which he is naturally the

leader. Heocecasionally writes: ‘‘ 1 am head of my class in mathemat-

ics;” or ‘‘I lead the class in natural philosophy;” but official records

show that he was now and then ‘‘ conditioned” in subjects in which he

had no special interest. As early as 1868, before his 20th birthday,

he decided that he must devote his life to science. While not doubt-.
ing his ability ‘‘to make an excellent engineer,” as he declares, he

decides against engineering, saying: ‘‘ You know that from a child

I have been extremely fond of experiment; this liking instead of

decreasing has gradually grown upon me until it has become a part of

my nature, and it would be folly for me to attempt to give it up; and

I don’t see any reason why I should wish it, unless it be avarice, for I

never expect to be a rich man. I intend to devote myself hereafter

to science. If she gives me wealth, I will receive it as coming from a

friend; but if not, I will not murmur.”

He realized that his opportunity for the pursuit of science was in
becoming a teacher; but no opening in this direction presenting itself,
he spent the first year after graduation in the field as a civil engineer.
This was followed by a not very inspiring experience as instruetor in

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 751

natural science in a Western college, where he acquired, however,
experience and useful discipline.

In the spring of 1872 he returned to Troy as instructor in physics,
on a salary the amount of which he made conditional on the purchase
by the institute of a certain number of hundreds of dollars’ worth of
physical apparatus. If they failed in this, as afterwards happened,
his pay was to be greater, and he strictly held them to the contract.
His three years at Troy as instructor and assistant professor were
busy, fruitful years. In addition to his regular work he did an enor-
mous amount of study, purchasing for that purpose the most recent
and most advanced books on mathematics and physics. He built his
electro-dynamometer and carried out his first great research. As
already stated, this quickly brought him reputation in Europe and
what he prized quite as highly, the personal friendship of Maxwell,
whose ardent admirer and champion he remained to the end of his life.
In April, 1875, he wrote: ‘* It will not be very long before my reputa-
tion reaches this country;” and he hoped that this would bring him
opportunity to devote more of his time and energy to original research.

This opportunity for which he so much longed was nearer at hand
than he imagined. Among the members of the visiting board at the
West Point Military Academy in June, 1875, was one to whom had
come the splendid conception of what was to be at once a revelation
and a revolution in methods of higher education. In selecting the
first faculty for an institution of Jearning which within a single dec-
ade was to set the pace for real university work in America, and
whose influence was to be felt in every school and college of the land
before the end of the first quarter of a century, Dr. Gilman was guided
by an instinct which more than all else insured the success of the new
enterprise. A few words about Rowland from Professor Michie, of
the Military Academy, led to his being called to West Point by tele-
graph, and on the banks of the Hudson these two walked and talked,
‘he telling me,” Dr. Gilman has said, ‘‘his dreams for science and I]
telling him my dreams for higher education.” Rowland, with char-
acteristic frankness, writes of this interview: ‘‘ Professor Gilman was
very much pleased with me;” which, indeed, was the simple truth.
The engagement was quickly made. Rowland was sent to Europe to
study laboratories and purchase apparatus, and the rest is history
already told and everywhere known.

Rowland’s personality was in many respects remarkable. Tall,
erect, and lithe in figure, fond of athletic sports, there was upon his
face a certain look of severity which was, in a way, an index of the
exacting standard he set for himself and others. It did not conceal,
however, what was, after all, his most striking characteristic, namely,
a perfectly frank, open, and simple straightforwardness in thought, in
speech; and in aetion. His love of truth held him in supreme control,

152 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.

and, like Galileo, he had no patience with those who try to make things
appear otherwise than as they actually are. His criticisms of the
work of others were keen and merciless, and sometimes there remained
a sting of which he himself had not. the slightest suspicion. ‘‘ I would
not have done it for the world,” he once said to me after being told
that his pitiless criticism of a scientific paper had wounded the feelings
of its author. As a matter of fact, he was warm-hearted and generous,
and his occasionally seeming otherwise was due to the complete separa-
tion, in his own mind, of the product and the personality of the author.
He possessed that rare power, habit in his case, of seeing himself, not
as others see him, but as he saw others. He looked at himself and
his own work exactly as if he had been another person, and this gave
rise to a frankness of expression regarding his own performance
which sometimes impressed strangers unpleasantly, but which, to his
friends, was one of his most charming qualities. Much of his success
as an investigator was due to a firm confidence in his own powers, and
in the unerring course of the logic of science which inspired him to
cling tenaciously to an idea when once he had given it a place in his
mind. At a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in the
early days of our knowledge of electric generators he read a paper
relating to the fundamental principles of the dynamo. A gentleman
who had had large experience with the practical working of dynamos
listened to the paper, and at the end said to the academy that unfor-
tunately practice directly contradicted Professor Rowland’s theory, to
which instantly replied Rowland, ‘‘So much the worse for the prac-
tice,” which, indeed, turned out to be the case.

Like all men of real genius, he had phenomenal capacity for con-
centration of thought and effort. Of this, one who was long and
intimately associated with him remarks, ‘‘ I can remember cases when
he appeared as if drugged from mere inability to recall his mind from
the pursuit of all-absorbing problems, and he had a triumphant joy in
intellectual achievement such as we would look for in other men only
from the gratification of an elemental passion.” So completely con-
sumed was he by fires of his own kindling that he often failed to give
due attention to the work of others, and some of his public utterances
give evidence of this curious neglect of the historic side of his subject.

As a teacher his position was quite unique. Unfit for the ordinary
routine work of the class room, he taught, as more men ought to teach,
by example rather than by precept. Says one of his most eminent
pupils, ‘‘ Even of the more advanced students only those who were
able to brook severe and searching criticism reaped the full benefit
of being under him, but he contributed that which, in a university,
is above all teaching of routine—the spectacle of scientific work
thoroughly done and the example of a lofty ideal.”

Returning home about twenty years ago, after an expatriation of

COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 753

several years, and wishing to put myself in touch with the development
of methods of instruction in physics, and especially in the equipment
of physical laboratories, I visited Rowland very soon after, as it hap-
pened, the making of his first successful negative of the solar spectrum.
That he was completely absorbed in his success was quite evident, but
he also seemed anxious to give me such information as I sought. I
questioned him as to the number of men who were to work in his
laboratory, and, although the college year had already begun, he ap-
peared to be unable to give even an approximateanswer. ‘‘And what
will you do with them?” I said. **Do with them?” he replied, rais-
ing the still dripping negative so as to get a better light through its
delicate tracings, ** Do with them? I shall neglect them.” The whole
situation was intensely characteristic, revealing him as one to whom
the work of a drillmaster was impossible, but ready to lead those who
would be led and could follow. To be neglected by Rowland was
often, indeed, more stimulating and inspiring than the closest personal
supervision of men lacking his genius and magnetic fervor.

In the fullness of his powers, recognized as America’s greatest
physicist, and one of a very small group of the world’s most eminent,
he died on April 16, 1901, from a disease the relentless progress of
which he had realized for several years and opposed with a splendid
but quiet courage.

It was Rowland’s good fortune to receive recognition during his life
in the bestowal of degrees by higher institutions of learning; in elec-
tion to membership in nearly all scientific societies worthy of note in
Europe and America; in being made the recipient of medals of honor
awarded by these societies, and in the generously expressed words of
his distinguished contemporaries. It will be many years, however,
before full measure can be had of his influence in promoting the inter-
ests of physicai science, for with his own brilliant career, sufficient of
itself to excite our profound admiration, must be considered that of a
host of other, younger, men who lighted their torches at his flame
and who will reflect honor upon him whose loss they now mourn by
passing on something of his unquenchable enthusiasm, something of
his high regard for pure intellectuality, something of his love of
truth and his sweetness of character and disposition.

sm 1901——48

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Page

Abbot, C. G., on some recent astronomical events .............--.-...--.-- 153-169
Darel Seles OF LOO! 2 fe 2S Cee tee cee cas se 45, 124, 161

report on Astrophysical Observatory by.........-.---------- 119-128

MGM eames UE ran GISuMapen DY, == see cc fc.e- so ou nek Sab ce tS eiele =e bce 138
NGM MeA ies COLECtIONS MOM ~ 2 oo8cccsi 2 esccccc ns 22 dee ee aoe 88,56; 475-492
exploration of Andaman Islands by.-.-............--..-.---- 475-492

et Gf NT" Reh SAYS 6002 hos Se eee ee eae ee ee 66
Pie meunmed Prancis, paper Dys.sc-52.--..-.--..-24-2. 222-22. 22.2225- 140
Naas Ro pert, jr-,;anmectine ofsRecente -- 25... 25.25 eciets- ons Slee: XIII
MECeNt Of Hic MMB tOOU os 25 occ wc ee ee eid Sei afi

Pre Irving. IGUrOpeHt, triprOr<-.2. .s...5c cect e ec ose c ee ee etecews 51
on Huropean exchange service. .....------------------ 88-92

Pe eerie Mi Dratian § LEPOr DY. 2.2. c...2----=-2s-2c.-2-eces5. ee - se 126-128
on international catalogue of scientific literature_..-.-------- 23
ODT MO eee ene eee ere Mire ey OE LA a ee ote 136
NOMMMIMirAwoOn. secretary Ss report OMs-. 222-2! 2.2.2 sesh ce ee ee eee fi
mMerodrome.langley’s, and pterodactyl ...-.......=...-222----2..--22- ae 650

Aerodromics, Langley’s experiments in
Aeronautics, Janssen on progress in
Aflalo, F. G.,
Africa, from Cape to Cairo
okapi discovered in
wonderful animals of

Age of the earth, Chamberlain on
Joly on

Kelvin on

Air, liquid, researches with
motion of particle of, in sound
currents, Marey’s study of
photographs of

pressure on bridges, researches in
Air-ship, Santos-Dumont’s, circling Eiffel tower
description of

Zeppelin’s

Alaskan animals, preserve for, Dall on
volcanoes, Merriam on
Albatross, power of flight of
Albatross, explorations by steamer
Alethorama of Chéri-Rosseau
Alpine tunnels, description of.
American Ethnology. (See Bureau of.)
Historical Association

URE iie TRIVALS 2OOR- coos 58 eek eee wo Se

shee a

756 INDEX.
Page
Americanists, congress of, representatives to _..........--- pe Ae 26 4
Analysis of matter, Rucker on. ----- Rott tial lo a hee nicl eee eee ae 1754
Andaman: Tslands;-Albbott-collectionsitome sss) toes eee 56, 475-492
description, OL 22: 2 ake Soha. Sab or ce ee eee 48
origin: of people:.Of = 5. 4ees. 5 aoe e ee ee eee 478
savage people of i: be Sak We ek Fee eae eer nae 476
Anderson, T. D., new star discovered by.........--- ge SS Ae ee ee 167-9
Andrew bequest, ,report.onl 2. 25. po eS Pe soe eee ee ee XVI @
Angell; James B.,at meeting of Regents !: 22222... 5.2s A ~ 2. enn cca cece XI
Regent of the Institution..........-.....- eps we) ie XU, 7
Animal-motion, photopsraphy Of7.. 22255. 542 Se ees ee eo eee 318
Amimels:and. plants, mutation theory Ol 22. 2.25 2s. soescdsee wee eae 637
domestic, Importance Of 2 emu a ae en ae eee 698
aschiitz.s animal-motion pictres): 2-432 30:6) eee See eae ee 319
mutarctievoyace of belgie) A)7582 206 tia ee ee nee S ee ee 377-388 —
Antelope, danger of extinction of -....--.....--...- A Gee om ene See 699
in, Yellowstone’ Parko222 Joc. 5) nost Debits: Seca eee ' 7068
method of sienaling iby. cos oo. Sets. ae Bae cpa me 705 —
Anthony, William A., on trans-Atlantic telephoning... ...--- eee se 299-306
Anthropology, PApers-OMs .: so Se5 Lok sees See ee oe eee 132 —
Ants, white; habits:ofi-c: 2 -Ssc 2754.08 a eee ee ee 667
Haviland on i220 So uke scenes oe eee one eee eee 667-678 —
nests: Of 72 fs Clea ees seg ee bt Se eee ee 675
Appalachian forest reserve ......-.-.------ Jit nfs ate. Soka Sumas ae eee 402
Appropriations, executive committee report on.....-.-..----------------- XXV-LVI ~
under direction of Smithsonian Institution ..........----- Xxv, 9m
Aquarium in Zoological Park. 2924". 3-2 792 Sesteees sete ate ee eee 107 |
Archeological discoveries im Crete 2.2: So2see) 3a es oe ee ee 425 |
explorations: 40... 2 o2os aoc Set ae See ee ee ae Xx, 5, 37, 60mm
Architecture, ancient Cretan: .< =~. aoe. e ass aya toe noe eee eee 433
Arcticand antaretic plagierse 2 <2. 2c. oce eh eae = oes Se ee en eS 380 —
expedition, collections! by) 2.25. Se anes ctsis Sheen seces ees 58
exploration: 252.62. 2: Skt ee Se ee ee ee eee 68, 134
Arctowski, Henryk, on voyage of Belgica. 0.0. sess asesse cede ee eee 377-388
Arid” lands: area Ofaes see ao Se oe Aer re ee on 409
laws @OVErning. 2222.2. lah i oo. se ee ee 417
Arizona,sexplorationg in ese 2.c a oee So ace Sei ee ee ee ee es 37, 67
Armstrong; Professor, quoted: 2252... ase oot eee eee ee eee 343
Arrows Andamanesé 22/2223: soa bode pee he eee ee 485
Ashmead, William H:, collections in Hawaii by .----.=-.2--2-4- 2-5-4422 60
paper bysie-< 2 sae nen. Bases eee a ae 137
Astronomical“events, Abbotion: -4: Sse -2 sas eat ee eee oe eee 153-169
photography,.ad vances ip: 22 4s¢ shee ee ae ee 155_
Astronomy, progress in_....-.------- Te SIRES eee eee ee 133
Astrophysical Observatory, appropriation for.....-..---------------- XLVI, LIX,9
delicacy of galvanometer in .........---.------ 120
eclipse expedition. of 3.1.24 fesse eee oe eee 124, 162
finances Of: oi. sc..cei5 5 Soin se eee eee XLVIUI
moon radiation observations by.....----------- 120 _—
publication Dya2 25 see. ee hen ei ual aa 119
reportion work of. s22geeue- eee es pees sone 119-128, 149
Secretary’s report ona. ~ 2 sSose0 2 eee 45

solar atmosphere observations by .-..---..----- 123,

INDEX.

mimospnere, constitution of-.... 2.050.202.2222.
electrified, study of. 2=...2.....-

exploration of, by kites at sea

Atmospheric air, researches in -..........-..-
Atomic corpuscles, Rontgen rays vibration of
theory, Rucker on range of .........--
VOMUIMeES OMeASCS, eke pone Shae ka ose

MOMS anc ether, nature of..02 ....25.2-.5..4
bediesismaller than ..5.. 2.962222...

PALO MEGUIES Olsee sae =e 22 ees oo. & ee
Auriferous gravel man, Holmes on .........--
muearaporealis, Origin Of... .....-..2....-2.--
Austin and Thwing, experiments by........--
Austria-Hungary, exchange service with ._..-.
matomobile, bursting of :2....-.-...5....--.-
ean Mourmiér on..22..- 2.2. -2.<

TAGES PDLOOKLYM vee sec oe aise

paris bering. sash cess 5

speed records in ...-.....-
Avervetund, statement Of 2s: s-...52.-.5.55---

Babylonian expedition of Edgar James Banks.
Baird, Spencer F., Secretary of the Institution -
Baker, B., air-pressure experiments by -..-.--
Baker, Frank, on operations of Zoological Park

supenmiendent ot Zoolorical Park => 255222 =-- 292 -- 2s see ses

Ballboiriobert: ony Mars 2.50.5... 0.22554<:
Balloon, Santos-Dumont’s,

AED PEIMESS Heme wee yee ke Sa ee ee ek
Banks, Edgar James, Babylonian explorations |}
Pamiepwatnan, paper by . 2220.2 2l< eet ste
Barnard, Professor, eclipse observations by ---
Barrows, WwW. —., minerals from... ::./--....--
Barus, Carl, researches in ionized air by -..---
Basket work of Andamanese .......----------
3ean, Barton A., fishes collected by ....--.---
MeArPacCareOlmCADUVECl sos. kone ocek cl}
Beleiea, Antarctic voyage of....-.--.-----:---

Circlunesmittel Lowers. 5 feats Se eres See
oo

East tte tack eee eT 132,

DY ee Se O55 oe tes ek son Loss tare

Bell, Alexunder Graham, at meeting of Regents...-......-...------------

CAshsirOM ss 2 eee
member of executive
on telegraphone -...

COMMUNES ee ee eee

on students’ use of Government departments. - - --

presents executive co

ENDO KES 1X8) NO ee eee

Regent of the lustitntion'. 222°. 2. 2-o32 426 < 522

reports presented by

Will SOMES OND ONS le ates Aa aes oe or ierae

Bell, James M., Philippine collections from - - -
emnIEe, ids sO Narles 2 inns ois cin.s oa 2 armel
Benedict: J... collections byo.ss--2------ ===

PAOCE WY sace oe tate cae ae

CBT

Page.
175

13

245
13,15
286

182

261

176
231-243
184

132

242

207

88

726
593

595
606-609
597-604
595

XVI

Xx,5
148

) D
393

105-118
701

33

575
133, 577
XxXj0
138

162, 166
60

1355 129
483

61

713
377-388
XII

LVI

XII

XIU, 1
56

64

61

138

758 INDEX. 2

Page.
Benson, H. C.; birds presented by 2.0" << :2 2. hse ee ee 58
3equests, permanent committee report on....--....-.-.---------------->: xVig
Berliner, Solomon, Lanzarotte pigeons from ......-......----s------:----- 109
Berry, Ps V=-on.London: exchanges, 2 2 15 eee ees ee 87
Bevier, Louis, analysis of vowel sounds by ..-...-.----------------------- 13
Bibliography, chetoical dissertatnss2 soo) soc 2 ey ee ee ee 19, 129
scientific literature’. .5.<22.2~2. See a we ee ee
Billings, John §., on progress in medicine... = Geeta oo eee 135
Biological collections in National Museum. ..-.-.---------+--------------- 57
Biology in nineteenth eentury *_ 20. 2 03 a ee ee eee eee 134
list of papers: ON < 25 ssi. nce ce ome At rer Oe 136, 137
Birds and eggs for scientific purposes, legislation on ....-...-------------- Lx
CATE OL CARIVG uj 36 os Suse ocala aloes Ae we ee 149
destroyed by foresi,destriction. ©3220. 3. eee 8 es ee ees 404
house: tor, in Zoolopieal Park. \\. .2.- >. 8 oa ae eee eee 106
in Chuldren's TOOM se. =5 5. caet oe Os a ee 557
life thisteries ‘of 2) a). 7 sh ene 2 a ae a a ee 63
rt) 241 0 ee ne URE Sig cee be Theis RRM! prea Peay She 639
photesrauphs of motions oF 326.5. ocr o> pao eee eee nen ee 332
relative power, of :ightof sc42 22 set ee ee eee eee 651, 654
Sense.o pmell 22 3 Oo ee oa ee 132
scaring and. flapping compared 2.552022. 22S et eee 652
the. sreatest Of 26.2 vena. co See ei poe ee 649
Bhimenthtt, Kerdinand, paper Py=.<s23 ise. 7522 er oe ee ee 132
Boas, Hranz, Indian studies by 2. - 22-2 cece - soes <2 a oe ee 79
on mind. of primitive man: —. 702. bse. ee ee eee 451-460
Bodies smaller:than atoms: “Bhomsononea.- 0 = 2 2. sae ee ee 231-243
Bovoslot-voleances, OC. Hart Merriaia:on.¢22-) Joo a a eee 367-375
Bolometer, extreme sensitiveness of ....-.-..--.----- PE PSs BE I 46
invented |by.8. 2. Lanpley.. cs 506025 te oa eee 46
Bolton; .:C.-bibliosraphy.by--2..-- =< sot gence set cee ee eee ts eee eee 19, 129
on rTadio-active substances 2224. a oe oases 131
Bonaparte. "Prince Rolanda a2 sot Se oe ee ee ee 578
Books, appropriations ton < 2220 ee ee a ee ee XLVI, 10
Boomerangs, Gilbert ‘T.. Walker on 2s. 2 so25 a3 ee eee 515-621
iGrins Ald Yse OF 2. eo 2 ee ee ee eee 515-521
Hooth: Charles; on-normalclassesiofamen) 2.2 = ==6 ae ee eee 526
Boeporo indians, siidy of.2 2 2022. oss So eo ee ee 56
Botany, papers On 5250 3222 ee eae ie ee pepe a Re 131, 139
Bows and arrows;. Andamanese + 5 .- 2.45, 1225 ooo ease ee eet eee 482, 484
Boyle; Sir Courtenay: deathvot =: ca: foes ao co ee ees ee 342
Boys, C.-B:,: radiomicrometer: 0f--22 222-2 22 5 5. eae ee ee 157
Boys’ s researches 1. prayitatien 32-2 6 o's Dood. wae See ee oe 201
Brandt, earl paper Dy o3 oye Sel oe ee ne Pee 134
Braun; Dr., gravitation ¢x periments Gf: 2s2-2 22-222 er ee Soe 203
Brazil Indiansecliections {roms 20 fe ee oe eee e e ee 56
Bridge, Gokteiks erection ats s< << ae o8 Sr eer eee PES ee eget 611-615
Brontosatirus, deseription of: = 2-2... 2.32, oo cee ee 642
Brooks; (William J. om (ule ye ee nee eee ee - 135
Buttato, extinction OL:22o- = 2s. Se so ee es ee ee 40, 699

water, domestication: of 2 2 Seo ee ee 680
wanderings of. 225. Sa ss ee ee es 679-682
Buiialo ix position; réportion- 25. -- 5 sa2 ee a ee eee 63

————— a a a

INDEX. 759

Page.

ern WOnAr WHhctmn 2-2 Secs. Oe ek I cee cteae 54

NE WONE MCCUE £6 ne i ckta se a ke ph Se oe 30, 151

RIZO ANORCORLS Ole tote NN ee ees 32

pecretany ‘siTeport ONss2 <2 2—- Oe ccs ae nee Se 8, 30

Melee pile cc. OO., Collections from == 5. .5<- S.26 26 c-c ose clnce cesses 57

ASE TRS OREM I Ley SE een ee Se ee a ee ee a Be 133

BaMnoOn- Sava ersOns di. paper DY =. 2.2 sa. <5. $S2 lnc se fend anlage e ocean os 132

Burton. Opitz. Dr., at Smithsonian Naples tahble......... —...........-.-- 16

Bureau of American Ethnology, appropriation for ................... XXVIII, LIX, 9

HAAN COStOL Sea Re ee tye eh crs wk cern ae XXVIII

FOUL TGR GLO MS Ol ye ew ee ee ee a ee 83, 140

report.on operations of ...-...--=.2-:-.-=.- 65-84

Secketaky: Wan ley OMe = os. se se eee 36

Si ET ere) a Se ae ey tn es ie ae ae 149

Pan eBAGT stra MOL) == ees en Se RS ie ois Qo oeee os 2S ns 137

PSPS LOW TE UOTESTE LIS R OTA COIR ae ect ste re Ee 344

C.

Gakiouiasciomologicalexplorations IN ...- 22. 5.<.2<2222255sese0052e55558- 37, 60

Cambridge University, degree conferred on 8. P. Langley by....-...-.---- XIV

andie south on development ofe--.—-= 52-5. .- 3. --s--cbiece-s-- ae -sees 496

(TPE Es MRS ETS aA een See IS eo 12

iuena-enry 5.,.on the Reichsanstalt.:. . 22. .22...52..2-22-5-5<52605--5 134, 341

Carter, Martin J., Newfoundland caribou from ..--...----------------- Aas 109

PanerelaulebsicOuecionsMronites sae oscc2 55. 5a5-0e-cees ce sececi-ces nese 55

Denemmmenr yen Pet nat erie: Ser oe ne wi ota gene - aka ns ow cles 136

Beene iL ICied. Py MAeNeL oo as Boe 2 SS ae oe 2 oe Se ee as 277

lected Meme mtes eee A ent eae AACE EN oe Be son 277

DeSimone yee ecto Seto a aa ys omc 271-286

RNRNCUNE VADER Mey er eee a ae SB men wt ania oe 271

MmeECHAMICHIMEMHECtG Ole see ae acti soak ec icioe m2 aoe ener 2707

TiC OETA GUGM eee eee eye te Sc Oe cre Se ee a 272

“TTR EL ESET EO ON eee a 273

RESCAL CHES IIe eek eee rte, een le St ct a 2 eee te

“RET EE ESE eg Eee ee eee PE 280

Rape gicieren ol animals in) Hrance 2222 2%..5-.-2--- 2+. 2 ---~-5-e-222 2s 439

Saeetiien a researches:- in gravitation | --22 2s oo. oo. se eee ese e See se 201

Ee aenIEMeemOre HOME NRE S22 22 oc 28 22. 22 oe ss Se ae es ee tee 646

PMMHeMt Ete Me DADEE NY 2252 0 Pan es o- oaawn ces eh tee eeiee sc Tat

Paneer OF lpht, po: b. Lancley on. ..-..--.-.---+-24i----+-+---5-- 19, 129

Chemical dissertations, Bolton’s bibliography of.......-.----------------- 19, 129

(SSE NCL yy SAS STN Ea eS Se eee ae eee 133

Beene meg MivtNs Ol. 20222) Aes. kas oes ete ep wae ee eose 80

Pare MGEL i OL tothe MaAvlone. 2.202. ' 22 252. sae eee oe cee eee ene 527

RENT PMT OL MING OM Soe 2a. Sao ole toe ng ne Scenes 553-560

SBE Tail open’ Cnc w SS ey ee Rae Sere Se a re oer SE 53

Secretary eeaneley: OM<! (onc ass 2 secs Jac fee ano ap = SS 34

fT SPELT CIT SATE ee oa ee ee oe a 53, 555

TUE Tom af SEL 0Gd Vay oY Sr eS 0 eg rR 263

Ino e nO OServaLOLyIl. 5. <2 26 acces ce vn ee ni ma in n'a = 133

lpeeasn summer malace: I-22 6.2- sp Semon ssen\s += ~~ b= - sna n ee 135

Mmited states and, Wu Ting Pang on- = -22-----....---s-.-.------ 135
fmeereioticlare., Willinmis, Oni sp 52 ites. fe. os). - ee eee oe ANS)

“inthe thin ora Sree et oe ee BS Ss eo ee ee eS ee ae 193

760 INDEX.
Page,
Chronophotographicj@unes-— = aoe. oe ea ee = eee ae 329
Chronophotographiy, *Mareyzone oes ee ace oe oe a 317-340
mmethoda oe pies sees Se se oe a en yon eR 317
Olivine objects sees s= eee. == ee aie Eee ied eee 332
of liquidssin motion asse. se eee ee ee ee a)
Sclentiicap plication Ole.ce see ee a eee eee 329
Cinematocraply amilere’ sa 222 2 A see ake cee eee 327
reflected: wave TromteyOle <= Anas eos ee nee ee ee 134
Civilized’and primitive man compared 2.2 2052 Pa ee ce cee ee ee 458
Clark, A. Howard; editor's report by: frssso8ce eos tee oleae el eee ee 129-140
Secretary American Historical Association ........----- 140
Clit houses OmMATI Zona 222 S30 oe) gee wale es et yah crane na ya Sete pecan eh Spee 67
Coal depositsoithe worlds see ee ee ete ae eee eee 263
steppes. “lumit ote eee os tee en se Ae ae oe 263
Cockrell, Francis M., Smithsonian Regent.--....--.-.----.-- ee Sb tyiee nS XTi
Cooopa Indians collections fram. 27. 22222 snceeaodsohee ae ee eee 82
PASTS WO Sons a ee ae ae er ee ee 71
SLUNG YAK oS a eg pee Paeeapeete parle Suet tees ed “URS ek Fa) 37
Coberer for wireless telegraphy. 7-322 2.59 22235 ae ana eee es 288
(ColeniamtcdeeW se Meteorite inOM 0.22 2am see Sere terre ne Mee eee eee 60
Colon photography, anicle<oms. 50 koe eu yas a On eee eek ae ee eee 135
Sir W. J. Herschel on processes of..........---------- 313-316
fondor compared with. pterodactyl“. o..-- 2. = dese ue. eee See 649
Congressional acts and resolutions concerning Smithsonian...........----- LVII
Cook: Wi A-.. COWECHOMS roms ooo Seared eee Soe a ee ae Ne ee tee 56, 60
Coondre, Dane, ‘eollections byt. Ss 22 oo spk Fo ae hee ce 60
Coons habits votie 22 Fa Sar Ba ee ee Ok Be erste eee eee ee eae 712
Cape, Hdward.D., on crocodilians; ete.) $2225. 452 S28 82 eat een ee ee 136
Coquillet DS War paper ly tec oe nase Saeco tee wee eee res 139
Worms eA ears Wis rik espn ea 2S Ste era RBI AT OC 8 ce LE ne eg ae at eae 131
Coronal photorraposs a3. 2 Sa 0ec tes Saas ee soto eat ee eee ee 162
Corpuscles, atomic, Rontgen' rays vibration of 2.2.5 ..22-925 222 .e ee oe 286
cosmics|_effects produced Dy = 2235.45.41 te see neste 242
elect. CEM OMmisOm wOms. fo eee eo sh eee ee trees eae 235
@orrespondence, Secretary s report On s_ 32 teens hese eee eee 25
Coetrespondéents; Smithsonian, numberof: <2. - 522.22. 4200-2 skew ee 49, 86, 94
Cosniicalieitects produced by corpuscles 22. (2° Se- aon ee eee ee 242
Grape snermit, UBeMediCthOl jn. > setae eee ee eee eee 138
Cretansiaab yarn ne chiSCOyer yi Ol acters tes cis rn es ee dm races eee a 426
svete: of: writing: discovery of. S202" 2 2 cee eens eee 428
Grete sexcayatlons a Sak cet ee oe Oe i ae eee et ca oe eee ee 425
GCrocodiliansand lizards @opeon! 222252 otee eee te eae ae eee 136
Crookes, Sir) Walliam,7 paper Dyson. sess ate eee eer eee oe ae ene 131
TAdiation Tesearchesip yes secs ee ee ee 271
Crookesitube; experimentaiwith=ssa9220 sac a! fe) 5 a eee ee 274
Oripih Of 2s he ER OS ie Se ae eee eee 271
Crosby, k. (W.., minerals froms: 2o.322 20 Sos ees a here tee ane 60
Guba, collections from. 222s oo Sse ie pe ee ae ae a 59
natural history explorations: in. 3232.52. 015 - btese. ao eee eee 61
Gullom,Shelby M.; Smithsonian erent: 5-22. ..9e ese eee eee eee Solita
Cunnime ham cl: S., leopandsdronis. 22. ae eee oe ee ee 109
Canie: IM. :and Ming... researehes: by... ies oS so nace See ee 241
Currie, Rolla P., paper by ..---..:.-- 6 ee ee eee 137

Gurus, Thomas I, paper by. 229s. 52. 2 eee 133

anna Kem Ve eae ll couections rome 4224s sec asc ooo eee eee 58

INDEX. to.

D.
Page.
Dall, William H., on preservation of marine animals of Northwest coast... 683-688
SYESTS LN oR ge ay ee i ail dik et 137
urreret mame teCORY a... os ok 2 eae sce skeen se eee scl ececaccee 171, 182
Para AcoArics evolution, theory Of...... 2.02000. ..-2. 200 oe 631
amma eanne, researched Dy. .2- 2... <.2-122-2<.-0.--2-2+---s--ce ae ee 186
Bm eGrY, Wo. AW nite On. vo os. fe ce et aA 631
IGsainoe Ae OUNUMe Mew TradiathoOns=.o82scsostes 22 -. eto eee 271-286
SREMBE SOON be S525 25. be ee cin - s Seke o Bares eee ect ee ee 561-574
Daughters of the American Revolution, report of.........................- 140
awison, Georee,on Alaska volcanoes... 2.2. .2....2.---....22. 2.02. ne ee 37
IE IO MO MAMICHUOMMKOL <5 SU os fs sss bua nn cee nce ee cae ccte lose eee 699
Peeeemeerny Mi. janimals from: - 2.2.22... 2i-..---sa-2-se--ee- cece 109
Memaeennemeniek, PApeI DY <.5.-... 2 ssc ct ces howe ce ee eel lotr bese ten 135
eee tite eGUrtesies (POM. = 25-02 oo. sek wesc ee eek eee: 46
Density of hydrogen in different conditions -.................-2.200¢2-22222 260
Meme eEville Ao eolloctione from <> -- 22.22. stn ne lee eon eee eee 56
Derx, Mr., courtesies from ..... SES BS SSeS SA eRe, Seach me re ane 164
Tthrbenry, WANOOMISL § prize DY=....-.:-----.-<.0--escu. cece eee eee ALA
Deve lopment of iumination, Honghon:..--...2:-2.22 22.2.2. 2222. lle. 493-500
primaltshapine arts, Holines-on .. 22.22.5202 ke 501-513
ees eroescor, mutaimon theory Of 5.022552 55225-222 2022-22) ee eee 631-640
Pew mames on liquid hydropen-=_22..-...2. 22.5.2... 2k ee Pe eee 131, 134
CESGI EN OROMe Mist ene cee St. oss Roe kk eee tLe Nee
Dewey, Admiral, on value of submarine boat ..............-..--2.2222--- mala
JO Cm iva iO ks), TENSE AUTON eps aes eA Ree SOS a See nee ci ie ee 359
UMA Lp OA IMEIICAN Goes O25 hp ccs lsh sane Sede seus 359-366
ECGS Cont oie Saat ape 9 ca nee gc temier ee ere eae ar eet acne 361
Rigen ARO OPeSOM 2.2 = | oe Sees et ese SEALS tee S- 361
CHomeOt mil OO WsrOnes sess nee ee os. 50 eet oe eee Lee 359
ISEOUSW ELD “ZIT CL 0) sec anata ny cl, A a ea I a ih 359
irene tenth sneer rece cy oe int Re ere rn eae eee 359
NYSE SHES ERIEC WG 00 Ce Na a coe Alaa Ne a 359
WASGCOMSII hearer eect oe ENS SS ke eine a ea 361
Dinosaurs; a pUNG ANCE. Olsis- foo Snes eS eke ge he ea Ade pa) Sa gt VP 641
ire AN OE ena es nia ao eA eS Se 642
DEM ELENA Os ALON Ol oo kiss se Le TS Seek eee 641-647
pee UMMA ERP tenons ST. St ee See ees 643
Minemore, uch A.at meeting of Regents.......2..5...-.--522525.-.25252 XIII
Recentromtnernsthtutlon nce eas s ne eee me tee KL
ESE LOREM eon oily Ome teas ee RE ey ee mk ee a Nr ee 715
DamrmnwOG one Naples zoolorical station 2.2220 2o222 52.2 2ee onc cece Se ibe
Mime EnicMoIiAls MN DOLLA COOL Sana seL ase se he a esc Rete wee Ss 698
Pee ME CAVE Gl DIGKIKEA INNS o2 oe nd nocd cac aoe ate ewet see cece ee 439
Doty, Lieutenant, Bogoslof voleanoes photographed by..-.-.-------------- 37
Drake Nog hields, fishes collected by .-<. 5.2.22. 22-2 202-2 alt. 135
Draper, Paul, member of Sumatra eclipse expedition. .........------------ 45, 124
Benen ICRVATG: GIAMCTSUDY =a noes e Satine etc weed owe c dese e ee 135
ntechnGoverniment COUnteSsIes nOM'..220->.....c-2-0L.-ceess ec cce e+e cece 162
Deere AML SOnN Gar Ou Obs asses ern teat cis see ce oa TA A cers Se eo oe ou
EK.
PRA anAMaILN OL. MAE: OF 2-2-2 2) Paes ee SS ps8 Se eee. 206

762 INDEX.

Page.
Eclipse expeditionsto Sumatra 2--225- pasos eee ene eee 45, 124, 125, 161
Hiclipse expeditions: 2 sxc sve oe eee as ais SOe at ae eee ee get eae Km
Ecuador, exchange. service with: -./o.... <a 2sseeee bs ee a ee ee 87
Edison’s kinetoscope, déscription.of. 5.1.42 5-22-52 eee ae eee 327
Editor; report:of. 3.2. 2 ccisc ose pine koe eee eee ee ae 129-140
Egypt, Petrie’s researches in... ¢\ 3. 222 232.5 Se te de cee ee ee ee 425
Keyptians, primitive, stone implements of...........-..-. Ais SR ated 33, 57
Biitel tower) Santos-Dumont crrelime sae se a 575-592
Midnidge,,'G. i. «collections Uiromic- = cise ee ee 59
Hilsetric conpusctles a5 sac tio. pane ee ee ee ee 234
current, centenary Of 5 aso me ee a re ae ee eae 293
discharge in ‘rarefied gases v2.05 3 se oa oe a ae ee 273 =
fiuid theory ob Franklin: -. oc ase oie a ee eee 235
installation, in“ MiMsewMm (7 22, oe Dees Sees eee wis
traction tunnels need Ole. aes ea ae ooninks see 629 -
Electrical conductivity of metals ......- NRE DERN po tgne BE MRE Lian meee 240
cuprent;mature/of 28 tes) aot) Soe oe eee 184
phenomena of animals and: plants <2 2. ee ee ees 131
researches iby dvd). Thomson 2502.22 5s ed eee F 233
Standards; Teed: Oke sr ete sd ee ee ee ee ee 357
Electricity, conducted through thin metals...) 65-22-2224. goh ees) secede 239
free; in meetals’ ue 8 see ee ee ea 238
IGG ASeS: po ice occ ae Sh eet ee ee 183, 2383
negative, consists of corpuscles S20. 205 so. aoe ae oe eee 235
mineteenth century; progréss|it. 30% 5.0 eee ee ee 134
positive; thabure of.) 4.2.0 sel eee eee ee eee 235
Pupin. system of transnititine-25- = sek ae eee ae Oe 299-306
Schumann?s:researches inv... esos = ate eee ee 12
Leche d HOt aerate meee ees. eas a eae eee eee ae ae ss eer eg a SO 183 3
Electro-magnetic field, Maxwell’s theory of .-..-.-..---2--2.-----2--sc25 287
Hlectromobile,crace) walt. oe eset 5s) ee ee eae ee 596
Electrostatic discharges, magnetic @ffect: Of. . o2- Jo 552 2s5n¢-- Se ee ee 740
Elephant house needed in zoological park ..........-.----.+.---++-------- 110
lk, formenabundanceroie coe ose oe loc be eies Sees eee eee 697
Emigrant diamonds in Ameritars:.c 232. 2220 os amee ee ete ea ee 359-366
min Oey Gree COME CELOraS sri ee eee ae rete ree eee 5d, 60
Bricssony,. ohn... om solar engimeseac 2. Wace eae ee oe ee 265
Eriksson, Karl, okapl.obtamed by 2.2 4-22 0c 32 eG oe eee 662
Eros; planet, observations of 2... sco = at Rh ee a Ce 159
varistions-in Heht of. 00 4 ons cee aor See eee ~ 16u
Pskimo traps, Mason ‘on’ os. 2225 ub tee ee ee Se ee ere 468
Establishment, Smithsonian; functions Of. 22.2225. 92545-4255 -4 eee ae nis en
members OE. eevee ce eae ee Xi,
Kstimates and appropriations:for 1902) 2.22). 2 eee eee eee pan 10
Ether and gravitational matter through infinite space.....-..------ .---.-- 215-2380
universal; theory Of .. 0s 222s ylakouae soe des eee eee ae
Kverett,: Willis E.,. researches: by 22 sa- oa os ee een ee eee see 68
Executive committee, memibersiof sos. 22 aces see see eee eee XII
repautGf:s 52 tORe ae ae XV, XXV-LVI
Explorations by Bureau of Ethnology (2.0.42 si 52-. +. sete. eee eee 36, 65-84
by ‘National Museumi:\2) 22s. ook ae eee 60
Secretanyts report on 2226s s2< eee fa ale Sat nk Se 18
Exposition, Louisiana Purchase; law prov ding: 2-2-5 5.22 4ees-4---S2eeeee pa

ins

is

INDEX. 768

Pave

Exposiion tennessee Centennial 92. .-. 2.22.) ee ede cessed on es ceo LXI
Workd:siColmmlbianeeneport OM... 25 - as Sas- ae ee nee ee LX
BRO MMONs Sm COsOnian- ex bits at.o<. s= s22<...oncee ss Desc e ce eee ee 26

EScEcisaniMis MeStOatOnN: OL = s2—%. Soe nc on a se oe se AE Se oe oe ee Se 13
Peenmchonr or Americanvanimals, danger of:.-..~<=:2..--2-+-+--2-¢e-ss0n 38
Ohmanne animalsiot-Northiwest coast 2.__22.-2--52.-.22.. 72-02: 683
PT OUNEM OTIC IDE EO oe Net es Nore BO A ek oe 699

F.

Ein ins SITES 2 61 0 ee a 132
UMM EANEN MIGLEARG IN: 2 3) se tev nok Saisie ox Dine Soles Sec te wwe Ldjee meee cce 413
em asa Wes G. OTIMCLCORIGES 5.4.2 22 2 ne ree eens 193-197
Manrlegsy Ue Wes ‘ave Wena t1 1006 Bess i 6) alae 69, 70
meas meGeGUONSHLOM =... -—, ~jooa0'. 2-2-2 - se sscee ec sel cece See ee 56
Riraeemte MCU TNY UG a A ery er See Sn ey 539
imnancessexecutiye committee report ON... ---.-.2-.2-.2--<---sse--. 2220s XXV=LVI
ReesaratvesenpaleMmenp Ole . = 5.0 sms nope es ee = Sin Smid we So XXIII, 8
SRE MET Ge ese Se Scene aad meats wete pe won peeee seen’ LVI
eer DMNAINALINE. oo ee ea ee ek Soe se esate cee cane 494
Pierce AOA AM AN CSO anes ee bot ce cs bebe Lee ee cece eee on 482
Simei Crer CHenicd) CeOlOPInhh =. .2 2.22.2. s--- see ceeqsncw cece secs 54
Pireowallc ceremony in Tahiti, S. P. Langley on ..........-.-----...--+--- 539-544
HSE Cormnnisson PCOMeECHONSEMEOMs sca /s 2... 25 22 Sek once cons ee bocce es 33, 58
ehilnes,, MAeMAORN TG 2 ota ar tea Naas See a eee 132
PLR SRO Megs eae eee oar yet os Sue ss Be see cane fs sine Sa) 138
Centon wmoencan Indiansss.....22-.ts. 2-2. - 22-28 dete ee eee 468
ie kee mG MMO eIANIX @Ven= semen: 2228 eee Ue to eb ee ie oe 136
TP Pecunia, TETRCH SSS Gye TUG) eC Le, AIS ee ee ee ae ee ee ee 287
Merehereeslice Gs indian studies bys: .2.2sfs22-.-4c2e6-2eese2-2 525-32 68, 82
TP Vietiad., Lbc@vieal Ramil (eta) ola a) 2k eS ee Se a Se ee ge 133
MCC AMICH Ee MOCMIMEDUS MNase ee. cess ete doe cscs ee 133, 649
ASEH AC ELIS HCCC OTM So emme ae ie is Skis Se ae BOS Sree cosas 61
2) SE) DEE Re COTE TE RG 5) a a ro a a ea ae ee 87
Ehymeereature, greatest, Langley on —.....22-.-.--.---------- 025 ---+s--- 649-654
ING KETS Re Tas 5 te ee ee ree Be a in ee oe oe ae 654-69
ne AE ee I a ee 2 oa Sot A oh Sea Bin ese oe a 2 es ee nes 133
PnCmeN MUTeTOOAehy an) +2000 fo 052) a os es nas bee ks 649
Beeseomanison of molecnics and ..... 22224....25--2202-2--2-0e00s nos 1&3
MetEreMECED Sem NOTAGONS WY (oo. ee a 25 2525+ oe ee eee as 67
Horest destruction, fauna and flora destroyed by.--..-.----.-------------- 404
IMIG yaTY Gin Seer SOEs I Ree Rene re se oe ee oe 404, 405
SEATIENGSITGG Us MWe epee es et Sete tecean ae eit cee eee 401-404
Tan CHS tA TI Gh SS wc nto a nin or ao less See = a 403
Pema. MEW, CONCCLION- OF 2 202 02. 2 2 22 fn n= woe ede oe esa 225 nase 59
PU OCEROS IE CASI OMAP rs BAe <2 saw oe OS a Tn MEL Soe Noah ie aie 137
HES one wEcoleChiOnsOls-ras ot s..2 oa ae eo nitaee aos Soc cee ye ese eae 33, 59
Eres SS Sa eS ES ee ee ee eR eee iy a 664
MAGNOLIA DSP R ORT ee Aer ee ote tie Si Aalsie'h oleae ara ee 638

Un. SEYS MIG ath Sy eg er 0 Ys ye ga ame eH iy
Rommmerselenrim im automopile races = |... 2. -cie2c2 522s tl= ss -5-- 2 aes ae 593-609
on antomobilemmanutacture: -25242-c22 62 oe oe wee ee = 593
Fowle, F. E., assistant in astrophysical observatory .....-...--------------- 125

Poraurincis,o oreat Alpine tunnels. --..+.--.-2..2..- <<. <---> 2-2---4- 617-63

764 INDEX.

Page.

Fox, Mr., agent for Avery property ---------.-- Se Dea een eae See XVI
France, exchange service-with Bos. 2-2 cu Se wae aee ee eee eee eee 92
Franklin's! oné=fluiditheonry 22022 -2- 92s. eee ee ee eee ee 235
Rrigate bird) cas! omit ont Of sees ae eee ee ee pee 654
Pry, OW ilibamna Posse ees Sia a I INT, XU
Fael supplies of the world; Thurston Ons: 22 Sofas 2c icc te ees ee ee eee 263
Fuller, Melville W., Chancellor of the Institution... ...2...-....--2-222212..- XI
member of Smithsonian Establishment........--.-.--- Ki

Eultons- submarine boat; testol sss et en icee see pee enn ane ee 722
Funehonal- motions, photographs Of 0s ii. sige ee a- k eoe = Se 334
Fund; Smithsonian, statement of |. 22+ 2 22 [see S ocean Spee ee
ianeeal, Dall’ on preservation of foi. 2< Sas cece ee. ane ee See ee 685

G.

Gage, Lyman J., member of Smithsonian Establishment..............----- Bae Ys
Galleries, National Museum, appropriation for? ..... 2s... 22-22 5cncer esos 10
GOSEOF i se Die eie eee eae ee XLVI

Gallery of art, expenditures fore. = sosi5 eee aal ee ae oo eee eae eee XXVI
alton, Sir’ Douglas,on physical laboratory. 2s 25-2 ane oe eee 341
Galton, Francis, on improvement of human breed ...........--.-.-------- 523-537
Galyanomeéter, improvenrente in. . 25.2 5282 gue. fo ee saa 120
Garden.and its development’ .¢ =2265-..0-a2e0 ome aoe cae ee See eee 132
Gra8es, QtQme: VGlEMES OF 22555220 cule ieee oer eee eae a 261
electricity Was) SIV ee oe oe Fe ee Re ee ae ae eee 183, 233
expéerimentsiin solidifying 522055 5.0 Lor Pan eee Sees tees 251
Gates: Peter Giexplorations Dyson oo a nee eae ee ee eee 60
Gatschet, Albert 8., Indian language studies by ...../.-..22.2-----ececnne 79
Geographic conquests of nineteenth century... .-..- 2.52. --..--cccee onsen 134
Geology ang mutation GHeOLY: ce sae. Say ee re eae ee 6388
inerease of collections iin: [22h FOls ee eine See te 59
IRaGETS ON Oe ech ae ee Ape etek ae re eae eee 131, 134, 186
(eorpia, Indian -qtarrice in ies Cee EL as es a ee ee 60
Gevers2 Baron W/1Aceb.- COURtESIES MTOM aac oe ee oe eat rer ee ee ner 45
Gibbs, Witlard “researches: by..195. oS ake sree eee oe eee ee 174
aie: Valley, explorakons ise 2.6 0022510. S555 Saal gereaiae oe een ree ae ei 67
Gul, DeTancey,exploratioba-Dy 3.225. asso sso see aa rena 67
TIst ra Give WOR ERO ces ce eet ren acer eo eee 84
oitl; Ww heodore: N.; paper by 260 soos eh: CSorep bem raw a= See eee 139
representative to Glasgow University jubilee -........-- 26

Gilman, President, of Johns Hopkins University ........2./--.2..2-12..--- 749
Griraire-like fossils 222 shar s ae Aes Se ee Se Sa ee ee ee 664
Glacial epoch tn A HtArCtC Tepion?. 02-5 S2 s 525552 oss Soa ages aes 383
Glaciers: “Antarctic, form Of 222 <== os. ae Ee aaa Ore Rye A a dal 380,
Glascow University, jubilee ofec22 ot oe soe boc co dae ions ea eee 26
Glazebrook, R. T., on national’ physical laboratory ..22- 5-22 25.-2 eh <5 52 eee 341-357
Gokteik-bridve, erection of 22222... Sees ol a Sse aeee ee ees 611-615
Gold'and lead, ‘interpenctration' of. 22 25S eee asa a es eee bey
Gossart’s oscillating objective photographs. «2... .v.<. -2. enn. eke sce teen 328
Government Departments, utilization of, by students.........------- XVIII, LVII, 4
Grayitation; law, of force:of (s2 seee ee se as eee es See 199
recent studies in = oan es ese ee aaa ee eee 199-214
Gravitational. matter in infinite'space = . . 2.25.2 42 a2 oaca- Se eeeencereesess 215

Gray. Georre appointed Regent =. 2. ~ 7.easeene = oe ee oes eee eee XII, KIV, LVILes

a

INDEX. 765
Page,
Pray aceore, a6 meeting of Regents. 2... hs. -. 52st aseee cle costs ee. XII
MZ PTALe ALO lm WeSteLMStAlesa =o oe oye we abe acl cece te ee chee daateee 421
Greatest pivano creavure. WUCASIOM Ss 22. 2. <2 oc. 5-2 ne cece oes ose ae eee 654-659
baba eat Lee woyea (Shia 0) oe vee aie pater nei PER 649-654
femec Kaci mMlZAtl OU sONOUMEOlscrm ssh. emacs cice sce sot os cintaites eis onsocis eee e 426
Eee ENO (I OTACO. © Soe ho ae eee as os Pax TORE Wie mea kaw’ anes 422
Griggs, John W., member of Smithsonian Establishment. .......--.------- 2
MERRILY Ain se OUAACTICAVe. SOP one. oak oceans Satie Secs eG olen ema ad ers ok 13
ATH Se EPR ORT OTIS UNO mers eee Nt wy ek od Ne oo ES Ra ot Sense meee Se 109
ROSEN OR Gl eivcls PAPer DY: sases=!c nescni<: Se. oe Sade ac Se geen es baeee 13
Cronous OUtneMpIChUres IMs. 22. He bashes ose sae awe ceen See ess 439
MCR CIM Cu Stay ne Se ernie we Se US no's PS moc eine ee eases Uae Se 578
em awean yasculptunestOle 228s |< Smears sac esee ss enc cons caseceusas 132
(Gudecon, Colonel, on fire-walk ceremony-.--..:..---------+-+----++-+--- 539
Hi.
eae ESM eCOnmmDeGQUectiOl a As=c.ce ates ates eee ae eee eae Oe xxv, 8
Peete ., COULLPSICR IRON 2622522. 25 ule cin- cee Cooke eeclake ee 45
REDO NUM Vee ese seen et do, ce he Seah ie Ol a ee XVI
Maeekel. brotessor, on life iether and: matter... .22.222-.24-22h25--4% 188
ign, Sse) ie ee Soo be cle Ss tec ee eee ee ea a ane ge 58
Hallock, William, researches in articulate sound by ..........------------ 15
Feaminlconrramnes, WeEQUest Olea set ses- - oe see = 2s. . bec .ceecceseseeasoeeae XXV, 6
Hammer, William J., on telephonograph ....-.--..-.-------- gah ota 307-312
Reena SA PeN Dyi et ee ee aa cic 2 as bo os oe Sas tein o aialheen Se aa 140
TH gastiiiamtiiat AES ee E89 area MON ON as ara eer a ed a a i 367
RERserw mil scollectionswrome. pss coves nent soc aeee cee veoh oeee ae aee 56
Re CLOmmr een mins stron a6 ser case Seen ~ OS. Seon ee ee ees 109
EROn mes) COs alan hoOtorraphs Dy a. sce ce= = 2 2 = 4ecetem eee ae oe 319
Penand Gels on habits oh wihite antec: .- a8 2. sotatcone Seoehe eee ees 667
imc OLeCtiONGEnOMle mes seers ae San ee eae osama cee ner HL eee 56, 6
Hay, John, member of Smithsonian Establishment. .-...........-.-------- Ree
eee eon ON EOPOSIOl, VOICANIO << 22. Jen 25. on- 3s e seeaneeee = eee 371
Hea memnee Oaniealkequivalenit Olas = 5 <afsie.cs 2 sie ences ees o2 2 wen 741
[Esoiaameegecol Copay, Tah MOUS) CON ips a eR en oe ae mae ea eee = 178
Bea eOeASUINeY OLasp ieee ers ees Ee Said Lh atten dines Se eee 157
PACA OLOLmAInStONLONy shee. = 62 estes sec cee eae cekine ns semis 270
BOMEMeEMiscO Mn Vilerpyoe ee o2 Sewie ecm e cee mins eceitiee Sia Wig
Peeve mines experiments DY. .- <32c-.cis<5 2 - So - eee beni ene = sca se< 337
RSS DW? ae Aare ee caw ue as ae a ee 13
Henderson, J. B., chairman of executive committee.......---..---------- XII, LVI
Recentoletue Institutions - see se scorn ecco see GIP Ava,
EMREsAhLOM DW 8S. 25> sich oie Geamsaed oes ns 2 see mce S XIV
EHUD UITeLtOnWiedus WIISONDY) 22 tira te Sac prin alarss ee eee 3, O1
ermietengeines cir collections DY 22. .<¢ 2.6 aoe sce ce estes ot aes = ecto 58, 61
mem aseph. laboratory notes Of.o.. <2 .2.J2.s- 222 se rete nw dine eee eas 26
on catalogue of scientific literature. -...--.---------------- 6, 23
GUASUIM TM SOMN AMMO LAN Vise se ee eee ee XX
ME OMMiieOnlan) KEPOLts- +. 5. h-o2bise Ao tke ose es Ae 19
en theoryior universal ether-<— =. 2-5 jst Aw a ois 287
Peer eriitn Maton), ACCIMONS: LO ~ 2-2-2. 5. S22 Seen =o anes selon eae a ae 58
"STL STING ONG MAN AST 00 fe eg es aps See Ee eee eee eee 528
Herisson, Count D’, on loot of summer palace -..-.... SU ss ie aoseee eee 135

766 INDEX.

Page.

Herschel), Sir William-J:, on/color*photocrapily = s25--2=-22 see eee nese eee 313-316
Hertwig, Oscar, paper’ by. f2-6 =.¢- 2 ee 134
Hertz, Hlemrich; researches by...22s25e2 ae eee eee eee eee 287
Hewitt, J...N. 5., Indian-researches by 252504 2S. Sse ee 67a
Hieroglyphic writing, Cretan...-.......-----.- CR eS EE 428
Hildebrandson, Professor, atmosphere experiments by_....--------------- 248
Hilder,F:.¥.; Philippine collections’ by <2 <2/325.22 255 sa. Os IES 60, 82
History; American, collections illustrating. 5.4... Aen eee eee 57
Hitcheock, E. A., member of Smithsonian Establishment............--.-- xe
Hitt, Robert R., member of Executive Committee .............-.----- XIt, XV, VE
Regent of the Institution -........_-- Rak mips ee ei X11, XIU, SLVewe

FEporte DY ose) es FA er Rr 3

THittort Tays;-Dastreion . . =~ s.2s- 22k. sa ee oe ee ee 272
LG Dare Vem Tee Mey yas fps he ee ee ge ee ee ee eae XIII
Hobart: Vice-President, death of, .-2: <2. 228s eee ee eee XIII
member of Smithsonian Establishment. .-.--...--- 2
Hobbs, William Herbert, on American diamonds. ..........---.---------- 359-366
Hocken;“f, M., oi-tire ‘walk ceremony. #.2 2922 522 sso ee ese eee ee Cease 539
HHodrer RAW 2 editorial swore Ole soci cae cree ees ee eo a 83
report: as'Curator of Exchanges : 22 ho. 2ohc cee eee ee 85-104

representative to Congress of Americanists..----.---------- 26

work on Cyclopedia of Indian tribes by.....-.-.-----.----- 82

Hodgins: ThemasiG.: put or os s-s552-5 2 eee se eee SL a Oe
Hedekins fand;:conditions.of crant from 20: 3U Se oy ee 15
research work wnder:< 5325 225522 -3-oecwsinn uae eae 11

statementiaho ese es i Moot pele oe XVI
Hotmann,O:-insecticollection Ob ssi. < s22.4255 550 Sees ci eee eee 58
Holland type of submarine boat, Melville on_.......-....---------------- 718, 730
Holmes, W. H., collections by ..---- SRR Re RUSE AY ae Sel I any Seem 57
CXPlOrahlOns Dy fos joc Sse ae Rte Ee 60
on-auriferousicravel. man" cases) cose eee tae eee eee 132

On primal shaping arts: >: Js. SF ae eee 501-513

report; Dypasss28 Fc culsse sree Awe Sees te ee eee eee 136

representative to Congress of Americanists -.-...--------- 26

Hopi Indians; shudy-0f + 22.32-2222.2.42 55 ce ee tg fos ke oe eee 70, 72
Hornaday, W. T., superintendent of National Zoological Park .....--.----- 701
Horse; prehistoric, pictureof 222.25. oosoedak aeewasee ole eee eee ae ee eee 446
Hoch: Walter;explorations byes sesso 4 ee eee ee eee eee 60
on development of illumination..---.-....--.------------ 493-500

PAPEP by! sks Hoth eas en RN SEY = ee eee ey eee 136

Mugsins, Sir William, on:rings of Saturnsf2!2(. feo 2-2 Basse e eee eee 176
researches, Dyss.ccsces Shee ae eee eee 153, 154

Hughes; Professor, electrical researches bys sss 52 oc eee tenner eee 287
Human breed; Galton:onumproyementof-e->-)-- ose eee eee eee 523-537
mind: elements of-activities of 252s ss-yse ose eee ee eee ere 452
qualities; distributiom ofjos +2: 2scn. 14 sss sae eee ee 524
variety, Galton: Onis. : 2 S22. 22¢ S22 eo eee ee ee 524
Hutton; b.WV., collections: {roms = a= see age ke ces ee es ee ee 59
Muxley, lesson of life of 422-5 -s2535 Feces nee eeeb eee re eee 135
reminiscences of: 5. 5. sc: 2ta.082 2 ee eee 136
Hybridity, elementary; 222: 2 ss4rs. Bac <6 soos ee eee ee eee 632
Hydrogen, density of, in different conditions. ...........-...------------- 260

electricity Jc 2 ).hs sence tote eins saeeeee see een eee eeeee 233

INDEX. 767

Page.
Summer midinic, mMensity.Ofo- 22. 2. on bocca och ee ac cel ke eee 260
LUELLA DT Sk Sa ee ee ea RE Reo g oe INL 131

SOLS (LOA Oca na a |e a ee a 251-261

PEE SGU RE ee = oy arene I SM ann Dusen Sok a he 2a 251-261

1
eee radiabec, Characteristics of... 2.5.2 2.2.2..-22.-2222. 022s ek. 384
iitumimation, development of, Hough on ................-.......-.---.-. 493-500
Raprevement,o: human breed, Galton-on.-..--..-....:...-....-2----2--:- 523-537
RUM ERIIMMNTIR OK ko. ot oe Sot oe ese ee ae 13
Income and expenditure, resolution concerning .............___....-._... XV
Emuthsonian, present inadequacy of .........../....-22..----- 22: XXIV
iim eoleetons i National Museum -_............2....2.2.222.--.---- 55
Muenenreremeticnh ty pes OL... ../22222..2.---. 222-20. we op este tess 461-473
HoUneAnmentcans collections trom ©. =. 2225-622. 0 2 leet ee 56
CWTLE Piece SE oe = See ee a Nc 461-473
(1 SS SHIN Gace 2 ace a eo eee 67
Aine creanesinycollections Ol. . 5.52.25. S22. coe eee et oe wee oee 58
ADC CLO MME see Mate ters lok .care wat aes aie ae Wins Shins e es eee des ede 157, 667
International catalogue of scientific literature..-...................- Xxx 623 137
exenanves appropriations for © ..< 2-22. 2c eee ol XXVU, LVU, 9
EE UETRES TG OTIS 1S) auc) ieee aes eae ea am ee ene, 86, 94
Countries participating in. 222. 5.2.2. 2k See 100
Huropeatarencies OL. 22.2.2 fc. < Fase: eee 88
foreign government depositories of.............-- 103
Government documents sent by...........-..--- 96
NUMper Ol parceisisent, WY - =.= 522-2525 see 2 49
OMEraA Ons Ole ses = Seems sa ens eae ee 49, 85-104
receipts and disbursements of ............------- XXVII
Seeretry s weport on. --2-2..5.)2.. 2 48
WeilslitioL transmissions by2-..: <2... 1-60 4i22.5- 86
ineumercurial planets, photographsof....-..----.:--.-.-........../..--- 120
PGEmerteenLrenes by SATA IN. 2.51.23... 2282 5-22 LS iL3?
Pemenere ODSPRyMtIOOS ON)... 2 622. on oe 4 ed’ So snk ese 248
DEP On mneseanc es mile meme te or moos Seo ea ee eS wie catia a Bobs ol ee Pa 183
Lo UE USE CCSSS 11 6 re) iis ge 67
Mapewicarrnl itivaple areas... =. 22.2265 22.22.22 heli. c sees 410, 411, 412, 415
SIL RIPe Ta ann Ee A SDL ee oe PASE eee 418
LES OCSL TREyEAET IT ete hee nee ga ee mae De em Te a eg 417
LIEN EWC NOM ete eee Seer nA NS ek Rep aie re ee 407-423
Isopods of North America, Miss Richardson on..............------------- 138
paar un KOMSCIVICE Willi binee a2 so cce tac oe Sees es oes Soe see ese cs 90
Merete OL eolor photography .~ .<..+-..-..io2-2--26 2-822. cece cee 314
J.

ammnECoee UA DPC Er VIG, WIL oo 2). eS o-oo eee meee eas Secs nde eee sees en 4 87
Soe Eeaen eee Sener ae no A ey Ao wns Ne eek oa eS oe 58
laeeed.-om propress in AeromAauLICS....... = 2 -- 2-05 - 2a 2 nn Bon ee ne ane 133
faumsenomanbbononiical Teyvolver.--.... .....252.52225--5-ecc -oeeect-snseeee 317
Metierconmenresident: On Mmeteortessc 2. =... <2. fens ee os b= os ee eee eee 193
Tae etpent &,. lidian researches DY. -- 22222 22- Seis e ne nen ne ewe 72
immer O) Cl COMCCHONS ATOM si <¢.. 022252252 cnes-2.c22 5-5 oa = bee es 58
136

Jewish ceremonial objects......-.-....2..... 5 ae tn etre ee see

(68 INDEX.

Page.
Joekes, Governor: courtésies from. 2. : 26222 -< . oe eeeeeeee 46
Johnston, Marearet A. 2.20. /ia. 22s Soe ork Sa ee eee XII
Johnston; William. Preston, deathiots>s230 255226 ee eee eee XUI

Silecessor' 002. 2 one ee ee ae ee XIII
Jolinsien, Six Harry H., on the Okapie2s-< 3-8 eee ee 661-666
Joly; J., 00 age ol the earthy, .* 32 Pare aa ee ee ee 131
Jordan, David Starr, papers by- 225.2252. soe See ae ne 138
KE
Kagiak: ‘hear, efforts*to secures. 2 eos. so. <a Sse doe eee ne eee ee 41
Keeler, Professor, nebulze photographs by..-........s...--------:.------- 156
pesearehies DY = ./- (7 te so et eee 154
Keene; Noxhall P. “automobile raed "by 2265222 se a ere ee 596 a
Keller, M,-I., Kocky Mountain-aheep from: - =. 12-2 2. see eee 109
Kelvin, Lord, on ape of the Garth 72.2) 2 6550 eee ee eer ee 131
on ether and gravitational matter through infinite space - - - - - 215-230
on nature of matter yo SSS agoee stron a ee ee 178, 170
Cited ooo 2 Sia oe pee ee eee ae 231
Ridder, Jd. Hs, cash. irom: executors Oi. 3. 203-25 ao 5 a se ee LVI
Kinetoscope, “Edison's, desermptiont Of .. 203.352 e- Oa ee 327 |
Kirchotf, Alfred, on sea.in lifée-of natious. = 3557-62 0S ee 389-399
iter, experiments mm urope With. 32:2 oo Se a 245

height attained Py: #2.) oo. 2. ne aen eo Sho poe oe een eee 13, 245

meteorological observations with -......=.-----.-4----4-<2-6--- 12, 133, 245

researches by Roteh: with... >. Sos | Sena eee ate ee eee 12, 245

sea atmosphére'ex plored withy.< 82. 4 eee oe oe ee ee 245-249
Kijoss,C: Boden, bird collection from. .: 522-2222: 2s Se ee 58

“ethnological. sesearches. bY; 3225-22525. 0. eae eee 475
Knossos, ancient, excavation of ......- ey BE ots be oa Sera ee 426
Knox, Philander C., member of Smithsonian Establishment ...........--- xi
Mopliler, 8: ih, death ‘abe 2. 55004: oe ae a a ee an 64
ongo: Free State, animals Gfs. 2: 2. Sn ee ee ee 661
Korosy,J oseph: von, ‘exchange agent... 5 8s Loe c ee eee 87, 89
icmkatan, eriptiog Oloo5. <= .cy 5a eh eset ee eee 163
Kropotkan, .Prinee, paper by'-0 5-24. sa.-55. 442-36 ase ee eee 134
L.
Labels, Museum, Secretary Langley on .....: 22... .2---2:-.2--<24-s022 33, 35,554
dapyrinth; Cretan; discovery Of 2.0522. 5, 50 a2 0 oo! ae are ee ee 426
L/diele, jal of. meteortes ab: os! so te Sa 3 ee ee 1939
ake. .WaiG- minerals from 2a. oe oe te ee a ee oe 60
eamnp, development of: oo... a. - Some oe ns) ae ee 498
La:‘Mouthe, grotto, engraved pictures In. 2-2-2... oot ee ee ee 439
Tang, Andrew, on.fire-walk ceremony 22235-22000 0s oo es ee eee 539
on. psychical research 22. 22to22) a2 eae eee 135
Langley, S. P., at-meeting-of Regerits. 12 2S. Yo. sae ee ee XL, 3
bolometer invented: by <J/2307 .-22 3.5 soe 2. eee eee 46
degree conferred on, by Cambridge University......-.-.-- XIV, 3
honorary curator of children’s room ........--....-------- 553
on cheapest form of light? 4. 725 425% seo". See ee eee 129
on chronophotography.-) fc nao ok oe Oe ee 337
on fire-walk ceremony in‘ Tahiti... 225.--2-05-2-.055= eee 539-544 —
on preatest flying creature. 2.5 50251 <oene ieee ee eee 649-654 ©

sm L901-

INDEX. 769

cage.
Langley, S. P., on inadequacy of Smithsonian fund...................---- ae
Terre WN ChE ERR et se Se ek Se re a 545-552
Oe aalde weir) Or dO00r 2 nen oc eee ee oak See 133.
GHipnGaiew SCRUM - 5 Soo. ule Ge ee 135
report on operations of Institution by ....................- 1-140
Pecretany OrtnerlNStitUuone= sone. = ae Cee ene xr, 149
secures establishment of National Zoological Park........-- 700
RPE Renee ANE BY oo rae See Re ne fa opto Sete 18
ee aerodrome, CescripuGn Of 2+ 2-25. - <4. << 25s. 6o- -Sade-5-5e5-5 2h 133
TEMPE am Le KANE. 2 OUR 5 oo oS 5 te ae kee ons 664
i EP ESP A Co) Wa ee ee ee 541
LTE EN OUR ADE RE Sed eed Bi ced (ya oy eee eg ggg ee 545-552
Mebane scesearches DY. - oo. s2s..s.2c8.2 2 des Se ce ne eg cec cee keke 280
een ecreorrc santarctic voyage by .--22.-22. 22-1. sce tne 378
Em EC oI SC Map DO! ies «Se ae oe ee aad ese ten 13
Peano 10r smitheonian Institution =: ..2-2-..-.-..-<.2.--2-..-..ie-- LVII
LeMesurier, E. A., letter concerning Smithson’s remains................-- XIX
emu Senoreriiar researches... 225-20. - == 2s 28k A. se oe es enn 237
Bemnee une, Tescarenes DY]. 2o f2..2.. 2b ee cece Ae Sk 261
fiemeamsproyement in manufacture of ..2.. 2.-.--- 2.22. 5.. 2222-222. kes 348
Pee ANE MPA Ne Yee eis Se $c = Se a ee; = SS ne Oe ee 13
Rewind Christopher, private Z00 Of .....- =. i. --55 2220-22 5-22 + sone eee 691
MUMSNET OCNSMG foe ct es Sc eee fate. sol A 43
Cue Otic VIO C UN Set see Sea Sa ne ne Eee eae ee ee 64, 128
Seni Rem GMOnr Mer. sr hi a ee So REA ee NS 20
Seren mnnts TeBOrL ON a. 5.2.26 a os Ske hoes ee ee Se 126-128
Library of Congress, Smithsonian deposit in...-...--..----------.------- XX, 6, 22
inck Observatory, Nova Persei observations at -......-...-.--.-+.-...-.-- 168
PermRneNaMment Or, RUCKEr ON | 225. 52=- 22-2 224-2: - 2555 eae eee seee- 188
PsanG iecimcioy, iGenitty Of. 2650 oS. SAU SS pe ye as Se net esate 288
SCHUMANN FANGUGWEGle Ss eee a Nee ga 12
SNES PUES 00 AS Te ceed ne ag Ma Ly Re 19, 129
Ppalumezed, mechanical energy Of -- 625535 bh 2 se ss sy - = 2 22S 217
PUNO ALOIS GHC OLY Oly sae Sane cee coher a rete UE Durer oS See ee 131, 215
PENA DTAMUNG Ve TCUIOUS ON 2202 8 ok Soe shee ete sd nec wee knees 493
indeay eV uliant, Smithsonian Regents. 222 5.25223... 252 SS ib osc e XL eel
imeMmEnIon Me leruunamOns 2. soe 22 ae cere ee oS Be ee 154
Llippmann’s process of color photography -.......--.-.-:.-------+---.----- 316
SRIMREPENEGHOS WIL <o2 0 cc. . oe ak a we. So inis'sacat ewes ee asad 251
PROM en WE WAR ON seis eee ten ue eras Mad Sakis oe eoeee 134, 251, 252
PON GinpenleCh sto eec ut ec ch as Sees ee eee ae 13
REVO SURG Waly OM oe ee ee Sp tid oe eS I Be Oe oe ee 252
Peoierentstrae vUCas Ol! 2 won kc ae eee i oie ee et ee ote 641-647
BO SRer Tole OMAN, DAVel OY 22 en aaa rc Saco sak one ene amo c ee tines 33
OMe Nia TAMINOS 32 eae ESS cee teens 133
Onisbar Spectra s2ch os Gee ee ta ee oa soe 184
OMbstaniVelOGiites Serna ere ee ape eens oe 225
RESCANCHED ID Ye eaan se Gee ee ee eee eS 237
onde Vie multiple photorraphy: Dy s.< 22 as Ses. Seon snes = eee 223
ROR MEAIO PA ol ONO NGSEe Lee = tee co ae aan eee bee ieee aoe s Sees 689
Long, John D., member of Smithsonian Establishment. .-.-...--.------------ XI, 2
leocmoimee kink ODServatory sce eae Sues coe Abe ce aes gs ss eae oes aes 133
DRT ANAOG Ab ORIG 2 esc ek eee! ola ova aan ea ile Soa 135

40

770 INDEX.
Page
Loper, 8. Ward, fossils colletted (by 2222 c0eh. oe 22 eee s pemee eeees 59
Loubat, Duce de, colleciten trom. 2 5- Soe ee nos kane oe eae eee eee 33, 55
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, law providing.........--.-.-------------- LXI
Lucas, F: A., curator of coniparatiye anatomy. i207 sane he ee 64
mastodon- collected: by, s- =... 209 s+ ae ca se een adele eee ee 61
on. dinobante ioc. Sif ote ecient ei ee eee 641-647
on fossil rhinoceros. 92) .05 econ . eet ee eet ete partes *. “giite
on #reatest dying creature. <2 5220 2a ee oe ae 654-659
on. restoration of extinet animals; 2022-5 25-2 aoe tee eae ee 134
on:-the"mamimo thy. ees ag ee ee eee 132%
Luey, M.-de, on wing suriace of birds oc 5. ots sec soe es sence owe ee 653
Ludington, VM. ‘T. ,.courtesies irem be Soe ee eee 45
Lumiére’s lncunoeeigh Bee ge Ae ee ae ea OP ec ea eee 327
Lydekker,(R.;:0n Mammoth AVOry - 62-22 fc 3 US Se ee et ee 132
Lyle, Eugene P., jr., On Santes-Dumont balloon 2s... .< a1 ee ee eee 575-592
yon, Marcus’ W.., jr., animals obtained by)... . See cis see eee 110
BARCR DY: ov ons cae ot oe aan oie ae ee 139
M.
McGee, W. J., collections by.-.-.-.. Sogo aan oe sei eee ee 60
OX PMOTAOS OY es ois ce ake aw ee ce 66
on operations of Bureau of American Ethnology -----.-.---- 65-84
McGuire, J. D., on pecking process of working stone........-.--..-------- 507
stone implements from...---- ae See ere eS AG ees ote 33, 57
McKinley, William, member of Smithsonian Establishment...........-.-- xi, 2
MeWNeill,, Jerome, -paper' by. 24-5. 320. Jo3 2s cs an 5 2 eee 138
Manh Is. researches. DYs.t-0. 5.825 occc- sake kaos! o's. cree eee ere 337
Marnetic-attraction of: ¢athode rays... eG. en ake ee see eee ee ; 277
effect of electrostatic discharges=- 2. 22-52. 25.5-0-f22cd-5 see sees 740
fored, etfects of Vvarigtion il. 2525 352 oe oe ee ee 183
permeability of metals, Rowland on...........--.-.------------ 739
Marnetophonopraph, -Poulsoms 03% 222 .c bo. oon eo ee eee eee 307
Mahan, Captain, on value of submarine boat..........-.---.------------- 721
Makaroff, Vice-Admural), paper: Dyoule) 5s [2a se eee eee eee eee 134
Malaria transmitted: by mosqiiioes.< 2-2-2 50.20 ste e keen tee eee 135
Mammoth, preservation: of, In Stberia< 22S. 72 ses ee ae eee 37
truth-a bout; Vi weas Ons! ee ee ee ae lee a 132
Marnmoth-ivory,, Uuydekker on’: 2-20-22 - tre tes qor eee 2. ae eee 132
Mane, -H:..on Andaman Istands <2 o2 8 a 3 ea er ee ee 476
Manatee, ‘scarcity Of 252.625 ccecls Lege te oaae ee eater ae eee ee 40
Maneanese tn: meteorites.25 2. oe oS eee See a ener wee eee 194
Marconi, G., experiments in trans-Atlantic telegraphing Dyeate eee ere eee 296
on wireless teleoraphy:. 442280. 2 enl2 oe ec eee eae eee 287-298
Marey, J.,.2ir-current photographs by: 22420 2ho2ae.2 Cobo a cee oe 14, 337
OTAMb TO e SPs. See SS Sn a he or rete aaa he eras eee 14
history of chronophotography by 2.2 2<- . a+-29- ones ae 317-340
Marine animals of Northwest coast, Dall on preservation of ....--.----.--- 683-688
Mars, notes on; by Sir Robett. Ball. s.°. v2eh soe aeen eae ae soe ee le
Marshall Islands:séa; chants ots 25 ects Seg ek ee ee 132
Mason, ©. T., on pictures in grotto of La Mouthe--_<----...2.-2- 2-2-2 439, 440 -
on traps. of American Tadianss.: S120 se eee ee eee 461-473
paper'by 42 2.220% yaodet Sootsal eee Sane ee ee 136

Mass electrical in ite’origin: 2.22250 2 oe ee es ae oe ee ee 237

INDEX. Tt

Page.

MEPS KEL LOMsO lene 2 Se ae ae ce cis eer oe re LN a gn es ec es 33, 61
Sale ieeaes, Cae STS OTL EAD Co) 22 000) 0 eae al OS 175.
Stee eon O iran! Has See Ok tn ee ee eis eet 177

17 ECTS FE SETST 2 BY OC 22 0): agen 221

Pare ubier Oi CHeADERIS.OF (25 case c cee es s ses csrass iu one eden ne 178

Secon ruiam Collections DY a... 5-.0c2.>.s 20-2 acccaecc ete --eskce 59, 61
TRUST Une oe ene ee ee tate 2 Gee 2 139

MEEMEEM EDR Tints CNEOTY . 255205262. 2 22 22 oe eet ene west eee 287
5 VEE AMPS 1c) ae ean 79
MPMEnnmEMmA;COMeCTIONS DY x22. 24 so-cec cco gece soe cue oe ee eet ee eecee 58, 60
PEammneniveui valent OL Neat... 22. ofa se oo el dene ee ee ee eee 741
Medeine, progress in nineteenth century .....-...2-......-....2-225.-2-. 135
Melville, George W., on submarine boat as weapon of war ............-.-- 717-738
ieanenhall, Thomas C., address on Rowland by..:-.-.../-22..-.-..--.-.. 739-753
[OCH OTST] oie ee ete ne ce hem ele ER ee, A ae RN OE er 134

Mensenrek ie. satomithsonian Naples table. -:2.:.-2---2.i2..---..-seshes 16
Meciam, «. Lart, on Borosloff volcanoes... = .-2.5-.- 1.22.02... eee eek 367-375
OTE COR CSURUCGLON h2a,- ave Le eee ed ESS 404

HrenmallGeoree) Eon nonmetallic minerals... ...2.2 222257. 22 st se 5c eek: 136
EMPPUNEEL OIRCOVETICH INL = 22 20555 6222.65.55. DSS Eee ke 351
Meiminemicroscopic examination: Of. 2. 222.26 24a. con beh oet ose 351
Pn OMe COMPOSMON OL ~.— 5222. 6228... 225 0) tk 2 le cae 194
SPAR PUTIOS, DAO Se ee eee ee ee nea te 194
GETTIN ONE RUNDUG RiG(Oh nese Rs ea is eee eg en eee aE 193

EON LULO MNO ips see rei te eR pl be eae eae 194

1) Te UT Cree eae ey oan Se As eae PN GUT ae SER ie oe 550

FOMMET CIS MEM ein Tet. ays ee ke a5 eke ee ENS al ey 193

SM aT ERO ats Santee, COR ol. Fi SERGE eet oe cin 197

MERC HInrcoUlechOnn Of ses Sou aan kos oS Se ek eens 194

MUMS R BPE IMICNE Obs too aes so By Seren tee SOS ea ies oo eae 60

TPCT TO ia Ne a we IS Orne ee SEL TE MTS go Ae Ee 195
Meteorological observations with kites...............---.---....-- 12, 133, 245-249
Seudies py Vion ALendentelde-seir eo oes a Soi ee ce 12
MmmMmnmnataAen., LOUISEN Sis. 25.55 252 C see eee ethos co od bbe ecee cet 307
Miproscopie Chronopnotorraph ys. l.2- 222. -sbce ne not. see, Set ee emesis en 329
SSAA LON OLae bese a. Wess eteen ns CLS oo Aiea eee ty! Se ena 351
Manette oni E> COMeCHONS DY sccccn 25-0 c05- +555 55be eee Soe 60
Rite See rOmMA pli wi OLKa Oleic ois ouch oi eyo eM ene eater nee Se 154
MMOL CEMITATIMA et... 5 toe ao ee ant 2 Si ne eae hE ee ne 451-460
Miiieta ene wVACOLLECULONS Ole ato") Seas has eS eel bs eee iw ee eed 60
Mim mA IICeLOlreXCayvablOMoOless el 5 So Soc eis nis et es 425-437
WA eomoUN Cl aEbUIniey ONS sam sa aes nt So 2205 Sse aoe ee noe 548
Minne ornate sb yoAds We DRUCKer soc... 4 tote ii Serge tS ee 171
Molecules compared with togset.2es ss so2 Sse Se ee eee ore ee se 183
BLO Peciier Olas tone Meer ame tee Mien eatiog oe es «bs os 184

BIZeIOle a cn aa ee ata AO Fens eee A Re EPL ERe cio Set eee SS 186

Mo lasinseme we COMECHONSIONS 2252. sass ace eae eee coe cw Saeco tk 58
Mio eh SAMs hraliane CeSCKIptlOoNiOls 5 ase see seria es SS cies ee eee 644
Mar en euCanerOls Cap tl VGeecing me ween eee ee eee ete ree rine oo ape ee Se 711
MonmGensiunnel Ceseripmon Of. -25. 2-4. it ea Sees sce dees lee 622
MID OTEACIATIONSNmeSCAnChesINh ss sei eke oem aie he ON Se ee 120
Meme .oames. ngian studies by..4-5.2.2-..<-. 23550 See. 4. 55.22 ee 67, 80

Panamera ORE kAINClION Ob * {52 5ss2< oe. deo cle Se es 2 2 - Saceep eee aint 699

(ere INDEX.

Page.

Moose, present scarcity offs 2a hae 8 ie soos ot ice eee a ee 40

Morgan, Mrs:George W.; collections from’. 22s2022.032 25 -S2 ose ee oe eee 57

Motor, petroleum, secret of power of.........-..---------- Se es en ee as 587

Monillard on ‘power of flight: of birds. 22 63: SJ she 2538 eee 653

Mountain goat, danger of éxtinction Of... 24 2eeso.2 UR ee eee 699

Mount Dicta, great cave of..........: Rei Pnte nes nee kona hee etal rte oid 426

Mousterian epoch, pictires-of ys 222522 en eo eee 439

Sturray, Sir John; ipaperby cose ee ee eae Be Rapa gt 131

Museum ‘proposed at Santa Fe ‘Palace o 2.02 0s SR eee 27

Mussels; fresh water; Simpson-on: $2525.30 Ls i eee ee eee 137

Mutation theory of Professor De Vries, by C. A. White.................-- 631-640

Muybridge’s animal-motion pictures.» =. 2.2.05 222025. oe el ee eee 318

Mivcene,ONCRYOMONS IAL. 22) e ee Beh a a ae ee ee 425

Miybhs, sindian, Stud yot-c. io ses ee es poate Sos sas ba eae Chae eee ee 81
N:

Naples Zoological Station, Smithsonian table at ............-.------------ 15

Natick Indian dictionary,. Trambull’s:s- (25. Sista ee eee 79

National Museum: accessions {ome 222 esate eee ee eee eee 33, 5D

; administration of 2 ect a Se ee ae a ar OER

appropriations for <2 25. S27o 2) eer _XXX-XLVI, LV-LvItt, 10

Assistant Secretary Rathbun on. .222-3s2te5l see eee 53-64

building: cost ole :2 2 ae eae roe ee en ee ae 32

cubic contentsiof soe S35 Se tee eee eee 32

MEECIOE NE Wat noe ee cso Br aoe roe ee es 30, 151

Children,s: room hs 222 poe as ae ee eee ee eee 53, 553-560

census of collections ing. .2.02 ta cee ee 147

compared with other museums -..---..----2-----2----- 31

Congressional acts concerning ........-.--------------- LVIUL

electrichinstallationtns 2420 a: = eae ee eee XL, 55

exchanges Dy 252555 Ss aoe oe ete eee ae 61

Wma neces GIy! fish Se Ss sige Oe ee ees XXX-XLVIL

walloricg tm. 220 cvs a ec teh ee rapes at Oe an eens XLVI, 10, 54

larger appropriations needed for>: 2 2u2 a4 5.22.2 sae see 30

lecture hall of-30 3 see eae eee ae ae 54

Lirary Obs ee ie pb Sa eee ee ae 64, 128

OVIDUN OLE cis res be nh oe ee ok ot ap tag area at A ea 147

publications of 2-3 ses. Sasa Rae eee were nes 63, 137

acientific Blatt ot: 02. Seo). coe ee es ee ee 54

Secretary on-néeds' Of... 2-22 25 52 Se ee

peécretary,s_report-On Soe" os. is ae ee ee 29

VISILORS tose Seas hone See aes ne a ene tae eee ee 53, 148

National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain.........-..------- Oe -seeeee 341-357

National University," Mro Bell on 2.2.5 Ao ike ane tee eee ee XVIII

National Zoo at Washington, Ernest Thompson Seton on.......----.------ 697-716

National ‘Zoological: Park, animalsin.. 222.252 oe at ee eee 105, 110, 111

ahimalquartersam: 5 2.0 So. 2 Se ee ee 702

appropriationsior sSiia-2 aa aee ee cee tix, 10, 106

aguariuni ines. 252ee eee te ee eee 107

birdhouse sic. Bae oe eee ee pee 106

elephant house meededsing 2 solo ee ee 110

finances of so Sor os 2 Le ee er ee XLIX

history-Ofo ots Jaceacese (ae ee eee 700

INDEX. Vt3

Page.

National Zoological Park, important accessions to.-......----..----------- 109

JOSHESMINNES Foals te PS as ees Sr sies eaten 2 oe ial

1X = (er FS }a0) Les Ae ee EA LEE Ra” EP oS RR ie ie Catia xtv, 110

NeWwapaddockan ssces. ase las eee eee ease 107

ODJECHOl sae cape See ee UR Sens Bec oe lee Tes 38, 149, 700

PLOPCLLYA Ole See eee nae dae ee AS See eS gee ee 105

report of Superintendent of....-.....----------- 105-118

FEPontrOmsccretary: Oh +226 see seen ace eee oe 38

OHA WaAVAUeRs o2: sy Sasa sane so sceT com ae oN 108

Setomisdescriptonoliss- 4-2 re ee ee cee eeeees 697-716

ene MAW AROL Sa aA lO\CONiS 2.5 a oe Nee sees ce allen ae ee 545-552

TanOfOLI POLI AON eel We NG) GAYE =) Dear eg pare A era aa eee Ie eee tye 171

PVG KUNE Sy ONAN) UMIMOT Gta es oe So etcie Reyes tice jae See 135

Naval Observatory, solar eclipse expedition of ............--------------- 166

MOP STIELONY Ol Sec) in Vest Siew a eal oni ales ee haisimee ee oS 394

PerueearteIenG, COUTLESICH Dy U2. 32. sec. 2-22-25 - Sine oS oe es 163

Eire ta DOULSNOVaserselises- Jom see eho Soe. Se acts con soa ec se eee Sa 168

Penh eM periture Ole cas 22 oo 2 acte = ok LS ee wc Bt ee 243

Oceanis st eee ete St og 2 Soa de wintas oe cease eee an 156

Miers AtictaIMans SANS 42-:. sas SS. sk Sos one te oh eee te oes 56, 478

Mie NICO bars SAMUS yee cease wee ee a craw oes wats teenie ce Oe 56

Nelson, Elias, paper [PSUS eet SPE eR IAs SAN Reel a ee een eee 139

euderinoersveiectrOL Sea OU cess 5 eS Samet a ciel Sots twin Sess ee ot aciel 390

emer AGEN ILEISAMONG s45 Sei See sie = = So 2c So nie ella wien ns Aes ome 407-42:

New Mexico, branch museum proposed in --..--..----------------------- 27

Meawastarsim berseus:<OUSELVatlONS ON; = 222252525205. - e ee e e eeie 167

RHI pOIEG I PTAVILAUIONS Jo) fas akc ae Se SS ee a ini le ta oes 200

MMI RECT DUCE UB TOL So thane Sain = Sw sw elarate re = setae noe eel 264

Muciomebeoh. sradiometer aesioned: by .22s22 22 2 Ss ee ine a ge eels 157

Nicobar Islands, Negritos of -.....-..--------- BR se ee RO a earl ed ai 56

Meee MOWAT OMt== oon ets cise acie ener opin le eee oe See oe ee 252

Deen ited speguertrOl 5.08 e a see eae oe ui ccae See = <b aeens 27

Reape ronize cCoMpenition:. terns Ol 2522s 42 cscs en 5<\- esses ee keen es seee 26

Northwest coast animals, Dall on preservation of ........-...-.----------- 683-688

aM TSeImeISCOVIELY Ol ae cstya cS ennai Melee aie a aye cab lates ate. a) bw eis alaleie, eis 167
O.

PERU, Olea se Se ops oe ef een wee A ata la a eye cia Sint dain aa 129

Qreanrmentect,(Ot On lieol, MAtONS.. 229 fe. ee = tel ee see ena 391

OSL | BU STTTAY F C01 Ole et se or oa CORE ae RU RE a Pee Oe 134

DMI MMELCEED VET EUV COTS 2 class oe ha ES tals a me pin See wo oral are 131

Ghivouveras Weaviries s;eXperimMents; With 24.122 ce ee toe ces asa 635

remit etary dl JONBLOD ON — 220) ooo seats tee eee erate NR Ue Siaiete aime 661-666

SIZE PAIN COLORA tI OleOle err me eke Sei aa ra es cee erat ele ste Sim tee 663

Olney, Richard, Regent of the Institution -..--...--. «.------+-----2-=- XII, XII, 7

Origin. of species, Darwinian theory of. ..-.2-.- 2225... 2.2 8220214 5232-5 63

DerVriesis mutahionwtheonyeObeere ae gore oe ete 631

GnnLOS tonne, au cagOMke se sete Lait ake on Se rare te ce a cocina a eee 654-659

the preAtest MV CTEALUTG soe soe. eis La) oe ae oles a 649-659

Oxygen, liquid, researches with. ...- Ere ety ane ae ee ete te ks ciate re eel 252
iF

Paine, Albert Bigelow, on children’s room. ....-.--....-..+-----------+-:- 553-560

Pammtues. auclent Cretan 2222 ys2 as ene osc se = fa cwe cesses nese cisee ae 433

774 : INDEX.

Page.
Palace of Minos, Eyans‘oni. si Soe ee ee ee eee 425-437
Paleolithic: period in “Wurope = 2.5 = a2 2te See a Ses a re 439
Palmer, “William, collections by=2222.-$---- => =e eee a eee eee 59
Pamamary Indians, collections irony. -2_~.0..2 25: 2235p es- ane ee eee ae 56
Pan-American Exposition, collectiotis from... +2 32-4.heg 2 ot oars ee ae 60
reportion: 22 255 -se beg yee ee eee 63
Papago Indians, study of: 22 32050 =} 2 2he Se ae ete eee ee 66
Papi-lta in-fire walk ceremony..< °.2--.2nss<cehe eee = a2 oe eee oe
Pawnee Indian ceremonies, study ofl. - 252-22 s225 eee ee 68
Pearson: (Karl quoted... 2 22> oS ee ee ee gee 181
Pekin: loot. of sammer, palace ab ..o2 > [ons s 2.25 Skee see eae 20, 135
Pekin ‘Observatory, loot of-22 =... 2s. se one 3a se pee eee oe eee 133
Peirce, Charles'§., on. great mien of science. 5. =~. 2..) 22-2022 ee ae eee 135
Permanent, committee; report ofc 2.2 225 6 sae ae Ba eee eee XVI
Perrmn, Jean, researches by-. . 22 Sins cite acu ee oe ae ee Eee ee 286
Perrine, Mr., solar eclipse observations by ......--.------------- Beye oe -. 166
Perseus, new star in; Observations One = 2225) onc Seon oe ee eee 167
Petersen) «i. -Psaminerals: from 2222 cect lo eae ee eee eee 60
Petritiediiorests of Arizona ‘Wardoni= 222-4 = seen ee eee 131
Phenomena of life, Rucker on....-.--...------ 16 ee a ee ee 188
Philippines;-collections/trom>) S232 5-2-2 ae ee eee ee eee 56, 60
list-of mative: tribes! of 2032240 ae oe eee ee 132
peopline- GF See et rea ee ee ee ee eee 132
Phillips, O..P:, moving pictures by | 223-525 28. See ee eee 68
Phollips= W:7Ac. explorationsby.2 22-0. teste ee eee ee ees 60
Philology, studies in-.....-..- At a ee ee ee 78
Phonopraphi,; macneto or MICrO oo. sz. Hoe see oe eee eee eee 307
bosporescences forms.of 322225 Soe er eae eres 494
Photographie pun, deseription Oi... 2/2. 2 eee oe ee ee 322
lens, iniprovements Im. 2 222 2 see Sie SS i ek 348
Photocraphy, astronomical advancessi-2— 2-2 ssese se ee eee ce 155
chrono, Marey on. 23362 See ee ee eee 317-340
color, article Oni26 220 css oe en ere ee ee eee 135
Hersehel'on< 2.5 2: 226 ee Soe oe Se ee ee 313-316
BOUNG“ WAVE 2 bi a55 fete taoe ce eceoceee eee eee eee 134
epectrumy tions eee eh oc es re eee 744
Physical Laboratory-of Great Britain. 02-2. 2 oe eee 341-357
theories mits Of ec {-Steeeo ss eh ee ees se ee eee ee 190
Phiysies, procresd in Mendendall ons £222 aie ss een ee ee 134
Piysiological uses. of saltic 22 Pits Beto Veo oS See oe ee 561-574
Rickerine, BeO .-ooce She erat Ne a ee en ee ee Rested 44
observations‘om planet Hros byes --<22- > - sehen se oe eee 160
Pinchot; Gifford: onforest) destruction=s 22-2 se- 2 eee ee 401404
Planet Hros2observations of: 2 Tso ett 22 ae ee eee Se ee ee 159
Plints electrical phenomena o2: {2 t. S.C ee ee ee aoa 131
2} Mew tollections: a8 (5.22 522 ses See eet ce oe etre en eee 59
Platt, Orville H:, Recent of the Institution >> 2-52. 522s see ease eee XD, XL
Plumacher, E, Hi: ‘crocodile from sacs ye oe ae 109
Poincaré, Professor, on scientific methods..........-...------------------= 171
wellard, -C.1.., collections by sos: Sates iaat atten sh aS a nt eRe 59,61 -
Porto: Rico;:collections: frome ts. eee a eS ee ee ere oe
Postage, Museum, appropriation fors*. 2. - 22. ace Jaeetene dace eee eee 10

Pottery; Andamanesé oS. oo. SS 8 2 Ss ee te

INDEX. 775

Page.

PeCmennVatoinia, rough ON <.. _ 2. — s)2uc-sasesecnccesckeclscecaee 136

Poulsen, Waldemar, magneto-phonograph of .................----:---.--- 307

Honma dis. WW oc SEES 5 5ee ee ee gee ae ee See Re 36

TL Tih gy CoE 01 Na oe ee a 418

representative to Congress of Americanists................... 26

Buwmereouroes Ol. 10r Industrial uses =... 5. 225-222 ccc ds does ck eow. +2. 268, 270

Popuune, John ., studies in gravitation by.../..-2...2.-...2...-2s----- 199-214

Payiune.Erofessor, on: scientific methods... ..............-.-2-.2..-4---2- 171

oe UA DHSS SEGA CUD RSS ne © a 439

Preservation of animals from extinction. ...........-- ak 2 oe eae Ce 38

DeMEnrapinT arise ELOUNES OW 227) >. 22 2d Peek Soe e eet eee bance dek 501-513

emanate OCPalY anoles Lo 8) 5-. 2 .c Se ee es Sec eS 396

SAMUI AUG LENT sl YOLEN GY a1 Seat a I NE oy a es a we ep ra! 451-460

Printing, National Museum, appropriation for.....................-.--.-- Lv, 10

expendifures foes ss os ick aa v2eG oc eee le XLII

MERZ AL ALOLOMM AS = sat Sse en roto 25a Sete pro Santee Sab eeee esa wees 689

Prussian Academy, two hundredth anniversary of...............-.------- xvu,3

Pevenen) research, Andrew Lang on..-.. 2.222 2.2522 ccc 22502. dieese wale 135

CORE CLC ES 01s os ee we Oe TE Se ae ee ye 131

Pavemery and invention, study im, 2 i222. 282. sc.s0-ie lsh. nceee ghee ees 461

Pterodactyl, greatest flyinz creature, Langley on ......-.......-.---.-..-.- 649-654

HAUL CH SRO Mg cet eye tata te sels lay ee aha creed eh ee ee 654-659

iisienands/ of WUniteds States pvacant 2222523. 5 052 0250 oh tee sec ceased 407

uplieations, American Historical Association .....-.-.-- 22. 222-2-2..-.is- 140

ibureausor American Ethnology. 22 2522.22 =--6—- a5-6 se see ee 83, 140

Daushtersiof the American Revolution. ..-.=.--22-22-- 2225: 140

PAYEE RC OUECOIE arene oe ae Se oo BS ee eae ae te 129-140

DmRCHeMT eH IObe tes) “ti. ). Sith ors epi ces es ee oes XXVI

INetirOia alla VSeUTN Ee eee eee ane yee Ne ae eek ge oe 63, 137

PSENIVENON he Se oe es ce en en eR ROE er XXVI

NeCheLahysswepan ON seers se te Sh i Sak ote See 18

SHEOUN A ORTON GWEN apt pease eR eS ee a ei Cie or Oa a 18, 129, 136, 148

Pupin, Dr. M. I., long-distance telephone system of .-....-.-----.-------- 299

RMA Le V Visa Da PEN. Dyer aus cane sacimineaocees he Sire cn eee ato cae he a een 132
R.

ame abrcppOG NEW sO YASUEG. 32 5 soc scein as o's - ~ qa Sst ces 2 aie sies cele 271-286

aa LSMAES penal SUES RS Ad pak aN ee eh Ria AUB 134

RTO Os ayia areVe Nb oy See ee See ne as eee ae es ay eee 234

Substances se DOOM OMe nase Sancie crac Oe Game ee een eee 131

Ragkomicrometer, desioned: Dy Boys: --=2-..2--- sts -.aseeaes ase stist eee 157

PPMneOrAMArlen VOIGCItY Of O22. 2 oca8 =o awh nnd wag eenide es 2 Secale cies 241

Pini cte COMMiseles IROM =o. 2... 2 Sef get hoe ahi a Jw ein eae 241

CETTNE DEES ES Ds OCG DTS 70 1 Re ap EI) 64

Sibi iabrass) Coda DY sss tsa. shone ake tae oot a ocs 58

Gre ltrembi stories OliWIrds ss. see Seen ee oe Ce se eee 63

Permit IE DADGR DW ss cio. os Ao se eee ee open tes socsmetaccas 133

Pearl SAVICK. DANQTINY 22 os Soe oe oo oe wget ate pieiinninn «i> a Cae ewe 132

Rathbun, Richard, Assistant Secretary of the Institution ..........-.--- XI, XX11, 64

report on National Museum by - 2522-225 2. os Soaeses Jp 53-64

Sain ee SA TE CLGCC) seers os ee ale la ae et alam wis so a:0 acai ate ewe 231

21616 i 23 1 Outen apes ee ee Bat LE NAN 5 fant SARRa 133

Recentastronomicalvevents; “Abbot. ONeas52-.-S-mche- ssn s/s o-'s2e ote seels 153

- 776 INDEX.

Page.
Regents, list-of, dates of appointment. _-. 5.2 2eo. eae eee SIL KIL
proceedings’ of meeting Of-2. 2s Cee es Sea eee XH
Reichsanstalt,descriptrom ols. Sah Sas sores Ses aa eee 341
iReports; Snnthsontan,Obj) ects of S225. ss ee ree 20
“Researches, by Bureau of Ethnology 2.2 2) 22a oi: We 66
expenditures for.........--.- temic SSS TR a eee XXVI
‘Secretary’s report Ons 2S soe: ate 2 eee eee eee ee 11
Resonances: Rowland’ onic soo25 Aae ae | ee ee ee eee 738
Reynders,*J.:V.) W.- bridge: built: by. 5-22 ee ee ee a eee ee 611
Rhees, W. J., history of Smithsonian Institution by .......-....-.....-2-. 19,129
hhodes,-James-Ford, paper ‘bysu2 ves). 3 sees re oe. see Bee re he ee 140
nice, William North; paper bysci. 5. sven See eee eee 132
Richardson, Harriet, collaborator ..--.-- BU SE Ee ary Se ee es 54
OM -IsOPOds: 45 9V ERE Se ae ere 138
Richarz, Professor, gravitation experiments of.........2......-----.------ 205
Hideway, Robert, bird: collection ‘from: 522307 ss2ess. 2s eae eee 58
Riker sy> b.. autontobile:race by. 332 She Se os ee eee i oe ee eee 596
Floyd iy. “collections by" 4205. -So 0-225. ee eee ee 59
Ritchey; Mr; nebulee photographs. by: . 55: 2255s eee eee 156
Riviere, Emile, on pictures in grotto La Mouthe...-..........-....22.---- ~ 439
Roberte-Austen; Sir: W-,-researches: by 5-200. 5 /2v2e 6 SES ee eee 177
Robinson, Wirt, animals obtained by.-.--.......-.-.--- toy fee eased oe ee 110
Ronigen rays, applications ob 2:2 5 ee 528 Se a ee ee eee 282
Dastresom ys ss 203 oe Sa eae ees Se eS ee se ee see ae 271-286
diséovery Ofs. «220.52 UA AA a ee a ey 740
due to vibration of atomic corpuscles.-.:._.-..-.--.-.---.-- 286
ACUTE OL ssa e ye Se ie Soe Gia Ae ray a LR Se Derma Naeem a Banas 236, 282
penetrating power of 22.4.0 ec eee 284
yarieties Ol. you ess os ele a en ee ae eee 284
vibratory,. not Gimissions <0: <2 2a2 ae ee Se et sees Oheere eee 283
Roosevelt, Theodore, member of Smithsonian Establishment_........----- BAN
onvforestdestructlOn = S225 she ee tee ee 401
OR: EPFIpatlor Soo Se eee Seek Se od oa 412.
on needs of Smithsonian Institution .-............-- 145
Rerent-ot the Institutions. 223s. ase BAN i 7)
Root, Elihu, member of Smithsonian Establishment........-....----.----- BO
Roscoe; sit Henry.on-Bunsen: 2 SS2< 540s ss ee fet ee ee eee 133
Rotch, A. Lawrenee, kite researches :by= 2 2. 2c 22 Yess. 125S30
on exploration of sea atmosphere by kites. ..-..-.---- 245-249
Hoth, Filbert; on forest:destruction 22. S02 heee Soe ee i ee ee ee 402
Rothschild:+Baron-Hdmiundsdes.- ses 2-2 eee es eee ees 580
Rowland, Henry A., electrical researches by--.-........5---/-0--22--5-2-- 742
heat researches by. 255 soa toes see ee eee ee 743
life and workofssc1i2. 3 Shes is eee 739-753
mechanical-talent:0fs= 3-4: sees see eee ee ee 748
memoriabaddréss on 275203. 550 Set eo oe 739-753 3
personality of - acest fe ese eee eee eo 751 ,
résearchiés Dy 20.2 -s iecde ee ee ee 134. a
Rucker, Arthur W., modeél’of nature by soo 2s ee a. sae ee 171 4
Rumtord: "Count; quoted 222 esse ee Ss eae ee ae 178 a
researthés by. oe so ee es ee ee 174, 744
iussell, Frank, Indian studies by 2-24: 12 ee See ee ee 67 F
Rust, Horatio N:; collectionsfrom: 2-32. eee eee 55, 83 .
mpathertard,..bewis Mico slo. essa. 2 oee ate ne sien Pe ape eS 745 4
¥

INDEX. LOC

S.

Page

Sapule, WW alace C., sound investigations by.......22.0-10..22..2 2.2 11
Safford, Lieut. W. E., on Abbott collection from Andaman Islands -._.---- 475-492
Pais physiological uses, Dastre on... -. --. 22.20. 222s 561-574

EOUSMMeNitOl ANIMAL GORSAMISMSs: s.22225- 2266. eee eee oe Sodom 57
PIPE OrOlgnved: WY So vec pee ect ok ee oe 571
REMI Eer aU Hea er O UU eee es ee ae sera eee, ee ea eee ee nee 563
PHP MineATuy. Tarmine COLONIES: Of + )..255- s224s-5.----.+- 22 see el seoe eee 423
Pamiseegalace, muuscum. proposed at... 2. 22.22 bce secsee ot Leste ene 27
SEEM IENCM LONER OL- 2 6: ooo oe ics ak Sake rece wees bs Bone cesses 132
SSM OMiACCOUMG Olan cass fac slot eee ee eee ee cae 585
patloonukcirelingphintelatowenss = 90 eae eee eee 575-592
PRIMUS SRC emtteCUReLOL = xs aye te cincjs Soro BASS oi at canola see ek oee. 175
Purine Rea OI AIA ADET DYnancce ck sciee ns Soe ac see oaks OOS bee Oe 140
Sere ERISCC NV cee OSSlIS;COLECCEM* DY. = -- =o 2 So eea ons elec sete ee “59
sciuchert, Charles, fossils collected. by -..2.s..-. 5.22.2 22-2222 Se te 61
PPMMUnEVIGtar, researcnes DY. s 22.2 S22 noes Pe kale ie 12
SEMIS TCE Erolressor, rESCATGNES! DY\s 222.5505. 52.5 bess celt be a eee ones eee 233
Sripneo wie mholtzion limitablOns Ol. — 22.222. o2os5.0S< st Soe ee ee 190
Scientific literature, international catalogue of...................---. KT Geo wen
REO ETICK ET: OMe ae e oe oe an tee aes oe TR eae 172

PMRNEACE ODEDEE DV. Soa oo soso. aes Seas e steels lok serene tooecsn eee 13
eee StuGies:in philology bys... 222... 2-222. 2fie else See 78
CEPI, MOLCLUN (<2 so fae a5 nS Sosa So aiolcalns soo sac oases 433
SEMEL MN ULOUS tesa a aetna ee eS eee hoe Pee 389-399
Pet UN On PreseLVALlON- Of s25 5.222 oe coe so esse Fos Sse 687
Sear Dall Oli PLeSeLVvAtlON (Oli=*s- 22-06 oes ees 2. be os oo es Sea See oe 685
PEG NOntihiwviest coast; Wall ONscm. a. 2 SoS ede Osan oe he cee eee eee 685
Seton, Ernest Thompson, on National Zoo ..........-.-----2------------- 697-716
Beano nntah a nCOlleCtlOmmrOMl a. 22222 2.2 tse sa oe ae eee ee 33, O7
SuAamMoaAn ho benjamin sh. paper Dy: 2-2 522222 9-222) eee es te eeee ose ees 140
eed) ridin portraits from. «25. 222 jos 2 ee es Se oe 83
Baeonerasancer, on color photography... -..----- 252-205... e tle es 315
PPPPaMEpENie: THCLCOMECS UNG 74. st lo aa Sociea geal ee aaee peated 195
Babe ie hissivl. war collectionsdrOM -s2 825-282 ete eae) So oces see oe 56
PETAL EDV Way eh tc, SALE ete ee Nate vee Rees see 56
Bune, ESCriptlON Ol 52s. o-oo be tn o-oo es oes eee 626
imemarenaricd, Porey, paper DY .- 2222... «222s 2 a hs eee ee ae 137
COMECHIONS IDSA tess aoe ee cee gee 58, 61
Bicminer: F rolessor, eclipse observations by... 52.2 552522252220 oe eee 164
MNO GTS LICE. oo ass oon olay sa ae cos = Soa Sa See eras wanna ne 74
Smith, Charles Emory, member of Smithsonian Establishment... .-...-.----- 5 ite a
Saini ered minerals: trOm Se. st hess) osncete sk cote dee ee ee ee oe See 60
Sinem Dui AnSheton,/Z200:0l2 +s 5. u ca ce oes Sees ee Ses a ae 691
Pie ates WV ater. Taper. WY 2. sc.h= 206 son aac eee berets toes Sede ee ae 133
SMIeHE MOM i I>... PADCE DY d:.12 secs enses et to bo ea cusy oleae eee es es 137
Pannen DEQNCIb, AOU Of. 522.532 ie 42 Anes one e<s oa rag dl see wee came ooae XXV
Smithson’s remains, question of removal of......---.--.---.--+------5---- xvi, 5
Smithsonian deposit in Library of Congress.......-..------------- XX, LV, 22, 127
Smithsonian: Establishment, members of~.......c020-sqeececaenessas-see= XI
Smithsonian fund, executive committee’s report on.......-..---.--------. XXV-LVI
PECGhOlsINCrease iO lars ee ei oq nore asia se ae te 6

Secretary sstatementsconcernMy 25 2 - sos. Soames ones coos XXIII, 8

778 INDEX.
Page.
Smithsonian Institution compared with large universities .........-..-...- XXIII
finances: Of 22. 2.22 aekips Eee a ae ee XXV=LVie®
inture of. .£ 222352222 eo eee eee 150
orowthiof >. 220 22 eo a ee eee 149
legislative history of.............--- Patera he oe 19, 129
organization Of . 52>. tass ces conan eae eee .. Ss
President Roosevelt on. 22: 2. .e2=ato-= eee eee 145
work and aime of... io. Geb ee ee ee 145
Smithsonian table at Naples. -s205. 22.4 (42S, ee eee ee eee . 16
Snyder, John Otterbein, paper by... -:--..-...-.2--23-55--- = ieee 138
Sokeland, Herrman, paper. by. 22.222 52. 22k eee eee ee eee 135
Solar.atmosphere,: obgervations on... ose tes a ee SO Be <a
echipseiexpeditionvof L900. 2a es oe es ee ae ne er ene 44. 133
of 1901 to. Sumatra test 6s eae ae eee 44, 124, 125, 161
enersy, investigation of... 5.12. 25s 205. a tees eee eee 266
engines, ihirston Ons) 2seus.c ee: oe cee ne eee eee 265
spectrum, sRowland7s) researches im 22.55 see. oe eee ee eee 743
temperature;and; India: raintalls, aco 232. aie eee ee ee 133
Solid hydrogen, Dewar on ..........-.------- gies Si chia AR Rarer ee 251-261
diseovery. Of ic sig. Ss ere ee ea lt a ce emcee eae ee 251
nitrogen, Dewaron....u2 3.2<-..2- Se ava s Bae Bs 252
Sound, articulate, Hallock’s researches in =. - 2s. 2cc'2. Sac ee eee 18
propagation and reflection Of. : 22.2222 cces coe setae eee ee 14
researches, in, by: WiC. Sabine=.. 2246s... sea eee ee ere i
waves, photostaphy Of... 2322225220222 See ees 134
Bounds,;“vowel; analysis of 4 ce. 08a.) eke eee ee As Be Its 13
South Ameriean. Tridians,’ collections’ from. ~:. <<. £2-~ gee ee eee ee 56
Speci, sicllarLockyer.on ...o98 ove 2 oes ceds! 5 ck eee See ee ee 184
researches in! 22.2.2. So een oe ee 153
mpectrograph, Mills, workolc ss. sive. caste ed ak bee Ce eee ees 154
spectroscope, stellar work with=.- 2082. 2h. ohne eee eee 154
Spectrum, Langley’s: Work On. 2:92... s 2a 2 ee es Comes ab 149
of, Nova; Persdise.sa4 5.022522 soo aa hee 4 eee eee 168
photographs: obs. A525... e8 2 23.ct eee eee eee ee 744
photographs dumngsolar eclipse: o.5 2. 4. -- 5. 2 ca. 2 oe ae 166
Rowland?aesearches) imi es ee ee ee ee 743
the mew Manglew sm Pes on os Poo aes te, Reem ee 135
Spectruin-prating; Rowland’ S202 25 soc uc ae sa cba citece es. ee ee 743
Spencer; ‘Herbert, quoted. 22555:2% 323 om, case nei sees oe ee ee 634
Sprague, Joseph White, bequest of .........-- Liege aries fe ee Pee Ge XVI
Spurgeon; James R.;' Liberian esgle:front 22.52 - 2 2222 cha ace eee eee 109
Ptandardizing bureau at Bushy :Park' 2. ee" ae a tee ote ee _ 3890
Stanley’s African explorations... 2.2: -s-2.s-2+--2.=-> can Si a ee — 661
Starks; Edawin-Chapin,. paper, by .u75 5 tsa s5 ee oe a ee oe aa 139
Star-spectra; “Lock yerow.s >. 5.262 oss corse ee ae eee a eee 184
Stars, measuresof heat.otes= 2-2-2 se eee iro oNy Sart ete AAS ene ae 157
velocities of in-line ol eight: 2.2%. i622 ore so eee SMES des 224
Steam engine, progress ie sca6 sa. = tesa ks ee 135
navigation, ‘progress. iz +... .02 2.5.01. ane beens see So eee ee 132
Steere, J. -B., collections: from. oi 2s-:.- A ecses eo ee eee 56, 60 _
Bteausaurs or plated. lizatda», 204... 22 ete eee Songer aaa 646
Stein, Robert, Arctic researches by ..........-.----------+-- Ee eee ae
Steiner, Roland, collections from..-.- op oee boat ae ae ne 60

INDEX. 779

Page
Peereormmenthaard, panes Py 25.2.2. -. 32 2 S252 on ee ok Sn eee 138
Pea NOM CeLOrMmuinanond Of >. 25.222. -2-2 sot as oS aet oe once cewicee 153
LSE AAW e SS ae EEE se EO red ee ee eR eee Ree 225
Sternberg, George M., on malaria and yellow fever...............-.-..--- 135
Spevens.eb. i ab smithsonian Naples table:...........:--2-.2.s.22-2--e: 16

Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, on Indian ceremonies ..................--.----- 81

Somat ian. ;collectlonsibys.s<5252 <2 sss... 24 ¢le ash ecens. af sceeee. 61
Seeraracennmel, deseription Of - 2.2 422.22. S232 2-2 ool eesskaccceeeta- ce 624
Seams ox position, law providing .-....2-...2-.-.2.--.2-./-+262-4es- LX
Beemmetrnwcorze, researches Dy! —- 5-22-12 2. s. se elas cee gabedanecescne 233
Mmaeeiinicments, tethod of making..:--.2-...........---..l0..22.206- 501-513
pioneyenccorce Mon, Bogoslof volcano. .-... 22. 22-2222... 5222 ste ecee By All

PP meeerOnmPOne.laper D¥i.2 5. ss. -i- << 2 s+ + meee bow sae eee ee cces 13
SET PEniae HANET DY. . 22 oo. ee ose woo - sew Sone et cece ea cease nne 132
iene Ts MmeLCOrtS ION... 55.2.2 22.2 225.2 ea Sse lek ee less 60
Seema non. Admiral Melville on. -.-.-.2-2:.5...--)....0..3.-.2--2--- 717-738
CSPI TS PEA 1 en a ee i et 727
ROMDASsenare lial erOnes 2 aes es eee Wea: Pe Oo OO te 723
Consiruchonieimple- tm! characters == == 42 2 52355 720
Memory miryalueiie Sweets = Sin Ea eel eke a ee Ae ALY,
IV EHEGE UTR Oise See Sos 5S 51 cnn oat sha pad Vitae See oak Se 721
CUOURSTCS Ol Cle WORT hate ea bese Ans eos shoe caus bean 721
SPAIN NIE SENN te ao Ne os SLL ne 728
CHETAN gay eee eee eee Speen Ae af ce aes Oe 730
She aie titan on ee tany os Seas Stee Se ec Sy See 729
Miahanvonuyalieiobes-.2 5 2oet terete aS a oi ee 721
PUTMAN ete eee ace he ss US ae het tees 731
LSS ETS SP UVTI 0 VE SI eR ogg PRS SIR ig re et eee Pet 730
SUMEACEGOCEeSh OFM UILOMc2 + fetes, a0 ti Sua ee ee 122
Ee MhaeNGesione = 22 so. tee oee ou, Le 734
AUC RIE W A CLA Re ear cere aies cenit ey oe eye ae a 717
WANE) AORDCOOEH Olen == serene Sen at A 725
Mumbemmeriocerexpedition =. 22005 2S 2 Se ss el ek - 45, 124, 125, 161
Se IOMeneLnC ied TNTe | o> Sos shee et a ee oe keel eke ce 266
PEI 0S Dest on nen nd Se hs eR a OS Cle we 225
SeRTRTEP ERB TA Oe ere a ee rere SOE Se ee ee Eta oe yes ees oS
pimemencroyesutilization o1,Churston OM: 2-22 22-2-2 222 sensi - encase s 200-210
Sunlight, mechanical value of cubic kilometer of........---...-.---.-.---- 216
SMe ohne bys, Tndian TESearches: DY s2s-5-250222-24-2-5-25 02 cone eee 67,79
MPEP GSE Sete oN So a es LB ee eres 68
SuZenaindnexehanre Service With: fos Lock eee coi ee ee samew es cle gene -<se 91

2

Ree CleneOTCLAl see 2e se cae ne ABS a eet Soe Bee eee a ee 435
Taba nre-walk ceremony: In #2 22322... s2 55 222 So 3 5 a oes 2's - 0 -OE
Weleerupl, wsirumernts, Collection of 2... .22..-222ie2- 5222-022 222 eet 57
DEAE Se Rpee HY SURIO. OF 2422 so 2 San ese oe ars Scie ye 2 = ree 299
Boeerapnone OT iweiepnonoprapl: 5. <--2 25-22 aa 2 bales ent ce ceaeee 307
Ronnies wrens) WANCOM ORs 2-2 2225 2-25-5522 Joco es io aan 287-298
Tranie-A tlamlile. sane oat os soe Sense eee ae ese in ecial 296
emu MM IREHNOG Ole enue eg a aad 2 oS eect Soe fee een eae 300
trans-Atlantic; Anthony on 2222021222 2525.22 See tte 222 te~ 299- 306

Pee nuonoprapiy WJ, Hammer Ob): 92250 252i ones 2 ess 2 S2 ee 307-312

780 INDEX.
Page.
Leniperature; air, MyesticationrOL-ct. asec has neon ee eee ee 247
change in metal structure: by? 2iss525 -os.- 3 sone ee eee 352 -
high;-methods of mensuring< 225) 2043-225 e ee eee 355° —
in Alpine tunnels ----.---- ote Maes belie, ook ee 623
low, Dewar’s.experimentea In 2. 5222-22 oss 7.-3 eee 251
of nebulae Ses oak eee eee nee eee ore aoe nee eee eae 243
rock; in St; Gothard-tunnel= soos fesse tee eee oe ee 624
solar, and: India rainfalls =o 52080 See wo eee oe ect eee ee eal bs
Tennessee Centennial Exposition, report on ........-.-------------------- LXI
Topeka ludians, study Of: 2232522222 soso on eee ee ee eee 37, 66
ermites or yhoite-ants, Haviland'ona soos 252. ote ence ee eee ae ee 667-678
Terry, Seth Spracue,; bequest tooo 325. Saab eo eon be eee XVI &
Theatrephone, experiments with: 0.225 )-.ss. 1 Fs ee ee See a eee sli
heories, physical, limits of is x. 5S Ves. 2s oe ee ak coe aes eee eee 190
Theory, sctentiie,. Rucker On 72-525: 25320 Ses oc ees Lene eee aes eee 172
‘Lhermometers:: standardizine of 1272255 oc asker eee eee eee ae 355
Theapesius, deseripwon-Ol, vs 6/252, . oss ose ceca nas ews ooeeee eat eee 646
Thomas, Cyrus, Indian studies" by ~ 2.222% a: tec c nn os oo eee 78, 81
Thomas, Jessie l:..on Maya lancuages. ==. 1.202 castes coe eee eee 79
Thompson-Seton, Ernest. (See Seton. ) =
Phomsen, Wlloi, paper DY —sscuses2- sles oe eke ae et ee ee ate one eee 131,134
Thomson; J- J.,-on bodies:smallerthan atoms: 22. 222-224 oo cess ceeeee ees 231-234
Gn. GivisiMlity. of atemss.).) 5 4 Secs ee eee ine meena 184, 185
=“ TESCALCHES DY os ee suck See eee eee oe eee ees 183, 272
Thurston, Robert H., on utilizing the sun’s energy ----..--.-.------------ 263-270
Paper DY s582 05 Sse Se nam Se ere ee eee 138
idsh WOWEF, ULLIZAIOn Oln ss a: = 2 2.t 25 ee oe et aa ee Vise 265
Pierra Gel Pueco during placialiepoch. O50... ys. .t ee 388°
Torpedo,» Whitehead, value Of. 0225.22 Se eS re ee ee 722
Traditional elements of primitive minds. ..2-) 22.22 S228 Soa ees aoe 458
Trans-Atlantic telephoning, Anthony on-...........----------.---------- 299-306
wireless: telesra phy i. se ik eg ee ee re 296
Peups, (udian, ‘clissifiertion: Of20 5 2. ci. eee Sa aes oa ee 465
Mason’ Om! So ta eee ae Se ee Boe ee ee 461-475
iriseratips,-skall OF 23. MCs o ee oo Seas See ae oe ene 644
True, Frederick W., exposition representative.....-..-.-.---------------- 26 4
report on biology by yo i a eee ees 136
Trumbull, James Hammond, Natick dictionary by.----..-..-------------- 79
Tunnel Baby loniaty - oo .2 5 se ees es ae Sa eee See ee Peete eee 617.
Monti Ceniane och 2 ae oe ee ae eo ee ren ee fe ae ee 622
pool Sileain. 2s iiss. esis sec eee eet se ee oe 618
SUMMON ol neo dete = te pee nee ee Se ee oes ee 626
St. Gothardic y= oS op 2s Se as Pee ce ee ee 624
Tawnels "Alpine, tem perature in .2 oo Ss oe ee ee ee 623, 624
ancient; account Of. 2 Ae hoe Se eee ee Sere ee ee “GbE
great Alpine 7o2i4 is Wn Soe. eel es eects Bee oe 617-630
ventilation ofec2 2) seeoe 5258 OS Soe se es ce ee 625
U,
Ur of the Chaldees, excavation of {c+ bac Meeee see dee ede eee ee bo Od ee
Utilization of Government Departments...........-..------ Gari Metis Tu
Utilizing the sun’s.energy, Thurston on<; (.".08.2 eee ee ee eee eee 263-270

=e

INDFX. 781

V.
Page.

Marcia aren emMetnods Or seCUriNng =. 2 2s.= 2st cn sec ceeds ss Gotecee es 259

PEELE aN ads ar CSCATGHESADYs-ci=2 <= ccc oe acia sk awetiae pen ace coe fees 260

Smaep rail SLCMPBRCNOS DY 22 o- Sec ac sles Ses ved s cg Sout oe se oee see. Agree 174

MaMmanankamspecies: sey VirlestONEa. . 26 so.c ca a nakts a eaaeeseeeecess jones 633

nr ateneyr de -Ortlile Dyes soca eek cop ck wa mnie ene enese ea pesos 135

Memaeilenin dena, Or Acro | ClObio 22a). ccc cc cea cee e eee Eeenc ceee 578

Peeves O scare WeLVin Oli .25.4: cu stess ole Seem we eos n sce ooSs Sac oge ee Leone:

Seererna on cheapest torm Of light. <0 222. 2222s len dks See let eake 19, 128

Senne Onnelitisis.,; COUrteSICS {TOM 225. <\ ce sok oe in ae ok 46, 124, 164

MibranGnsssympathetic, Rowland on. = 2222.25.22. 51.22224. ee 22 See. 738

Seemrmeeiienry, cOUrLESICs DY - -. = 25. S.0 2. SSL bok. ee oa ee oe 50

© peeas S575 C0) 0S) 0) a ad gee 273

WV YuigaL TOTS, THETA: OLE eae peek Ia Nn et ae ie ee ee ne de 189

Seer oreron, rosearchies Dy. — 22522 - 2-2 sss eeeweee c+ stn en ana geese 154

DenrenmOmran acct) CLUPUOM OP sane -- 222-2 sexe cece come eee co Saee Se Jeee ee 163

nee bevoniotWMerriam-On: 622. -2.5 222. co. obec cet eS. eee 367-375

Moaneltlelmholtz, electrical researches by 1... 222s... 22-2252 - lise ee 740

Pemeeine. 11, collections irom 2... - 002i ees Soe ee ete eae e ed 58

Vonteendenteld, Dri, meteorological studies of 2. 2.22.22. 422 2522-22-22. We

MMI TAT TIMOMPEN ALY RIS Ole tee ee gee ea cne a cere Su pr wna) Siders Sion ete ole 1163

W.

Mialcotte@hanies: 1): fossils collected by = 2. $524 sao. Ss sd Sl eee se 59
Inecharee Oh MuUSCuMss see. os sess ee ees oe XXII
Onwmportanceioiirnicatlonts--se css. ee ee eo eee 419
POON, yee na ree es Ce a ae eee ee yee 139

sen cr ert. ODy WOOMerAnes Ho. Nei ket See oe oe Woe come ele 515-521

Ro enemies COUECHIONSDY 52 oe aso asctt oo chee eke So Uae mea oe ats weciee 59

Miminecornorihiwestcoast,.Mallvoms 1 i202 ceo oN aS oe eee 685

Meee OI WALeT IN ALO (9s so en oe ep Sows Sew et Cee eee a ee ene mee 679-682

TCS RCILE Cesc emt opre tierie ie te tee ae ee BE ED Seo oS be ee ami siaiore 181

mir eiorh. on petriied forests. 25252 0S. seeee a Se Pee 131

Pee arinemt. COUFESICS DY ois. ote p ne = cs ee nee lens Soest ce nies 163

Meter nuiialownwand erines Obes... 2. 2 Se eee Boe eee Gk cae 2 2 eee 679-682

Mowerortne world: extent OF) 20 5.32 vase <2 Senet eee e te eee s 263, 264
Pear OM KGT OM Ola ao a0 nn ea nan nme alwe misee ear 175

Meher phucdolph, researchessDy. soo s-c2as sso. cose e 2) ecie so am eae e ei 184

Mice “A; G...experiments in sound by 222.5: .2s.22--- 22.8 ee 14

Waesiie amiriantlecCa limes £5 tate hen O yt ein ay eee Se eel re en cee eee 200

SINT COMiAlh:.< Min CTaAls TOM sie oe armen) Nee a sleet eee te ae enter 60

PeueyeW liam. <& Son, exchange agent :2e. 02.0 202 eles eae 87

Westmiabltskerdinand slike deer irom)! os ose ete ee ee ee eer 109

Wate, Andrew )., Regent of the Distitution ..... 22-5 42 -- eS A SaDieT
representative at Prussian Academy celebration... .--- XVII, 4

White, Charles A., on mutation theory of De Vries..-../...-..--.---.---- 631-640

(Ni Lntiicas Wall Wieenaa) & ieee of )oveieal Oh Mise Aube Sa See Seca Secor an Seamer eas 132

White-tail deer, Seton on peculiarities of. ..........2-2-.------+---+-+--- 703

UGE SALNeLeIs UUM Ol Saco cai on ts Ae aw os oe Some ee aeons 72

Wilkes exploring expedition, collections of ......02.. 2-22: .222--+-----25- 147

Danevelay-nuen,.on Sokteik bridge®2:5--22.-)2..222s02255-2-62-2-- 03282 611-615

Mien teniyerl, “plants irOMe- =. 9st e254 s655 6. JP yoadaes eka =< eheme 58

Mamaoines trederick Wells, paperiby 22.22. 4-25 See see esta ve sel an ane wenn 135

782 INDEX.

Page

Williame; John ©@:, courtesies DY 2. -< -- secs. ea eee ale as eee eine ne 87

Williston, .8.~W-., on pterodactyle-=2. ti 22555% cosas se ee eee 657

Wialson.C. Ty; Ri researches by.c22 Sos ese ee er eee ae 183, 233

Wilson, James, member of Smithsonian Establishment .........-----.-.--- Xie

Wilson, -William: Lyne, deathofo 22.2520 Gs. 342 tel cone see eee ee eee xu,.2

Henderson’ s tribute toss sc <cc38es 48 eoeeecee 51

mem oridlresolutions: fOr os ssc es eee ee oe XI, ol

Smithsonian Regent <2 -)ee ba ces Sas oe see eee XII

susCessOr bhacto Se) Sintec ste Beek Sores eee XIV, LVII

Wind, observations of; in- upper atrecs..2 552. Shs aes aoe ead ise Baa 247

Wind power, utihzatiom obo. 202 ied se atactande ves esas eee sen. eee 265

Winkler, Captam;paper-by Jot fies e eco eee ee ae ee eae 132

Wireless telegraphy, across English Channel ............----------------- 293

coherer necessary Tor: oe 4eeL Se sao oO eee oes 288

in navallmaneuversS-.< Aaca2 2 Se ae eee ee 290

ip Howth Aires 7 oes ee ae. & ae ees 294

dimatieneis OFS Seo o4e ake heh aa tee ae ee ee ee eee 288

Marcon on: 22.5. 3452 gps bbe BRE ce ee ee ae 287-298

trans Atlan o2o2 So -.,¢ th sok ses Se Ae 296

Matt. Giscovercd ‘planet: Hrosg.+ 2302. see anda ema ee a ee 159

Wood.’ De-V olson; on san’ s'enerpy (20. ben. Po Seale ge ew Poe eee 267

Wood, R. W., on photography of sound waves.......--.------------+---- 134

Wiood, “T,.1., eallections iby see ofa Loic fae et eee ee es 58

Worid’s Columbian: Ex position, report on... 442252 Lecce se aes a eee LX

MWirthineg, ancient Cretan. 20.25.5262 ostieec eet See aie eegeneeeaa esse 436

Win Tine-fang. article. By 222 S205 aos a. sine see oe ra eee 20, 135
. ee

X-rays, _Dastre:on (see Rontgen rays) <.--- 3-2 20h. s-cceeeleeh eae oe eee
figs

Yakr Indians) ceremomiestof 24-2224 225.00 eee see ee 80

Yellow fever, tranemitted by mosquitoes. 9222.2. 2 oe hie eee eee 135

Wellowstone Park,’antelope t@-. nsec: Sot fete ee a eee eee 705

Yerkes Observatory, photographs by ......---------------- eae TAPE 156

Wernmak acesbreakere 2. jis! oe see ee eae ty ae Soe ae en eee 134
Z.

Zeppelin’ s dirigible air. chip. 0. Sst ices Sock cee peke Hee eee ee 152, 133, 577

Zoological Park. (See National Zoological Park).

Loo, National, direst Thompson Seton ont is... os a - see eee ene 697-716

OOR private, WAT AlOrOmM Man ees Sele os Se ee ao es ee ee eee 689
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