a% . A ret e y ad ” a ‘ F \ i * ~ a | ity ni i , * 1 é sé i j Lf 1 i i j i ; i y : = 5 i ‘ : ; a © i " 7 Mi Fs wan ath) & D rns i : \ ‘i rida i . i) t bal ; eS mn . A i ¥ =) ANNUAL REPORT OF THE bOes vO EnG ENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING ) THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. ig cd Bal Dee FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ACCOMPANYING The Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1901. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., January 30, 1902. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance witb section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the Annual Report of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1901. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, So ba LANGLEY:, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Hon. WriitAMm P. Frye, President pro tempore of the Senate. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January 23, 1901. 2. Report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1901. 3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1901, with statistics of exchanges, ete. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1901. IV COmN ENE TS: Page. Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to CEAESIA | = 2S See SS SSCs SENSE Scie aie eae ee er eerie c IIL General subjects of the Annual Report..-.....-.--------------------------- IV Contents of the Report ..---- = SUS eOH SE Bote COOTER Ee et Oe Gem see aE osarera V iListhoit Abas a oR ek eke Saeco eS HEROS BE eM Sore peneracr ocerrr VIII Members ex officio of the Establishment..-.......--------------------------- XI Regents of the Smithsonian Institution .......----------------------------- XII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BoarD OF REGENTS. Sfareuumectine dannany 29, 1O0L > 222522 5--cce se = acct ser --—-2- === == XIII Report oF THE ExecutTivE Committee for the year ending June 30, 1901. Condition of the tund July 1, 1901-22 222 oe ene eke -e- 5-5 XXV Receipts and expenditures for the year.........---.-------------------- XXVI Appropriation for International Exchanges --------- Spee Sects Eseries XXVII Details ovexpendituressol Same. —-2 —<. oaen sae sam oe i = Sin ee XXVIII Appropriation for American Ethnology --..-.--------------------------- XXVIII Details of expenditures of same... =... 2.2 S222 = --6 <2 - 2+. = 25-52 -5-- XXIX Appropriations for the National Museum..........--------------------- NEXEX Hetails otexpenaitures-of samen: oes. 220 J2) 22. s---- Sece-5 = Sessa LOO Appropriation for Astrophysical Observatory -....--------------------- XLVI Hetalsoivexpenditunes Olvsame: 2052225222). Se hec ieee. <5) XLVII Appropriation for Observation of Solar Eclipse....--.-.----------------- LX Metails-omexpendivunes ol same oo 252 seos Sem - sess 222-42 ee TALI Appropriation for the National Zoological Park.......------------------ eX: Deiailsrohexpenditures;ol saMee- 2. as SS ss Sa see eee a ses. 2s = L RSC AGMA HON eae ae cee ev eee Daa ome. Seo sae SO Settee ote LIV Gonenilesunuaianyeenee meee ees See ok sens eee aes aee cece a= 2 ioe LVI Acts AND RESOLUTIONS OF CoNnGRESS relative to Smithsonian Institution, ete... Lvu REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. KE OMITHSONTAN SUNSET PUTION Son ee cesses cee nc sees ck cite ae oe cae cmreciee 1 ews tal lis tne tees eee erent sont Pe es ce tp ebay eee 2 a aerate il IE ence Pee ete n Us Seer es ale eet rien ie) eis ceiafe cio wisn ase 3 eles 2 pp GINGMIP Mt OlmmeCEMtss c.f Sake act cis a wie toe ease SA aie we Ris 7 Glia RENE S53 bese eee ee eS aS eee ers ees eee 7 [ESPON HOOTERS eins Set opts, a Pee ee ea ee 8 SSNTAATN COS eee eee RE ee ACs extn te Sg SR ee So eae tee ae 8 RESET literary Nan i mire eee ee) whee GE acme aes toes sa Sehe 11 | SUS ve Sa Glin 900 vege ie ee eee ee iil SEATS VO Se ne 15 Mamta OnStar eee ce 2 seis deicnsoasicjescacscece~senees=se= Beppe Se 18 Vv val CONTENTS. THE SMITHSONIAN INstrirTuTION—Continued. Publicationss= ssc Sascec cee eee eee ae eee Set eee ee eee (Giralny soyss-cec 2 he ee See ere See ee et ee Oe CO ee eee International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. ..-.........-..--------- Correspondencé.222 22.4. 22 Seet ade sce ceases eee eee eee eee ee WX POSIWONS =< .28. 42 22 SS Fee rete ee ree ee eens Miscellaneous)... = 22220222 -Se et aes sige ane eee oe ee ee National Muséum’ <2... = 5-323 tlc des Sei one Soe See ee eee Bureauror Americansb hnologye sa. se aa- ae eee eee eee National Zoological Park... 5... .25- seose Gas oc seer wise ee Eee ee eee Astrophysical: Observatory 2. .525. = cs sess a ee ee eee International Tixchanoes:; c=. ae 2 ee ee ee eee INécrology 43st bie fees occ laos see ae Se Se AE oe ee re ee Appendixes: I. Report on the United States National Museum..-.......------.--- II. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology -.......-----..-.---- III. Report on the International Pxchange Service -....--..-2-.-2--2--- IV. Report onthe National Zoological) Park == sjse- 2-2 eee iV.) Reportion) the Astrophysical Observatonyan= 5 =e eee VI. Report.of the Librarian 22.2 2... = So22 seh oe ee eee VII. Report:of the ‘Editor... < 22 seeseecn 2. eae eee ee eee GENERAL APPENDIX. The Smithsonian Institution... .7..4..Josss.eesee eee eee ee eee eee some Recent Astronomical: Events, by ©. G. Abbots=2ss525-s2eeeee] sane eeee A Model of Nature, by A. W. Ruicker...2 2-56-5262 pe eee A Century of the Study of Meteorites, by Oliver C. Farrington...........--- Recent Studies in Gravitation, by John H. Poynting -.-..:.....222222222--- On Ether and Gravitational Matter through Infinite Space, by Lord Kelvin - On Bodies:‘Smaller than, Atoms, by. J.- hess sole see eee Utilizing the Sun’s Energy, by Robert H. Thurston’: 2222) The New Radiations—C Bioas Rays and Rontgen Rays, by A. Dastre ------- Wireless Telegraphy, by G..Marconis:-2:cc<2.2 25 =e eee Transatlantic Telephoning, by William A. Anthony <2-2 2222 5-22-22 5505 ee- The Telephonograph, by William: J. Hammer: 5.35425 Color Photography, by Sir William J. Herschel 222223220 sass ee The History of Chronophotography, by Dr. J. Marey_..--=.-.-.._.-_---.--- The Aims of the National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain, by R. T. Glazebrook’ ccc See ooo ee ta Se ee ee re ee ee Emigrant Diamonds in America, by William Herbert Hobbs .....----------- iBogoslof Volcanoes; by-C@: Hart Merriam sse se aoe ee The Antarctic Voyage of the Belgica during the Years 1897, 1898, and 1899, by Henrys Arctowski ore os BE. A. Newell): 2¢ . 2 .2ce oie ee eee The Palace of Minos, by Arthur'J: Evans...... 5... eee The Engraved Pictures of the Grotto of La Mouthe (Dordogne), by Emile Riviére Page. 18 21 23 25 26 26 29 36 | 38 44 48 51 53 65 85 105 119 126 129 CONTENTS. Perenngeor oriimiiive Man, by branz Boas... 0.52 .2..530005.-cs0-see-e cee Traps of the American Indians—A Study in Psychology and Invention, by (USL WES 0 2G Se te i ee ae ae eee ee Oe ee re The Abbott Collection from the Andaman Islands, by Lieut. W. E. Safford, Lig SH SoM SS oe ed a ee ere ee pea a a The Development of Illumination, by Walter Hough ....................... Order of Development of the Primal Shaping Arts, by W. H. Holmes... -.- Seasereranoonioyetrniibert nk. Walker sco2. 22-222 2 nnceeen eee oe se eae cede cee The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing Conditions Cie taiwaanldscenhiment.pyesrancis GaltQnms.-.-25.2522c2.55sssssuseeoles The Fire Walk Ceremony in Tahiti, by 8. P. Langley Beers s ot Navure sbi San ele ye oe oo ee ce boc bomen eteseoe The Children’s Room in the Smithsonian Institution, by Albert Bigelow Paine- Santos-Dumont Circling the Eiffel Tower in an Air Ship, by Eugene P. Lyle, jr. Automobile Races, by Henri Fournier and others ........................-- The Erection of the Gokteik Bridge, by Day Allen Willey ................-- iaeGreatcA pine Punnels, by Francis: Fox. 2.5.2. 5.-5-2222525.-Lis.esee sel The Mutation Theory of Professor De Vries, by Charles A. White ...........- ihe Dinosaurs, or Derrible Lizards, by F. A. Lucas:.:.....-:.2..-.+2+.2-¢s. The Greatest Flying Creature, by 8. P. Langley, introducing a paper by F. A. Mucas onthe (Great Pterodacty! Ornithostoma .-...-.-....-i..-..2.--.-%: The Okapi; the newly discovered beast living in Central Africa, by Sir Harry Sie EELS sa se ss ES na Observations on Termites, or White Ants, by G. D. Haviland ......-..-....-.- noe vendermpa oigthe Wabekspitialo —....0-.--.---...--ceeetee eee ese eee On the Preservation of the Marine Animals of the Northwest Coast, by William s DUREE ALS STEN FA OFOSaN Chip chee C cic 0g) Sei en ee The National Zoo at Washington, a study of its animals in relation to their natural environment, by Ernest Thompson Seton..........--------------- The Submarine Boat, by Rear-Admiral George W. Melville............------ Commemoration of Prof. Henry A. Rowland, by T. C. Mendenhall.........- 661 667 679 683 689 697 717 739 SO SECRETARY’S REPORT: Plate II Plate ITI Plate IV Plate V Plate VI Plate VII Plate VIII Pe aitewXeeese Se ee ee a ee Plate X, XI, XII Plate XITi THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION: Plate VI PrincipaAL Events «tN ASTRONOMY (Abbot): Plate I Plate i (EHeliotype)\ss=2-22—- Plate III Plate IV (Heliotype) Plate V Plate VI Usk or Kites at Sea (Rotch): Plate I Plate IT Urinizinc Sun’s Enercy (Thurs- ton): Plate 4 WrreELEss TELEGRAPHY (Marconi): Plate J TRANS-ATLANTIC (Anthony ): TELEPHONING Plate II THE TELEPHONOGRAPH (Hammer): Plate I Plate II (colored) Cotor PHoroarapHy (Herschel) : Plate I (colored) Plate II (colored) Plate III (colored) Vill eA pats bl dist Page. History oF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY (Marey): Plate dict 5 31. B eet See 320 Plsitec Iles - 520s ee oan tee 329 Plates 2 ee ee 330 Plate Vee eee eee eee 331 Plater Virsa oe aaa 332 Plate Val: #255 ao eee 333 Plate: Wall, she at oe 334 Plate Vallis soe ene eee 335 Plate EXee > eae eee 340 NavionaL PHystcaL . LABORATORY (Glazebrook ): Plate ie Sea eee eee 344 Plate dis e 5p ee ee eee 3o1 EmiGrant Dramonps (Hobbs): Platewdic ate eee eee 360 Plates: 228s eee eee 362 Plate die 5 35. eecsee eee 364 BoGostor VoucaNoes (Merriam): Plate: 2255255 5ee ae eee 368 Plate TLS. 23232 aha eee 370 Plate ies 5, ee eee 372 VoYAGE OF THE Be.aica (Arctow- ski): Plate Tis. soo ee ee 378 Plate Ue 2222 ae ae eee 380 Plate Ti 22.223 Stashosstesse 382 Plate, sases.2 ee eee eee 383 Plate: View 5220 so: 2 testes eee 384 Plate Voto. 26 ase 386 Plate: Vile ee eee 388 Forrst Desrruction ( Pinchot): Plates sha oe ae eee 401 Plates: saa 2 = eee ae 402 Plate THl.32 322. 2=e2 eee 403 Plates Wee ee eee 404 IRRIGATION ( Newell): Plate-Li<2a2 . Sees 410 Plates Wecc ee eher eee 412 Platetliees et aoe eee ee 414 Plate IV 225 Sear eee 417 Plate Vee eee eee 4i8 Plate: Vile eee 420 Plate Vil 22 Se eee 422 LIST OF Pavace or Minos (Evans): PAN Shel eee ne ae Plates II-V TRAPS OF AMERICAN INDIANS (Ma- son): ip lateee ss Sie reese eee oe Axppotr COLLECTION FROM MAN IsLANDs (Safford ): ANDA- DEVELOPMENT ILLUMINATION (Hough): | SA tsi iresta (Ul E See ee eee FirE WaLK IN Tauniri (Langley): Plate I LEE 8 bee ae Nes epee ee OF CHILDREN’S Room (Paine): Plated (colored) =. 222 32- X-= Plates II, III (colored)....-..- Plate TV (colored) -2.2..- << Pate V. (eolored )i2- 2:22. 22% =: Plate VI (colored) Piste Vall VLE aa 2s oes Ley. ee ee ae eee Pilates xs Xai (colored))2s22- =~ Plates XIJ-X X Circiine Erren sup (Lyle): Plate I TOWER IN AIR- Teale Ns Sess ee eet Pe laew Nee es eee. 9 SE OD AUTOMOBILE RACEs: Plate I VER Hire DY oie i a en JEANIE A eee ee) Se eee 474 488 490, 492 500 540 541 542 503 5d4. 5d5 556 557 558 559 560 | 560 Or ON 75 76 77 On 578 579 580 582 584 586 588 594 596 | 606 607 608 PLATES. AUTOMOBILE RAcEs—Continued. Plate VEL eRe ge) ek oe GREAT ALPINE TUNNELS (Fox): Plate I Plate IT Plater Viet oe es Dinosaurs ( Lueas): Plate I GREATES? FLYING CREATURE ( Lang- ley): Plate I VEAL oad I ES se se eae arrears eee Plates III, IV (to face one an- ODED) pera err ea tose, Plates Ve- Sais ae ao a ot THE Oxart (Johnston): Plates (colored) = 23" =.5-45e- Bite Hila ee aoe eae ee | TERMITES, oR WuirEe Ants (Havi- land): Plates ple V2 a exc ects eee WANDERINGS OF WATER BUFFALO: Plate I Some Private Zoos (Aflalo): RlatesslStie ac See ene ee Plates IJI-IV Plates V-VI Plate: Vile te See oA NatTionaAL ZooLoGicaAL PARK (Se- ton): Plate I LEA Fairey El Ee ieee eee Sr en la hemliliete tee eee ee a = | Plate | Plates Ue eee nee ccd RowLand Memortau (Menden- hall) : | Plate i Ix Page. 609 mast Nea THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE ‘‘ ESTABLISHMENT.” Wiii1am MckKintey, President of the United States. THEODORE RoosrEveELt, Vice-President of the United States. Metvitte W. Fuuier, Chief Justice of the United States. JoHun Hay, Secretary of State. Lyman J. GAGg, Secretary of the Treasury. Eximvu Roor, Secretary of War. PHILANDER ©. Knox, Attorney-General. Cuaries Emory Smiru, Postmaster-General. JoHn D. Lone, Secretary of the Navy. E. A. Hrrcacock, Secretary of the Interior. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page. ) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. SamMueEL P. LAanGiey, Secretary, Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. RicHarp Rarusun, Assistant Secretary. XI REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LX XIII. section 5580), ‘* The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, three members of the Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State. REGENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. The Chief Justice of the United States: MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board, Jan- uary 9, 1889. The Vice-President of the United States: THEODORE ROOSEVELT. United States Senators: Term expires. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed Mar. 24, 1885, Mar. 28, 1889, Dees T8189) and) Mari 190) Sees eee eee Mar. 3, 1907 ORVILLE H. PLATT (appointed: Jane 18,1899) =2a =e aeeeeee Mar. 3, 1903 WIE ARV ISNED SASYS (anopomntedme Maca salts 9 O)) aera se Mar. 3, 1901 FRANCIS M. COCKRELL (appointed Mar. 7, 1901).-----.-.---- Mar. 3, 1905 Members of the House of Representatives: ROBERT R. HITT (appointed Aug. 11, 1893, Jan. 4, 1894, Dec. 20° 1895: Deck 22, 189iand Jane41900) hase Dee. 25, 1901 ROBERT ADAMS, Jr. (appointed Dec. 20, 1895, Dee. 22, 1897, andi: Jan. 4), 1900) se cee ee ee ee Dee. 25, 1901 HUGH A. DINSMORE (appointed Jan. 4, 1900)....-.----------- Dee. 25, 1901 Citizens of a State: JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (appointed Jan. 19, 1887, Jan. OF1893, and’ Jan, ‘Q4l USOG)\ as ots cadets eels ae ene et ne ee Jan. 24, 1905 ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (appointed Feb. 15, 1888, Marsl95 1894. sandyJime:2 211900) pe see eee ee es ee June 2, 1906 RICHARD OLNEY (appointed Jan’ 247 1900)\Pes22 2225-2 - =e se-e Jan. 24, 1906 Citizens of Washington: JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed Jan. 26, 1892, and Jan. 24, ISOS) Pe seek cod ocaas Jobe cee sk ee Jan. 24, 1904 WILLIAM L. WILSON (appointed Jan. 14, 1896; died Oct. 17, 1900). ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL (appointed Jan. 24, 1898) ..-.-- Jan. 24, 1904 GEORGE GRAY (appointed Jan. 14, 1901) ...2..2-2 52s 2e-eeeee Jan. 14, 1907 Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. J. B. Henderson, Chairman. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL. Rospert R. Hirv. XII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD JANUARY 23, 1901. In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents, adopted January 8, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth Wednesday of each year, the Board met to-day at 10 o’clock a. m. Present: The Chief Justice, the Hon. M. W. Fuller (Chancellor), in the chair; the Hon. O. H. Platt; the Hon. William Lindsay; the Hon. R. R. Hitt; the Hon. Robert Adams, Jr.; the Hon. Hugh A. Dinsmore; Dr. J. B. Angell; Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. Richard Olney; the Hon. George Gray; and the Secretary, Mr. 8. P. Langley. Excuses for nonattendance were read from the Hon. William P. Frye and the Hon. J: B. Henderson, on account of illness. At the suggestion of the Chancellor the minutes of the last annual meeting were read in abstract, and there being no objection, they were declared approved. The Secretary announced the death on October 17, 1900, of Dr. William Lyne Wilson, and stated that Mr. Henderson had very much desired to present some personal remarks on the occasion, but that his illness had prevented him from attending the meeting. Mr. Bell then offered a series of resolutions, which will be found under the heading ‘* Necrology,” on page 51 of this report. The resolutions were adopted by a rising vote. Mr. Hitt then stated that he had received a request from Mr. Henderson to ask the Board’s permission to file later a memorial to be spread upon the minutes. On motion, the permission was granted. The Secretary read acknowledgments from Mrs. Margaret A. Johnston and Mrs. Jennie T. Hobart of the resolutions adopted by the Board on account of the death of Dr. William Preston Johnston and of Vice-President Hobart. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. At the last meeting the Secretary announced that a resolution appointing the Hon. Richard Olney a regent to succeed the late Dr. William Preston Johnston had passed Congress, but was still in the hands of the President. The President’s approval was given on the day of the meeting, January 24, but it was then, of course, too late to notify Mr. Olney and secure his attendance. XIII XIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The term of Dr. Andrew D. White having expired, he was reap- pointed to succeed himself by a joint resolution of Congress approved June 2, 1900. The vacancy in the Board, caused by the death of Dr. William L. Wilson, has been filled by the appointment of the Hon. George Gray, through a joint resolution approved January 14, 1901. The Secretary read a letter of acceptance from Dr. Andrew D. White, at present United States ambassador to Germany. The Secretary presented his annual report to June 30, 1900, calling the attention of the Regents to the fact that it contained an account of every important part of the affairs of the Smithsonian Institution during the past year prepared by himself, but supplemented by full reports from the gentlemen in charge of the various bureaus. He would particularly call their attention, among numerous matters in the report, to the subject of the Exchanges. He then detailed the facts of the applications of the Institution through our ambassadors at London, Paris, and Berlin, in the interests of the Government. The Secretary spoke about the Zoological Park and the desirability that the Government would place in that city of refuge for the van- ishing animal races of the North American continent some specimens of the giant animals of Alaska, which were now going the way that the buffalo had gone. He then asked the attention of the Regents to a subject of minor importance, but of some interest, alluded to in the report under the title of the Children’s Room. On motion, the report was accepted. Mr. Hitt here said that he desired to bring before the Board the knowledge of certain proceedings which had taken place at the Univer- sity of Cambridge in England when the Secretary had received the honorary degree of doctor of science. This had been conferred in con- nection with an oration in Latin delivered by the public orator, and which Mr. Henderson, whom they knew to be a scholar who loved the tasks of scholarship, had translated into such English as Horace would have used if he had to speak in that tongue. Mr. Henderson had sent him a copy of this, and he now presented it to the Board with a request that it be placed upon the minutes. Mr. Hitt then read the following translation: From across the Atlantic there has yery recently been borne to us a man distin- guished in the world of science—one who but lately has published a most interest- ing and useful work on astronomy. In the city which is the capital of the greatest transmarine republic many important duties are committed to his care: First, the supervision of a great museum abundantly filled with objects of natural history; next, the administration of an institution the most celebrated for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men; and, lastly, the control of an observatory with instruments designed for the purpose of dissecting and analyzing the light of the stars. It is said that below the red rays of the spectrum there are other rays, unde- tected by the sharpest vision, but which, through the genius of this man, aided by an instrument discovered by him and named a ‘‘bolometer,’’ have been gradually developed and made plainly visible. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. KV No one will wonder that a man thus fond of communing with the stars should also be moved by a great desire to fly from earth, so great indeed that, as if by wings attached, he has actually been enabled to imitate the flight of birds for a distance exceeding 3,000 feet. Not fearing, perhaps, the fate of Icarus, he may yet be able himself to make good the vision of Horace, the poet: “On strong but unaccustomed wings I fly, And soar as bird and man through liquid sky.” Perhaps, impatient of this world’s affairs and longing for celestial ones, he may well be emboldened to fly from earth and take his place among the stars. I present to you Samuel Pierpont Langley. : On motion, the Latin address of the public orator and the translation of Mr. Henderson were directed to be placed upon the records. CAMBRIDGE, October 11, 1900. The following is the speech delivered by the public orator in pre- senting Mr. Samuel Pierpont Langley for the degree of doctor in science honoris CAUSU S Trans aequor Atlanticum ad nos nuper advectus est vir scientiarum in provincia insignis, qui etiam de astronomia recentiore librum pulcherrimum conscripsit. In urbe quod reipublicae maximae transmarinae caput est, viri huiusce curae multa mandata sunt; primum museum maximum rerum naturae spoliis quam plurimis ornatum; deinde institutum celeberrimum scientiae et augendae et divulgandae des- tinatum; denique arx et specula quaedam stellarum lumini in partes suas distribuendo dedicata. Luminis in spectro, ut aiunt infra radios rubros radii alii qui ocuiorum aciem prorsus effugiunt, viri huiusce ingenio, instrumenti novi auxilio quod Podouetpov nominavit, paulatim proditi et patefacti sunt. Nemo mirabitur virum stellarum observandarum amore tanto affectum, etiam e terra volandi desiderio ingenti esse commotum, adeo ut, quasi alis novis adhibitis, plus quam trium milium pedum per spatium, etiam avium volatum aemulari potuerit. Fortasse aliquando, Icari sortem non yeritus, etiam Horati praesagia illa sibi ipsi vendicabit. ‘‘non usitata nec tenui ferar penna biformis per liquidum aethera.”’ Fortasse rerum terrestrium impatiens, rerum caelestium avidus, ausus erit e terris *‘volare sideris in numerum, atque alto succedere caelo.”’ Duco ad vos Samuelem Pierpont Langley. In the absence of Mr. Henderson Mr. Bell presented the report of the Executive Committee to June 30, 1900, which, on motion, was adopted. The Chancellor stated that a vacancy existed in the Executive Com- mittee, caused by the death of Dr. Wilson. Senator Platt then offered the following resolution: Resolved, That the vacancy in the Executive Committee caused by the death ot Dr. William Lyne Wilson be filled by the election of the Hon. R. R. Hitt. On motion the resolution was adopted. Mr. Bell then offered the following customary resolution relative to income and expenditure: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1902, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary, with the advice of the Executive Committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secretary as to items. On motion the resolution was adopted, XVI PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. * REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. In the absence of Mr. Henderson, Chairman of the Permanent Com- mittee, the Secretary made the following statement: The Hodgkins Fund.—Vhe Wodgkins Fund now amounted to about $250,000, $208,000 of which was deposited in the general funds, the remainder being held in first-class bonds. About $10,000 more was held in New York to meet possible litigation, but the indications were that the Institution would receive this also. There were also two houses of small value which would probably net the fund about $1 600. The Avery Fund.—This, as well as other matters of the kind, were being looked after by the attorney of the Institution, Mr. F. W. Hackett, who reports satisfactory progress. As to the value of this Avery estate, the Secretary had requested an approximate valuation from Mr. Fox, the real-estate agent who had charge of the property, and who stated the same at about $26,000. Mr. Fox had written that if the United States Supreme Court Building were placed directly north of the Congressional Library the value of part of the property would be greatly increased. This property, most of which was idle, was yielding an income of something like $500 a year. The Andrews Bequest.—Vhis matter had been laid before the Board at its last meeting, and Mr. Hackett has reported that the estate would probably amount to something like a million of dollars. No active steps as yet had been taken in Ohio looking to an application of this money for the establishment of an institution for the free education of girls. It was by no means certain that the elaborate system formulated in the will was capable of being put into successful operation. The Secretary here quoted from Mr. Hackett’s report: It may be needful before long to institute a friendly suit in New York to ascertain under the laws whether the legacy be a valid one to the Ohio corporation, or rather to the corporation that the will says shall be created in Ohio. I shall make this the subject of a separate letter to you in a few days. Meanwhile, as a report to the Regents of the progress making in this business, I will say that I am giving more or less attention from time to time to the will and its legal aspects, and also am in touch with the counsel for the executor. The Sprague Bequest.—The Secretary now stated that he had the agreeable duty of bringing before the Regents the fact of another legacy to the Institution by Mr. Joseph White Sprague, whose last place of residence was in the city of Louisville, Ky., but who died in Italy in June, 1900. Under the provisions of his will, which had been offered for probate, certain personal effects were bequeathed to rela- tives, and all the remainder of his estate, both real and personal, to his nephew, Seth Sprague Terry, in trust to convert the personalty into money and distribute 85 per cent of the profits of the entire estate among certain devisees named in the will, and their relatives, until twenty years after the death of the last of said devisees, when the trust PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XVII expired by limitation and all assets in the hands of the trustee were to be conveyed to the United States of America to be held asa portion of the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be known as the ‘‘ Sprague Fund.” One-half of the income of this fund was to be added to the principal each year; the other half to be expended under the direction of the Institution, in such manner as would ** best promote the advance- ment of the physical sciences” by the giving of free lectures, provid- ing laboratory facilities for original scientific research, publishing the results of such researches, or by awarding medals or other rewards for meritorious discoveries. The half of the gross income authorized to be expended annually in this manner was to be cumulative, and any portion not expended during one year might be expended during any subsequent year. The Secretary continued that it had not yet been possible to obtain an inventory of the value of the estate, but he might mention that in a newspaper estimate it was represented at $200,000. TWO-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences having invited the Smith- sonian Institution to participate in the celebration of the two-hundredth anniversary of its foundation, on the 19th and 20th of March, 1900, the Hon. Andrew D. White, United States Ambassador at Berlin, and member of the Board of Regents, was requested to represent the Insti tution on this noteworthy occasion. A suitably engrossed address, conveying the congratulations of the Institution, and transmitted through the Department of State to Dr. White, was presented by him to the Prussian Academy and cordially acknowledged in terms of which the following is a summary: The Royal Prussian Academy expresses the most sincere thanks for the interest the Smithsonian Institution has taken in the celebration of its two-hundredth anni- versary. The expression of this friendly interest has added greatly to the success and pleasure of these commemorative exercises throughout their entire course. For a lasting memorial of this anniversary the Academy sends a description of the festival, which it begs the Institution to place in its archives. This record will derive its chief value from the addresses and memorials attached to it. An interesting letter from Dr. White was laid before the Regents. It described the exercises as having been of an exceptional interest. They took place in the Royal Palace, where the King and Emperor received the entire body of guests in state, surrounded by the high functionaries of the Kingdom bearing the Royal insignia, while the monarch from the throne delivered a very interesting address of wel- come. Later there were entertainments in honor of the delegates not oniy by the King, but by the Chancellor of the Empire and others. On the second day occurred a general reception in the great hall of sm 1901——im ZOVIOHE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. the Prussian legislature, which was also very impressive. The whole occasion was most interesting and everything was most admirably done. The Secretary added that Dr. White had further said in conversation that in all his experience as a minister to European courts he had never seen so imposing a display of ceremonial magnificence. MR. BELL’S RESOLUTION. Under the head of unfinished business the Chancellor called up the resolution offered at the last meeting by Mr. Bell. Mr. Bell said that he thought the Institution could not afford to remain silent on the subject of the great questions aroused by the National University project, and that some expression of the good will of the Institution at least might well be given. He, therefore, desired to withdraw the resolution offered last year and to substitute for it the following, which was satisfactory to the Executive Committee: In order to facilitate the utilization of the Government Departments for the pur- poses of research—in extension of the policy enunciated by Congress in the joint resolution approved April 12, 1892: Resolved, That it is the sense of the Board that it is desirable that Congress extend this resolution so as to afford facilities for study to all properly qualified students or graduates of universities, other than those mentioned in the resolution, and provide for the appointment of an officer whose duty it shall be to ascertain and make known what facilities for research exist in the Government Departments, and arrange with the heads of the Departments, and with the officers in charge of Goy- ernment collections, on terms satisfactory to them, rules and regulations under which suitably qualified persons may have access to these collections for the purpose of research with due regard to the needs and requirements of the work of the Gov- ernment; and that it shall also be his duty to direct, in a manner satisfactory to the heads of such Departments and officers in charge, the researches of such persons into lines which will promote the interests of the Government and the development of the natural resources, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the country, and (generally) promote the progress of science and the useful arts, and the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. After some discussion by the Regents, on motion the resolution was adopted. REMOVAL OF SMITHSON’S REMAINS. The Secretary stated that he had received the following letter: 7 Via GARIBALDI, Genoa, 24 November, 1900. SAMUEL Prerpont LANGLEY, Esq., LL. D., D. C. L., Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Dear Str: The Committee of the British Burial Ground of Genoa (of which, as you are aware, Her Majesty’s consul is chairman), fully realizing how keenly you are interested in all that concerns the resting place of the respected Founder of your Insti- tution, has deputed me to write to you and lay before you the present position of our cemetery. It will lie in your recollection that when I accompanied you some years ago up to the heights of San Benigno you were struck by the enormous quarry which was PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XIX slowly but surely eating its way toward us from the sea through the rocky side of the hill on which we stand, and the excavation has lately come so close to us that the intervention of the consul became necessary to arrest further advance, on the plea that our property would be endangered if the quarrying were carried on. Actual blasting has in fact been put an end to for the present, and the cemetery (although the boundary wall is now on the very edge of the excayation) remains untouched, but the local authorities who are the owners of the quarry have given us to understand that they need more stone for their harbor works and are therefore anxious to see our graves transferred from the position they now occupy, for which purpose they would give us a suitable piece of ground in another part of the town and would also undertake the due and fitting transport of the remains. Should our answer be in the negative, it is intimated to us that in five years’ time, in 1905, the term for applying the law for public utility (twenty years after the date of the last burial) will have been reached, and we shall then have to give up of necessity what we are now asked to yield as a concession. Under the circumstances the committee have decided that it is their best policy, in the interest of all concerned, to begin to negotiate at once for the transfer on a decor- ous footing of the British Cemetery and all its tombs, and although some consider- able time may elapse before this transfer is accomplished, yet it is evident that the time has now come for us to ask you to prepare your decision as to what is to be done with regard to the James Smithson remains. Are they to be laid with all pos- sible care and reverence in new ground here, or are they to be conveyed to the United States? Awaiting the pleasure of your reply, I beg to remain, Very faithfully, yours, K. A. Le Mersurter. The Secretary said that the cemetery referred to was not the cele- brated Campo Santo of Genoa, but a very small one in the care of the British consul and the English church, situated in an elevated and iso- lated spot, and that no interment had occurred there for many years. The Regents had formerly authorized the placing of a bronze tablet on Smithson’s tomb, which had been done. The Secretary here exhibited photographs of the tomb, showing the bronze tablet in position. Recently word had been received that the bronze tablet had been stolen, but orders had been given to replace it by a marble one. After some discussion, in which the desirability of bringing the remains to this country was adversely considered, the following res- olution, offered by Mr. Adams, was adopted: Resolved, In view of the proposed abolition of the English cemetery at Genoa, which contains the remains of James Smithson, that the Secretary be requested to arrange either with the English church or with the authorities of the national bury- ing ground at Genoa for the reinterment of Smithson’s remains and the transfer of the original monument. SECRETARY'S STATEMENT. Experiments in Aerodromics—Eclipse expedition.—The Secretary stated that in view of the lateness of the hour he would pass over some of the matters about which he had intended to speak, among D.O.4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. others the continuation of his experiments in aerodromics, which, with the consent of the Regents, he was making for the War Department, and of the results of the eclipse expedition of May, 1900, further than to say in regard to the latter that they were of rather more than ordinary importance; that they had left one or two interesting but unsettled questions, particularly that as to the possibilities of the observation of Intramercurial planets, which had determined him to send out a small expedition to Sumatra to settle these questions on the occasion of the exceptionally important eclipse of the sun in May of the present year. Ur of the Chaldees.—In October, 1899, Dr. Edgar James Banks, of Cambridge, Mass., had written to inquire whether the Smithsonian Institution would accept a collection of Babyionian antiquities, if such could be procured. He stated that he hoped to be able to secure val- uable material by excavating at the town of Mugheir, situated on the Euphrates River, which, according to tradition, is the site of Ur of the Chaldees, from which Abraham came. Being satisfied after inves- tigation of the standing of Dr. Banks, and one of the Regents of the Institution being among the vice-presidents of his association, the Sec- retary accepted his proposition, which committed the Institution to nothing but the receipt of the finds. One of the employees of the National Museum would be of the party and would collect ethnological and natural history specimens. Any prediction with regard to the expedition must be premature, but it might be said that this site, if correctly chosen, was one of the most importance for students of the Bible and of ancient history yet to be examined, and that there was reasonable expectation that the Institution would reap a reward. Sinithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress.— The Smithsonian deposit was created originally by a relatively very large expenditure from the proper funds of this Institution, nearly half whose income went in this direction for several years. The money, the Secretary was told, was spent at a time when such things were cheaper than now, and well spent, for a varied collection of works, partly but not exclusively scientific; but during the last twenty-five years the 1m- mensely increasing demand upon the small fund of the Institution had vaused it to add little to its library by direct purchase, though this had continued to increase largely through the exchange system, chiefly in the direction of scientific periodicals. The Regents would remember the Secretary’s explaining to them two years ago that by an informal arrangement made between Pro- fessor Henry and the Library Committee, in 1866, the Library of Con- gress was not required to keep the Smithsonian books together, but merely to see that they had a proper mark indicating that they belonged to the Institution. These books, which Congress had assumed the care of, had been PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OB REGENTS. XXTI lying, it was too well known, in compulsory neglect and disorder, owing to the lack of room in the old quarters in the Capitol, but since their transfer to the new Library building they had been rearranged and much had been done toward bringing into order this valuable Smith- sonian deposit, which was in some respects the finest collection of sci- entific periodicals and reports of learned societies in the world. Congress had last year made an increase in the working force of the Library, and had provided for three persons, one custodian and two messengers, to look after the Smithsonian deposit. . The books had an entire ‘‘ stack,” which would hold 175,000 volumes, and was called the ‘* East stack,” assigned to them, and besides this one of the great halls, which was to be used for the books in more immediate demand, and also as a reading room. An appropriation of $30,000 was made, to be expended under the Librarian of Congress, for fitting up this room, and while even this large room would not be sufficient to bring together all the Smithso- nian books, it would bring together most of the transactions of the learned societies and scientific periodicals, which were among the most valuable portions of the Library. He desired to engage the interest of the Regents in procuring for the expenditure, either through their Secretary or the Librarian of Congress, a sum of in all not less than $50,000 for the joint purpose of supplying the defects in the library due to its neglect for the past twenty years, and to fill in the important sets of periodicals which can not be secured by exchange. ‘This money could not be spent rap- idly, since many of the books could now be got only after long search, and he presumed that it would take several years to supply the actual losses. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.—The Secretary said that he had not time to enter upon this subject at length, but he would remind the Regents that the Smithsonian Institution had long ago, under Professor Henry, proposed the scheme of a general cat- alogue of scientific literature to the Royal Society of London for their joint consideration. The Royal Society, within the last two or three vears, had resumed the project which had now grown to be a very large one. It had re- cently called for and obtained the official aid of the principal govern- ments of the world, and England, France, Germany, and other leading European nations had made large appropriations to this great work. It had been hoped that our own National Government would take its share in this enterprise, but the Secretary regretted to say that it had not done so, although the Department of State had earnestly recom- mended it. The Smithsonian Institution, which had been the original suggester of this great plan, desired to be still associated with it in the measure XXII PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. of its ability, and had caused a circular to be sent during the past sum- mer to the libraries, universities, and scientific establishments of the United States, and solicited support for this international project in the name of the Institution. He was gratified to be able to say that the response had been most hearty, and that 66 sets of this costly pub- lication had been subscribed for here, which was a much more consid- erable aid than had been rendered by the peoples of any other nations apart from the national subscriptions. The Secretary hoped that our Government would yet do something for this. He was entirely willing that the work should be continued provisionally under the Institution as suggested by the Secretary of State, but while he believed that it was the wish of all American scientific men that the work should be done here, he did not desire to have the Institution appear as asolicitor of Congress for the necessary appropriation while so many things of more immediate urgence to its own interests were ungranted. He would temporarily continue a cer- tain amount of the cataloguing as aid on the part of the Institution, which was, in this respect, taking the duties of what was called in Kurope a ‘‘ regional bureau.” SPECIAL STATEMENT SMITHSONIAN FUND AND MUSEUM. Jontinuing, the Secretary said: The Regents have received my printed official report, and as I hope that they have read it I shall not dwell on its contents, but will speak now of certain subjects of special concern. The real matter, to the Secretary at least, always lies in the actual presence of the Regents, and his ability to bring to them his difficulties directly and to obtain their guidance. I say this now not with reference to anything that presses for present action, but to be sure that I know their wishes in the shaping of a policy which causes me frequent official anxiety. I do not mean with reference to the parent Institution, for there never was a time when its small means were productive of more satisfactory results, or when it was better known throughout the whole world than it is to-day, but I immediately speak of the bureaus which the Govern- ment has put in its charge, and for the moment particularly of the Museum. The Regents will remember that on the resignation of Acting Assistant Secretary Charles D. Walcott, I asked them to authorize the removal of the restrictions on the appointment of the Assistant Secretary, Mr. Richard Rathbun, so that he could be assigned to other duties, especially that of Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum, with the aid of three Head Curators, and that I spoke of this as an experi- ment upon which I would report later. It having been found impracticable that Mr. Rathbun should give his chief attention to the parent Institution and _satis- factorily administer the Museum also, I have recently made arrax:gements by which he could give his principal attention to the latter, and in this form, after two years’ trial, I can report favorably upon the plan. I think it is working well for two reasons. The first is personal to Mr. Rathbun, who has a fund of tact and patience, united with professional sympathy, which few men possess In a greater degree. The other reason why the present plan is successful lies, I think, in the nature of the Regents’ own control, and here I want to revert to the fact thatthe Museum as it exists has grown from the parent stem of the Smithsonian Institution, and grown so PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XXIII fast that the child is tending to become larger than the parent. There are signs that the Committee on Appropriations is at last coming to see the inevitable necessity of enlarging the Museum buildings, and with this enlargement will come an increased expenditure and a new era of responsibility for its management. With a million dollars or more of annual expenditure the Museum will be more like other great bureaus of the Government. I can say that I think the present system of adminis- tration through the Regents is not only free from every suspicion of political influ- ence, but through the method of election and appointment of its governing body and officers, has an assurance of permanence and of unselfish administration which no other method known to our Government affords. The Secretary is, under the fundamental law, the Keeper of the Museum. Although a scientific man himself, he is not disposed in this connection to favor one branch of science as against another. (At least, if I may speak for myself, I think I am not.) While retaining in his own hands so much of the authority which the Regents and the law have imposed on him as is necessary for a proper coordination of all the interests of the Institution, and while personally passing upon all matters of policy, relations with important foreign and domestic establishments and all unusual or extraordinary expenditures, he has always managed the details of the Museum administration through an Assistant Secretary. Such men as Baird, Goode, Walcott, and Rathbun have successively filled this office, and in every instance not only deserved the confidence of the Regents and the Secretary, but have gained the confidence of the scientific community. I think, then, that the present plan of administration is working well, but I desire the Regents to bear in mind that an extension of the work to be done is likely to be later demanded by scientific public opinion; that the time has nearly come when Congress will look favorably upon it, and that when the time for this extension actually does come I hope they will feel that their own just and impartial rule is the best that the Museum is likely to have in the future, as it is that which has built it up in the past, guaranteeing as it does deliberation and fairness in the selection of the Museum officers and a stability in its policy. There is something to be said with regard to each of the other bureaus, but the Regents will find this set forth in the Report, particularly with regard to the Secre- tary’s personal efforts made last year to extend the field of the Bureau of Exchanges. I wish, however, before concluding these statements to the Regents, to revert to a subject on which I have already asked their advice and which is of fundamental importance. The Chancellor remarked on a previous occasion that the time seemed to be coming when the Institution would be more and more in the way of receiving gifts, like the Hodgkins gift. I hope and believe that this opinion will be justified, and I have had the pleasure of bringing some evidences of it before the Regents this morning, but I ask them to bear in mind, with regard to the Smithsonian Institution, which has been called an anomaly in our Government, that its best feature, and that which makes it a happy anomaly, is that while the whole is in the care of the State, there is an independent fund under the Regents’ control. Now I beg them to consider that this all-important feature of independence is every year lessening in its character, owing to the decreasing relative importance of the fund by reason of the changing value of money, and the enormously increased wealth of the country around it. Thus in 1850 the Smithsonian Institution’s fund was over $600,000. This was at the time a noble foundation, but how relatively small it is to-day can be seen from the greatly increased funds now in the hands of other institutions of learning. I have written to the presidents of a number of the principal American universities in existence in 1850 and asked the extent of their endowment at that time. Fifty years ago, the President of Yale University informs me, the funds of that great institution were about $300,000. At that time the Smithsonian Institution XXIV PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. fund was over $600,000, or more than twice that of Yale. Now President Hadley tells me that the invested funds of Yale are about five and one-quarter million dollars. The Smithsonian fund is nearly what it was; that is, except for the Hodg- kins legacy; it is about one-sixth that of Yale; which is saying that the Smithsonian fund has relatively decreased in the proportion of 12 to 1. Not to found this comparison on the solitary case of Yale, I have inquired in this way of the Presidents of seven of our leading colleges and universities, and I have answers from five: Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania. Columbia reports an income of $11,000 in 1850, but no endowment. Harvard is the only college or university which fifty years ago had a fund as large as that of the Smithsonian Institution. The average fund of Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Penn- sylvania in 1850 I find to be about $450,000. The average fund of each of those same four institutions to-day, as their presidents and treasurers report to me, is about $8,600,000 (an average increase of nearly 2,000 per cent). If some of the newer universities, as Stanford, and Chicago, whose funds are believed to be collectively $25,000,000, are brought into this estimate, the result is that while at the time of its organization the Smithsonian Institution, with one exception, was very much wealthier than any university or college in the United States, to-day it has about one-twelfth of the average property of those to which it was formerly superior. If there is any object that les near my heart, it is that the Institution should become so known throughout the country that gifts and devises which would increase that part of its funds under the absolute control of the Regents should be stimulated and increased. Jam conyinced that it is but necessary that the whole of the American people who have money to devise or give shall only know what the Institution has done in the past and what it guarantees under the rule of the Regents in the expenditure of funds in the future, to bring in such gifts in increas- ing number. I will do anything I can personally to aid this, and while it is not becoming that the Institution should wear the appearance of soliciting anything of the kind, I should be very glad for any counsel from the Regents as to the means of aiding it. The Regents informally discussed the matters suggested by the Secretary, but, time preventing, took no action; and, on motion, the Board adjourned. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTI- TUTION For THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your Executive Committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the U. 5. National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro- physical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1901, and balances of former years: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the Fund July 1, 1901. The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the Treasury of the United States, according to act of Congress of August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson, savings from income and other sources, to the amount of $134,831. To this also have been added a bequest from James Hamilton, of Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York, of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500; a gift from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000 and $8,000, being a portion of the residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, and $1,000, the accumulated interest on the Hamilton bequest, making in all, as the permanent fund, $912,000. The Institution also holds the additional sum of $42,000, received upon the death of Thomas G. Hodgkins, in registered West Shore Railroad 4 per cent bonds, which were, by order of this committee, under date of May 18, 1894, placed in the hands of the Secretary of the Institution, to be held by him subject to the conditions of said order. XXV XX VI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Statement of receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901. RECEIPTS. Choy Ot lovmovold inky We MSO) eae seo Sess oseocssseseses= $76, 219. 07 Imteréstonsiund! duly I 19005. S22 eee $27, 360. 00 Interest on fund) January, ly 1901 25525522222 =—— 27, 360. 00 - 54, 720. 00 Interest to January 1, 1901, on West Shore bonds... ..----- 1, 680. 00 Sa aE OIE @ashtiromysall es of pull LCase ea 188. 59 Cash from: repayments, freight, ete ==-2 22-22 2222 = 332 10, 240. 80 wees 10,429. 39 Total receipts’ £52. Se aee ae ee eee arn 148, 048. 46 EXPENDITURES. Suilding: Repairs, care, and improvements.......----- $6, 938. 39 [MoberanolS PROOL Tb --o2e 6-2 =A - 1, 125. 00 1 chief clerk, J6 months, at $175 SU RE are \ 2,149.98 16 IMOMUNG MOO Oot ee eae sae oe He Clenk-elenonthsrt plo Oss) ane n= Sake Soe oe bo ee een 1, 800. 00 Wkclenke2amionbthsteat hope aaa. tas Saeco ea ee ec ce 250. 00 1 clerk, jonathan GIG Ohi. sons cheek ce cal \ 1, 450. 02 NGtripmi hema tpl ons s by ek ce rents Se Sree a: clerk, J6 months, at $100 Na et fe Ne a a ee nee oe ite 949, 98 NGpmmomnitheeat ROSH SS sss elles se eyuie og oe 1 stenographer, {EE months, Bb 9 90. eee masa \ 1, 090. 00 Miraonthe ab s100 2Josoe nc se Me IRClenkelo mMonthstatipol: casas ses ects oat cates Seat 960. 00 io! COD VSO IROHLAS, ipto sels ta soee sete Sa lee \ 570. 00 Rclecke GhimomiUns cat los. sc aseeS es ucek east. f J packer: who ments at pooi.2 |. 2kG 2 eosee Poet lee lk 660. 00 1 workman, i months, at $50 .....-.-----.------------ \ 630. 00 Ginonthssatehoomees.2ose ses es cee Sel: f 9» 1 messenger, J11 months, a ue Zap ESE \ 310. 00 i moni Meedtepoon-ss se oa ee een = 2 i= = Saeed mouths, abet. cs. feo ns oe see ee te 540. 00 Meipemiere crave "Al Pais soos ok 2 noha mete ne en = 60. 00 Miers sacs, at ple). 2. Sais ecco cect nn ss 19.50 XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Salaries or compensation—Continued. Mlabanrere2 9 daysiat pile oO sees mers arena peers $43. 50 Imaborere22 days: ati ple OU eee ane eee 33. 00 lecleanenwl6Gidaysiat bills een ae ee eee eee 166. 00 ieagent. 12:months: :at-$91). 66542. .5- = eee 1, 100. 00 il eveerani,, WPA TeNorMIE ibis co 5s. sso kssocSsodecc ssesgocess 180. 00 agent. al 2imiron ths; Abipo Oe esate =i ee nee ee 600. 00 MotalesalanieskorrcOnmpeN Sa blo Nese ee ee 16, 020. 30 General expenses: BOXES ia Sats ers ee PO ee Oe eae eae $876. 50 Breight 3. 25sSe se ee ae eee 3, 087. 12 Postage! 2 eye 6 oe = see ee ee eee 225. 00 Supplies) cj22- 22 eee eee eee 63. 46 Stationery) 256.2 S28 oo aie a seni ens Se 291O1 ——— 5,048.99 Total Gishursem Cnitsvcsss oe ee ae eee $21, 064. 29 Balance July de 9c sate ok aa he ae eee tne 2, 930-01 INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1900. Balance’ July J; 1.900) asiperilast reporti.= = eee ae eee $2, 538. 83 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: BOOKkSs aa Rao Ae NR Oe es eis Tee a $75. 65 BOXESs 32a oe Se ee ee ee eae 146. 50 1 ees Kd oY ie chs ee ae ee Ee ety ee NOISE Oly CS gi ors eat 2, 156. 10 S@T Vi GOS ess eet eos = See ie Seer ee te ee 10. 50 Stabiomeny, tose ee ese cee ea ee ne ee 11. 16 S WO TOS aos Herr sete Sc ee 85. 04 Total disbursements... <2 23422 oe ee ees eae $2, 484. 93 Balance July 1; 190s as eae ee ee ee eee 53. 90 INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1899. Balance July 1, 1900;.as per last reportee: =e. see ee eee $1. 59 Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘ for continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceed- ing one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building’ (sundry civuliact; Jume: 6, 1900). o:. 9 25 see eee eee $50, 000..00 The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the Secretary in the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology. “a REPORT OF THE EXEOUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: MEGiKEcCtorlemmnOnibissabpoatOreee eee cee line Soe bane $4, 500. 00 1 ethnologist in charge, 12 months, at $333.33... ....... 3,999.96 Wethnologist, mmontisvatip208 ooecee ns 28s. 25 eee ase oi iethimolorisi;le2smontnss abp200%e.o2. 8. esas. eee 2, 400. 00 (Pethmolovist, W2smonths) at plG6:67 2222-2 ee 2, 000. 04 Wethnolorists Lanmonths; ath G66 (05.2... 2, 000. 04 echnolocist al 2amonthomatralosroo cs cae eae oe ose. , 599. 96 ethno loristaleamnonthssatiplep sot esS oe. ke ee 1, 500. 00 ethmolocists Ie months” at pl2h: £22228 Ss tee 1, 500. 00 Fen OLOMIsth Ssemonbuswatt plao- = one eee 2 ose 312. 50 1 assistant ethnologist, 1 month, at $100 -.........-..... 100. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, 10 months, at $50........----..-- 500. 00 Heuston el Aamonths wat plOOW ds sees seek eee ae ae = 2, 000. 04 1 ethnologic translator, 63 months and 6 days, at $150... 1,001.60 IRCleLkarommiOnthe mainly © sete oem ee ee TL tess 375. 00 clerkemiZemnonths: ab pl OO seer 2 teens 5 knee ye 3 1, 200. 00 WGA, WH ioaoiodarsh, eure MOS Seer eee enna oe ener ee 1, 200. 00 lclenks sl2mmonthssatpl0O a8 ses see eso ee 1, 200. 00 leclenk Osmo nbaswatep nore sees se eee eect 900. 00 leproohreader wl zsmonhhis atpiolee—- soe eee. Soe Cee 900. 00 lassistant ethnologic librarian, 10 months, at $60; 2 (niVOTaN SSVI, US oa nee er seep gk ae Reape 700. 00 Wskalledelaborers l2amonthis sat POU sss2 5" s8s sss ee 720. 00 lemmessenver al Zamontiiesraiino Owes sees ace, See. 600. 00 Helaborerel amonthigm ate HO0m = ame oe ee 720. 00 lglaborers IA momunssatipan mean. Leen ee te) 540. 00 iis borer A Gayss Atabk- seat ee eeiss toto ect 111. 00 IslADOne ee Sadancesciiqle One ee ee Roe Uhr cis 42. 00 Motvalisalaries\or compensation. 2. 0..25 2... L224... See .-- $34. 080. 45 General expenses: IBOOK Geese gets eet Panini Sn eis esniea t $822. 58 Drawimesandalllustrationss 2-26 s25 5-4. - 407. 95 Pipe Wad ny Cs Les SS GREENS he Na ha aera ere 257. 93 Hive thi a rarer See: cee eget ead 2 YD cho eS 94.53 TSU TTTDRTY STC a) 0 ae ean ee A rs al PN ee ele 2,011. 00 Miscellaneous =e ase oo re wees Sa eS 108. 65 Ofiicestumniiiiresas:- o-ethes css as sn 8 ee es 683. 33 BNC Oe WV Ch eyes Stearn Gets nates epee y - 10. 40 iPostagevanditeleoraphi u - 9. a 2-0-0 32S 2 72. 50 ATs Geni ye eae ee tei etree Salen Me She oe aS 1, 500. 00 Speci laseryi Gea gern kee Arcee 2 She ee 526. 35 SHEAR aR Ses os a ees SS Sond ee ee eee eee ee 3, 388. 78 SUT CLG hee ee eee ee ee eee 1, 238. 04 inavel and) heldrexpensest=—. 2.2222. 22s. Ne Ye — 13, 234. 86 MoTalecdiSbuUnrseMmMentseeere esas. Seek ae ce ane Sse 47,315. 31 Pea eeCe remy eNO Barely Ae este Sie Sale ee RO ec kk 2, 684. 69 XXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1900. Balance July 1) 1900) as per last report. = <— 2-22 222 2 = a $2, 147.3 DISBURSEME} General expenses: BY010) te eee ee eee et irae Sent a elaoe ee Se $645. 95 Drawanos andeliistirationSp sess. = sees eee re 49,51 Rreiohite se Agee occ otis Seer eee ee eee 67.89 Office furniture =_.----- = ier Mee Raa AY SO rs Cyne ne 288. 50 Rights. oescaes 22 ees ee ee ee eee 13. 51 Miscellaneous... 3:22 2 ose oe ne eee eee eee 1.65 INGA Oslo ane seo areas Hoe SacacesagEnTosesuectcce ss caec 72. 64 Postaseiand'teleeraph 222.222. s22eee ae eae eee Ze 32, Rentals: e248 ok se ees ce ee ee eee eee 83. 33 Special SenviCes).3 1s se Oe 2 eee eee eee 233. 00 Specimens) eee... - anne ee nee eee eee 289. 27 Supplies” + 2) 220 .Ssnscie2 Se ee eee SSO Travel/and field expenses: --22s.- ss se- eee eee ene ee ee 17.50 Statomeny. asco os cece oh eee eee eee neers 225. 32 TPO tal CUS WUNS CMGI tS 22 See ee are ere ee es cee cam $2, 142.16 BalanceJiuly 1, 190M 23 aie as oe ee ee ee eee 5. 19 AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1899. Balance July, 1900sas\per last'reportasese a seen ee eee eee $92. 48 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: Breiohtesoe eo ved Bons 2 Sd genes cats ae ee eee 3 $0. 84 Balance: .2<<2Sicc hes he sods So cee ose ee eee 91°64: Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, “for continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col- lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern- ment and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, $180,000, ot which sum $5,500 may be used for necessary dhossines and iilustrations for pubiications of the National Museum” (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900).-........-...--- $180, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. (July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Salaries Or COMpensauon= sss s52 252s sssee eae $158, 846. 4 Pe Cla SerMiCeN gs ete te cae oso He aes = oe 4, 025. 76 MO TARR ETVACE Rs eee terest Bete he re a ee ee $162, 872. 21 REPORT OF THE Balance July 1, Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation, 1901. Scientific staff: 1 assistant secretary, 8 months, at $258. 1 head curator, 12 months, at $291.66 1 curator, 12 months, 1901 at ae $291.66 99 oo $2, 066. 6 3, 499. 3, 499. Hecuiracon laa Onis erie nZo lOO seagate eee Shae 3, 499. 92 lecncatone! Qamontheeat, pe 00sec se i ane See as 2, 400. 00 Te opraeh rove Py soavon ale lst een 37A0 10) es he dye ere le eee ae 2, 400. 00 lecunatonmelamonminasaitpo0Qee San ee ee eee 2, 400. 00 iP GuimWOR IPODS A URE ee hoe yee oe ee ee 2, 400. 00 iecunatorye Zemomthswatrpli(osce- a5 ons oe aoe oo ee ee 2, 100. 00 ipacsistanicurator, Je months. at ploOes= 52022 e se |. 1, 800. 00 Pascisianiveurator, la months tata loOe 22 4a Se 1, 800. 00 lGassistamiicuratony le moths atipilio Ole ea 8 855-20 oe 8 1, 800. 00 il ARMS [eM Couemitone, IA anor ots) ie tls{0) ae ee Se eae 1, 800. 00 1 assistant curator, 6 months, at $150; 6 months, at $130.. —1, 680. 00 ascistanticuraton. lA monthsaatipladsos =. 20 4---=-. 2. 1,599. 96 ascistamin Curator a montaerat ploo.co= =e = ses oe 1, 599. 96 Wassistamtacurator, U2 months ab pilZoisoss--2-5------ 2. - 1, 500. 00 WWassistant curator, I2monthsatollG.66.55-.— .22222 2° 1, 399. 92 l-assistant curator, 12 months, at $116.66 .........-_...- 1, 399. 92 1 second assistant curator, 12 months, at $100 _.......... 1, 200. 00 Heardeml 2aaromtGhnss at: plullGuOGse era yl alae Boe 1, 399. 92 Theol, P reavovolin avs seen ere HNO) Ome eee ae oe eR 1, 200. 00 aide ommombisratplOOhss o- eec els ate ae 1, 200. 00 iearcral Sam Onbhs sat Poocoosae = sete eee ose os sas = 999. 96 leaden Zemontissabenoncsoce eee ee el. oso eee ke 999. 96 adel O months ot daye-satieSo-d0 2.51222 e see eu 978. 45 Meares OnitnswAtepioOneee te noes ee se feel ee 900. 00 Pac eanacmihscat eco neiae “aera sone 900. 00 leardrel2imonbtass ab po) y... a coe IS et en 600. 00 aren Onmihs aie poOee ae «oes ea ke tee nee 550. 00 aid tl monthcand: los days: atgo0 2. 22 22 ee 8 75. 00 Preparators: iephotocrapherl2emonbths sat plo. 224. t22 04-2... 2, 100. ipmodeler sl amonthoeat pl OOS ssse ee ae 258 2 1, 200. imuodcien Todays. dtp assess. Woo. 2 koe ee se 45. WWosteolorist.l2months-atipo0= ses. cs. 2k elk wwe e 1, 080. 1 chemical geologist, 4 months and 25 days, at $100... -.. 489, ¢ 1 preparator, 2 months and 41 days, at $75; 15 days, at PSO ek See eB a ee eral i en ee ae 295 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXT Miscellaneous: Drawings and illustrations ..........-.-- $2, 010. 53 Supp olltesiesee 260, Sea eae ee See eee ee 4,617. 14 SUMACONN ice Sas AS i See eee ela ee nae 1, 291. 37 Bibra ec ee mere a SE oS fe a 1, 718. 98 LIE MRR SSS eS oes ee ee eee 981. 85 MotalemiscellanmeQuae wos see eee eee ee $10, 619. 87 “Ihtay eM ence ofevaVa HURST es she rey SO eae ne ce ee) eee $173, 492. 08 6, 507. 92 S51, 649. 45 XXX IT REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTHE. Preparators—Continued. ispreparator, 12 months at $8022.22, ee ee eee $1, 020. 00 iipreparator,-l2 months, at $8025 --c 5-9 ee eee 1, 020. 00 lspreparator, t2enronths au pS0s sae ee sear 960. 00 preparation. (mio mths waiting tp eey eee ere 525. 00 1 preparator, 6 months and 13 days, at $70.........-..--- 452. 50 1 preparator, 7 months and 8 days, at $60...........-.-- 437. 14 i’ preparator, l2'months; ati p4ors 5-2 Saher eee ee 540. 00 1 preparator, 6 months and 15 days, at $45.......-.----- 291.77 1 acting chief taxidermist, | month and 3 days, at 5125 -_- 137.10 il (epreweleraaauiste, 1 soovoumtelavs,, gunesO) -2 82 Se ce sccseeoscos 1, 200. 00 Il eb-aKe Cracautsyry Jb ionXoyoloRE EHR ew0) eseeeosec lesen ee ceseece 1, O80. 00 1 taxidermist, 1 month and 9 days, at $75---..2-...---- Clos 00 Uitaaci dl erm teal aerin omit laste tip (ene ee ee 720. 00 $13, 689. 97 Clerical staff: 1 chief clerk, 4 months, at $208.34; 8 months, at $208.33. 2, 500. 00 IL Gobhnores WA sonvorougachy CinewlOy es 552 5ecc nese eo acceceescacce 2, 004. 00 Ischichoi division. I2annvonthsratin20 Opes eee ee 2, 400. 00 registrar 2) nOmt lisivaityall Orpemeeme ear ee ease eer 2, 004. 00 ledisbursime clerk inn ort hiseatnl el ONG jer nea eeee 1, 400. 04 1 assistant librarian, 12 months, at $1338!33'_---2--2-2---- 1, 599. 96 1 stenographer, 12 months, at $166.66__..-....-......-.-- ip SII), 2: istenooraphens!2 months atin 25 eee eee 1, 500. 00 IFStenoorap ben a2 mao utils ait O10 mere eee 1, 080. 00 1 stenographer, 6 months, at $85; 6 months, at $75 .-.--- 960. 00 1 stenographer and typewriter, 9 months and 11 days, at SOs IS) GENE Alaris: 2a Obie. ein tis sacaasocenccesaede 786. 50 1 stenographer and typewriter, 11 months and 12 days, BED O Sse racre 8 oe ee en: DS eee re ea 569. 35 | stenographer and typewriter, 8 months and 5 days, at BDO Steve ys Sees es Ee ee eae 408. 06 1 stenographer and typewriter, 3 months and 28 days, at BES cya sycra Srspcsa vk dacs te ce nc os en ee 195. 16 1 stenographer, 2 months and 48 days, at $50_...-...----- 178. 39 1 typewriter, 6 months, at $85; 6 months, at $75........- 960. 00 iC envqoxenyacinmere, IL) thatovonnnses the tio 2 ce ascesees-cseseecee 840. 00 il inpjorenmanieres UP ranvordocy Biswne ooo -5o5sece.esnceeseace 780. 00 1 typewriter, 10 months and 10 days, at $45........-.-.-- 464. 52 incl erkrel2-m Onthish at pila je eae 5 ek eee ee 1, 500. 00 ieclerk a? months at Sl2he = ses seen a ce 1, 500. 00 Where. (Gaaavopayporsh Chat i et eas So ole bake cee sae 750. 00 WelenkemiZanronths: abhor ge8) Tp stOEOW ilerdie, IPAswovoMIasE Chews: 2-2 so Soest Sado week eel 200500 hen Glades WA aoaormelavsy Ghat, 6552-2 so45-56 essence eoesosk- il 29060 ae IL @leidke, UY, waavernlaee eHe VME = 6s asec eeceeees see ae 3600: 00 1 clerk, 6 months, at $100; 6 months, at $90___-. ASS ea eCOn OD i Glevaie, UP iaonyorand sh eIgt WANE eaten aeeses ones saooses tases 960. 00 INclerkyalZamonths satis ae sae, 2 sae eee ee ee 900. 00 Ie clerk-atermonbhas. ath iOeee -. cece ae eee eee 900. 00 liclenky i zimonths, (atib/p. 2. WA soavoyai los enMh CNG) 5= = SSeS See Se ee ee lewatehiman ole smonbnseabrpoUsssee a2 Sse sc 2 se eo lewyatehinanesl Aamonbisvat: po0Mss= = esse sol ee eee lewrarchim anal Omihiserat: hOUle eee see ec = ee 2 Oe leyatehmnane 2amontis rit poOlee sce. ss. 22 ese rvvarchimianeolesmontneatimoOln esa. oe ec sk. ee lSwarchnranres| 2onmromtigatmO0e erst ss es sas eo. 1 watchman, 8 months and 10 days, at $60 .-.....-...--- 1 watchman, 6 months and 67 days, at $60 _........----- ew alchMimanersmMOmilicntivdOUM se. 2 en sae Se eS 1 watchman, 2 months and 15 days, at $60 ......--...--- iewatchinan: li2months at pop sos. 25-25] 4-22 nee) Soe SWAtChiMam ase cmNOMblaS wats DOOM | teeter see eee ecre watchman elAmenthsniadlt pade.s2s5s2 24.2 2cen- se] vaichimanvelanvomincuaipoo sats ayes sees nee see oe lewarchiman wi-nmMOMmbOS at poo et ees ase) See eee a ee Heweatchiman: she monthss at pods cee se ees ccs+ ees (ewalenimanhel2 monte At Poona ..sa2cjneo. to aaa ea 1 watchman, 10 months and 17 days, at $55 .......-....- 1 watchman, 6 months and 17 days, at $55.......--.-.-- 1 watchman, 4 months and 20 days, at $55 .......:-..--- 1 watchman, 4 months and 18 days, at $55 ...........--- 1 watchman, 1 month and 9 days, at $55 ....-...-..----- watchrmanen 2 mouths: at p40 2 s2225--.5- eee. c= se2-2- sm 1901——r1 360. 660. 660. 660. 443. 600. 600. 540. é 536. 480. 474. 420. 200. 3: 41. 480. 2, 250. 1, 470 600. 24. old. 840. 780. bo bo S 660. 660. 660. 660. 660. 660. 580. 360. 3743) . 36 BOF 259 255 70 00 16 16 480. 00 $47, 966, 97 XXXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Buildings and labor—Continued. skilled laborer, 7 months and 15 days, at $60 ...--..--- skilled Jaborer) 4 months: at 60 2o25sse5-5— 24522 -e == skilled laborer, 8 months and 99 days, at $55 ...-..---- skilled laborer, 9 months and 16 days, at $55 ...-.-.--- skilledilaborer, L2 months, at po0ssaeeesseee eee ere skilled laborer, 1 month, 15 days, at $50 .......-.----- WOE, a) Ge Glee MAGU 8 5 oo sccocccsscsssssescocs Wwodcneiny, Aloe CANE, Mince wl) 2o0 ens a bee oanSoccce= laborer lemonth) 46 days, atieo0 sees e a= nea eee laborer)2>months, atipo0s=- ese ee ene eee ee eee 26\days)atiGo0)- sae aa ee eee ce eeeer Loemonthsat/$4 bn ees. ee eee eee 1 1 ] ] 1 1 1 ] 1 1 ] i | | 1 1 ] | 1 ] 1 1 ] i | 1 l 1 ] ] 1 1 1 J 1 | J 1 1 1 ] 1 J 1 i ] ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, labe rer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, 3: 5) BV days; at: l2O0 no ans5e.= eee oe wea ) )? ) laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, laborer, 1 1 jOaKOIMIA Oly he) GENYES, ENG C49) oo ones son Seesesssacec month ati f4ous ee ee ee oe eee Sledays; at:40°. 36 2.8 ee eee eee eae LZ months: at-B40ek sere eee re ee 1imonthiswatipd 0ses eae eee ae eee L2Amonthiswat.840 322 59ers eee eee ee d 4 4 3 2 ] 9 1 5 9 3) > o 9 o oo) 2) ») oO 9 ‘ 9 oO » o 3 3 9 o 3 3 3 9 oO 9 vo 3095 days, at $1.50 263 days, at $1.50 221 days, at $1.50 156 days, at $1.50 105 days, at $1.50 ( ‘ . months, at $40; 131 days, at $1.50 .........- months: at-$40)- 3635 ee eee ee THOME Sat DA Oe a eee re ee mH, ce OENVS Bip OHA) coc deoocouscascesas- months, 15 days, at $40; 247 days, at $1.50 -- AMON tMS walle hoo eee PAS See gee months 445 daysuattd2) ss see see eee eee month at $25-24se ee eee ee eee months, 17. days, atie20 cer es. ss eee NOKOVOUN OS, Parl GENS, ls MYA 6 a5 a5S5s5ccncescesse= 67 days; at: Ol 70. ee ase eer eee eee O days; at Blas seen e eee eine eres eee days; $1.75: o3.0 sah see eee oe eee 29) days; at $1 503662 ee eee eee 245 days, at S150 5. 252 ane Soon eee ee lis. days; ati $l :502252 ae aos ho ee eee Lokdays; atc$ll 505 33>) eee eee eee eae L2gidays),.at PIAS 5.5 eee cree eee 2Adays. ati $l3502. ho eee ee eee Wirdaiys; at $150.52 sis ee eee Widays; abil He. ayes ae ee nee Widays 2atPl 50s sso. an eee ere 105 days, at $1.50 LOStdays vat: $l. bOo- =. cin ao ee eee ee 104 days, at $1.50 MOONS Vat PIROO Re 2k ae cee eae ener eee y) 9 9 ldaysvatspllco0s 23554. eee eee days; au, bl. 502 Se aro. ae: aes A days, at:$1.7o2220-8 ae Seca ek eee aaa 92) days. at: $1470. ee eee ae ee eee $450. 00 240. 00 588. 50 523. 86 600. 00 75. 00 465. 00 308. 25 125. 70 100. 00 42.10 540. 00 100. 89 45. 00 46.16 480. 00 480. 00 480. 00 476. 50 160. 00 160. 00 164. 42 470.50 420. 00 261.31 25. 00 ON S7, 78. 00 588. 88 505. 50 533. 75 584. 50 511. O1 12. 25 494, 25 486. 75 476. 25 472.50 468. 75 468. 00 468. 00 468. 00 468. 00 465. 75 464. 25 394. 50 331.50 234. 00 157.50 157.50 156. 00 145. 50 136. 50 136. 50 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Buildings and labor—Continued. PROOLt (OMAVS Mie P lOO amos Secs Sane cess eee eee ees MIAHOKNeE TOGA ySr abr oliO0 ss 524). 9225 ate 2 eee iplaborertOrdays. ate. 00S S52 922 2a eee fee ielaponrersy 2 dayscabipl- 0s: ete slate See imlaborersgidays- at PleoQbe- 4 stat S5s5i ds ence eee! ilaboren veoidayswab ploOke som 2S. 22h ses bs sase eee ielaborercods10ayseatipl S045. 54/02 occas se Sere Sejooe imlaborerwo4 days, auipls 052. 2-320. sleet ace ec ccese- Wlaborersolssaaysyat planOe canes oe. cesta tse sons noe Melabonenpe nays mat Ol 00S At aneSac he ceeeccesee ss ce ielanporerezalndayseattolebO.e 2). se eines ecco a jelaborerl9idays. ab plsoO. 52 2 sosssee ae aes eS eee ce [elaborerplS.days pat) plo0s =) means sic ence es sons tplaborer els Gays, abpleo0s 52 S..5 2-2 o. et oe ce Seeds s imaborerwls days; abt oleo0sses scons tasnes.+ bese ess eke imlaborernG days: at-ol O02 se 4. S22 osc sens ss ese sia: i@laboremeo, daysiwat pleas. 2322022. Sense. 8 22 cee oee nce IMA poner Soy Cay Sab bilo US 25 sas oomee weet crores = ose ke imlabonerrordays, cate $le50 32852 502. see oe oo oe ect Hmlorer 41dayS atipl OOM cesarean cece eins tise seek oe laborers days abrol oi soso oc ane ence aeloe 1 messenger, 10 months, 25 days, at $60..........--.-.-- messenger 23.daysat ptos. soe. os vei seb omen 5 <8 2 1 messenger, 3 months, 20 days, at $35; 6 months, at $25- 1 messenger, 6 months, at $35; 1 month, 15 days, at $25 - ieMessencrer, Oo MONS ai blo s5— ose 2 Sede = Ss 2 eee ee iemessenger, 1 month, 28 days, at.$25 ........2--.2.---. iemessenvers 20 daysvate2osa=ses- fossa See ec ct eS ee lemessenver, month watip20 meee aS ots ek as se leatenganin Ueamonuns alia sess 52 aos ees 225 ee Heathendantwalivadavsreatipile oO ty ae ete ese = 2 ac attendant, XXXV $45, 540. 06 158, 846. 45 XXAVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1900. RECEIPTS. Balanceras per report July: di, TOO coe se mete lee tere eee rere $9, 1383. 82 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 380, 1901.] Specialsservices: 24. 0223 So secea te yes cine Stee este ne roe $525. 02 Miscellaneous: SIN 0} 0} UNct Geer eine men SRN Tre cen's & $1, 016, 14 Station ey +. evan! see eae aera eee ee oe 397. 07 Rreiehit sxe 22 aoa Se es Se cere eee 383. 00 TTA Gl Ako tis ics See eee os le = ore sere 296. 53 Specimens {Use SSeS ese e esl cece ener 5, 763. 18 Drawings 628.5 228 ns cee crs See eee 421.49 8, 277. 41 Total expenditures: .2 2222S. eecacts eee Seen ele Se eee $8, 802. 43 Balance: July 1) L9OU 242 sas Sac ceo pcre 5 ees ee a oe 331.39 PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1900, Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. Appropriation bj; Congress, act March 3) 1899. -- 225250. 22.028 oe -- $170, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. {July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.) SAlanies On COMpPeNSAllONy sacs ee ae eee $145, 476. 10 Specieliservices) 2.0 < - ccs eee IS (olas2 Motel Services as, o- cS ae eee ee ee eee $147, 227. 42 Miscellaneous: Drawings and illustrations ..........-...- 904. 99 SUPDUCS sacs. Ae Ak eee ere 4, 286. 47 SURSLAKOD NE) os Seen SS A cue Steen 1, 800. 82 SPECIMENS Men. ... ~ 55.5252 52ach eee eee 10, 569. 52 Arey | PRES 2 ic nin sla oe oe Se a ee 2, 360. 06 Bree htve se enc. see eae eee eee 2, 519. 33 Potaltmuoscellaneous) =... =... 550-5. eee eee 22, 441.19 Rotalbexpenditures: <2. ~ <0 ..5.~5 2 o.oo see ae See eC a ee $169, G68. 61 Balance July i. 1900s <2. <2... in. eee ee ee 331. 39 PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1899. Balanceiasiperilast report, July. 1, 190022 = 2s ee eee $1.53 _ Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 8090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including $2,500 for furnishing new lecture room and including salaries or com- Salaries or compensation REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NATIONAL MUSEUM—FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1901. RECEIPTS. he XXXVII pensation of all necessary employees’? (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900). $17,500. 00 EXPENDITURES. {July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] STIL FATES 5s Sado bSsand se osececoodssoeuscpode ROCA ROI VICESin wee a tats poeta ciese cs c= baie cued Miscellaneous: 1 superintendent of construction, 9 months, at $127.50 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 1 carpenter, 14 days, at $3 MT pPLWOMECARCS. coe ace obese os cescisencce ems BIRO SREG tC NCS areca tate tsteraretefolaietets sin tam four ioteiaialornenlete'efe PLAT WANG: sec aie <.-.-/scee Tools: 2... Cloth RGIBSSHELIS Tee ee eeelee ceo ee ne cane Ses eeees ci cce NIN DET AG aan cs tne = ee ccs Seecae caecleseteas OMS MUTMIGULS Ase se Se eee ce ee te ccices heather, rubber) and corks -2.2....0...26ece- DOT Was TOL CASES: swse cece cow clse cies haneres PUM DINE Mec eciccet es ace ee mecee estas ccm LEN UTE eh CO SAKE OSS OS Ae Secs Sek aabe SBE aE I eEEee Mortarand! plasters < 222 soc atesctenasescen cots CHAITS een cern moet cciom scl cece Mec cee es BUCLEODUIGOI Ce pGurmcctesciccetelsisisesieitee eaieienie er POvaEMISCEUEAMCOUS etc ac cm comin toe wclereeeee Total regular expenditure.................. Total lecture-hall expenditure ............. Total expenditure Balance July 1, 1901 | Regular. $95. 00 311. 65 388. 42 106. $8, 095. 28 587. 00 167. 75 345. 43 | Lecture hall. $547. 50 | -13 39 - 00 3. 25 480. 00 331.00 | $1, 374. 67 $1, 922.17 Total. $8, 642. 78 $6, 780. 99 $15, 403. 77 2, 096, 23 FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1901. Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation. 290 days, at $3 236 days, at $3 127 days, at $3 100 days, at $3 90 days, at $3 78 days, at $3 34% days, at $3 34} days, at $3 33 days, at $3 26 days, at $3 19 days, at $3 183 days, at $3 Boe! GENUS SI) fe eS ho ee, ho ae ee re TNSTN GESTS HT PE SSA, Di gl Petes PI a pee a ee ee ee ee 50 . 00 . 00 . 00 3. 00 . 00 300. 00 270. 00 234. 00 103. 50 102. 75 99. 00 . 00 . 00 .50 . 00 os] it 2) or “TI = bo XXXVIII OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Mskalledtlaborer o months at Podesta ee $416. 65 Iskilled laborer, 1 month; at $7252 months) at $60). 5. 222s) ae = 192. 00 iskilledMaborer sam omit his ONG aiyisieetied yey eee eee 431. 38 i¢skalled laborer, l04idaysmatipZasssca- ae oes ce ee aes ee ee 208. 00 Ikskalledilaborers a4 dalysy ati h2 es ae cree ete See = ree 108. 00 Eskilleddaborer;, dOdaysvatip2ee says ss cee aoe eee ee ene ee 20. 00 Lpalmter, ‘Sermon nessa te piesa re ee eee are yee ere ee 375. 00 Lworkman, 236:days; at olsii 22s sce aa eee eee epee 413. 00 Ilaborer;:49 days yat: Sle sO sets eee = seat ars te eee ales i ea reer 73. 50 J laborer; 45:days:;ateb1.50052-55= sas cee Seater eres eee eee eee 67. 50 I laborers 27adaysi ati Pilea 0 Se Se eg re ea eee 40. 50 1 painter, 1 month, at $75 1 carpenter, 45 days, at $3 1 carpenter, 27 days, 1 carpenter, 20 days, 1 carpenter, 18 days, 1 skilled laborer, 1 skilled laborer, 1 laborer, 27 at $3 2H ORVE 380. @e. cece sas eee ae eee po ne ee ee DHE ERUSWIC it Vaserterints Stas orcs Ge ee a aoe aa SCO RARE TE GAS Sat BUS 0 ys 0 Saya ae ep eae ove fees ce FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1900. RECEIPTS. Balance as per report July 1, 1900 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] 60. 54. 54. 48. 00 40. 50 547. 50 | Regular. Galleries. | Total. Miscellaneous: Drawers strays; Cte: saccto2n ye weauioeseecisce csc net Ve0.e Bsosanrecccs $7.50 PARTIC) cee tas cctye es ee ae Eb een | $141.76 141. 76 CIEE Goa ban dR OREN Ee ane Toure oee GOCE Ee orn coer sollovacapeaos=cl| 28. 80 28. 80 HSTGWATCR sccsaes eee ae ces ce ea soe eae eraseereee 121.91 | 18. 62 140. 53 ROO ISAs a sis tec eicia a tet oe ee a oe ee ET 4654) sass etsierste eee 14.65 Clothes Site Soe ee eee TOR2O Gao Sees 10. 25 Glass rare cris ets Secis nee ecmremene eee ee ren ese A224 eet ea aee es 41. 22 1Dithi el) o(s 0 Gena aa enn RECs oE Sr non MERCER came eeme 14. 44 7. 66 112.10 Pai tS ieee rs oan = cre lene ale eee ae eRe 205768 eae eee 20.76 Offic esturnitore'ss.2 < 32s seca ses ae seeeateoseeainas hi) oscsccoonese 9. 50 ITOMUDTACKeTS terns sme cee oC ae emcee aren caterers Si (daponscs eaeecer oy a PAPEL Yess ce Shae ity sider ar one ie Ns soe eee cee uae 80! OO Sate eases 30. 00 PI OUD aoe cere ee baie cide ses clasts sie ne etoetioeeie wee 2) 60 tee seeesaoe 2.60 276. 55 286. 84 $563. 39 Balance July 190 hs acc cs5 ce ets ace ck Seics alot cic wre 8 cies os ore eee ee ee eee sie 11.85 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. ©: 6.40.4 FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1900. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress, act of-March 3,°1899 .................--.-. $25, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1899, to June 30, 19 1.] | | Regular. | Galleries. Total. =. Services: | DAlaies Or COMPeNsapiOM ee ecere one seeises © WEEP O08. |) $d) 91850! | asec c cee DDECIASCTVICES cacivier cee siaciate cieismereeeis cine sel=ial Mls224 \lsscccebp=adca lScoos5550cce Hietalicercicestene ec saan eae eae 7,880.99 | 3,918.50 | $11,799. 49 Miscellaneous: | | XM UDUGOMUCASCS!s 2 ctsrererstoier sae sacle ciciecceisine oncie SE(AO00N BE sanaaeae se lseeerecee se MLOLAL CICASESE mrarsterata on cine aleve ose a le’lersie S shais'e os aiefo 533.50 | 1,587.00} 2,987.50 DTAWErS@LLAVS Wels. tackles csi oe cisieseeciasas.s 402. 40 2,068.50 | 2,470.90 Hrames ands wood workgeess = 2s ceesescs 2 .cciessis 282.72 | 286.78 569. 50 (CHI RSR eee eae eileen Se ere ineiseae Sok cis sles 1, 166. 57 | 778.20 | . 1,944.77 Var iw iv C's fea neys ses se misiaieeoraneints Meee seieitaeaisine 726. 86 | 647. 95 1,374, 81 FOO] SE eee eee ee ae a te eae Sasi 151.84 4. 60 156. 44 Othe Bese pe oes eesiate ney Serer Sem ecet cs ieee 68. 56 14. 00 2. 56 (GIDTS hing) SSepobes cdansseecabeat ce asecseanenete 2642 0S aisecee eee. | 264. 03 WMD eR arere sere nese cc nce tacos er eaescoones 1,189. 87 672.02 | 1,861.89 BAINES AOU MeLC nase atone aas pete eeeraetion eile j 537.61 4.00 | 541. 61 OPT CeMUrNITUTe? © 2 sore ctoe nce oo ce sie sigeianenies AAD 00 Mixes Sees 442.00 heatherand.rubbers:. 28s: ct o.ce5 -02 secs see eee 88.45 8.16 96. 61 | NrOMyDTACK CS sae rasee see sem sere a siemens MOrOOH Wacecisesere = 75.09 | Drawings fOr Cases)... can asec ose cacetosensoe 1M EPG pSeaeceocece 143.75 Slatercement 7etes-cack she com cocnetoee eae soee SOOO ease seat oe 35. 50 SAAC eee says sire orc cenit e tae sialenaise eiauiee ee DA OOH Seana 2.00 MATL LEU Se Saker seeisieths ar aaeianarreoe ns Wasco LOPES cee es oe 107.10 | RY POR Hc cece neces Dens oes aocser Si Scea ee ccctesone B30J005|5= Be cer sae 30. 00 LINO DI Seba Sh oaccaood don NO STdoneOncnnc coon HeTeel 2S 60% |e csc eseic. 2. 60 2 ee Totalirer wlan ysecre sass loco ccs ee SS | 14, 998, 44. otaleralleniesy. = saee teen aoe meee eee hel eee cei tocisic 9, 989. 71 | RotalrexpenGditures' << oe cesec soc eke cows I catereveivele oven llass Shere accreeres. RESBeESorese $24, 988. 15 Bel ae enya lel Ole ere eee nee a aE ee Ry EI el ug | Peas Svat Srl aterSf 11.85 FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1899. Balance lye O00, ase perilast PEpOrtije ns 5.525262 c ences ess hsee $1.35 Balance carried, under provisions of section 3090, Revised Statutes, by the Treas- ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—HEATING AND LIGHTING, ETC., 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and telephonic service for the National Museum, including $3,500 for electric installa- hon: (sindry civiltactsune:6, 1900)... 52s. 22s es esse ease $17, 500. 00 EXPENDITURES, REGULAR. {July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Salaries or compensation ............-- $6,097. 07 SWECCIMNSER VICES Sra eee veces ne 64. 60 MRO talesetyl Cespemee eles ree so lees $6, 161. 67 XL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Miscellaneous: Coaltandiwood =o sss eee $3, 531. 85 Geyer tater yy ee eet ne alssil, C0, Rentalkorcallls boxes ee 100. 00 Blectricalisuppliesssssss-2ee2 2s == 311. 44 Mlectricity As sesso ce ees Alene leatinorsup plies === eee 501. 71 Peleoramig ys ss 3 ee ee eee 29.17 Melephonese ese ser acess eee 434. 65 Total miscellaneous, regular............-.- $6, 518. 43 Total. regulanexpenditure see. oe see eee ee ee ee $12, 680. 10 ELECTRIC INSTALLATION. RECEIPTS. Appropriation, ‘“* * * including $3,500 for electric installation.”’ EXPENDITURES. Salaries or compensation....-....-.---- $858. 40 Speciallisenvices sec sss eee oe eee 3. 00 Ota Servi Ces! ast See ates eee eee $861. 40 Miscellaneous: Dirawinwec ose es eee pee 55. 50 : SUlp DIGS eee te ae eee aoe rane 1, 631. 36 MOO1S* ee ee ee Se eee 20. 14 Wioodiwork =o Ssn5) Secs seer 328. 30 Mravels sete Sees Nee ae eee 35. 11 Total miscellaneous installation .........-- 2, 070. 41 Totaliinstallation expenditure==3-4220-4eo eee ee $2, 931. 81 Notaliexpenditure 2225-25552 e0r a> sere see eee eee ee ee $15, 611. 91 Balance July 1, W90MS a eee Ore cree ae eee ee 1, 888. 09 HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1901. Analysis of expenditures for salaries or compensation. Me Craveanaverese, IP) Kanvaranol ars) Cay CHIPPAe ae oo ee cnc sseelecse ese $1, 470. 00 1 telephone operator, 5 months, 17 days, at $40; 169 days at Pil Nae SNe, oS i Sle Serre pegs eee er ee 475. 44 IW itheeoonm, 2 waves GIBCO) sac on coe aga do se soessouenese Pai 720. 00 1 fireman, 12 months, at $55 _....-- PUR che ee aire Lats GUD a oe ot 660. 00 ekilledtlalporent sian rity S salty ee eee 900. 00 iskilledMaboner) L2 months ata Gees eee ene 780. 00 l-laborerso0veidays, at OL2702 5. S34-2oeeee eeeeee aeeaee 538. 13 (laborer 2osidan ss ati hil: 5 Olesen eee 357. 00 laborer szodayss ab pleoOl: Sse 5st ee ee ee 37.50 1 coal passer, 106 days, at $1.50 -...--.-- Uae an, eae ee ee ee 159. 00 $6, 097. 07 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Electric installation: 1 acting electrical foreman, 5 months, at $83.33.... .....- i stleduabonrermmle Wayerrab pose 2 5 Soest) Se ees L Gia borera (acdays.patepl OUD se. tet e Sh See IPL bONe rama s nat peor anes cece ok ee ae at Se IST ADOLEK nO LIOUYS nab plsO0n te es Aen Sle oe Se 2 one lelabonera4 se ans salem ol oe es. ent e Ge ee IlaboreiselOprcdavrcs rately 0eee went tee Se ee. HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1900. RECEIPTS. alancerasspen LepOLi sly el 900) Mean sae a So eee. EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Miscellaneous: $858. 40 S561. 96 Coalgamdan Oot see ee a eee eiise scares ae het $17. 36 (COS ae soe hera sos tea shee Soe ONS ene Re ee ee 83. 00 Rentaltotreallgboxess wes isn ie a Se sss 20. 00 PSC erica Eup plbne ae tin Si eat t ey ta ec lk ok 99. 05 UC CERICME = ee fee = Se eee ees RAN no ace Sketch 82. 99 camo SSUpPUIES sof Sse kee Sob Se eee ete 52 See lon 39. 00 seem rain Senay sae eye Arse aren a ee oe Faia Ss 20. 75 elepuonesie eee erne baa iao St oe eee Bit eo he kel 199. 79 MobalemiscellaweGus seston a ee ee ke ee $561. 94 Tbh kenayereial uM es ASTO NDE Ses = Bas Ss eee ne ee mOe Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress July 1, 1899 (act of March 3, 1899) -...-..-- $14, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.] Shilswotes! Oe Gon SMSO see ee oer ae Soe ae $6, 676.265 SWEMIANServicess...62 0.22640 oe Oe papal sey oo pe = 8. 00 PRO CAESER VI Geshe ae oie ce ett art en ae ee SRS 36, 684. 65 Miscellaneous: Coals hwo Cerne en a2 See ee eae es 33, 666. 45 CS eS ae ole Ser ree REP On cen mle ere ie 1, 208. 10 Remcleokcallywoxes= sees ee eee access sees 120. 00 BT eebnicalesuiy Messe se ese ee 644. 45 UE Cin Citys ee see ies ey eee ee 332. 76 LalCeeeibibaves (Syl) ol ULetS Sees Sesh os ais oe erie oe 723. 53 eRe leo rari See eye eee eae aca Tea T? Seeles 37. 60 Rel ep NOM ese aee eee ore ee ee A 582. 44 Motalemnscellamecouss -2--- 5552--2---2 Se ne eS ly GLOn Oo Biota) Rex Wem CONGUE G en eer en ey Se ape). ee Bas ole Uw Barmera $13, 999. 98 Balance July 1, 1901___-_-: ee 5 Gea eM a ah anh ne oe 02 XLII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. HEATING AND LIGHTING, 1899. Balaneerdnalyalee L900 S aspera las tne 100 1 ee a $0. O1 Balance carried, under provisions of section 3090, Revised Statutes, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901 NATIONAL MUSEUM—POSTAGE, 1901 RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘ for post- age stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum’’ (sund Centntg ll tec: Voy card lb a OVS o}sael OS) 00) Ptemee termes eh ee | te eolins ple PRS le te eee Jas EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901. ] Horpostagerstamnps cam CkCair CS sey ee NATIONAL MUSEUM—PRINTING AND BINDING, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks and for the ‘Bulletins’ and ‘Proceedings’ of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding in half turkey or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National Museum library’’.......-- EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Builetinsyotsthe insets sae oa ee $4, 945. 47 IProrgeohboresy Or wave: Wilbsewhin 545d oe cd cco ccccesceeocosucese 8, 076. 74 MAD Cl Sit yachts Spero ec a Oe eee 584. 82 IBY OY = eee oe ee eS Sayan eae s Soe Seto a 202. 72 1 DOA 2) Koy 01s ee se en eRe Cert os ter Se eee SAE 44. 60 OER 0 ee Goren, ARS, NPR nee eee pee mate Te oe a Oa ase ois 2 50. 09 Birdies: bss Fe 226s Se ee ee eee eee eee eee 1, 412.13 Congressional Record’ > ...sSc55 5: Usee = oo ee eae eee 16. 00 @oneressronalidocuments = a5-eap eee ee eee ee eee 188. 34 IR@POLb jeeee 4252 = = See eae ee ere eee 7. 61 Totaltexpenditures''.. 5. =. 22a see see see ee ae oa oe eee Balance: Juli Oi. Bees keene scree te = ce eee a ee NATIONAL MUSEUM—RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1901. RECEIPTS. ry -- $500. 00 $17, 000. 00 Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for } } “ fo) d to) ’ ’ rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National Museumiea(sumdnyacuvaltacty JiimeiG e900) pees se ene tee $4, 040. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLII EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Rent of workshops and storage quarters: Novato li NinthestreetiSiWisas sc. o.2- 2. 6 oes coe eels es $1, 999. 92 iINOmecilfmsevenblinstreetio Wis ta5e- 025 220 soca once tea yeeee 1, 080. 00 INGtolSulenthEstreetiSWia e252. 25 hs 2c 5 So 600. 00 INGE OlomVaroimiaravenuers VW (ear) se-- a. =o soe = esse 360. 00 Shasta Meee MN RULE OMe eeepc ko oan a oak oe ee ee ce $4, 039. 92 akan cers ulive MOO Meee Ro! See eee in ea ee ae. eee wee ee 08 RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1900. PenauMCeras PEETE POLL Mutya NOO0 222s oteo oss Sol ee se Soe hk eel $0. 08 Islemnes Twili Ths ILS egy a Seer ees Sees Sete eee ere een ae .08 RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1899. Penceas per last reporhJsuly f, W900i 2: S225) 52222 bs 2 So. Leal beaten: $110.08 Balance carried, under the provisions of the Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—BUILDING REPAIRS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for repairs to the buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ- ing repairs of roof, and for all necessary labor and material’? (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Salaries Or: Compensation... 2.2: 4ace-2 5.2222 See $7, 661. 44 SOSGCN AAMT See Se ay eke eh re eee 442. 85 MO falasenvilcede ea ee, Wee Ss eee ees een $8, 104. 29 Miscellaneous: dierrazzouan stiles OOnsie ee Eee cee eas 6 $2, 037. 01 ILjeuam| OYie S Ae See epee ee Oe ee 286. 57 Wement, eravel” sand) ete 2 ocr 222 522 2252 555,2 = 475. 60 ardwarerandsiOoolgemssseesee 2 soe se oo. see. 170. 79 IPRA, OE Joost. Sob ae ees ese eee ee 229. 79 Skeyliehtsiandayentlil atoms soe sess sano. soe 240. 00 Steel plates, angles, panels, etc.....----.---:- 1, 122. 09 AD Trea ela Orgs ee ee eee ee ye ey ci ee © eg NE ee 281.50 BWC ET GSTS Mees epuncs Meee ees oy Sy ea dea Oe : 41. 26 Mra Vellecs22% arts 2 ‘lp siren Oe Oa a sere 52. 30 NWO OG WOT kane pet ee ee Se SE 242. 62 TTA) Ria eee eS see aan hear QIRRE = ee 59. 50 CSS UeE epee pated emer el tan A ales Fae 21 3. 80 Decorating walls and ceilings...........-....- 767. 90 Motalemiscellameousess sso sec. onsee eos es ss aa 6, 010. 78 airbox pendninnes: nen soe. t =e =. SSeS. Nos ne nie $15, 000. 00 $14, 115. 07 884. 95 XLIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. BUULDING REPAIRS, 1901. desuperintendentee2emonib kl see alto 0) ee eee eee een $500. 00 1 superintendent of construction, 3 months, at $127.50 .___--- 382. 50 1 stenographer and typewriter, 22 days, at$2..._.........--.- 44. 00 Iscarpenter2d45 Mays ats paves ahs ae eee a weer nee 702. 75 UR Carpembersl OO id ays ceitrdest es ee are ae ayia OW) Hl enigoysinrere, IBY E ORME CIRC 2255 sccuscsasececccseposoceeuss 317. 25 carpenter SOM day Staal trpaistys oe eye eee et ee 240. 00 jhcarpenteri/8: days; sab: Pore sees ae ee ee ee 234. 00 Icarpenter<26idayayatibors ese ae a eee ene eens eee 78. 00 Icarpenter wl 2idaysia tis eos see ie as eee 36. 00 carpenter: WOidays sat pon. san = eee ere oe ae eet ae ne eee 30. 00 lixcarpenter.c4. dayssatipots asa os oat ee eee ne eee ye ee 12.00 Ibricklayer,-9\ daysi at, pate ee 6 ee Ey ee 36. 00 I bnicklayers9-daysyatieds 55 4a esac oe eae eee 36. 00 1 plumber; /48-days,jat-p3: 0008 su a> he sae se eee eee 168. 00 iSpainter, Samonths lordays, ab O70) sess ere = eee 262. 50 hiworkmian,) (Sid ays: ati Les Oise = aia oe ete te ee 136. 50 1 skilled laborer, 10 months, 423 days, at $70.-.---....--..--- 795. 97 1 skilled laborer, 4 months, 19 days, at $65....-..._-...----- 301. 17 1 skilledwlaborer- 124) days nati pos=25 555555 Soe ce eee 249. 00 Le Skaled ila ponerse arm Om la Save tii 0) steer ge 240. 00 Ie skilledelalsorer sill 33a eisycse ct tab 2 epee ee eer ee 237. 00 skilled: laborer, 043 days. aati b2eee oss see ee ee eee 189. 00 _ Ieskiiled@laboner.2amonthevatipSasco m= eee ee 166. 66 lgskilled laborers 43 +16 eycsm al tre 2p ene tee eee 87. 00 Mskilledlaborer 28vday Svatiaore = 256 seer ae eee 84. 00 skalled@laiboner eZ 5xclaiys': cite 2a ae eee eaten 50. 00 ieskalledwlaborer 20 e140 ays saith o 2\-e ee eee 41.00 teskillledMlaborerw4 pad aiyist aur h 2s sere eae ee ee 9. 00 laborers. days, able (0). 52) see ea ae er ee eee 135. 63 IPlaboreroleedays ate pil jon eee ees ee ee ree 59.138 ilabonern2o a5 .Caysi cis pile 0 0 ee sepa ee ee een 389. 75 iSlaborers225 daysoatepl 5022 =e fae ne ee ee een ee 337. 50 lal ore rs AAG ays ble oy Oe oyna ere eee 261.38 imlaborerwS6idaysat:oll 0084 asec ee eer ee Seer ae ee 129. 00 telaborerStdaystauplb0Gs 22 2c ca eee ee len eee 121.50 ilaborer: Slidays vat. pl’.o0): Soe se see Ree ee 121.50 laborers 443 idaysratipl 0b sees Saat es a ee oe 66. 75 I lalborengs Orc ary. seren bre lsc 0) Spee 45. 00 i daborerw4idays at; pleo0. 2. <8 see ae aoe eee ee ee 6. 00 BUILDING REPAIRS, 1900. RECEIPTS. Balanceias;permeportydiulliy lV On peas a eee le cee EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] Tron-columns 2 Sie eres Oe maar eee n= ae eet ne eee eee $98. 45 Glass 2a= Ss Se fae ee Sepa eee ee as ot ee 4.00 Miscellaneousswoodiworkwee ae ~c ssc ne eee 60. 00 Cement,vcravel: morta plaster: ee ee eee 45.77 $7, 661. 44 $251. 07 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLV Th Lage iSite SS eo ee oe a $15. 50 [PANDY a ato Gere cd SRS Sey enc Levee ee ne ee eS ee 1.50 IDNR ates ee aval ol EN NGe ees Soe er eS ee en le ee ee 25. 00 ANoie Nh Ses Bot oe ic 6 Lh ea a it ee om ge OR a ae a $250. 22 Baleee ilyanlegl OO Mean) oo = en sees See eos oes 85 BUILDING REPAIRS, 1900. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. MEpropriavionsby. Congress Marchy3, 1899". oss... os end shack dk eek $6, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1901.] Services: Salnies Or COMpPeNsaulOnee eae se ee eee ieee. oe $1, 833. 55 Miscellaneous: PRCTELAZZ ORO OTSe eat een eee ee Sees ee eee $2, 166. 3 Cement, sand, mortar, lime, gravel, etc ___.-_-- 299. 22 VIGZITRG RENO yan oe a BN hae ey ge ae ee i See emg 58. 94 TERMS SPH ORG E CONT ISI OS ete leg ieee tee aa 101. 82 (GES ase Se SAS se Se le Ae ea Ge ee 162. 31 Steelupeamsrand angles 22) a kw ee a 457. 23 lmonycolumins 24-22 = = Sea ee gene ~ 98. 45 Drawings, decorating walls, ete..........---+-- 392. 25 Clotimomcs papery sake ee ce need fe eee 19. 88 Woorsramcanvo) imo peer vee eae ee 320. 20 ILO OS Phen Seen eit Sexe. hes aege so Rape een ee RR, len oe 65. 06 AER Gig Sipe ee aan ey iy ante oy ARE Saleen we hee 493 Removing dirt ---- eee Bes reas So) bees see ee 10. 00 Rotalemuscellameousmase wea a ee ee ole 4, 165. 60 MO falke xem acne sie eaeet tent pet ee ae Se ee ori Se Se $5, 999. 15 Balancer Il ygel ep (ite eee heer ete etn ol ie ee Sa . 85 BUILDING REPAIRS, 1899. are ASE OEE LOM ONb ed Ml yell eh OOO rater tet WG fot ae ES lige e's $0. 91 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—GALLERIES, 1899. RECEIPTS. Sal inGOey jovoreagey Norn Kola AKO) seals ks a oe ae ee eee $205. 79 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] TRB TR OW AA Le SP Ete ee be Sa RE OI cake Be gg a a $205. 12 TERR LTAU EE cs ee eR lt eg a ee 67 Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. XLVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. GALLERIES, 1899. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. Appropriation lon? Crormernese/ dimly Mele 4 8 see oo cae Soe be saesedss eect $10, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1901.) Sse yares) ore Corny SRI eo sccsedccascdecoecdscansescosceus $940. 56 iRamsomeranchtes™ -24 sos pets Sere ee tara een 1, 609. 38 SEROIN A, (01g cea See Sa ook = i eS Sore ene 3, 027. 35 ‘qNerinaw7ae) iovel taney ole Wha oes = alae sok eee se shcccmeseseeces 1, 295. 09 EE Ar Ciw ane satis OOS) 5k Seer ee ose ee ee ee ee 54. 56 By UN a0 OYe) eee es ike ee een eo ye ley eae ear oe Cee See 108. 34 @ement Seles 224 ne Ae ee See ae Bee See ee eres ee 234. 45 lO rengnnoyegs) yal lols) TOMAS soc fea sesessodceccose sssccesercs 85. OO HAGAN oS) OY Scere ares Sete ee IR a ete nite neo 2 ey ee se 61. 07 IPS eaih ra ans eS pe ee ek ee pt k = 0s en pe a a eet re 25. 65 3 Ke els eee aaa pee Ret ar ee ae, Seti St eS ee ERS by altace Pe 46. 00 WO OC WOT sata ses sce oa ie aR tla Bees Vs gee iy tps pS Se 156. 00 COE Nag Toh Be oe ener Src Rey gens on yes Oe yes eo eumene 29. 21 SS Kaye osbartiy atta les emit et tr ea eee 1, 782. 20 Ae Ge) Mp ea ec cao es a PU at ES ey Rea bre Men DE, Coe ayes eo ma ie 23.10 Shee ti ores ae Sie eet ee ee es ae ec ede pean er ee ee Pees I? PAO Ne payee = eet ore pA bse ag gi eae peta neetcy Spee (egestas ye 5. 25 Totalvexpendi tutes’: = 2-2 a5. 4 ees eee eee Soe ee ee $9, 999. 33 NB AU ATA COs ae ee Sage eo ey a en A I ie ee eG 67 Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—2ZOOKS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘“‘for purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the National Museum” (sundry civil act, Jume 6, 1900)---.---..---.--..-- $2, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals from July 1, 1900, to JUME BON MOO Wass se es Spe Ere ec, i ee ne Ne SS ee a eee $1, 141. 96 Balance: July L, 190M. 222s ose Ne ee oe Se eo acl eee 858. 04 BOOKS, 1900. RECEIPTS. Balance:as per xreport.J uly) 15 1900) 25 ayes a eee $878. 72 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals from July 1, 1900, to Jume:30; WOOL S ees Le cle eee a oe ee ee eee eee eee 5848. 08 Balance Jilly 4l,-901-5 ok ee ace sete le a ere ee 30, 64 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLVII BOOKS, 1900. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress March Bl ONO eth estan a UE eh al $2, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1899, to July 80, 1901.] Kor purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals. ........-...-----.---- $1, 969. 36 Balancermvralesl OO lee ee eee eseene eee ee Oe acoee es 30. 64 BOOKS, 1899. RECEIPTS. balances penreporta Ulyel wlO00 Sse 28: ose ee A Suse see aS aL $25. 08 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals ............-.---.--- $17. 25 TEEN be oyeret es i Se eet Be aes ENS red He A Pe) Ey ee Nea 7. 83 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas- ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. BOOKS, 1899. Total statement of receipts and expenditures. RECEIPTS. mppropriation by Congres Jul yeh, 1898. = ase. 22 2... sein. 22s eas ss $2, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1901.] For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals -...-.-----..------- $1, 992. 17 BiH ein ee ie Pais ee Se a ae aE a tes ete any aa ee ne 7.83 Balance carried, under provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treas- ury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. NATIONAL MUSEUM—PURCHASE OF SPECIMENS, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the National Museum”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) ...-....--...---- $10, 000. 00 EXPENDITURES. [July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901.] GTP [OKIE nGislou ERIS) oY a1 e1010 (G10 a ae eee Se ey a a $6, 941. 44 issnleme@eid fnllyy al save 0s epee ee es lie ee a eg es eee Peres ae 3, 058, 56 XLVIIL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, “for maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assisfants, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and publishing results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscellaneous expenses, twelve thousand dollars’”’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) -...---._.---. See 2 000800 DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: i eivol, ates oavernuiavels BING Gs sob oes Seosoebece $2, 100. 00 i @lerelicy Il sanvouminlol, aunts 8 ee ee se ae 125. 00 1 junior assistant, 12 months, at $110 .....---- 1, 320. 00 1 stenographer, 12 months, at $100 ........-.-- 1, 200. 00 1 instrument-maker, 9 months, at $80.......-- 720. 00 il taeeetonghol, UA venorndnss Bi5 tO) S52) ese ee 600. 00 1 photographer, 29 days, at $4.50. ........---- 130. 50 5icarpenters; 22 days; at $352. 22-2 3a5--- eee 66. 00 2 painters:6days; at-p2-00 22s) pte eee 16. 80 2epainters;6 daysat 25-232 nee meee 12. 00 1 skilled laborer, 43 days, at $70 per month -. - 10. 16 [laborem ord ayewali pile Ose soe eee aoe 8. 75 6 laborers, 983 days, at $1.50 -......---- Nerf 147. 75 In@eevercy Ma Cen ss Mintle. = seschcassasesea- 166. 00 Dotalesalaniestonicompensation= ase —see— essa = === a $6, 622. 96 General expenses: Apparatus’ so 222505828225. See ea $1, 417. 43 BOOKS = Bea e er eee, aes ee eee ee eee 98. 69 Bleetricpower see. = eer eee noe 116. 70 Breleliti= 23558 2 oss ee eee 5. 00 UENVO = Le eee ma eee ne el rr eee eS es 61. 80 Drawinesiand allustrations ees sss 16. 40 Towmiber*: as tassios esis See ee Rea eS 19. 88 Reportsits sos Sess Se ee, Sey eee eee 3, 106. 34 Stavlonen\y. supplies etc sete ese 321. 98 ray elinevexpensese aaa sae sey cra eee eee 133. 02 — 5, 297. 24 otal dishursements).2 + 22 Seer eB eee oes Besigk es e pe eam ees $11, 920. 20 Ballarice Vidi sep MOOR eas 2 iy a Se ae orate el ee Sec Sem ae 79. 80 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1900. Balancorialliy aN OO sashes tere [oO Urea eee $1, 215. 78 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: Apparatus... S202 so.le essa. Stoo ee ee eee $880. 00 Books! aye tecnar Se Re re ee eee 30. 42 Freight. 22: S225 ee A eae re ee eee 18. 86 Piel = 286 cee ere ee Sees So oe ee ee ee ee ere 27.30 Dra wiles; eee eee = oe eee Se eee ene ere eee 20. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLIX General expenses—Continued. RCL RIG ROMO ete toe eee he a Sis ee LS Saco e ak $54. 59 Vo ESB) AYEEP ius ths Ba 3 Se 8 SOO ae 3. 36 Poniacermne telemrapiers ee 2. 2sss. 52 okie Peed 99 SEA ROSS aot ho ee rr 6. 00 SU) DOIN ES Ee eth WS am I as res 154. 27 Pravelingiexpenseses ot. 4... 22e use Sees eee 17. 00 AMO UA LGU) OUTS ENOTES OLS) = i ee ne See eR oe en eee $1, 212. 79 alan CorUily elles oe Pees oe es op 2 sect heap Se eee 2, 99 ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1899. mulaniee aden last report, uly!) 19003. 202.82. yo. 2222... $3. 97 Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1901. OBSERVATION OF ECLIPSE OF MAY 28, 1900. a Paice uly, L00sas per last report. 22 50622. .- 202s se. es ee nee sk ese $1, 529. 20 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: ATOY OSTA ETS alone a Re A Ree ee ee $437. 64 “Pike ni rs ee es Re ee ye 62. 75 SEU DS i ee ee A a on 47. 39 telephone and telegraph 5.32 a5-2 2.52 ccs 42s. 2.2 bee. 33. 48 ‘TESENNSY LONE AM BUT AES Ske ah SE te eee ee ee 3. 00 Mraweleanduheldsexanenses\= Secale ee cele e oo sc ck oe 189. 20 IMOLEPTRGG ECS) COUURS' Ss 1S" SST ea ee ee oe $773. 46 Ballanc egal vale O Pee eee ee Ree es ote oe 2 5 oe a cies 750. 74 NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1901. RECEIPTS. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, ‘‘for continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage and drainage; and for grading, planting, and otherwise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclos- ures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals, includ- ing salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, seventy-five thousand dollars; one-half of which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States; and of the sum hereby appropriated, five thousand dollars shall be used for con- tinuing the entrance into the Zoological Park from Cathedral avenue, and opening driveway into Zoological Park, including necessary grad- ing and removal of earth: Provided, That the unexpended balance of the amounts, aggregating eight thousand dollars, heretofore appropriated for widening, grading, and regulating Adams Mill road from Columbia road to the Zoological Park entrance, is hereby reappropriated, to be expended under the direction of the Commissioners of the District of Columbia; and that the control of Adams Mill road is hereby vested in the said Commissioners, and all proceedings necessary to purchase sm 1901——1IVv L REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. or condemn the land necessary to widen said road as authorized by act approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-nine, providing for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred, and for other purposes, shall be taken by said Commissioners’’ (sundry civil act, June 6, 1900) ___.-- DISBURSEMENTS. Salaries or compensation: 1 superintendent, 12 months, at $225 ___.._..- l property clerk, 12 months, at $150 ©2...22 2... Ko aavVoOrawlas, GENO fos seas kee eee N AUSmancoyoudare, anne nlO) 3 ps Se J copy istwi2 months: at Po0ees sea eee COPVISt OIA Sati pileo Oke er ee eee enn 1 clerk | | ] stenographer, 12 months, at $62.50.__..__-.- 1 head keeper, 12 months, at $100 -......___.- keepers lin ont hist alte pO Oem ee ene keeper, l2imonths at oO esse see ee Iskeeperwilcmmonths sabi O 0 lana ae eae keepers sl 2imrombhist alo 0 ee eee 1 landscape gardener, 53 months, at $75; 2 IMO UIOS is} CANS, Bis Okeke soocoseesoadase sae assistant foreman, 6 months, at $60; 6 months, ALD OOS een ote Oe SU A cyan eer a ee a Wate miami 2 TOM bOS eat ho eee ae WAKG aoa, IP) iaoroudaey hasta -- 2.25 5) ommon ths atin 0s nee \ \6 months, at $55_..........__-.- J blacksmith al imomthstaitih (eee ees assistant blacksmith, 12 months, at $60... _.- ‘Ounlcaaaceya, WA sinoyaydolsy Shr eNol, 9-3. Le cove renaveval, WP) rmnvoyanorss, fue GO). 545. 22552-55-- laisonens L2mionths ate hol mee eae ue laborer, 103 months and 9 days, at $50 ..__-- laborer? MVOMCM Salt po 0 ee eee ea ( 6 months, at $55 J watchman, laborerwalils sna ont ns aiiicno 0 eyes eeneee cnet laborer, 23 months and 12 days, at $20 _.:-.. $2, 700. 1, 800. 10) 00 1, 200 601. 750. 720. 720. 630. 900. 720. 720. 600. - 00 ~ 90 790. 200. 720. 720. 720. 720. 00 00 OO OO 00 00 Total salariesior compensations sos ee eee Miscellaneous: Bunldimos 4 18s ea see se eee ee ge a ee Bunlichim sama tera ees a oe eee eee (CamMmenas S22 won tees ie ee, ee Se Fencing, cage materials, etc. ..........2.2.-24 FOC ras s1e 2h ss he a ee en ee Machinery, tools, ete Miscellaneous Paints, oils, glass, ete Bostage, andstelegraphaeess— 5.5) sssse4 see eee 363. 1, 099. 8, 745. $20, 498. 40 375, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Miscellaneous—Continued. Rimnehaseyoiecaminoatseree see see 2 ee chee $2, 634. 68 Road matenialsiandseradime 2.2.02. ..22.25- 981. 61 SlAOMeryrPOOONSMELC Ha: Se ele. 42 oe ae tS 133. 63 DURVEWINO, PIAS CRO ne. a Lk ro Base as Se 622. 00 Traveling and field’expenses .........-...---- 454. 41 iirGessaplamigneiCersesem eter Sac cims esas soe wes 13. 10 \Watensupply. sewerapes etc +.---. 2.525: 222-- 502. 32 Mota lemiscellaneouste- | soo sek hale ois ee AE $21, 460. 33 Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in constructing buildings and inclosures, laying water pipes, building roads, gutters, and walks, planting trees, and otherwise improving the grounds: | carpenter, 56 Gays alts pomeascre Seles Seer ate 168. 00 ivcarpenter, 295 days; at do io. es os: 522225225 24 88. 50 iecarpenter, 29 days) atiho 2. 2. 26. esos 5s. - 87. 00 ikcarpenter, 20 days.cat pov s. scenes te oes bs 81. 00 { carpenter, 24 days, at‘$3 .-:.....-.--.---. 72. 00 vearpenter, 14 days at Po 220552... 42.00 1 carpenter, 13 days, at'$3 s02...2.-. se. 39. 00 i carpenter, 305 days, ab po... 4252.2 eS Se 118. 50 iWeanpenter; 295 days, sat pots. 2262s eee eS 88. 50 i earpenter, 292 days; atGo a5. 2250. 23. hs 88. 50 i carpenter, 24 days, at $3 i...5..25. 2.2... a 72. 00 livcarpenter: 8 days, at $d oo. S232 es. 24. 00 ivcarpenter; 295 days) at $3.- 225 a5 022 ee 22S 88. 50 tearpenter, 2975 days, at $3 222220. . 2: 2. 2. 892. 50 iepaimter 18i.days, at por. {fea cee 54. 00 jlaborer, 5} days, at $1.50) \painter, 71} days, at $3_. j iRpeUNnen 74 GAYS waibipa sass stare festa 12. 00 ienpaiitters tdays. dio je eee eee eee. Se. 12.00 iepainter, So days ab poco: 2-5 5.2.2. eee 9. 00 Il qalinaVave Gis" GENTS Blt SO) oe oa be eo sores 88. 12 iMaborer) 36a days: at p2-002 2525252525552 5 52+ 912. 50 IMabonern yl Ait day sivath pao 0 sprees) aes ee ree a 302. 50 Ilabonern 2837-0 ays pa sees te = 2 a ei 567. 50 IlaDonern soon Gan serch sea ye ees 730. 00 NGlalborer wor anSeauthons es ae eee ee eee 12. 00 __ fil days, at $2 -._.- i ; 1 laborer (2643 days, at $1.50 retin 7 gach sie rigs #19. 14 i orcas aie) GANS, lis (HIE ( Oo coe ae ce Be eeocee 638. 75 mlaibonenwl Sos.G avs at pil Meese sere 2 seat 234. 06 llaboOrereoGo) Cayceaieli Oss sess se 638. 75 inlabonrers Sale dase abo le Ojmes sae see as = 597. 64 islaboner, 286 dayshatipl(Oas. 2 4224555 522s. 500. 50 lblaborerys0sidayay abo le(o ses s2= eo = 5380. 25 tlaborer, 2534 days, at-$1.75-.225--22-212--- 443, 21 ilaborer, 3653 days; al$l.50_ 2-22. 22522222: :- 548. 26 ilaborer 4 days, at pleo0 os. i Soo. < sesso se =e 6. 00 iMAborer evo days. at pl-o0) S255) 2 32 55--- 415.13 ilaborern, 67} dayswat pil.50: 25252222552 255. - 101. 64 LIT REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Wages of mechanics and laborers, etc. —Continued. Iaborer) s65s.daye at olo0 Sse ee esas nee $548. 63 f190 days, at $1.50. .) 1 laborer \ivetdays ateieyos) = oe 598. 68 i laborer i372 days; atipl 50s eae eee ae 598. 02 imlaborerp2S2 says: ab) o)ll.o Olea 423.77 I laborer 278? days, atidl-50 232222) 418. 14 IMlaborery208 days) atoll OU bss = ese eee 387. 01 iMlaborery2o44 daysnatoleo0hea=eseses= See 351.38 1 laborer, 228} days, at $1.50. --.--- ee ae 342. 39 1 laborer, 196} days, at $1.50. 22.2... 2. -22---- 294. 37 1 laborer, 195% days, at $1.50. -..............- 293. 62 Ilaborer ells day sat) pilco0 sea =e 257. 63 1 Jaboreér, 102% days, at $1.50) 22 2225-25 s2- 2 = 154. 13 1 laborer), 125}-days, at plo0s.- 25222226 eee ce 187.88 IM aborerw 4s day siraitin lee = ees Ze AO ielaboneraZbs7daysvabr Pleo se eeeee = eeeeeeeeee 38. 25 laborer rciladaysercaitswplko 0s eer seat eee 121. 50 ihlaborerwl00s* days atid: 00 a= ssee = see ae Ne, We Iaborer; 199'daysvat pl 50S: S22 - ase eee 298. 50 laborers GCAvS aati ple. 0 meee ae 35. 63 i laborer; 330 idaysatiolo02 255 - sees 508. 50 IMaboren,28sidayswatiolo0 ses = ss ee= eee 43. 12 Ilaborer; 23 days, ;atvole 00 seers se eee 34. 50 iMaborer, 20\daysatepleo02=see.s eee Seat 30. 00 I laborer; S:daysvati$lco0 532 S- ae see 7.50 1 laborer 03) days) at 1/502 2-2 -ss2 eee 154. 88 (laborer olisand aysspaisy bile 0 0s ames eee 469. 88 Ilabonerng 4 Gays sat pileo Ol sees eee eae 141.38 I-laborer, 4 days; at $1¢50%. 454--2\5e5- 2-26 s4-- 6. 00 WMaborer 338i days atipl 502s sese= =e a= eee 508. 13 laborer nG (a days neiiy oil: oO seer ssa eee 100. 50 Ilaboreryo9 d davyeeralte blo 0) eee ae eee 88. 88 we flo days, at $1.25 tas Plaborer es 1 days, at $1 eH woofs eects ee ee eee 7.18 laborer) 41h day shail ol) same era ee 61. 50 iMlaborerelordaysratiele 00am eae eee 19. 50 Ilaborerys days aticileo 0 seers enern= 12. 00 lslaborereydays atic lino 0 a= = eee eee ee 6. 00 lelaborerne2s.d aycementan dl) eee eee ee 3.75 Iplaboneryndays) evtyten leo) 0)s eee a eer 3. 00 IMalbonersoGiGayS a bible. 5 eee ee 70. 31 32 days, at $1.-_-.- \ Sel 1 laborer ) 3561 daysqatu 263) ces semis 477.33 Mlaborenwltidaycaath ps2) sear eee 18. 12 Jelaborenmva Gord aysaia tap! 2) see eee 456. 25 iWlaborers44.idayematyale2o= 92a eee 55. 32 Ilaborerwlilt days atnple 2b === see 14. 06 [Waborer sulAsdaysvatigls 20 eee = eee ee 14. 06 IMlaborervo22iadaysyath lassen] eee eee 322. 75 Iplaboxrer.26331d ays ples eee ee ee 263. 75 Umlaborens 25245 ays elt pleas ee ae 252. 75 laborer yOlsidavys sath lees ae eee ee 61.75 le oyaresse, or CENCE Chin tM ose. Gaaseeececcsscaces 5.79 Motalswacesot mechanics, Cte -e sso e =a. 4 econ se. = $23, 238. 98 ROtaledisbursementsras asses. yoo ae fics os Oe ne ee ate erlanieer hymn ehoOie oe. ote teie eas = DOYS ok Serie a ecco at COMMITTEE. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE Wages of mechanics and laborers, ete.—Continued. 53 days, at 75 cents 1 laborer re aaverae gli. \ Me CR re EALS $33. 32 1 laborer, 43 days, at 75 cents ..-...........-.- 3. 56 1 laborer, 124 days, at $1.50........- Ee se ee 18. 37 1 laborer on days, at $1.25) SRE heey eae he mpadiie as 115. 68 30 days, at $1.50/ imlaborerm [2idsdaysyat pleo0! 2222... 2-2. 181. 87 ‘laborer, 125 days atiol.2p. 2-2... ..2--5:.- 15. 63 f attendant 185 days, at 75 cents. .| Bak oh (laborer 178 days, at $1....... |e ates oisaie 1 attendant, 278 days, at 75 cents........-..-- 208. 50 iRattendamt vat) 7p: Centsisscc = ses ne 2 ke oe 75 attendant, 93 daysat 7o centse- == =... 69. 75 1 fattendant Gee days, at 75 cents) 307. 89 Uaborer 1224 days, at $1... .-- J ii 1 attendant, 26} days, at 50 cents............- BS a 1 weeder, 188 days, at 75 cents.........-.---- 141.03 1 water boy, 121 days, at 50 cents -._..--.----- 60. 50 1 water boy, 2193 days, at 50.cents -.....-.--- 109. 89 1 water boy, 342? days, at 50 cents -.-......--- 171. 38 1 water boy, 12 days, at 50 cents .......-...-- 6. 00 1 water boy, 61 days, at 50 cents -.......---.- 30. 50 1 water boy, 49 days, at 50 cents ..--..-.----.- 24.50 1 water boy, 283 days, at 50 cents .........-.- 14. 37 1 water boy, 123 days, at 50 cents _-.......... 6. 25 1 wagon and team, # day, at $3............... 2. 25 1 wagon and team, 223 days, at $38. ...........- 67.50 1 wagon and team, 194} days, at $3._...-....- 582. 75 1 wagon and team, 53 days, at $38............- 16.50 1 horse and cart, 1552 days, at $1.50.......--- 233. 62 1 horse and cart, 30} days, at $1.50.-.......-- 45. 37 1 horse and cart, 673 days, at $1.50........... 101. 25 1 horse and cart, 8 days, at $1.50...-.-......- 12. 00 1 horse and cart, 11} days, at $1.50.........-. 16. 88 1 horse and cart, 163 days, at $1.50........--- 24.75 iShorse and ‘cart, 293 days; at $1-50_ -.---2__-- 44.25 iShorseandicart, We days, at pl-502- 5.2.2 26. 63 1 horse and cart, 8 days, at $1.50 -.........--- 12.00 1 horse and cart, 7 days, at $1.50...-.-.....-- 10. 50 1 horse and cart, 7 days, at $1.50 ............- 10. 50 PINOTHC. to GAYA AbD lei a. foe. esas Sa 1.50 ishorse, 2072 days,at oO centes..22 4262038 - 148. 88 stonebreaker, 137 cubic yards, at 60 cents -| 209. 71 laborer! 85: days, at $150). 22 5. 25-3 j 1 stonebreaker, 92} cubic yards, at 60 cents -- - 55. 65 1 stonebreaker, 343 cubic yards, at 60 cents - - - 20. 70 LIII $65, 197. 71 9, 802. 29 LIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1900. BalancerumlyalrsllQ00 Macher actere ote == ea ees $14, 907. 46 Transferred to Commissioners District of Columbia (sundry Civillact JuneiG 900) rete =- eee ee eee eee eee 5, 000. 00 DISBURSEMENTS. General expenses: Buildin e Gres eee ts Beat es See ae ear eee $115. 20 BOOKS Sepa etn Se Se eae eae ee a ae re ae 318. 65 @aIMe raed ase Aes a seer Ne ae ee ECC BE 445. 00 Iewrobayeaemavel (zeRernMM MEN = | Seas ee sane bees tacs Se 1, 046. 35 S070 70 Line a py Rat ns, Sgr ot hs & rar ieee PC Tae Be Ee 1,288. 92 1 hh) Ce) eee re ape pe ota een eee oS Seabee NPs re ERR RE See 145. 39 LEM GU LDU ok emma ares meee gare a amy ES Soe ae ate ae 60. 00 | tp fe (el oh eee et Ee ee ere Mie. tlre ce GSE 689. 13 MEU DOTS Se se Se ete ere Se ert tees ee es nr ar le ene ae 328. 83 Mac hinenysnt@ 01S HetC reece aor reese eee 261. 97 Miiscellame oUt Se ett nie eres err es ene eee ere rep are reaee e 122. 87 Jee pha ASaRayN xed CRIS ELE ae ee eee Seer ae ee 40. 97 Postage, telephone, anditeleoraphy= 52-2 sos ee 75. 94 UNG W Ase: Geer ea Sys ovs ar ee ee ee eee 236. 00 Roadtmatenialvanddemna clin oeeyee ee ee ee 1, 338. 84 Spectal«services << sce sts Stee Chea ee eee eee eg 480. 00 Surveying, plans ete 32222 sos. sages See eee ae 984. 00 Traveling vand fieldvexpensesis2 92 2 ses eee ee 629. 23 trees plamts Ct hace mer see ete eee eee ees eae 710. 60 \AV/EUETO STON OY OY, BIEN MO NOC s Sa oncasusacdoassecaeeesase 195. 27 Total disbursements se j-5-5 2 <. = 523. se eee ee eee 188. 59 Krom repayments oi ireight, ete = 2-5. <4 See eee eee 10, 240. 80 $143, 048. 46 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTED BY CONGRESS TO THE CARE OF THE INSTITUTION. International exchanges—Smithsonian Institution: rom parlance om ils9s8—-99e- 26 oo cee ee =e se American ethnology—Smithsonian Institution: LEUROy Teel OFF NOLES HOS el ro be So IER eee Preservation of colleections—National Museum: HromebalanceOrwleoS—99 See se has one ee Heating and lighting, etc.—National Museum: rom Walamceion S989) = aera ee a awe Postage—National Museum: Promtappropnation tor 1900-1901 -2- 22 532-2. - Printing—National Museum: From appropriation for 1900-1901 .....-...----- Rent of workshops, ete.—National Museum: JRieovear lolenoresnront TUG ole) See kL Se Eee eo ee Building repairs—National Museum: HromubalancecoL el S98—99s ses vii Oe soe Se Galleries—National Museum: HOME dlameerotalSOS—O0 messy eee Books—National Museum: Purchase of specimens—National Museum: From appropriation for 1900-1901 _._...-.....-- Astrophysical Observatory—Smithsonian Institution: Brom balance on lS98-G0uisee tad. See ae} From balanice'of 1899-1900 22 i. oe Che ke ee From appropriation for 1900-1901 _.......--.--- Observation of eclipse of May 28, 1900: Brom-balance July ie 1900)° es - = 2 Sees eee National Zoological Park: Hromabalance;ol te9e-99e se se BEE eee Hromybalancecof I899=1N900s see see = te ee From appropriation for 1900-1901 __....-------- COMMITTEE. $1.59 2 538. 83 24, 000. 00 92.48 2, 147. 35 50, OOO. 00 1.53 Sy Ilaiay fey 180, 000. 00 5. 24 00. 00 01 561. 96 17, 500. 00 110. 08 . 08 4, 040. 00 251. 07 15, 000. 00 3.97 1, 215. 78 12, 000. 00 82. 31 9, 907. 46 75, 000. 00 $26, 540. 45 189, 135 18, O76. 18, O61. 500. 17, 000: 4, 150. 2, 903. 10, 000. 13, 219. 1, 529. 2¢ 84, 989. LV 59 97 00 00 16 . 98 aig 80 00 LVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. SUMMARY, SMI MeOMa nN UNS O Mee cere eee ee $143, 048. 46 PX CDA OCR tits Gee iede ash mice nahin se tao eee aol eee ee 26, 540. 42 Ethnology decid ees ale ccs Santee bb aiecetstel sa eee teh ees eee ace 52, 239. 83 Preservationvoicollectionss.-+ asease se cee ease eee . 189, 135.35 Rurnitunevand mehresi io. 0 cece eee eerie OEE eee eee 18, 076. 59 Fleatinetandvlioitine 25.2. .4.-6e ee o3e eee eee 18, 061. 97 POSTADO Eo ctte an = cie-cicleleenorsta aa wtrarecafereteie antie ata aie ein aie ei etoee 500. 00 PIT en cytes ais ae ee olelcinteie slits oa Deis aa ee ee ee eee 17, 000. 00 Remtiolworkshope: ..c.ssscn sees Sass oe eee CREE eee 4, 150. 16 Buildinetvepairg: cs Hote see ee ote eee oe oe eee eee 15, 251. 98 GallOMGSs ois octane ye ecto eee Cet cee eee eee eee 205. 79 BOOKS aecicc oo aed ces eh eicide ee oe ee oe ee eee 2, 903. 80 Purchase ol specimens’. <2 vc ncsiecce > gana cieime sens celaee oF 10, 000. 00 JN foy oO) OW VCE NIL OY OFT AGE MO AY A a ae a maooaecaneonansance 13, 219. 75 Observation of eclipse of May 28, 1900 ..........-.-...-.-- 1, 529. 20 National Zoolocical Ranks nee see eee eee eee 84, 989. 77 596, 853. 07 The committee has examined the vouchers for payment from the Smithsonian income during the year ending June 80, 1901, each of Which bears the approval of the Secretary or, in his absence, of the acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution. ‘The committee has also examined the accounts of the several appro- priations committed by Congress to the Institution, and finds that the balances hereinbefore given correspond with the certificates of the disbursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institution, whose appointment as such disbursing’ officer has been accepted and his bond approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been examined and found correct. Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian fund available for use in the year ending June 80, 1902. Balance July 1, 100s. <2 Saw eccoses as she cles tne ae eee eee $83, 963. 26 (Including cash from executors of J. H. Kidder)........---- $5, OOO. OO (Including cash from Dr, Alex. Graham Bell).......--...-.-- 5, 000, 00 10, 000. 00 Interest due and receivable July 1, 1901...................-- 27, 360, 00 Interest due and receivable January 1, 1902........-.-.-...- 27, 360. 00 Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1901.. ..-. 840, 00 Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due January 1, 1902 __- 840. 00 ——-— 56,400.00 Total available for year ending June 80, 1902............-..-..-. 140, 868, 26 Respectfully submitted. J. B. Henprrson, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Roserr Rk. Hrrv, hixecutive Committee. Wasninaton, D. C., January 14, 1902. ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ETC. {Continued from previous Reports. | [Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. ] SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Resolved by the Senate and [House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the vacancy in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution of the class other than members of Congress, caused by the death of William Lyne Wilson, of Virginia, shall be filled by the appointment of George Gray, a resi- dent of Delaware. (Approved January 14, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1459.) That facilities for study and research in the Government Depart- ments, the Library of Congress, the National Museum, the Zoological Park, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Fish Commission, the Botanic Gardens, and similar institutions hereafter established shall be afforded to scientific investigators and to duly qualified individuals, students, and graduates of institutions of learning in the several States and Ter- ritories, as well as in the District of Columbia, under such rules and restrictions as the heads of the Departments and Bureaus mentioned may prescribe. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1039.) SmirHsONIAN Deposit [Liprary or Coneress|.—For custodian, one thousand five hundred dollars; one assistant, one thousand two hundred dollars; one messenger, seven hundred and twenty dollars; one mes- senger boy, three hundred and sixty dollars;*in all, three thousand seven hundred and eighty dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XXXI, 970.) INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, LVII LVII1 ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. twenty-four thousand dollars. (Approved March 38, 1901; Statutes, ROE 1465) TREASURY DEPARTMENT, CONTINGENT EXPENsES.—To pay the account of the Smithsonian Institution for the transmission of mail matter for the Treasury Department for the fiscal years as follows: For the fiscal year nineteen hundred and one, two hundred and forty- four dollars and five cents. For the fiscal year nineteen hundred, four hundred and fifty-three dollars and fifty cents. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1012.) NATIONAL MUSEUM. For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi- bition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty thousand dollars. For expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele- phonic service for the National Museum, including five thousand dol- lars for electric installation, twenty-three thousand dollars. For remoying old boilers in the National Museum building, and for the purchase and installation of new boilers, including material and labor for necessary alterations and connections, twelve thousand five hundred dollars. For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col- lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern- ment, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, of which sum five thousand five hundred dollars may be used for neces- sary drawings and illustrations for publications of the National Museum; and all other necessary incidental expenses. For purchase of specimens to supply deficiencies in the collections of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. For purchase of books, pamphlets, and periodicals for reference in the National Museum, two thousand dollars. For repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, includ- ing all necessary labor and material, fifteen thousand dollars. For construction of two galleries in the National Museum building, five thousand dollars. For rent of workshops and temporary storage quarters for the National Museum, four thousand four hundred dollars. For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum, five hundred dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XXXI, 1147.) For the Smithsonian Institution, for printing labels and blanks, and for the ** Bulletins” and ‘** Proceedings” of the National Museum, the ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LIX editions of which shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding, in half turkey, or material not more expensive, scientific books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National Museum Library, seventeen thousand dollars. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1187.) BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. For continuing ethnological researches among the American, Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees and the purchase of neces- sary books and periodicals, fifty thousand dollars, of which sum not exceeding one thousand five hundred dollars may be used for rent of building. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1146.) For payment of outstanding accounts for transportation incurred during the fiscal year eighteen hundred and ninety-seven under the appropriation ‘* North American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution,” forty-seven dollars and sixty-one cents. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statute, XX XI, 1018.) NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage, and drainage; and for grading, planting, and other- wise improving the grounds; erecting and repairing buildings and inclosures; care, subsistence, purchase, and transportation of animals; including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees; the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, the printing and publish- ing of operations, not exceeding one thousand five hundred copies, and general incidental expenses not otherwise provided for, eighty thou- sand dollars; one-half of which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States; and of the sum hereby appropriated five thousand dol- lars shall be used for continuing the entrance into the Zoological Park from Cathedral avenue and opening driveway into Zoological Park, including necessary grading and removal of earth. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1147.) ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. For maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, printing and publishing results of researches, not exceeding one thousand five hun- dred copies, repairs and alterations of buildings, and miscellaneous expenses, twelve thousand dollars. That the Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution is directed to report to Congress on the first day of LX ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. the next regular session an entire account of all appropriations hereto- fore expended by the Astrophysical Observatory, what results have been reached, and what is the present condition of the work of said observatory. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1146.) BIRDS AND EGGS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES. AN ACT To amend an Act entitled ‘‘An Act for the protection of birds, preservation of game, and for the prevention of its sale during certain closed seasons, in the District of Columbia.”’ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, % x * % * * * “Src. 3. That for the purposes of this Act the following only shall be considered game birds: The Anatidee, commonly known as swans, geese, brant, river and sea ducks; the Rallidze, commonly known as ‘ails, coots, mud hens, and gallinules; the Limicole, commonly known as shore birds, plovers, surf birds, snipe, woodcock, sandpipers, tat- tlers, and curlews; the Gallinee, commonly known as wild turkeys, grouse, prairie chickens, pheasants, partridges, and quails; and the species of Icteridze, commonly known as marsh blackbirds and reed birds or rice birds. ‘*That no person shall kill, catch, expose for sale, or have in his or her possession, living or dead, any wild bird other than a game bird, English sparrow, crow, Cooper’s hawk, sharpshinned hawk, or great horned owl; nor rob the nest of any such wild bird of eggs or young; nor destroy such nest except in the clearing of land of trees or brush, under a penalty of five dollars for every such bird killed, caught, exposed for sale, or had in his or her possession, either dead or alive, and for each nest destroyed, and in default thereof to be imprisoned in the workhouse for a period not exceeding thirty days: Provided, That this section shall not apply to birds or eggs collected for scientific purposes under permits issued by the superintendent of police of the District of Columbia in accordance with such instructions as the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution may prescribe, such permits to be in force for one year from date of issue and nontrans- ferable.” (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes, X-X-XI, 1091.) WORLD’S COLUMBIAN COMMISSION. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That there be printed three thousand five hundred copies of so much of the report of the committee on awards of the World’s Columbian Commission as is contained in the special reports upon special subjects or groups as were prepared by expert judges authorized to act by the World’s Columbian Commission, its executive committee on awards, ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXI the committee on final report, or the board of reference and control, of which one thousand shall be for the use of the Senate, two thou- sand for the use of the House of Representatives, and five hundred for distribution by the Department of State. (Passed Senate May 31, 1900; passed House March 1, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, concurrent resolutions, 14.) TENNESSEE CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION. Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That somuch as may be nec- essary of the unexpended balance of the appropriation of one hundred thousand dollars provided in section three of the Act to aid and encour- age the holding of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition at Nashville in eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, approved December twenty- second, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, be applied to the preparation of illustrations and the printing and binding at the Government Print- ing Office of six thousand copies of the report of the board of man- agement of the United States Government exhibit at said exposition, under the direction of the chairman of said board. (Approved, March 2, 1901; Statutes, XX XI, 1464.) LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION. AN ACT To provide for celebrating the one hundredth anniversary of the purchase of the Louisiana territory by the United States by holding an international exhi- bition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, forest, and sea in the city of Saint Louis, in the State of Missouri. Whereas it is fit and appropriate that the one hundredth anniversary of the purchase of the Louisiana territory be commemorated by an exhibition of the resources of the territory, their development, and of the progress of the civilization therein; and Whereas such an exhibition should be of a national and international character, so that not only the people of that territory, but of our Union, and of all nations as well, can participate, and should there- fore have the sanction of the Congress of the United States: There- fore, Beit enacted by the Senateand House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibit of arts, industries, manufactures, and products of the soil, mine, forest, and sea shall be inaugurated in the year nineteen hundred and three, in the city of Saint Louis, in the State of Missouri, as herein provided. Sec. 2. That a nonpartisan commission is hereby constituted, to consist of nine commissioners, to be known and designated as the ‘* Louisiana Purchase Exposition Commission,” who shall be appointed, within thirty days from the passage of this Act, by the President of the United States, and who shall also be subject to removal by him. LXII ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. Vacancies in said commission to be filled in the same manner as original appointmerts. Src. 3. That the commissioners so appointed shall be called together by the Secretary of State of the United States, in the city of Saint Louis, by notice to the commissioners, as soon as convenient after the appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days thereafter. The said commissioners, at said first meeting, shall organize by the election of their officers, and they may then, or thereafter, appoint such executive or other committees as may be deemed expedient, and a secretary at a salary of three thousand dollars per annum; that in addition to the salary of the secretary of said commission there is hereby allowed, out of any money appropriated to aid in carrying forward said exposition, the sum of ten thousand dollars per annum, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for the purpose of detraying the clerical, office, and other necessary expenses of said commission, Src. 4. That said commission, when fully organized under the pro- visions of this Act, shall appoint two of their number to act in con- junction with a like number appointed by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company, to constitute a board of arbitration, to whom all matters of difference arising between said commissionand said company, concerning the administration, management, or general supervision of said exposition, including all matters of difference arising out of the power given by this Act to the said company or to the said national commission to modify or approve any act of the other of the two bodies, shall be referred for determination; and in the case of the fail- ure of said board of arbitration to agree upon such matters as may be so referred, said board of arbitration shall appoint a fifth member thereof; and in case of the failure of the said board to agree upon a fifth member, such fifth member shall then be appointed by the Seere- tary of the Treasury. And the decision of said board shall be final in all matters presented to it for consideration and determination. Sec. 5. That said commission be empowered, in its discretion, to accept, for the purposes of the exposition herein authorized, such site as may be ‘selected and offered, and such plans and specifications of buildings for such purpose at the expense of and tendered by the corporation organized under the laws of the State of Missouri, known as ** The Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company.” Sec. 6. That the allotment of space for exhibitors, classification of exhibits, plan and scope of the exposition, the appointment of all judges and examiners for the exposition, and the awarding of premiums, if any, shall all be done and performed by the said Louisi- ana Purchase Exposition Company, subject, however, to the approval of the commission created by section 2 of this Act; and said com- mission is hereby authorized to appoint a board of lady managers, of such number and to perform such duties as may be prescribed by said ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXIIl commission, subject, however, to the approvat of said company. Said hoard of lady managers may, in the discretion of said commission and corporation, appoint one member of all committees authorized to award prizes for such exhibits as may have been produced in whole or in part by female labor. Src. 7. That after the plans for said exposition shall be prepared by said company and approved by said commission the rules and regu- lations of said corporation governing rates for entrance and admission fees or otherwise affecting the rights, privileges, or interests of the exhibitors, or of the public, shall be fixed or established by said com- pany, subject, however, to the modification or approval of said com- mission. Sec. 8. That said commission shall provide for the dedication of the buildings of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in said city of Saint Louis, not later than the thirtieth day of April, nineteen hundred and three, with appropriate ceremonies, and thereafter said exposition shall be opened to visitors at such time as may be designated by said company, subject to the approval of said commission, not later than the first day of May, nineteen hundred and three, and shall be closed at such time as the national commission may determine, subject to the approval of said company, but not later than the first day of December thereafter. Sec. 9. That whenever the President of the United States shall be notified by the national commission that provision has been made for grounds and buildings for the uses herein provided for, he shall be authorized to make proclamation of the same, through the Depart- ment of State, setting forth the time at which said exposition will be held, and the purpose thereof; and he shall communicate to the diplo- matic representatives of foreign nations copies thereof, together with such regulations as may be adopted by the commission, for publication in their respective countries; and he shall, in behalf of the Govern- ment and the people, invite foreign nations to take part in the said exposition and to appoint representatives thereto. Sec. 10. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign countries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition, upon which there shall be a tariff or customs duty, shall be admitted free of payment of duty, customs fees, or charges, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe; but it shall be lawful at any time during the exposition to sell, for delivery at the close thereof, any goods or property imported for and actually on exhibition in the exposition buildings or on the grounds, subject to such regula- tions for the security of the revenue and for the collection of import duties as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided, That all such articles, when sold or withdrawn for consumption in the United States, shall be subject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such articles by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation, and LXIV ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. all penalties prescribed by law shall be applied and enforced against such articles and against the person who may be guilty of any illegal sale or withdrawal. Sec. 11. That it shall be the duty of the national commission to make reports monthly to the President of the United States, showing receipts and disbursements and giving a general summary of the financial condition of said exposition, and a final report within six months after the close of the exposition, presenting the results and a full exhibit thereof. Src. 12. That the national commission hereby authorized shall cease to exist on the first day of January, nineteen hundred and five. Src. 13. That the United States shall not in any manner nor under any circumstances be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceedings, or representations of the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Com- pany, its officers, agents, or employees, or any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officers, agents, servants, or employees, or any of them, or for any subscriptions to the capital stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obligations of any kind issued by said corporation, or for any debts, liabilities, or expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation or accruing by reason of the same. Src. 14. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov- ernment of the United States from its Executive Departments, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the United States Com- mission of Fish and Fisheries, and the Department of Labor, such arti- cles and material as illustrate the function and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace and its resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our institutions and their adapta- tion to the wants of the people; and the Bureau of the American Repub- lics is hereby invited to make an exhibit illustrating the resources and international relations of the American Republics, and space in the United States Government building shall be provided for the purpose of said exhibit; and to secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such Government exhibit a board, to be known as the United States Government board, shall be created, independent. of the commission hereinbefore provided, to be charged with the selection, purchase, preparation, transportation, arrangement, installation, safe-keeping, exhibition, and return of such articles and material as the heads of the several Executive Departments, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, the Commissioner of Labor, and the Director of the Bureau of the American Republics may, respectively, decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The President may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall be composed of one person to be named by the head of each Executive Department, one by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, one by the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, one by the ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXV Commissioner of Labor, and one by the Director of the Bureau of American Republics. The President shall name one of said persons so detailed as chairman, and the board itself shall appoint its secretary, disbursing officer, and such other officers as it may deem necessary. The members of said board of management, with other officers and employees of the Government who may be detailed to assist them, including officers of the Army and Navy, shail receive no compensation in addition to their regular salaries, but they shall be allowed their actual and necessary traveling expenses, together with a per diem in heu of subsistence, to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury, while necessarily absent from their homes engaged upon the business of the board. Officers of the Army and Navy shall receive this allowance in lieu of the transportation and mileage now allowed by law. Any pro- vision of law which may prohibit the detail of persons in the employ of the United States to other service than that which they customarily perform shall not apply to persons detailed for duty in connection with the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Employees of the board not otherwise employed by the Government shall be entitled to such compensation as the board may determine. The disbursing officer shall give bond in the sum of thirty thousand dollars for the faithful performance of his duties, said bond to be approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The Secretary of the Treasury shall advance to said ofiicer from time to time, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, a sum of money from the appropriation hereafter to be made for the Government exhibit, not exceeding at any one time the penalty of his bond, to enable him to pay the ex- penses of exhibit as authorized by the board of management herein created. Sec. 15. That the Secretary of the Treasury is nereby authorized and directed to place on exhibition, in connection with the exhibit of his Department, upon such grounds as shall be allotted for the pur- pose, one of the life-saving stations authorized to be constructed on the coast of the United States by existing law, and to cause the same to be fully equipped with all apparatus, furniture, and appliances now in use in all life-saving stations in the United States. Sec. 16. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause a suitable building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition for the Government exhibits, as provided in this Act, and he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor in the same manner and under the same regulations as for other public buildings of the United States; but the contracts for said building or buildings shall not exceed the sum of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, which sum, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appro- priated, to defray the expense of erecting said Government building or buildings hereby authorized. The Secretary of the Treasury shall sm 1901 Vv LXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. cause the said building or buildings to be constructed from plans to be approved by said Government board; and he is authorized and required to dispose of such building or buildings, or the material composing the same, at the close of the exposition, giving preference to the city of Saint Louis or to the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company to purchase the same at an appraised value, to be ascertained in such manner as he may determine. Sec. 17. That the commissioners appointed by the President under the authority of this Act shall receive as compensation for their serv- ices and expenses the sum of five thousand dollars each per annum, the same to be paid by the Secretary of the Treasury and deducted from any money appropriated for said exposition. Sec. 18. That no member of said commission or of said Government board, whether an officer or otherwise, shall be personally liable for any debt or obligation which may be created or incurred by the said commission or by the said United States Government board herein authorized. Sec. 19. That whereas the Secretary of the Treasury has certified, under date of February sixth, nineteen hundred and one, that the Loui- siana Purchase Exposition Company has presented to him proof to his satisfaction that it has raised ten million dollars for and on account of inaugurating and carrying forward an exposition at the city of Saint Louis, Missouri, in the year nineteen hundred and three, to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the purchase of the Louisiana Ter- ritory; therefore there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of five million dol- lars, to aid in carrying forward such exposition, to pay the salaries of the members and secretary of the national Commission herein author- ized, and such other necessary expenses as may be incurred by said commission in the discharge of its duties in connection with said exposition, and to discharge all other obligations incurred by the Government on account of said exposition, except for the erection of its own buildings and the making and care of its own exhibits at said exposition. That the money hereby appropriated shall be disbursed under the direction of the said Louisiana Purchase Exposition Com- pany under rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury and upon vouchers to be approved by him: Provided, That, except for the payment of the salaries and expenses of the national commission, no part of said appropriation shall become available until the sum of ten million dollars shall have been expended by said company on account of said exposition to the satisfaction of the Secretary of the Treasury: Provided further, That all sums expended by the Government on account of said exposition, including the salaries and expenses of said national commission, except for the erection of its own buildings and the making and care of its own ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LXVII exhibits at said exposition, shall be limited to and paid out of the appropriation of five million dollars herein provided for such purpose. Sec. 20. That there shall be repaid into the Treasury of the United States the same proportionate amount of the aid given by the United States as shall be repaid to either the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company or the city of Saint Louis: Prov/ded, That this section shall not be taken or construed to give the United States a right to share in the proceeds of said exposition beyond the actual amount appropriated to aid in carrying forward said exposition. Sec. 21. That any bank or trust company located in the city of Saint Louis, or State of Missouri, may be designated by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company to conduct a banking office upon the exposition grounds, and if the bank so designated shall be a national bank, upon such designation being approved by the. Comptroller of the Currency, said national bank is hereby authorized to open and conduct such office as a branch of the bank, subject to the same restric- tions and having the same rights as the bank to which it belongs: Provided, That the branch office authorized hereby, if the same shall be a branch of a national bank, shall not be operated for a period longer than two years, beginning not earlier than July first, nineteen hundred and two, and closing not later than July first, nineteen hun- «dred and four. Sec. 22. That no citizen of any foreign country shall be held lable for the infringement of any patent granted by the United States, or of any trade-mark or label registered in the United States, where the act complained of is or shall be performed in connection with the exhibi- tion of any article or thing at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Sec. 23. That the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is authorized, at his discretion, to detail for special duty, in connection with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, such officers of the Army as may be required, to report to the general commanding the Department of Missouri; and the officers thus detailed shall not be subject to loss of pay or rank on account of such detail, nor shall any officer or employee of the United States receive additional pay or compensation because of services connected with the said exposition from the United States or from said exposition. Sec. 24. That nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to create any liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or obligation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance from Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or liquidation of any debts or obligations created by said commission. Sec. 25. That as a condition precedent to the payment of this appro- priation the directors shall contract to close the gates to visitors on Sundays during the whole duration of the fair. (Approved March 3, 1901; Statutes XX XI, 1440.) |itg) Oi ioe oid ane OF Sproat Gol, Bax; SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, L9OL, To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present herewith my report showing the operations of the Institution during the year ending June 30, 1901, including the work placed under its direction by Congress, in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Interna- tional Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, and the Astrophysical Observatory. : Following the precedent of several years, I have given, in the body of this report, a general account of the affairs of the Institution and its bureaus, while the appendix presents more detailed statements by the persons in direct charge of the different branches of the work. Independently of this, the operations of the National Museum are fully treated ina separate volume of the Smithsonian Report, and the Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology constitutes a volume prepared under the supervision of the Director of that Bureau. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT. By act of Congress approved August 10, 1846, the Smith- sonian Institution was created an Establishment. Its statutory members are the President, the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, and the heads of the Executive Departments. The prerogative of the Establishment is ** the sm £901 1 2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. supervision of the affairs of the Institution and the advice and instruction of the Board of Regents.” On March 4, 1901, the vacancy in the membership of the Establishment which had existed since the death of Vice-Presi- dent Hobart, on November 21, 1899, was filled by the election of the Hon. Theodore Roosevelt to the Vice-Presidency. The Hon. John W. Griggs resigned as Attorney-General and was succeeded by the Hon. P. C. Knox. As organized on June 30, the Establishment consisted of the following ex-officio members: Winiiam McKinury, President of the United States. THEODORE RoosEvE.t, Vice-President of the United States. MeEtvitLeE W. Fuuuer, Chief Justice of the United States. JouNn Hay, Secretary of State. Lyman J. Gace, Secretary of the Treasury. Exinu Root, Secretary of War. PHILANDER C. Knox, Attorney-General. CHARLES Emory Situ, ostmaster- General. Joun D. Lone, Secretary of the Navy. ETHAN ALLEN Hrrencock, Secretary of the Interior. JAMES Wiuson, Secretary of Agriculture. BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board consists of the Vice-President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex-officio members, three members of the Senate, three members of the House of Representatives, and six citizens, ‘‘two of whom shall be residents of the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents adopted January, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth Wednesday of each year, the Board met on January 23, 1901, at 10 o’clock a. m. The following is an abstract of its proceedings, which will be found in detail in the annual report of the Board to Congress: The Secretary announced the death on October 17, 1900, of Dr. William Lyne Wilson, and said that he could not refrain REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 from expressing his own personal sense of loss at the removal of one whose broad scholarship and large experience in public affairs were joined to a disposition which made him at once the most valued and sympathetic of counselors. The Hon. J. B. Henderson, chairman of the Executive Committee, also made some personal references to Mr. Wilson, which together with the action of the Board in his memory will be found under the head of ‘t Necrology.” The vacancy in the Board caused by the death of Mr. Wilson was filled by the appointment of the Hon. George Gray through a resolution of Congress approved January 14, 1901. The Secretary presented his report of the operations of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900, calling especial attention to the subject of the Exchanges, in whose behalf he had visited England, France, and Germany, and had endeavored to secure better arrangements with those coun- tries, and he hoped that from France and perhaps from Ger- many fuller returns might be expected. He also spoke of the Zoological Park and his desire that the Government would place in that city of refuge for the vanishing animal races of the North American continent, some specimens of the giant animals of Alaska. Mr. Hitt here brought to the attention of the Board the oration which had been delivered upon the occasion of the conferring of the degree of Doctor of Science upon the Secretary by the University of Cambridge, England, which Mr. Henderson, whom the Regents ‘‘knew to be a scholar who loved the tasks of scholarship, had translated into such English as Horace would have used if he had to speak in that tongue.” It was ordered that the address of the public orator and the translation by Mr. Henderson be placed upon the record. After the adoption of the reports of the executive and per- manent committees which had been presented by Mr. Bell in the absence of their chairman, Senator Henderson, attention was called to the fact that a vacancy existed in the executive committee, caused by the death of Dr. Wilson, and upon resolution, the Hon. R. R. Hitt waselected to fill this vacancy. The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences having invited the Institution to participate in the celebration of the two hun- dredth anniversary of its foundation, on the 19th and 20th of 4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. March, 1900, the Hon. Andrew D. White, United States Am- bassador at Berlin and a member of the Board, was requested to represent the Institution on this noteworthy occasion. A suitably engrossed address was transmitted through the De- partment of State and presented by Dr. White to the Prussian Academy, the acknowledgment of which, together with an interesting letter from Dr. White describing the ceremonies, were laid before the Board. Dr. White described the exer- cises as having been of exceptional interest. They took place in the Royal Palace, where the Emperor received the entire body of guests in state, surrounded by the high functionaries of the Empire bearing the royal insignia, w hile the Monarch on the throne delivered an address of welcome. Later there were entertainments in honor of the delegates, not only by the King, but by the Chancellor of the Empire and others. On the second day there occurred a general reception in the ereat hall of the Prussian legislature, which was also very impr essive. The Secretary added that Dr. White had further said in con- versation that in all his experience as a minister to Kuropean courts he had never seen so imposing a display of ceremonial magnificence. Under unfinished business there came up the resolution introduced by Dr. Bell with reference to the utilization of scientific bureaus of the Government for purposes of research. The resolution in the form it had been offered at the previous meeting was withdrawn by Dr. Bell and the following, which contained some alterations intended to meet the views of other members of the executive committee, was presented: In order to facilitate the utilization of the Government Departments for the purposes of research—in extension of the policy enunciated by Congress in the joint resolution approved April 12, 1892: Resolw d, That it is the sense of the Board that it is desira- ble that Congress extend this resolution so as to afford facili- ties for study to all properly qualified students or graduates of universities, other than those mentioned in the 1 esolution, and provide for the appointment of an officer whose duty it shall be to ascertain and make known what facilities for research exist in the Government Departments, and arrange with the heads of the Departments, and with the officers in charge of Government collections, on terms satisfactory to them, rules and regulations under which suitably qualified REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 persons may have access to these collections for the purpose of research with due regard to the needs and requirements of the work of the Government; and that it shall also be his duty to direct, in a manner satisfactory to the heads of such Departments and officers in charge, the researches of such persons into lines which will promote the interests of the Government and the development of the natural resources, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the country, and (generally) promote the progress of science and the useful arts, and the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. After some discussion by the Regents, on motion the reso- lution was adopted. The Secretary also brought to the attention of the Board a letter received from Genoa indicating the necessity of remoy- ing the remains of James Smithson, interred in the British burial ground at Genoa, to a new cemetery which was to be chosen later on, and requesting to be informed of the wishes of the Regents. After some discussion, in which the desira- bility of bringing the remains to this country was adversely considered, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, In view of the proposed abolition of the English cemetery at Genoa, which contains the remains of James Smithson, that the Secretary be requested to arrange either with the English church or with the authorities of the National Burying Ground at Genoa for the reinterment of Smithson’s remains, and the transfer of the original monument. The Secretary then made his customary statement to the Board, remarking that, in view of the lateness of the hour, he would pass over some of the matters about which he had intended to speak, and among others about the continuation of his experiments in aérodromics and the results of the eclipse expedition of May, 1900, which had since been made public. The observation of the eclipse had left one or two interesting but unsettled questions, and he had determined to send out a small expedition to Sumatra on the occasion of the exceptionally important eclipse of the sun in May, 1901. He brought to the attention of the Board the proposed expedition to Babylonia under Dr. Edgar James Banks, who had gone to Constantinople in the hope of securing permission to excavate the town of Mugheir, which, according to tra- dition, is the site of the Ur of the Chaldees from which Abra-, ham came. The material results of such expedition, if any, 6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. which under Turkish law might be allowed to leave the country, would be deposited in the Institution. He also reviewed briefly the greatly improved condition of the Smithsonian Deposit in the Library of Congress since the new quarters had been erected, calling attention to the fact that a sum of not less than $50,000 would probably be required to supply the defects in this Deposit due to the lack of adequate provision for it by Congress during the past twenty years, and to fill in the important sets of periodicals which can not be secured by exchange. He reminded the Regents, in connection with the projected International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, that the first step to such a catalogue had been taken many years since by Professor Henry, that the support of the catalogue by private universities and libraries in this country had been prompt and eratifying, and that there remained but the supplying of the material for the United States, for which he hoped Congress would provide, and while waiting its action for carrying on the work in the interim, he had made a strictly temporary provision with the aid of the funds of the Institution. It was not intended by him to recommend any permanent contribu- tion from the Institution’s limited funds. The Secretary then made a statement with regard to the Museum and its needs, announcing that he had recently arranged that the Assistant Secretary should give his personal attention chiefly to the Museum; that he believed that the Committee on Appropriations was getting to see the inevitable necessity of enlarging the Museum buildings, that with this would come larger responsibilities, and that this growth and the confidence of the community and of the Congress were due in a large measure to their belief in that impartial rule of the Regents which has in the past guaranteed considera- tion and fairness in the selection of Museum officers and sta- bility in its policy. Finally, the Secretary called attention to the fact that the continued independence and usefulness of the Institution would depend in a large measure upon the increase in its endowment. When the Institution was established over fifty vears ago, its fund of $600,000 was relatively a large one, twice as large as that of Yale College, larger than that of Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania, and only equaled by the fund of Harvard. The Institution’s endowment has in the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 fifty years increased but from $600,000 to somewhat less than $1,000,000, but the average endowment of the five universities named is now about $8,000,000, indicating that in this regard the Institution’s fund for scientific purposes is relatively unim- portant compared with what it was fifty years ago. The Secretary announced to the Regents the fact that sev- eral new bequests had been made to the Institution, though none of these were realized at present. While the Institution has scrupulously refrained from even the appearance of solic- iting funds, yet he felt that its own utility depended largely upon the increase of the means which were directly at the dis- position of the Regents. He asked for any instructions as to the employment of means consonant with the position and actual independence of the Institution for making its fitness asa conservator and administrator of gifts and legacies known to the general public, and he spoke of the desirability of a wider circulation of the Secretary’s report and Appendix, to which he had given of late much personal care. A discussion upon the subject arose, but the Board adjourned without taking any action. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. The Hon. Shelby M. Cullom, whose term of office as Regent expired March 4, 1901, was on March 7 reappointed by the President of the Senate, and the Hon. Francis M. Cockrell, Senator from Missouri, was appointed to succeed the Hon. William Lindsay, whose term as United States Senator expired on March 4, 1901. As organized at the end of the fiscal year, the Board of Regents consisted of the following members: The Hon. M. W. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor; the Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Vice-President of the United States; Senator S. M. Cullom; Senator O. H. Platt; Senator Francis M. Cockrell; Representative R. R. Hitt; Representative Robert Adams, jr.; Representative Hugh A. Dinsmore; Dr. James B. Angell; Dr. Andrew D. White; the Hon. J. B. Henderson; the Hon. George Gray; Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. Richard Olney. ADMINISTRATION. The Secretary’s time continues to be chiefly given to purely administrative duties, while, during such increasingly limited 8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. opportunity as presents itself consistently with these, he en- deavors not only to oversee its scientific investigations but to give his personal care to them. His purpose has always been, in regard to the former, to put upon those in immediate charge of the bureaus of the Institution all the authority that is con- sistent with his own responsibility to the Board of Regents. He has already mentioned that the growth of those bureaus has thrown upon the Institution a very considerable amount of clerical labor pertaining to Government work, so that the limited income of the Institution is drawn upon for matters which should properly be provided for by Congress. The Board has authorized the Secretary to lay these matters before Congress, but the needs of other parts of the Institu- tion’s service have seemed so pressing that he has as yet deferred doing so in favor of such other demands. BUILDINGS. The renovation and rearrangement of storage rooms in the south tower was continued during the year, and in the base- ment additional space was arranged for the use of the inter- national exchanges. Work was also begun toward the con- struction of a tunnel between the Smithsonian and Museum buildings for carrying steam pipes, with the intention of centralizing the heating apparatus and utilizing new Museum boilers for heating both buildings. Improvements in the Museum building and in the buildings at the Zoological Park are mentioned elsewhere. FINANCES. The permanent funds of the institution are as follows: Se quest Ole Smit la Som SA 5 eee ase eee en $515, 169. 00 Residuanyeecacy Ola Smart Somes Gee eee ee 26, 210. 63 Deposits from savings of income, 1867............-.-..----- 108, 620. 37 Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875 ...............--.- $1, 000 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895... ..-- 1, 000 2, 000. 00 Bequestot Simeon Elabel S80 seas ee esas ee = eee 500. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881...........---- 51, 500. 00 (Exbun Wi WovoyaarIsE;, Jeloyskedraasy WM — 5 soos sects ne acseccacsen 200, 000. 00 Portion of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894. - - - 8, 000. 00 Totalepermanent fund! s24 2 sae eee ee 912, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7) In addition to the above permanent fund, the Regents hold certain approved railroad bonds which form part of the fund established by Mr. Hodgkins for investigations into the prop- erties of atmospheri » alr. The act organizing the Institution (sec. 5591, U. S. Revised Statutes) was amended by act of Congress approved March 12, 1894, as follows: The Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to receive into the Treasury on the same terms as the original bequest of Jair os Smithson such sums as the Regents may, from time to time, see fit to deposit; not excee ding with the original bequest the sum of one million dollars: “Provided, That this shall not operate as a limitation on the power of the Smithsonian Institution to receive money or other property by gift, bequest, or devise, and to hold and dispose of the same in promotion of the purposes thereof. Under this provision the permanent fund of $912,000 is deposited in the Treasury of the United States, and bears interest at 6 per cent per annum. ‘The interest alone is em- ployed in carrying out the aims of the institution. The unexpended balance at the beginning of the fiscal yea1 July 1, 1900, as stated in my last report, was $76,219.07. The total receipts by the Institution during the year were $66,829.39. Of this sum $56,400 was derived from interest, while the remaining $10,429.39 was received from miscellane- ous sources The ¢ anne disbursed during the year was $59,085.20, the details of which are given in the report of the executive com- mittee. The balance remaining to the credit of the Secretary on June 30, 1901, for the expenses of the Institution was $83,963.26, which includes the $10,000 specifically referred to in previous reports, as well as the interest accumulated on the Hodgkins and other funds, which is held against certain con- tingent obligations, besides relatively considerable sums held to meet liabilities which may be expected to mature as a result of various scientific investigations and publications in progress. During the fiscal year of 1901 Congress charged the Insti- tution with the disbursement of the following appropriations: International Exchanges, Smithsonian Institution..........-.--- $24, 000 American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution ...............--- 50, 000 Astrophysical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution -.--- $12, 000 Observation of eclipse of the sun, May 28, 1900... -- 4, 000 16, 000 10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. United States National Museum: Rum cne an cefiext res es ye eee ee re $17, 500 Heatino and lighting aoe. ee eae en ee ee 17, 500 IRRESenyatlOnOrCOllECi Om seme eee ere 180, 000 Runchaselol specimensser = a2 =e eae ee eee 10, 000 IPOSTAG CS 8 a et ee eer ea a eg ee ee ae a Re a 500 BOOKS us 5 See CUO lee nN ee oe nee ee oe ee 2, 000 Rentioté workshops eter as aac s eee ee ees 4, 040 Repairs colo uml cia pope eee eek eee eee ere ae ere 15, 000 Jeba UN UO de se aes wee AL A es mete aoe mee QRS aS 17, 000 ; $263, 540 NationalsZoolocicalli Par keen seen eee eee eee 75, 000 428,540 - All the vouchers for disbursements made during the fiscal year have been examined by the executive committee, and a detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures will be found reported to Congress in accordance with the provisions of the sundry civil acts of October 2, 1888, August 5, 1892, and March 3, 1899, in a letter addressed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The vouchers for all the expenditures from the Smithsonian fund proper have likewise been examined and their correctness certified to by the executive committee, whose statement will be published, together with the accounts of the funds appro- priated by Congress, in the report of that committee. For carrying on the Government’s interests under the charge of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1902, estimates were forwarded as usual to the Secretary of the Treasury. The following table shows the estimates submitted and the sums respectively appropriated: ee Ap Estimates. Ay heise Intennational/bxchangess--2.eesc- sae eee eee eee | $24,000] $24, 000 American thn ologyicacacste seater eee Ree ae eae een eee er 60, 000 | 50, 000 Astrophysical. ODservyavoryacre-aacese sees see eee eee Sse crsicteeate ae | 15, 000 | 12, 000 National Museum: MumifuTrerandtuxtulesez cece a ceases oe tee ee eee 20, 000 20, 000 Heating and liphtin posse - see aie eee eee ea eee 23, 000 | 23, 000 ING WADOLGTS; 5 sec cen eee Se ee ot ee ee rae een tae 12,500 | 12, 500 Preservationlol coleChiOnsmacseasseseeee eee eee 180, 000 | 180, 000 Runchase OL Specimens asses see aoe ae pee ee eee 25, 000 10, 000 BOOKS eirs.oc bore eS ee NI ee tn ot ee ee ae ae 2,000 | 2, 000 Re pairsstosbuil dimesi. 8s seeps es es ee | 19, 500 | 15, 000 Galleries, 4-5 conse cece hae ee eee eee nee See eee eee 2,500 | 5, 000 Rent of workshops ......--.------ See oe oor op | 4,040 | 4, 400 POStARC Sisk ta afaidre ses cis ee hic ce sean ee ee en EEE eae eee 500 500 Printing sa eas skeen se se ces eee eee sis sc ken aeSoe toes | 17, 000 17, 000 National ZoolopicalsPark = :._.--s2 ee ee ee ee | 120,000 80, 000 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | RESEARCH. It was a part of the original plan of the Institution that its Secretary should not give his time wholly to administrative duties, but should, as a student of nature, directly aid in its scientific investigations.’ Research work in various fields of science has been contin- ued by the Institution and its dependencies. The Secretary has made some progress toward the solution of the problem of mechanical flight, and in the Astrophysical Observatory has continued work believed to be important, which is de- scribed later. Through the Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnol- ogy the Institution has been enabled to carry on various bio- logical and ethnological researches which will be found fully described elsewhere in this report and need not be repeated here. HODGKINS FUND. Among the many applications for grants from the Hode- kins fund, it has been found practicable to approve several which conform to the conditions of the bequest, and investi- gations in various lines of original research are making satis- factory advances as mentioned below. In November, 1900, a grant was approved on behalf of Prof. Wallace C. Sabine, of Harvard University, for the aid of his investigations on sound, the particular phase of the problem under investigation being the subject of loudness and interference. This research requires apparatus of special design, part of which is now complete and is satisfactory. Professor Sabine, who had charge of the design of the new symphony hall in Boston, has for several years given much attention to the problem of architectural acoustics, or the science of sound as applied to buildings. It is expected that his complete report will be of much practical interest in con- nection with this subject. In December, 1900, Mr. C. Canovetti, chief engineer of the city of Brescia, Italy, made an application for a Hodgkins 1 Resolved, That the Secretary continue his researches in physical science, and present such facts and principles as may be developed, for publication in the Smithsonian Contributions. (Adopted at meeting of the Board of Regents January 26, 1847.) hye REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. grant, at the same time bringing to my attention his experi- ments which have been awarded prizes by the Société d’En- couragement pour Industrie Nationale, of Paris, and by the Reale Academia dei Lincei, of Rome. As is customary, *he application received the consideration of specialists in the branch of atmospheric research pursued by Mr. Canovetti, and after the acceptance by him of the con- ditions set forth in the Hodgkins circular, a moderate grant was approved on his behalf in April, 1901, for experiments now in progress, which will be reported on later. Details of the progress to date of the research mentioned in my last report as conducted by Dr. Victor Schumann, of Leipzig, have been received. ‘The most noteworthy points in the results so far refer, perhaps, to the relation of light and electricity and to the probable insight into the nature of the Roentgen rays to be gained in the course of this investigation. The interest in this subject, in both popular and scientific cir- cles, is now so widespread that permission has been given to Dr. Schumann to announce independently in some journal in his own country the discoveries made in the progress of his research, reporting them at the same time to the Institution. It is felt that this course will subserve the cause of science by satisfying the immediate and general interest in this sub- ject, and that it will also justly tend to establish Dr. Schu- mann’s right of priority in his own researches. The investigations of Dr. von Lendenfeld, of the University of Prague, are still in progress, and it is anticipated that his final report, which is now awaited, may furnish data availa- ble for greatly improving the construction of the meteorolog- ical kites now in constant use, and thus be the means of adding materially to our knowledge of atmospheric conditions at high altitudes, the practical application of which is of such general interest and usefulness. The interesting experiments in connection with kites and with air currents at varying altitudes, which have been prose- cuted for some time at the Blue Hill Meteorological Obser- vatory by Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, are still in progress, an additional grant having been approved this year on behalf of Mr. Rotch. It will be remembered that the original grant mentioned in my report for 1897 was made for the purpose of securing REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ts automatic kite records at a height of over 10,000 feet, an alti- tude which so lately as four years ago had never been attained. Successive grants have since been made, and while it is due to the persistence and skill of Mr. Rotch and his assistants that his own extraordinary record of 14,000 feet has been surpassed by him, it is a matter of gratification that the Hodgkins fund of the Institution has in some way been associated with such results. Dr. Carl Barus, of Brown University, whose research on ionized air, mentioned in my last report as having been aided by a grant from the Hodgkins fund, has during the progress of his investigation frequently summarized his provisional results for the Institution. As in other cases, because of the immediate interest attaching to this investigation, Dr. Barus has been authorized to publish preliminary reports of his prog- ress in the scientific journals. In April, 1901, this research was completed and reported upon in detail to the Institution so far as concerned the discussion of data accumulated since the approval of the Hodgkins grant. This completed report is now in course of publication in the Smithsonian Contribu- tions to Knowledge. This research on atmospheric conditions, in investigating the production of nuclei, determining their number per cubic centimeter, their velocity, their association with ionization, the effect of the presence of the electric field, etc., proves interesting not only in its own methods and results, but because of its agreement with the data obtained by other investigators from different experiments and theoretically different points of view. The research of Prof. Louis Bevier, of Rutgers College, in connection with the analysis of vowel sounds is steadily pro- gressing. During the year detailed studies of several vowel sounds have been made with results which agree well with the conclusions arrived at through an entirely different method by von Helmholtz in his analysis of German vowels. The lower resonance detected in our vowel sounds by Dr. Bevier, and not recorded by von Helmholtz save for ‘**a,” will later be the subject of detailed discussion which will endeavor to establish and explain these facts. A further report upon this research is awaited with interest. In December, 1900, a grant was approved on behalf of Dr. 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Marey, of the French Institute, in aid of his experiments on air currents. This research has been materially furthered by the successful application of chronophotography, a field in which Dr. Marey’s experiments have heretofore been note- worthy. By this means it has not only been possible to ana- lyze the movements of waves and currents of liquids which are invisible to the naked eye, but even the displacements of molecules. ; From reports so far submitted, but as yet necessarily incom- plete, it is believed that this research will aid materially in the solution of various problems connected with the mechanics of propulsion in fluids, at the same time rendering service in solving practical questions of ventilation, ete. The illus- tration indicating the method of making visible the course of these otherwise invisible currents round an obstacle is appended. The reader, if he has not noticed the rare experiment of successful machine flight of heavy bodies through the air, has probably had his attention called at times to the extraordinary difference between the performance of small steam vessels like yachts or tugs, where with equal power one glides through the water almost as though it offered no resistance, while another labors in rolling a formidable wave before it. The same dif- ferences occur in still more subtle form in the air. We can not with the naked eye separately see, in either case, the cur- rents that produce the effect, but by Dr. Marey’s most inge- nious experiments we are enabled to obtain photographic records from which we can study the forms which offer the least resistance and see why it is. A single illustration, indi- ‘ating the influence of a very slight divergence from the best forms in the case of the air, is here given. The experiments of Prof. A.G. Webster, of Clark University, on the propagation, reflection, and diffraction of sound have achieved a result of practical value in the construction of an instrument capable of emitting an accurately measured sound. It is thus possible, in treating persons of defective hearing, to decide with exactness as to the degree of deafness in a sub- ject, and to say if the power of hearing varies at different times. An instrument which furnishes the means of accu- rately determining these points should prove of value in medical treatment. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 A preliminary report has been received from Prof. William Hallock, of Columbia University, New York, who, as before stated, is conducting a research on the motion of a particle of air under the influence of articulate sound. General investi- gations allied to this subject, which are carried on in the laboratory of Columbia University, although in no way aided by the Hodgkins fund, have contributed helpfully to a knowl- edge of the principles underlying these experiments, and espe- cially to certain parts of the investigation referring to the relation between the amplitude of vibration of an air particle and the amplitude of vibration of a film, or dust particle, suspended in theair. Dr. Hallock’s research wiil be continued during the present year, when a final report is expected. A third grant has been approved on behalf of the Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, the editor, as in the two previous years, sending to educational establishments a specified number of copies of the Journal, in accordance with a list approved by the Institution. The conditions requisite to the approval of a grant from the Hodgkins fund, and to which applicants give assent before final action, are stated in the Hodgkins circular, a copy of which was included in the report of last year. It may, how- ever, be here repeated that should an investigation be of con- siderable duration, a summary of progress is to be submitted to the Institution at the end of six months, as well as a subse- quent report recording the final results of a research. These researches are, in the words of Mr. Hodgkins, all devoted to the ‘*increase and diffusion” of more ‘‘ exact knowledge in regard to the nature and properties of atmos- pheric air in connection with the welfare of man,” and are aided by the Hodgkins fund, it is hoped, in a manner which their promoter intended when he made his gift to the Institu- tion in the above words. NAPLES TABLE. Realizing that the opportunity for study in the Naples Zoological Station is an especial advantage to students pre- pared to do original work in embryological, histological, or other fields, the Institution is desirous of granting the privi- lege of the Smithsonian Table to all applicants so qualified, and with this end in view the conditions, which are here 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. rehearsed, have been made such as can be easily complied with. The appointing power rests finally with the Secretary, but each request for the seat with its accompanying data is referred as a preliminary step to the Advisory Committee for recommendation, and this year,as heretofore, he has been indebted to the committee for valuable suggestions in this connection and has been very usually guided by their advice. With a formal application for the table, addressed to the Secretary of the Institution, a summary of the scientific his- tory of the candidate is to be submitted, together with such letters of recommendation as he may wish to place on record. These credentials should contain a list of the original papers which have been published by the applicant, and should be accompanied by any data which would tend to establish a capability for original research, such as conducted by those resident at the station. By an official decision, arrived at in the interest of all candidates, the table is not assigned more than six months in advance of the date for which it is desired, and no appointment is made for a longer period than six months, although a student may apply for an extension of time or for future reappointment. Few investigators have so far desired to remain longer than six consecutive months at the station, although a second appointment is at times requested, and applications are not infrequently submitted several months in advance of the period when it is in order to take them up for consideration. It should be again noted that Smithsonian appointees are expected to report to the Institution at the termination of their term of occupancy, or preferably at the end of each three months, in case of a longer residence at the station. The following appointments to the Smithsonian seat have been made during the year: Dr. P. C. Mensch, of Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa., whose application was approved during the summer of 1900, occupied the Smithsonian Table during November of the same year. Dr. F. L. Stevens, of the University of Chicago, was appointed for May, 1901. Dr. Burton-Opitz, of Rush College and the University of Chicago, and later ** Voluntiir-Assistent” to Dr, Hiirthle in the — REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 physiological institute of the Royal University of Breslau, received the appointment for three months during the sum- mer of 1901. Applications for the coming year are now receiving con. sideration. An extract from an open letter issued by Doctor Dohrn, the experienced and always considerate Superintendent of the Station, of interest to the newcomer in Naples, is given in a footnote. The student who has been authorized to oceupy the Smithsonian Table at the Station will do well to address the Institution for fuller information which, for lack of space, is not here given. ‘Notre longue expérience nous met 4 méme de donner aux personnes qui désirent se rendre pour la premiére fois 4 la Station Zoologique quelques conseils qui leur feront épargner du temps et de l’argent. 1. Choix du matériel @ étude.—Veuillez informer le plus exactement que yous pourrez |’ Administration de la Station Zoologique, ‘‘Stazione zoologica, Napoli,’’ du jour de votre arrivée et de ce que vous désirez étudier, afin que nous puissions préparer d’avance, si cela est nécessaire et possible, le maté- riel dont yous aurez besoin. II serait avantageux pour vous d’indiquer en meéme temps d’autres objets que yous auriez l’intention d’étudier pour le cas ott le matériel viendrait 4 manquer temporairement. Si vous voulez vous occuper @embryologie nous vous recommandons de consulter pour votre gouverne les renseignements que nous avons publiés! sur la ponte des ceufs, ete. 2. Outillage.—Vous trouverez plus loin la liste détaillée de ce que nous pourrons yous fournir en fait d’ustensiles, de réactifs, ete. Nous yous prions de bien vouloir en tenir compte en faisant vos malles. Nous yous conseillons de porter votre microscope avec yous, comme petit bagage, et de ne pas le placer dans vos malles; évitez surtout de l’expédier. comme colis, car souvent méme l’emballage le plus soigneux n’empéche pas les accidents. Ayez les mémes précautions 4 l’égard de votre microtome. Lorsque les colis sont expédiés par chemin de fer il faut de quatre 4 six semaines pour les colis ordinaires, de deux 4 trois pour ceux par grande vitesse. Les instruments et les livres peuvent plus facilement entrer en franchise s’ils sont emballés avec des vétements déja portés. I] faudra toujours s’abstenir de mettre des cigares ou du tabac dans les colis ordi- naires ou dans ceux par grande vitesse. Comme adresse il suffira que vous écriviez votre nom suivi de ‘‘Stazione Zoologica, Napoli.’’ Ce sera aussi la meilleure adresse pour vos lettres, ete. * * * (b) Matériel d’ étude-—M. Lo Bianco ira s’informer réguliérement de vos 1Mitth. Z. Stat. Neapel, 1. Bd., 1879, p. 119 et suiv., 124 et suiv.; 2. Bd., 1881, p. 162 et suiy.; 8. Bd., 1888, p. 385 et suiv. sm 1901-2 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. EXPLORATIONS. The Institution has continued to carry on various astro- nomical, biological, and ethnological explorations through the medium of the Astrophysical Observatory, the National Museum, and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and has also cooperated with the Executive Departments in these directions. The details of most of these explorations are given in the paragraphs devoted to the several bureaus. During the past summer the Secretary, in a journey under- taken at his private charges in search of rest, departed con- siderably from the beaten route of travel by making a voyage to the South Pacific Ocean, where he visited the island of Tahiti and was there particularly fortunate in witnessing the celebrated ‘* fire-walk ” ceremony which he has described in an article in the general appendix to this report. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Institution represent the double aim of its founder, that it should exist for (1) the ‘* increase ” and (2) the ** diffusion” of knowledge. désirs et vous fera porter dés le lendemain a votre place les animaux et les plantes les plus communes, en tant que possible. I] est fait exception pour les dimanches et les jours de féte. I] faudra bien se rappeler que le matériel] que nous fournissons est destiné exclusivement aux recherches et non pas a la formation de collections étrangéres a vos études. * * * (c) La bibliothéque est ouverte aux mémes heures que les laboratoires, mais on la ferme a la tombée du jour. Si vous voulez emporter un livre relié de la bibliothéque a votre place de travail, vous n’aurez qu’a mettre 4 sa place un carton portant le numéro qui vous est échu. On mettra a votre disposition douze de ces cartons dans la bibliothéque d’en bas et six dans celle d’en baut. Pour avoir les livres non reliés vous remettrez un recu au bibliothécaire. Les journaux et les brochures qui se trouvent sur les tables de lecture ne pourront pas sortir de la bibliothéque sans la permission du bibliothécaire. Pour emporter les livres chez vous (qu’ils soient reliés ou non) vous devrez toujours en délivrer un recu au bibliothécaire et vous serez tenu de les rapporter le lendemain. Le bibliothécaire yous donnera les renseigne- ments nécessaires pour que yous puissiez yous servir aisément de la biblio- theque. Vous nous obligerez en avertissant le bibliothécaire des irrégularités que yous pourrez trouver dans les livres (feuilles détachées, planches déchirées ou perdues). Ayez soin de tenir les livres hors de tout contact avec l’eau de mer, et de ne pas les tacher avec des signes ou des notes. Ayant votre départ ayez la bonté de remettre tous les livres 4 leur place et de demander au bibliothécaire s’il n’a pas par hasard quelque regu de vous. fi Fe eg REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 The series of Contributions to Knowledge are intended to record results of original researches in science, for the increase of knowledge. In this series there has been put in course of publication during the year a memoir by Dr. Carl Barus upon experiments in ionized air, a work which, as mentioned above, was carried on with a grant from the Hodgkins fund. To the series of Miscellaneous Collections there have been added a bibliography of chemical dissertations compiled by Dr. Bolton, and an article on the ‘* Cheapest form of light,” the latter being a reprint of a paper by the Secretary and Mr. Very, originally published in the American Journal of Science, for which there has been a continued demand. There have also been added to the Miscellaneous Collections two volumes containing the legislative history of the Institu- tion from the announcement of the original bequest in 1835 to the year 1899. It is prepared by W. J. Rhees, of this Institution. This work was published also in a Congressional edition. As year by year the publications of the Institution and of its bureaus are increased in number it is believed that its influence, not only in the ‘* increase” but in the ‘* diffusion” of knowledge, is felt in a greater degree. This is manifest by the greater popular demand for publications, particularly the General Appendix to the Secretary’s Annual Reports, in which the aim has been to consider the diffusion of knowledge among the masses of the people, and to create a desire for a better understanding of the important relations that exist between scientific studies and the needs of our daily life. It will be remembered that under the general printing law, besides the limited document edition of the Smithsonian Re- port distributed to certain designated depositories, only 3,000 copies are now published by Congress for the use of its mem- bers, and 7,000 copies for distribution by the Institution, but it is earnestly to be hoped that a larger edition will be author- ized to correspond with the increased popular demand. With regard to this larger edition, it may be said that it was a custom, introduced by the first Secretary of the Institution, Joseph Henry, of honored memory, to give a certain number of timely articles of an instructive but wholly popular and nontechnical character in the General Appendix to the Secre- tary’s Report. 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The experiment was tried under his immediate successor of publishing in place of these an annual résumé of the science of the world, which undertaking was soon found to be an impractical charge, if done on a desirable scale, and nearly useless with anything less; and the present Secretary, beliey- ing, with Secretary Henry, that the Institution’s function for the diffusion of knowledge was only less important than that for its increase, resumed and extended the early plan of giving short memoirs by writers of authority who are able to present new facts in a nontechnical manner, thus furnishing a sum- mary of the more important progress made in all departments of science during the year elapsed, supplemented by a few papers relating to more remote periods, as in. the case of oriental research. This summary has had the Secretary’s increasing attention for the last two or three years, not only because of its intrinsic importance, but since the Institution thus becomes more widely known to those whose help it desires. The Secretary has given an unusual amount of personal care to the General Appendix of the Report for 1900, which contains 43 articles on various branches of science as enu- merated on another page, in the report of the editor. The Annual Report of the Institution for 1899 has been dis- tributed and the report for 1900 has been put in type, but the latter volume was not received from the Public Printer in time for its distribution to the general public before the close of the fiscal year. There was also received from the Printer a delayed portion 'As the Report for 1900 marks the close of the century, considerable space is given to reviews of the progress in various branches of science during the nineteenth century, prepared by men distinguished in their various fields. The subjects thus reviewed are astronomy, chemistry, geology, physics, electricity, geography, biology, medicine, psychical research, which, with an article on the ‘‘ Century’s great men of science,”’ furnish in brief a picture of scientific activity of the last century. China, which has figured so much in the public eye during the year past, is given especial prominence. There is a brief sketch of the Pekin Observatory, the looting of which created so much comment; an article by the Chinese minister, Wu Ting-Fang, on mutual helpfulness between China and the United States; Chinese folklore and some Western analogies, and an exceptionally interesting account of the loot of the Imperial Sum- mer Palace at Pekin in 1860. This latter is an abridged translation from Sita REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ye | of the Museum Report for 1897, being a memorial volume of Dr. G. Brown Goode. In addition to the preceding publications by the Institution proper a considerable number of works, chiefly on biological topics, have been added to the Museum series. The Bureau of Ethnology completed the Seventeenth Report, which has been considerably delayed in publication, and progress was made on the Eighteenth and Nineteenth reports. The Secretary during the year transmitted to Congress the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year 1900, and also the Third Report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution. LIBRARY. It will be remembered that the Institution, besides its deposit in the Library of Congress, has retained in its own building a limited number of scientific periodicals, together with a small collection known as the ‘*Secretary’s library,” dealing principally with works of art and pure literature, and a still more limited one of books furnishing interesting reading for the employees of the Institution, which is desig- nated as the ‘* Employees’ library.” The detailed report of the librarian will be found later, but he states that there have been added during the year over 30,000 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, exclusive of the libra- ries of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, but including all other branches. Of the acces- sions, by far the greater part were assigned to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress. a journal written by Count D’ Herisson, who was on the staff of the French general during the Anglo-French expedition to China in 1860 and an eye- witness of the extraordinary scenes he describes. It appears to have entirely escaped attention during the late crisis, although it has an inter- esting bearing on recent events_and illustrates in a curious manner how history repeats itself. Aéronautics, which only in the last decade has been growing to be con- sidered a science, has several articles devoted to it by M. Janssen, Lord Rayleigh, Secretary Langley, and others. Among the thirty or more other articles there may be mentioned, as illustrating the variety of the subjects treated, papers on malaria and the transmission of yellow fever, by Surgeon-General Sternberg; an essay on Huxley, by Professor Brooks, of Johns Hopkins, and a paper on so practi- cal a subject as incandescent mantles. A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The Secretary has lately arranged with the Librarian of Congress that the Smithsonian set of any periodical of art or science, or set of transactions of learned societies in that Library, shall be considered and kept as a primary set, or, if incomplete, shall, under this title, be supplemented by vol- umes of any broken sets already in that Library’s possession. If there still be duplicates in the Library of Congress, it is understood that these and not the Smithsonian copies shall be disposed of. On the other hand, he has also agreed that in the division of Government documents in the Library of Congress the Smithsonian sets, excepting those which include special scien- tific publications, shall be transferred to the main collection of the Library of Congress. No action has been taken with regard to the large number of sets or single volumes on general subjects which do not fall under the above heads, and these are left under the exist- ing arrangements. With regard to those which already form a portion of the Smithsonian deposit, the Librarian of Congress has said, and the Secretary has agreed to the justice of his representation, that while it is abstractly desirable that the entire Smith- sonian library should be kept together, there may be cases where the general interests of the public will be served best by taking a portion of these and classifying them with others. It is understood in every case that all volumes belonging to the Smithsonian deposit are distinctly so marked, carrying with them, therefore, the evidence of their ownership. This general agreement, which requires much detailed work, will finally result in giving a more coherent character both to the Smithsonian deposit and to the Library of Congress itself, and is in the mutual interests of both establishments. The Institution is indebted to the courtesy of the Librarian of Congress also for establishing an arrangement whereby twice a day books are brought to the Institution by the Library of Congress and returned thereto. This has rendered possi- ble the sending up of a much larger number of publications than heretofore, no less than 200 boxes, each containing the equivalent of 40 large octavo volumes, being sent up during the past year. The possibilities in the direction of increasing the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress and of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Os: filling up deficiencies are unlimited, except by the very small force that can be put upon this work; and both establishments would be much benefited if a larger force were available. The Smithsonian shelving in the Library of Congress is of steel, iron, and marble, comprising 19,362 running feet of shelves, while the bridges are mainly of steel and essentially fireproof. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The Regents, through their first Secretary, Joseph Henry, appear to have originated this undertaking in a communica- tion which he was authorized to make to the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Glas- gow in 1855, suggesting the formation of a catalogue of memoirs. The Smithsonian Institution had not the means of carrying out the plan, which was referred to the Royal Society, who approved it and secured a grant from the English Goy- ernment under which 11 volumes have now appeared. In the preface to the first volume we read ** The present undertak- ing may be said to have originated in a communication from Dr. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.” In March, 1894, the Royal Society issued a circular to learned societies throughout the world proposing a great international subject catalogue. In 1895 the Department of State received from the British ambassador an expression of hope on the part of the English prime minister, Lord Salis- bury, that the United States Government would be repre- sented at a coming conference on this subject. The matter was referred by the Secretary of State to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who recommended that the Govern- ment should take such part and suggested the names of dele- gates, a recommendation which was duly adopted. It is suf- ficient now to recall that the seed which the Institution planted has grown into this great enterprise, in which almost all modern nations, except the United States, have taken an effective part. In the report for last year the Secretary stated to the Regents the reason for the absence of an official delegate at the Third 'The reader who may care to look at the history of the subject is referred to articles by the Librarian of the Institution, published in “‘Sci- ence’’ on August 6, 1897, and on June 2 and 9, 1899. 24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Conference on the International Catalogue of Scientific Liter- ature, held in London June 12 and 13, 1900. It was learned afterwards that Mr. Putnam, the Librarian of Congress, who happened to be present in London, had private conferences with some of the representatives, and greatly aided them in reaching a conclusion. It was decided at that time to proceed with the catalogue if 300 subscriptions, at $85 per annum, for a period of five years, could be obtained, and the quota for the United States was fixed at 45 sets. It being necessary to secure these before the end of September, 1900, the Secretary, as an evidence of the Institution’s good will, sent out a cir- cular letter commending the project to American institutions of learning. By the end of September the above number had been secured, thus assuring the publication of the work in England, and this number has since been increased to the equivalent of over 66 sets, at $85 apiece, for five years, rep- resenting a sum of about $30,000, the largest subscription made to the catalogue by any single country, a fact which abundantly demonstrates the interest felt in the catalogue on the part of scientific men in the United States. It is greatly to be regretted that no adequate provision has been made for the cataloguing of the scientific literature of the United States, which is to form a part of it. The Secre- tary has provisionally undertaken to do this work out of the private funds of the Institution, in what is feared will be an inadequate way, since only two assistants can be allotted for the purpose, and the Secretary has felt able to retain these only to June 30, 1902. It has indeed been quite clear from the outset that this work could not be made a perpetual charge upon the small Smithsonian fund; but with a full recognition of the importance of this project, the Secretary is still not willing to have the Institution itself solicit aid from Congress for it, while other interests already committed to the Institu- tion are so inadequately provided for and demand its first care. There is yet hope that some way may be found by which this country may take its proper share in the community of nations. In this great undertaking, which is now being carried on by England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, and Austria, the Institution, which is not soliciting for itself any Congressional aid, will be glad to see Congress place the work in any effect- ive hands, or, if the Institution itself be designated, it will do its part if Congress shall so direct and provide the means. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 CORRESPONDENCE. The correspondence of the Institution, next to its publica- tions, furnish, perhaps, the most effectual means of diffusing knowledge concerning matters of purely scientific interest, as well as of disseminating information of a popular nature on subjects coming within the scope of the Institution’s work. The inquiries which come to the Institution from all parts of the world embrace almost every conceivable topic, and the major portion of the correspondence relates not to matters of a routine nature, but to widely diversified subjects of scientific investigation. Thus the expenditure of a very considerable amount of time and labor is necessitated, as it is endeavored in every instance to respond as fully as possible to the requests for information, though where the subject of inquiry is clearly without the scope of the Institution, the communica- tions are referred to the branch of the Government service having special cognizance of the matter or matters to which they relate. Where the inquiries have particular reference to the activities of the bureaus administered under the Insti- tution, they are referred to the bureau concerned in each case for attention and answer, unless they involve matters of policy, in which event they are returned for the Secretary’s action. The plan adopted in 1890 of registering such letters as are of sufficient importance to make a record of them desirable, has been continued in operation during the year and has con- stituted an efficient check against their loss or temporary misplacement. The increasing demand for publications of the Institution has necessitated an increase in the amount of correspondence relating to their distribution, though this has been consider- ably reduced by the employment of printed forms. Aside from the letters sent out relating to the operations of its sev- eral bureaus, special correspondence has been conducted on aérodromic matters and in the administration of the Hodgkins fund. Since the Smithsonian bureaus were put under the civil-service law and rules in July, 1896, there has been a steady increase in the amount of correspondence relating to civil-service matters, and this has added perceptibly to the labors of the Institution. 26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1X POSITIONS. The Institution and its bureaus were represented in the Government building at the Pan-American Exposition by an extensive exhibit prepared under the general direction of Dr. F. W. True, of the National Museum, who was designated by the Secretary to represent the Institution on the Government Board. Mention of this subject will be found in the reports of the Museum and other bureaus. MISCELLANEOUS. Glasgow University.—Vhe congratulations of the Institution were extended to the University of Glasgow on the occasion of its ninth jubilee celebration in June, 1901, and upon its invitation thata representative of the Institution be appointed to participate in the ceremonies, the Secretary designated Dr. Theodore N. Gill to serve in that capacity. Congress of Americanists.—In June, 1901, the Secretary designated Maj. J. W. Powell, Mr. W. H. Holmes, and Mr. IF. W. Hodge to represent the Institution on the general committee of arrangements for the International Congress of Americanists, to be held in New York City in the autumn of 1902. Professor Henrys laboratory notes.—During the long course of scientific researches by Secretary Joseph Henry resulting in his discovery of the electro-magnet, which is practically the basis of the telegraph and of most of the electrical devices of the present day, he kept minute notes of each day’s experi- ments. While it has not seemed necessary to publish these notes in full, it has appeared of interest that the most impor- tant original memoranda showing his methods of work should at least be made public, and after consultation with Secretary Henry’s family a competent person has been placed in charge of the compilation of these notes in a form that will make u good-sized octavo volume, to be illustrated by a consider- able number of reproductions of Professor Henry’s original sketches. Nobel prizecompetition.—The Institution has been informally advised that, in accordance with a bequest from Dr. Alfred Nobel, the conditions of which are not dissimilar to those under which the Hodgkins fund of the Institution is adminis- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27 tered, the Swedish Government has established a competition designed to stimulate discoveries in the service of humanity. As specified by the testator, the income from Dr. Nobel’s fortune is to be distributed annually in very considerable rewards, say $40,000 each, to those who during the past year have rendered the greatest service to the world in the domains of physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, literature, and in the work of fraternizing nations, reducing or suppress- ing standing armies, and propagating peace congresses. In view of its entire approval of the testator’s objects, the Institution makes this mention of this subject, with which it has otherwise no official connection.’ Santa Fe Palace.—On March 20 the governor of New Mexico approved a joint resolution of the Territorial legis- lature ‘tasking for the establishment of a branch of the Smithsonian Institution in the old-palace at Santa Fe, N. Mex.” This resolution is as follows: [House joint resolution No. 7.] Whereas the building in the city of Santa Fe, known as the Palace, is the oldest public building and the most historic ‘Alfred Nobel died at San Remo December 10, 1896. His will provided that the interest on the capital bequeathed should be annually divided into five equal parts to be awarded as prizes to those persons who should have contributed most materially to benefit mankind during the year immedi- ately preceding, as follows: One part to be given to the person having made the most important discovery or invention in the science of physics; one {o. in chemistry; one do. in physi logy or medicine; one do. for the most distinguished work of an idealistic tendency in literature, and one do. to the person who shall have most or pest promoted the fraternity of nations and the abolishment or diminution of standing armies and the formation and increase of peace congresses. The contest of the will by the heirs at law is now over, and the statutes under which the awarding of the prizes is to be made are formulated and the first awards are to be made in 1902. Under the statutes ‘‘It is essential that every candidate for a prize under the terms of the will be proposed as such in writing by some duly qualified person. A direct application for a prize will not be taken into consideration. “The right to hand in the name of a candidate for a prize shall belong to ‘“(1) Home and foreign members of the Royal Academy of Science in Stockholm. ‘(2) Members of the Nobel Committee of the Physical and Chemical Sections. 298 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. edifice in the United States, having been the seat of govern- mental power and the home of the executive officials of New Mexico through all the changes in government for three cen- turies; and Whereas New Mexico itself is more prolific in archeological treasures than any other part of the Union, and has already contributed more largely th: an any other State or Territory to the National Museum, and it is desirable that its peculiar his- torical objects should be preserved in one place, and amid their natural environment, instead of being scattered all over the world; and Whereas the Territorial legislatures of 1882 and 1884 asked that this historic edifice be devoted to the preservation of the antiquities of New Mexico, and two Secretaries of the Interior have officially recommended that its permanent use be that of a museum of the antiquarian collections of the Southwest; and Whereas, by inadvertence in the wording of the act of Congress which donated public lands to the Territory for educational and other purposes, passed June 21, 1898, the palace property was included in the cession made by the United States to Mexico, without any wish for such cession on tiie part of our people; and Wines as he two houses of the ste legislature, each by a ‘ +(3) Scientists who have ree sna a Nobel prize from me edene of Science. ‘*(4) Professors, whether in ordinary or associate, of the physical and chemical sciences at the universities of Upsala, Lund, Christiania, Copen- hagen, and Helsingfors, at the Caroline Medico-Chirurgical Institute and the Royal Technical College in Stockholm, and also teachers of the same subjects who are on the permanent staff of the Stockholm University College. (5) Holders of similar chairs at other universities or university col- leges, to the number of at least six, to be selected by the Academy of Science in the way most appropriate for the just representation of the various countries and their respective seats of learning. ‘“*(6) Other scientists whom the Academy of Science may see fit to select.”’ At the time of Nobel’s death his estate was estimated to have a value of from 30,000,000 to 35,000,000 kroner, which, if invested at 3 per cent, would yield an annual income of from $240,000 to $270,000. Each fifth would thus amount to $48,000 to $55,000. Since then 1,500,000 kroner have, by agreement with the heirs at law, been set aside for the founda- tion of Nobel institutes in Sweden; but at the same time the interest for the intervening years since Nobel’s death has been accruing, so that the exact value of each annual prize is not now known. Inquiries concerning the Nobel competition should be addressed to the Council of the Nobel Foundation, care of the Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm, Sweden. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 unanimous vote, passed a joint resolution asking the United States to reassume ownership of said property, and that a western branch of the National Museum be established at the Palace: Now, therefore, be it Resolved (if the council concur), That this legislature con- siders that the appropriate future of the palace should be a the home of the great collections of archeological and Bihar antiquities of New Mexico and the Southwest. Resolved, That we request the authorities in charge of the National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution to establish a southwestern museum of the character hereinbefore indi- cated as the palace property, with the ancient palace itself as the center. Resolved, That the Territorial board of public lands be authorized and directed to convey said palace property either to the United States or to the Smithsonian Institution, upon the condition that a branch either of the National Museum or the museum of the Smithsonian Institution be established and maintained therein; that the palace building be preserved in good order and without material changes in “its general struc- ture and appearance forever; that the New Mexico Historical Society be allowed such space in said building as it may require for the proper exhibition of its collection of New Mexican antiquities and other objects illustrating the history of the Territory as a part of said general exhibition; that the exhi- bition rooms in said building be open to the public without charge forever; and that no expense for arrangement or main- tenance of said building and its contents be a “charge on New > Mexico or any civil division thereof. Inasmuch as the offer on the part of the Territory of New Mexico, if accepted by the Smithsonian Institution, would involve the transfer of valuable real estate in the city of Santa Fe, the Secretary has held the question of acceptance for such action as the Board of Regents may deem desirable. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The National Museum is visited annually by about a quarter of a million persons, and each one seems to desire to examine as many as possible of its treasures, now numbering nearly 5,000,000 objects pertaining to the anthropological, biological, and geological sciences. Through its publications and its correspondence the Museum reaches everywhere, giving to the world information of a technical or of a popular character concerning the American and alien races of men and their habits, the life history of 30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. animals and plants, and the structure and composition of the earth. The Secretary, in his report for 1888, called attention to the inadequacy of the Museum building, which even then, within seven years after its completion,- was found to be wholly insufficient for the collections. The subsequent his- tory of the Museum has been a continuous recital to Congress by the Regents of its increasing inadequacy. The Secretary feels it his urgent duty to call attention to the absolute need of an additional, more modern, building for the National Museum, wherein may be properly exhibited objects now packed in the present structure, and where may be set up before the public, whose property they are, very many objects of scientific, historical, and popular interest now in storage quarters. ‘Too much can not be said in urging this all-important matter, and it is hoped that definite action may finally be taken by Congress. The Secretary repeats here, what he already said in 1888, that not only is large additional space required to relieve the congested condition of the present building, but that the appropriations have become utterly insuflicient, even for the proper care of the collections. It is hoped that Congress may see fit to remedy these conditions and to give larger appropria- tions this year. The Secretary repeats also that it is not alone the lack of space that is keenly felt, but the absolute inadequacy of the appropriations in maintaining a corps of efficient assistants to care for the collections. The accompanying table will per- haps tell the story better than any amount of description. If we take the five years extending from 1881 to 1886 as a basis for comparison, the appropriations were at the rate of $1,000 for the care of about 6,000 specimens. This was rep- resented, at the time as insufficient, and divers expedients were resorted to, such as the creation of honorary and unpaid curators to perform the work. At present $1,000 are pro- vided for the care of about 21,000 specimens, and proper care at anything like this rate is simply impossible. The number of specimens has increased nearly five times, while the amount of money appropriated for their care has not doubled. LO6l-l8s8l WNASNIA| IVNOILVN SSLVLS GALINO ‘SNOILVINdOHddY GNV SNOILOAIIOO JO ASVSHON| SAILVISY 09°27 ZO'es 12°6S olresl $z6 ‘07 e0z‘6! 893'9! ol’ 91Z‘OlZ 020‘SZ 79°99 008971 4 970‘I9e'8 129197 600'006 | [SN3mi03as ONVSNOHL HOwa vod NOtLvidOuddy 4 SUV71100 GNYSNOH1L HOWG H3d HOI dI4Wo SN3WIO3dS JO HIBWON SNOILVIddONddY iO LNNOWY SN3ZWN1I94dS 40 Y38WNN AOVYSAV || aLva d SUV1100 00000! HO SNAWIO3dS 000091 Teel 31voSs “SN YddW JHL ONY SNAWIO3dS JO YSSWAN FHL NI3ML38 Olive BOWYSAV BHL “SUVBA BAI4 JO SdOlWad AB “ONIMOHS 318V4L “L061 ‘uodey uRiuosyyWwS REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31 When Congress comes to appropriate for the increase of space to over twenty times what it is at present (which amount will be necessary to provide for our present collections on a scale of space only commensurate with that now allotted, for example, by the American Museum of Natural History), it will be found that the Museum’s most valued property does not lie only in the granite walls of its new building, if it have one, nor in the cases, nor in the specimens, however import- ant these may be, but in its possession of a corps of long- trained and long-experienced workers. This band of collaborators has continued its labors in most cases while their duties have been growing more onerous and their pay has remained practically stationary, because its members are as a rule working for the love of their work rather than for pay; but unless more adequate provision is made now, the Museum, when Congress has granted new quarters for it, will not be able to take into them those who in the past have made it what it is, these men, its best posses- sion, who are now going and who will have gone. It is always to be remembered that the collections and specimens referred to have not been purchased on any digested plan, and though in themselves often very valuable, are mainly derived from Government expeditions often organ- ized for purposes other than collecting, from gifts, and from other sources, and that their usefulness is always impaired unless the gaps between them are filled. A small appropria- tion was provided for this purpose—that is, chiefly the filling of gaps in the collections, in 1898—but the amount available is so limited and the deficiencies in the collection so great that it will be impracticable to add any new series of objects at present. It is hoped that Congress may hereafter grant larger sums for this purpose and for such unique character- istic American objects as are rapidly disappearing. The Secretary does not wish to say that the National Mu- seum, under this absolute denial by Congress of its indispen- sable means of existence, has fallen to a second place among American museums, but he would ask a comparison between it and others which were once its inferiors. Taking a single instance, that of the American Museum of Natural History—the museum of the State of New York— some statistics have been secured with regard to its size and o2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. cost of administration and contrasted with similar data bearing upon this Museum—the museum of the whole United States: Statistics of the United States National Museum compared with the American Museum of Natural History. : | American Mu- National Museum. seum of Natural History. Cubieteetinabull dine sas. se ee eee eee acne eee 3, 600, 000 38, 000, 000 Numberofspecimmens +) s*--6) eee ee eee eee eee 4, 994, 672 | 2, 300, 000 Space provided for each specimen -....-......----.- fm Of 1 cubic foot. | 163 cubic feet. TPMCOM C2190 Was os eee ae OD Te ne ry $263, 540 $230, 000 Salariesipaiditoteuratorss eee ose eeeeeeee ee eee eee a22, 199. 76 $44, 000 Coshombimldingstodate =-es-se ee eee ee eee eee $391, 400 #4, 000, 000 Expenses forialliipurposes, 190l tee eo). ee ceases eeee b $246, 824. 67 5230, 000 P | 4aTotal paid to entire scientific staff, $51,649.45. » Balance of appropriation held to meet outstanding liabilities. It has been possible during the year to arrange for a new lecture hall in the Museum, a feature which for several years seemed to be of public importance but which was of necessity temporarily abandoned. The present hall is well equipped for its use, being provided with a convenient platform, a lantern stand, screen, chairs, and adjustable window screens. Progress has been made in the installation of electric are lamps throughout the Museum halls, and it is expected dur- ing the coming year to complete the work so that the building may be opened at night when occasion or order of Congress should require it. Much-needed improvements are being made in the heating system by the installation of new boilers in the Museum and the connection by a tunnel with the Smithsonian building, rendering it possible to considerably economize the service by heating both buildings from one center instead of by two plants as heretofore. Among other improvements of the year it may be men- tioned that the last of the old temporary wooden flooring of the Museum halls has been entirely replaced by permanent. terrazzo pavement. The report of the Assistant Secretary enumerates some- what in detail the accessions to the several departments of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 Museum during the year, aggregating about 180,000 speci- mens, among which may be here mentioned ethnological mate- rial collected by officers of the Army and Navy in southern California, British Columbia, and Alaska, some facsimiles of ancient codices presented by the Duc de Loubat, and aborig- inal objects of much interest from Brazil and other parts of South America. Special attention is also called to the valua- ble collection transmitted from the Far East by Dr. W. L. Abbott, who has already contributed so largely to the Museum as the result of his extensive explorations. Among other newly acquired collections of interest are objects of flint, illustrating the stone-shaping art of the primi- tive Egyptians, presented by Mr. Seton-Karr, of London, and a very full series of stone implements and other relics, principally from Maryland, presented by Mr. J. D. McGuire. The biological department has been enriched by collections of special interest gathered by collaborators of the Museum in various parts of the world, including marine zoological specimens gathered in connection with the expeditions of the Fish Commission steamers Albatross and Fish Hawk in the Pacific Ocean and the region of Porto Rico. It has been pos- sible to secure by purchase upwards of a thousand specimens of North and Central American birds, and by donation there has been received a large number of the eggs and nests of Philippine birds. Among the geological additions of the year are several thousand fossils from various regions, one of the most inter- esting being a fairly complete skeleton of an adult female mastodon from Michigan. ‘ During the past twenty years it has been possible for the Museum to distribute duplicate specimens to a considerable number of institutions of learning in this country, and very much more could be accomplished in this way were funds available for the preparation of additional collections of this kind. Wherever these series have been sent, they are highly appreciated, and the demands from other institutions for simi- lar contributions are constantly increasing. It is all important that every object exhibited in the Museum be suitably and permanently labeled, and while it is gratify- sm 1901——3 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ing that much progress has been made in this work in recent years, many specimens still remain with only temporary labels. During the past year but little could be accomplished in this direction, owing to the large demand upon the time of Museum officials in connection with the preparation of exhibits for the Pan-American Exposition, and also the present inadequate facilities for label printing. Attention in this connection is ‘called to paragraphs below on the possible treatment of labels so as to render them not only valuable for scientific classifi- ‘ation, but also instructive and interesting to the public. The Secretary has endeavored each year to make some advance in the direction of the Institution’s primary purpose of the increase of original knowledge through observation and research by the eminent men who are acting as its immediate curators. What has been done in this way will be found indi- rated in the Museum reports. He is at this moment speaking, however, of only a sub- ordinate, though not unimportant, portion of the Museum’s work, that of instruction and entertainment, and toward this end he has with personal attention brought together in one of the halls of the Smithsonian building « small collection which has been called **’Phe Children’s Room” (though it appears to interest adults at least as much as children), comprising objects of interest rather than of practical instruction. The room itself has been made attractive by a careful choice of color and design in the decoration of the walls and ceilings, embodying illustrations of the life of animals and plants. The objects displayed in the room include cages of living birds, aquaria with fishes, and cases filled with those things which interest children even of a larger growth. As the Secretary stated in his last report, the classification ‘Sis not that of science, but that which is most intelligible to the untrained mind,” and is intended for the purpose of exciting the interest and wonder of the youthful visitor, in the ultimate hope that this will stimulate a desire for knowledge in natural history.: The Secretary takes this occasion to express the hope that this small special collection may have a possible use beyond its immediately declared purpose. It is only within the last oo Or REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. few years that scientific men have begun to collect and publish in methodical form the life histories of birds and other ani- mals, and it is believed that they are beginning to take an increased interest in reducing the results of their researches to popular form for the entertainment and instruction of the larger public, on whose support with Congress, the pecuniary means for higher learning itself must also depend. With regard to this, the Secretary will quote from a previ- ous report to the effect that “‘if the first purpose of a museum be for the increase of original knowledge by investigation and research, its second purpose is to entertain as well as to instruct.” The Secretary has elsewhere quoted the definition of an educational museum as ‘‘a collection of instructive labels, each illustrated by a well-selected specimen.” — It is believed that the National Museum of the Smithsonian Institution has led in the practice of making its labels generally instructive; and yet it may be properly asked whether the labels in the collections even in our own Museum, or in almost any other, are a collection of instructive labels for the general public. The Secretary expresses the wish that still further progress in this direction of instructing and interesting the public may be made, and he suggests, as one legitimate means of doing it, not any change in the present labels or in the Latin names of the specimens, which should always remain, but an addition to each, or at least to the labels of the more popularly interest- ing specimens, giving briefly in English some characteristic, and if possible some ¢nteresting characteristic, of the specimen in question. Again repeating that the first purpose of the Museum is to aid investigation and research, and that this will always have his first attention, he recalls that there is a subordinate but most valuable purpose, and he wishes to say now what has been increasingly in his mind for years, that he would feel he had been promoting a most useful work if he could be the means of inducing all museums to systematically add to exist- ing labels (on at least all the most interesting or characteristic specimens) something which would bring their subject within the reach of the unlearned public. 36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. To illustrate the very slight modification necessary to carry the suggestion into effect, there is given below an example of the usual label and of the modified form which, adding a single sentence, furnishes additional information of a popular character. 452 CRESTED FLY-CATCHER. Great Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Myiarchus crinitus (L1».) fist. N. Am. B., I, p. 334, pl. xliii, fig. 3. Eastern United States and British Provinces, but rare northeastward beyond the Connecticut Valley; west to edge of the Great Plains; in winter, Central America to Nicaragua. 452 CRESTED FLY-CATCHER. Great Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Myiarchus crinitus (LINN.) Hist. N. Am. B., II, p. 334, pl. xlili, fig. 3. Eastern United States and British Provinces, but rare northeastward beyond the Connecticut Valley; west to edge of the Great Plains; in ‘winter, Central America to Nicaragua. This bird ornaments its nest with the cast-off skin of a snake, the purpose being apparently to frighten off intruders. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Researches among the native American tribes have been continued in the Bureau under the immediate supervision of Maj. J. W. Powell, its Director. The operations of the year were conducted in accordance with the act of Congress ap- proved June 6, 1900, and with the formal plan adopted by the Secretary June 19, 1900. As heretofore, the work has been carried forward in such manner as to aid in advancing the science of ethnology, and the Director has given much attention to the development of a classification of the native tribes on the basis of their normal activities. It is thought that, in addition to its immediate REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ab utility, this work will constitute an important contribution to the sciences dealing with mankind. Field work was prosecuted in Alaska, Arizona, California, Maine, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin, as well as in British Columbia and Ontario, Canada, and in Lower California and Sonora, Mexico. Addi- tional data were received from correspondents and collabora- tors in other sections. One of the noteworthy expeditions of the year traversed the arid regions of Arizona, Sonora, and Lower California along new routes, and resulted in discovering the recent extinction of the Tepoka Indians, in defining the western boundary of the territory occupied by the Papagos, also in the first scientific study of the Cocopas living in the Lower Jolorado River region. Among these Indians a collection was made for the National Museum, portions of which were subsequently used in the exhibit at the Pan-American Expo- sition in Buffalo. The Cocopas were found to present vari- ous features of interest both to scientific students and to statesmen. The work of the expedition was facilitated by several officers of the Republic of Mexico, including His Excellency Senor Don Manuel de Aspiroz, the ambassador from Mexico to the United States, whose courtesy it is a pleasure to acknowledge. An extensive archeologic recon- naissance was made also through central and southeastern Arizona, where various ruins of ancient habitations were examined. Linguistic records of great value were obtained by a collaborator among the Haida Indians in British Columbia. Valuable collections were made or acquired during the year—a typical series of stone implements from Georgia, a collection of artifacts in stone and clay from southern Cal- ifornia, the Cocopa collection already mentioned, and a series of obsidian blades from California being most notable. As during previous years, numerous photographs of abo- rigines were taken both in the field and from Indian delega- tions visiting Washington, and toward the close of the year a number of kinetoscope views, or motion pictures, were - obtained for purposes of study and record. The work in the office covered a wide range of topics per- taining to the characteristics and products of the aborigines. 38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Among the reports prepared for publication, one embody- ing a series of symbolic paintings of ritualistic character, which may be termed a Codex Hopiensis from the tribe in which it. was found, is of peculiar interest. Another report of special note relates to wild rice as an aboriginal food source, and touches on the utilization of this plant by white settlers. The publication of the Report was continued with some delay due to the time required for reproducing the illus- trations accompanying the papers. The Seventeenth Report and the first volume of the Eighteenth were distributed dur- ing the year, while the second part of the Eighteenth was finished to the point of binding; at the same time the Nine- teenth Report was edited and proof-read. The work of the Bureau during the year is described at some length in the Report of the Director. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The Secretary recalls to the Regents that the primary pur- pose for which they sanctioned the establishment of the Na- tional Zoological Park was embodied in its name. It was to be a ‘* National” one; and it was not for the City of Washington only, but to be a means of preserving the great animals of the country, and particularly of the North and West, which were in danger of extinction; and it was to exist quite as much for Idaho or Oregon as for the District of Columbia. It is earnestly to be hoped that Congress will carry out the plan originally urged upon it, of treating this park as it treats the National Museum, that is, as something not existing for the benefit of the District chiefly, nor properly to be main- tained by the taxation of its inhabitants. In any case it is to be known that while the National Park has been of a great deal of incidental use to Washington as an admirable place for health, recreation and entertainment, accessible to those who can only go on foot, and offering such charm of scenery as no other public park under such conditions possesses, yet that one of the principal purposes for which it was founded—the preservation from extinction of the national animal races—has not been considered by Congress. About this the Secretary can express himself no better now than he did in his report for REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 1890, in which, referring to the history of similar attempts, he said: ‘**In the early part of this century a naturalist traveling in Siberia stood by the mutilated body of a mammoth still unde- eayed, which the melting of the frozen gravel had revealed, and to the skeleton of which large portions of flesh, skin, and hair still clung. The remains were excavated and transported many hundred miles across the frozen waste, and at last reached the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, where, through all these years, the mounted skeleton has justly been regarded as the greatest treasure of that magnificent collection. ‘Scientific memoirs, popular books, theological works, poems—in short, a whole literature—has come into existence with this discovery as its text. No other event in all the his- tory of such subjects has excited a greater or more permanent interest outside of purely sclentific circles; for the resurrec- tion of this relic of a geologic time in a condition analogous to that in which the bodies of contemporaneous animals are daily seen brings home to the mind of the least curious observer the reality of a long extinct race with a vividness which no fossils or petrifactions of the ordinary sort can possibly equal. ** Now, Lamassured by most competent naturalists that few, if any, of those not particularly devoted to the study of Ameri- can animals realize that changes have already occurred or are on the point of taking place in our own characteristic fauna compared with which the disappearance from it of the mam- moth was insignificant. That animal was common to all northern lands in its day. The practical domestication of the elephant gives to everyone the opportunity of observing a gigantic creature closely allied to the mammoth, and from which he may gain an approximately correct idea of it. But no such example is at hand in the case of the bison, the prong-horn antelope, the elk, the Rocky Mountain goat, and many more of our vanishing races. ‘The student of even the most modern text-books learns that the characteristic larger animals of the United States are those just mentioned, with the moose, the grizzly bear, the beaver, and if we include marine forms and arctic American animals we may add the northern fur seal, the Pacific walrus, the Californian sea elephant, the manatee, and still others. ** With one or two exceptions out of this long list, men now living can remember when each of these animals was reason- ably abundant within its natural territory. It is within the bounds of moderation to affirm that unless Congress places some check on the present rate of destruction there are men now living who will see the time when the animals enumerated will be practically extinct, or exterminated within the limits 40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of the United States. Already the census of some of them can be expressed in three figures. “The fate of the bison, or American buffalo, is typical of them all. * Whether we consider this noble animal,’ says Audubon, ‘as an object of the chase or as an article of food for man, it is decidedly the most important of all our Ameri- can contemporary quadrupeds,’ “At the middle of the last century this animal pastured in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and even at the close of the cen- tury ranged over the whole Mississippi Valley and farther west wherever pasturage was to be found. At the present time a few hundred survivors represent the millions of the last century, and we should not have even these few hundred within our territory had it not been for the wise action of Congress in providing for them a safe home in the Yellow- stone Park. ** Now, for several reasons it has been comparatively easy to trace the decline of the buffalo population. The size of the animal, its preference for open country, the sportsman’s in- terest in it, and its relations to the food supply of the West- ern Indians, all led to the observation and record of changes; and accordingly I have made special mention of this animal in representing the advantages of a national zoological park where it might be preserved; but this is by no means the only charac teristic creature now threatened with speedy extinction. ‘The moose is known to be at the present time a rare animal in the United States, but is in less immediate danger than some others. The elk is vigorously hunted and is no ‘longer easily obtained, even in its most favored haunts. The grizzly bear is believed to be rapidly approaching extinction outside of the Yellowstone Park, where, owing to the assiduous care of those in charge, both it and the elk are still preserved. The mountain sheep and goat, which inhabit less accessible re- gions, are becoming more and more rare, while the beaver has retreated froma vast former area to such secluded haunts that it may possibly survive longer than the other species which I have just enumerated, and which are but a portion of those 1 in imminent danger of extinction. **Among the marine forms the manatee still exists, but, although not exterminated, it is in immediate danger of be- coming so, like the Californian sea elephant, a gigantic crea- ture, often of greater bulk than the elephant, “which has suffered the fate of complete extinction within a few past years; at least it is uncertain whether a single individual actually survives. The Pacific walrus, upon which a large native population has always in great part depended for food and hides, is rapidly following ‘the sea elephant, and so on with other species. Smithsonian Report, 1901 PLATE III. MODEL OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL -PARK WASHINGTON, DC 5 Sitoatat fa east es valley, iso i igsorte o F i mee By : pan: =e = zi Po eae Te Rae — = score = i= te ia “Sie EY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4] ‘**This appalling destruction is not confined to mammals. Disregarding the birds of song and plumage, to which the fashions of the milliner have brought disaster, nearly all the larger and more characteristic American birds have suffered in the same way as their four-footed contemporaries. The fate of the great Auk is familiar to all naturalists; but it is not so well known that the great Californian vulture and sey- eral of the beautiful sea fowl of our coasts have met the same fate, and that the wild pigeon, whose astonishing flocks were dwelt upon by Audubon and others in such remarkable descriptions and which were long the wonder of American travelers, with the less known, but magnificent ivory- billed woodpecker, and the pretty, Carolina ‘parrakeet, have all become, if not extinct, among the rarest of birds. ‘*Apart from the commercial value of its skins, the tax upon which has paid for the cost of our vast Alaskan territory, the singular habits and teeming millions of the northern fur seal have excited general intere ast even among those who are not interested in natural history. In 1849 these animals abounded from Lower California to the lonely Alaskan Isles, and it had been supposed that the precautions taken by the Government for their protection on the breeding grounds of the Pribilof Islands would preserve permanently ‘the still considerable rem- nant which existed after the purchase of Alaskaand the destruc- tion of the southern rookeries. But it is becoming too evident that the greed of the hunters and the devastation caused by the general adoption of the method of pursuing them in the open sea, destroying indiscriminately mothers and offspring, is going to bring these hopes to naught. “For most of these animals, therefore, it may be regarded as certain that, unless some small remnant be presery ed inasemi- domesticated state, a few years will bring utter extinction. The American of the next generation, when questioned about the animals once characteristic of his country, will then be forced to confess that with the exception of a few insignificant creatures, ranking as vermin, this broad continent possesses none of those species which once covered it, since the present generation will have completed the destruction of them all.” During the eleven years that have elapsed since these para- graphs were written, the writer has presented these consider- ations every session, with the insistance it seemed to him their importance deserved, until of late years he has had to feel that the opportunity for saving this remnant, which was going more and more each year, had in some respects finally gone. The great Kadiak bear, the largest carnivorous animal upon the planet, since the report above quoted was written, has been driven farther and farther into the interior, until a specimen 49 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. is now unprocurable except by the fitting out of a costly expe- dition, with the remote chance of obtaining a single adult, though such an expedition will probably be more successful in procuring the young. Something much like this may be said of the giant moose and of other of our semiarctic fauna. The buffalo is so nearly gone, even from its shelter in the Yellowstone National Park, that the stockade which the Institution erected there to secure and ‘* gentle” part of the few buffalo remaining, is fall- ing down without a single one ever having been in it. Taught by the hopelessness of previous applications, the Secretary has limited his request for this purpose to an immediate appro- priation of $15,000, with the now faint hope of securing some of the young of these vanishing creatures—the great bear, the great moose, and the like. The Secretary is prepared to soon abandon recommendations which have been urged for nearly ten years, not only because they have been so far made in vain, but because some term must be set in which they will have too evidently grown useless from the disappearance of the animal races In question. As to the best means of securing the protection of these ‘aces, he has acquired in this long effort some practical knowl- edge of the difficulties and of the simple but effective remedy which can be applied. The subject is too large a one, how- ever, to treat here, and he will only say that these creatures, if secured and transported immediately from their native haunts, are most unlikely to live under the conditions of civilization. They are, on the contrary, very likely to live and even to per- petuate their species if taken with care and kept surrounded by the protection that experience and common sense suggest; and both these mean the continuance of the present National Zoological Park here under the eyes of Congress, but with a simultaneous provision for first bringing up the wild animals in a commodious place of confinement in the country where they belong (one in Alaska, for instance), large enough to allow them to live without a sense of captivity, on their ordinary food, and in their ordinary climate. This place might be a small ranch, where the things of vital importance after their capture and security—namely, their being ‘*gentled” and accustomed to the sight of the keeper before being transferred to Washing- can be carried out. Such a ranch can be established at a ton REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 small cost, which will not be likely to be exceeded, and Con- gress can be assured that it is not entering into an indefinite future expense if this initial one be approved. The Secretary will not leave this brief mention of the sub- ject without stating that the walrus, perhaps the sea elephant, some kinds of seal, and many other great aquatic mammals, can equally share in this protection at a similarly small expense, by simply preserving some locality where the walrus now congregate, as, for instance, a known spot on the northern shore of the Alaskan peninsula, or by establishing a more special preserve in some landlocked bay, where they will obtain their natural food and be properly guarded. As to the local use of the National park, the beautiful region set aside by Congress for it here has proved a fit place for filling the objects of its existence, declared by Congress to be **'The advancement of science and the instruction and recrea- tion of the people,” for here not only are the national ani- mals, with others, preserved (in connection, it is to be hoped, later with fixed sources of supply), from which the race could be recreated if it died out elsewhere, but the National Zoolog- ical Park has become a favorite resort of the nation’s visitors to the capital, who find in its shades, along with such land- scapes as no other city can show, object lessons of attractive interest—for we must admit that we are all, adults as well as children, interested in our animals, with an attraction which no books about them can supply. It has been possible to make some needed improvements in the roadways of the park during the year, but many of the buildings are almost falling down. The need of means to put a permanent shelter over the animals can not be overstated. Mention has already been made in this relation of the aqua- rium building, which consists of a literal barn, and which was brought here until Congress could provide a special one; but although several years have elapsed, none has yet been pro- vided. The elephant house, a small wooden shed, put up asa temporary expedient ten years ago, requires extensive repairs to prevent it literally falling from rottenness. The wooden fence placed around the park ten years ago, and expected to last four or five years till a permanent one was provided, has never been replaced at all, and has gone beyond repair. 44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. With regard to the birds, more is being done for the better ‘are of the larger ones. There has been designed and partly constructed a large ‘‘ flying cage,” capable of including tall trees within it, which is to be built near the present bird house. The cage will be supplied with running water, and it is hoped that some of the aquatic species may live within its limits. THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. The most prominent feature of the year’s work has been the distribution of the first volume of Annals of the Astro- physical Observatory, to which attention was directed in my report of last year. This special volume has been sent to 1,500 Government depositories, observatories, learned societies, and to eminent astronomers and physicists through- out the world. The work will, it is believed, establish an enduring reputation for the observatory from which it pro- ceeded. The eclipse expedition to Sumatra is spoken of more at length in the detailed report of the Aid Acting in Charge, which will be found in the Appendix. The special occasion for this expedition arose with reference to the observations made under the Government appropriation by the Institution in the solar eclipse of May 28, 1900, at Wadesboro, N. C. These, though valuable, were not in themselves complete, and pointed to conclusions of particular interest which demanded the opportunity of another eclipse to definitely perfect them. Perhaps the most interesting of these was the incomplete evidence secured ona single photograph of the existence of several small planets within the orbit of Mercury, as indicated in Plate XVIII of the last year’s report. Prof. KE. C. Pick- ering, to whom this photograph was referred for his expert judgment, saw nothing in the appearance of the photographic impressions of the supposed planets which would lead him to pronounce them spurious. To make certain of their genuine- ness would, however, required the evidence of another photo- graph, and new photographs were only to be supplied by another eclipse. A second, not absolutely conclusive, observation of great interest was that made by the bolometer on the heat of the inner corona, from which, as stated on page 154 of the Smith- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 sonian Report for 1900, certain conclusions were drawn regard- ing its temperature. These observations attracted widespread interest and discussion among the astronomical public, and it became of importance to verify and extend them if possible. Hence it seemed to be desirable that an expedition should proceed to the island of Sumatra to observe the long eclipse there. The Institution did not, however, ask for a second appropriation from Congress. The United States Naval Observatory, which had secured such an appropriation, had courteously offered to take one of the Institution’s staff as a part of its own expedition. Since, however, the Institution wanted the Sumatra work to com- plete its own special work of the previous year, and since it would involve the use of large special apparatus belonging to it, it was deemed better that it shouldssend out a party of its own, though on a most modest scale. The party sent out from the Institution consisted of Mr. C. G. Abbot, Aid Acting in Charge of the Smithsonian Observatory, and Mr. Paul Draper. Through the permission of the Secretary of War and by the good offices of Brig. Gen. M. I. Ludington, Quartermaster- General, transportation was secured to Manila and return by the army transport service. The Secretary of the Navy con- sented that the Institution’s expedition should be carried from Manila to Padang and return in the same vessel with the expe- dition of the United States Naval Observatory. My acknowl- edgments are further due the Hon. F. W. Hackett, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, for very effective aid in perfecting these arrangements. Letters of introduction to Dutch offi- cials were obtained from the Department of State of the United States, and from his excellency Baron W. A. F. Gevers, minister of the Netherlands. Mr. Abbot and Mr. Draper sailed on February 16 in the transport Sheridan from San Francisco, arriving at Manila on March 15, whence, seven days later, they embarked on the United States naval transport General Alava, reaching Padang, Sumatra, on April 4, from which point they proceeded to Solok, a small town in the interior, which, though about twenty-five miles north of the central eclipse track, was chosen as having the best meteorological record of any part of the island, and because of its location on a railroad. Nothing 46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. could exceed the kindness exercised by all the Dutch officials of Sumatra to further the comfort and success of the observ- ers. Free transportation was offered on all government rail- ways, and observing sites placed at their disposal, with native laborers for the installation of equipments. The Secretary wishes to especially acknowledge the indebtedness of the Institution to his excellency Governor Joekes, of Sumatra’s west coast, to Heer Th. F. A. Delprat, head of government railways in Sumatra, and to Heer C. G. Veth, United States consular agent at Padang, whose efforts in behalf of the party were untiring. The little expedition reached Solok April 11 and passed the time in constant drill, being strengthened by native help in erecting instruments. On the momentous day (May 18) the weather proved to be very bad over this portion of the island, and caused the partial failure of the observations, though Mr. Abbot and his companion may feel that while it was not in their power to command success they have deserved it. They returned under the same assistance from the Army and Navy with which they went out, reaching Washington on the 29th of July. Attention is called to the progress reported by the Aid Act- ing in Charge in perfecting devices to increase the actual working sensitiveness of the galvanometer, which is an indispensable companion to the bolometer the instrument which perceives and measures excessively small variations of temperature. The bolometer, it will be remembered, was invented by the present writer some twenty years ago as an instrument to detect radiant heat in such small quantities as could be recog- nized not even by the most delicate thermometer, and which were so far beyond the reach of that instrument that the thermopile could not register them. It may seem to the gen- eral reader that the recognition of such excessively small amounts of heat can not be of practical importance, but this would be like saying that the human eye was an instrument of no importance to the owner, since the amount of energy which enabled it to see is so inexpressibly small. The bolometer has been called ‘tan eye which sees in the dark,” and it sees only by means of almost infinitesimally REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47 small amounts of heat, but it now sees with these what neither the eye nor the photograph can see. When the writer took charge of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution the bolometer, with its attendant galvanometer, could recognize a change of temperature of Jess than one- hundred-thousandth of one degree Centigrade. With the changes which he and others have since introduced in the instru- ment and its attendant galvanometer, it can now recognize less than one one-hundred-millionth of one degree. As much as a thousandfold gain in sensitiveness has, then, been attained over the former conditions, and a manifold further increase is hoped for by the use of the more sensitive galvanometer now being developed under the immediate care of Mr. Abbot, the Aid Acting in Charge. Even with this remarkable progress the bolometer is still far less sensitive than the eve in its capacity to detect radia- tions of wave-lengths suitable for eye observations, but, as is well known, it has the great advantage that all rays affect it equally, whether visible or not, and that hence it can see where the eye can not. In this little and inadequately installed Smithsonian Obser- vatory the bolometer has extended the known spectrum to a wave-length many times that known to Sir Isaac Newton, and its use has spread from this country to every physical labora- tory in the world where such researches are carried on. It is growing more sensitive each year with continued improve- ments, to which there seems to be no assignable limit, and its future promises to be as full of value as its past. The urban situation of the Observatory puts serious diffi- culties in the way of investigations which, like the one just referred to, require exceptional steadiness and freedom from magnetic fluctuations. An astrophysical observatory should evidently be located where smoke, lights, noise, traffic, and heavy electric currents are at a distance. That the Smith- sonian Observatory should still, after twelve years, be in its present situation and with merely temporary wooden build- ings for its home is indeed far from the expectations cherished at its inception, a condition of affairs which the Secretary still ventures to hope will be changed. 48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The importance of the work accomplished by the Interna- tional Exchange Service is constantly becoming more fully understood, and the benefits derived from it in the inter- change of the publications of the civilized world more ade- quately estimated. The liberality of the American people in eratuitously supplying their scientific literature to apprecia- tive students of it, wherever they may be, and the provision for its transmission at the expense of the United States Goy- ernment and of the Smithsonian Institution jointly, creates such an impression abroad that the Institution is often asked for a description of the methods for recording and forward- ing exchanges, with a view to enabling others to adopt its system, which for accuracy, labor saving, and as a perma- nent record for ready reference, years of assiduous study have perfected into what it is to-day. The term ‘ International Exchanges,” to those unaccus- tomed to its application, may seem ambiguous, but the use of the term is now universally accepted as applying to the mutual exchange between Smithsonian correspondents every- where of printed books on subjects of interest to the student in any branch of human knowledge. The Institution adopted the custom of voluntarily present- ing its publications to learned societies in the year 1849, when it sent a copy of Volume I of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge to each of one hundred and seventy-three for- eign institutions. The recipients of these copies subsequently sent their publications in exchange, and these reciprocal con- tributions aided in forming the nucleus of the library of the Smithsonian Institution. As the Institution increased the publication of works on scientific subjects, the exchange with its correspondents abroad also increased, and the facilities for forwarding and distributing the parcels soon led to requests being made by other learned establishments in the United States for their publications to be forwarded abroad by the Institution in the same manner. The purpose of the donor of the Smithsonian fund, ‘‘the diffusion of knowledge among men,” could not, in the minds of the Regents, be better promulgated than by a ple oe wet 7 ‘ be. Tt fnew 2) © 63 = f ik a Smithsonian Report, 1901, PLATE IV. HART REPRESENTING THE RELATIVE NUMBER OF PARCELS EX- CHANCED BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER COUNTRIES DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. EXCHANGES WERE CONDUCTED WITH 130 COUNTRIES. THOSE AGGRECATING LESS THAN 1000 PACKACES ARE OMITTED. THE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF EACH PARCEL WAS 3 1-2 POUNDS. TOTAL WEIGHT HANDLED DURING THE YEAR 414,277 POUNDS. Germany . Great Britain . | France . Austria-Hungary . Italy Russia . Mexico . Belgium British America . Switzerland Argentna . Netherlands . Norway Sweden. Brazil New South Wales India MT Japan lk Victoria Costa Rica Denmark . Spain Chile Wai Each Cotumn Equal To 1,500 Packaces. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 devoting a part of the income of the fund to this purpose, and from that time to the present the Institution has assigned space in the Smithsonian building and has appropriated a con- siderable part of its annual revenue to the support of the system of International Exchanges. The United States Government participated to a large extent in the benefits of the exchange system of the Smith- sonian Institution for many years without contributing to its support, until the burden became so great that Congress in 1881 made an appropriation of $3,000 for the purpose, and since then has made larger provision for the service from year to year until $24,000 was granted for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900, and a like amount was appropriated for the last year. Notwithstanding the support of Congress in aid of the exchange service during recent years, none of the appropria- tions have been quite adequate to the growth of the service and to provide for improvements necessary to expedite exchange transmissions, which, within the last two years, have been unusually large. In order to accomplish these improve- ments it has been necessary to substitute fast mail steamers for the slower ones upon which the ocean transportation com- panies usually granted the Institution the courtesy of free freight, and in demanding the best possible facilities it has been necessary in most instances to pay the customary rates. The field covered by correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution and the contributors and recipients of its ex- changes is now represented by one hundred and forty-eight countries, covering every part of the civilized world and extending to several countries where enlightenment has only commenced to manifest itself. In the latter are some of the most appreciative correspondents of the service. Outside the United States the Smithsonian correspondents now number twenty-seven thousand five hundred and fifty-six (27,556), and including this country there is a grand total of thirty-five thousand seven hundred and five (35,705), an ageregate increase of seventeen hundred and fifty-four (1,754) during the year. The parcels received for transmission this year number one hundred and twenty-one thousand and sixty (121,060) sm 1901——4 50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. (many of which contained several separate publications), rep- resenting an increase over the previous year of seven thousand four hundred and ninety-seven (7,497). The relative amount of exchanges with various countries is graphically shown in the accompanying chart. A total of sixty-two thousand three hundred and fourteen (62,314), or more than half the number of parcels delivered to the International Exchanges, were either received from the departments and bureaus of the United States Government for transmission abroad, or were received for them from abroad, and constituted fully 75 per cent of the total weight of all transmissions for the year. This branch of the service is then of value to the Library of Congress and the depart- mental and sectional libraries of every branch of the Gov- ernment. In his last report the Secretary presented an account of his visit to London and Berlin during the summer of 1900 for the purpose of impressing upon the British and German Governments the desire of the Institution that they should ach establish an international exchange bureau, or at least arrange for the transmission and distribution of exchanges so far as this country is concerned. This work has been carried on between the United States and each of these countries from the beginning at the expense of the Institution, which has paid all expenses, even to the employing of a salaried agent in both countries. As yet o definite action has been taken by either Government. Although subsequently to the conclusion of the Brussels treaty in 1886, France had established an international ex- change bureau, it had not provided sufficient means to conduct it in a manner to insure prompt distribution of parcels. The Secretary, accompanied by Mr. Henry Vignaud, of the United States embassy, had an interview with Monsieur Liard, chief of the libraries of France, who promised to recommend to the French Chambers an increase in the appropriation for inter- national exchanges. The Secretary is pleased to note that a substantial improvement has recently been made in the time required for the distribution of exchanges in France, and has every reason to hope that the interests of the exchange serv- ice at large are about to benefit by improvements introduced at his request, on the efficient recommendation of M. Liard, in the French system. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5] Whenever it has been possible for a representative of the Smithsonian Institution to visit the exchange bureaus of other countries, the information obtained concerning the systems and customs practiced elsewhere and a personal acquaintance with the officers in immediate charge of exchanges has been of great benefit. As the official exchange bureaus of Italy and Switzerland fad never been visited by a representative of the Institution, and as the agencies at Vienna and Budapest had not been inspected since the autumn of 1897, Mr. W. Irving Adams, chief clerk of the International Exchange Service, was directed to visit and familiarize himself with all of them dur- ing the last summer. His report, given in the Appendix, conveys the assurance that the cordial relations hitherto exist- ing between these agencies and the Smithsonian Institution will henceforth be more firmly established than ever; and an increase in the contributions from Italy and Switzerland to the United States Government institutions, especially to the Library of Congress, is already apparent. NECROLOGY. WILLIAM LYNE WILSON. At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution held January 23, 1901, the Hon. J. B. Henderson, the chairman of the Execntive Committee, made the following remarks in memory of Mr. Wilson: It is due to Mr. Wilson that a word of tribute to his mem- ory should come from the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. His service as a member of the Committee was of short duration, but long enough to endear him to those who survive. While Mr. Wilson possessed, in an eminent degree, the power of speech—while indeed he was an orator, gifted with the charm and beauty of genuine eloquence—his chief title to remembrance will rest, not upon his words, but rather upon what he did and what he was. Non opus est verbis, credite rebus. Blessed with a liberal education, he enjoyed it not alone, but became an educator of usefulness and marked distinction. Asa lawver he took high rank, and placed himself among the most distinguished jurists of his State. For twelve years he served an intelligent con- stituency in the Congress of the United States, where his record is marked by all that characterizes the highest order of statesmanship—honesty, purity, devotion, and intelligence. As Postmaster-General in the ‘Cabinet of President Cleve- land, he gave renewed evidence of ability and industry, and 52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. also the highest assurance of capacity for the conduct of the most difficult administrative duties. With this but inadequate retrospect of what he did, let us turn for a moment to what he was. In the first place, he was what the poet justly designates as the *‘ noblest work of God,” an honest man. Beyond the wisdom of the philosophers and the classical lore of the universities, he had that pure and better teaching, an educated conscience. And to this unerring tribunal he submitted the conduct of his life. And thus it was that the observance of the golden rule brought him no burden, but was a part of his existence. He esteemed his friend as he esteemed himself. In the language of the Greek philosopher, his friend was *‘ another I.” It has been said that great men are without ostentation and selfish pride. If this be a mark of greatness, Mr. Wilson’s gentleness and simplicity of character gave him the highest place among the truly great. It is said, and said with truth, that kindness is the only key with which the casket of the human heart can be opened. Mr. Wilson had no enemies, and his kindness and lovable character explain the fact. Tennyson was right when he said, Tis only noble to be good. Kind hearts are more than coronets, And simple faith than Norman blood. The Board adopted the following resolutions. Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution is called upon to mourn the death, on October 17, 1900, of William Lyne Wilson, a member of the board from 1884 to 1888 and from 1896, and a member of its executive committee: Be it resolved, That the Regents place upon record the expression of their sense of loss in the passing away of a col- league, the simplicity .and integrity of whose life gave to the country a statesman of the first rank and to the people a noble example. ‘To the Institution he brought the twofold qualities of the man of affairs andthe man of learning, while his atten- tion to his duties was unremitting, even in sickness, and his counsel was always most wise and helpful. As a college presi- dent, as a leader in Congress, he was conspicuous for bis fidelity to the highest ideals. In his death the country has lost a distinguished citizen, the Institution a wise counselor, and the members of the board a colleague and friend, whose especially lovable nature won the hearts of all with whom he ‘ame in contact. Resolved, That this resolution be entered as a part of the journal of the board and a copy transmitted to Mrs. Wilson. Respectfully submitted. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX TO THE SECRETARY'S REPORT. APPENDIX I. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Str: I have the honor to report as follows regarding the condition and operations of the National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1901: While having as its primary function to preserve and classify the Goy- ernment collections, to which large additions were made during the year, the National Museum is best known to the public from its educational side, and as a source of information on scientific subjects. As one of the principal points of interest at the national capital, it is visited by large numbers of persons from all parts of the country, the attendance during the past year haying been above 216,000, which is about the average. Many thousands who have not the opportunity of coming to Washington are benefited by its publications sent to them directly or accessible in the public libraries. Upward of 700 lots of specimens were received at the Museum for identification and report, besides some 8,000 letters requesting information on a great diversity of scientific topics. The amount of dupli- cate material contributed to educational establishments, large and small, in various parts of the country, and used in connection with the exchanges, has aggregated over 10,000 objects. At the close of the year scarcely any of the regular educational sets of duplicates remained on hand, but a new series of 100 sets of marine invertebrates was in course of preparation. It has also been possible to grant facilities to many students for conducting investigations along their special lines of research, and to others material has been sent as loans, to enable them to carry on their work at their home laboratories. One of the most noteworthy accomplishments of the year has been the fitting up, under the direction of the Secretary, for the special benefit of very young people, of the main floor of the south tower of the Smithsonian building, adjacent to the Bird Hall, which has been designated the Chil- dren’s Room. The floor is of marble mosaic, with a border of Celtic design. The walls have been painted in several shades of green and paneled, with a view of some time adding pictures illustrating curious features of animal and plant life. The ceiling is decorated with a trellis and vine, through which are glimpses of sky and cloud, and of bright-plumaged birds. The main exhibition consists of strange and attractive specimens of birds, mammals, insects, shellfish, sponges, corals, minerals, and fossils, and occupies two cases surrounding the room and built so low that even the smallest child can examine the objects on the upper shelves. In the cen- ter of the room is a large aquarium with fresh-water fishes, while hanging from the ceiling are several brags cages with bright colored and singing birds. 53 54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The object in planning this room has been to excite the wonder and curiosity of children, to inspire them unconsciously with a love for nature, and no feature has been admitted which might tend to defeat this purpose. No Latin or technical labels puzzle the children, but every object is described in the plainest language. Organization and staff.—The organization of the Museum, as modified in 1897, comprises an administrative office and the three scientific depart- ments of anthropology, biology, and geology. Each department is in charge of a head curator and is composed of several divisions, of which anthropology has 8, biology 9, and geology 3, while there are also 18 sub- divisions or sections. Under the general direction of the Secretary, who is the keeper ex officio of the Museum, administrative matters have been in the immediate charge of the Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. At the close of the year the scientific staff consisted, besides the 3 head curators, of 18 curators, 12 assistant curators, 14 custodians, 10 aids, 4 associates, and 2 collaborators, making a total of 63 persons, of whom, however, only about one-half were under salary from the Museum, the remainder serving in a volunteer or honorary capacity, though nearly all of the latter were in the employ of other bureaus of the Government. The Museum has suffered the loss of one of its most valued collaborators in the death, on September 15, 1900, of Mr. S. R. Koehler, Honorary Curator of the Section of Graphic Arts, who since 1887 had rendered most important services in building up the extensive print collection. He was also connected with the Boston Museum of Fine Arts as curator of prints. Dr. W. L. Ralph, custodian of the Section of Birds’ Eggs since the death of Maj. Charles Bendire, has been made Honorary Curator of that section, and besides giving generously of his time, he has, by liberal per- sonal donations, greatly increased the size and value of the interesting collections under his charge. Mr. F. A. Lucas, curator of Comparative Anatomy, has been designated Acting Curator of Vertebrate Fossils. Miss Harriet Richardson has been made a collaborator in the Division of Marine Invertebrates, and Mr. Peter Fireman has received a temporary appointment as chemical geologist. Buildings.—Attention has been directed in each succeeding report to the crowded condition of the two main buildings occupied by the Museum collections, and to the necessity of increasing from year to year the extent of the outside quarters required for storage and workshop purposes. Dur- ing the past year Congress has again been called upon to provide for the rental of an additional building. Inconvenient as it is to administer upon the collections scattered and stored in this manner, the essential point is the danger to which the material is thus subjected—material which can not be replaced and which constitutes a record of the greatest importance to the Government archives. Among the alterations and improvements made in the Museum build- ing, the most noteworthy has been the fitting up of a new lecture hall in accordance with the provision of Congress, the room selected for the purpose being the East North Range, at one side of the main entrance. The only changes made in the room itself have been to substitute a terrazzo floor ty REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. bod for the old wooden one and to paint the walls and ceiling, which has been done in very tasteful and pleasing colors. The furnishings consist of the necessary platform, chairs, lantern, curtain, and stand, and adjustable screens at the windows. It isexpected that the facilities thus afforded will often be utilized for the delivery of scientific lectures bearing upon the rich and varied collections in the Museum. Some years ago a number of electric arc lamps were temporarily installed in the Museum building, the only attempt that had been made up to the present time to light its exhibition halls. The sundry civil appropriation act for 1901 carried an item of $3,500 for beginning a permanent instal- lation of wires for lighting the entire building. This work is now well under way and will be completed during the next fiscal year under an additional appropriation sufficient to cover the small wiring and the pur- chase of the necessary fixtures and lamps. The roof of the Museum building, never entirely satisfactory, and showing many weak points during recent years, has been repaired and strengthened to the extent that its character warranted, under the advice of a competent engineer, and it is hoped that it can be made to answer for a few years longer. It is noted with pleasure that the last of the wooden floors, with which, through motives of economy, the Museum was originally provided, have finally given place to a more substantial character of pavement. In antic- ipation of the appropriation made at the last session of Congress for improving the heating system, plans have been prepared for the instal- lation of a pair of more powerful boilers, sufficient for supplying steam to both buildings, whereby it is expected to obtain a more reliable and economical service. The furniture acquired during the year consisted of nine exhibition and 45 storage cases, besides 578 other pieces of furnishings. Additions to the collections.—The new material received embraces 1,470 separate accessions, including about 180,000 specimens, and a census of the collections at the end of the year shows a total of about 4,995,000 specimens now catalogued in the Museum books. The Department of Anthropology has received several collections of interest: From the Indian tribes of the Great Plains and the Interior Basin material of ethnological importance was obtained, consisting of articles of dress, implements, products of industry, and weapons, gathered by Capt. Paul B. Carter,U.S. A. A series of ethnological and archzeolog- ical objects was collected from the Mission Indians of southern California by Mr. Horatio N. Rust, with the special view of aiding the Museum ethnologists in distinguishing between the arts and industries of the Indians belonging to the Shoshonean and Yuman missions, and it therefore becomes a type of southern Californian material already in the Museum. About 150 specimens of costume, implements, utensils, and products of the primitive manufactures of the Chilkat Indians in southeastern Alaska were secured by Lieut. G. T. Emmons, U.S. N., and they have been largely used in preparing lay figures, constituting a family group of this tribe. To students of aboriginal American culture a series of seven facsimile reproductions of ancient Mexican codices, or books, presented by the Due de Loubat, will furnish valuable information. 56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The anthropological department has likewise been enriched by material relating to South American tribes. Thus, through the courtesy of Dr. Orville A. Derby, director of the Geographical and Geological Survey of Sao Paulo, Brazil, Rey. W. A. Cook collected for the Museum a large number of ethnological objects from the Bororo Indians of Mato Grosso. These Indians belong to the extended South American family, the Tupi-Guarani, and their primitive mode of life as well as the picturesqueness of their feather costumes and ornaments give a special importance to the collee- tion, coming from an area hitherto but meagerly represented in the Museum. Material of the same general character was gathered by Prof. J. B. Steere, of Ann Arbor, Mich., from the Pamamary Indians and other tribes about the Upper Purus River in Brazil. The word ‘‘Pamamary”’ signifies ‘“‘berry eaters,’’ and as Professor Steere made a special study of these peo- ple on account of their wild habit of life, the objects have special worth in the series of industrial products. These Indians have not been classi- fied linguistically, but form an outstanding group. Through an exchange with the Field Columbian Museum there was secured a selection from the ethnological material pertaining to the various tribes on the Upper Para- guay River exhibited by Dr. Emil Hassler and the Brazilian Commission at the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. These are chiefly articles of dress gorgeously decorated with feathers, the savages of that region being very fond of arraying themselves with feathers of most brilliant colors. There are also numerous specimens of textiles. The tribes rep- resented by this large and varied collection are the Apiaca (Tupian), Angaytes, Cadoca (Guaycurian), Cainguas, Chamacoco Brabos, Chama- coco Manos, Cordovas, Cuximanapanas, Guanas (Arawakan), Guaranis (Tupian), Guatos (Tapuyan), Lenguas (Lenguan), Matacos (Matacoan), Omiris, Parecis (Arawakan), and Payaguas (Payaguan). Some interesting ethnological objects from California, Alaska, Hawaii, and the Fiji Islands were secured during the year, including various im- plements and utensils illustrating the early tribes of the Pacific coast; and especially conspicuous among them is a series of obsidian implements of remarkable size and execution. From Miss M. A. Shufeldt, of Morristown, N. J., the Museum has obtained a series of ethnological material from China, Japan, and Korea, associated with historical events in which her father, Admiral Robert W. Shufeldt, U. 8. N., played an important part, many of the s'jects being of considerable extrinsic value as well as of historical interest. Among the objects received during the year from the Philippine Islands may be mentioned those presented by Gen. James M. Bell, U.S. V., which include three pieces of Bicol armor, a signal torch, several spears, bows and arrows, a war club, and a shield. Dr. W. L. Abbott, who for so many years has enriched the Museum with the results of his extensive explorations in the East, has now contributed a large and varied ethno- logical collection from the Andaman and Nicobar islands, a particular interest attaching to these groups for the reason that the inhabitants, especially those of the Andamans, are among the most primitive of man- kind. These people belong to the ‘‘ Negritos,’’ or small negroids of south- eastern Asia, and are allied to the Semangs of the Malayan peninsula and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ah the Aetas of the Philippines. Dr. Abbott’s collections are therefore very valuable, since they represent some of the very earliest stages of invention. Two altars in combined Gothic, Renaissance, and Rococo style from a church in Hildesheim, Germany, have been added to the series illustra- ting ecclesiastical art, which it is hoped will be prepared for exhibition before very long. The American history collections have been considerably increased during the year, perhaps the most noteworthy additions being swords, pistols, medals, spurs, and shoulder straps contributed by Mrs. George W. Morgan as personal memorials of her husband, General Morgan, who received them in recognition of his services in the Mexican and civil wars. Several telegraph instruments and insulators of historic interest were donated by J. H. Bunnell & Co., of New York City, and one of the origi- nal cylinders and other parts of the celebrated locomotive, the ‘‘Stour- bridge Lion,’’ were presented by Mr. G. T. Slade, general manager of the Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad Company. In the division of prehistoric archzeology 281 articles of flint from an ancient Egyptian quarry, presented by Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr, of London, are of special interest as illustrative of the quarrying and stone-shaping art of the primitive Egyptians. The specimens consist entirely of ‘‘reject- age,’’ or partially shaped failures and broken pieces that result from the manufacture of knives and other implements by the flaking processes, and closely resemble the rejectage from American flint quarry sites. A num- ber of Babylonian seals and some inscribed earthenware bowls were acquired durirg the year, many of the seals being rare and of great inter- est, while the inscribed bowls are said to reveal a peculiar phase in the development of religious ideas. Among the accessions of prehistoric objects from localities within the United States may be mentioned as of special interest the stone implements and other relics, principally from Maryland, presented by Mr. J. D. McGuire, of Ellicott City, Maryland, consisting of more than 7,000 specimens, and perhaps the most important collection yet made in the Chesapeake region as the result of the energies of one person. Also there was acquired the Steiner series of more than 18,000 stone implements obtained from an ancient village site on Big Kiokee Creek, Columbia County, Georgia. Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, the head curator of the Department of Anthropology, secured nearly 500 archaeological specimens from an ancient quarry in Union County, Illinois. He describes these objects as representing not only the rejected materials resulting from manufacture, including the vari- ous forms of unfinished and broken implements and the flakage, but also the tools used in quarrying and shaping, and in sharpening the implements used and made. In the Department of Biology several divisions report the receipt of ac- cessions equaling or surpassing in interest and value those of the preceding year. One of the most important accessions was from Dr. W. L. Abbott, and included large numbers of mammals, birds, reptiles, mollusks, insects, and marine invertebrates from the Natuna Islands, the Mergui Archipel- ago, and the coast of Tringanu, Malay Peninsula. The value of this mate- rial will be appreciated from the fact that as many as twenty new species have already been noted among the mammals alone. The collections of 58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Dr. E. A. Mearns were also important, being largely from type localities along the Kissimee River and elsewhere in Florida, and comprised 600 birds and 300 mammals, besides birds’ eggs and reptiles, and also a fine series of the skulls and skeletons of the soft-shelled turtle, Platypeltis spinifer. He also contributed a series of the mammals occurring in Rhode Island. Six important lots of marine invertebrates were transferred tothe Museum by the United States Fish Commission, namely: the Ophiurans of the Agassiz-Albatross cruise of 1891 to the Galapagos Islands and the west coast of Central America; the Japanese crustaceans collected by the Alba- tross in 1900; the corals obtained during the South Sea Expedition of the same vessel in 1899-1900; a collection of crayfishes from West Virginia; the crustaceans and echinoderms obtained by the Princeton University Arctic Expedition of 1899, and the corals gathered in Porto Rican waters by the steamer Fish Hawk in 1899. The Fish Commission has also depos- ited in the Museum the types of the new species of fishes collected on this latter expedition. A valuable series of types of Hawaiian fishes collected by Dr. O. P. Jen- kins, of the Leland Stanford Junior University, and Mr. T. I. Wood, has been contributed by the former, while the university presented an inter- esting collection of Japanese fishes. Oriental shells, representing about 500 species and regarded as the most interesting addition to the Division of Mollusks, were received from Dr. W. Eastlake, of Tokyo, Japan. A collection of the shells of Haiti and Jamaica, embracing oyer 200 species, was gathered by Mr. J. B. Hender- son, jr., of Washington, District of Columbia, and Mr. Charles T. Simpson, of the National Museum, Mr. Henderson generously paying the expenses of the trip. Some Naiades from Central and South America were received from Dr. H. yon Ihering, of Sao Paulo, Brazil, and are of special yalue as supplying many deficiencies in the Museum collections. The Museum has been fortunate in acquiring the private collection of Mr. Robert Ridgway, curator of the Division of Birds, representing about 1,100 species of North and Central American birds, many of them in the first plumages, and all in an exceedingly fine state of preservation. A rep- resentative series of 56 birds from Singapore has been donated by Mr. C. B. Kloss, and an excellent collection of the nest and eggs of Philippine birds, accompanied in many instances by specimens of the birds them- selves, has been presented by Capt. H. C. Benson, U. 8. A. Four Birds of Paradise, including the rare Pteridophora alberti, a species with extraor- dinary plumes, were also secured. Dr. W. L. Ralph has added to his many acts of generosity by donating rare birds’ eggs, including specimens of the eggs of the Everglade Kite and Henslow’s Sparrow. The Division of Insects received several important accessions, the most noteworthy of which includes more than 15,000 specimens of European lepidoptera, a collection which was once the property of the late Dr. O. Hofmann. The National Herbarium has been enriched by the acquisition of the collection of lichens belonging to the late Henry H. Willey, of New Bed- ford, Massachusetts, a well-known specialist in this group of plants; also of coilections of 917 plants from Georgia, 617 from Missouri, 500 from AS acai REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 Florida, and 813 from Mississippi and Florida. Messrs. William Palmer and J. H. Riley, of the National Museum, gathered more than 300 plants in Cuba, while Messrs. C. L. Pollard and W. R. Maxon, attached to the botanical staff of the Museum, secured at least 1,600 specimens in Ala- bama, Georgia, and Tennessee. All the divisions in the Department of Geology have received important additions, the Geological Survey, as in past years, being one of the princi- pal contributors. Among the material transmitted by the Survey was a type series of 386 specimens of asphalt and associated rocks, collected in various parts of the United States by Mr. G. H. Eldridge, as well as some rocks and ores from the Ten Mile District, and Silverton, Pikes Peak, and Cripple Creek quadrangles, Colorado. From the Geological Survey the following valuable collections of fossils have also been received: Three hundred and seventy-five specimens of pre-Cambrian invertebrate fossils, including species figured and described by the Director of the Survey, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America; a collection of 2,370 specimens from the Cambrian, consisting mainly of brachiopods; 2,425 Ordovician fossils from southern Nevada and near El Paso, Texas, and 114 Silurian and 1,550 Devo- nian specimens from the Helderberg and Oriskany beds of Indian Terri- tory and the higher Devonian of Colorado and New Mexico. Te REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. RELATIVE INTERCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS at BETWEEN THK UNITED STATES AND OTHER COUNTRIES. Following is a comparative statement of exchange transmissions by pack- ages between the United States and other countries during the years 1900 and 1901: Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the Inter- national Exchange Service during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1900 and June 30, 1901. 1900. 1901. Country. Packages. Packages. For— From— For—- | From— PRISONS ee hore Wl cias OSs eae eA aie « pees et oe eee 96 8 113 | 74 BMNIREE (Dt eee A oes ine ee Nae See oe se momen se ell cciccs eeleleis|| etinie at iclele< 3 locpesccess LIRICA Ss RO ee ae es Ge Oe PDR red Suissceesesse | lad Dear os JUSTE go eae Be ese a Rg ior Biliscseeess Duleteeze cae OCT a2 52 < Sixlanass fees eee Sakicos a =\nceneeeeees 3, 127 308 | 2,374 392 ROSCA In ATV. aes cea eee oe ahead es ea sect 387 2,125 4,531 2,518 OUTS E SE, Sa ee Se eS =e Se Pe Ohoseseeasosl| DA cele .stere iclare PMMA She Rohe tee h coe ten ecece eons enss (6) |loonogeoecis a Beepeceese UF CEG L015) oe a 7 a T4ii cook ca Ree PE TIN PNY es Se So cn eee mye ale oF eet Seas PSE 2,148 1, 564 2,301 1, 792 MARAT CLIN ene Gee oe St HE eee BE eee Seat 75 fad lie ot ee Pe df BS ease ee “SITKA 23 See eRe eine Rieger tg ee fea a aa (sl eecossccss Saas Seto one SERN) eee cere yim cies eo ese eee ease se oes leew ome csalsseeaecess YO eee ee Peepers oes ae Es chat alee 1,385 | 803 1,440 715 DS LCE a (27 as ee 2,479 | 1,396 | 2,582 706 ESTAS UIING, a2 0 cern ssc et esc sec een sees del 1 1 Aa tetab acne EUIRIS() (CURE: ea eee eee Seon Seer e BI ecococonse 57 1 Meprestwifangittas._ 55552720. 2v.2 2. 2acsdes geen Bile casacesnn | 1p eee ae 1) ELECTING), Soh, Si Oe ere 63 1 | 72 88 eANISON SVL SLATE Ss 2 otic Sate ay tes antetoe Sees a/aeie Be |e eeiccre|oeeacaess Gh Bae eee ELLER) See eee ee Mas Sscis a See call oe Reweae sl seeoezes | i) ara eas Cape Colony ....-.-- Be cine stcise aec stele ioe Sata ae ae ets 210 8 274 1 MEME OCTOP EIS OS tee. oops tore cee. eee ee lls deine ctee sites sorcee oe PSE etiesedseens CSV le Se eae rea a ee a AO racinets aerate BOS esses ss Balan e ne met Se oo ye! Fas ac eee wee 1, 106 211 1,090 1 UU ELIE 2.3 3.5 rte Soe aoe ce 238 173 249 141 LIED) 1 GP es aR net eta ee ee 704 14 CEM Soepeeos CL G.SLED), LATICES Se es eee re ae, ne a a 922 178 784 673 MIP ERS ne on 2) nse wee eoo cc onate ds aawese 196 22 233 25 ULE DES OS eer ee eee eee pe Be ane ot eee (UTES) es RR ee ee a a EN eee aoa DN te etree LN SDT: 3 a alee a en en 1, 067 266 1, 054 186 Ui TELLIN Uh ae ne a Pr DAs cteeeeee, Dele cacao |B LD] (GSS 0 ee pe ln Bintan oon eee [hb eee ees -ESTUTGLDNY: ois a a ye a (ts (ence er 703) ane cectoe 1. EU Ged SoCo See a ee a Clay Meee sare UGG} ||sbe seetoee JEU Teg) TCT ns Ei aes Weekes Sak DulseeSe sean UTES UNTUREECTIS Ss :5 8 a Seen Bil Gepesesse sm 1901——7 98 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Comparative statement of packages received for transmission through the Inter- national Exchange Service, ete.— Continued. | isoo; 7 i901. Country. Packages, | Packages. For— From— | For— [ From— RO TINLOS Gy tee ey oe melee re rere te ga eeserocca Dil epopeeeses TANCE fo ae eee ae ere te eee ee ee ee eerie 7,178 3,458 | 8, 037 2, 525 Rrench/Cochini@hinay sae seee se eee eee AN eet eer | Df 4) Ce Sers octoere UT OTU CH) Gu TS arses ete oe eee ree eee ar ae eae cet | ere erste Ul ee esc rasctas Germanys ae sae eee eae es eee ene eee 12,576 6,139 | 14,868 8, 265 Gibraltarecsse kee eel Bee te ee ees Dhl ieeeeae aA | aimee eae liters 2 eee (Ont KOC lee SeeaE ea eon ae semed abba aaacone Gh | Reeser WN os seiss sate Great Britainvand direlanm de 2 seees eee see el 10, 843 8, 950 | 12,394 8, 606 GTCOC Oe as ee ee ae Et he eaters gs DADS Taleo cers ose 6892 aacoectete Green ain diaee espe teen teat eer ane eet DA ine emcee Ohl SgesecuaeS GUaAGelOUp Caersiee se eee see t re eee ee metre rare DY \seseaen sas BY \lsnoescooc- Guaitem alate cet hese sae ee eee meee nae WGA» cen poaiet 129) ac os eee Guin ea) estes ee So eee note eee, Aer eee ene [LeeecG oe 8 Mie ce 3! |oetise secre VATA S oeeeta ee pet EE oe Renae | BGG) Wane haeeee 51.0) ee semen ae Mawalianslslandsze=5- 2 tee eee ee eee eee 71 8 94. Ce ee Se ee FLONCUTAS © ose e ee catee ace inane aa eee ee | 41 267 51 23 Hongkong tease Sacro eo eee eee oes BD) ease eae TO| dine eee Neel aN Gite Saee eeste re ere te ae aa eee 30 1 44 1 TTA Chi BS Se ae eer ins hee Cee ep eee ee eae 1,371 154 1,410 159 1} hee eer cers Sest aes Satara aoe nasa sen sbeacc | 3, 862 992 4, 340 1, 275 JANN DIC Ae crear eee ere eae 1G; || Sec saace = | 90: ceceace er REN Och oye Gee eee cos on acm Coat tAascadcmande 1, 394 20 | 1,533 18 CRC RAE eee eee ee) DARE aa aoe ee tees rane 151 124 |} 203 144 KiOreaizsacascse- Be A eee ee ea G Saas OnCner LO) | Sseeeeeece | 20) Soe ror clarate WAS OSI Aso nse csisceevos eeieravere blots pe Nee ere aise iepierere rere 1 ee ee eres MDETIO’ eases wee ies ee nena aie CEPELER EEE 32) sees Sseiees 42 | Leister ULE CM DETR =e a hae eae one ee eee eee | Sy Weeeesccice | 75 abet tie Mad Ag ASC AT ih ae AA ee eee eke Sere | 110 eee Bee 1255: eee ee Madeitatsscsic sa2-c ees snae ante eae. eee ance aes i bal eee icra bia Mall taistse: = eee ee ee ke em aes eet se Sree eee On secre ase 23 2 Martinique: ecco: seca ect ner eee ERS 3 eee Sees i Be sce Mignamibilistass yo nase sees a ce eso OS BY eect aes = | CN ee ee soe MEXICO ORE oo c abe seek Jk ey eee 1, 641 4,099 | 1,719 3,720 IMIOTITEMCS TO Bie ere yee eee ieee ee eer Wilicaposeoecdsocosencas cacdce- Sse MOMUSCLrart fone cat ete ee ee ieee eran ee een rere tine Meee Eales Be Reese MIOTOGCO! 7 Basen sean ee ee rate ces aeeetceieeenrea rere | E Lt eres Saietaereelh 4s -- Sli. COD ee Ree eee eee te eer AE St. Eustatius ..... BAe ITS Ae sate RIEL O LEN Ma So tae Se ae acest Seems 31), TIGR Sees aan ee eee ccer meer camara Shia hii nl Se oe sepaGoSseeceeeecor St. Pierre and Miquelon MIM DOMAS =< a2) 26 ceisa- se cise oa = Sit; WANS Oe Soe Se ae es aie Recon OMNIS Obese cit ate ernst = MSD AG OL seiaey-.< = isitea Soto “STUSUITRS. TO (20 0 Yee a a ee MOGICUVIISIAMNOS case aceeor cer == South African Republic ROMGHBATIStNA as = see series acl = Brrr MITRE lo) 2, Spats ss niezsee lala hs oat rimcnels ANUS). <3. o 35.5220 = PRG TEM ROLALOS oer ieee Soo Se anio cc Ge neateee ee UDO Bee eee ee eee “REGAN Ei, se oe ee nen Continued. 1900. 1901. Packages. Packages. For— From— For— From— DD Net thoes 20) 1|Deaeeeee 724 | 25 723 15 it) ea ae Gia Se Sel TOW eee eee AG Ween Gioia ee. OT: ee teen SIS | eee STs ee eee 78 [Plas at Gilk sada ears 189 101 175 87 2, 951 779 3, 213 2,277 li] act Seem leet a ok | eta see eS te ee ee One coevan a Tere eee gee 1G | eae, Poe yi eee et Ginter eee fl ee Ge INeP ea secs il eee Oil iene er bp See PSS |e ee Falta peees iI ese ea lees fea. Bee ee BN Bg soe ae 1D 8 hace ce! 15.4 ieee ee Seek Dee eee le ches a Be el Aa ie 53 24 77 7 36 | 1 a Ee Peres Fy Tule eee Ree ope 3 Dui ire ce ene 2 1 eA ek ieee Sh Re Mlb a ae 594 104 BALI Hees 781 39 764 92 Toney [pete aes 12219) eee BUT En ga ee ee 46 1 i pe gee dala 1,916 493 1,909 292 2,120 726 2, 431 686 Tita saa eee ee DOLE eat sects 644 2 691 2 DGiibaeaeee TP ee ee TGS eon oe GORE ee eee Tee | nee 15 | 1 G21 | eee see eon ocee eee OM ates Greens ess 28,625 | 76,264) 31,367| 81,310 817 116 | 817 | 129 699 1 | GEOL eee 1,101 517} ‘1,190 312 it Rae | 656 335 oye As ee ae | goers { 100 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The following is a list of the Smithsonian correspondents acting as dis- tributing agents, or receiving publications for transmission to the United States, and of countries receiving regularly exchanges through the Insti- tution: Algeria. (See France.) Angola. (See Portugal. ) Argentina: Museo Nacional, Buenos Ayres. Austria: K. K. Statistische Central-Commission, Wien. Azores. (See Portugal. ) 3elgium: Commission Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Brussels. Bolivia: Oficina Nacional de Inmigracién, Estadistica y Propaganda Geo- grafica, La Paz. Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. British Colonies: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, England. British Guiana. (See British Colonies. ) British Honduras. (See British Colonies. ) Bulgaria: Dr. Paul Leverkiihn, Sofia. Canada: Packages sent by mail. Canary Islands. (See Spain.) Cape Colony: Superintendent of the Stationery Department, Cape Town. Chile: Universidad de Chile, Santiago. China. (Shipments suspended for the present. ) Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficino de Depdsito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, San José. Cuba: Dr. Vicente de la Guardia, Habana. Denmark: Kong. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. Dutch Guiana: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo. Ecuador: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. East India: India Store Department, India Office, London. Egypt: Société Khédiviale de Géographie, Cairo. Fiji Islands. (See British Colonies. ) France: Bureau Francais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris. Friendly Islands: Packages sent by mail. Germany: Dr. Felix Fligel, Wilhelmstrasse 14, Leipzig-Gohlis. Gold Coast. (See British Colonies. ) Great Britain and Ireland: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex street, Strand, London, England. Greece: Prof. R. B. Richardson, Director, American School of Classical Studies, Athens. Greenland. (See Denmark...) Guadeloupe. (See France. ) Guatemala: Instituto Nacional de Guatemala, Guatemala. Guinea. (See Portugal. ) Haiti: Secrétaire d’ Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince. Hawaiian Islands: Foreign Office, Honolulu. Honduras: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Hungary: Dr. Joseph von Ko6rdsy, ‘‘ Redoute,’’ Budapest. Iceland. (See Denmark. ) Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome. me REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101 Jamaica. (See British Colonies. ) Jaya. (See Netherlands. ) Korea: Packages sent by mail. Leeward Islands. (See British Colonies. ) Liberia: Care of American Colonization Society, Washington, District of Columbia. Luxemburg. (See Germany. ) Madagascar. (See France. ) Madeira. (See Portugal.) Malta. (See British Colonies. ) Mauritius. (See British Colonies. ) Mexico: Packages sent by mail. Mozambique. (See Portugal. ) Natal: Agent-General for Natal, London, England. Netherlands: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Den Helder. New Guinea. (See Netherlands. ) New Hebrides: Packages sent by mail. Newfoundland: Packages sent by mail. New South Wales: Government Board for International Exchanges, Sydney. New Zealand: Colonial Museum, Wellington. Nicaragua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet, Christiania. Paraguay: Care Consul-General of Paraguay, Washington, District of Columbia. Persia. (See Russia. ) Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. Philippine Islands: Packages sent by mail. Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. Queensland: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. Roumania. (See Germany. ) Russia: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Impériale Publique, St. Petersburg. Saint Helena. (See British Colonies. ) Santo Domingo: Packages sent by mail. San Salvador: Museo Nacional, San Salvador. Servia. (See Germany. ) Siam: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York. South African Republic: William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex street, Strand, London. South Australia: Astronomical Observatory, Adelaide. Spain: Oficina para el Canje de Publicaciones Oficiales, Cientificas y Literarias. Seccion de Propiedad Intelectual del Ministerio de Fomento, Madrid. Straits Settlements. (See British Colonies. ) Sumatra. (See Netherlands.) Syria: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York. Sweden: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm. Switzerland: Bibliothéque Fédérale, Berne. 102 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Tasmania: Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart. Trinidad. (See British Colonies. ) Tunis. (See France.) Turkey: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston, Massachusetts. Turks Islands. (See British Colonies. ) Uruguay: Oficina de Deposito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, Montevideo. Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Carscas. Victoria: Public Library, Museum, and National Gallery, Melbourne. Western Australia: Victoria Public Library, Perth. Zanzibar: Packages sent by mail. The distribution of exchanges to foreign countries was made in 1,757 cases, 282 of which contained official documents for authorized deposito- ries, and the contents of 1,475 cases consisted of Government and other publications for miscellaneous correspondents. Of the latter class of exchanges the number of cases sent to each country is given below. PNIGRA TUT NRE S SOR oa o eae ecc 30 | New South Wales....-..--..-- 15 VANS UD eer en pe eee G4 |eNetherlands === sees =e 40 Be loans oe ane eee AO News Zeallan Go tse eee 7 BOMVIaes a Scre ye ae ee 2. Nicaragua 22. a5. 3 Brazil tes pcre or ae 20 \ENOLWAY con a2 See one Roe mee 25 BritishiColoniesa= see == 3" Parag uayee sae ane ae vel ae), CapelColony2 so=. a2" sae ee ZW CrUie ns Cosa ee ee 10 Chinas rca Gp ree tele oo eee AP OLYTMCSIN 20.4 2a ane eee (7) Chile tec t-F eee ae ae LoatPortueall se See ee eee ae 18 Colomibiawe = cranes oe ee 6) Queensland= = === -—- faye 10 Costas Cale 9-year eee G: | GRoumanmiae 202522 Ae (*) Guba 2 2 ecco eee eee POA RDCRIE Ret ce ete ae ere eauc 62 Weniwiar key eee eee ee eee 210 Saltyad ores see ee ee eee 3 Dutechy Guiana ee (@)i Santo Donnie. 0 == se5 eee 1 Rastpindian 3240.4 aces ere 18)|'Servia0. 5 2s Se ee (*) Bey pte. 2. j=- =n ofa isis neste 7 it) F290 dN oh ie MO ee ee OE. ne (2) Erancejand Coloniessa= seeeae= 164 | South Australia...__.._..____- 8 Germany 22 nie aes ee eae eee 248 South African Republic. --.---- () Great Britain and Ireland -.--- SSOAS WAM eevee ee ee 19 Greece) he sale ae eee LD INSWECCTIS Sac! ya nee see 43 Guatemalige soo seer eee 2 Owe CZ er ain Cees ee ee 43 Hatin. = eee es a ese (3) nl MS hia 2 ee ee ER z Elondiitrasie 5: ey ee i) Rasmiami aie, er en ee rene @) Hun gay eee eee 25) || Durkey #2 j-35- Ss 522s oS eee 2 tally 2s eae ee ee ee ee C4 | OI Sys eee ee 8 8 JF 6 0 ee ee a Ee Mes 23) ViGHEZUCIA See. esis ee erate 7 IMO CO ee a ee (A) Vitoria. eae se: Se eee 10 Natal sabes se eee ene (2) | Wiestern@Anisiralias== ee 10 ! Included in transmissions to Netherlands. * Packages sent by mail. * Included in transmissions to Great Britain. * Included in transmissions to Germany. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 108 The following is a list of depositories of regular sets of United States Government publications forwarded abroad through the International Exchange Service on July 10, October 6, November 23, 1900, and on Jan- uary 23, April 1, and May 20, 1901: Argentina: Library of the Foreign Office, Buenos Ayres. Austria: K. K. Statistiseche Central-Commission, Wien. Baden: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. Bavaria: Konigliche Hof-und Staats-Biblhiothek, Miinchen. Belgium: Bibliotheque Royale, Brussels. Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Buenos Ayres: Library of the Government of the Provinee of Buenos Ayres, La Plata. Canada: Parliamentary Library, Ottawa. Canada: Legislative Library, Toronto. Chile: Biblioteca del Congreso, Santiago. Colombia: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficina de Deposito, Reparto y Canje Internacional, San José. Denmark: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen. England: British Museum, London. France: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. Germany: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin. Greece: National Library, Athens. Haiti: Secrétaire d’ Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince. Hungary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. India: Secretary to the Government of India, Calcutta. Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Roma. Japan: Foreign Office, Tokyo. Mexico: Museo Nacional, Mexico. Netherlands: Library of the States General, The Hague. New South Wales: Government Board for International Exchanges, Sydney. New Zealand: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Departementet for det Indre, Christiania. Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. Prussia: Kénigliche Bibliothek, Berlin. Queensland: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Russia: Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg. Saxony: Koénigliche Bibliothek, Dresden. South African Republic: Department of Foreign Affairs, Pretoria. South Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide. Spain: Seecion de Propiedad Intelectual del Ministerio de Fomento, Madrid. Sweden: Kongliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Switzerland: Bibliothéque Fédérale, Berne. Tasmania: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. ‘Shipments subsequent to August 1, 1899, suspended. 104 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Turkey: Minister of Public Instruction, Constantinople. Uruguay: Oficina de Depdsito, Reparto y Canje Internacional de Publica- ciones, Montevideo. Venezuela: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne. Western Australia: Victoria Public Library, Perth. Wiirttemberg, Konigliche Bibliothek, Stuttgart. Respectfully submitted. F. W. Hover, Acting Curator of Exchanges. Mr. S. P. LanGiey, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX IV. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Sir: I have the honor to herewith submit the following report relating to the condition and operations of the National Zoological Park for the year ending June 30, 1901: At the close of that period the approximate value of the property belonging to the park was as follows: Os SURES TOPE We tlio nt US) es aed SAR a a a eg a $63, 000 Enilcimes tor administrative pusposes --2-2--2.---.2.-2=c-4--4-- 14, 000 Oircesurniture, books, apparatus; ete. <2. 5:2 4sss2--4-- 55-62 4, 000 meacwinery, tools, and implements)... 522 24--2-5-22 see eee te 2, 200 ENE CSA CLOUT OOM CLlOSUNCS 2 a17--.2--.--2-- 5 || Hutia-conga (Capromys pilorides) ..- 11 tune | ((FELLSICONCOLOM)\s-=-26-22<5- 0c - 1 |) Woodchuek (Arctomys monar) ...--- 2 Spotted lynx (Lyna rufus maculatus) - 2 || Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) - 63 Gray wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus) - 5 || Fox squirrel (Sciwrus niger) ......... 8 Black wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus) 3 || Gray squirrel (Sciwrus cinereus) ....- 31 MOVOLC! ICONS ONS) == 2 -.coticin- a oe 15 || Mountain chipmunk ( Tamias speci- Red fox ( Vulpes pennsylvanicus) .... 12 GSTS eee cP he IG Bermere Ree Pe nors ¢ 18 Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus)....... -- 16 || Thirteen-lined spermophile (Sper- Swift fox (Vulpes velox) :..:.:..-.--- 6 || mophilus tridecimlineatus) ......--. 13 Gray fox ( Urecyon cinerco-argenteus) 4 } Kadiak ground squirrel (Spermo- North American otter (Lutra hud- | || philus empetra kadiakensis)....----- 11 SOQ0 HO) AGRA Ae eee ee 3 | Beechey’s ground squirrel (Spermo- | American badger (Tacidea amer- || philus grammurus beecheyi) ....---- | 1 OUT) ete TED SAS CBRE EOE SRE ee | 4 I Yellow-headed ground = squirrel | Kinkajou ( Totos caudivolvulus) .....- 2 || (Spermophilus brevicaudus) ...----- | 20 American civet cat (Bassariscus as- | || Antelope chipmunk (Spermophilus PEO eterera eat rcielate ren tes ee cies wie wise ne PM UEGUIPUIDY 3 Seca sosconehececuEdsboerc 2 112 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals in National Zoological Park June 80, 1901—Continued. /Num- Name. MAMMALS—continued. North American species— Continued. Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexi- CONG) Serome eres Scie eter nie te ere alo ine Northern varying hare (Lepus CUNETICCNUS ome mers ie tae sateen Peba armadillo ( Tatu novemceineta) .. Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) ....- Domesticated and foreign species. Purple-faced monkey (Semnopithe- CUSICCDRALODLERUS) masse see elite Grivet monkey ( Cercopithecus griseo- VENUES) |= ctaya falas) sieve saa ae eereleies sista ee) =I= Malbroueck monkey (Cercopithecus CAN. OSUT ALS) teeter teeter etter Green monkey (Cercopithecus calli- WE PTES)) aoamannsobocmabo cone occcopor Macaque monkey (Macacus cyno- MLOLGTES) ee eeetete ete stele ieee eee ee Bonnet monkey (Macacus sinicus) .- Pig-tailed monkey (Macacus nemes- ROLE ee arasondanedntanacsenanesnpos Moore macaque (Macacus maurus) .- Black ape (Cynopithecus niger) ....-- Black spider-monkey (Afeles ater)... Apella monkey (Cebus apella)....-..- Capuchin (Cebus capucinus)....--.-- Cebussundeterminedis-ese-a2s5 eee TA ODN (HLISICO) ee < aceeeetiscee eee Miser (Hels touts) masala eis Beopard) (hesipan.dws)i--sssee-=-- ee Spotted hyena (Hyzna crocuta) ....- Wolf houndiass-ecen-ocercaaeece eee St-Bermardid ope eerce seats eeeeeee POINGerS eee ose cise Hosen semis Chesapeake Bay dog ............-..- Bedlinetontervlenss--.-cssse--es eee Smooth-coated fox terrier..........- Wire-haired fox terrier.............- ! Dskimodopsesera seen aes eee Mongoose (Herpestes mungo) ..------ Mayran((GGUCts OOTOGHG) eee Ped coatimundi (Nasua rufa)......- Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon can- (GpNGIRE) REN BE Geo mosooseR et SHOSC OnE Sun bear ( Ursus malayanus)......... Sloth bear (Melursus labiatus) .....-- ~I MAMMALS—continued. Domesticated and foreign species— Continued. | European hedgehog ( Erinaceus ewro- PRUE). aha jcesesels mass eecleee oe Seer ese Indian fruit bat (Pteropus medius) -- Wild boar (Sus scrofa) Solid-hoofed pig (Sus scrofa) ......-- White-lipped peceary (Tayassu albi- VOSUTIS) 58 Becca oe ste ec teins Se ee eee AOU (BOS tVAtCus)) --ccneee eee eee Yak ( Poephagus grunniens) .......--- Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphis) ...- Common goat ( Capra hircus) ......-. Cashmere goat (Capra hircus)......- Nylghai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus) - - Indian antelope ( Antilope cervicapra) Sambur deer ( Cervus aristotelis) ....-- Philippine deer (Cervus philippinus) Fallow deer (Dama vulgaris) ......-.- Common camel (Camelus dromeda- a pore a PS ay SHA TG ~w SH eo to Bactrian camel ( Camelus bactrianus) - Llama (Auchenia glama).....--...-.- | South American tapir ( Tapirus amer- ICONUS). 2 (= estssclociss a aisesacc sees Indian elephant ( Elephas indicus)... Crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) . Hairy-rumped agouti PTY MNOLOPNM) q==.0=- assess a sone ( Dasyprocta Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azarz)... Acouchy ( Dasyprocta acouchy)....... Golden agouti (Dasyprocta aguti)...- Albino rat (Mus rattus)......--..---- Crested porcupine (HHystria cristata) . Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)......--- English rabbit (Lepus cuniculus)..... Six-banded armadillo ( Dasypus sex- CUNCEUS) < oS omsew a ce eS Great gray kangaroo (Macropus OlGAnteUus)), ~-..= nee se eee Brush-tailed rock kangaroo ( Petro- GAle PERACUIOIG) ee ae oie ema BIRDS. Road runner (Geococcyx california- MUS) cSt uccees ot Se ee eee eee Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua GOUCTIU) Wee oes een REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals in National Zoological Park June 30, 1901—Continued. 1138 Name. ad Name. nue BIRDS—continued. BIRDS—continued. Leadbeater’s cockatoo( Cacatualead- Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo DECtert) | Saacbe jcace Seen cot ss see 1 PL CRUS cts oe aoe sealants eee sates 2 Roseate cockatoo (Cacatua roseica- Pea fowl (Pavo cristatus) ...--------- 26 (DEN gensebebacascosces ooecetosaeds 5 || Valley partridge (Callipepla califor- Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ara- UCHMBCLLLCOLD eee eiee eens alee toe 5 TANNED) acem snore cinlscwine aa siecle eels 2 || Mountain partridge ( Oreortyx pictus) . 1 Red and yellow and blue macaw | Sandhill crane (Grus mexicana)..... 3 (CARIN ECHO) sie2 cosa cletners Washington; Di@.s222.. 02. -25555--2- 1 Wer aa See eee career RabaMeGuires Washington wD) Cl. . 2-28. 55-- ose 1 BReHMOp HNC oa scm nee ore R. H. Sargent, U.S. Geological Survey ..............- | 4 Boeish rabbit-......ssc2.s2. Miss Olga Smolianinoff, Washington, D.C .........-- | 2 SOM IMING sat. an Sei cane Miss Florence Stevens, Washington, D.C ..........-. | 1 OME eae Someries oe Mrs. Mary O. Clarke, Washington, D.€............... | 1 Great horned owl ........-.. Jes ovnlleraWashine tony Dy Cicss te. 8. - ses eee 1 RSSORTARG VAS 55, asic oe eee Be WSlorkeeWashingtone D.C cess ee ss sen coat: so ee | 4 SHIELEGUOWA.2 <0 5-223. k ose vs Wek Potts swWashineton oD! Ci cscee2 secs s] secon sees n 1 MOMete on en Ae. JACRVOStaVasnin ston DN Cates: see cee ea ents neo. 2 pereecOwl< J. osacsecce es = Clarke Middleton, Washington, D.C.......-.-....... | 2 American osprey ..........-- ASM. Nicholson: Orlando Blas: --5--.2-5--es-0-5< | i miveon hawk oo. --2. es eo E ARS el Nat oe area ie Num- ber. oe — = Animals purchased and collected. Guinea baboon (Papio sphinw)....-.------------ Weel ofa CHCls PAL AGlUS) Sse earns see ee ee SMMity LOxe (si) SL YCS VALOR Waa sa tee wes we ek hee American otter (Lutra hudsonica)..-...--.------ American badger ( Taxidea americana) ..----.---- Cacomistle (Bassariscus astuta)...---.----------- Black bear (Ursus americanus) -.--.--2--.2-----+ Cinnamon bear ( Ursus americanus)....---------- Jesikein lysine Ops Cs) se aeasoucec cecaoadee cae Steller’s sea lion ( Humetopias stelleri)....-..----- Collared peceary (Tayassu angulatus) ....------- American bison (Bison americanus) ...------.--- Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) ....---- Prong-horn antelope (Antilocapra americana) . - - - Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) ...-------- Mule deer (Odocoileus macrotis) .....------------ Newfoundland caribou ( Rangifer nove-terre) --- - - Mga sex CALGESTCNeTICOUS) ae os tee tee Bee ee Black squirrel (Sciwrus cinereus) ...------------- Richardson’s spermophile (Spermophilus richardson’) ......-------- Kadiak spermophile (Spermophilus empetra kadiakensis) ...-------- Canada porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus) .....----- Three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) ...-.----- Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).----------- Barred owl (Syrnium nebulosum)-..-------------- Bald eagle ( Halixetus leucocephalus) .....-------- Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis) ....-..--------- Black vulture (Catharista atrata).......--------- Red-tailed guan ( Ortalis ruficauda).....--------- Daubenton’s curassow (Crax daubentoni) ....---- Sandhill crane (Grus mexicana)..........----<-- Great blue heron ( Ardea herodias) .....--------- Emu (Dromeeus nove-hollandix) .....------------ Cuban crocodile (Crocodilus rhombifer) ..-.------- Brazilian tortoise ( Testudo tabulata)....-.----.-- Common boa (Boa constrictor) ......------.----- — D nt wo ~ Co — — — bo co bo or eS eS eS et ee oe od ke OO 118 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Animals born in the National Zoological Park. Lion (heus leo): ee na ore ee eee en A on RS 1 Gray-wolt (Canis lipusigriseo-cuous) == ne sae ee 4 Coyote (Canisilatrans)tesken oe ae ee eee 5 Blue tox(Vadpesilag opis as ee 5 American bison (GBison. americans) 25-5202 o2 2 Se eee il Le buts (BOs AiGacus \esas Se re eae eee ns ge ee eS 1 Cashmere. poata(Caprachircus) a- = aan ee eee Ze Nilghai(Boselapiisiragocamelis)-=eee ea a eee 1 Americanvelks (Cerys COnadensts nomen aan eee ee 7 Viroima deer: (Odocoileus singimanus)) ooo eae ee ee 1 Mule‘ deer (Odocotleus*macrotis\nn sen mee ee ee 1 Taman (cAuchentaglama)y = seas eee erate eee eee ae 3 Hutia-congad(Capromiysulontdes)ice. = aot at es eee 7 Rrairiedoo( Cymoniys:Vudour Cranes) me see ee Ae 5 Acouchy.(Dasyprocta-acouchi)) s.222 24-5 seen eee ee ee 2 SUMMARY. Jrontraeyts} Zoya lovpovel diy Ih IGN). oon oso aS saeco cocosescosesse 839 Accessions durine the years= Ass 55sec ete ae ee eee es 318 NG Gall re Bie re RS al See re nee age gen ak Pa eS 1, 157 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, and returning of animals) ~~... -- 279 Onahand eI uTessO AGO Ms ee eat ee ee ee 878 Respectfully submitted. Frank Baker, Superintendent. Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX V. REPORT OF THE WORK OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVA- TORY FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. Str: The kinds and amounts of the Observatory property are approxi- mately as follows: (UM SS ts ieeee Gaagk See Ee 3 See ae S822 4 eee $6, 300 VDDD TS Se cee SE a A ee SO Io a eee 31, 300 Library and records. ....-..-- BE EN a Mn RE MIN Say ae ee ws 5, 600 oN G ter Wiese ee nee an et Ae en Biegler tien Sepa AY Bs ee GE as en 43, 200 During the past year the acquisitions of property of the kinds just enumerated have been as follows: (a) Apparatus.—Astronomical and physical apparatus has been pur- chased at an expenditure of $1,300. ~ (b) Library and records.—The usual periodicals haye been continued, and various books of reference have been purchased at a total cost of $200. Total accessions of property, $1,500. The Observatory inclosure has been enlarged to include about- 11,000 square feet, as against less than 6,000 square feet formerly. The cost of fencing the grounds as thus enlarged was 5400. Losses of property have been slight, and consist in the usual wear and tear and breakage of apparatus, amounting in aggregate to $50. THE WorK OF THE OBSERVATORY. For convenience the work of the Observatory may be described under the following headings: 1. Publications and miscellaneous work. 2. Progress of investigations. 3. Eclipse expedition to Sumatra. (1) Publications and miseellaneous work.—As was stated in my last year’s report, Volume I of Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory was then being issued. Owing to difficulty in obtaining satisfactory reproductions of Plate XX, the actual distribution of the edition was delayed while fur- ther efforts were made to improve this plate. New copies of it were pre- pared and submitted to the engravers, and it was only in March and April of the present year that the edition was finally bound up and distributed. In the effort to include as thoroughly as possible the names of those to whom the book would be valuable, considerable time was spent in prepar- ing the mailing list, but it is even yet possible that some persons much interested in astrophysical work may have been overlooked by inadvert- ence, but as there still remains a part of the edition applications for copies will still be considered here. 119 120 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Inasmuch as the Aid Acting in Charge is also the custodian of the physical apparatus of the Smithsonian Institution, he was concerned in the fitting up of the new instrument room in the south tower of the Smithsonian building, and in the arrangement of the apparatus there. A considerable amount of the time of the Junior Assistant was occupied in the preparation of enlarged representations of the bolographic results appearing in Volume I of the ‘‘Annals’’ for use by the Secretary in describ- ing these results to various learned societies, and also for exhibition at the Buffalo Exposition. (2) Progress of investigations—Adjustnent of apparatus.—From my last year’s report it will be apparent to how great an extent the Observatory apparatus was removed to North Carolina for use in observing the solar eclipse of May, 1900. It will therefore be undersfood that no little time was consumed in again setting up and accurately adjusting the apparatus for work here. Radiation of the moon.—The first observations made were upon the radi- ation of the moon. These observations, whose general result was given by anticipation in last year’s report, in connection with the discussion of the bolometric work on the corona during the eclipse, called renewed attention to the fact, so apparent in your bolometric work at Allegheny, that much the larger proportion of the radiation we receive from the moon is the radiation proper of the lunar soil rather than the direct reflection of solar rays, but that this properly lunar radiation varies exceedingly in amount, depending ‘on the amount of moisture in our atmosphere. Thus the directly reflected portion of the whole lunar radiation received at the earth’s surface may vary from 20 to 40 per cent, according as our air is dry or humid. It may be mentioned that certain similar observations made by the Aid Acting in Charge while upon the eclipse expedition to Sumatra indicated that quite 40 per cent of the lunar rays received in that moist climate are those directly reflected from the sun. Intramercurial planets.—Inasmuch as the results of the photographic search for new planets conducted at the eclipse of May, 1900, were fully described in last year’s report, it will be unnecessary to refer to them here, more than to say that the comparison and reduction of the eclipse photo- graphs for this purpose really formed part of the work of this present year. It was, however, deemed desirable to again photograph the same region of sky with the lens employed at that eclipse, and apparatus was set up and used for this purpose in January of the present year; but satisfactory results had not been obtained when it became necessary to send the appa- ratus to Sumatra. Galvanometer.—The sensitive galvanometer mentioned in my last year’s report, and from which the greatest usefulness is expected, has absorbed considerable attention; and although progress has not, owing to other occupations, as yet passed beyond an experimental stage, it is yet so satis- factory as to deserve a preliminary notice. By way of introduction atten- tion is drawn to the distinction between the computed sensitiveness of a galyanometer and its actual or working sensitiveness. In the older prac- tice of perhaps twenty years ago the most sensitive galvanometers had needle systems of several hundred milligrams weight, and they were, owing to their great inertia, customarily used with a time of single swing a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Eo as great as ten or even twenty seconds. Thus it became customary in describing the sensitiveness of a galvanometer to refer its sensitiveness to a time of single swing of ten seconds. Within the past decade the gal- vanometer needle systems of highest sensitiveness have become relatively microscopic in size and now frequently weigh no more than one or two thousandths of a gram (two to four millionths of a pound). These systems are often far more sensitive with a time of single swing of only one or two seconds than the best galvanometers of twenty years ago at a time of single swing of twenty seconds. With a needle system practically undamped either by air resistance or induction currents the sensitiveness is propor- tional to the square of the time of swing, so that the sensitiveness of a needle system at ten seconds single swing would on this basis be a hun- dred times that which it would have at a one-second swing. Thus it arises that the computed sensitiveness of these light systems runs perhaps thou- sands of times as great as that of the systems of twenty years ago. But it must not be forgotten that owing to the increased disturbance from mechanical jarring and to the extreme potency of air resistance with these light systems they can not in general be usefully employed at even half so long a time of single swing as ten seconds; and in the second place, if it were indeed possible to use them at a ten-second swing, if would be found that the sensitiveness was perhaps not more than ten instead of a hun- dred fold greater than at one second. Thus comparisons of sensitiveness based on a ten-second single swing are entirely unfair to the older instru- ments, which could be and were employed at the time of swing used as the basis of comparison, and hence had a working sensitiveness far more nearly comparable with that of the present day than their computed sensi- tiveness would indicate. In consequence of this unfairness it has recently become common to speak of the sensitiveness at ten seconds double swing, a condition at which galyanometers are now sometimes actually used. At this Observatory this change of the basis of comparison has not heretofore been adopted. It must not be inferred from what has been said that the advance made in the last twenty years in the construction of galvanom- eters is belittled, for the reduction in the time of swing for the same degree of sensitiveness is a most valuable saving in time and chances of error, and for automatic recording, as in bolographic work, is wholly indispensable. In the past two years the design of galvanometer needles has been a sub- ject of much investigation both experimental and theoretical at this observatory, and it is believed that the results arrived at mark practically the limit of probable progress in the way of obtaining sensitiveness at a given short time of swing of a needle system. By this I mean that it is improbable that a galvanometer can ever be constructed of a given resist- ance which when employed at one second time of a single swing shall give very appreciably greater deflections for given currents than will such a galvanometer as can be constructed with the aid of the knowledge now attained here. In other words, the time for increase of computed sensi- tiveness by tens and hundreds of times with each newly constructed instrument has passed away. In what has been said I do not wish to claim peculiar advantages for our galvanometer, for I understand that both in this country and abroad practically the same results, as regards com- 29, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. puted sensitiveness, have recently been reached by several physicists independently, which strengthens the view that little further advance in this direction is likely. But the useful or working sensitiveness of a galvanometer is another matter, and by the system of support and magnetic shieldmg described in my last year’s report great advantage has been gained in this already, and still better results are hoped for by still other improvements. Let me clearly indicate how progress in working sensitiveness may be consistent with a standstill in computed sensitiveness. The spot of light reflected from the mirror of the galvanometer needle, which should be quiet when no current is being observed, is always making slight excursions upon the scale, and these fluctuations prevent readings of current deflections to be made of less than a certain minimum amplitude, for they then become indistinguishable among the accidental deflections just mentioned. Let us now suppose that the average of accidental deflections should be reduced by better elimination of ground tremors and magnetic fluctuations from a millimeter to a tenth of a millimeter on the scale, then it is apparent that ten times the working sensitiveness is attained. But let us suppose that further improvement in these respects is found possible. It is hardly practicable to read the position of an ordinary spot of light more accu- rately than to the nearest tenth millimeter, so that little progress would directly result, but the time of swing of the needle might be profitably increased. Then, however, the effect of air damping would soon become so prejudicial as to stop advance. We are now in position to state generally the methods employed and the results attained and hoped for here in this matter of increasing the working sensitiveness. The aim of all efforts is to make it possible to read deflections to a tenth of a millimeter on a scale at 3 meters with an actual time of single swing of ten seconds. In the first place it has been sought to reduce the mechanical tremors of the galvanometer due to the city traflic; and for this purpose the elaborate pier and suspension system described in my last year’s report was con- structed. In thesecond place it has been attempted to reduce the prejudi- cial effects of these and other mechanical disturbing factors which still remain to jar the needle itself. To fully understand what has been planned for this purpose it should be stated that in addition to sueh mechanical tremors as have already been referred to, it has been found that the sound waves sent out from concussions of various kinds are able to seriously affect the steadiness of the needle. These sound waves can travel into the galyanometer case to jar the needle despite any system of support, and the only way to avoid them is to exhaust the air in the galvanometer, so that our new cases are of air-tight construction. The exhaustion of the air, in addition to preventing disturbance by sound waves, also mutkes the sensi- liveness nearly proportional to the square of time of swing of the needle, so that it is no longer so unjust to use a ten-second time of single swing as the basis of comparison. But in addition to securing exhaustion of the air as a means of reducing mechanical tremors, another device has been found. The experimental and theoretical investigations of needle systems above alluded to have indicated a method of construction by means of which the weight of the needle system can be largely increased without diminishing the com- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1238 puted sensitiveness, so that in this way the mechanical disturbances of sound and ground tremors which reach the galyanometer case, being compelled to influence a larger mass, will produce a less prejudicial effect upon the needle. It has also been sought to reduce magnetic disturbances of the needle by the system of magnetic shielding described in my last year’s report. The application of these several devices has as yet proceeded only so far as is described in what follows: Several different systems of only 0.0019 gram weight have been tried in the galvanometer with the arrangements of support and shielding already described, but not with the air exhausted, and it has been found that up to times of single swing of two seconds the average accidental deflections on a scale at 3 meters do not exceed 0.1 millimeter, and the time of swing has actually been raised to ten seconds without excessive disturbances. The effectiveness of exhaustion of the air to make the sensitiveness proportional to the square of the time of swing has been studied, and these studies though not complete indicate that for air pressures of less than 1 millimeter of mercury this relation will be approximately followed. A “heayvy’’ needle system of 0.015 gram weight is in process of con- struction, whose computed sensitiveness, it is believed, will equal or shghtly exceed that of the light systems already tried, while its steadiness will be much greater. The most sensitive ‘‘light’’ needle system used gave at 1.5 seconds’ single swing in atmospheric pressure a deflection of 1 millimeter on a scale at 1 meter in a galvanometer of 1.4 ohms resistance with a current of Tooovsooo00 AMpcres. The damping was then so excessive that the sec- ond swing was but ;/; the magnitude of the first. If the hopes now reason- ably entertained are realized the ‘‘heavy’’ needle can be effectively used at ten seconds’ single swing in vacuum, with a scale at 3 meters, and a current of ¢o50003000000 AMperes will in actual practice give a deflection of 1 millimeter, and it is possible that a current of z55o0000000000 AMperes can be detected. Such a working sensitiveness as may thus be expected would exceed that employed in taking the bolographs of 1898 by 5,000 fold, taking into account the ratio of the galvanometer resistance employed. The gain of working sensitiveness now actually attained in preliminary experiments is no less than a hundredfold. If the fiftyfold further gain hoped for is actually accomplished the field of research thus opened is enormous, so that I regard these improvements in the galyanometer as now the first consideration. It is greatly to be regretted, however, that owing to the unfortunate situation of the observatory in the midst of city disturbances the difficulties to be overcome are so large. In this connec- tion, I venture to express the hope that the change of site of the observa- tory contemplated in your former reports may some time be accomplished. Personal equation apparatus.—A portion of the time of the Junior Assist- ant has been employed in the testing of an apparatus of your own design to eliminate personal equation in time observations. These experiments are not yet completed. Absorption of the solar atmosphere.—An investigation of the absorption of the solar radiation in the sun’s atmosphere has been begun. A large solar image is formed, and bolographs are made at points near the center and 124 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. edge of the sun, respectively. Preliminary experiments indicate an absorp- tion progressively increasing toward the shorter wave lengths, so that curves taken with equal slit widths, while of nearly equal height at about 2 4, would exhibit nearly twice as much energy from the sun’s center as from near the limb in the visible portion of the spectrum. So far as is yet deter- mined there is no certainly discernible selective absorption for different narrow bands besides the gradual alteration of absorption just alluded to, but the experiments are as yet inconclusive as regards this point. (3) Eclipse expedition to Sumatra.—It will be recalled that the observa- tions of last year’s eclipse by the Smithsonian expedition raised interesting — questions as to the existence of intramercurial planets and as to the nature of the coronal radiations. So far did the interest in these problems extend that it was thought worth while to send an expedition from the Astrophysical Observatory to Sumatra to observe the total eclipse of May 18, 1901, and to repeat and extend the bolometric observations on the coronal radiation and the photographic observations for possible intra- mercurial planets. This expedition left Washington February 5, 1901; reached Padang, Sumatra, April 4; occupied the station selected (at Solok), April 11; and left Sumatra May 28. The personnel consisted of C. G. Abbot, Aid Acting in Charge, and P. A. Draper, temporary assistant. Apparatus weighing about 4,000 pounds was taken, including the 8-inch equatorial telescope mounting with ccelostat. Through the good offices of the War Department the voyages from San Francisco to Manila and the return were made upon army transports, while the expedition was conveyed from Manila to Padang and return upon the United States naval vessel Gen. Alava, which also conveyed the expedition from the United States Naval Observatory. It isa pleasure to remember the hospitality and friendliness of the officers of this vessel toward us. Within Sumatra the expedition was given free transportation upon the government railway, and indeed it would be hard to acknowledge sufficiently the assistance and courtesy received at the hands of the Dutch. I wish especially, however, to make mention of the great kindness and helpfulness of the United States con- sular agent at Padang, Mr. Cornelius G. Veth, who spared neither time nor expense in our behalf. The most cordial relations existed between the Smithsonian expedition and that of the United States Naval Observatory, such mutual assistance as could be afforded being freely interchanged. Solok, Sumatra, the point selected for the observations, is a fair-sized town of mostly native inhabitants, but the seat of a Dutch residency. We found quarters in a small hotel, and an abandoned fort near the hotel was placed at our disposal for the observing station. This fort was shared with the larger party of the Naval Observatory, and its large rooms and _ inelos- ing walls, together with the sufficiently large level inclosure, made it an ideal station. Several years’ meteorological observations having especial reference to the eclipse had indicated that Solok had at least as good chance of fair weather as any place in the island, and as the day of the eclipse approached we found from our own observations through the month of May that the chances fora fair sky around the sun at the hour of the eclipse were fully two to one. So far were these chances superior to those of Fort de Kock, a minor station near the edge of the shadow, occupied by "VYLVWNS OL NOILIGSdXQ 3SdINOA YV10G$ NVINOSHLINS 40 SNLVYVddy SIYLAWO10g "X ALV1d “LO6L ‘Hodsay UeluOsUyIWS Smithsonian Report, 190}. Plate Xl. THE INTRA-MERCURIAL PLANET APPARATUS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Smithsonian Report, 1901. PLATE XIl. CAMP OF THE SMITHSONIAN SOLAR ECLIPSE EXPEDITION AT SOLOK, SUMATRA ‘VHLVYWNS ‘YO10S 'SSAILVN JO dNousy TX ALV1d ‘1061 ‘Hodoay UeiuosyyiWS REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. LY5 the Naval Observatory expedition, that the greatest depression prevailed in the messages received from that station prior to the eclipse. All was in readiness before the day of the eclipse, and very numerous rehearsals with both the bolometric and photographic apparatus had been held, and we felt that our arrangements were such that excellent results ought to be secured. The day before the eclipse was rainy, but the morning of May 18 was clear, so that the prospects appeared of the brightest up to 9 or 10 o’clock. But about the time of the first contact clouds began to form, and when the eclipse became total, at about twenty minutes after noon, the whole sky, excepting a perfectly clear belt around the horizon, was overcast with a sort of checkerwork of clouds, so thick that the corona could barely be distinguished. During the latter part of totality the very position of the sun was doubtiul. I realized that observations were useless, and I remained in the tent of the intramercurial-planet instrument throughout the totality without attempting bolometric work. Merely to have something to show to prove that the expedition had observed an eclipse, the programme for the intramercurial-planet apparatus was carried through, and I later developed the plates taken. Those exposed in the first half of totality showed the corona faintly, extending out possibly a quarter or half a diameter, and showed the planets Mercury and Venus. Nothing else could be distin- guished, not even the first-magnitude star Aldebaran. The plates exposed during the last half showed even less, as the clouds were then thicker. After totality the sky gradually cleared, and we had a fine afternoon and the clearest (and, indeed, almost the only) clear night there had been for weeks. The despised station at Fort de Kock had a perfect day through- out, and was the only station occupied by an eclipse expedition of which this was true. The meteorological conditions of Sumatra are not such as to encourage astronomical observation there. I was much surprised at the amount of general illumination still remain- ing in the middle of totality. Some rainy days are equally as dark as it then was at Solok, although the totality lasted six minutes and the shadow was about 150 miles wide. The general illumination may have come from outside the shadow path by reflection and diffusion of the clouds, but yet there was, as has been said, a perfectly clear band of sky around the hori- zon, and hence far within the shadow. The accompanying plates illustrate some of the scenes of this wonder- fully interesting though woefully disappointing expedition. In concluding this report I wish particularly to commend the ability and industry displayed by the Junior Assistant, Mr. F. E. Fowle, in carrying on the work of the Observatory during my absence, especially as regards bolometric work, which he did largely unassisted, and when the best part of the equipment was gone on the eclipse expedition. Respectfully submitted. C. G. ABBzor, Aid Acting in Charge Astrophysical Observatory. Mr. S. P. LANGLEy, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX VI. REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to present herewith the report of the operations of the library of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901. The most considerable portion of office work is that connected with the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress. The following table shows the number of volumes, parts of volumes, pamphlets, and charts recorded in the accession books of the Smithsonian deposit, Library of Congress, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901: an Dy ie : Quarto or Octavo or Total. larger. | smaller. — he iw VOL CS hay 2 oe ysis RE rs ote is Ee a nee en ee Sa a 518 | 1,413 1,931 Parts7ofvollum G82 sscee sea ein eee eee eee a ee 14, 695 | 6,673 | 21,368 Pamphlets? yoo. see coms sees ae eter eee One One eee 510 3, 593 4,063 (QR Sake Sona ee RARE Seep nema rare tram ace Bode race lesan ea CBee | Se ese osee 772 UG) 07 DORE Sees Onn aes 5 OR Gram ne Ce tat Seep ee eet ar as || ton cboaal Moeoaeasooe 28, 134 The accession numbers run from 431972 to 438892. In ever-increasing volume the operations of the library, like those of the International Exchanges, look to the strengthening of the Library of Con- gress. All books, pamphlets, charts, and completed volumes of period- icals are accessioned and recorded on cards as a permanent record file, which both serves as a ledger account with learned societies and establish- ments and as a catalogue of the Smithsonian deposit. The greater part of these publications are then sent to the Library of Congress, amounting during the past year to 192 boxes, 7 bags, and 30 packages, which are esti- mated to have contained the equivalent of 9,000 octavo volumes, this being asending to the Library of Congress independent of that forwarded by the International Exchanges. The additions to the libraries of the Secretary, the Office, and the Astro- physical Observatory number 374 volumes, pamphlets, and charts, and 2,058 parts of volumes, making a total of 2,432, and a grand total of 30,566. On the card catalogue of serial publications about 30,000 entries were made, of which 300 required new title cards. The following universities have sent inaugural dissertations and academic publications: Albany, New York; Ann Arbor, Michigan; Baltimore, Mary- land; Basel; Berlin; Bonn; Breslau; Czernowitz; Erlangen; Giesen; Frie- burg; Greifswald; Halle a. S.; Heidelberg; Helsingfors; Ithaca, New 126 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. T27 York; Jena; Kiel; Leipzig; Liege; Louvain; Lund; Marburg; Philadel- phia, Pennsylvania; Rostock; Strasburg; Toulouse; Tubingen; Utrecht; Wurzburg; and Zurich. A small but valuable collection is gradually being formed at the National Zoological Park, and two sectional libraries are maintained in the Institu- tion in addition to those already alluded to, AGrodromics and Law Refer- ence. The circulating library established in 1898 for the employees of the Insti- tution has continued to be used, to the pleasure and profit of the staff, and now contains about 1,280 volumes. During the year 2,515 volumes were borrowed by 105 persons. The rooms occupied by this small collection have been rendered more attractive. In continuance of the policy of increasing the library by exchange and filling in incomplete sets, 919 letters were written for new exchanges and for completing series already in the library; 293 new periodicals were added to the list; 460 defective series were either completed or partly com- pleted, according to the publishers’ ability to supply the numbers requested. About 1,500 letters were received, which are filed in jackets on which a synopsis of the letters is given. A card catalogue of the correspondence is kept for reference. Orders are issued for the Smithsonion publications sent in exchange for the publications received; when single numbers are reported as missing postal cards are forwarded requesting that they be sup- plied; corresponding postal cards are sent as acknowledgments of receipts; about 200 were asked for and 150 supplied. Lists and cards have been received from the Library of Congress since Noyember, 1900, indicating the volumes which are needed to complete the sets in the Smithsonian deposit in the Library. These lists and cards are copied and kept permanently, while the originals are returned with notes stating what action has been taken. The items which have been acted on show a very satisfactory result; the books in these cases which are received in compliance with requests are transmitted directly to the office of the Smithsonian deposit at the Library of Congress, marked ‘*To complete Smithsonian sets.”’ The great activity of the large force at the Library of Congress in the various departments that have directly to do with the Smithsonian deposit has kept the Library force here exceedingly busy. Very great good is resulting from this activity, but much better results could be had if addi- tional assistance were at my disposal, specifically for attending to the matters of mutual interest to the Library of Congress and the Institution. Numerous transfers have been made from the Smithsonian deposit to the main collections of the Library and vice versa in the interest of com- pletion of sets under a single ownership, such changes being made on the general principle that the Institution’s collection shall consist primarily of periodicals and transactions of learned societies, whilst the Library of Congress should possess as complete files as possible of all publications issued by Government, whether Federal, State, or municipal, both domestic and foreign. The third conference on the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture reached the conclusion that the Catalogue would be undertaken if 128 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 300 complete sets were subscribed for, and the Institution was informed in August, 1900, that the quota for the United States would be 45. A circular was immediately sent to the various colleges and libraries in this country, and in spite of the fact that it was the summer season, subscription to 45 sets was received by the middle of September, which number has since been increased to the equivalent of 66 sets, demonstrating the great interest had in this country in the undertaking. The preparation of a list of periodicals to be indexed has been taken in hand and indexing actually begun, two assi. tants being temporarily assigned for this purpose. The accessions to the National Museum Library numbered a total of 12,267 books, pamphlets, and periodicals, of which 4,942 were a portion of the Smithsonian deposit; 25,141 books were borrowed. The efficiency of the Library has been materially added to by the institution by the Library of Congress of means of transferring books, etc., twice each day, thus enabling the Institution to receive and return books at a very short notice. The number of periodicals entered was 8,986, and 4,811 cards were added to the authors’ catalogue of the Museum Library, which now contains 27 sections. Its operations will be more fully described in the report to the Assistant Secretary. Respectfully submitted. Cyrus ApLER, Librarian. Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX VII. REPORT OF THE EDITOR FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publications of the Smithsonian Institution and its bureaus during the year ending June 30, 1901: I. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. A memoir on experiments with ionized air, by Dr. Carl Barus, has been sent to the printer, but was not completed at the close of the fiscal year. II. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. "1253. A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492-1897. By Henry Carrington Bolton. Section VII, Academic Dissertations. Washington: Published by the Smithsonian Institution, 1901. Octavo. pp. vi + 534. 1258. On the Cheapest Form of Light. By S. P. Langley and F. W. Very. Washington: Published by the Smithsonian Institution, 1901. Octavo. pp. 20, with 3 plates. 1259. List of Observatories. Washington: Published by the Smith- sonian Institution, 1901. Octavo. pp. 27. (Distributed as proof sheets, for revision. ) 1305, 1306. The Smithsonian Institution. Documents relative to its origin and history. 1835-1899. Compiled and edited by William Jones Rhees. In twovolumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. Vol. I, 1835 to 1887. Pages 1-L111, 1-1044. Vol. II, 1887 to 1899.. Pages 1045-1983. This work forms Volumes XLII and XLIII of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. In his preface Mr. Rhees thus describes the object and contents of the volumes: The present volume is undertaken in continuation of a yolume bearing the title The Smithsonian Institution; Documents Relative to its Origin and History, prepared by the editor of the present volume, which, besides other matters, gives the legislative history of the Smithsonian Institution to 1877. Prefixed to this will be found a selection of the documents which passed between the United States and the attorneys in England ante- cedent to the actual reception of the bequest of James Smithson, a British subject, who gave his fortune to the United States of America ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.’’ This fact was communicated through the United States legation at London to the Sec- retary of State, and was made the subject of a special message to Congress by President Jackson on December 17, 1835. The message was referred to committees, and it was at last agreed that, although there was some doubt as to the propriety of accepting it, the bequest should be obtained, if possible, and the Hon. Richard Rush was sent to England in July, 1836, as a special agent of the United States, with power of attorney from tha sm 1901——9 129 130 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. President to prosecute the claim in the chancery court. The fund was brought to this country in 1838, and after eight years of debate, including consultation with all the leading educators of the United States at that time, a law was finally framed on August 10, 1846, ‘‘to establish the Smithsonian Institution for the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men.”’ Under this act, with a few amendments, the operations of the Insti- tution have been carried on to the present time, and a detailed account of the legislation by Congress, as well as of proposed action, from 1835 to March 3, 1899, is given in this work. The legislation fully accomplished is shown by acts and joint resolutions, fol- lowed in all cases by references to the volumes and pages of the Statutes at Large from which they were quoted. Concurrent resolutions of the Senate and House and separate resolutions of either branch of Congress are referred to by the dates of action. An account is also given of action or discussion relative to objects intrusted by Con- gress to the care of the Institution, and of some of the operations of the Government with which it has had direct or incidental connection. The proceedings of each Congress are given successively, the first volume containing those of the Twenty-fourth Congress to the Forty-ninth and the second yolume those of the Fiftieth to the Fifty-fifth Congress. Under each Congress the subjects are arranged according to the date of their introduc- tion, all action in that Congress on each subject following in chronological order, except- ing that estimates and appropriations are placed at the end of each subject. In the preparation of this work an examination was made of every page of the Con- gressional Globe and Congressional Record, of the journals of the Senate and House, the Statutes at Large, the Congressional documents and reports from 1835 to 1899, together with other printed and manuscript material in the Institution and elsewhere; and the table of contents and index are as comprehensive and minute as possible, the latter being alphabetical, analytical, and chronological. The formal] details of legislation in most cases are abbreviated, and the quotations from the statutes, giving dates and amounts appropriated, are always given in figures, and not in words. III. SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. 1177. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu- tion for the year ending June 30, 1897. Report of the U. 8. National Museum, Part I]. [A memorial of George Brown Goode.] Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. xir+515 pages, with 109 portraits. 1218. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu- tion for the year ending June 30, 1898. Report of the U. 8. National Museum. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octayo. xviI + 1,294 pages, with 36 plates and 347 text figures. 1252. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institn- tion for the year ending June 30, 1899. Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1901. Octavo. Lx111+672 pages, with 82 plates. 1254. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu- tion for the year ending June 30, 1899. Report of the U. S. National Museum. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. xv +598 pages, with 98 plates and 38 text figures. 1260. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian iene tution, showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu- tion for the year ending June 30,1900. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. LY+759 pages, with 108 plates. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ook IV. SEPARATES FROM SMITHSONIAN REPORTS. 1221. Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, report of executive committee, acts and resolutions of Congress. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages xt-Lx11. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1222. The Wave Theory of Light. By A.Cornu. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 93-105. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1223. The Motion of a Perfect Liquid. By Prof. H. 8. Hele-Shaw. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 107-118, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1224. The Field of Experimental Research. By Ejihu Thomson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 119-130. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. 1225. Liquid Hydrogen. By Professor Dewar. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 131-142, with Plates I, Il. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1226. Some of the Latest Achievements of Science. By Sir William Crookes. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 143-153. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1227. An Experimental Study of Radio-Active Substances. By Henry Carrington Bolton. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 155-162. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1228. The Growth of Science in the Nineteenth Century. By Sir Michael Foster. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 163-183. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1229. Sir William Crookes on Psychical Research. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1899, pages 185-205. Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1230. Survey of that Part of the Range of Nature’s Operations which Man is Competent to Study. By G. Johnstone Stoney. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1899, pages 207-222, with figures. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1231. On Lord Kelvin’s Address on the Age of the Earth as an Abode Fitted for Life. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlain. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 223-246. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1252. An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth. By J. Joly. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 247-288. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1233. The Petrified Forests of Arizona. By Lester F. Ward. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 289-307, with Plates I-III. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. 1234. Present Condition of the Floor of the Ocean: Evolution of the Continental and Oceanic Areas. By Sir John Murray. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1899, pages 309-328. Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1235. Relation of Motion in Animals and Plants to the Electrical Phe- x32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. nomena which are Associated with It. By J. Burdon-Sanderson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 329-351, with Plates I-IV. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1236. The Truth About the Mammoth. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 353-359, with Plates I-IV. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavyo. 1237. Mammoth Ivory. By R. Lydekker. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 361-366. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1238. On the Sense of Smell in Birds. By M. Xaviér Raspail. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 367-373. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1239. Have Fishes Memory? By L. Edinger. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 375-394. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. : 1240. Scientific Thought in the Nineteenth Century. By William North Rice. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 395-402. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1241. The Gardenand Its Development. By Paul Falkenberg. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 403-418. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1242. Review of the Evidence Relating to Auriferous Grayel Man in California. By William EH. Holmes. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 419-472, Plates I-X VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1248. A Problem in American Anthropology. By Frederic Ward Put- nam. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 473-486. Washing- ton: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1244. OnSea Charts Formerly Used in the Marshall Islands, with Notices on the Navigation of these Islanders in General. By Captain Winkler, of the German Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 487-508, with Plates I-XV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1245. The Peopling of the Philippines. By Rudolf Virchow. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 509-526, with Plates I-III. Wash- ington: Goyernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1246. List of the Native Tribes of the Philippines and of the Languages Spoken by Them. By Prof. Ferdinand Blumentritt. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1899, pages 527-547, with Plates I-X. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1247. The Sculptures of Santa Lucia Cozumahualpa, Guatemala, in the Hamburg Ethnological Museum. By Herman Strebel. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1899, pages 549-561, with Plates I-XI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1248. Count Von Zeppelin’s Dirigible Air Ship. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 563-565, with PlatesI-II. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. 1249. The Progress in Steam Navigation. By Sir William H. White, of the British Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 567-590. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oe 1250. A Century’s Progress of the Steam Engine. By Dr. R. H. Thurs- ton. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 591-603. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1251. Bunsen Memorial Lecture. By Sir Henry Roscoe. From the Smithsonian Report for 1899, pages 605-644, with Plates I-VII. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1255. Report of S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, for the Year ending June 30, 1900, pages 1-117, with Plates I-X VIII. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. 1261. Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution, Report of Executive Committee, Acts and Resolutions of Congress. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages xI-Lxv. Octavo pamphlet. 1262. Progress in Astronomy during the Nineteenth Century. By Sir Norman Lockyer. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 123-147. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1263. A Preliminary Account of the Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900, as observed by the Smithsonian Expedition. By 8S. P. Langley. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 149-156, with Plates I-IV. Washing- ton: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1264. Notes on Mars. By Sir Robert Ball and others. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 157-172. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1265. On Solar Changes of Temperature and Variations in Rainfall in the Region Surrounding the Indian Ocean. By Sir Norman Lockyer. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 173-184, with Plates I, II. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1266. The Pekin Observatory. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages. 185-186, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1267. The Progress of Aeronautics. By M. Janssen. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 187-193. Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1268. Lord Rayleigh on “ Flight.’”’ From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 195-196. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1269. The Langley Aérodrome. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 197-216, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1270. The Zeppelin Air Ship. By Thomas E. Curtis. [James Walter Smith.] From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 217-222, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1271. The Use of Kites to Obtain Meteorological Observations. By A. Lawrence Rotch. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 223-231, with Plates I-III]. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1272. Progress in Chemistry in the Nineteenth Century. By Prof. William Ramsay. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 233-257. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 134 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1273. Liquid Hydrogen. By Prof. James Dewar. From the Smithso- nian Report for 1900, pages 259-264, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1274. A Century of Geology. By Prof. Joseph Le Conte. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 265-287. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1275. Evolutional Geology. By Prof. W. J. Sollas. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 289-314, with Plate I. Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1276. Progress in Physics in the Nineteenth Century. By Prof. T. C. Mendenhall. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 315-351. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1277. Electricity during the Nineteenth Century. By Prof. Elihu Thomson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 333-358. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1278. The Photography of Sound Waves and the Demonstration of the Evolutions of Reflected Wave Fronts with the Cinematograph. By R. W. Wood. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 359-369, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1279. Unsuspected Radiations. By Prince Kropotkin. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 371-385. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1280. Incandescent Mantles. By Vivian B. Lewes. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 387-401, with 2 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1281. The Imperial Physico-Technical Institution in Charlottenburg. By Henry S. Crahart. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 403-415, with Plates I-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1282. The Geographic Conquests of the Nineteenth Century. By Gilbert H. Grosvenor. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 417-430, with Plate I, and 12 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1283. Through Africa From the Cape to Cairo. By Ewart 8. Grogan. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 431-448, with Plates I-LV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1284. The ‘‘Yermak’’ Ice Breaker. By Vice-Admiral Makaroff, of the Russian Imperial Navy. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 449-459, with Plates I-III. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1285. The Growth of Biology in the Nineteenth Century. By Oscar Hertwig. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 461-478. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. 1286. The Restoration of Extinct Animals. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 479-492, with Plates I-VIII, and 2 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1287. Life in the Ocean. By Karl Brandt. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 493-506. Washington: Government Printing Of- fice, 1901. Octavo. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 135 1288. Nature Pictures. By A. Radclyffe Dugmore. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 507-515, with Plates I-X VII. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1289. The Outlaw: a Character Study of a Beaver who was cast out by his Companions. By A. Radclyffe Dugmore. From the Smithsonian Re- sport for 1900, pages 517-522, with Plates I-VI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1290. A Notable Advance in Color Photography. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 523-526, with Plate I, and 5 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1291. The Breeding of the Arctic Fox. By Henry de Varigny. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 527-533. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1292. Discoveries in Mesoptamia. By Dr. Frederich Delitzsch. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 535-549, with Plates I-X. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 12938. On Ancient Desemers or Steelyards. By Herrman Sokeland. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 551-564, with 22 text figures. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1294. Mutual Helpfulness between China and the United States. By his excellency Wu Ting-Fang. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 565-574. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1295. Chinese Folklore and Some Western Analogies. By Frederick Wells Williams. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 575-600. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1296. The Loot of the Imperial Summer Palace at Pekin in 1860. By Count D’Hérisson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 601-635. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1297. Progress of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century. By Dr. John §. Billings, U.S. A. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 637-644. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1298. Malaria. By George M. Sternberg, M. D., U. S. A. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 645-656. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1299. Transmission of Yellow Fever by Mosquitoes. By George M. Sternberg, M. D., U.S. A. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 657-673. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1300. Psychical Research of the Century. By Andrew Lang. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 675-681. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1301. The New Spectrum. ByS. P. Langley. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 683-692, with colored plate. Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octayo. 1302. The Century’s Great Men in Science. By Charles S. Peirce. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 693-699. Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 1303. The Lesson of the Life of Huxley. By William Keith Brooks. From the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 701-711. Washington: Goy- ernment Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. 136 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 1304. Reminiscences of Huxley. By John Fiske. From the Smith- sonian Report for 1900, pages 713-728. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. Report upon the condition and progress of the U. S. National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1898. By Charles D. Walcott, acting assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in charge of the U. 8.» National Museum. From the Annual Report of the U. 8. National Museum for 1898, pages 1-149. Octavo. The Crocodilians, Lizards, and Snakes of North America. By Edward Drinker Cope, A. M., Ph.D. From the Annual Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1898, pages 153-1270, with 36 plates and 347 figs. Octavo. Report upon the condition and progress of the U. 8. National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1899. By Richard Rathbun, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. From the Annual Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1899, pages 1-152. Octavo. Guide to the Study of the Collections in the Section of Applied Geology. The nonmetallic minerals. By George P. Merrill, curator Division of Physical and Chemical Geology and head curator of the Department. From the Annual Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1899, pages 155-483, with 30 plates and 13 figures. Octavo. Report on the Department of Biology for the year 1898-99. _ By Frederick W. True, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U. 8. National Museum for 1899, pages 25-35. Octavo. Report on the Department of Anthropology for the year 1898-99. By William H. Holmes, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1899, pages 17-24. Octavo. Report on the Department of Geology for the year 1898-99. By George P. Merrill, head curator. From the Annual Report of the U. 8. National Museum for 1899, pages 37-49. Octavo. A Primitive Frame for Weaving Narrow Fabrics, by Otis Tufton Mason, curator, Division of Ethnology. From the Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1899, pages 487-510, with 9 plates and 19 figures. Octavo. An Early West Virginia Pottery, by Walter Hough, assistant curator, Division of Ethnology. From the Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1899, pages 511-521, with 18 plates. Octavo. Pointed Bark Canoes of the Kutenai and Amur, by Otis T. Mason, curator, Division of Ethnology, with notes on the Kutenai by Meriden §, Hill. From the Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1899, pages 523-537, with 5 plates and 6 figures. Octavo. Descriptive Catalogue of a Collection of Objects of Jewish Ceremonial Deposited in the United States National Museum by Hadji Ephraim Ben- guiat, by Cyrus Adler, Ph. D., custodian, Section of Historic Religious Ceremonials, and I. M. Casanowiez, Ph. D., Aid, Division of Historical Archeology. From the Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1899, pages 539-561, with 36 plates. Octavo. V. SPECIAL SMITHSONIAN PUBLICATIONS. 1256. Publications of the Smithsonian Institution available for distribu- tion, March, 1901. Washington: March, 1901. Octavo, pp. 56. ' REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Sit VI. PUBLICATIONS OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. Special Bulletin. American Hydroids. Part I. The Plumularide, with thirty-four plates. By Charles Cleveland Nutting, professor of zoology, University of lowa. Washington: Goyernment Printing Office. 1900. Quarto. pp. 285, with Plates I-X XXIV. Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Volume XXII. Published under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution. Washing- ton: Government Printing Office. 1900. xii+ 1075 pages, with 18 plates. Octavo. Proc. 1203. A Hundred new Moths of the Family Noctuide. By John B. Smith. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXII, pages 418-495. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1204. A new Bird of Paradise. By Rolla P. Currie. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXII, pages 497-499, with Plate XVII. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1205. Synopsis of the Naiades, or Pearly Fresh-Water Mussels. By Charles Torrey Simpson. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XII, pages 501-1044, with Plate XVIII. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1206. Classification of the Ichneumon Flies, or the Superfamily Ichneumonoidea. By William H. Ashmead. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 1-220. Washing- ton: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1207. A new Rhinoceros, Trigonias osborni, from the Miocene of South Dakota. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 221-223. Washing- ton: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1208. New species of Moths of the Superfamily Tineina from Florida. By August Busch. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 225-254, with Plate I. Washington: Government Printing Office, 19:0. Octavo. Proc. 1209. Life Histories of Some North American Moths. By Harri- son G. Dyar. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 255-284. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1210. Synopsis of the Family Tellinidee and of the North Ameri- can Species. By William Healey Dall. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 285-326, with Plates II-IV. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1211. The Pelvie Girdle of Zeuglodon, Basilosatrus cetoides (Owen), with notes on other portions of the skeleton. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 327-331, with Plates V-VII. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office,.1900. Octavo. Proc. 1212. A new Fossil Cyprinoid, Leuciscus turneri, from the Miocene of Nevada. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings of the 138 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ~ United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 333-334, with Plate VIII. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proce. 1213. A List of Fishes Collected in Japan by Keinosuke Otaki and by the U.S. S. Albatross, with descriptions of fourteen new species. By David Starr Jordan and John Otterbein Snyder, From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, page 335-380, with Plates [IX-XX. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1214. Synopsis of the Family Cardiidze and of the North American species. By William Healey Dall. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 381-392. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Octavo. Proc. 1215. Revision of the Orthopteran Genus Trimerotropis. By Jerome McNeill. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 393-449, with Plate X XI. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1901. Octavo. Proce. 1216. The Hermit Crabs of the Pagurus bernhardus type. By James E. Benedict. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 451-466. Washington: Government Print- ing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1217. On anew species of Spiny-tailed Iguana from Utilla Island, Honduras. By Leonhard Stejneger. Pages 467, 468. Washington: Goy- ernment Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proz. 1218. New systematic name for the Yellow Boa of Jamaica. By Leonhard Steineger. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 469-470. Octavo. Proc. 1219. Diagnosis of a new species of Iguanoid Lizard from Green Cay, Bahama Islands. By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 471, 472. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1220. Onthe Wheatears (Saxicola) occurring in North America. By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 473-481. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1221. List of Fishes collected in the River Pei-Ho, at Tien-Tsin, China, by Noah Fields Drake, with descriptions of seven new species. By James Francis Abbott. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 483-491. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1222. Key to the Isopods of the Atlantic Coast of North America, with descriptions of new and little known species. By Harriet Richard- son. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 493-579. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1228. Some Spiders and other Arachnida from Southern Arizona. By Nathan Banks. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 581-590, with Plate XXII. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1224. A new Dinosaur, Stegosaurus marshi, from the Lower Cre- taceous of South Dakota. By Frederic A. Lucas. From the Proceedings REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 139 of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 591, 592, with Plates XXIII, XXIV. Washington: Government Printing Office 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1225. New Diptera in the United States National Museum. By D. W. Coquillett. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 595-618. Washington: Government Print- ing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1226. A Listof the Fernsand Fern Allies of North America North of Mexico, with principal synonyms and distribution. By William R. Maxon. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 619-651. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proce. 1227. A Systematic Arrangement of the Families of the Diptera. By D. W. Coquillett. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 653-658. Washington: Government Print- ing Office. 1901. Octayo. Proce. 1228. A Comparison of the Osteology of the Jerboas and Jumping Mice. By Marcus W. Lyon, jr. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 659-668; with Plates XX V— XXVII. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1229. Cambrian Brachiopoda: Obolella, subgenus Glyptias; Bicia; Obollus, subgenus Westonia; with descriptions of new species. By Charles D. Walcott. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 669-695. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octayo. Proc. 1230. A Revision of certain species of Plants of the Genus Anten- naria. By Elias Nelson. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. X XIII, pages 697-713. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1231. Description of a new species of Snake from Clarion Island, West Coast of Mexico. By Leonhard Stejneger. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 715-717. Washington: Government Printing Office. 190i. Octavo. Proc. 1232. On the Relationships of the Lutianoid Fish, Aphareus fur- eatus. By David Starr Jordan and Edwin Chapin Starks. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 719-725, with Plates XXVIII, XXIX. Washington: Government Print- ing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1233. A Review of the Lancelets, Hag-fishes, and Lampreys of Japan, with a description of two new species. By David Starr Jordan and John Otterbein Snyder. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum. Vol. XXIII, pages 725-734, with Plate XXX. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office. 1901. Octavo. Proc. 1234. The proper names of Bdellostoma or Heptatrema. By Theodore Gill. From the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Vol. XXIII, pages 735-738. Washington: Government Print- ing Office. 1901. Octavo. 140 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. VII. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The first part of the Seventeenth Report and the first part of the Eight- eenth Report were received from the Government Printing Office and distributed during the year. Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Se:retary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1895-96. By J. W. Powell, Director. In two parts. Part I. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1898. Imperial octayo. Pages i—xcili, 1-128, 129*-344*, 137-468, with 81 plates and 229 text figures. Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 1896-97. By J. W. Powell, Director. In two parts. Part I. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1899. Imperial octavo. Pages i-lvii, 1-518, with 174 plates and 165 text figures. VIII. PUBLICATION OF AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year 1900 was sent to the printer toward the close of the fiscal year, and most of it was in type before June 30. The report is in two volumes, with the following contents: Report of Proceedings of Sixteenth Annual Meeting in Detroit and Ann Arbor, Decem- ber 27-29, 1900, by A. Howard Clark, secretary—The New History, by Edward Eggleston, president—Concerning the Writing of History, by James Ford Rhodes—Plea for Military History, by Charles Francis Adams—Sectionalism and Representation in South Carolina, a Sociological Stndy, by William A. Schaper—Frontier Land Clubs, or Claim Associations, by Benjamin F.Shambaugh—Missouri Party Struggles in the Civil-War Period, by S. B. Harding—Military Government of Southern Territory, 1861-1865, by A. H. Carpenter— Marcus Whitman: A Discussion of Professor Bourne’s Paper, by William I. Marshall—Lord Baltimore’s Struggle with the Jesuits, 1634-1649, by Alfred Pearce Dennis—American Eccle- siology, by George James Bayles—Studies in the Colonial Period of England, 1672-1680: The Plantations, the Royal African Company, and the Slave Trade, by Edward D. Col- lins—Critical Work on the Latin Sources of the First Crusade, by Oliver J. Thatcher— The Turkish Capitulation, by James B. Angell—Stein’s German Policy at the Congress of Vienna, by Ulysses G. Weatherly—The Considerations which induced Edward III to Assume the Title King of France, by Walter Irenzeus Lowe—Fifth Annual Report of the Historical Manuscripts Commission—Titles of Books on English History, published in 1899; selected by W. Dawson Johnston—Report of the Public Archives Commission. IX. NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The Third Report of the Society was received and submitted to Congress during the year and progress made toward its publication as a Senate Document. Respectfully submitted. A. Howarp Ciark, Editor. Mr. 8. P: LANGLEY, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution GENERAL APPENDIX SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR L901. ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the GrneRAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discoy- ery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collab- orators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspond- ents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- -sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarka- ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom- inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1901. 145 PLATE I. Asonian Institution Tp) ihe 19 ea = Seren ner THE SMITHSONIAN BUILDING. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. **The advancement of the highest interests of na- tional science and learning and the custody of objects of art and of the valuable results of scientific expedi- tions conducted by the United States have been com- mitted to the Smithsonian Institution. In furtherance of its declared purpose—for the ‘increase and diffu- sion of knowledge among men’—the Congress has from time to time given it other important functions. Such trusts have been executed by the Institution with notable fidelity. There should be no halt in the work of the Institution, in accordance with the plans which its Secretary has presented, for the preservation of the vanishing races of great North American animals in the National Zoological Park. The urgent needs of the National Museum are recommended to the favora- ble consideration of the Congress.” (President Roosevelt’s first mes- sage to Congress.) In the first Smithsonian Report issued in the twentieth century it may not be amiss to tell the readers of this volume very briefly what the Institution is, how it came into being, and how it has fulfilled the purposes for which it was established. In the popular mind the Smithsonian Institution is a picturesque castellated building of brown stone, situated in a beautiful park at Washington, containing birds and shells and beasts and many other things, with another large adjacent building, often called the Smith- sonian National Museum. The Institution is likewise supposed to have a large corps of learned men, all of whom are called ‘* Professors” (which they are not), whose time is spent in writing books and making experiments and answering all kinds of questions concerning the things in the heavens aboye, the earth beneath, and the waters under the earth, Contrast this popular notion with the faéts. The Smithsonian Insti- tution is an ‘‘ Establishment” created by an act of Congress which owes its origin to the bequest of James Smithson, an Englishman, a scien- tific man, and at one time a vice-president of the Royal Society, who sm 1901——_10 145 146 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. died in Genoa in 1829, leaving his entire estate to the United States of America **to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men.” After ten years of debate in Congress, turning partly on the ques- tion whether the Government ought to accept such a bequest at all and put itself in the unprecedented position of the guardian of a ward, Congress accepted the trust and created by enactment an ** Establishment” called by the name of the Smithsonian Institution, consisting of the President of the United States, the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the United States, and the members of the Pres- ident’s Cabinet. It has also a Secretary, with varied functions, among others that of being the Keeper of the Museum. Smithson’s money, which amounted to over half a million dollars, and later to three-quarters of a million, a great fortune in that day of small things, was deposited in-the United States Treasury, the Govern- ment afterwards agreeing to pay perpetually 6 per cent interest upon it. In the fundamental act creating the Institution, Congress, as above stated, provided that the President and the members of his Cabinet should be members of the Institution, that is, should be the Institu- tion itself, but that nevertheless it should be governed by a Board of Regents, composed of the Vice-President and Chief Justice of the United States, three Regents to be appointed by the President of the Senate (ordinarily the Vice-President), three by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and six to be selected by Congress; two of whom should be residents of the District of Columbia, and the other four from different States, no two being from the same State. The fundamental act further provides that the Secretary of the Institution already defined shall also be the Secretary of the Board of Regents. The Museum is primarily to contain objects of art and of foreign and curious research; next, objects of natural history, plants, and geological and mineralogical specimens belonging to the United States. Provision is also made for a library, and the functions of the Regents and of the Secretary were defined. The preamble of this bill states that Congress has received the prop- erty of Smithson and provided ‘‘for the faithful execution of said trust agreeable to the will of the liberal and enlightened donor.” It will thus be seen that the relations of the General Government to the Smithsonian Institution are most extraordinary, one may even say unique, since the United States solemnly bound itself to the adminis- tration of a trust. Probably never before has any ward found so powerful a guardian. The first meeting of the Regents occurred on September 7, 1846, and in the autumn of the same year they elected as Secretary JOSEPH Henry, then a professor at Princeton, known for his extraordinary want Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE II. JAMES SMITHSON. Founder of the Smithsonian Institution. From a painting by Johnes, 1816. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLaTe Ill. JAMES SMITHSON. Founder of the Smithsonian Institution. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 147 experiments on the electro-magnet, and other subjects relating to electricity. Under his guidance the Institution took shape. Its work at first consisted, in the main, of the publication of original memoirs, containing actual contributions to knowledge, and their free distribu- tion to important libraries throughout the world; to giving popular lectures in Washington, publishing them, and distributing them to libraries and individuals; stimulating scientific work by providing apparatus and by making grants of money to worthy investigators, cooperating with other Government Departments in the advancement of work useful to the General Government, etc. These were the principal methods employed by Henry to carry out the purposes of Smithson, for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Here, too, were initiated certain studies which afterwards became most fruitful and have resulted in important Government work, such as the present Weather Bureau, among others. The beginning of cooperation in library work was at this Institution. At the same time many—we might almost say most—of the present scientific activities of the Goy- ernment have grown out of it or been stimulated by it. Experiments in fog signaling, in the acoustics and ventilation of public buildings, and in numerous other subjects, were inaugurated. In fact, in these earlier days, with one or two exceptions, the Smithsonian was the sole representative of active scientific work directly or indirectly con- nected with the United States Government. Its influence upon the character of private scientific work, too, was very great, since half a century or more ago the avenues for publishing were few, and the funds for the purpose slender. Gradually, out of the collections which had been kept in the Patent Office, the private collections of Smithson, and of appropriations of his money made by the Regents, and largely also through the results of the great exploring expedition of Captain Wilkes, there grew up a Smithsonian Museum, one which was exclusively cared for from the Smithson fund; but which, partly through the greater activity of the Government surveys and partly through the gifts of private individ- uals, and also through the valuable objects presented to the United States Government by foreign nations at the close of the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, brought about the establishment of what is now known as the United States National Museum of the Smithso- nian Institution, which is under control of the Regents of the Institu- tion, for which a building was provided, and which now receives direct — support from Congress. This Museum has now the matter belonging to the original Institution collected by the Smithsonian’s own observ- ers, With much more secured through the General Government, making in all over 5,000,000 specimens, and is the foremost collection in the world in everything that relates to the natural history, ethnology, geology, and paleontology of that portion of North America now the 148 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. United States, besides containing many valuable series from other countries. The collections have been visited by over 7,500,000 per- sons, and the Institution has carried selections of its specimens to every large exhibition held in the United States, and distributed 850,000 specimens to colleges and academies, thus powerfully stimulating the growth of museums large and small in every section of the country. The publications of the Smithsonian have been in several series, mostly to convey to specialists the results of its original scientific investigations and to thus represent the first half of its fundamental purpose ‘*‘ for the ¢ncrease of knowledge,” and, subordinately, others to include handbooks and indexes useful to students, and some publi- vations which, while still accurate, contain much information in a style to be understood by any intelligent reader, and thus represent the second half of the founder’s purpose for the ** d7ffuszon of knowledge.” Many valuable publications, too, have been issued by the Museum and the Bureau of Ethnology, and recently by the Astrophysical Observa- tory. Inall, 265 volumes in over 2,000,000 copies and parts have been gratuitously distributed to institutions and private individuals, these works forming in themselves a scientific library in all branches. Partly by purchase, but in the main by exchange for these publica- tions, the Institution has assembled a library of over 150,000 volumes, principally of serial publications and the transactions of learned socie- ties, which is one of the notable collections of the world. The major portion of it has been since 1866 deposited in the Library of Congress, with which establishment the most cordial and mutually helpful rela- tions subsist. In 1850 Spencer FULLERTON Barrp, a distinguished naturalist, was elected Assistant Secretary of the Institution. To him the great activity in natural history work was due, and by him the Museum was fostered, he being greatly aided from 1875 by a young and enthusiastic naturalist, GkorGE Brown Goopr. Secretary Baird initiated in the Smithsonian Institution those economic studies which led to the estab- lishment of the United States Fish Commission. As another means of diffusing knowledge there was early established the bureau of international exchanges, originally intended simply for the proper distribution of the Smithsonian’s publications, but which gradually assumed very wide proportions, becoming no less than an arrangement with learned societies throughout the world to recipro- cally carry free publications of learned societies, or of individual scien- tific men, intended for gratuitous distribution. This system was after- wards taken up by various governments which, through treaties, bound themselves to exchange their own publications in the same way. Since the inauguration of this service, 5,000,000 pounds weight of books and pamphlets have been carried to every portion of America and of the world. The Institution existing not only for America, in which it has Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE IV. JOSEPH HENRY. First secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1878. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. SPENCER FULLERTON BAIRD. Second secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1878-1887. PLATE V. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 149 over 8,000 correspondents, but for the world, has throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and the islands of the sea, nearly 28,000 correspondents— more without the United States than within—justifying the words **Per Orbem,” as the device on the Smithsonian seal. Other work has been intrusted to the Institution by the Govern- ment, such as the Bureau of American Ethnology, for studies relating to the aborigines of this continent; the Astrophysical Observatory, which for ten years has been chiefly devoted to the enlargement of Newton’s work on the spectrum, and the National Zoological Park. The establishment of the latter was intended primarily to preserve the vanishing races of mammals on the North American continent; but it has also assumed the general features of a zoological park, afford- ing the naturalist the opportunity to study the habits of animals at close range, the painter the possibility of delineating them, and giving pleasure and instruction to hundreds of thousands of the American people. These two latter establishments are due to the initiative of the present Secretary, Mr. 8. P. Lanewey, elected in 1887; a physicist and astronomer, known for his researches on the sun, and more recently for his work in aérodynamics. While the fund has been increased of later years by a number of gifts and bequests, the most notable being that of Mr. Thomas G. Hodgkins of a sum somewhat over $200,000, its original capital, once relatively considerable, has now, in spite of these additions, grown relatively inconsiderable where there are now numerous universities having twenty times its private iund. It threatens now to be insufficient for the varied activities it has undertaken and is pursuing in every direction, among these the support of the higher knowledge by aiding investigators everywhere, - which it does by providing apparatus for able investigators for their experiments, etc. Investigations in various countries have been stimu- lated by grants from the fund. It has been the past, as it is the present, policy of the Institution to aid as freely as its means allowed, either by the grant of funds or the manufacture of special apparatus, novel investigations which have not always at the moment seemed of practical value to others, but which subsequently have in many instances justified its discrimination in their favor and have proved of great importance. The growth of the Institution has been great, but it has been more in activity than in mere bigness. The corner-stone was laid fifty years ago. In 1852 the entire staff, including even laborers, was 12. In 1901 the Institution and the bureaus under it employed 64 men of sci- ence and 277 other persons. These men of science in the Institution represent very nearly all the general branches, and even the specialties to some extent of the natural and physical sciences, besides history and the learning of the ancients; and it may perhaps be said that the income of the Institution (which, relatively to others, is not one-tenth 150 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. in 1901 what it was in 1851) has been forced to make good, by harder effort on the part of the few, what is done elsewhere in the Govern- ment service by many. The private income of the Smithsonian Institution is not quite $60,000, but it controls the disbursement of about $500,000 per annum appropriated by the Government for the bureaus under its charge. Certain other functions difficult to describe are still of prime im- portance. The Smithsonian is called on by the Government to advise in many matters of science, more especially when these have an inter- national aspect. Its help and advice are sought by many thousands of persons every year, learned societies, college professors, journalists, and magazine editors, and thousands of private individuals, seeking information, which is furnished whenever it can be done without too serious a drain, though naturally a percentage of the requests is unrea- sonable. It has cooperated with scientific societies of national scope, like the American Historical Association, and bas stimulated the erowth of a number of the Washington scientific societies, and it may be said to teem with other activities. The Regents control the policy of the Institution, and the Secre- tary is their executive officer. Since the beginning the Regents have been selected from among the most distinguished men in public life and in the educational and scientific world. Their roll contains the names of the most distinguished American citizens for half a century. An unwritten policy has grown up which, without instructions or regulations, has been of profound influence in the work. The Smith- sonian Institution does not undertake work which any existing agency can or will do as well. It does not engage in controversies; it limits its work to observation and the diffusion of ascertained knowledge, not to speculation. It preserves an ‘*open mind” for all branches of knowledge and considers any phenomena which are the object of serious study within its purview. Its benefits are not contined to Washington nor to the United States, but as far as consistent are extended to all men, Its Secretaries, Assistant Secretaries, and scientific officers have from the beginning—long before a classified service existed-—been elected and appointed for merit, and for that alone. No person has ever been appointed on the scientific staff for any political reason or consideration. It is impossible to look into the future. The Smithsonian Institu- tion has a remarkable organization for the administration of funds for the promotion of science; yet amidst the great benefactions of the past quarter of a century relatively few have come to it. Its activities could be still further increased if it had greater means under its control, and the Regents, because of the peculiarly independ- ent position they hold, can be of great public service in suggesting Smithsonian Report, 1901.—The Smithsonian Institution. PLATE VI. SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY. Third secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Elected in 1887. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. tot the channel into which gifts for scientific purposes might be directed, -evenif they do not see their way clear to accepting such donations for the Institution itself. For the National Museum a great new building is a prime necessity. The Museum has practically reached a point where it is physically impossible that it should grow under present conditions. Secretary Langley has for several years past been urging upon the Government the dispatch of several expeditions for capturing the species of large mammals so rapidly being destroyed in the United States and Alaska; but even without this, the National Zoological Park, with its relationships to the other great national parks, is des- tined to be one of the great collections of the world. The Bureau of American Ethnology, which since its organization has devoted itself to the aboriginees of this continent, may have new work to do in Porto Rico and in Hawaii. Among still other activities, of which there is now but a premonition, a National Gallery of Art (provided for by Congress in the original charter) may be alluded to. The past of the Smithsonian Institution is secure, its presentis known to all men, and it looks forward to the future in the belief that it will worthily continue under whatever changing conditions to ‘‘ increase and diffuse knowledge among men.” ss603S9ta2~ 4o02 is SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. By C. G. ABBor. The year 1901 has beena remarkable one in the history of astronomy for the number of important observations and discoveries which have been recorded. I have selected for the following account six, perhaps, the most interesting. These are (1) recent determinations of stellar motion in the line of sight; (2) advances in astronomical photography ; (3) the measurement of the heat received from the stars; (4) the observation of the planet Eros; (5) the total solar eclipse of May 18, 1901, and (6) the history of the new star in Perseus. 1. RECENT DETERMINATIONS OF STELLAR MOTION IN THE LINE OF SIGHT. It is now over thirty years since Sir William Huggins made the earliest application of Doppler’s principle to the problem of determining the velocity of motion of the stars in the line joining the star with the observer, technically called the line of sight. Before this all measures of stellar motion had been by the comparison of accurate positions obtained many years apart, and giving thus the stars’ ‘** proper motion” or motion at right angles to the line of sight. The principle of Dop- pler, however, offers a means of discovering the other component of stellar motion, for in accordance with it the apparent wave length of light is increased or diminished by the recession or approach of the source, just as a locomotive whistle becomes of higher pitch as it comes toward us and lower as it goes away. It requires, then, in theory, but the comparison of well recognized lines in the stellar spectra with the corresponding ones in the spectrum of a terrestrial source, to see whether or not the star lines are shifted toward the blue or the red, together with a measurement of the amount of this shifting to decide if the star is approaching or receding from us, and at what rate. In practice, however, the displacements caused by stellar motion are so slight that the effects of a varying temperature of the apparatus and of other causes make this one of the most difli- cult fields of astronomical investigation. 153 154 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. After Sir William Huggins’s first experiments in 1868 and those of Professor Vogel at Potsdam in 1871 the work was taken up at Green- wich and pursued for thirteen years. Those early results were but rough, however, and we owe to the introduction of astronomical photography the present advances in this as in so many other lines. The introduction of photography, and with it the first results of great value for accuracy, date from the observations of Vogel at Potsdam in 1887. Not long after this Professor Keeler, then director of Alle- gheny Observatory, obtained his famous spectrographic proof that the rings of Saturn consist of small bodies revolving about the planet in obedience to Keplar’s laws and are not continuous rigid sheets of matter as they appear to be in a telescopic view. The most celebrated instrument used for these line of sight researches is that known as the Mills spectrograph of the Lick Observatory, with which Professor Campbell, the present director, has made and is still continuing his noted line of sight determinations for all the brighter stars of the northern hemisphere. An illustration of this instrument attached to the 36-inch equatorial is here given (Pl. I). The reader may see in the illustration what care is used to avoid temperature dis- turbances. With the Mills spectrograph the accuracy of Professor Campbell’s determinations has become very great, so that the probable error of a determination from a single photograph may be, for stars having favorable spectra, far within a single kilometer per second. While most of the stars observed have line of sight velocities not exceeding 10 kilometers per second, certain of them give evidence of a far greater rapidity of motion, amounting in the case of € Herculis to no less than 70 kilometers per second (or nearly 45 miles). Still more interesting are the variable velocities reported in numerous cases. From evidence of this kind Professor Campbell has concluded, for instance, that the Pole Star is not single as it appears in the tele- scope, but consists of a system of no less than three bodies revolving about in mutually influenced orbits. It has become possible with the spectroscope not only to prove that several stars exist where only one is seen with the most powerful tele- scopes, but to determine the time of revolution of such a spectroscopic pair in its orbit, and even with considerable certainty to determine the form and size of this orbit and its inclination to the plane of the eclip- tic, although, as I have said, the separate stars are so close and their orbit so circumscribed as never to be seen. Line of sight determinations have now become one of the most important features of astrophysical study. A new telescope is to be devoted to this purpose at the Cape of Good Hope Observatory. The Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam has very recently obtained a new stellar spectrograph of the most approved construction. The Lick Observatory is establishing a branch observatory in South Amer- ‘AYOLVAYSASEO HOI] SHL SO HdVYDOLOSdS STIIW SHL an ec ate 1 erent ee ts Be a ‘| ALwid yoqqy—' 1061 ‘Moday ueuosyziLuS SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 155 ica to complete the spectrographic survey of the heavens, and the great equatorial at Yerkes Observatory has within a few months been fitted with a new stellar spectrograph of the greatest perfection. 2. RECENT ADVANCES IN ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. It was formerly the custom, in the time of Sir William and later of Sir John Herschel, to employ reflecting telescopes for stellar observa- tions. With the more recent high development of refracting tele- scopes, mirrors became superseded largely by lenses for the most refined work. It is well known to what extraordinary size and perfec- tion telescope objectives have risen, so that in the United States alone we have perhaps as many as half a dozen of over 2 feet clear aperture, the largest being the 40-inch equatorial of the Yerkes Observatory. But while the substitution of refracting for reflecting instruments thus went on, the introduction of photography in astronomical work gave an impetus which has since led to the revival of the use of reflectors. The advantage of the latter is due in part to the fact that reflecting instruments bring all rays of whatever wave length to the same focus, while refractors can only be corrected to bring a certain limited num- ber of wave lengths to a focus at any given plane. When refracting instruments are constructed for visual purposes it is customary to cor- rect the lens in such a way that the rays which affect the eye most intensely shall be brought to a sharp focus, neglecting so far as is necessary the violet rays which are most active photographically. | It will be readily seen therefore that a visual refracting telescope is not suitable for the most exact photographic operations. Hence it has been the custom, followed at the Lick Observatory, at the Astrophysi- cal Observatory at Potsdam, and at many other observatories where great refractors are employed, to have an additional lens, either used as a corrector for the visual objective, or wholly substituted for it, to be employed solely for photographic purposes. This has necessitated a very great initial expenditure of money as well as no inconsiderable waste of time and danger to the instruments in the substitution of lenses, as the instrument is changed from visual to photographic uses. The fact that a reflecting telescope with all its appurtenances, of equal light-gathering power to a great refractor and without the defect of chromatic aberration, can be made at a small fraction of the cost merely of the lens itself, has therefore led several large observatories to yield their great equatorials chiefly to visual and spectroscopic purposes, supplementing their equipment for stellar photography by the use of a reflector with whoily separate driving mechanism and dome. _ Against the very great advantage of a reflector in point of cost, however, there is to be offset the fact that the extent of the field where the definition remains good at the focus of a large lens is far 156 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. greater than the corresponding field in the focus of a great mirror, But notwithstanding this disadvantage, reflectors have more and more come into use for photographic purposes within recent years, and some of the most beautiful and striking photographs of the nebule and star clusters ever made were obtained with the Crossley reflector in the last months of his life by Professor Keeler, director of the Lick Observatory at Mount Hamilton, California. Since his untimely death the instrument has been continued in use and is now giving excellent results. More recently still Mr. Ritchey, of the Yerkes Observatory, has designed and prepared with his own hands a reflecting telescope of slightly smaller dimensions than the Crossley instrument, and is now obtaining photographs of nebule, star clusters, and other objects requir- ing much light-gathering power but no great extent of field; which are unexcelled for excellence. The illustration (Plate IT) shows the great nebula in Cygnus as photographed by Mr. Ritchey with an exposure of three hours. The faintest stars shown in the original are more than 10,000 times fainter than the unaided eye can see. Plate III includes two drawings from photographs by Mr. Ritchey of the nebula round Nova Persei taken with the same instrument. I have spoken of the large expense and inconvenience attending the use of refracting instruments for both visual and photographie pur- poses. In preparing the great Yerkes refractor of 40 inches aperture no provision was made for its employment as a photographic tele- scope, but very recently, owing to the great advance made by com- mercial dry-plate manufacturers in the preparation of photographic plates sensitive in the yellow and green portions of the spectrum—that is to say, those portions where the eye is the most sensitive—it became possible, if the imperfectly focused blue and violet rays of the instru- ment could be cut off, to use the telescope without prejudicially long exposures for photographic purposes. Mr. Ritchey has, accordingly, employed a color screen close to the photographic plate, by means of which these prejudicial rays are eliminated; and by the further use of a most efficient following apparatus, also of Mr. Ritchey’s design, there has recently been taken with this telescope, originally intended only for visual and spectroscopic purposes, extraordinarily perfect astronomical photographs (Pl. IV). This marks a most important advance in astronomical photography, for it thus becomes possible, with a very trifling expense, to use the great visual equatorials of the world with perfect success as photographic telescopes. Before passing from the subject of celestial photography I wish to mention a combination of the refracting and reflecting schemes which is now being employed with great success. It will be remembered that one of the most celebrated features of the Paris Exposition was the ‘‘Great Telescope,” so-called, and that this was employed not WASYad VAON GNNOY VINEAN SHL JO ASHOLIY “Yl, Ad SHdVYDOLOHd WOXS SONIMVYHG - ERE Seren ec 0l Sae Le ken LA LL Se AE Soe EMR Le x Z * | Be 7 tees i “HW] Std ‘oqqYy—'1061 ‘odey uejuosy}iws SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 15 pointing toward the celestial object, but pointing rather at a great mirror which itself reflected the light to the lens. This combination of the lens and the mirror is coming increasingly into favor. It was used with advantage, as the readers of last year’s report remember, by the Smithsonian eclipse expedition of 1900, and with no less success by observers of that eclipse from other places, notably by Professor Barnard of the Yerkes expedition. The advantage of this arrangement consists chiefly in that the tele- scope is immovable and therefore not so much subject to the shaking of the ground, bad following of the clock, or to flexure of the tube of the lens or of the lens itself, all of which are liable to seriously affect the steadiness and perfection of the image of a great equatorial. Of course these sources of error all come in to disturb the reflecting mirror which is placed in front of the telescope; but yet, owing to the compactness and relatively small weight of the apparatus which is there driven, these sources of error may be much diminished. Besides these advantages we have the not inconsiderable further gain that the visual or photographic observer can carry on his operations with per- fect comfort and convenience, owing to avoiding the necessity of fol- lowing the moving eye end of an equatorial. Ina recent visit to the Yerkes Observatory I had the pleasure of seeing the beginnings of very large telescopes of this pattern which Professor Hale designs to employ for the most delicate and far-reaching photographic and radio- metric investigations. 3. THE MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAT RECEIVED FROM THE STARS. Attempts were made as early as 1869 and 1870 by English astrono- “mers to obtain evidence of the heat received at the earth from the brightest stars. These experiments were carried out with the aid of the thermopile, then the most sensitive form of heat-measuring appa- ratus known. Since 1880 there have been devised, however, as many as four instru- ments fur more sensitive than the old-fashioned thermopile. These are the bolometer, the radiomicrometer, the improved thermopile of Rubens, and the radiometer, which last has reached its greatest sensi- tiveness in the hands of Prof. E. F. Nichols. In 1888 Prof. C. B. Boys, with his then newly invented radiomi- crometer, repeated the earlier observations on the heat of the brighter stars, and while the earlier observers had convinced themselves of dis- cernible heating effects, he, with his far more sensitive arrangements, came to negative results. As showing the great sensitiveness of his apparatus and the therefore extreme minuteness of the amount of heat received from the stars, it need only be said that in the absence of atmospheric absorption a candle placed at almost 2 miles distance would have been perceived by him, Notwithstanding this discouraging evidence, the question was again taken up within the last two or three years by Professor Nichols with his radiometer. Before mentioning his results it will be of interest to briefly describe that instrument. The principle upon which it is based is the well-known one of the Crookes revolving vanes, familiar in the collections of appa- ratus exhibited in the physical cabinets of academies and colleges. In this interest- ing toy a pair of small metallic vanes, blackened on opposite sides and fixed perpendicularly upon a light arm, itself horizontal and delicately poised at its center upon a vertical axis, is caused to rotate in a vacuum by the influence of light. The Nichols radiometer is merely this old instrument adapted to measure the intensity of the impinging rays. An idea 158 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. The Nichols radiometer. From Astrophysical Journal, Vol. xiii, No. 2, March, 1901. of its construction is given by the accompanying diagram. The vanes, | made very small, are fastened at the ends of aslight stem cf glass about one-fourth of an inch long, which in turn is fixed at right angles to a second longer glass stem furnished with a very ight mirror and sus-| | SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901. ABBOT. PLATE IV LUNAR CRATER THEOPHILUS AND SURROUNDING REGION. PHOTOGRAPHED BY G. W. RITCHEY, WITH THE FORTY-INCH VISUAL TELESCOPE, YERKES SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 159 nded by an extremely thin quartz fiber. All is inclosed in a metal e. with a glass window opposite the little mirror, so as to observe 2 deflections of the vanes by the telescope and scale method. anda cond window of fluorite or other material transmissible to the long we-length radiations is inserted opposite the vanes to admit the rays ‘be measured. The case is air-tight and may be exhausted to any yree. The sole force which keeps the vanes at the zero of position en uninfluenced by radiation is the tortional elasticity of the quartz er, and this resists the rotation of the vanes and returns them to eir original position when turned temporarily from it by the influ- e of radiation. An extraordinary degree of sensitiveness of this instrument was dicated by experiments which were made on the heat of a candle sit- fed 2,000 feet from the concave mirror which focused its rays upon radiometer. The feeble radiations of the candle at this great dis- ee sufficed to turn the radiometer through nearly a hundred scale visions, and even the face of an observer, when placed in the position fore occupied by the candle, produced a deflection of 25 scale divi- pps. Asa tenth of a single scale division could readily be observed, will be seen, to speak figuratively. that with the radiometer one ght note the approach of a friend while yet some miles distant, erely by the glow of his countenance. Jorrecting the observation upon the candle for the absorption of the th’s atmosphere in the layer between it and the radiometer, it was und that in the absence of the atmosphere. a single candle at upward f 16 miles could have been detected, so that the instrumental equip- ent was far more sensitive than that used by Professor Boys in the sgatively resulting stellar observations already alluded to. Experiments were performed upon the radiations of the stars Vega d Arcturus, and on the planets Jupiter and Saturn. The heat f each of these objects was distinctly recognized, and caused, in mean, deflections of 0.51, 1.14, 2.38, and 0.37 scale divisions, espectively, when approximately reduced to zenith. Thus the rela- fe thermal effects of Vega, Arcturus. Jupiter, and Saturn are as 2 2.2:4. 7:0.74. This, it will be seen, is quite appreciably different m their relative brightness to the eye, a circumstance which may. th additional experiments, lead to interesting conclusions regar diag e nature of the radiation received from these several objects. 4. THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE PLANET EROS. he minor planet Eros, it will be recalled, was discovered by Witt, the Urania Observatory at Berlin, August 13, 1898. When after ; observations its approximate orbit was computed, this was und to be so highly eccentric as to differentiate this new planet from Many other asteroids with which it had been provisionally classed. 160 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. So highly eccentric indeed was the planet’s orbit that, although upward of 90,000,000 miles distant at unfavorable oppositions, when — nearest the earth it may come within about 15,000,000 miles, and is on these occasions, so far as is known, our nearest celestial neigh-— bor after the moon. This peculiarity caused the planet to become an_ object of great interest on account of its possible use in the more accurate determination of the sun’s distance from the earth, for an- object at 15,000,000 miles distance has a very appreciably different position among the stars if viewed from opposite ends of the earth’s” diameter—no less a parallax indeed than 100 seconds of are. Con-_ sequently its actual distance from the earth could probably be deter-— mined with very great accuracy, and this distance when thus fixed could be used indirectly to obtain a new estimate of the sun’s distance from the earth, with an accuracy possibly exceeding that of earlier” methods. : Search was immediately instituted by Prof. E. C. Pickering, the director of Harvard College Observatory, through the continuous _ photographie record of the stars which is kept up at that observatory, for earlier positions of the planet, and such were soon found among” plates taken in 1893, 1894, and 1896. From these observations, which, - taken with those made in 1898, follow the planet through a consider-— able range of time, a very accurate orbit was computed.* ; The orbits of Eros and the earth were found to be of such a form” that their next reasonably close approach would occur in November, - 1900, and while their distance at this time was indeed considerably greater than their least possible distance of 15,000,000 miles, yet it. was determined to institute at that opposition a thor oes parallax cam- paign to be taken part in by all the observatories in the world fitted with instruments suitable for this purpose, for it would be necessary to wait upward of twenty years for the minimum distance to occur. Fully 50 observatories took part in this parallax campaign, continu-- ing observations from October through to about the Ist of February. These observations were in part photographic, in part visual, and- taken at stations as far apart asthe Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and Helsingfors, in Finland, and indeed it might almost be said that there was no habitable quarter of the earth which was not represented by observers. It is yet too early to say what will be the results, but it is hoped that they may lead to a very excellent determination o the distance of the sun. *As an evidence of the value of the photographie records of Harvard College - Observatory, it was recently remarked by Professor Pickering that ‘‘if, in the future, any other object like Eros should be discovered, we have at this observatory the means of tracing its path since 1890, during the time in which it was moderately bright, with nearly as great accuracy as if a series of observations had been taken of it with a meridian circle,”’ yaw’, SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 161 But in connection with these observations were others which are of remarkable interest, for it appeared that the brightness of the planet yaried extraordinarily. In February, 1901, it was found by European astronomers that rapid variations occurred to the amount of two whole stellar magnitudes, which would be ‘equivalent to a variation of 600 “per cent! More recent observations show that the range of bright- ness diminished so that at the middle of May there was apparently less than a tenth of a magnitude variation. The extraordinary amount of these fluctuations in the brightness of a planet almost baffles explana- tion, and several theories have been tentatively proposed, none of which, however, as yet is established. Among these explanations are that the planet is of unequal reflecting power on different portions of its surface; that the variation is due to the inclination of its axis taken “in connection with a very eccentric form; or that it is even double, as has been assumed by M. André and others, by whom it has been sug- gested that there may be two single bodies alternately eclipsing each other. In any of these explanations it is extremely difficult, as has been said, to account reasonably for the very remarkable variations of brightness. The question is complicated by the velocity of light, the _yarying distance of the sun and the earth, the phase of the planet and the direction of its axis of rotation, all of which, while they make “numerical computations arduous, yet may furnish valuable checks on the trustworthiness of any theories which may be proposed. i 5. THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 18, 1901. oo eel Sa | | eh ad The total solar eclipse of May 18, 1901, which occurred over a belt extending from the island of Mauritius across the Indian Ocean and through several of the large islands of the Dutch East Indies was at its maximum over six minutes long, and hence gave rise to many observing expeditions, although the chances for favorable observing weather were regarded as precarious in these tropical regions. Most we the observers selected the west coast of the island of Sumatra for their post of observation, though some went to Mauritius, others to an island off the east coast of Sumatra, and still a few others, I believe, to Borneo. The nations represented on these expeditions included the Netherlands, the United States, Great Britain, France, Russia, and Japan. The United States sent the greater number of parties, while the Netherlands, on account of its control of the island of Sumatra, where the observations were conducted, had the most numerous observers and the most extensive programme. The United States observers occupied seven stations, all on or near the west coast of Sumatra, excepting the Amherst College expedition, which was stationed on a small island east of Sumatra. England sent three parties, one stationed on the island of Mauritius, and the other two on or near the west coast of Sumatra. sm 1901——11 ay 75 — it De 162 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. France was represented by one observer, Russia by one, Japan by - several, while the Netherlands made very extensive preparations, including the participation of army officers, a portion of its scientific staff from Batavia, and a party of three from the Netherlands proper. The Smithsonian Institution, as will be recalled by the readers of the report for 1900, had, in May of that year, observed the total eclipse at Wadesboro. North Carolina. and had obtained, among other results of interest. bolometric evidence indicating a probable low temperature of the corona, while on a single photograph of the region near the sun there had been found certain star-like images which were suspected to be due to as yet undiscovered planets. The expedition to Sumatra was undertaken to verify these tentative results. These two kinds of research proved very attractive to other parties as well, for the Lick Observatory, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the English parties, and the Dutch, all had appa- ratus for the photographic search after intramercurial planets, and the Dutch and French also used apparatus designed for the thermal study of the radiation of the corona. The United States Naval Observatory expedition was largely spec- troscopic in character, while at the same time including’ first-class outfits for the photography of the corona. One of these especially deserves mention, for it was undoubtedly the most complete and well- arranged apparatus ever used for coronal photography. I refer to that of Professor Barnard, of the Yerkes Observatory, an invited member of the Naval Observatory expedition. Professor Barnard had the same optical apparatus which he used at Wadesboro, North Caro- lina, in 1900, but the photographic plates were much more numerous, owing to the longer eclipse, and included one plate 40 inches square, for a very long exposure. The spectroscopic work of the Naval Observatory was done mainly with diffraction gratings, a rather new departure in eclipse photogra- phy, and the programme included the photography of the flash spec- trum and of the coronal spectrum. For the latter, Dr. Gilbert had polariscopic apparatus of Professor Wood’s design, with which it was hoped to prove the existence of Fraunhofer lines. The Dutch, as has been said, covered a very wide range of observa- tion. Their army officers, at various stations in the path of totality and near it, made meteorological and general observations, while their main party had an elaborate outfit for every kind of eclipse research. The English, as did the Naval Observatory party, made a main fea- ture of spectroscopic work, including also direct photography of the — corona and of the regions thereabouts, and other general observations. Before proceeding to the discussion of the eclipse itself, a few remarks upon the trip, in which I had the good fortune to participate, may be of interest. The two Government expeditions of the United a a Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Abbot. PLATE V. SUMATRA. By LAKE SINGKARAK. SUMATRA. NATIVE DWELLING. SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 163 States, while independently sent out, proceeded together in entire harmony and good fellowship, and added, so far as was in their power, to each other’s success and enjoyment. Proceeding from Washington on the 5th day of February, 1901, we reached San Francisco on the 11th of the month. Further passage was arranged for upon the army transport Sheridan from San Fran- cisco, by way of Honolulu, to Manila. The expeditions left San Francisco on February 16 and after a somewhat rough passage (during which, as we afterwards learned, the ill-fated steamer Rio Janeiro went ashore at San Francisco) we reached Honolulu, where we stayed several days. The interest and enjoyment of our stay there was greatly increased by the kindness and attentions of the Social Science Club of Honolulu. Leaving Honolulu, we reached Manila March 18, and after a stay of afew days there, during which very interesting visits were made to the office of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey and to the Manila Observatory, we proceeded by the U.S. ship General Alava, which had been detailed by the Navy Department for the purpose, direct from Manila to Padang, on the west coast of Sumatra. We, of course, being without exception northern hemisphere observers, took great interest in seeing the unfamiliar constellations rise out of the south, and in seeing our familiar north star gradually disappear. The officers of the ship took every possible care for our comfort, and we were also entertained (and some of us immersed) upon passing the equator, by the court of His Majesty Neptunus Rex, who came aboard in true man-of-war style. Another incident of great interest was the sight of the famous volcano Krakatau, in the Strait of Sunda, whose eruption in 1883 is so well remembered as the occasion of great loss of life and also of interesting astronomical and meteoro-— logical occurrences, due to the volcanic dust which was thrown up to such extreme heights that it became distributed all over the world.” We reached our destination at Padang April 4, near sunset, and while the passage from Manila had been most quiet and delightful, yet “It will be recalled that the explosion, which occurred on Monday, the 27th day of August, 1883, and was heard several thousand miles, took place about 10 o’clock in the morning, as determined, not by any observers, for none such survived to tell what they saw, but by meteorological observations of the air waves which, proceeding from the voleano, went round the world, were reflected back from the antipodes, and re-reflected from the voleano, seven complete passages of the globe being distin- guished before they wholly subsided. Furthermore, a water wave was thrown up, at some points as much as 150 feet above sea level, on the sides of the Strait of Sunda; and this water wave was observed at the Cape of Good Hope, at Cape Horn, and even in the English Channel, no less than 11,000 miles distant. The Strait of Sunda was greatly altered in its configuration, a channel over a hundred fathoms deep exist- ing where previously there was a portion of a mountain over a thousand feet above sea level, while in addition a wholly new island was formed, 164 SOME EECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. the remembrance of the inner harbor will always stay with me as the type of absolute peace. Scarce a ripple stirred its surface, scarce a sound came to our ears, and when a little later we heard the monot- onous but sweet native music floating over the water the feeling of quietness and repose was, if possible, augmented. Our reception by the consular agent of the United States, Mr. C. G. Veth, on board ship early next morning, was most cordial, and noth- ing could exceed in kindness the care and generosity and the assistance which this gentleman gave us, not only on that day but upon every succeeding day until we left the island. We learned from him that Governor Joekes and other officials of the Dutch Government had put all possible conveniences at our disposal, including the free passage both for ourselves and our instruments, at any time during our stay, all over the system of Government railroads throughout the western coast of Sumatra. The choice of stations was of course our next care. In the publi- cations of the Netherlands Eclipse Committee, a series of meteor- ological observations had been recorded at many stations in Sumatra, and taking into consideration these, the facility of transportation of apparatus, and other matters, and after a reconnaissance of several days, I determined cn my part to locate at a small place in the interior named Solok, and Professor Skinner of the Naval Observatory made the same choice for his principal party. Here there is a fort, not at present occupied, which, with its inclosure, was placed wholly at our disposal by the Assistant Resident of Solok, Mr. Derx. This fort was admirably suited for our purposes, for it has large, cool rooms and smaller outbuildings, one of which was used for a photographic house; while around the fort was a level inclosure surrounded by an embankment and moat, and still further by a system of barb-wire defences, which thoroughly protected us not only from hostile but friendly invasion. Our apparatus arrived in perfect order and was transported from the railroad station to the fort by the aid of a company of prisoners. While walking with Mr. Derx, and seeing a company of the pris- oners go by carrying a load of our instruments, I asked him what they had done which led to their finding themselves in this situation. “Oh,” said he, very coolly, ‘‘some have murdered, others stolen, and the like.” Our stay at Solok passed quickly by, the days being spent in arrang- ing the apparatus and in drilling ourselves in its use, so that we found but little time to go about to view the other camps or to see the— to us-—strange sights which the country afforded. However, partly through exchanges and partly through our own efforts, we all of us secured a more or less complete record of our trip and stay, in the form of photographs, two of which are here reproduced. (Plate V.) CP aie SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 165 Our chief anxiety throughout our preparations was in regard to the weather, and for the first two or three weeks we were under great despondency, for the days were cloudy almost without exception, and at the hour when the eclipse would be total there was scarcely a day in April when the observations would have been successful. With May, however, our hopes were raised, for while the days were scarcely ever fair throughout, yet during the hour of totality, according to Professor Barnard’s count, about two-thirds of the days in May would have been successful eclipse days. Cloudy nights, however, made it very difficult to adjust the apparatus, but by taking advantage of what slight opportunities occurred we were able to get plenty of focus plates by means of which we were assured that the apparatus was in good working order. . On May 17 the sky was overcast and it rained heavily, but we hoped for better weather for the 18th, thinking that so severe a storm meant a speedy clearing, and sure enough on the morning of the 18th the sun broke through the clouds shortly after his rising, and the sky became of a clearness which we never experienced during all our stay there. This continued until after 10 o’clock, when thin, hazy clouds began to form slowly, leaving a perfectly clear belt about the horizon. ‘The first contact came with no very prejudicial degree of cloudiness, but after that it grew steadily thicker, leaving still a clear belt around the horizon, and when the crucial moments of totality occurred the posi- tion of the sun could but indistinctly be discerned. Glimpses of the inner corona and prominences could be seen, with the planets Venus and Mercury, but all more like a lantern shining through a thick fog than like anything fit for astronomical observations. It seemed wholly useless to go through the programme; yet, for the sake of having some- thing to show that we had been at an eclipse, we exposed all the intra- mercurial planet plates; but I omitted the bolometric observations wholly, as they could not possibly lead to trustworthy results. [I was struck with the amount of the general illumination. The belt of totality was 150 miles wide and we were within less than 30 miles of its center, so that there was a total eclipse belt of nearly 50 miles outside of us, and I had expected a degree of darkness comparable almost with night, but was astonished to perceive that in mid-totality the day was no darker than it often is during a heavy fall of rain. We were a sorry party after the eclipse as we watched the sky again clear and give us what we had so longed for before—a fine afternoon and night. Professor Barnard, especially, was almost broken hearted, for no one had an apparatus so absolutely perfect for its use as he, and no one had drilled himself to such a state of dexterity as he, and no one, I suppose, will ever obtain an eclipse photograph which will sur- pass what he would with clear sky have obtained with his long expo- sure on the 40-inch square plate. To make his discouragement still 166 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. more complete, though the night of May 18 was, as I have said, gener- ally fine. yet when he tried as a last attempt to make a long exposure on the rifts in the southern Milky Way, the very regions he wished most to get became covered with a slight degree of fog which spoiled the definition. The other parties on the island all fared better than we; but only one, the branch of the Naval Observatory expedition which was located at Fort de Kock, close to the northern edge of the shadow, had perfect seeing. There excellent photographs of the corona and prominences were secured with the 40-foot instrument, under Mr. Peters’s charge, and spectroscopic results of value were obtained with the grating in the hands of Dr. Humphreys. Dr. Mitchell, at Sawah Loento, was successful in spite of clouds. He secured a fine photo- graph of the ‘‘flash spectrum” at third contact, which gives much information in regard to the sun’s atmosphere. The large Dutch party had but very unsatisfactory results, as the cloudiness was almost equal to that at Solok. The main portion of the English expedition, occu- pying a small island just off the west coast of Sumatra, had, though not a cloudless, yet a not very cloudy sky, and obtained excellent results, of which a short account has lately appeared. Mr. Perrine, of the Lick Observatory, was pretty successful, consid- ering that he also observed through a very considerable cloudiness, though not equal to that at Solok. His intramercurial planet appara- tus revealed possibly thirty or forty stars, where it would have shown perhaps a thousand had the sky been clear; but with his direct photo- graphs and with his spectroscopic work he was much more successful. In a preliminary report from the Lick Observatory it appears that he has obtained good photographs of the coronal spectrum extending to considerable distances each side of the sun, and taken with slit spectro- scopes with the slit both tangential and radial to the sun’s limb. In each of these the outer but not the inner corona was shown to have faint Fraunhofer absorption lines in the spectrum, giving, in other words, a reflected solar spectrum, thus proving that a portion at least of the coronal light is reflected from particles. His spectrum photo- graphs, however, show in addition that the major part of the coronal light is probably not reflected, and he attributes it to the incandescence of particles heated by their proximity to the sun. This view, some readers may recall, would be in contradiction to that tentatively advanced from considerations of the bolometric experiments of the Smithsonian Institution at Wadesboro, North Carolina, in 1900, which yielded the inference that the inner corona was relatively a cool source of light assimilable to the glow discharge or to the aurora. 1 can not altogether understand why it is that Mr. Perrine so positively pro- nounces the radiation of the inner corona that of an incandescent body rather than that of an electrical discharge or something of a similar SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 167 nature, for either would give a continuous spectrum such as he observed. Yet he may have additional evidence, of which I am not aware, in support of this conclusion. Mr. Perrine has noted the very interesting fact that a certain dis- turbed region of the corona fell directly over the only sun spot which appeared on the sun within a week or more of the eclipse. After the eclipse was over we spent the days in packing the instru- ments, the nights in developing the photographs, and were ready to leave the island by May 28. On the night before our departure Mr. Veth, the United States consular agent, as a last proof of his great kindness, gave a reception to the American and English astronomers and naval officers. This function was extremely enjoyable and was participated in by the officials of the Dutch Government and by the society of Padang, and gave us a feeling that however inhospitable to astronomers could be the climate of Sumatra, yet the kindness of its people went far to atone for it. 6. THE NEW STAR IN PERSEUS. The greatest interest, both among astronomers and the public, was excited by the announcement of the discovery on February 21, 1901, at 14 hours 40 minutes Greenwich mean time, by Dr. T. D. Anderson, of Edinburgh, Scotland, of a new star in Perseus. This star at the time of its discovery was of the 2.7 magnitude and shone with a bluish white light. It rapidly increased in brightness until on Feb- ruary 23 it reached the 0.0 magnitude, and was then brighter than any fixed star in the heavens with the exception of Sirius and Canopus. An immediate search on the plates taken at the Harvard College Observatory showed that on February 2, 6, 8, 18, and 19, 1901—that is to say, up to within two days of the star’s discovery by Dr. Anderson— there was no object there as bright as the 10.5 magnitude. The duration of extreme brightness of Nova Persei was but temporary, for on reaching its maximum, on February 23, it imme- diately commenced to decline, and by February 28 had reached the second magnitude, when, after a slight increase in brightness, it again declined nearly continuously until March 18, when it had reached the fifth magnitude. Then began a series of great fluctuations of a some- what periodic nature, with maxima about two days apart, so that, for instance, on the 19th of March the star was of the 6.5 magnitude, while on the 21st it was of the 4.7 magnitude, a variation of nearly 600 percent. These fluctuations continued with more or less regularity, though with a gradually increasing interval between them, until the middle of the summer, when the brightness became fairly steady at the sixth to seventh magnitude, and since then there have been no very considerable alterations. The illustration (Plate VI) taken from 168 SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. Popular Astronomy, November, 1901, shows the history of the bright- ness of the star up to the last of April. Immediately after its discovery the spectrum of Nova Persei was thoroughly studied both by photography and visual observations. When first found its spectrum was almost perfectly continuous, but a close examination revealed a few delicate dark Fraunhofer lines in the green, so that at that time the spectrum was, though feebly devel- oped, yet of the so-called Orion type, and very unlike that of the other new stars which had heretofore been observed, and of which bright lines are the most conspicuous feature. By February 24 the spectrum showed a remarkable change, being now traversed by numerous dark and bright bands and closely resembling that of the famous Nova Aurige (an earlier discovery of Dr. Anderson), so that the star now became entirely similar to other new stars. This type of spectrum continued with only moderate variations until March 19, when there appears to have been a peculiar change in the spectrum. No dark lines were present on that date except a few faint lines due to the par- tial reversal of the bright bands, but the continuous spectrum was almost invisible. On March 23, however, the continuous spectrum had reappeared with narrow dark lines, and on March 27 and afterwards there was a strong continuous spectrum. During the month of April the spectrum departed from the recognized type in many particulars, and occasionally the continuous part was absent, only separated bright bands remaining. There appears then to have been two types of spec- trum during the months of March, April, and May, while the bright- ness of the star was so variable, and it is interesting to note that on the dates when the spectrum was peculiar—that is to say, not similar to the spectra of the other new stars—the brightness of Nova Persei was at a minimum. But not only has Nova Persei made a characteristic record for itself as regards the variations of its brightness and of its spectrum, but in August it presented a new and still more remarkable feature. Reports ‘ame from France that a faint nebula had been photographed about the star, and while this was at first contradicted and aseribed to optical defects in the apparatus, yet it was not long before the discovery was thoroughly confirmed, and a faint circular nebula was photographed surrounding the planet like a halo. Nor was this all, for there were in the nebula several condensations of nebulosity, which were sufti- ciently marked to have definite positions. On November 7 and 8 this nebula was photographed at the Lick Observatory, and upon comparing the position of the condensations of which I have spoken with the photograph obtained on September 20, at the Yerkes Observatory, it was found that these condensations had actually moved at a rate which, if continued for a year, would amount to 11 minutes of arc in the heavens. The reader will find evidence OL “L06L LOQ(WOAON “ULL ‘plPoyuyWON “AutouoMsy cepndog Woody UOSTIAA “DO “H JO uotsstutied Aq pooupordoy “LO6L ‘vd Wedy OL |g AYVNYSS4 ISSYSd VAON SO 3AYHND LHDIT SHL = r } ] ° 4 no = 00 EE EE a a v0 eda ales is ace ea Res 6 8 L 9 s 4 (5 Tt I°uvW 87 1% 9t ST bt €7 TU «834 17 ‘WA dLvid JO9qY¥—'106| ‘Hoday ueiuosyzWs SOME RECENT ASTRONOMICAL EVENTS. 169 of this displacement in Plate III, already referred to. Later photo- graphs show a continuation of the rapid expansion of the nebula. The astonishing magnitude of this motion becomes more appreciated when it is said that the greatest displacement or proper motion of a star so far observed in the whole universe is less than 9 seconds per annum, or less than one-seventieth part of the rate of motion of the nebula surrounding Nova Persei. This great disparity has led some to think it is the propagation of light and not of material which is made apparent. What further of interest Nova Persei has in store for us we can not foretell, but up to the present time its appearance and subsequent his- tory have deserved to take rank as the foremost astronomical event of the year. ia A MODEL OF NATURE.®* By Artaur W. Rucker, M. A., LL.D. * * * Two years ago-Sir Michael Foster dealt with the work of the century as a whole. Last year Sir William Turner discussed in greater detail the growth of a single branch of science. A third and humbler task remains, viz, to fix our attention on some of the hypotheses and assumptions on which the fabric of modern theo- retical science has been built, and to inquire whether the foundations have been so ‘* well and truly” laid that they may be trusted to sustain the mighty superstructure which is being raised upon them. The moment is opportune. The three chief conceptions which for many years have dominated physical as distinct from biological science have been the theories of the existence of atoms, of the mechanical nature of heat, and of the existence of the ether. Dalton’s atomic theory was first given to the world by a Glasgow professor—Thomas Thomson—in the year 1807, Dalton having com- municated it to him in 1804. Rumford’s and Davy’s experiments on the nature of heat were published in 1798 and 1799, respectively; and the celebrated Bakerian lecture, in which Thomas Young established the undulatory theory by explaining the interference of light, appeared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1801. The keynotes of the physical science of the nineteenth century were thus struck as the century began by four of our fellow-countrymen, one of whom—Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford—preferred exile from the land of his birth to the loss of his birthright as a British citizen. DOUBTS AS TO SCIENTIFIC THEORIES. It is well known that of late doubts have arisen as to whether the atomic theory, with which the mechanical theory of heat is closely bound up, and the theory of the existence of an ether have not served their purpose, and whether the time has not come to reconsider them. The facts that Professor Poincaré, addressing a congress of physi- cists in Paris, and Professor Poynting, addressing the physical section » Address of the President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Glasgow meeting, 1901. Reprinted from Report of the British Asso- ciation, 1901. Wal 1? A MODEL OF NATURE. of the association, have recently discussed the true meaning of our scientific methods of interpretation; that Dr. James Ward has lately delivered an attack of great power on many positions which eminent scientific men have occupied; and that the approaching end of the nineteenth century led Professor Heeckel to define in a more popular manner his own very definite views as to the solution of the ** Rid- dle of the Universe,” are, perhaps, a sufficient justification of an attempt to lay before you the difficulties which surround some of these questions. To keep the discussion within reasonable limits, I shall illustrate the principles under review by means ef the atomic theory, with compara- tively little reference to the ether, and we may also at first confine our attention to inanimate objects. THE CONSTRUCTION OF A MODEL OF NATURE. A natural philosopher, to use the old phrase, even if only possessed of a most superficial knowledge, would attempt to bring some order into the results of his observation of nature by grouping together statements with regard to phenomena which are obviously related. The aim of modern science goes far beyond this. It not only shows that many phenomena are related which at first sight have little or nothing in common, but, in so doing, also attempts to explain the relationship. Without spending time on a discussion of the meaning of the word ‘‘explanation,” it is sufficient to say that our efforts to establish rela- tionships between phenomena often take the form of attempting to prove that if a limited number of assumptions are granted as to the con- stitution of matter, or as to the existence of quasi material entities, such as caloric, electricity, and the ether, a wide range of observed facts falls into order as a necessary consequence of the assumptions. ‘The question at issue is whether the hypotheses which are at the base of the scientific theories now most generally accepted are to be regarded as accurate descriptions of the constitution of the universe around us, or merely as convenient fictions. Convenient fictions be it observed, for even if they are fictions they are not useless. From the practical point of view it is a matter of secondary importance whether our theories and assumptions are cor- rect, if only they guide us to results which are in accord with facts. The whole fabric of scientific theory may be regarded merely as a gigantic ‘‘aid to memory;” as a means for producing apparent order out of disorder by codifying the observed facts and laws in accord- ance with an artificial system, and thus arranging our knowledge under a comparatively small number of heads. The simplification introduced by a scheme which, however imperfect it may be, enables us to argue from a few first principles, makes theories of practical use. By means 7." A MODEL OF NATURE. 173 of them we can forsee the results of combinations of causes which would otherwise elude us. We can predict future events, and can even attempt to argue back from the present to the unknown past. But it is possible that these advantages might be attained by means of axioms, assumptions, and theories based on very false ideas. A person who thought that a river was really astreak of blue paint might learn as much about its direction from a map as one who knew it as it is. Itis thus conceivable that we might be able, not indeed to con- struct, but to imagine, something more than a mere map or diagram, something which might even be called a working model of inanimate objects, which was, nevertheless, very unlike the realities of nature. Of course the agreement between the action of the model and the behavior of the things it was designed to represent would probably be imperfect, unless the one were a facsimile of the other; but it is conceivable that the correlation of natural phenomena could be imitated, with a large measure of success, by means of an imaginary machine which shared with a map or diagram the characteristic that it was in many ways unlike the things it represented, but might be compared to a model in that the behavior of the things represented could be predicted from that of the corresponding parts of the machine. We might even goastep farther. If the laws of the working of the model could be expressed by abstractions, as, for example, by mathe- matical formule, then, when the formule were obtained, the model might be discarded, as probably unlike that which it was made to imitate, as a mere aid in the construction of equations, to be thrown aside when the perfect structure of mathematical symbols was erected. If this course were adopted we should have given up the attempt to know more of the nature of the objects which surround us than can be gained by direct observation, but might nevertheless have learned how these objects would behave under given circumstances. We should have abandoned the hope of a physical explanation of the properties of inanimate nature, but should have secured a mathe- matical description of her operations. There is no doubt that this is the easiest path to follow. Criticism is avoided if we admit from the first that we can not go below the sur- face; can not know anything about the constitution of material bodies, but must be content with formulating a description of their behavior by means of laws of nature expressed by equations. But if this is to be the end of the study of nature, it is evident that the construction of the model is not an essential part of the process. The model is used merely as an aid to thinking, and if the relations of phenomena can be investigated without it, so much the better. The highest form of theory—it may be said—the widest kind of generali- zation, is that which has given up the attempt to form clear mental pictures of the constitution of matter, which expresses the facts and 174 A MODEL OF NATURE. the laws by language and symbols which lead to results that are true, whatever be our view as to the real nature of the objects with which we deal. From this point of view the atomic theory becomes not so much false as unnecessary. It may be regarded as an attempt to give an unnatural precision to ideas which are and must be vague. Thus, when Rumford found that the mere friction of metals pro- duced heat in unlimited quantity, and argued that heat was therefore a mode of motion, he formed a clear mental picture of what he believed to be occurring. But his experiments may be quoted as proving only that energy can be supplied to a body in indefinite quantity, and when supplied by doing work against friction it appears in the form of heat. By using this phraseology we exchange a vivid conception of moy- ing atoms for a colorless statement as to heat energy, the real nature of which we do not attempt to define; and methods which thus evade the problem of the nature of the things which the symbols in our equations represent have been prosecuted with striking success, at all events, within the range of a limited class of phenomena. A great school of chemists, building upon the thermodynamics of Willard Gibbs and the intuition of Van’t Hoff, have shown with wonderful skill that, if a sufficient number of the data of experiment are assumed, it is possible, by the aid of thermodynamics, to trace the form of the relations between many physical and chemical phenomena without the help of the atomic theory. But this method deals only with matter as our coarse senses know it; it does not pretend to penetrate beneath the surface. It is therefore with the greatest respect for its authors, and with a full recognition of the enormous power of the weapons employed, that I venture to assert that the exposition of such a system of tacties can not be regarded as the last word of science in the struggle for the truth. Whether we grapple with them or whether we shirk them; however much or however little we can accomplish without answering them, the questions still force themselves upon us: Is matter what it seems to be? Is interplanetary space full or empty? Can we argue back from the direct impressions of our senses to things which we can not directly perceive—from the phenomena displayed by matter to the constitution of matter itself? It is these questions which we are discussing to-night, and we may therefore, as far as the present address is concerned, put aside, once for all, methods of scientific exposition in which an attempt to form a mental picture of the constitution of matter is practically abandoned, and devote ourselves to the inquiries whether the effort to form such a picture is legitimate, and whether we have any reason to believe that the sketch which science has already drawn is to some extent a copy, and not a mere diagram, of the truth. a ae ry fs ae -J | A MODEL OF NATURE. il SUCCESSIVE STEPS IN THE ANALYSIS OF MATTER. In dealing, then, with the question of the constitution of matter and the possibility of representing it accurately, we may grant at once that the ultimate nature of things is, and must remain, unknown; but it does not follow that immediately below the complexities of the superficial phenomena which affect our senses there may not be a simpler machinery of the existence of which we can obtain evidence, indirect, indeed, but conclusive. The fact that the apparent unity which we call the atmosphere can be resolved into a number of different gases is admitted; though the ultimate nature of oxygen, nitrogen, argon, carbonic acid, and water vapor is as unintelligible as that of air as a whole, so that the analysis of air may be said to have substituted many incomprehensibles for one. Nobody, however, looks at the question from this point of view. It is recognized that an investigation into the proximate constitution of things may be useful and successful, even if their ultimate nature is beyond our ken. Nor need the analysis stop at the first step. Water vapor and car- bonic acid, themselves constituents of the atmosphere, are in turn resolved into their elements, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, which, without a formal discussion of the criteria of reality, we may safely say are as real as air itself. Now, at what point must this analysis stop if we are to avoid cross- ing the boundary between fact and fiction? Is there any fundamental difference between resolving air into a mixture of gases and resolving an elementary gas into a mixture of atoms and ether? There are those who cry halt at the point at which we divide a gas into molecules, and their first objection seems to be that molecules and atoms can not be directly perceived, can not be seen or handled, and are mere conceptions, which have their uses, but can not be regarded as realities. It is easiest to reply to this objection by an illustration. The rings of Saturn appear to be continuous masses separated by circular rifts. This is the phenomenon which is observed through a telescope. By no known means can we ever approach or handle the rings; yet everybody who understands the evidence now believes that they are not what they appear to be, but consist of minute moonlets, closely packed, indeed, but separate the one from the other. In the first place, Maxwell proved mathematically that if a Saturn- jan ring were a continuous solid or fluid mass it would be unstable and would necessarily break into fragments. In the next place, if it were possible for the ring to revolve like a solid body, the inmost parts would move slowest, while a satellite moves faster the nearer it is toa planet. Now, spectroscopic observation, based on the beautiful 176 A MODEL OF NATURE. method of Sir W. Huggins, shows not only that the inner portions of the ring move the more rapidly, but that the actual velocities of the outer and inner edges are in close accord with the theoretical velocities of satellites at like distances from the planet. This and a hundred similar cases prove that it is possible to obtain convincing evidence of the constitution of bodies between whose sepa- rate parts we can not directly distinguish, and I take it that a physicist who believes in the reality of atoms thinks that he has as good reason for dividing an apparently continuous gas into molecules as he has for dividing the apparently continuous Saturnian rings into satellites. If he is wrong it is not the fact that molecules and satellites alike can not be handled and can not be seen as individuals that constitutes the dif- ference between the two cases. It may, however, be urged that atoms and the ether are alleged to have properties different from those of matter in bulk, of which alone our senses take direct cognizance, and that therefore it is impossible to prove their existence by evidence of the same cogency as that which may prove the existence of a newly discovered variety of matter or of a portion of matter too small or too distant to be seen. This point is so important that it requires full discussion, but in deal- ing with it, it is necessary to distinguish carefully between the validity of the arguménts which support the earlier and more fundamental propositions of the theory and the evidence brought forward to Jjus- tify mere speculative applications of its doctrines which might be abandoned without discarding the theory itself. The proof of the theory must be carried out step by step. The first step is concerned wholly with some of the most general properties of matter, and consists in the proof that those properties are either absolutely unintelligible, or that, in the case of matter of all kinds, we are subject to an illusion similar to that, the results of which we admit in the case of Saturn’s rings, clouds, smoke, and a number of similar instances. The believer in the atomic theory asserts that matter exists in a particular state; that it consists of parts which are separate and distinct the one from the other, and as such are capable of independent movements. Up to this point no question arises as to whether the separate parts are, like grains of sand, mere fragments of matter, or whether, though they are the bricks of which matter is built, they have, as individuals, properties different from those of masses of matter large enough to be directly perceived. If they are mere fragments of ordinary matter, they can not be used as aids in explaining those qualities of matter which they themselves share. We can not explain things by things themselves. If it be true that the properties of matter are the product of an underlying machinery, that machinery can not itself have the properties which it produces, A MODEL OF NATURE. LEE and must, to that extent, at all events, differ from matter in bulk as it is directly presented to the senses. If, however, we can succeed in showing that if the separate parts have a limited number of properties (different, it may be, from those of matter in bulk), the many and complicated properties of matter can, to a considerable extent, be explained as consequences of the constitu- tion of these separate parts; we shall have succeeded in establishing, with regard to quantitative properties, a simplification similar to that which the chemist has established with regard to varieties of matter. The many will have been reduced to the few. The proofs of the physical reality of the entities discovered by means of the two analyses must necessarily be different. The chemist can actually produce the elementary constituents into which he has resolved a compound mass. No physicist or chemist can produce a single atom separated from all its fellows and show that it possesses the elemen- tary qualities he assigns to it. The cogency of the evidence for any suggested constitution of atoms must vary with the number of facts which the hypothesis that they possess that constitution explains. Let us take, then, two steps in their proper order, and inquire, first, whether there is valid gfound for believing that all matter is made up of discrete parts; and, secondly, whether we can have any knowl- edge of the constitution or properties which those parts possess. THE COARSE-GRAINEDNESS OF MATTER. Matter in bulk appears to be continuous. Such substances as water or alr appear to the ordinary observer to be perfectly uniform in all their properties and qualities, in all their parts. The hasty conclusion that these bodies are really uniform is, never- theless, unthinkable. In the first place the phenomena of diffusion afford conclusive proof that matter when apparently quiescent is in fact in a state of internal commotion. I need not recapitulate the familiar evidence to prove that gases and many liquids when placed in communication interpene- trate or diffuse into each other; or that air, in contact with a surface of water, gradually becomes laden with water vapor, while the atmos- pheric gases in turn mingle with the water. Such phenomena are not exhibited by liquids and gases alone, nor by solids at high tempera- tures only. Sir W. Roberts-Austen has placed pieces of gold and lead in contact at a temperature of 18°C. After four years the gold had traveled into the lead to such an extent that not only were the two metals united, but, on analysis, appreciable quantities of the gold were detected even at a distance of more than 5 millimeters from the com- mon surface, while within a distance of three-quarters of a millimeter from the surface gold had penetrated into the lead to the extent of sm 1901——12 178 A MODEL OF NATURE. 1 ounce 6 pennyweights per ton, an amount which could have been profitably extracted. Whether it is or is not possible to devise any other inteligible account of the cause of such phenomena, it is certain that a simple and adequate explanation is found in the hypothesis that matter consists of discrete parts in a state of motion, which can penetrate into the spaces between the corresponding parts of the surrounding bodies. The hypothesis thus framed is also the one which affords a rational explanation of other simple and well-known facts. If matter is regarded as a continuous medium the phenomena of expansion are unintelligible. There is, apparently, no limit to the expansion of matter, or, to fix our attention on one kind of matter, let us say to the expansion of gas; but it is inconceivable that a continuous material which fills or is present in every part of a given space could also be present in every part of a space a million times as great. Such a state- ment might be made of a mathematical abstraction; it can not be true of any real substance or thing. If, however, matter consists of dis- crete particles, separated from each other either by empty space or by something different from themselves, we can at once understand that expansion and contraction may be nothing more than the mutual separation or approach of these particles. Again, no clear mental picture can be formed of the phenomena of heat unless we suppose that heat is a mode of motion. In the words of Rumford, ‘‘it is extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner the heat was excited and communicated in [his] experiment [on friction] except it be motion.”* And if heat be motion, there can be no doubt that it is the fundamental particles of matter which are moving. For the motion is not visible, is not motion of the body as a whole, while diffusion, which is a movement of matter, goes on more quickly as the temperature rises, thereby proving that the internal motions have become more rapid, which is exactly the result which would follow if these were the movements which constitute sensible heat. Combining, then, the phenomena of diffusion, expansion, and heat, it is not too much to say that no hypotheses which make them intelli- gible have ever been framed other than those which are at the basis of the atomic theory. Many other considerations also point to the same conclusion. Many years ago Lord Kelvin gave independent arguments, based on the . properties of gases, on the constitutions of the surfaces of liquids, and on the electric properties of metals, all of which indicate that matter is, to use his own phrase, coarse-grained—that it is not identical in *Phil’ Trans:, 1/789) p. 99: 3 4 A MODEL OF NATURE. 179 constitution throughout, but that adjacent minute parts are distin- guishable from each other by being either of different natures or in different states. And here it is necessary to insist that all these fundamental proofs are independent of the nature of the particles or granules into which matter must be divided. The particles, for instance, need not be different in kind from the medium which surrounds and separates them. It would suffice if they were what may be called singular parts of the medium itself, differing from the rest only in some peculiar state of internal motion or of dis- tortion, or by being in some other way earmarked as distinct individ- uals. The view that the constitution of matter is atomic may and does receive support from theories in which definite assumptions are made as to the constitution of the atoms, but when, as is often the case, these assumptions introduce new and more recondite difficulties, it must be remembered that the fundamental hypothesis—that matter consists of discrete parts, capable of independent motions—is forced upon us by facts and arguments which are altogether independent of what the nature and properties of these separate parts may be. As a matter of history the two theories, which are not by any means mutually exclusive, that atoms are particles which can be treated as distinct in kind from the medium which surrounds them, and that they are parts of that medium existing ina special state, have both played a large part in the theoretical development of the atomic hypothesis. The atoms of Waterston, Clausius, and Maxwell were particles. The vortex-atoms of Lord Kelvin, and the strain-atoms (if I may call them so) suggested by Mr. Larmor, are states of a primary medium which constitutes a physical connection between them, and through which their mutual actions arise and are transmitted. PROPERTIES OF THE BASIS OF MATTER. It is easy to show that, whichever alternative be adopted, we are dealing with something, whether we consider it under the guise of separate particles or of differentiated portions of the medium, which has properties different from those of matter in bulk. For if the basis of matter had the same constitution as matter, the irregular heat movements could hardly be maintained either against the viscosity of the medium or the frittering away of energy of motion which would occur during the collisions between the particles. Thus, even in the case in which a hot body is prevented from losing heat to surrounding objects, its sensible heat should spontaneously decay by a process of self-cooling. No such phenomenon is known, and though on this, as on all other points, the limits of our knowledge are fixed by the uncertainty of experiment, we are compelled to admit that, to all appearance, the fundamental medium, if it exists, is 180 A MODEL OF NATURE. unlike a material medium, in that it is nonviscous; and that the particles, if they exist, are so constitued that energy is not frittered away when they collide. In either case we are dealing with some- thing different from matter itself in the sense that, though it is the basis of matter, it is not identical in all its properties with matter. The idea therefore that entities exist possessing properties different from those of matter in bulk is not introduced at the end of a long and recondite investigation to explain facts with which none but experts are acquainted. It is forced upon us at the very threshold of our study of nature. Either the properties of matter in bulk can not be referred to any simpler structure, or that simpler structure must have properties different from those of matter in bulk as we directly knew it—properties which can only be inferred from the results which they produce. No a priori argument against the possibility of our discovering the existence of quasi-material substances, which are nevertheless different from matter, can prove the negative proposition that such substances can not exist. It is not a self-evident truth that no substance other than ordinary matter can have an existence as real as that of matter itself. It is not axiomatic that matter can not be composed of parts whose properties are different from those of the whole. To assert that even if such substances and such parts exist no evidence, however cogent, could convince us of their existence is to beg the whole ques- tion at issue; to decide the cause before it has been heard. We must therefore adhere to the standpoint adopted by most scien- tific men, viz, that the question of the existence of ultraphysical enti- ties, such as atoms and the ether, is to be settled by the evidence, and must not be ruled out as inadmissible on a priori grounds. On the other hand, it is impossible to deny that, if the mere entry on the search for the concealed causes of physical phenomena is not a trespass on ground we have no right to explore, it is at all events the beginning of a dangerous journey. The wraiths of phlogiston, caloric, luminiferous corpuscles and a crowd of other phantoms haunt the investigator, and as the grim host vanishes into nothingness he can not but wonder if his own concep- tions of atoms and of the ether shall dissolve, And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, Leave not a wrack behind. But though science, like Bunyan’s hero, has sometimes had to pass through the ** Valley of Humiliation,” the specters which meet it there are not really dangerous if they are boldly faced. The facts that mis- takes have been made, that theories have been propounded, and for a time accepted, which later investigations have disproved, do not A MODEL OF NATURE. 181 necessarily discredit the method adopted. In scientific theories, as in the world around us, there is a survival of the fittest, and Dr. James Ward’s unsympathetic account of the blunders of those whose work after all has shed glory on the nineteenth century, might mutatis mutandis stand fora description of the history of the advance of civil- ization. ‘*The story of the progress so far,” he tells us, ‘tis briefly this: Divergence between theory and fact one part of the way, the wreckage of abandoned fictions for the rest, with an unattainable goal of phenomenal nihilism and ultraphysical mechanism beyond.” * ‘*The path of progress,” says Prof. Karl Pearson, ‘‘is strewn with the wreck of nations. Traces are everywhere to be seen of the heca- tombs of inferior races and of victims who found not the narrow way to the greater perfection. Yet these dead peoples are in very truth the stepping-stones on which mankind has arisen to the higher intellectual and deeper emotional life of to-day.”” It is only necessary to add that the progress of society is directed toward an unattainable goal of universal contentment to make the parallel complete. And so, in the one case as in the other, we may leave ‘‘ the dead to bury the dead.” The question before us is not whether we too may not be trusting to false ideas, erroneous experiments, evanescent theories. No doubt we are; but, without making an insolent claim to be better than our fathers, we may fairly contend that, amid much that is uncertain and temporary, some of the fundamental conceptions, the root ideas of science, are so grounded on reason and fact that we can not but regard them as an aspect of the very truth. Enough has, perhaps, now been said on this point for my immediate purpose. The argument as to the constitution of matter could be developed further in the manner I have hitherto adopted, viz, by series of propositions, the proof of each of which is based upon a few crucial phenomena. In particular, if matter is divided into moving granules or particles, the phenomenon of cohesion proves that there must be mutual actions between them analogous to those which take place between large masses of matter, and which we ascribe to force, thereby indicating the regular, unvarying operation of active ma- chinery which we have not yet the means of adequately understanding. For the moment, I do not wish to extend the line of reasoning that has been followed. My main object is to show that the notion of the existence of ultraphysical entities and the leading outlines of the atomic theory are forced upon us at the beginning of our study of nature, not only by a priori considerations, but in the attempt to com- prehend the results of even the simplest observation. These outlines can not be effaced by the difficulties which undoubtedly arise in filling * James Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, Vol. I, p. 153. » Karl Pearson, National Life from the Standpoint of Science, p. 62. ; 4! \" 182 A MODEL OF NATURE. cs up the picture. The cogency of the proof that matter is coarse erained is in no way affected by the fact that we have grave doubts as to the nature of granules. Nay, it is of the first importance to recog- nize that, though the fundamental assumptions of the atomic theory receive overwhelming support from a number of more detailed areu- ments, they are themselves almost of the nature of axioms, in that the simplest phenomena are unintelligible if they are abandoned. THE RANGE OF THE ATOMIC THEORY. {t would be most unfair, however, to the atomic theory to represent it as depending on one line of reasoning only, or to treat its evidence as bounded by the very general propositions I have discussed. It is true that as the range of the theory is extended the fundamental conception that matter is granular must be expanded and filled in by supplementary hypotheses as to the constitution of granules. It may also be admitted that no complete or wholly satisfactory description of that constitution can as yet be given; that perfection has not yet been attained here or in any other branch of science; but the number of facts which can be accounted for by the theory is very large compared with the number of additional hypotheses which are introduced; and the cumulative weight of the additional evidence obtained by the study of details is such as to add greatly to the strength of the conviction that, in its leading outlines, the theory is true. It was originally suggested by the facts of chemistry, and though, as we have seen, a school of chemists now thrusts it into the background, it is none the less true, in the words of Dr. Thorpe, that ‘‘every great advance in chemical knowledge during the last ninety years finds its interpretation in [Dalton’s] theory.” * The principal mechanical and thermal properties of gases have been explained and in a large part discovered by the aid of the atomic theory, and though there are outstanding difficulties, they are, for the most part, related to the nature of the atoms and molecules, and do not affect the question as to whether they exist. The fact that different kinds of light all travel at the same speed in interplanetary space, while they move at different rates in matter, is explained if matter is coarse grained. But to attempt to sum up all this evidence would be to recite a text-book on physics. It must suf- fice to say that it is enormous in extent and varied in character, and that the atomic theory imparts a unity to all the physical sciences which has been attained in no other way. I must, however, give a couple of instances of the wonderful success which has been achieved in the explanation of physical phenomena by the theory we are considering, and I select them because they are in harmony with the line of argument I have been pursuing. * Thorpe, Essays on Historical Chemistry, 1894, p. 368. Bie par oT ae) Ts oe a a, oO, ow) ar _— ee i da are, ree ae an aed SS) Ae T's ee A MODEL OF NATURE. 183 When a piece of iron is magnetized its behavior is different accord- ing as the magnetic force applied to it is weak, moderate, or strong. When a certain limit is passed the iron behaves as a nonmagnetic sub- stance to all further addition of magnetic force. With strong forces it does and with very weak forces it does not remain magnetized when the force ceases to act. Professor Ewing has imitated all the minute details of these complicated properties by an arrangement of small isolated compass needles to represent the molecules. It may fairly be said that as far as this particular set of phenomena is concerned, a most instructive working model based on the molecular theory has not only been imagined but constructed. The next illustration is no less striking. We may liken a crowd of molecules to a fog; but while the fog is admitted by everbody to be made up of separate globules of water, the critics of scientific method are sometimes apt to regard the molecules as mere fictions of the imagination. If, however, we could throw the molecules of a highly rarefied gas into such a state that vapor condensed on them, so that each became the center of a water drop, till the host of invisible mole- cules was, as it were, magnified by accretion into a visible mist, surely no stronger proof of their reality could be desired. Yet there is every reason to believe that something very like this has been accom- plished by Mr. C. 'T. R. Wilson and Prof. J. J. Thomson. It is known that it is comparatively difficult to produce a fog in damp air if the mixture consists of air and water vapor alone. The presence of particles of very fine dust facilitates the process. It is evident that the vapor condenses on the dust particles, and that a nucleus of some kind is necessary on which each drop may form. But electrified particles also act as nuclei, for if a highly charged body from which electricity is escaping be placed near a steam jet, the steam condenses, and a cloud is also formed in dust-free air more easily than would otherwise be the case if electricity is discharged into it. Again, according to accepted theory, when a current of electricity flows through a gas some of the atoms are divided into parts which carry positive and negative charges as they move in opposite direc- tions, and unless this breaking up occurs a gas does not conduct elec- tricity. But a gas can be made a conductor merely by allowing the Roéntgen rays or the radiation given off by uranium to fall upon it. A careful study of the facts shows that it is probable that some of the atoms have been broken up by the radiation, and that their oppositely electrified parts are scattered among their unaltered fellows. Sucha gas is said to be ionized. Thus by these two distinct lines of argument we come to the conclu- sions: First, that the presence of electrified particles promotes the formation of mist, and, second, that in an ionized gas such electrified particles are provided by the breaking up of atoms. 184 A MODEL OF NATURE. The two conclusions will mutually support each other if it can be shown that a mist is easily formed in ionized air. This was tested by Mr. Wilson, who showed that in such air mist is formed as though nuclei were present, and thus in the cloud we have visible evidence of the presence of the divided atoms. If, then, we can not handle the individual molecules we have at least some reason to believe that a method is known of seizing individuals, or parts of individuals, which are in a special state, and of wrapping other matter round them till sxach one is the center of a discrete particle of a visible fog. I have purposely chosen this illustration, because the explanation is based on a theory—that of ionization—which is at present subjected to hostile criticism. It assumes that an electrical current is nothing more than the movement of charges of electricity. But magnets placed near to an electric current tend to set themselves at right angles to its direction; a fact on which the construction of telegraphic instruments is based. Hence, if the theory be true, a similar effect ought to be produced by a moving charge of electricity. This experiment was tried many years ago in the laboratory of Helmholtz by Rowland, who caused a charged disk to spin rapidly near a magnet. The result was in accord with the theory; the magnet moved as though acted upon by an electric current. Of late, however, M. Crémieu has investigated the matter afresh, and has obtained results which, according to his interpretation, were inconsistent with that of Rowland. M. Crémiew’s results are already the subject of controversy,* and are, I believe, likely to be discussed in the section of physics. This is not the occasion to enter upon a critical discussion of the question at issue, and | refer to it only to point out that though, if M. Crémieu’s results were upheld, our views as to electricity would have to be mod- ified, the foundations of the atomic theory would not be shaken. It is, however, from the theory of ions that the most far-reaching speculations of science have recently received unexpected support. The dream that matter of all kinds will some day be proved to be fun- damentally the same has survived many shocks. The opinion is con- sistent with the great generalization that the properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights. Sir Norman Lockyer has long been a prominent exponent of the view that the spectra of the stars indicate the reduction of our so-called elements to simpler forms, and now Prof. J. J. Thomson believes that we can break off from an atom a part, the mass of which is not more than one-thou- sandth of the whole, and that these corpuscles, as he has named them, are the carriers of the negative charge in an electric current. If atoms are thus complex, not only is the a priori probability increased that the different structures which we call elements may all be built of “See Phil. Mag., July, 1901, p. 144; and Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XX, No. 152, May-June, 1901, p. 78. | | 7 | . 7) PY, oe sok —=— _— >= A MODEL OF NATURE. 185 similar bricks, but the discovery by Lenard that the ease with which the corpuscles penetrate different bodies depends only on the density of the obstacles, and not on their chemical constitution, is held by Professor Thomson to be *‘a strong confirmation of the view that the atoms of the elementary substances are made up of simpler parts, all of which are alike.”* On the present occasion, however, we are occu- pied rather with the foundations than with these ultimate ramifications of the atomic theory; and having shown how wide its range is, I must. toa certain extent, retrace my steps and return to the main line of my argument. THE PROPERTIES OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES. For if it be granted that the evidence that matter is coarse grained and is formed of separate atoms and molecules is too strong to be resisted, it may still be contended that we can know little or nothing of the sizes and properties of the molecules. It must be admitted that though the fundamental postulates are always the same, different aspects of the theory, which have not in all eases been successfully combined, have to be developed when it is applied to different ploblems; but in spite of this there is little doubt but that we have some fairly accurate knowledge of molecular motions and magnitudes. If a liquid is stretched into a very thin film, such as a soap bubble, we should expect indications of a change in its properties when the thickness of the film is not a very large multiple of the average distance between two neighboring molecules. In 1890, Sohncke? detected evidence of such a change in films of average thickness of 106 millionths of a millimeter (4), and quite recently Rudolph Weber found it in an oil film when the thickness was 115 su. ° Taking the mean of these numbers and combining the results of different variants of the theory, we may conclude that a film should become unstable and tend to rupture spontaneously somewhere be- tween the thicknesses of 110 and 55 yu, and Professor Reinold and I found by experiment that this instability is actually exhibited between the thickness of 96 and 45 wy." There can therefore be little doubt that the first approach to molecular magnitude is signaled when the thickness of a film is somewhat less than 100 ou, or four millionths of an inch. Thirteen years ago I had the honor of laying before the Chemical * For the most recent account of this subject, see an article on ‘‘ Bodies smaller than atoms,”’ by Prof. J. J. Thomson, in the Popular Science Monthly (The Science Press), August, 1901. [Reprinted in the present Smithsonian Report. ] »Wied. Ann., 1890, XL, pp. 345-355. * Annalen der Physik, 1901, IV, pp. 706-721. ‘Phil. Trans., 18938, 184, pp. 505-529. 186 A MODEL OF NATURE. Society a résumé of what was then known on these subjects,* and I must refer to that lecture or to the most recent edition of O. E. Meyer’s work on the kinetic theory of gases” for the evidence that various independent lines of argument enable us to estimate quantities very much less than four millionths of an inch, which is perhaps from 500 to 1,000 times greater than the magnitude which, in the present state of our knowledge, we can best describe as the diameter of a molecule. Confining our attention, however, to the larger quantities, I will give one example to show how strong is the cumulative force of the evidence as to our knowledge of the magnitudes of molecular quantities. We have every reason to believe that though the molecules in a gas frequently collide with each other, yet in the case of the more perfect gases the time occupied in collisions is small compared with that in which each molecule travels undisturbed by its fellows. The average distance traveled between two successive encounters is called the mean free path, and, for the reason just given, the question of the magni- tude of this distance can be attacked without any precise knowledge of what a molecule is, or of what happens during an encounter. Thus the mean free path can be determined, by the aid of the theory, either from the viscosity of the gas or from the thermal conductivity. Using figures given in the latest work on the subject,® and dealing with one gas only, as a fair sample of the rest, the lengths of the mean free path of hydrogen, as determined by these two independent methods, differ only by about 3 per cent. Further, the mean of the values which I gave in the lecture already referred to differed only by about 6 per cent from the best modern result, so that no great change has been introduced during the last thirteen years. It may, however, be argued that these concordant values are all obtained by means of the same theory, and that a common error may affect them all. In particular, some critics have of late been inclined to discredit the atomic theory by pointing out that the strong state- ments which have sometimes been made as to the equality, among themselves, of atoms or molecules of the same kind may not be justi- fied, as the equality may be that of averages only, and be consistent with a considerable variation in the sizes of individuals. Allowing this argument more weight than it perhaps deserves, it is easy to show that it can not affect seriously our knowledge of the length of the mean free path. Prof. George Darwin® has handled the problem of a mixture of “Chem. Soc. Trans., LIII, March, 1888, pp. 222-262. » Kinetic Theory of Gases, O. E. Meyer, 1899; translated by R. E. Baynes. ° Meyer’s Kinetic Theory of Gases (see above). 4Phil. Trans., 180. éZ © Pa > 4 a rr ae ot ee eye re ae ee ee ae ee ee ee | ait i tn \ j —— = le Be: all, 5 ; : ; eo Pe ee eS eee eee ee we Ss eae Se ea ae eee ik a "_ A MODEL OF NATURE. 187 unequal spherical bodies in the particular case in which the sizes are distributed according to the law of errors, which would involve far greater inequalities than can occur amongatoms. Without discussing the precise details of his problem, it is suflicient to say that in the case considered by him the length of the main free path is seven-elevenths of what it would be if the particles were equal. Hence, were the ine- qualities of atoms as great as in this extreme case, the reduction of the mean free path in hydrogen could only be from 185 to 119 wy; but they must be far less, and therefore the error, if any, due to this cause could not approach this amount. It is probably inappreciable. Such examples might be multiphed, but the one I have selected is perhaps sufficient to illustrate my point, viz, that considerable and fairly accurate knowledge can be obtained as to molecular quantities by the aid of theories, the details of which are provisional and are admittedly capable of improvement. IS THE MODEL UNIQUE? But the argument that a correct result may sometimes be obtained by reasoning on imperfect hypotheses raises the question as to whether another danger may not be imminent. To be satisfactory our model of nature must be unique, and it must be impossible to imagine any other which agrees equally well with the facts of experiment. If a large number of hypotheses could be framed with equal claims to validity, that fact would alone raise grave doubts as to whether it were possible to distinguish between the true and the false. Thus, Professor Poincaré has shown that an infinite number of dynamical explanations can be found for any phenomenon which satisfies certain conditions. But though this consideration warns us against the too ready accept- ance of explanations of isolated phenomena, it has no weight against a theory which embraces so vast a number of facts.as those included by the atomic theory. It does not follow that because a number of solutions are all formally dynamical they are therefore all equally admissible. The pressure of a gas may be explained as the result of a shower of blows delivered by molecules, or by a repulsion between the various parts of a continuous medium. Both solutions are expressed in dynamical language, but one is and the other is not compatible with the observed phenomena of expansion. The atomic theory must hold the field until another can be found which is not inferior as an expla- nation of the fundamental difficulties as to the constitution of matter and is, at the same time, not less comprehensive. On the whole, then, the question as to whether we are attempting to solve a problem which has an infinite number of solutions may be put aside until one solution has been found which is satisfactory in all its details. Weare in a sufficient difficulty about that to make the rivalry of a second of the same type very improbable. 188 A MODEL OF NATURE. THE PHENOMENA OF LIFE. 3ut it may be asked—nay, it has been asked—may not the type of our theories be radically changed? If this question does not merely imply a certain distrust in our own powers of reasoning, it should be supported by some indication of the kind of change which is conceivable. Perhaps the chief objection which can be brought against physical theories is that they deal only with the inanimate side of nature, and largely ignore the phenomena of life. It is therefore in this direction, if in any, that a change of type may be expected. I do not propose to enter at length upon so difficult a question, but, however we may explain or explain away the characteristics of life, the argument for the truth of the atomic theory would only be affected if it could be shown that living matter does not possess the thermal and mechanical properties, to explain which the atomic theory has been framed. This is so notoriously not the case that there is the gravest doubt whether life can in any way interfere with the action within the organism of the laws of matter in bulk belonging to the domain of mechanies, physics, and chemistry. Probably the most cautious opinion that could now be expressed on this question is that, in spite of some outstanding difficulties which have recently given rise to what is called Neovitalism, there is no conclusive evidence that living matter can suspend or modify any of the natural laws which would affect it if it were to cease to live. It is possible that though subject to these laws the organism while living may be able to employ, or even to direct, their action within itself for its own benefit, just as it unquestionably does make use of the processes of external nature for its own purposes. But if this be so, the seat of the controlling influence is so withdrawn from view that on the one hand its very existence may be denied, while on the other hand, Pro- fessor Haeckel, following Vogt, has recently asserted that ‘‘Matter and ether are not dead, and only moved by extrinsic force; but they are endowed with sensation and will; they experience an inclination for condensation, a dislike for strain; they strive after the one and struggle against the other.” * But neither unproved assertions of this kind nor the more refined attempts that have been made by others to bring the phenomena of life and of dead matter under a common formula touch the evidence for the atomic theory. The question as to whether matter consists of elements capable of independent motion is prior to and independent of the further questions as to what these elements are and whether they are alive or dead. The physicist, if he keeps to his business, asserts, as the bases of the atomic theory, nothing more than that he who declines to admit that matter consists of separate moving parts must regard many of ® Riddle of the Universe (English translation), 1900, p. 380. A MODEL OF NATURE. 189 the simplest phenomena as irreconcilable and unintelligible, in spite of the fact that means of reconciling them are known to everybody, in spite of the fact that the reconciling theory gives a general correla- tion of an enormous number of phenomena in every branch of science, and that the outstanding difficulties are connected not so much with the fundamental hypotheses that matter is composed of distinguishable entities which are capable of separate motions as with the much more difficult problem of what these entities are. On these grounds the physicist may believe that, though he can not handle or see them, the atoms and molecules are as real as the ice erystals in a cirrus cloud which he can not reach; as real as the unseen members of a meteoric swarm whose death glow is lost in the sunshine, or which sweep past us, unentangled, in the night. If the confidence that his methods are weapons with which he can fight his way to the truth were taken from the scientific explorer, the paralysis which overcomes those who believe that they are engaged in a hopeless task would fall upon him. Physiology has specially flourished since physiologists have believed that it is possible to master the physics and chemistry of the framework of living things, and since they have abandoned the attitude of those who placed in the foreground the doctrine of the vital force. To sup- porters of that doctrine the principle of life was not a hidden directing power which could perhaps whisper an order that the flood gates of reservoirs of energy should now be opened and now closed, and could, at the most, work only under immutable conditions to which the living and the dead must alike submit. On the contrary, their vital force pervaded the organism in all its parts. It was an active and energetic opponent of the laws of physics and chemistry. It maintained its own existence not by obeying but by defying them; and though destined to be finally overcome in the separate campaigns of which each indi- vidual living creature is the scene, yet, like some guerrilla chieftain, it was defeated here only to reappear there with unabated confidence and apparently undiminished force. This attitude of mind checked the advance of knowledge. Difficulty could be evaded by a verbal formula of explanation which in fact explained nothing. If the mechanical, or physical, or chemical causes of a phenomenon did not lie obviously upon the surface, the investi- gator was tempted to forego the toil of searching for them below; it was easier to say that the vital force was the cause of the discrepancy, and that it was hopeless to attempt to account for the action of a principle which was incomprehensible in its nature. For the physicist the danger is no less serious, though it lies ina somewhat different direction. At present he is checked in his theories by the necessity of making them agree with a comparatively small number of fundamental hypotheses. If this check were removed his fancy might run riot in the wildest speculations, which would be held 190 A MODEL OF NATURE. to be legitimate if only they led to formule in harmony with facts. But the very habit of regarding the end as everything, and the means by which it was attained as unimportant, would prevent the discovery of those fragments of truth which can only be uncovered by the pain- ful process of trying to make inconsistent theories agree, and using all facts, however remote, as the tests of our central generalization. “Science,” said Helmholtz, ‘‘Secience, whose very object it is to comprehend Nature, must start with the assumption that Nature is comprehensible.” And again, ** The first principle of the investigator of Nature is to assume that Nature is intelligible to us, since otherwise it would be foolish to attempt the investigation at all.” These axioms do not assume that all the secrets of the universe will ultimately be laid bare, but that a search for them is hopeless if we undertake the quest with the conviction that it will be in vain. As applied to life they do not deny that in living matter something may be hidden which neither physics nor chemistry can explain; but they assert that the action of physical and chemical forces in living bodies can never be understood if at every difficulty and at every check in our investiga- tions we desist from further attempts in the belief that the laws of physics and chemistry have been interfered with by an incomprehen- sible vital force. As applied to physics and chemistry they do not mean that all the phenomena of life and death will ultimately be included in some simple and self-sufficing mechanical theory; they do mean that we are not to sit down contented with paradoxes such as that the same thing can fill both a large space and a little one; that matter can act where it is not, and the lke, if by some reasonable hypothesis, capable of being tested by experiment, we can avoid the acceptance of these absurdities. Something will have been gained if the more obvious difficulties are removed, even if we have to admit that in the background there is much that we can not grasp. THE LIMITS OF PHYSICAL THEORIES. And this brings me to my last point. It is a mistake to treat phys- ical theories in general, and the atomic theory in particular, as though they were parts of a scheme which has failed if it leaves anything unexplained, which must be carried on indefinitely on exactly the same principles, whether the ultimate results are or are not repugnant to common sense. Physical theories begin at the surface with phenomena which directly affect our senses. When they are used in the attempt to penetrate deeper into the secrets of nature, it is more than probable that they will meet with insuperable barriers; but this fact does not demonstrate that the fundamental assumptions are false. and the question as to whether any particular obstacle will be forever insuperable can rarely be answered with certainty. Those who belittle the ideas which have of late governed the advance A MODEL OF NATURE. 191 of scientific theory too often assume that there is no alternative between the opposing assertions that atoms and the ether are mere figments of the scientific imagination, or that, on the other hand, a mechanical theory of the atoms and of the ether, which is now con- fessedly imperfect, would, if it could be perfected, give us a full and adequate representation of the underlying realities. For my own part I believe that there is a via media. A man peering into a darkened room, and describing what he thinks he sees, may be right as to the general outline of the objects he dis- cerns, wrong as to their nature and their precise forms. — In his descrip- tion fact and fancy may be blended, and it may be difficult to say where the one ends and the other begins; but even the fancies will not be worthless if they are based on a fragment of truth, which will pre- vent the explorer from walking into a looking-glass or stumbling over the furniture. He who saw ‘‘men as trees walking” had at least a per- ception of the fundamental fact that something was in motion around him. And so, at the beginning of the twentieth century, we are neither forced to abandon the claim to have penetrated below the surface of nature, nor have we, with all our searching, torn the veil of mystery from the world around us. : The range of our speculations is limited both in space and time; in space, for we have no right to claim, as is sometimes done, a knowl- edge of the ‘‘ infinite universe;” in time, for the cumulative effects of actions which might pass undetected in the short span of years of which we have knowledge, may, if continued long enough, modify our most profound generalizations. If some such theory as the vortex- atom theory were true, the faintest trace of viscosity in the primordial medium would ultimately destroy matter of every kind. It is thus a duty to state what we believe we know in the most cautious terms, but it is equally a duty not to yield to mere vague doubts as to whether we can know anything. lf no other conception of matter is possible than that it consists of distinct physical units—and no other conception has. been formulated which does not blur what are otherwise clear and definite outlines—if it is certain, as it is, that vibrations travel through space which can not be propagated by matter, the two foundations of physical theory are well and truly laid. It may be granted that we have not yet framed a consistent image either of the nature of the atoms or of the ether in which they exist; but I have tried to show that in spite of the tentative nature of some of our theories, in spite of many outstanding difficulties, the atomic theory unifies so many facts, simplifies so much that is complicated, that we have a right to insist—at all events till an equally intelligible rival hypothesis is produced—that the main struc- ture of our theory is true; that atoms are not merely helps to puzzled mathematicians, but physical realities. Sr ee sakes o oe eee ee Th a Se ee A: CENTURY OF THE STUDY OF METEORITES. * By Dr. Ottver C. Farrineron, Curator of Geology, Field Columbian Museum. The close of the nineteenth century will mark the end of the first century of the study of meteorites. Up to the beginning of this century the attitude of scientific men toward the accounts of stones reported to have fallen from the sky was in general one of scorn and incredulity. Thus an account prepared with great care by the munici- pality of Juillac, France, telling of a stone shower which occurred there in July, 1790, was characterized by Berthelon at the time as ‘‘a recital, evidently false, of a phenomenon physically impossible” and ‘calculated to excite the pity not only of physicists but of all reason- able people.” Bonn, in his Lithophylacium Bonnianum, refers to the Tabor, Bohemia, meteorite which fell in 1753, as ‘‘e coelo pluvisse ereduliores quidam asseverant.” Chladni, writing in the early part of the century, speaks of many meteorites which were thrown away in his day because the directors of museums were ashamed to exhibit stones reported to have fallen from the sky. President Jefferson when told that Professors Silliman and Kingsley had described a shower of stones as having taken place at Weston, Connecticut, in 1807, said: ‘*It is easier to believe that two Yankee professors will lie than to believe that stones will fall from heaven.” The change of opinion on the part of intelligent and especially sei- entific men, which took place at the beginning of this century, was due largely to the investigation by the French Academy of the shower of stones which fell at L’Aigle in 1803. This investigation established so absolutely the fact of the fall to the earth at L’Aigle of stones from outer space that scientific men were logically compelled to give credence to the reports of similar occurrences elsewhere. Further, the papers of Chladni and Howard published about the same time, strenuously urging that other masses reported to have fallen upon the earth could not, because of their structure and composition, be of terrestrial ori- gin, had much to do with fixing the growing faith that solid cosmic “Reprinted by permission from Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LVII, February, 1901. sm L901 13 193 194 CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. matter not of terrestrial origin does at intervals come to the earth. Since this beginning the study of meteorites has been one of constantly widening interest and purport. The essentially distinguishing features of meteorites were early made out. Howard in 1802, from a chemical investigation of various ‘tony and metallic substances which at different times are said to have fallen on the earth, also of various kinds of native iron,” drew the con- clusion that a content of nickel characterized most such bodies. He also found that the meteoric stones were made up chiefly of silica and magnesia and that the iron sulphide of meteorites was distinct from the terrestrial mineral pyrite. He further noted the chondritic strue- ture as characteristic of many of the meteoric stones. The correctness of his observations was soon confirmed by analyses made by Fourcroy, John, Klaproth, and others. In 1808 Alois von Widmanstitten, by heating a section of the Agram iron, brought out the figures which have since proved so characteristic of meteoric irons in general and which are now known by his name. Thus the data were early at hand for distinguishing meteorites from terrestrial bodies, and it soon became possible to collect the ‘*sky stones” even when they had not been seen to fall. Systematic efforts for the collection of these bodies were not put forth, however, for many years. Up to 1835 there were only 56 different meteortte falls represented in the Vienna collection, and in 1856 only 136. Up to 1860 those of the British Museum col- lection numbered only 68 and those of the Paris collection only 64. The studies of these bodies during the first half of the century were made, therefore, upon a relatively limited number. The earlier inves- tigations were chiefly chemical in character, various elements being discovered in succession. Manganese was discovered in the stone of Siena by Klaproth in 1803, chromium in the stone of Vago by Laugier in 1806, carbon in that of Alais by Thenard in 1808, chlorine in that of Stannern by Scheerer in the same year, and cobalt by John in the Pallas iron in 1817. The number of elements discovered since has brought the total up to 29, none being found, however, which are not already known upon the earth. Many of the chemical compounds of meteorites were early isolated and their identity with terrestrial minerals established. Count Bournon showed in 1802 that the trans- parent green mineral accompanying the iron of Krasnojarsk was olivine. The same mineral was found in other meteorites by later observers, and Rose was able in 1825 to make angular measurements of the crystals which showed them to be identical with those of ter- restrial olivine. Laugier separated chromite from the stones of Knsisheim and L’Aigle in 1806. Augite was recognized by Mohs in the stone of Stannern in 1824 and by Rose in that of Juvinas in 1825. Haiiy recognized a feldspar which he thought to be orthoclase in the stone of Juvinas in 1822, but three years later Rose showed it to -_—- CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. ESD be plagioclase; and the existence of orthoclase in meteorites has yet to be proved. Continued investigations of the compounds found in meteorites up to the present time have resulted in the detection of at least 21 whose composition is certain, besides several of a somewhat problematic nature. Of these compounds seven have been found to differ in composition from any known terrestrial substances. The character of these indicates the complete absence of water and of oxygen in any large amount from that portion of nature’s laboratory where meteorites are formed. Important investigations as to the gases occluded by meteorites were begun by Boussingault in 1861 and have been continued by Wright, Ansdell, Dewar, and others. It has been proved that large quantities of hydrogen, as well as carbonic acid gas, are contained in these bodies, under pressure greater than that of the earth’s atmosphere. These investigations led further to the spec- troscopic study of meteorites by Vogel, Wright, and Lockyer. The spectra thus obtained, when compared with those exhibited by comets, showed striking resemblances, which have led to a growing belief among scientific men in the identity of origin of comets and meteorites. Lockyer has indeed pushed this conclusion to the point of believing that *‘all self-luminous bodies in the celestial spaces are composed either of swarms of meteorites or of masses of meteoric vapor produced by heat,” and he draws from this many important deductions relating to the origin of the stars, comets and nebule, and the physical condi- tions prevailing in them. It will remain for the twentieth century to test the correctness of such conclusions, but the facts already brought out have considerably shaken the confidence hitherto placed in the nebular hypothesis. Another interesting result of the century has been the establishment of a general similarity between shooting stars and meteorites. This idea was first suggested by Chladni in 1798, but it has remained for Newton, Adams, and Schiaparelli to give it shape and proof. The general verdict of science is now in accord with the belief of Newton, ‘‘ that from the faintest shooting star to the largest stone meteor we pass by such small gradations that no clear dividing lines can separate them into classes.” Moreover, the long- existing belief in le vide planétaire, space filled only with a mysterious fluid called ether, has been shown to be untenable. Careful records and estimates have shown that 20,000,000 cosmic bodies large enough to produce the phenomena of shooting stars are encountered by the earth daily. The number of these bodies existing in space must be, therefore, beyond all calculation, and their existence implies that of smaller par- ticles in sufficient number to form a widely pervasive cosmic dust. Many remarkable meteorite falls have occurred during the century. Beginning with the stone shower of L’Aigle in 1803, when 2,000 to 3,000 stones fell, no less than eleven such showers have been recorded. In the shower of Pultusk, Poland, which occurred in 1868, 100,000 196 CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. stones are estimated to have fallen, their total weight reaching over 400 pounds. In the shower at Mocs, Germany, in 1882, more than 3.000 stones fell. In our own country about 750 pounds of meteoric matter fell at Estherville, Iowa, in 1879, and several thousand stones fell over an area 9 miles in length and 1 mile wide near Forest City, Iowa, in 1890. Many of these falls have been marked by extraordi- nary phenomena of light and sound, making them events never to be forgotten by those who witnessed them and worthy to be reckoned among the most remarkable natural occurrences of the century. About 285 actually observed meteoric falls is the total recorded during the century. It is a remarkable fact regarding the nature of the material fallen that only 5 of these have been of meteoric irons. One of these irons fell at Mazapil, Mexico, during the star shower of November, 1885, at the time when the return of Biela’s comet was looked for, and was thus considered an occurrence corroborative of the already suspected relationship among comets, shooting stars, and meteorites. The indifference to the collecting of meteorites which characterized the early part of the century has given place in its latter days to an extraordinary diligence in the search for these bodies. One meteorite has of late acquired a value equal to four times its weight in gold, and several can be sold for two and three times their weight by the gold standard. The meteorite collection of the Natural History Museum in Vienna has for many years been the leading one. What it has cost to build it up may be known from the fact that it is considered the most valuable of any single collection in that great treasure house. Repre- sentatives of over 500 meteoric falls are exhibited in this collection, and the meteoric matter has a total weight of 7 tons. The collection of the British Museum of Natural History is nearly as large, while at Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Calcutta, together with Washington, Chicago, Cambridge, and New Haven, in our own country, are gathered extensive and important collections. The establishment of such large collections has for the first time put the study of meteorites on a sat- isfactory basis and given lively hope that important truths will be discovered by researches thus made possible. The general similarity of the stony meteorites to the basic voleanic rocks of the earth has been established, and similarity of many physical structures such as brecciation, slicken-sided surfaces, and veins has been proved. The chondritic structure and the crystalline structure represented by the Widmanstiitten figures are, however, so far as is yet known, peculiar to meteorites, and it will remain for the twentieth century to discover what these structures mean. Classifications of meteorites based on their mineralogical and structural characters have been established, and important differences among meteorites shown, in spite of their family resemblances. It would be idle perhaps to recount, as might CENTURY OF STUDY OF METEORITES. 1 g)e be done, many theories regarding the nature and origin of meteorites which have been found untenable as a result of the century’s study. The theory of the lunar origin of meteorites had at times such able supporters as Laplace and J. Lawrence Smith. Other able observers have believed meteorites to be material ejected at some past period from the earth’s volcanoes, some have regarded them of solar origin, and still others as fragments of a shattered planet. All of these theories may be said to have been proved fallacious. The discovery reported by Hahn in 1880 of remains of sponges, corals, and plants in meteorites excited for a time eager inquiries into the possibilities of proving by the study of meteorites the existence of life outside our own globe. No satisfactory evidence of the existence of extraterres- trial life has, however, as yet been obtained from meteorites. The most positive and enduring results of the century’s study may, there- fore, perhaps be summed up as the establishment of the fact of the fall of solid cosmic matter to the earth and a sufficient knowledge of its nature to distinguish it from matter of terrestrial origin. Satis- factory conclusions as to the origin of this matter and its relations to the visible bodies of the great outlying universe remain yet to be drawn. i oS ee RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION.® By Pror. Jonn H. Poyntrne, D. Sc., F. R. S. The studies in gravitation which I am to describe to you this evening will perhaps fall into better order if I rapidly run over the well-beaten track which leads to those studies, the track first laid down by Newton based on astronomical observations, and only made firmer and broader by every later observation. I may remind you, then, that the motion of the planets round the sun in ellipses, each marking out the area of its orbit at a constant rate, and each having a year proportional to the square root of the cube of its mean distance from the sun, implies that there is a force on each planet exactly proportioned to its mass, directed toward, and inversely as the square of its distance from the sun. The lines of force radiate out from the sun on all sides equally, and always grasp any matter with a force proportional to its mass, whatever planet that matter belongs to. If we assume that action and reaction are equal and opposite, then each planet acts on the sun with a force proportional to its own mass; and if, further, we suppose that these forces are merely the sum totals of the forces due to every particle of matter in the bodies acting, we are led straight to the law of gravitation, that the force between two masses M, M, is always proportional to the product of the masses divided by the square of the distance 7 between them, or is equal to GxM,xM, ha and the constant multiplier G is the constant of gravitation. Since the force is always proportional to the mass acted on, and produces the same change of velocity whatever that mass may be, the change of velocity tells us nothing about the mass in which it takes place, but only about the mass which is pulling. If, however, we compare the accelerations due to different pulling bodies, as for instance that of the sun pulling the earth with that of the earth pull- ing the moon, or if we compare changes in motion due to the different "From Proceedings of the Royal Institution of "Great Britain, Vol. XVI, part 2, November, 1901. Read at weekly evening meeting, Friday, February 23, 1900, His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, K. G., F. 8S. A., president, in the chair. 199 200 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. planets pulling each other, then we can compare their masses and weigh them one against another and each against the sun. But in this weighing our standard weight is not the pound or kilogram of terrestrial weighings, but the mass of the sun. For instance, from the fact that a body at the earth’s surface, 4,000 miles, on the average, from the mass of the earth, falls with a velocity increasing by 32 ft. sec.”, while the earth itself falls towards the sun, 92,090,000 miles away, with a velocity increasing by about 4 inch/ see.?, we can at once show that the mass of the sun is 300,000 times that of the earth. In other words, astronomical observation gives us only the acceleration, the product of G X mass acting, but does not tell us the value of G nor of the mass acting in terms of our terrestrial standards. To weigh the sun, the planets, or the earth in pounds or kilo- grams, or to find G, we must descend from the heavenly bodies to sarthly matter, and either compare the pull of a weighable mass on some body with the puil of the earth on it, or else choose two weigh- able masses and find the pull between them. All this was clearly seen by Newton, and was set forth in his System of the World (third edition, p. 41). He saw that a mountain mass might be used, and weighed against the earth by finding how much it deflected the plumb line at its base. The density of the mountain could be found from specimens of the rocks composing it, and the distance of its parts from the plumb line by asurvey. The deflection of the vertical would then give the mass of the earth. Newton also considered the possibility of measuring the attraction between two weighable masses, and caleulated how long it would take a sphere a foot in diameter, of the earth’s mean density, to draw another equal sphere, with their surfaces separated by one-fourth inch, through that one-fourth inch. But he made a very great mis- take in his arithmetic, for while his result gave about one month, the actual time would only be about five and one-half minutes. Had his value been right, gravitational experiments would have been beyond the power of even Professor Boys. Some doubt has been thrown on Newton’s authorship of this mistake, but I confess that there is some- thing not altogether unpleasing in the mistake even of a Newton. His faulty arithmetic showed that there was one quality which he shared with the rest of mankind. Not long after Newton's death the mountain experiment was actually tried, and in two ways. The honor of making these first experiments on gravitation belongs to Bouguer, whose splendid work in thus breaking new ground does not appear to me to have received the credit due to it. One of his plans consisted in measuring the deflection of the plumb A) ee ee ee ee ee eee RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 201 line due to Chimborazo, one of the Andes peaks, by finding the dis- tance of a star on the meridian from the zenith, first at a station on the south side of the mountain, where the vertical was deflected, and then at a station to the west, where the mountain attraction was nearly inconsiderable, so that the actual nearly coincided with the geograph- ical vertical. The difference in zenith distances eave the mountain deflection. It is not surprising that, working in snowstorms at one station and in-sand storms at the other, Bouguer obtained a very incorrect result. But at 'east he showed the possibility of such work, and since his time many experiments have been carried out on his lines under more favorable conditions. Now, however, I think it is generally recognized that the difficulty of estimating the mass of a mountain from mere surface chips is insurmountable, and it is admitted that the experiment should be turned the other way about and regarded 3 dD \ SQX& \ MSV > ip f <5) Ny Hy Fie. 1.—Cavendish’s apparatus. as an attempt to measure the mass of the mountains from the density of the earth known by other experiments. These other experiments are on the line indicated by Newton in his calculations of the attraction of two spheres. The first was carried out by Cavendish. In the apparatus (fig. 1) he used two lead balls, B B, each 2 inches in diameter. These were hung at the end of a horizontal rod 6 feet long, the torsion rod, and this was hung up by a long wire from its middle point. Two large attracting spheres of lead, W W, each 12 inches in diameter, were brought close to the balls on opposite sides, so that their attractions on the balls conspired to twist the torsion rod round the same way, and the angle of twist was measured. The force could be reckoned in terms of this angle by setting the rod vibrating to and fro and finding the time of vibration, and the force came out to less than one three-thousandth of a grain. Knowing M, M, and 7, the 902 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. distance between them and the force G M, M, 7”, of course Cavendish’s result gives G, or, knowing the attraction of a big sphere on a ball, and knowing the attraction of the earth on the same ball—that is, its weight—the experiment gives the mass of earth in terms of that of the big sphere, and so its mean density. This experiment has often been repeated, but I do not think it is too much to say that no advance was made in exactness till we come to quite recent work. By far the most remarkable recent study in gravitation is Professor Soys's beautiful form of the Cavendish experiment, a research which stands out as a model in beauty of design and in exactness of execu- tion (fig. 2). But as Professor Boys has described his experiment already in this theater,“ it is not necessary for me to more than refer toit. It is enough to say that he made the great discovery, obvious, perhaps, when made, that the sensitiveness of the apparatus is increased by reducing its dimensions. He therefore decreased the scale as far as was consistent with exact measurement of the parts of the appa- ratus, using a torsion rod, itself a mirror, only 2 inches long, gold balls, m m, only 4 inch in diameter, and attracting lead masses, M M, * Proc. Royal Institution, XIV, part 2, 1894, p. 353. RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. 903 only 44 inches in diameter. The force to be measured was less than 1/5 x 10° grain. The exactness of his work was increased by using as suspending wire one of his quartz threads. It would be difficult to overestimate the service he has rendered in the measurement of small forces by the discovery of the remarkable properties of these threads. One of the chief difficulties in the measurement of these small gray- itational pulls is the disturbances which are brought about by the air currents which blow to and fro and up and down inside the apparatus, producing irregular motions in the torsion rod. ‘These, though much reduced, are not reduced in proportion to the diminution of the appar atus. A very interesting repetition of the Cavendish experiment has lately been concluded by Dr. Braun* at Mariaschein, in Bohemia, in which he has sought to get rid of these disturbing air currents by suspend- ing his torsion rod in a receiver which was nearly exhausted, the pres- sure being reduced to about one two-hundredth of an atmosphere. The gales which have been the despair of other workers were thus reduced to such gentle breezes that their effect was hardly noticeable. His apparatus was nearly a mean proportional between that of Caven- dish and Boys, his torsion rod being about 9 inches long, the balls weighing : grams—less than 2 ounces—and the attracting masses pither 5 5 or 9 kilograms. His work bears internal evidence of great care and accuracy, and he obtained almost exactly the same result as Professor Boys. Dr. Braun carried on his work far from the usual laboratory facili- ties, far from workshops, and he had to make much of his appa- ratus himself. His patience and persistence command our highest admiration. Iam glad to say that Me is now repeating the experiment, using as suspension a quartz fiber supplied to him by Professor Boys in place of the somewhat untrustworthy metal wire which he used in the work already published. Professor Boys has almost indignantly disclaimed that he was engaged on any such purely local experiment as the determination of the mean density of the earth. He was working for the universe, Nid the value of G, information which would be as useful on Mars Jupiter or out in the stellar system as here on the earth. But Ethane we may this evening consent to be more parochial in our ideas and express the results in terms of the mean density of the earth. In such terms, then, both Boys and Braun find that density 5.527 times the density of water, agreeing therfeore to 1 in 5,000. There is another mode of proceeding which may be regarded as the *Denks ainificn fier Math. Wiss. Clases Aaa Tone Alaa alae Wissense hatte Wi ien, LXIV, 1896. 904 RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. Cavendish experiment turned from a horizontal into a vertical plane, and in which the torsion balance is replaced by the common balance. This method occurred about the same time to the late Prof. U. Jolly and myself. The principle of my own experiment* will be sufticiently indicated by fig. 3. A big bullion balance with a 4-foot beam had two lead spheres, A B, each about 50 pounds in weight, hang- ing from the two ends in place of the usual scale pans. “| 4 which would always be there and would go s (| through all its values in one hundred and y Ne fifteen seconds. An observer, watching the © wheel at the top of the revolving axis, gave & the time signals every eleven and five-tenth & | seconds, regulating the speed if necessary, Fig. 11.—Results of superposition of and an observer at the telescope gave the lengths of curves in fig. 10equal ccale reading at. every signal—that is. to the period of the regular one. é > x = times during the period. The values were arranged in 10 columns, each horizontal line giving the readings of a period. The experiment was carried on for about two and one-half hours at a time, covering, say, 80 periods. On adding up the columns 3 Da the maxima and minima of the couple effect would always fall in the same two columns, and so the addition would give 80 times the swing, while the maxima and minima of the natural swings due to disturb- ances would fall in different columns, and so, in the long run, neu- tralize each other. The results of different days’ work might, of course, be added together. There always was a small outstanding effect, such as would be pro- duced by a quadrantal couple, but its effect was not always in the same columns, and the net result of about three hundred and fifty period observations was that there was no one hundred and fifteen second r RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. Pls vibration of more than 1 second of are, while the disturbances were sometimes 50 times as great. The semicircular couple required the turning sphere to revolve in one hundred and fifteen seconds. Here want of symmetry in the apparatus would come in with the same effect as the couple sought, and the outstanding result was accordingly a little larger. But in neither case could the experiments be taken as showing a real couple. They only showed that, if it existed, it was incapable of pro- ducing an effect greater than that observed. Perhaps the best way to put the result of our work is this: Imagine the small sphere set with its axis at 45° to that of the other. Then the couple is not greater than one which would take five and one-fourth hours to turn it through that 45° to the parallel position, and it would oscillate about that position in not less than twenty-one hours. The semicircular couple is not greater than one which would turn from crossed to parallel position in four and one-half hours, and it would oscillate about that position in not less than seventeen hours. Or, if the gravitation is less in the crossed than in the parallel posi- tion, and in a constant ratio, the difference is less than 1 in 16,000 in the one case and less than 1 in 2,800 in the other. We may compare with these numbers the difference of rate of travel of yellow light through a quartz crystal along the axis and perpen- dicular to it. That difference is of quite another order, being about 1 in 170. As to other possible qualities of gravitation, I shall only mention that quite indecisive experiments have been made to seek for an altera- tion of mass on chemical combination,* and that at present there is no reason to suppose that temperature affects gravitation. Indeed, as to temperature effect, the agreement of weight methods and volume methods of measuring expansion with rise of temperature is good, as far as it goes, in showing that weight is independent of temperature. So, while the experiments to determine G are converging on the same value, the attempts to show that, under certain conditions, it may not be constant, have resulted so far in failure all along the line. No attack on gravitation has succeeded in showing that it is related to any- thing but the masses of the attracting and the attracted bodies. It appears to have no relation to physical or chemical condition of the acting masses or to the intervening medium. Perhaps we have been led astray by false analogies in some of our questions. Some of the qualities we have sought and failed to find, qualities which characterize electric and magnetic forces, may be due to the polarity, the + and —, which we ascribe to poles and charges, and which have no counterpart in mass. “Landolt, Zeit. fir Phys. Chem. XII, 1, 1894. Sanford and Ray, Physical Review, V, 1897, p. 247. Pater RECENT STUDIES IN GRAVITATION. But this unlikeness, this independence of gravitation of any quality — but mass, bars the way to any explanation of its nature. f The dependence of electric forces on the medium, one of Faraday’s grand discoveries forever associated with the Royal Institution, was the first step which led on to the electromagnetic theory of light, now so splendidly illustrated by Hertz’s electromagnetic waves. The quantitative laws of electrolysis, again due to Faraday, are leading, I believe, to the identification of electrification and chemical separation— to the identification of electric with chemical energy. But gravitation still stands alone. The isolation which Faraday sought to break down is still complete. Yet the work I have been describing is not all failure. We at least know something in knowing what qualities gravitation does not possess, and when the time shall come for explanation all these laborious and, at first sight, useless experi- ments will take their place in the foundation on which that explanation will be built. ON ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER THROUGH INFINITE SPACE.’ By Lorp Ketvin. NOTE ON THE POSSIBLE DENSITY OF THE LUMINIFEROUS MEDIUM AND ON THE MECHANICAL VALUE OF A CUBIC MILE be OF SUNLIGHT. Srcrion |. That there must be a medium forming a continuous mate- vial communication throughout space to the remotest visible body is a fundamental assumption in the undulatory theory of light. Whether or not this medium is (as appears® to me most probable) a continuation of our own atmosphere, its existence is a fact that can not be ques- tioned when the overwhelming evidence in favor of the undulatory theory is considered; and the investigation of its properties In every possible way becomes an object of the greatest interest. A first ques- tion would naturally occur, What is the absolute density of the lumi- niferous ether in any part of space? Iam not aware of any attempt having hitherto been made to answer this question, and the present state of science does not in fact afford sufficient data. It has, however, occurred to me that we may assign an inferior limit to the density of the luminiferous medium in interplanetary space by considering the mechanical value of sunlight as deduced in preceding communica- tions to the Royal Society ‘ from Pouillet’s data on solar radiation and “Reprinted from the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science [sixth series], August, 1901, pp. 161-177. [This is an amplifica- tion of Lecture XVI, Baltimore, October 15, 1884, now being prepared for print in a volume on Molecular Dynamics and the Wave Theory of Light, which I hope may be published within a year from the present time. ] >Note of December 22, 1892.—The brain-wasting perversity of the insular inertia which still condemns British engineers to reckonings of miles and yards and feet and inches and grains and pounds and ounces and acres is curiously illustrated by the title and numerical results of this article as originally published. °October 13, 1899.—In the present reproduction, as part of my Lecture XVI, of Baltimore, 1884, I suggest cubic kilometer instead of ‘‘cubic mile”’ in the title, and use the French metrical system exclusively in the article. 4From Edin. Royal Soc. Trans., Vol. X XI, Part I, May, 1854; Phil. Mag., IX, 1854; Comptes Rendus, XX XIX, Sept., 1854; Art. LX VII of Math. and Phys. Papers. eOctober 13, 1899.—Not so now. I did not in 1854 know the kinetic theory of gases. _ fTrans. R. 8. E.; Mechanical Energies of the Solar System; republished as Art. LX VI of Math. and Phys. Papers. ®. 9) 216 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. Joule’s mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit. Thus the value of solar radiation per second per square centimeter at the earth’s distance from the sun, estimated at 1,235 em.-grams, is the same as the mechan- ical value of sunlight in the luminiferous medium through a space of as many cubic centimeters as the number of linear centimeters of prop- agation of light per second. Hence the mechanical value of the whole energy, kinetic and potential, of the disturbance kept up in the space of acubic centimeter at the earth’s distance from the sun* is 1935 412 33010" Os 10 of acm. -gram. Src. 2. The mechanical value of a cubic kilometer of sunlight is consequently 412 meter-kilograms, equivalent to the work of one horsepower for five and four-tenths seconds. This result may give some idea of the actual amount of mechanical energy of the luminif- erous motions and forces within our own atmosphere. Merely to commence the illumination of 11 cubic kilometers requires an amount of work equal to that of a horsepower for a minute; the same amount of energy exists in that space as long as light continues to traverse it, and, if the source of light be suddenly stopped, must pass from it before the illumination ceases.” The matter which possesses this energy is the luminiferous medium. If, then, we knew the velocities of the vibratory motions, we might ascertain the density of the luminiferous medium; or, conversely, if we knew the density of the medium, we might determine the average velocity of the moying particles. Sec. 3. Without any such definite knowledge we may assign a superior limit to the velocities and deduce an inferior limit to the quan- tity of matter by considering the nature of the motions which con- stitute waves of light. For it appears certain that the amplitudes of the vibrations constituting radiant heat and light must be but small fractions of the wave lengths, and that the greatest velocities of the vibrating particles must be very small in comparison with the velocity of propagation of the waves Sec. +. Let us consider, ay instance, homogeneous plane polarized light, and let the greatest velocity of vibration be denoted by #; the distance to which a panicle TLDS: on each side of its position of “The mechanical “See of apes t in any space near the sun’s surface must be greater than in an equal space at the earth’s distance in the ratio of the square of the earth’s distance to the square of the sun’s radius—that is, in the ratio of 46,000 to 1 nearly. The gnechanical value of a cubic centimeter of sunlight near the sun must, therefore, be 1235 x 46000 : abs , or about .0019 of a em.-gram. 3><110)° »Similarly we find 4,140 horsepower for a minute as the amount of work required to generat the energy existing in a cubic kilometer of light near the sun. ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. a he equilibrium by A; and the wave length by A. Then, if V denote the velocity of propagation of light or radiant heat, we have and therefore if A be a small fraction of A, 7 must also be a small fraction (27 times as great) of V. The same relation holds for cir- cularly polarized light, since in the time during which a particle revolves once round in a circle of radius A the wave has been propa- gated over a space equal to’. Now, the whole mechanical value of homogeneous plane polarized light in an infinitely small space con: taining only particles sensibly in the same phase of vibration, which consists entirely of potential energy at the instants when the particles are at rest at the extremities of their excursions, partly of potential and partly of kinetic energy when they are moving to or from their positions of equilibrium, and wholly of kinetic energy when they are passing through these positions, is of constant amount, and must therefore be at every instant equal to half the mass multiplied by the square of the velocity which the particles have in the last-mentioned ease. But the velocity of any particle passing through its position of equilibrium is the greatest velocity of vibration. This we have denoted by v; and, therefore, if denote the quantity of vibrating matter contained in a certain space, a space of unit volume, for in- stance, the whole mechanical value of all the energy, both kinetic and _ potential, of the disturbance within that space at any time is $v". The mechanical energy of circularly polarized light at every instant is (as has been pointed out to me by Professor Stokes) half kinetic energy of the revolving particles and half potential energy of the distortion kept up in the luminiferous medium; and, therefore, 1 being now taken to denote the constant velocity of motion of each particle, double the preceding expression gives the mechanical value of the whole disturbance in a unit of volume in the present case. Src. 5. Hence, it is clear that for any elliptically polarized light the mechanical value of the disturbance in a unit of volume will be between $pv” and pv’, if wv still denote the greatest velocity of the vibrating particles. The mechanical value of the disturbance kept up by a number of coexisting series of waves of different periods, polarized in the same plane, is the sum of the mechanical values due to each homogeneous series separately, and the greatest velocity that can possibly be acquired by any vibrating particle is the sum of the separate velocities due to the different series. Exactly the same remark applies to coexistent series of circularly polarized waves of different periods. Hence, the mechanical value is certainly less than half the mass multiplied into the square of the greatest velocity 218 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. acquired by a particle, when the disturbance consists in the superpo- sition of different series of plane polarized waves; and we may con- clude, for every kind of radiation of light or heat except a series of homogeneous circularly polarized waves, that the mechanical value of the disturbance kept up in any space is less than the product of the mass into the square of the greatest velocity acquired by a vibrating.- particle in the varying phases of its motion. How much less in such a complex radiation as that of sunlight and heat we can not tell, because we do not know how much the velocity of a particle may mount up, perhaps even to a considerable value in comparison with the velocity of propagation, at some instant by the superposition of different motions chancing to agree; but we may be sure that the product of the mass into the square of an ordinary maximum velocity, or of the mean of a great many successive maximum velocities of vibrating particle, can not exceed in any great ratio the true mechan- ical value of the disturbance. Src. 6. Recurring, however, to the definite expression for the mechanical value of the disturbance in the case of homogeneous cir- cularly polarized light, the only case in which the velocities’ of all particles are constant and the same, we may define the mean velocity of vibration in any case as such a velocity that the product of its square into the mass of the vibrating particles is equal to the whole mechan- ical value, in kinetic and potential energy, of the disturbance in a certain space traversed by it; and from all we know of the mechanical theory of undulations, it seems certain that this velocity must be a very small fraction of the velocity of propagation in the most intense light or radi- ant heat which is propagated according to known laws. Denoting this velocity for the case of sunlight at the earth’s distance from the sun by », and calling W the mass in grams of any volume of the luminiferous ether, we have the mechanical value of the disturbance in the same space, in terms of terrestrial gravitation units, W 9 ay g 5) where g is the number 981, measuring in (C.G.S.) absolute units of force, the force of gravity on a gram. Now, from Pouillet’s obser- 4 1255 x 46000 ration, we found in the last footnote on section 1 above, = aay for the mechanical value, in centimeter-grams, of a cubic centimeter of sunlight in the neighborhood of the sun; and therefore the mass, in grams, of a cubic centimeter of the ether, must be given by the equa- tion, 981 * 1235 x 46000 WY = cena. Nie ee i ee ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 219 RAR aie If we assume ae , this becomes Ww 981 X 1235 X 46000 , 981123546000, = 20°64 | Coe a Fic ees ae Xn = (3 wal Loys —_— Kn = 10” xn em. 20°64 2 and for the mass, in grams, of a cubic kilometer we have —7;- <7’. 10° | Src. 7. It is quite impossible to fix a definite limit to the ratio ~ which » may bear to V; but it appears improbable that it could be | more, for instance, than one-fiftieth for any kind of light following — the observed laws. We may conclude that probably a cubic centi- meter of the luminiferous medium in the space near the sun contains — not less than 516 10° of a gram of matter; and a cubic kilometer not less than 516 10° of a gram. : Src. 8. [Nov. 16, 1899.-We have strong reason to believe that the density of ether is constant throughout interplanetary and inter- | stellar space. Hence, taking the density of water as unity according to the convenient French metrical system, the preceding statements | are equivalent to saying that the density of ether in vacuum or space devoid of ponderable matter is everywhere probably not less than my x10". | Hence the rigidity (being equal to the density multiplied by the square of the velocity of light) must be not less than 4500 dynes* per square centimeter. With this enormous value as an inferior limit to the rigidity of the ether, we shall see in an addition to Lecture XIX that it is impossible to arrange for a radiant molecule moving through ether and displacing ether by its translatory as well as by its vibratory motions, consistently with any probable suppositions as to magnitudes of molecules and ruptural rigidity-modulus of ether; and that it isalso impossible to explain the known smallness of ethereal resistance against the motions of planets and comets, or of smaller ponderable bodies, such as those we can handle and experiment upon in our abode on the earth’s surface, if the ether must be pushed aside to make way for the body moving through it. We shall find ourselves forced to consider the necessity of some hypothesis for the free motion of pon- derable bodies through ether, disturbing it only by condensations and : rarefactions, with no incompatibility in respect to joint occupation of F the same space by the two substances.”| : Sec. 9. I wish to make a short calculation to show how much com- _ pressing force is exerted upon the luminiterous ether by the sun’s attraction. We are accustomed to call ether imponderable. How do we know it is imponderable? If we had never dealt with air except “See Math. and Phys. Papers, Vol. III, p. 522; and in the last line of table 4, for fp 10—~’ substitute ‘p< 10-~.”’ ’See Phil. Mag., Aug., 1900, pp. 181-198. 290) ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. by our senses, air would be imponderable to us; but we know by experiment that a vacuous glass globe shows an increase of weight when air is allowed to flow into it. We have not the slightest reason to believe the luminiferous ether to be imponderable. [Nov. 17, 1899.-I now see that we have the strongest possible reason to believe that ether is imponderable.| It is just as likely to be attracted to the sun as air is. At all events the onus of proof rests with those who assert that it is imponderable. I think we shall have to modify our ideas of what gravitation is, if we have a mass spread- ing through space with mutual gravitations between its parts with- out being attracted by other bodies. [Nov. 17, 1899.—But is there any gravitational attraction between different portions of ether? Cer- tainly not, unless either it is infinitely resistant against condensa- tion, or there is only a finite volume of space occupied by it. Suppose that ether is given uniform spread through space to infinite distances in all directions. Any spherical portion of it, if held with its sur- face absolutely fixed, would by the mutual gravitation of its parts become heterogeneous; and this tendency could certainly not be coun- teracted by doing away with the supposed rigidity of its boundary and by the attraction of, ether extending to infinity outside it. The pressure at the center of a spherical portion of homogeneous gravita- tional matter is proportional to the square of the radius, and there- fore by taking the globe large enough may be made as large as we please, whatever be the density. In fact, if there were mutual gravi- tation between its parts, homogeneous ether extending through all space would be essentially unstable unless infinitely resistant against compressing or dilating forces. If we admit that ether is to some degree condensable and extensible, and believe that it extends through all space, then we must conclude that there is no mutual gravitation between its parts, and can not believe that it is gravitationally attracted by the sun or the earth or any ponderable matter; that is to say, we must believe ether to be a substance outside the law of uni- versal gravitation. | Sec. 10. In the meantime it is an interesting and definite question to think of what the weight of a column of luminiferous ether of infi- nite height resting on the sun would be, supposing the sun cold and quiet, and supposing for the moment ether to be gravitationally attracted by the sun as if it were ponderable matter of density 5x10~"*. You all know the theorem for mean gravity due to attrac- tion inversely as the square of the distance from a point. It shows that the heaviness of a uniform vertical column AB, of mass w per unit length and having its length in a line through the center of force C, is mw mw may. CA CB°. °' GA if Ch=c, ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. ol where m denotes the attraction on unit of mass at unit distance. Hence writing for mw CA, mwCA CA’, we see that the attraction on an infinite column under the influence of a force decreasing according to inverse square of distance is equal to the attraction on a column equal in length to the distance of its near end from the center and attracted by a uniform force equal to that of gravity on the near end. The sun’s radius is 697 10* ems., and gravity at his surface is 27 times“ terrestrial gravity, or say 27,000 dynes per gram of mass. Hence the sun’s attraction on a column of ether of a square centimeter section, if of density 5107", and extending from his surface to infinity, would be 9'4x 10~° of a dyne, if ether were ponderable. Src. 11. Considerations similar to those of November, 1899, inserted in section 9 above lead to decisive proof that the mean density of pon- derable matter through any very large spherical volume of space is smaller the greater the radius, and is infinitely small for an infinitely great radius. If it were not so a majority of the bodies in the uni- verse would each experience infinitely great gravitational force. This is a short statement of the essence of the following demonstration: Sec. 12. Let V be any volume of space bounded by a closed surface S, outside of which and within which there are ponderable bodies; M the sum of the masses of all these bodies within S; and p the mean density of the whole matter in the volume V. We have 1 GEO (a eet ie areas see a GD Let Q denote the mean value of the normal component of the gravita- tional force at all points of S. We have OG =47M—=47 OV wd 6 sss, (2); by a general theorem discovered by Green seventy-three years ago regarding force at a surface of any shape, due to matter (gravita- tional or ideal electric or ideal magnetic) acting according to the Newtonian law of the inverse square of the distance. It is interesting to remark that the surface integral of the normal component force due to matter outside any closed surface is zero for the whole surface. If normal component force acting inward is reckoned positive, force outward must of course be reckoned negative. In equation (2) the normal component force may be outward at some points of the sur- face S, if in some places the tangent plane is cut by the surface. But if the surface is wholly convex the normal component force must be everywhere inward. Src. 13. Let now the surface be spherical of radius 7, We have a ar oo “This is founded on the following values for the sun’s mass and radius and the earth’s radius: Sun’s mass=324000 earth’s mass; sun’s radius=697000 kilometers; earth’s radius=6371 kilometers. age ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. Hence, for a spherical surface, (2) gives Q= erat: i eee This shows that the average normal component force over the surface S is infinitely great, if p is finite and 7 is infinitely great, which sufh- ces to prove section 11. Src. 14. For example, let = 1502 10°. 206.:10° =3-09NL0™ kinky Senta This is the distance at which a star must be to have parallax one one- thousandth of a second; because the mean distance of the earth from the sun is 150,000,000 kms., and there are 206,000 seconds of angle in the radian. Let us try whether there can be as much matter as a thousand-million times the sun’s mass, or, as we shall say for brevity, a thousand-million suns, within a spherical surface of that radius (5). The sun’s mass is 324,000 times the earth’s mass, and therefore our quantity of matter on trial is 3°24. 10" times the earth’s mass. Hence if we denote by ¢ terrestrial gravity at the earth’s surface, we have by (4) 9.2) aerate ce See ree): Hence if the radial force were equal over the whole spherical surface, its amount would be 1°37. 10-'' of terrestrial surface-gravity; ml every body on or near that surface would experience an acceleration toward the center equal to 1:37. 10-* kms. per second per second . . . (4), because g is approximately 1,000 cms. per second per second, or ‘O01 km. per second per second. If the normal force is not uniform, bodies on or near the spherical surface will experience centerward acceleration, some at more than that rate, some less. At exactly that rate, the velocity acquired per year (thirty-one and a half miltion see- onds) would be 4°32. 10° kms. per second. With the same rate of acceleration through five million years the velocity would amount to 21°6 kms. per sec ond, if the body started from rest at our spherical surface; and the space moved through in five million years would be 17.10" kms., which is only °055 of 7 (5). This is so small that the force would vary very little, unless through the accident of near approach to some other body. With the same acceleration constant through twenty-five million years the velocity would amount to 108 kms. per second; but the space moved through in twenty-five million years would be 4°25. 10" kms., or more than the radius 7, which skows that the rate of acceleration could not be approximately constant for nearly as long a time as twenty-five million years. It would, in fact, ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. 223 have many chances of being much greater than 108 kms. per second, and many chances elso of being considerably less. Sec. 15. Without attempting to solve the problem of finding the motions and velocities of the 1,000,000,000 bodies, we can see that if they had been given at rest* twenty-five million years ago distributed uniformly or nonuniformly through our sphere (5) of 3°09. 10! kms. radius, a very large proportion of them would now have velocities not less than 20 or 30 kms. per second, while many would have velocities less than that; and certainly some would have velocities greater than 108 kms. per second; or if thousands of millions of years ago they had been given at rest, at distances from one another very great in comparison with 7 (5), so distributed that they should temporarily now be equably spaced throughout a spherical surface of radius 7 (5), their mean velocity (reckoned as the square root of the mean of the squares of their actual velocities), would now be 50°4kms. per second.” This is not very unlike what we know of the stars visible to us. Thus it is quite possible, perhaps probable, that there may be as much matter as a thousand million suns within the distance corresponding to parallax one one-thousandth of a second (3°09. 10" kms.). But it seems perfectly certain that there can not be within this distance as much matter as 10,000,000,000 suns; because if there were we should find much greater velocities of visible stars than observation shows, according to the following tables of results and statements from the most recent scientific authorities on the subject. “The potential energy of gravitation may be in reality the ultimate created antecedent of all the motion, heat, and light at present in the universe.’’ See Mechanical Antecedants of Motion, Heat, and Light. Art. LXIX of my Collected Mathematica: and Physical Papers, Vol. II. »To prove this, remark that the exhaustion of gravitational energy MetOON (tea +00 =z | R’dx dy dz, Thomson and Tait’s Natural Philosophy, Part HE) Pee oy Oh) Keo y II, section 549) when a vast number, N, of equal masses come from rest at infinite distances from one another to an equably spaced distribution through a sphere of radius 7 is easily found to be 3/10 Fr, where F denotes the resultant force of the attraction of all of them on a material point, of mass equal to the sum of their masses, placed at the spherical surface. Now, this exhaustion of gravitational energy is spent wholly in the generation’ of kinetic energy; and therefore we have Shiv “ Fr, and by (7) F=1°37 .10-"2m; whence 2 Sve. 3 ae 10h, Om ie am 5 which, for the case of equal masses, gives, with (5) for the value of 7, Sy)2 eS (2 1°37. 10-™, 3°09. 101®) =50,4 kms. per second. 224 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. [From the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes ( Paris, 1901).] : | Velocities Distance | perpen- : from earth) Annual | dicular to Magni- Name of star. in million) proper | Parallax. line of tude. million | motions. |sightin kil- kilometers. ometers per | second. | " " (Wy fall CC oUe hh poem scacen sans Se scedcecassccsmecss 43, 3. 62 0. 72 23.9 (Set GEOG 225 agen so shdccsndcngeosenseeeess 64 4.75 -48 47.1 Gal (MON facies so =n eheaacocedesscoceconisaospossse seers 70 5.17 | .44 55.7 STV Shistiises seas cecceancadceasessdsoerecesocacectenss: 83 | 1.32 37 aU S52 e1SG09 7Amres- CN ize nese eee eee 88 | 2.30 -30 31.3 79) S4IGLOOMIDTI GL Cae ee eee ee 99 2.83 el, 43.5 755) \\'9352 Wa caille sate ocean eee ee ee 110 6.97 28 118.5 OSG) || IPRMOYAZN —-scoscesseesconsncceerscSonaedeaasscess 110 1.26 Sef 22.2 9. Ieee ee 0 KW AS (hese cecehod sugerencacsanetec 119 3.05 26 East! 6:5) | 6439 edorenkoe case neo erce ss see ee eee 123 1.43 22D Died is) || DAs) Ibi Galo les 53 se kes eceamoaoscusea Sdoosdares 128 | 4.40 24 | $7.1 AW | GMD TACOMIS oo ecisten coe care See lacie ene osie eel 128 1.84 24 36.5 BE(8 I) CREO NSS Sa- se cconn an eosocsshosbescocedszaces 147 | iG) elie 27. 00 FavAtamigw ies. sok. Sos sere eee ee eeeeeeeseeene 147 | 0. 43 -21 9.8 9. ESI IN vege(O DNAS Ol oe on Goeanasosac uc seccnbScesus 154 | are -20 30.2 OG) || Gi dC ED nog aep ont ode ceees soscncoceoocdussaccess 154 | 0. 64 - 20 1532 RO es OC pate b toate eA es See ear saoHsoorencececcasous 154 4.60 - 20 109.5 (biel) afd oko Chol saeanmmooetconbeouccdconcaosceaccesea6 181 4.05 ily DI3FZ Daa EI CASSOPCIG] ease eee eee eee eee eee eee 193 0.57 -16 16.9 1 OD AUT er Soo eo aciersiee ee mie Tee nee eee eee 206 0.19 -15 6. ae AGS ISHEGOLED KOs see e ere ata rae eee tee ee 206 0. 42 -15 13.3 Ao cp Opnichiv..-c--ees. sees S2 sass eee ears 206 13183 alls) 35.8 OLDG Were ea goie occ cee nema eeceicet: cee eee eerie 206 0.36 15 11.4 DO ce Ohi MiObG (UROB Ve) ccercroecospsacnesedencsnc 440 0. 05 .07 3.4 Stars which have largest of observed velocities in the line of sight. {Extract by the Astronomer Royal from an article in the Astrophysical Journal for January, 1901, by W. W. Campbell, director of Lick Observatory. | mre | | : a ae R. A. Dec. Velocity. Kilometer h. m. OF ae per sec. 456) e2AMNGromed se -...5Sces Sac oseccer ones oteesee hee ee er ee eee 0 33 +28 46 —84 2 Cassiopeise s 25. oc bskes bere tise ciste.s Rees paecl Lacie oe eee eee iL @) +54 20 —97 OVSCPOLIS 6 os. sie fec ees esse sacs cee Mee Ses cece ae eee ee eeeener | 5 47 —20 54 +95 4-2 O\Canis:iMajoris<2. =. [35.2.0 oe once ee seas ene eee ee 6 50 —ll 55 +96 fir) SCY HEX) ee te Ae eee ee ene a aeome-cabesscédc Pale 17) +19 23 —76 ASL OMS ITCLALIL, © oe ois c:coe a clne sone eee ernie eee Se eee eee 18 8 —21 1 —76 The + sign denotes recession, the — sign approach. ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. AAS) Motions of stars in the line of sight determined at Potsdam Observatory, 1889-1891 [Communicated by Professor Becker, University Observatory, Glasgow. ] | a | - | Velocity ; - | Velocity Star. ita ee relative to Star. lec relative to ‘| the sun. © | the sun. | Kilometer. Kilometer. BEA NUTOMCULE!: «<< 194 15 SURRCESER I Sys Cysts Ser isn a) oh A ere es Ie oe . 02a 1.98 102» 407 6.5 | *Parallax calculated from dynamical determinations of ratio of semimajor axis of double star’s orbit to semimajor axis of earth’s orbit. f > From spectroscopic obseryations by Belopolsky of Poulcowa, combined with elements of orbit. 230 ETHER AND GRAVITATIONAL MATTER. Src. 22. There may also be a large amount of matter in many stars outside the sphere of 3.10" kilometers radius, but however much mat- ter there may be outside it, it seems to be made highly probable by sections 11-21 that the total quantity of matter within it is greater than 100,000,000 times and less than 2,000,000,000 times the sun’s Inass. I wish, in conclusion, to express my thanks to Sir Norman Lockyer, to the Astronomer Royal, Mr. Christie, to Sir Robert Ball, and to Pro- fessor Becker for their kindness in taking much trouble to give me information in respect to astronomical data, which has proved most useful to me in sections 11-21, above. ON BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS.* By Prof. J. J. THomson, Cambridge University. The masses of the atoms of the various gases were first investigated about thirty years ago by methods due to Loschmidt, Johnstone, Stoney, and Lord Kelvin. These physicists, using the principles of the kinetic theory of gases and making certain assumptions, which it must be admitted are not entirely satisfactory, as to the shape of the atom, determined the muss of an atom of a gas; and when once the mass of an atom of one substance is known the masses of the atoms of all other substances are easily deduced by well-known chemical con- siderations. The results of these investigations might be thought not to leave much room for the existence of anything smaller than ordinary atoms, for they showed that in a cubic centimeter of gas at atmospheric pressure and at 0° C. there are about 20 million, million, million (2 x 10") molecules of gas. Though some of the arguments used to get this result are open to question, the result itself has been confirmed by considerations of quite a different kind. Thus, Lord Rayleigh has shown that this num- ber of molecules per cubic centimeter gives about the right value for the optical opacity of the air, while a method, which I will now describe, by which we can directly measure the number of molecules in a gas, leads to a result almost identical with that of Loschmidt. This method is founded on Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. We deduce from these laws that the current through an electrolyte is carried by the atoms of the electrolyte, and that all these atoms carry the same charge, so that the weight of the atoms required to carry a given quantity of electricity is proportional to the quantity carried. We know, too, by the results of experiments on electrolysis, that to carry the unit charge of electricity requires a collection of atoms of hydro- gen which together weigh about one-tenth of a milligram; hence, if we can measure the charge of electricity on an atom of hydrogen we see that one-tenth of this charge will be the weight in milligrams of “Reprinted, by permission, from Popular Science Monthly, August, 1901. 231 232 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. the atom of hydrogen. This result is for the case when electricity passes through a liquid electrolyte. I will now explain how we can measure the mass of the carriers of electricity required to convey a giyen charge of electricity through a rarefied gas. In this case the direct methods which are applicable to liquid electrolytes can not be used: but there are other, if more indirect, methods by which we can solve the problem. The first case of conduction of electricity through eases we shall consider is that of the so-called cathode rays, those streamers from the negative electrode in a vacuum tube which pro- duce the well-known green phosphorescence on the glass of the tube. These rays are now known to consist of negatively electrified particles moving with great rapidity. Let us see how we can determine the electric charge carried by a given mass of these particles. We can do this by measuring the effect of electric and magnetic forces on the par- ticles. If these are charged with electricity they ought to be deflected when they are acted on by an electric force. It was some time, how- ever, before such a deflection was observed, and many attempts to obtain this deflection were unsuccessful. The want of success was due to the fact that the rapidly moving electrified particles which constitute the cathode rays make the gas through which they pass a conductor of electricity; the particles are thus, as it were, moving inside conduct- ing tubes which screen them off from an external electric field; by reducing the pressure of the gas inside the tube to such an extent that there was very little gas left to conduct, I was able to get rid of this screening effect and obtain the deflection of the rays by an electrostatic field. The cathode rays are also deflected by a magnet. The force exerted on them by the magnetic field is at right angles to the magnetic force; at right angles also to the velocity of the particle and equal to Fev sin 4, where // is the magnetic force, ¢ the charge on the particie, and @ the angle between /7 and ». Sir George Stokes showed long ago that if the magnetic force was at right angles to the velocity of the particle the latter would describe a circle whose radius is mv ¢/1 (if m is the mass of the particle); we can measure the radius of this cirele and thus find m/ve. To find v let an electric force /’ and a magnetic force // act simultaneously on the particle, the electric and magnetic forces being both at right angles to the path of the particle and also at right angles to each other. Let us adjust these forces so that the effect of the electric force which is equal to /@ just balances that of the magnetic force which is equal to //ev,; when this is the case te=Hevorv=F H. We can thus find 7, and knowing from the pre- vious experiment the value of w/e, we deduce the value of i ¢. The value of m/e found in this way was about 107'; and other methods used by Wiechert, Kaufmann, and Lenard have given results not greatly different. Since m/e=107", we see that to carry unit charge of elec- tricity by the particles forming the cathode rays only requires a mass BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. Ban of these particles amounting to one ten-thousandth of a milligram, while to carry the same charge by hydrogen atoms would require a mass of one-tenth of a milligram." Thus to carry a given charge of electricity by hydrogen atoms re- quires a mass a eee times greater than to carry it by the nega- tively electrified particles whic h constitute the cathode rays, and it is very significant that, while the mass of atoms required to carry a given charge through a liquid electrolyte depends upon the kind of atom, being, for example, eight times greater for oxygen than for hydrogen atoms, the mass of cathode ray particles required to carry a given charge is quite independent of the gas through which the rays travel and of the nature of the electrode from which the xy start. The exceedingly small mass of these particles for a given charge compared with that of the hydrogen atoms might be due either to the mass of each of these particles being very small compared with that of a hydrogen atom or else to the diocese carried by each particle being large compared with that carried by the atom of hydrogen. It is there- fore essential that we should determine the electric charge carried by one of these particles. The problem is as follows: Suppose in an in- closed space we have a number of electrified particles each carrying the same charge, it is required to find the charge on each particle. It is easy by electrical methods to determine the total quantity of electricity on the collection of particles, and knowing this we can find the charge on each particle if we can count the number of particles. To count these particles the first step is to make them visible. We can do this by availing ourselves of a discovery made by C. 'T. R. Wilson, working in the Cavendish Laboratory. Wilson has shown that when positively and negatively electrified particles are present in moist dust-free air a cloud is produced when the air is closed by a sudden expansion, though this amount of expansion would be quite insufficient to produce ~ condensation when no electrified particles are present: the water con- denses round the electrified particles, and, if these are not too numer- ous, each particle becomes the nucleus of a little drop of water. Now Sir George Stokes has shown how we can calculate the rate at which a drop of water falls through air if we know the size of the drop, and conversely we can determine the size of the drop by measuring the rate at which it falls through the air; hence by measuring the speed with which the cloud falls we can determine the volume of each little drop, the whole volume of water deposited by cooling the air can easily be “Professor Schuster in 1889 was the first to apply the method of the magnetic deflection of the discharge to get a determination of the value of m/e. He found rather widely separated limiting values for this quantity, and came to the conclusion that it was of the same order as in electrolytic solutions. The result of the method mentioned above, as well as those of Wiechert, Kaufmann, and Lenard, make it very much smaller. Dot BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. calculated, and dividing the whole volume of water by the volume of one of the drops we get the number of drops, and hence the number of the electrified particles. We saw, however, that if we knew the number of particles we could get the electric charge on each particle; proceeding in this way I found that the charge carried by each particle was about 6.5 X 10~ electrostatic units of electricity or 2.17 x 10~”° electro-magnetic units. According to the kinetic theory of gases there are 2x 10™ molecules in a cubic centimeter of gas at atmos- pheric pressure and at the temperature 0° C.; as a cubic centimeter of hydrogen weighs about 1 11 of a milligram each molecule of hydrogen weighs about 1 (22 * 10") milligrams, and each atom therefore about 1 (44 x 10") milligrams, and as we have seen that in the electrolysis of solutions one-tenth of a milligram carries unit charge, the atom of hydrogen will carry a charge equal to 10) (44 x 10") = 2.27 x 10-*° electro-magnetic units. The charge on the particles in a gas we have seen is equal to 2.17 X 10” units; these numbers are so nearly equal that, considering the difficulties of the experiments, we may feel sure that the charge on one of these gaseous particles is the same as that on an atom of hydrogen in electrolysis. This result has been verified in a different way by Professor Townsend, who used a method by which he found, not the absolute value of the electric charge on a particle, but the ratio of this charge to the charge on an atom of hydrogen, and he found that the two charges were equal. As the charges on the particle and the hydrogen atom are the same, the fact that the mass of these particles required to carry a given charge of electricity is only one-thousandth part of the mass of the hydrogen atoms shows that the mass of each of these particles is only about one one-thousandth of that of a hydrogen atom. These particles occurred in the cathode rays inside a discharge tube, so that we have obtained from the matter inside such a tube particles having a much smaller mass than that of the atom of hydrogen, the smallest mass hitherto recognized. These negatively electrified particles, which I have called corpuscles, have the same electric charge and the same mass whatever be the nature of the gas inside the tube or whatever the nature of the electrodes; the charge and mass are invariable. They therefore form an invariable constituent of the atoms or mole- cules of all gases and presumably of all liquids and solids. Nor are the corpuscles confined to the somewhat inaccessible regions in which cathodic rays are found. I have found that they are given off by incandescent metals, by metals when illuminated by ultra-violet light, while the researches of Becquerel and Professor and Madame Curie have shown that they are given off by that wonderful substance the radio-active radium. In fact, in every case in which the transport of negative electricity through gas at a low pressure (i. e., when the corpuscles have nothing BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 935 to stick to) has been examined, it has been found that the carriers of the negative electricity are these corpuscles of invariable mass. A very different state of things holds for the positive electricity. The masses of the carriers of positive electricity have been determined for the positive electrification in vacuum tubes by Wien and by Ewers, while I have measured the same thing for the positive electrification produced in a gas by an incandescent wire. The results of these experiments show a remarkable difference between the property of positive and negative electrification, for the positive electricity, instead of being associated with a constant mass one one-thousandth of that of the hydrogen atom, is found to be always connected with amass which is of the same order as that of an ordinary molecule, and which more- over varies with the nature of the gas in which the electrification is found. These two results—the invariability and smallness of the mass of the carriers of negative electricity and the variability and comparatively large mass of the carriers of positive electricity —seem to me to point unmistakably to a very definite conception as to the nature of electric- ity. Do they not obviously suggest that negative electricity consists of these corpuscles, or, to put it the other way, that these corpuscles are negative electricity, and that positive electrification consists in the absence of these corpuscles from ordinary atoms? Thus, this point of view approximates very closely to the old one-fluid theory of Franklin. On that theory electricity was regarded as a fluid, and changes in the state of electrification were regarded as due to the transport of this fluid from one place to another. If we regard Franklin’s electric fluid as-a collection of negatively electrified corpuscles, the old one-fluid theory will, in many respects, express the results of the new. We have seen that we know a good deal about the ‘Selectric fluid;” we know that it is molecular or rather corpuscular in character; we know the mass of each of these corpuscles and the charge of electricity car- ried by it. We have seen, too, that the velocity with which the cor- puscles move can be determined without difficulty. In fact, the electric fluid is much more amenable to experiment than an ordinary gas, and the details of its structure are more easily determined. Negative electricity (i. e., the electric fluid) has mass. A body negatively electrified has a greater mass than the same body in the neutral state. Positive electrification, on the other hand, since it involves the absence of corpuscles, is accompanied by a diminution in mass. An interesting question arises as to the nature of the mass of these corpuscles which we may illustrate in the following way. When a charged corpuscle is moving, it produces in the region around it a magnetic field whose strength is proportional to the velocity of the corpuscle; now, in a magnetic field there is an amount of energy pro- 936 30DIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. portional to the square of the strength, and thus, in this case, propor- tional to the square of the velocity of the corpuscle. Thus, if ¢ is the electric charge on the corpuscle and » its velocity, there will be in the region round the corpuscle an amount of energy equal to $6 7v"’ where f is a constant which depends upon the shape and size of the corpuscle. Again, if 7 is the mass of the corpuscle its kinetic energy is $m", and thus the total energy due to the moving electrified corpuscle is $07+f @)v’, so that for the same velocity it has the same kinetic energy as a nonelectrified body whose mass is ereater than that of the electritied body by 62. Thus, a charged body possesses in virtue of its charge, as 1 showed twenty years ago, an apparent mass apart from that arising from the ordinary matter in the body. Thus, in the case of these corpuscles, part of their mass is undoubtedly due to their electrification, and the question arises whether or not the whole of their mass can be accounted for in this way. I have recently made some experiments which were intended to test this point; the principle underlying these experiments was as follows: If the mass of the corpuscle is the ordinary *‘mechanical” mass, then, if a rapidly moying corpuscle is brought to rest by colliding with a solid obstacle, its kinetic energy being resident in the corpuscle will be spent in heating up the molecules of the obstacle in the neighborhood of the place of collision, and we should expect the mechanical equiva- lent of the heat produced in the obstacle to be equal to the kinetic energy of the corpuscle. If, on the other hand, the mass of the cor- puscle is ‘* electrical,” then the kinetic energy is not in the corpuscle itself, but in the medium around it, and, when the corpuscle is stopped, the energy travels outward into space as a pulse confined to a thin shell traveling with the velocity of light. I suggested some time ago that this pulse forms the Réntgen rays which are produced when the cor- puscles strike against an obstacle. On this view, the first effect of the collision is to produce Réntgen rays, and thus, unless the obstacle against which the corpuscle strikes absorbs all these rays, the energy of the heat developed in the obstacle will be less than the energy of the corpuscle. Thus, on the view that the mass of the corpuscle is wholly or mainly electrical in its origin, we should expect the heating effect to be smaller when the corpuscles strike against a target per- meable by the Réntgen rays given out by the tube in which the cor- puscles are produced than when they strike against a target opaque to these rays. I have tested the heating effects produced in permeable and opaque targets, but have never been able to get evidence of any considerable difference between the two cases. The differences actually observed were small compared with the total effect-and were some- times in one direction and sometimes in the opposite. The experi- ments, therefore, tell against the view that the whole of the mass of a corpuscle is due to its electrical charge. The idea that mass in gen- . — se . J r BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 23 eral is electrical in its origin is a fascinating one, although it has not at present been reconciled with the results of experience. The smallness of these particles marks them out as likely to afford a very valuable means for investigating the details of molecular structure, a structure so fine that even waves of light are on far too large a scale to be suitable for its investigation, as a single wave length extends over a large number of molecules. This anticipation has been fully realized by Lenard’s experiments on the obstruction offered to the passage of these corpuscles through different substances. Lenard found that this obstruction depended only upon the density of the substance and not upon its chemical composition or physical state. He found that, if he took plates of different substances of equal areas and of such thicknesses that the masses of all the plates were the same, then, no matter what the plates were made of, whether of insulators or conductors, whether of gases, liquids, or solids, the resistance they offered to the passage of the corpuscles through them was the same. Now, this is exactly what would happen if the atom of the chemical elements were aggregations of a large number of equal particles of equal mass; the mass of an atom being proportional to the number of these particles contained in it and the atom being a collection of such particles through the interstices between which the corpuscle might find its way. Thus, a collision between a corpuscle and an atom would not be so much a collision between the corpuscle and the atom as a whole, as between a corpuscle and the individual particles of which the atom consists; and the number of collisions the corpuscle would make, and therefore the resistance it would experience, would be the same if the number of particles in unit volume were the same, whatever the nature of the atoms might be into which these particles are aggregated. The number of particles in unit volume is, however, fixed by the density of the substance, and thus on this view the density and the density alone should fix the resistance offered by the sub- stance to the motion of a corpuscle through it; this, however, is pre- cisely Lenard’s result, which is thus a strong confirmation of the view that the atoms of the elementary substances are made up of simpler parts, all of which are alike. This and similar views of the constitu- tion of matter have often been advocated; thus, in one form of it, known as Prout’s hypothesis, all the elements were supposed to be compounds of hydrogen. We know, however, that the mass of the primordial atom must be much less than that of hydrogen. Sir Nor- man Lockyer has advocated the composite view of the nature of the elements on spectroscopic grounds, but the view has never been more boldly stated than it was long ago by Newton, who says: “The smallest particles of matter may cohere by the strongest attraction and compose bigger particles of weaker virtue, and many of these may cohere and compose bigger particles whose virtue is still 938 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. weaker, and so on for divers succession, until the progression ends in the biggest particles on which the operations in chemistry and the colors of natural bodies depend and which by adhering compose bodies of a sensible magnitude.” The reasoning we used to prove that the resistance to the motion of the corpuscle depends only upon the density is only valid when the sphere of action of one of the particles on a corpuscle does not extend as far as the nearest particle. We shall show later on that the sphere of action of a particle on a corpuscle depends upon the velocity of the corpuscle, the smaller the velocity the greater being the sphere of action, and that if the velocity of the corpuscle falls as low as 107 centimenters per second, then, from what we know of the charge on the corpuscle and the size of molecules, the sphere of action of the particle might be expected to extend farther than the distance between two particles, and thus for corpuscles moving with this and smaller velocities we should not expect the density law to hold. EXISTENCE OF FREE CORPUSCLES OR NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY IN METALS. In the cases hitherto described the negatively electrified corpuscles had been obtained by processes which require the bodies from which the corpuscles are liberated to be subjected to somewhat exceptional treatment. Thus in the case of the cathode rays the corpuscles were obtained by means of intense electric fields, in the case of the incan- descent wire by great heat, in the case of the cold metal surface by exposing this surface to light. The question arises whether there is not to some extent, even in matter in the ordinary state and free from the action of such agencies, a spontaneous liberation of those cor- puscles—a kind of dissociation of the neutral molecules of the sub- stance into positively and negatively electrified parts, of which the latter are the negatively electrified corpuscles. Let us consider the consequences of some such effect occurring in a metal, the atoms of the metal splitting up into negatively electrified corpuscles and positively electrified atoms, and these again after a time recombining to form neutral system. When things have got into a steady state the number of corpuscles recombining in a given time will be equal to the number liberated in the same time. ‘There will thus be diffused through the metal swarms of these corpuscles; these will be moving about in all directions, like the molecules of a gas, and, as they can gain or lose energy by colliding with the molecule of the metal, we should expect by the kinetic theory of gases that they will acquire such an average velocity that the mean kinetic energy of a corpuscle moving about in the metal is equal to that possessed by a molecule of a gas at the temperature of the metal. This would make the average velocity of the corpuscles at 0° C. about 10° centimeters per second. This swarm of negatively electrified corpuscles when BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. : 2939 exposed to an electric force will be sent drifting along in the direction opposite to the force; this drifting of the corpuscles will be an elec- tric current, so that we could in this way explain the electrical con- ductivity of metals. The amount of electricity carried across unit area under a given electric force will depend upon and increase with (1) the number of free corpuscles per unit volume of the metal; (2) the freedom with which these can move under the force between the atoms of the metal. The latter will depend upon the average velocity of these cor- puscles, for if they are moving with very great rapidity the electric force will have very little time to act before the corpuscle collides with an atom, and the effect produced by the electric force annulled. Thus the average velocity of drift imparted to the corpuscles by the electric field will diminish as the average velocity of translation, which is fixed by the temperature, increases. As the average velocity of translation increases with the temperature, the corpuscles will move more freely under the action of an electric force at low tem- peratures than at high, and thus from this cause the electrical conductivity of metals would increase as the temperature diminishes. In a paper presented to the International Congress of Physics at Paris in the autumn of last year, I described a method by which the number of corpuscles per unit volume and the velocity with which they moved under an electric force can be determined. Applying this method to the case of bismuth, it appears that at the temperature of 20° C, there are about as many corpuscles in a cubic centimeter as there are molecules in the same volume of a gas at the same temperature and at a pressure of about one-fourth of an atmosphere, and that the cor- puscles under an electric field of 1 volt per centimeter would travel at the rate of about 70 meters per second. Bismuth is at present the only metal for which the data necessary for the application of this method exists, but experiments are in progress at the Cavendish lab- oratory which it is hoped will furnish the means for applying the method to other metals. We know enough, however, to be sure that the corpuscles in good conductors, such as gold, lee r, or copper, must be much more numerous than in bismuth, and that the corpus- cular pressure in these metals must amount to many atmospheres. These corpuscles increase the specific heat of a metal and the specific heat gives a superior limit to the number of them in the metal. An interesting application of this theory is to the conduction of electricity through thin films of metal. Longden has recently shown that when the thickness of the film falls below a certain value the specific resistance of the film increases rapidly as the thickness of the film diminishes. This result is readily explained by this theory of metallic conduction, for when the film gets so thin that its thickness is comparable with the mean free path of a corpuscle the number of col- 240 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. lisions made by a corpuscle in a film will be greater than in the metal in bulk, thus the mobility of the particles in the film will be less and the electrical resistance consequently greater. The corpuscles disseminated through the metal will do more than ‘arry the electric current, they will also carry heat from one part to another of an unequally heated piece of metal. For if the corpuscles in one part of the metal have more kinetic energy than those in another, then, in consequence of the collisions of the corpuscles with each other and with the atoms, the kinetic energy will tend to pass from those places where it is greater to those where it is less, and in this way heat will flow from the hot to the cold parts of the metal. As the rate with which the heat is carried will increase with the number of corpuscles and with their mobility, it will be influenced by the same circumstances as the conduction of electricity, so that good conductors of electricity should also be good conductors of heat. If we calculate the ratio of the thermal to the electric conductivity on the assumption that the whole of the heat is carried by the corpuscles we obtain a value which is of the same order as that found by experiment. Weber many years ago suggested that the electrical conductivity of metals was due to the motion through them of positively and nega- tively electrified particles, and this view has recently been greatly extended and developed by Riecke and by Drude. The objection to any electrolytic view of the conduction through metals is that, as in elec- trolysis, the transport of electricity involves the transport of matter, and no evidence of this has been detected. This objection does not apply to the theory sketched above, as on this view it is the corpuscles which carry the current; these are not atoms of the metal, but very much smaller bodies, which are the same for all metals. It may be asked, If the corpuscles are disseminated through the metal and moving about in it with an average velocity of about 10’ centimeters per second, how is it that some of them do not escape from the metal into the surrounding airé We must remember, how- ever, that these negatively electrified corpuscles are attracted by the positively electrified atoms, and in all probability by the neutral atoms as well, so that to escape from these attractions and get free a corpuscle would have to possess a definite amount of energy. If a corpuscle had less energy than this, then, even though projected away from the metal, it would fall back into it after traveling a short distance. When the metal is at a high temperature, as in the case of the incandescent wire, or when it is illuminated by ultra-violet light, some of the corpuscles acquire sufficient energy to escape from the metal and produce electri- fication in the surrounding gas. We might expect, too, that if we could charge a metal so highly with negative electricity that the work done by the electric field on the corpuscle in a distance not greater than the sphere of action of the atoms on the corpuscles was greater than the i ers ae eo Pee , BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. DAl energy required for a corpuscle to escape, then the corpuscles would escape and negative electricity stream from the metal. In this case the discharge could be effected without the participation of the gas surrounding the metal, and might even take place in an absolute vacuum, if we could produce such a thing. We have as yet no evi- dence of this kind of discharge, unless, indeed, some of the interesting results recently obtained by Earhart with very short sparks should , be indications of an effect of this kind. A very interesting case of the spontaneous emission of corpuscles is that of the radio-active substance radium discovered by M. and Mme. Curie. Radium gives out negatively electrified corpuscles which are deflected by a magnet. Becquerel has determined the ratio of the mass to the charge of the radium corpuscles and finds it is the same as for the corpuscles in the cathode rays. The velocity of the radium corpuscles is, however, greater than any that has hitherto been observed for either cathode or Lenard rays; being, as Beecquerel found, as much as 2X10" centimeters per second, or two-thirds the velocity of light. This enormous velocity explains why the corpuscles from radium are so very much more penetrating than the corpuscles from cathode or Lenard rays; the difference in this respect is very striking, for while the latter can only penetrate solids when they are beaten out into the thinnest films, the corpuscles from radium have been found by Curie to be able to penetrate a piece of glass 3 millimeters thick. To see how an increase in the velocity can increase the penetrating power, let us take as an illustration of a collision be- tween the corpuscle and the particles of the metal the case of a charged corpuscle moving past an electrified body; a collision may be said to occur between these when the corpuscle comes so close to the charged body that its direction of motion after passing the body differs appre- ciably from that with which it started. A simple calculation shows that the deflection of the corpuscle will only be considerable when the kinetic energy with which the corpuscle starts on its journey toward the charged body is not large compared with the work done by the electric forces on the corpuscle in its journey to the shortest distance from the charged body. If d is the shortest distance, ¢ and ¢ the charge of the body and corpuscles, the work done is ¢ee’/d,; while if mis the mass and v the velocity with which the corpuscle starts, the kinetic energy to begin with is mv’; thus a considerable deflection of the corpusele, i. e., a collision, will occur only when ce'/d is com- parable with 3°; and d, the distance at which a collision occurs, will vary inversely as 2. As d is the radius of the sphere of action for collision, and as the number of collisions is proportional to the area of a section of this sphere, the number of collisions is proportional to d’, and therefore varies inversely as v7‘. This illustration explains how rapidly the number of collisions, and therefore, the resistance sm 1901——_16 949 BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. offered to the motion of the corpuscles through matter diminishes as the velocity of the corpuscles increases, so that we can understand why the rapidly-moving corpuscles from radium are able to penetrate sub- stances which are nearly impermeable to the more slowly moving cor- puscles from cathode and Lenard rays. COSMICAL EFFECTS PRODUCED BY CORPUSCLES. As a very hot metal emits these corpuscles, it does not seem an improbable hypothesis that they are emitted by that very hot body, the sun. Some of the consequences of this hypothesis have been developed by Paulsen, Birkeland, and Arrhenius, who have developed a theory of the aurora borealis from this point of view. Let us sup- pose that the sun gives out corpuscles which travel out through inter- planetary space; some of these will strike the upper regions of the earth’s atmosphere, and will then, or even before then, come under the influence of the earth’s magnetic field. The corpuscles when in such a field will describe spirals round the lines of magnetic force. As the radii of these spirals will be small, compared with the height of the atmosphere, we may for our present purpose suppose that they travel along the lines of the earth’s magnetic force. Thus, the corpuscles which strike the earth’s atmosphere near the equatorial regions, where the lines of magnetic force are horizontal, will travel horizontally, and will thus remain at the top of the atmosphere where the density is so small that but little luminosity is caused by the passage of the cor- puscles through the gas. As the corpuscles travel into higher lati- tudes, where the lines of magnetic force dip, they follow these lines and descend into the lower and denser parts of the atmosphere, where they produce luminosity, which, on this view, is the aurora. As Arrhenius has pointed out, the intensity of the aurora ought to be a maximum at some latitude intermediate between the pole and the equator, for, though in the equatorial regions the rain of corpuscles from the sun is greatest, the earth’s magnetic force keeps these in such highly rarefied gas that they produce but little luminosity, while at the pole, where the magnetic force would pull them straight down into the denser air, there are not nearly so many corpuscles; the maximum luminosity will, therefore, be somewhere between these places. Arrhenius has worked out this theory of the aurora very completely, and has shown that it affords a very satisfactory explana- tion of the various periodic variations to which it is subject. | As a gas becomes a conductor of electricity when corpuscles pass through it, the upper regions of the air will conduct, and when air currents occur in these regions, conducting matter will be driven across the lines of force, due to the earth’s magnetic field, electric currents will be induced in the air, and the magnetic force due to these currents _ will produce variations in the earth’s magnetic field. Balfour Stewart min ol ae _— BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS. 243 suggested long ago that the variation on the earth’s magnetic field was caused by currents in the upper regions of the atmosphere, and Schus- ter has shown, by the application of Gauss’s method, that the seat of these variations is above the surface of the earth. The negative charge in the earth’s atmosphere will not increase indefi- nitely in consequence of the stream of negatively electrified corpuscles coming into it from the sun, for as soon as it gets negatively electrified it begins to repel negatively electrified corpuscles from the ionized gas in the upper regions of the air, and a state of equilibrium will be reached when the earth has such a negative charge that the corpuscles driven by it from the upper regions of the atmosphere are equal in number to those reaching the earth from the sun. Thus, on this view, interplanetary space is thronged with corpuscular traffic, rapidly mov- ing corpuscles coming out from the sun while more slowly moving ones stream into it. In the case of a planet which, like the moon, has no atmosphere, there will be no gas for the corpuscles to ionize, and the negative elec- trification will increase until it is so intense that the repulsion exerted by it on the corpuscles is great enough to prevent them from reaching the surface of the planet. Arrhenius has suggested that the luminosity of nebulee may not be due to high temperature, but may he produced by the passage through their outer regions of the corpuscles wandering about in space, the gas in the nebule being quite cold. This view seems in some respects to have advantages over that which supposes the nebule to be at very high temperatures. These and other illustrations, which might be given did space permit, seem to render it probable that these corpuscles may play an important part in cosmical as well as in terrestrial physics. bh 1 . ate ae mit : :: ee fyi be or 3 : 7 = Sate Davee gs i e 7 . EL pe aya a = ee te ‘4 = eae? ; THE EXPLORATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY MEANS OF KITES. By A. LawRENcE Rortcu, Director of Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. The method of obtaining meteorological observations with kites at Blue Hill Observatory has been fully described in appendixes to the Smithsonian Reports for 1897 and 1900, and it will suffice to say, there- fore, that during the past seven years several hundred records of the conditions prevailing in the free air have been brought down from an extreme height of 8 miles. These observations have been obtained in almost all weather conditions when the velocity of the wind at the ground was between 12and 35 milesanhour. Certain types of weather, technically known as anticyclones, and which are characterized by a high barometric pressure and light winds, can therefore rarely be studied aloft, although it is sometimes possible to send up the kites in advance of these conditions and to descend in the central calm area. Often while there is sufficient wind near the ground, it fails entirely at about a mile altitude, near the cumulus clouds, and thus the kites are prevented from rising higher, although at a greater height there is almost always a strong wind. It is usually impossible to launch the kites during the strong gales that attend the coming on and passing off of deep cyclonic disturbances. As mentioned in my last paper, the United States Weather Bureau undertook during the summer of 1898 to obtain observations with kites simultaneously at a number of places in the central part of the coun- try, but, as the light winds prevented flights from being made regu- larly at all the stations, the experiment was abandoned. About the same time the employment of kites for meteorological research was taken up on the Continent of Europe, and this work has been most successfully carried out at the private observatory of M. Teisserenc de Bort, near Paris, and at the Aeronautical Observatory of the Royal Prussian Meteorological Institute, near Berlin, which is at the present time the most completely equipped establishment of the kind in the world. The systematic exploration of the atmosphere above the Con- tinent of Europe has been in progress for several years through the 245 946 EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. cooperation of an international committee. Balloons with aeronauts and balloons carrying only self-recording instruments to still greater heights ascend on a certain day each month in France, Germany, Aus- tria, and Russia, while kites supply the observations nearer the ground. It frequently happens, however, that on the appointed day the wind at eround is insufficient to raise the kites, although the balloons drift the upper currents to great distances. hile, from what precedes, it is evident that the use of kites on has hitherto been limited to favorable circumstances, yet, by the simple expedient of installing the kites on board a steamship, kites may not only be flown during calms and gales, but also in places above which no observations have been possible heretofore. Except in very bad weather kites can always be flown from either a stationary ora moving ship, since, when the air is calm, by steaming through it at a speed of 10 or 12 knots, the kites can be raised to the height that they would reach in the most favorable natural wind, and, on the contrary, the force of strong winds can be reduced in the same proportion if the vessel moves with the wind. In the case mentioned, when the wind fails at a certain height, the motion of the vessel will suffice to pull the kites through this calm zone and into the stronger upper current that usually suffices to lift them still higher. Thus kites can be flown on board a steamer under almost all conditions, and more easily than on land, since the steadier winds at sea, especially the wind artificially created, facilitate launching them. Steam power is always available to operate the kite winch, and the wire from it may be led over a pulley on a yard-arm capable of being turned so as to bring the kites clear of the rigging, ete. Wherever these observations in the upper air may be made, there is always a station at sea level, and not far dis- tant horizontally, with which to compare them. To test the practicability of this method of flying kites, experiments were undertaken on August 22, 1901, with the aid of my assistants, Messrs. Fergusson and Sweetland, upon a towboat chartered for this purpose to cruise in Massachusetts Bay. Anticyclonic weather condi- tions prevailed, and a southeast wind blew from 6 to 10 miles an hour, but at no time with sufficient velocity to elevate the kites, either from sea level or from the adjacent Blue Hill. With the boat moving 10 miles an hour toward the wind, and within an angle of 45° on either side of its mean direction, the resultant wind easily lifted the kites and meteorograph, with 3,600 feet of wire, to the height of half a mile. In Plate I, figures 1, 2, and Plate II, figure 3, show, respec- tively, the meteorograph supported by the kite, a nearer view of the kite, and the hand reel and meteorograph on deck. While it is desirable to have a vessel that can be started, stopped, and turned at the will of the meteorologist, as was the case in the experiments described, it seemed nevertheless probable that soundings Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Rotch. LATE | Fic. 1.—METEOROGRAPH LIFTED BY A KITE. Fia. 2.—HARGRAVE KITE IN THE AIR. EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. AN of the atmosphere could often be made from a steamship pursuing its regular course, and accordingly such were attempted on a steamer eastward bound across the North Atlantic. With the aid of my assist- ant, Mr. Sweetland, and through the courtesy of Captain McAuley, this was accomplished on board the Dominion steamship Commonwealth, which left Boston for Liverpool on August 28,1901. A view of the stern of the ship, with the upper deck from which the kites were flown is shown in Plate I], figure 4. During most of the voyage we were within an area of high barometric pressure that was drifting slowly southeastward and out of which light winds blew. Although these were insufficient to raise the kites, the ship’s speed of -16 knots created a corresponding wind from an easterly direction that sufficed to lift the kites on five of the eight days occupied by the voyage to Queenstown. On one of the three unfavorable days, a following wind became too light on the ship for kiteflying, and on the two other days a fresh head wind, augmented by the forward motion of the ship, was so strong as to endanger the kites, but had it been possible to alter the course of the vessel a favorable resultant wind might have been produced every day. The maximum height attained was only about 2,000 feet, but with larger kites and longer wire this could have been greatly exceeded. Automatic records were obtained of barometric pressure, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind velocity, which did not differ markedly from records obtained in somewhat analogous weather conditions over the land. The most striking feature was the rapid decrease of the temperature with increasing height in all but one of the flights. The fall of temperature was fastest in the first 300 feet, where it exceeded the adiabatic rate of 1° F. in 183 feet, but in the last-mentioned flight the temperature rose 6° in 450 feet, and during the afternoon remained so much warmer than at sea level. The rela- tive humidity varied inversely. with the temperature, the direction of the wind shifted aloft toward the right hand when facing it, and its velocity generally increased with increase of altitude. The direction and velocity of the wind aloft were computed from the observed position of the kite and the recorded velocity of the wind at this level, allowing for the speed at which the kite was being dragged through the air by the vessel. Simultaneous records were obtained from a meteorograph hung above the deck, with which the upper-air records were compared. These are probably the first meteorological observations at a con- siderable height in mid-Atlantic, and have a special importance, because they indicate that at sea high-level observations may be obtained with kites in all weather conditions, only excepting severe gales, provided the steamer from which the kites are flown can be so maneuvered as to bring the wind to a suitable velocity. It is evident that such obser- vations as have been described, even if made like the preceding, only 4 when the conditions were favorable, would go far toward showing whether the conditions prevailing over the ocean differ from those above the land, and would also furnish information about the upper air in atmospheric situations that can not be explored with kites at a fixed station. So far as known, meteorological records had not been obtained before last summer from kites flown from a moving vessel, — though during the first half of the last century registering thermom- were lifted by kites several hundred feet above the Arctic a1, When the vessel was fast in the ice. The German Antarctic sel Gauss and the Discovery of the English Antarctic expedition are each equipped with meteorological kites, which were to be used on the Southern voyages commenced in August, 1901, but it is to be feared that this branch of the meteorological work, being subordinate to the main aims of the expeditions, will always be sacrificed to them. In any case, it must be remembered that scientific kiteflying demands practiced and skillful operators, and without them and much reserve apparatus must yield mediocre results. To make these observations properly requires that the vessel be completely under the control of the meteorologist, who may then explore the heights of the atmos- phere, just as the hydrographer and zoologist have explored the depths of the ocean. Had the British Challenger expedition been provided with our modern kite apparatus and accompanied by meteorologist? trained in their use, it might have accomplished the double task of sounding the oceans of air and water. Although observations above all the oceans are valuable, the explo- ration of the equatorial region is the most important, since, with the exception of a few observations on the Andes and on mountains in central Africa, we know nothing of the thermal conditions existing a mile or two above the equator, and only what the clouds tell us of the currents in which they float. The need of such data to complete our theories of the thermodynamics of the atmosphere was urged by Pro- fessor Woeikof, of St. Petersburg, at the Meteorological Congress of 1900 in Paris. North and south of the equator, within the trade-wind belts, kites might be employed to determine the height to which the trades extend, and also the direction and strength of the upper winds, concerning which the high clouds, rarely seen in those latitudes, fur- nish our only information. Professor Hildebrandsson, of Upsala, who is an eminent authority on the circulation of the atmosphere, believes that a meteorologist on a steamship provided with kites, and also with small balloons to ascertain the drift of the upper winds when there are no clouds, by making atmospheric soundings between the area of high barometric pressure in the North Atlantic and the constant southeast trades south of the equator, and in this way investigating the temper- ature and flow of the so-called anti-trades above the surface winds, could solve in three months one of the most important problems in 248 EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Rotch. Pate II Fia. 3.—KITE REEL AND METEOROGRAPH ON DECK. Fic. 4.—S. S. COMMONWEALTH LEAVING BOSTON. EXPLORATION OF ATMOSPHERE AT SEA BY KITES. 249 meteorology. The two Antarctic vessels already mentioned are unlikely for several reasons, but chiefly because they generally pro- ceeded under sail, to have contributed important data concerning the upper air in their voyages across the equator. Although the United States has taken no part in this international Antarctic campaign, an opportunity is offered, during the next year or two, without material expense, danger, or hardship, to cooperate in a study of the general atmospheric circulation, which is one of the objects of polar explora- tion. Indeed, for a naval vessel not actually engaged otherwise, th: sounding of the atmosphere in the tropics, whereby the relation of th ‘pper-air currents to the winds useful for navigation may be ascer- tained, would seem to be as legitimate a task as sounding the depths of the oceans and determining the currents and temperatures prevail- ing there. But if our Navy Department will not authorize this, a private expedition should be organized to investigate the questions mentioned, which are of prime importance for meteorology and physical geography. _— SOLID HYDROGEN.’ By James Dewar, F. R. 58. Before proceeding to discuss the immediate subject of this lecture it will be advisable to contrast experimentally some of the properties _ of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in the liquid condition. The two vacuum cups (figs. 1 and 2) are charged half fwl, respectively, with liquid bydrogen and liquid air. When the cup containing the liquid air is placed in front of the electric lamp the image thrown on the screen reveals the continual overflow of a dense vapor round the outer walls of the vessel. The saturated vapor coming from the steady ebullition of liquid air is three times denser than the free air of the room, and the result is it falls through that air just as if it were a dense gas, like carbonic acid or ether vapor. To observe this phenom- enon, the vacuum cup must be shallow; otherwise the vapor gets heated up before reaching the mouth of the vessel, and no difference of density in the air coming off is observed. We will now project the “Reprinted from Proceedings of Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1900. Read at meeting of Royal Institution, April 6, 1900. 251 25 F bo SOLID HYDROGEN. image of the cup containing liquid hydrogen, covered loosely in this case with a glass plate, upon the screen; here no heavy vapor escaping round the sides is visible. The vapor of the boiling liquid hydrogen has a density nearly equal to the air of the room, but as it gets very rapidly heated up by the glass cover the gas that is escaping is seen to rise in air like any light gas. On now removing the glass plate a very different phenomenon is observed, which contrasts markedly with the behavior of the liquid air in the former vessel. The cup and the air above is filled with a dense surging snowstorm of solid air; the air, coming in contact with the excessively coid hydrogen vapor, is suddenly solidified, and a part of it falls into the liquid hydrogen, causing more rapid evaporation, thereby intensifying the cloud con- densation. After the mist has disappeared and all the liquid hydrogen gone the cup contains a white deposit of solid air. This shortly melts, and on allowing the nitrogen to boil off, the presence of oxygen can be shown by the ignition of a red-hot splinter of wood. Such effects are easily understood when we remember that the boiling point of hydro- gen is proportionally as much below the boiling point of air as the latter is below the ordinary temperature of this room. s In order to observe the individual behavior of the constituents of the air at temperatures below their ordinary boiling points, it is advantageous to place liquid nitrogen and oxygen in separate vacuum vessels, so connected that they may be simultaneously exhausted, as is represented in fig. 4. On starting the air pump both liquids enter into rapid ebullition. As the exhaustion gets higher the temperature of each liquid gets lower and lower, and if the melting point is finally reached in either liquid it must shortly begin to solidify. This condi- tion is quickly brought about in the case of the vessel A, containing the liquid nitrogen, which passes rapidly into the condition of a dense white snow; but no amount of time spent in maintaining a good exhaustion (5 to 10 millimeters pressure) has any effect in changing the liquid condition of the oxygen in B. Oxygen in fact remains liquid at temperatures where nitrogen is solid. The snow of solid air produced by the evaporation of liquid hydrogen in the previous experiment might thus be made up of solid nitrogen and a liquid rain of oxygen. To show that the temperature of boiling hydrogen solidifies oxygen, some of the latter liquid is placed in a vacuum test tube O (fig. 3) and liquid hydrogen H is poured on its surface, when the liquid oxygen is quickly transformed into a clear blue solid ice. Both oxygen and nitrogen, and we shall see later hydrogen, can be changed into the con- dition of transparent ice as well as into the snowy state. A closed vessel filled with any gas at atmospheric pressure, of such a form that a portion of the surface in the shape of a narrow quill tube, can be cooled in boiling liquid hydrogen like B, fig. 5, shows condensation of the gas to the solid state, the only exceptions being helium and hydro- a i. SOLID HYDROGEN. 953 gen itself. Here are two vessels of the same shape as A, B, fig. 5. The first contains helium, showing no condensation when the part B is cooled; the second is filled with hydrogen, which equally shows no change of state under the conditions of the experiment. It is easy, however, to make the hydrogen vessel show liquefaction. For this purpose the experiment with the hydrogen is repeated, only before doing so the part A is heated to about 300~ C. over a Bunsen burner, in order to increase the pressure of gas in the interior to above two atmospheres. Now, liquefaction is seen to take place with great facility. No change is produced by similarly increasing the pressure in the helium vessel. The extraordinary command liquid hydrogen gives us over the transition of state in matter may be best illustrated by the use of a new kind of cryophorus. Wollaston’s celebrated instrument operates by forcing the evaporation of water in a closed vessel by condensing its vapor in a part of the receiver at a distance from the fluid, thereby causing a lowering of temperature in the latter until freezing takes place. Hence, the name cryophorus or cold-bearer. Instead of using water we may now show that the same principle may be applied to the solidification of nitrogen at a distance instead of water. The sole dif- ference in this case is that the liquid nitrogen must be isolated from 954 SOLID HYDROGEN. the influx of heat by being placed in a vacuum vessel, and the conden- sation of its vapor must be effected by the use of liquid hydrogen. No boiling-out operation is necessary with the eryophorous we are about to use. The apparatus is shown in fig. 6. The vacuum tube B contains liquid nitrogen. It is fitted on by an india rubber joint to a wide piece of glass tubing doubly bent at right angles, A D; and in order to allow the gas from the boiling liquid to escape before the TO EXHAUST experiment begins, an aperture, C, is left which can be closed with a stopcock. On closing C and inserting a part of the tube A into a vessel containing liquid hydrogen, the gas within is condensed, and thereby the pressure of the vapor in the interior of the vessel is reduced, forcing the liquid nitrogen in the other part of the apparatus to boil with great violence. Ina few minutes the temperature of the nitrogen is so much reduced that it passes into the solid state. Many SOLID HYDROGEN. Zo other liquid gases might be used to replace the nitrogen in this experi- ment. In making a selection, however, it is necessary to take only those bodies that possess a reasonably high tension of vapor at the melting point. The process would not succeed easily with a substance like oxygen, that has no measurable tension of vapor in the solid condition. In the autumn of 1298, after the production of liquid hydrogen was possible on a small scale, its solidification was attempted by boil- ing under reduced pressure. At this time, to make the isolation of the hydrogen as effective as possible, the liquid was placed in a small vacuum test-tube, placed in a larger vessel of the same_ kind. Excess of hydrogen partly filled the annular space between the two vacuum vessels. On diminishing the pressure by exhaustion the evaporation was mainly thrown on the liquid hydrogen in the annular space between the tubes. In this arrangement the outside surface of the smaller tube was kept at the same temperature as the inside, so. that the liquid hydrogen for the time was effectually guarded from influx of heat. With such a combination the liquid hydrogen was evaporated under diminished pressure, yet no solidification took place. Seeing experiments of this kind required a large supply of the liquid, other problems were attacked, and further attempts in the direction of producing the solid for the time abandoned. During the course of the present year many varieties of electric resistance thermometers have been under observation, and with some of these the reduction of temperature brought about by exhaustion was investigated. Ther- mometers constructed of platinum and platinum-rhodium (alloy) were only lowered 14° C. by exhaustion of the liquid hydrogen, and they all gave a boiling-point of —245° C., whereas the reduction in tem- perature by evaporation in vacuo ought to be 5° C., and the true boiling-point from —252° C. to —253° C. In the course of these experiments it was noted that almost invariably a slight leak of air occurred which became apparent by its being frozen into an air-snow in the interior of the vessel, where it met the cold vapor of hydrogen. When conducting wires covered with silk have to pass through india rubber corks, it is very difficult at these excessively low temperatures to prevent leaks, when corks get as hard as a stone and cements crack in all directions. The effect of this slight air leak on the liquid hydrogen when the pressure got reduced below 60 millimeters was very remarkable, as it suddenly solidified into a white froth-like mass like frozen foam. My first notion was that this body might be a sponge of solid air containing liquid hydrogen. The ordinary solid air obtained by evaporation in vacuo isa magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid oxygen. The fact, however, that this white solid froth evaporated completely at the low pressure without leaving any substantial amount of solid air led to the conclusion that the body after all must be solid 7 256 SOLID HYDROGEN. hydrogen. This surmise was confirmed by observing that if the pres- sure, and therefore the temperature, of the hydrogen was allowed to rise, the solid melted when the pressure reached about 55 millimeters. The failure of the early experiment must then have been due to super- cooling of the liquid, which presumably is prevented by contact with metallic wires and traces of solid air. On the other hand, it is possi- ble the pressure under which the ebullition took place might never have been low enough to reach the solid state. For the lecture demonstration of solid hydrogen the apparatus may be most conveniently arranged as is shown in fig. 7. The small vacuum tube B, after being filled with liquid hydrogen, is immersed in a larger vessel of the same kind filled with liquidair. By this arrangement the rate of the liquid hydrogen evaporation is so much diminished that it does not exceed that of liquid air in the same vessel when used in the ordinary way. On gradually applying exhaustion to the liquid hydro- gen it is forced from its effective heat isolation to pass to a lower tem- perature, and when the exhaustion reaches 50 millimeters the mass sud- denly begins to solidify into a froth-like material. In order to ascertain the appearance of the hydrogen, made by cooling the liquid produced ina hermetically closed vessel, the following experiment was arranged. A flask about a liter capacity, to which a long glass tube was sealed, A, B, fig. 5, was filled with pure dry hydrogen and sealed off. The lower portion B of this tube was calibrated. It was surrounded with liquid hydrogen placed in a vacuum vessel arranged for exhaustion. As soon as the pressure of the boiling hydrogen got well reduced below that of the atmosphere, perfectly clear liquid hydrogen began to collect in the tube B, and could be observed accumulating until the liquid hydrogen surrounding the outside of the tube suddenly passed into a solid white foam-like mass, almost filling the whole space. As it was not possible to see the condition of the hydrogen in the interior of the tube B when it was covered with a large quantity of this solid, the whole apparatus was turned upside down in order to see whether any liquid would run down from B into the flask A. Liquid did not flow down the tube, so the liquid hydrogen with which the tube was partly filled must have solidified. By placing a strong light on the side of the vacuum test tube opposite the eye, and maintaining the exhaus- tion at about 25 millimeters gradually the hydrogen froth became less opaque, and the solid hydrogen in the tube B was seen to be a trans- parent ice, but the surface looked frothy. This fact prevented the solid density from being determined, but the maximum fluid density has been approximately ascertained. This was found to be 0.086, the liquid at its boiling point having the density 0.07. The solid hydro- gen melts when the pressure of the saturated vapor reaches about 55 millimeters. In order to determine the temperature of solidification two constant volume hydrogen thermometers were used. One at 0° C. | | SOLID HYDROGEN. 257 contained hydrogen under a pressure of 269.8 millimeters, and the other under a pressure of 127 millimeters. The mean temperature of the solid was found to be 16° absolute under a pressure of 35 milli- meters. All the attempts made to get an accurate electric resistance thermometer for such low temperature observations have been so far unsatisfactory. Now that pure helium is definitely proved to be more volatile than hydrogen, this body, after passing through a spiral glass tube immersed in solid hydrogen to separate all other gases, must be compared with the hydrogen thermometer. Taking the boiling poin‘ as 21° absolute under 760 millimeters, and the similar value under 3 millimeters is 16° absolute, then the following approximate formula for the vapor tension of liquid hydrogen below one atmosphere is derived: log p=6.7341—83.28/T mm., where T is the absolute temperature, and p the pressure in millimeters. This formula gives for 55 mm. a temperature of 16.7° absolute. The melting point of hydrogen must therefore be about 16° or 17° abso- lute. It has to be noted that the pressure in the constant volume hydrogen thermometer, used to determine the temperature of solid hydrogen boiling under 35 mm., had been so far reduced that the measurements were made under from one-half to one-fourth the saturation pressure for the temperature. When the same thermom- eters were used to determine the boiling point of hydrogen at atmos- pheric pressure, the internal gas pressure was only reduced to one-thirteenth the saturation pressure for the temperatures. The absolute accuracy of the boiling points under diminished pressure must be examined in some future paper. The practical limit of tem- perature we can command by the evaporation of solid hydrogen is from 14° to 15° absolute. In passing it may be noted that the critical temperature of hydrogen being 30° to 32° absolute the melting point is avout half the critical temperature. The melting point of nitrogen is also about half its critical temperature. The foam-like appearance of the solid, when produced in an ordinary vacuum vessel, is due to the small density of the liquid and the fact that rapid ebullition is sub- stantially taking place in the whole mass of liquid. The last doubt as to the possibility of solid hydrogen having a metallic character has been removed and for the future hydrogen must be classed among the nonmetallic elements. All solid bodies by themselves make very unsatisfactory cooling agents unless we can use them to cool some liquid. Now, with solid hydrogen we can cool no liquid other than hydrogen, so that, for effective cooling we must use the liquid just above its freezing point, which is about 16°. It will, however, take a long time to exhaust the wide field of investigation which the use of liquid hydrogen opens up, so we may proceed to illustrate some of its further applications. In sm 1901——17 958 SOLID HYDROGEN. former lectures the relation of electrical resistance to temperature has been discussed, and it was experimentally demonstrated that the curves of resistance of the pure metals all pointed to this quality disappear- ing or becoming exceeding small at the absolute zero. This fact has been confirmed, even with the most highly conducting metals, down to the lowest temperature we can command. The experiment illus- trated in fig. 9 shows to an audience the diminution of resistance of — SOLID HYDROGEN. 259 pure copper wire when cooled in liquid hydrogen in contrast to liquid air. An incandescent lamp C has been placed in circuit with a fine coil of copper wire A, immersed in liquid air, the resistances being so adjusted that the filament in C is just visible when the current passes under these conditions. Now, on removing the coil from the liquid- air vessel and placing it in another similar vessel filled with liquid hydrogen, a great increase in the brilliancy of the lamp is observed. Asa matter of fact, the sample of copper has its resistance in liquid air reduced to about one-twentieth of what it is at the temperature of melting ice, whereas in liquid hydrogen the resistance is reduced to one-hundredth of the same amount. In other words, the resistance in liquid hydrogen is only about one-fifth of what it is in liquid air. The interesting point, however, is that theoretically we should infer, from experiments made at higher temperatures, that at a temperature of —223° C. the copper should have no resistance or it should have become a perfect conductor. As this is not the case, even at the temperature of —253°, we must infer that the curve corelating resist- ance and temperature tends to become asymptotic at the lowest temperatures. Liquid hydrogen is a most useful agent for the production of high vacua and for the separation of gases from air that may be more vol- atile than oxygen or nitrogen. An experiment illustrating the produc- tion of a high vacuum is shown in fig. 10, where A is the large electric discharging tube, to which has been attached a narrow glass tube twice bent at right angles and terminating in a bulb at the end for immer- sion in the liquid hydrogen. The rapidity with which the vacuum is attained is shown by the rate at which the striation in the tube changes and the phosphorescent state supervenes. Another rough illustration of the application of cold to effect the separation of a com- plex mixture of gases is shown in fig. 8. Coal gas is passed in suc- cession through the U-tubes F, G, and H, made of ordinary gas-pipe, having small holes at B, C, D, and EK, in order that a flame may be produced before and after each vessel is passed. Each of the U-tubes is placed in a vacuum vessel, and the first cooling substance the gas in its transit meets is solid carbonic acid in F, then liquid air in G, and finally liquid hydrogen in H. At the temperature of the carbonic- acid bath all the easily condensable hydrocarbons separate, and conse qently the flame C is less luminous than B. The Jiquid-air bath con- denses the ethylene and a large part of the marsh gas and allows the carbonic oxide and the hydrogen to pass through, so that flame D is less luminous than C. Finally, after the liquid-hydrogen bath, nothing escapes condensation but free hydrogen, the carbonic oxide and any marsh gas being solidified; the result is, the flame E is almost invisible. A really practical application of liquid hydrogen is the purification of helium obtained from the gases emitted by the mineral springs of Bath. Although the helium only amounts to one-thousandth part by 260 SOLID HYDROGEN. volume—the nine hundred and ninety-nine being chiefly nitrogen—yet the low temperature method of separation can be successfully applied. Now that we know definitely the approximate values of some of the more important physical constants of liquid hydrogen, it is interesting to look back at the values that have been deduced—say for sucha constant as the density—by various workers using entirely different methods. The following table gives some of the more important values of the density of hydrogen under the different conditions in which it enters into organic and inorganic bodies: Density of hydrogen in different conditions. Koppsesuseass- Organic bodies: ..< ss.s2.j.22 52-26 aoe =e aoee eaeee sees 0.18 Amaratasons= oes Limvit-of gaseous COMpressiOG S58 eee tae = see eee 0. 12 Wroblewski .... Van der Waals’s equation (critical density) -...-.....-...-- 0. 027 Van der Waals-: Superior limit of density22==- see es - 2 ee ee eeee 0. 82 (Gimloenn -o-oecae Palladium salloy:22s.52 225 eo ee ee eee 2.0 Dewars. 2 222-ee Palladium jalloy< 32:25) ese seseee eae eee oe 0. 63 Mewars:=e2s— Liquid hydrogen‘at- boiling: point==--e=2ep = - sees eee 0. 07 é My density at the boiling point agrees substantially with that which van be deduced from Wroblewski’s form of the Van der Waals equa- tion. The deduced densities of Kopp for organic bodies and Amagat for gaseous compression are both about the same value, and may be taken as a mean to be twice the observed density of hydrogen in the liquid state. The conclusions of Graham and myself touching the density of the hydrogen in the so-called alloy of palladium, must be regarded as altogether exceptional. Even my value would exceed the density of the stuff constituting the real gas molecule, according to the theory of Van der Waals. In order to harmonize the palladium hydrogen results with those deduced from the study of organic bodies, we must assume that, during the formation of the so-called hydroge- nium, a condensation of the palladium sufficient to increase its density by one-fifth must take place. This is by no means an unreasonable hypothesis. The mode of determining the density of hydrogen at its melting point has been previously described, and found to be 0.086. In the same way the approximate values for the densities of nitrogen and oxygen at their melting points have been found, their respective — values being 1.07 and 1.27. The following table shows the compari- — son between my results and those given by Amagat for high gaseous compressions: Densities. | Liquid | Gas, 3,000 Limiting | melting | atmos- vee point. | pheres. pheres. Hydrogen. < 2sa2 scene cen ae tacos sae tise s oaen es aaisee ce nooeionmee 0.086 | 0. 097 0.12 Nitrogen 226.225 22sec nctere toe es seuaise se arate Sear tgae toe cee ii | 0. 833 0.12 ORY REM basse ke See oto ce oa dee cede Soe? on ee eee | 1.27 alsa bey) 1.25 SOLID HYDROGEN. 261 It will be noted that the density of gaseous hydrogen at 3,000 atmos- pheres is actually greater than the maximum density of the liquid state, but neither in the case of nitrogen nor oxygen does the density at the same pressure reach the fluid density. Amagat’s limiting value for oxygen under 4,000 atmospheres would, however, be almost iden- tical with mine. During the course of my inquiries sufficient data have been accumu- lated to construct Waterston formule giving the approximate densities of liquid hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in each case through a wide range of temperature. The equation for each substance is given in the following table: Liquid atomic volumes. Hydrogen = 23.3 — 8.64 log (82°—1) Nitrogen = 30.0 — 11.00 log (127°—t) Oxygen = 32.6 — 10. 22 log (155°—1) Absolute Observed at zero. melting point. 1. Atomic volume of hydrogen) 53 : errs Ree —— es ING 2. Atomic volume of hydrogen f 3. Atomic volume of nitrogen =12.8 13.1 4. Atomic volume of oxygen =10. 20 12.6 From these formule we find the respective hypothetical atomic vol- umes of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen at the absolute zero to be 10.3, 12.8, and 10.2. My observed minimum fluid values were 11.7, 13.1, and 12.6. The coefficients of expansion of the liquids, taken in the same order at their respective boiling points, are 0.024, 0.0056, and 0.0046. Thus liquid hydrogen had a coefficient of expansion five times greater than that of liquid oxygen. Further inquiry will enable the constants in these equations to be determined with greater accuracy. In the meantime, however, they give us general ideas of the order of magnitude of the quantities involved. I have to thank Mr. Robert Lennox for efficient aid in the arrange- ment and execution of the difficult experiments you have witnessed. Mr. Heath has also heartily assisted in the preparations. =: exer ea Rech ough PS ee = 3 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY.?* By Roserr H. Tuurston, LL. D., Dr. Eng., Director of Sibley College, Cornell University. Men of science, familiar with the resources of our globe in the domain of power production and utilization, and especially all who have considered the origin, extent, and rate of extinction of the quan- tities of energy available for the purposes of civilized humanity, have, for many years, concerned themselves seriously with the question, ** When and how shall we reach and pass the critical period at which the stores of now available latent energy of fossil fuel shall have become exhausted ?” While this problem is not immediately pressing, it can not be long, time being gauged by the periods of the historian—it is still more limited in the view of the geologist—before our stock of coal will be so far depleted as to make serious trouble in our whole social system. Professor Leslie, when State geologist of Pennsylvania, and the late Mr. Eckley B. Cox, estimated the probable life of the coal supplies of that State, at the present rate of consumption and acceleration, to be something like a century, and the close of the twentieth century will be very likely to see an end of such manufactures in that State as depend upon cheap fuel and proximity to the coal deposits. In Great Britain the case is probably vastly more serious than in the United States, for there the coal beds are far more restricted in area, and in many localities are already extensively depleted, with prices rising as @ consequence. The same is to be said, in perhaps somewhat less degree, of the fuels of the continent of Europe—and France, and particularly Germany, may ere long feel the effect of a stringency in the fuel market. Enormous deposits of coal remain untouched in other sections of the globe, and China can probably supply the world for many years; but a time must come, and that within a few generations at most, when some other energy than that of combustion of fuel must be relied upon to do a fair share of the work of the civilized world, and this will probably by that time mean the whole of the world. Water power, which is the next most important source of energy in “Reprinted, by permission, from Cassier’s Magazine, New York, August, 1901. 263 264 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. manufactures, will do much for us, and that will last as long as humanity survives on this globe; but it is doubtful whether it can be considered as a possible complete substitute for steam power. Yet the total available water power of the world will greatiy ameliorate the difficulties likely to arise from extinction of fuel supplies. The mean annual rainfall of the world is 36 inches, and this means about 50,000,000 cubic feet per square mile per annum falling on the land of both hemispheres. Taking the mean available height of fall as 10 feet, and assuming it possible to store the water effectively in ample reservoirs, this would mean 500,000,000 x 60=30,000,000,000 foot-pounds of available energy, and, if expended in fhree thousand king hours, it would give a total of 10,000,000 horsepower per juare mile for such countries as might be able to utilize such a fall. This, however, is but a small fraction of the inhabited area, of the globe. As a fair estimate, the data for the Mississippi River, in the United States, may be taken. This stream drains about 1,250,000 square miles, witha rainfall of 30 inches, an average, for each foot of fall, of 11,000,000,000,000 foot-pounds per annum. The fall is 6 inches per mile, average, and the energy capable of use for that area is about a quarter of a million horsepower per square mile. These figures are enormous, and give the impression that we need not feel uneasy about our power supply, even though we entirely extin- guish our fuel deposits. They are, however, of little value; for they give no idea of the practically available energy of rainfall, since it is not possible to make use of more than a minute fraction of this total, and it is not at all probable that we ever can. In the whole length of the Mississippi River there are but three available water powers—one with 78 feet fall, at Minneapolis, one with 24 feet, at Des Moines, and one with 22 feet, at Rock Island. Taking the average flow as a half million cubic feet per second utilized, the water powers at these points would be a total of about 7,000,000 horsepower derived from an area of a million and a quarter square miles, and directly from but a frac- tion of that area, situated above the lowest fall. The deduction must evidently be that water power alone can not be depended upon to provide the energy that will be needed by future generations should fuel be unavailable, although it is equally obvious that streams are likely to provide immense quantities of power, and that manufactures in those coming days will group themselves about the mili sites or within distances from them which can be spanned by the electric high-tension wire. Of this process of displacement of manufactures, Niagara and Buffalo are already giving impressive illus- trations. As time goes on the part to be taken in power production by waterfalls will become increasingly important. It is already vastly greater and more important economically than is generally supposed. There are known water powers in the United States able to furnish, if UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 265 fully utilized, something like 200,000,000 horsepower. Niagara, at the falls alone, can supply between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000, and a consid- erable additional quantity from the rapids above and below the falls, and numerous other water powers distributed over the hilly and moun- tainous portions of the country will in time no doubt become centers of power production and distribution. The one threatening aspect of the hydraulic power problem is the extreme probability that the con- tinued destruction of forests and vegetation will make the streams more and more unreliable for continuous supply. Wind power is another source of available energy, like water power, deriving its: origin from the energy of the sun’s rays, which may, as time goes on, provide a continually larger amount of utilizable energy for the use of mankind; but it is subject even in greater degree than water power to the objection that it is variable and unreliable for steady work. The winds are continually rising and falling. ‘‘As variable as the winds” well indicates the uncertainty of atmospheric currents as a source of power for industrial purposes. Rising to a gale and fall- ing to a calm, alternately, the portion of the time during which this power is actually available is small, and, still worse, its available periods are as likely to come at unsuitable hours and seasons as when wanted. There is ample wind power for all purposes, undoubtedly, could it be regulated, stored, and economically availed of; but while no one can say what may or may not be accomplished by the coming inventor, mechanic, and engineer, it does not seem likely that this particular problem will be successfully solved even under the stimulus of van- ishing fuel supplies. Tidal power is still another possible source of industrial energy, and one which also has its own and peculiar difficulties of utilization. It is a regular and well-measured and well-known quantity; its hours of rise and fall, and the heights of rise and fall are well established. But when it is sought to design a system of utilization that shall be cheap, practicable, reliable, and compact—one that may compete with other power systems—it is found to be a very difficult and for the time at least impracticable system of power production. At the moment, engineers and men of science are studying the art of reducing to harness the direct rays of the sun, and the solar engine is exciting special interest. It is no novelty, and many inventors have, for years past, worked upon this attractive problem; but probably at no time in the past has this matter assumed importance to so many thoughtful and intelligent men or excited so much general interest. John Ericsson, the great inventor and mechanic, when writing, in 1876, the great quarto volume which he intended should be the memorial of his life’s work, devoted a very large proportion of its space to the account of his solar engines and of the scientific investigations made in the course of his work for the purpose of ascertaining the amount 266 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. of power thus derivable from the direct rays of the sun. His appa- ‘atus was simple—merely a conical mirror or reflector, receiving the heat of the sun on as large an area as was desired and was found practicable, and directing it toa focus where was placed a steam boiler or anair cylinder within which the fluid, heated to a high temperature, became available for use in a steam or an air engine. He reported the results of his experiments thus: * ‘‘Tt has already been stated that the result of repeated experiments with the concentration apparatus shows that it abstracts on an average, during nine hours a day, for all latitudes between the equator and 45) >, fully 3.5 units of heat per minute for eac ‘+h square foot of area presented perpendicularly to the sun’s rays. Theoretically this indi- ates the development of an energy equal to 8.2 horsepower for an xa of 100 square feet. On erounds before explained, our calcula- ons of the capabilities of sun power to actuate machinery will, how- ver, be based on 1 horsepower developed for LOO square feet exposed to solar radiation. The isolated districts of the earth’s surface suffer- ing from an excess of solar heat being very numerous, our space only admits of a glance at the sun-burnt continents. ‘*There is a rainless region extending from the northwest coast of Africa to Mongolia, 9,000 miles in length and nearly 1,000 miles wide. Besides the north African dee this region includes the southern coast of the Mediterranean, east of the Gulf of Cabes, U pper Egypt, the eastern and part of the w a coast of the Red Sea, part of Syria, the eastern part of the countries watered by the Euphrates and Tieris, astern Arabia, the greater part of Persia, the extreme western ‘part of China, Thibet, aud lastly, Mongolia. In the Western Hemisphere, Lower California, the table-land of Mexico and Guatemala, and the west coast of South America, for a distance of more than 2,000 miles, suffer from continuous intense radiant heat. ‘Computations of the solar energy wasted on the vast areas thus specified would present an inconceivably great amount of dynamic force. Let us, therefore, merely estimate the mechanieal power that would result from utilizing the solar heat on a strip of land a single mile in width along the rainless western coast of America, the south- ern coast of the Mediterranean, before alluded to; both sides of the alluvial plain of the Nile in Upper Egypt, both sides of the Euphrates and Tigris for a distance of 400 miles above the Persian Gulf, and, finally, a strip, 1 mile wide, along the rainless portions of the shores of the Red Sea, before pointed out. The aggregate length of these strips of land, selected on account of being accessible by. water com- munication, far exceeds 8,000 miles. Adopting the stated length and a width of 1 mile asa basis of computation, it will be seen that this very narrow belt covers 223,000,000,000 square feet. Dividing the latter amount by the area of 100 square feet necessary to produce 1 horsepower, we learn that 22,300,000 solar engines, each of 100 horse- power, could be kept in constant operation nine hours a day by utiliz- ing only that heat which is now wasted on the assumed small fraction of land extending along some of the water fronts of the sun-burnt regions of the arth. * Contributions ns ae Goutal Exhibition, by John Eri riesscn, 1876. D. Wan Nostrand, New York. ca UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 267 ‘*Due consideration can not fail to convince us that the rapid ex- haustion of the European coal fields will soon cause great changes with reference to international relations in favor of those countries which are in possession of continuous sun power. Upper Egypt, for instance, will, in the course of a few centuries, derive signal advantage and attain a high political position on account of her perpetual sun- shine and the consequent command of unlimited motive force. The time will come when Europe must stop her mills for want of coal. Upper Egypt, then, with her never-ceasing sun power, will invite the European manufacturer to remove his machinery and erect his mills on the firm ground along the sides of the alluvial plain of the Nile, where an amount of motive power may be obtained many times greater than that now employed by all the manufactories of Europe.” The probable value of the quantity of energy transmitted to the earth from the sun, according to the conclusion, after extended inves- tigation of the late Prof. De Volson Wood, the greatest of American thermodynamists of the nineteenth century, is not far from that obtained by Langley—133 foot-pounds per square foot of receiving area per second, about 133'550=0.24 horsepower, or the equivalent ot 4 square feet per horsepower.* As actually utilized, Ericsson reported his solar engine to supply a horsepower from 100 square feet of receiving area, on a bright, clear day, and other experimen- talists, with apparently less efficient apparatus, report a horsepower from about 150 square feet in sunshine. This figure is confirmed by recent experiments at Passadena, Cal., where it is said that the efficiency reached by Ericsson has in some cases been attained. The California apparatus includes a truncated conical mirror, 33 feet 6 inches in diameter at the top and 15 feet at the bottom, which concentrates the rays of the sun received upon its 1,788 facets at a focus where a boiler is placed, and where steum is made, to operate a steam engine of small power. The whole mass of glass and iron composing the mirror is moved by a suitably arranged clock, and is automatically held with its axis directed toward the sun. The boiler is carried on the same frame and moves with the mirror. It is 15 feet 6 inches in length, and contains about 10 cubic feet of water and 8 cubic feet of steam space. The steam pressure is carried at 150 pounds per square inch. It is rated at 10 horsepower. This power is utilized in pumping water, but the reported figures are inconsistent with its rating. To set the machine in operation it is only necessary to turn the apparatus by hand until its axis points at the sun’s disk and to set the clockwork in operation. To stop it requires simply the turning of the mirror away from the sun and the stopping of the machinery which adjusts it. *Wood employs this value in his classic and remarkable paper ‘“‘On the Luminif- erous Ether,”’ the first rational determination of the physical properties of the ether, anda most important and impressive work. Phil. Trans. Magazine, November, 1885. App. to Wood’s Thermodynamics; N. Y., 1887. J. Wiley & Sons. 268 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. The uncertainty which the engineer feels regarding this type of motor is due largely to the difficulties arising from the fact that the sun is not always available, even by day, and that it is entirely out of reach for power purposes for one-half the twenty-four hours, and he has as yet no idea of practical methods of storage, either of the heat or the power, for use during cloudy periods, hours, days, and weeks even, when the engine can not be kept in steady operation. It is, of course, possible that much improvement may be effected in the elec- tric storage battery, and it is even true that great improvements in that precious device are apparently already in sight; but even the ideal and perfect battery, could it be realized, would probably prove so costly and so enormous, as a part of this system of sun-power utilization, as to make its use practically out of the question in tem- perate regions where the sky is overcast so often that not over one- half the direct heat of the sun is each day, on the average, available, or in the Tropics, where the rainy season makes it unavailable for months together. Where, as may occasionally be practicable, storage may be effected by raising water into extensive and elevated reservoirs provided by nature, this difficulty may prove less serious; but such exceptional advantages of location can not be relied upon for any important aid in securing general utilization of the solar motor. For necessarily continuous use of power it is thus evident this sys- tem gives little promise, and a cotton mill, for example, that must go into operation only when the sun comes out from behind a cloud and go out of action the instant it disappears again can hardly be expected to pay dividends. Water power must be its reliance when coal can not be employed, rather than either sun power or wind power, and its work must be done where a sufficient amount of fall and flow can be had to meet its maximum requirements, even at the period of minimum flow. The availability of sunlight and heat for the purposes of the engi- neer differs greatly in different places, and with every change of lati- tude, as well as from season to season. This variability is an enor- mous handicap where it is sought to employ this energy. The remark is attributed to Professor Langley that all the coal deposits of Penn- sylvania, if burned in a single second, would not liberate a thousandth part as much heat as does the surface of the sun in that unit of time. Yet it is evident that our coal deposits, so long as they last, are worth more to us than all the available heat of the sun. In conclusion, we may thus make the following deductions: The rapid and rapidly increasing destruction of our stores of mineral fuel must, sooner or later, bring us to a point at which it will be no longer possible to derive the power required in the arts from that source. That period is likely to be ushered in before many generations, and Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Thurston. PLaTe |. SUN REFLECTOR. Blowing off steam with a pressure of 210 pounds. From article ‘‘ Harnessing the Sun,’’ Worlds Work, April, 1901. By courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co. UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. 269 is, in fact, in some portions of the world already presenting its pre- liminary symptoms—difficulty in mining and increased price of the fuel in the market, as well as the expressed anxiety of statesmen guard- ing the interests of the great manufacturing districts of Europe. The ultimate outcome must be the gradual extinction of our fuel supplies, and if no substitute can be devised by the ingenuity of man, the compulsory retreat of the civilized races into the tropies, and, even there, the interruption of the manufacturing industries on the scale necessary to the maintenance of civilized life as we know it to-day. While it may be true, as has recently been estimated, that the belt extending thirty degrees on either side of the equator may be capable of sustaining a population of ten thousand millions, over ten times the number now inhabiting that portion of the globe, such a population will require correspondingly increased power supplies, if it is to bea civilized population as we to-day define the word. The available sources of power remaining are wind and water power, and the utilization of the energy of the direct rays of the sun. The last, though apparently most universally available, has hitherto been unused, while the indirect systems of employment of the sun’s energy have Been very extensively employed, the deduction being former process presents elements of saeribar difficulty. Water power is, to date, the most available, and the comm tute for the heat engine. When the existing waterfalls are utilized, they will go far toward meeting the needs of the race production, and the coincident use of the electric current fo. tribution of energy from its source is now making this element of the problem far more promising of solution than previously. Yet it is doubtful whether water power will suffice for all the requirements of later generations, even though the usual result of stimulated brain work, checking of the growth of population, should hold down the numbers of the human race to something like those of the present time. Wind power, although even more generally distributed than water power, is subject to its own peculiar disadvantages for our purposes, and, while likely to come more and more into use for purposes like that of raising water to higher levels, and where steadiness and con- tinuity of action are not important, will probably be found in great part unavailable for large powers or for the great majority of uses which commonly demand steadiness of power cai action. Solar motors make available an immense quantity of active energy by direct utilization. They are evidently practicable in the sense that there is no inherent mechanical difficulty in their construction and operation. They are subject, however, to the same defects of lack of steadiness of source of energy, of need for provision for extensive and prolonged storage, if to be generally employed, and to the serious 270 UTILIZING THE SUN’S ENERGY. objection of large cost per unit of power delivered. Whether this cost will be so great as to balance the gain coming of free delivery to the machine of the energy to be transformed can be known only when we are driven to the serious task of providing substitutes for the heat engines. Ericsson made a working steam engine deriving its energy from the direct rays of the sun, and proved that either steam or air could be employed in such an engine as the working fluid. He also showed what is the amount of power practically derivable from the sun’s rays through this method of utilization of the heat of the sun. Later testimony, so far as it goes, confirms his statements, and the mechanical possibility is beyond question that, in future centuries, when our fuels are gone, we may largely utilize the Sun’s energy in this manner. But it may yet be found that this threatened exhaustion of our fuel supplies is not the only, or perhaps even the first, limit likely to be set to the progress of the world of humanity on our globe. The exhaustion of our iron ores, like our platinum deposits, the min- cling with the air of the products of combustion of our fuels while they still last, the pollution of our water supplies, and many other possible obstacles to progress and growth, will have their effects, individual and combined; and our most serious problems are quite likely to be found at an earlier date than that of the loss of our fuels; the last- named danger is, in fact, already upon us. This generation need not mpt to cross the first of the bridges on the list, although a very tive problem is presented to the engineer. ‘This problem may neiated thus: adasystem of gathering and storing the energy of the direct of the sun, for utilization in power production, by a special form heat motor; to find, next, a method of transforming the energy thus collected into mechanical power; and to discover a method of storing, for later use, excess power obtained during periods of sunshine, tiding over the sunless periods. The problem will be solved only when the system thus perfected is so designed and constructed as to be able to provide power for indus- trial purposes so cheaply that a business profit can be made through Its use. THE NEW RADIATIONS—CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN, RAYS.* By A. Dastre. It is generally agreed that one of the characteristic features of our age is the enormous development of the applications of science. This is a commonplace truth. We are completely surrounded on all sides by these applications; they are intimately mingled with all the condi- tions of everyday life; they take part in our housing, our clothing, our lighting, our transportation in many ways; they assist us in com- municating with our friends, far and near; they produce our portraits, or they simply amuse us, so that they can not be ignored. But this utilitarian aspect of modern science should not obscure its educational and philosophic value. Referring, for instance, to contemporary physics only, the march of ideas has not been less remarkable than progress of discovery. Theory and practice have advanced side side. Boldness of speculation has attained the same height as skil experimentation. It may be said in this connection that the evolu of theories compares favorably with the marvelous developmer facts, and the philosophy of science with science itself. This we uave previously attempted to show to our readers in our essays on Osmose, on cryoscopy, and on tonometry; here we wish to examine from the same point of view ideas that have accumulated in recent years con- cerning cathode rays, Réntgen rays, and on the radio-activity of matter. ae The term ‘‘ cathode rays” was suggested in 1883 by the well-known physicist, Wiedemann, who had been engaged in studying them, but the object to which the name was applied was not entirely new. Cathode rays had several years before occasioned celebrated experi- ments in the hands of an English scientist, W. Crookes, long well known through other original investigations. The beautiful experi- ments of Crookes, disseminated by their author throughout Europe, had attracted the attention not merely of the majority of physicists, “Translated from the Reyue des Deux Mondes, Dec. 1, 1901. 272 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. but of the public itself. Presented to the members of the British Association at their meeting at Sheffield in 1879, repe ated in 1880 at one of the soirees of the French Association, held in the Observatory of Paris, these new and brilliant phenomena aroused immense enthu- siasm. Crookes attributed them toa special condition of matter which he called ‘‘ radiant matter.” Cathode rays are simply radiant matter electrified. The Enelish scientist laid great stress on this fourth state of matter; he be lieved, and others believed with him, that he had opened a new path to science. This hope was vain, or at least deferred for a long time; it was neces- sary to wait fifteen years until the discovery of X-rays (connected with ‘athode rays, as will appear presently) attracted the attention of scien- tific men. However, investigators had not abandoned this new track; they had followed it sau perseverance in the silence of their labora- tories. Among these zealous workers must be named in the first rank the German physicist, Hittorf, to whom must be given the honor of having discovered cathode rays. He had pointed out their existence ten years before W. Crookes. In justice to him cathode rays might be called Hittorf rays, for the same reason and on the same ground that the X-rays are called Réntgen rays, and the radio-active rays Bee- querel rays. Besides Hittorf should be named Hertz, Wiedemann, and Ebert, Schmidt, Lenard, and J. J. Thomson, whose researches were grad- ually developed until 1895. At this period suddenly appeared the discovery by Réntgen, and investigations received a new impulse. “oon after appeared in different countries the publications of Birke- , of Majorana, of W. Wien, and in France those of J. Perrin, of vard, of Deslandres, and of H. Poincaré. These numerous researches had a double object. It was proposed 1 one hand to complete the experimental study of the phenomena, and on the other hand to furnish an explanation of them. The task in both cases is very attractive, but the interest of the theoretical question is incomparably greater. On this new field of cathode phe- nomena was renewed the discussion which for more than a century had agitated the physicists concerning the interpretation of luminous phenomena. Cathode rays are not luminous rays, but their explana- tion was equally opposed to the theory of emission and to the theory of undulation, to ponderable matter and to ether. The discussion of the commencement of the century with reference to light was renewed in its last decade with reference to electricity. Sensational and theat- rical effects succeeded each other. With Crookes in 1880 the emission theory triumphed; the cathode ray certainly appeared to be a material projection, a ballistic trajectory. With Lenard in 1894 (who had ‘aused the cathode rays to penetrate a vacuum without diminishing the latter) the theory of an immaterial foundation, rays of ether, was CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. OME ls: uppermost. J.J. Thomson in 1897 returned to the emission of par- ticles, but these projectiles were no longer molecules, atoms or ions— the smallest division of matter recognized, but the fragments of atoms, atomic corpuscles. Finally, M. Villard in 1899 determined the nature of these bodies, and showed that they were formed of hydrogen, in short corpuscles or fragments of atomic hydrogen. It was shown that the cathode rays exhibit the spectrum of hydrogen, and if every trace of this gas is successfully removed the cathode emission is suddenly suppressed. ET. After this presentation of the theoretical interest of these new rays it will be well to give a short description of them. Their appearance is dependent upon conditions of the electric discharge in rarefied gases. Phenomena of this character are frequently seen, as for exam- ple, the illumination of Geissler tubes, or of the electric bulb. As these experiments are among the most brilliant and most attractive that can be performed with electricity they are shown on every occa- sion, as much for the beauty of the spectacle as for the instruction of the spectator. Let us imagine, then, an electric bulb, an oval vessel of glass in which are placed two metallic poles, two bulbs or, in short, two electrodes of some shape or other, separated by smaller or greater intervals, and charged with electricity. Their electrification will be maintained, for example, by placing them in connection with the induction poles of a Ruhmkorff coil. An electrostatic machine can also be used, if furnished with a condenser whose collector is con- nected with one of the electrodes. A short tube provided with a stop- cock allows the ovoid bulb to be exhausted of air. When the electric tension passes a certain limit a current is established. of his supposed radiant matter; that is to say, of cathode rays. ceeded in fusing, at one of hese foci, not only glass, but a wire jium-platinum, an operation which requires a temperature of ban 2,000°. s not only at the end of its path at the point where it strikes the of the glass tube that the cathode pencil can be rendered visible. orf and Goldstein, in 1876, furnished the means of rendering it visinle at all points of its path by discovering the phosphorogenic power of the newrays. The illumination which these dark rays excite in the glass of the bulb they also produce on other bodies placed in the interior. Rock crystal appears of a blue color, precious stones of divers colors, rubies project a beautiful red glow, diamonds take on an extraordinary brilliancy. The earthy sulphides which are naturally phosphorescent—that is to say, able to store up the luminous rays and yield them up afterws are lighted up most vividly. Wurtzite (crystallized sulphide of zinc) becomes dazzling. By arranging a frag- ment of one of these substances in the path of the pencil, the latter becomes visible throughout. It becomes possible in this way to study the properties of cathode rays. The results of this study should be briefly mentioned. In the first place the two laws already announced are verified—that the cathode ray ise! +o CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 277 is rectilinear and that it is quite sensitive perpendicular to the surface of the electrode. Again, the mechanical effects produced by these rays are of great interest, owing to the support which they seem to give to the theory of the emission of matter. They are shown by a beautiful experiment. Two rails formed of glass rods and placed in the path of the cathode rays support the axle of a paddle wheel. This little machine begins to move, revolves continuously as soon as elee- trical communication has been established, as if the flanges received blows—a bombardment, according to the expression used by Crookes— of material particles issuing from the negative electrode. On revers- ing the direction of the current the wheel revolves in the opposite direction. The ballistic explanation seems so reasonable that it natu- rally insinuates itself into the mind and gives rise to a belief in cath- ode projectiles. However, on reflection, the argument is by no means conclusive. Everyone has seen in the show windows of opticians the little instrument which is called a radiometer, which was itself an invention of Crookes. It forms a kind of windmill, exceedingly light, and inclosed in a bulb of glass that has been exhausted of air. It begins to move in the same way as the water wheel of the preceding experiment, but under the action of luminous rays—that is to say, of vibrations of the ether, without suggesting this time a bombardment of projectiles. A second property of cathode rays, an unexpected and very remark- able one, is that they are attracted by a magnet. Making the pencil visible by means of a phosphorescent screen placed within the tube it is seen to bend away on approaching a magnet; it can be attracted and repelled at will by varying the position of the magnetic agent. ™ amount of the deflection depends partly on the strength of and partly on the velocity of the cathode rays, a velocity be determined by varying the pressure of the gaseous res. fills the bulb. On giving proper motion to the magnet it is conceive that one might succeed in twisting the pencil into a This obedience to the directive force of the magnet goes so fai allow it to form a circle upon itself. In this experiment the cat ray behaves like an electric current of which the negative pole would be the cathode and which runs along a metallic wire. This magnetic deflection is easily explained by the emission theory; the rays would be formed by a row of electrified material particles following each other rapidly and carrying an electric charge. This transportation of electricity by the transportation of matter is called a current by con- vection. Rowland, Réntgen, and other physicists have shown that currents of this nature are similar to ordinary currents by conduction. On the other hand, deflections produced by a magnet are unknown in etherial, calorific, luminous, and actinic radiations. In the third place the cathode ray is electrified. This we assumed a 278 CATHODE RAYS* AND RONTGEN RAYS. little ways back in saying that it was similar to a row of electrified particles, that is to say, toa current. It is necessary, therefore, that the charge which it transports should be made manifest. Crookes believed that he had succeeded in doing this. Ebert and Wiedemann showed the fallacy of his demonstration, but it was a young French physicist, M. Jean Perrin, who, by a very neat experiment, made plain the essential character of cathode rays, which is that they must be charged with negative electricity. The cathode phenomena, such as we have described them, fills the whole of the interior of the bulb; within it, it begins and ends. Up to 1894 it had been impossible to study these rays under the experi- mental conditions in which they occur. The rays remain shut up in their birthplace as ina prison. Lenard succeeded in liberating them, and his beautiful experiments of 1894, which drew these captive rays from their prison of glass, created a great enthusiasm among physicists. The cathode rays are stopped by glass; this is well known. Most other substances act the same way. However, Hertz in 1883 had announced that metallic plates would permit the passage of these rays provided they were sufficiently thin; their thickness should not be greater than a few thousandths of a millimeter (micron). Lenard sug- gested replacing the fluorescent portion of the glass tube on which the rathode pencil strikes by a piece of metal, and it was necessary that this plate should: be stout enough not to yield to the pressure of the air. Herein lay the difficulty, which Lenard succeeded in overcoming. He arranged in his Crookes tube a small window, in which he inserted a plate of aluminium three-thousandths of a millimeter in thickness. This leaf proved to be capable of resisting atmospheric pressure and of sustaining the vacuum within. The cathode rays, more subtle than yaseous molecules, passed through, permitting them to be studied ithout. “hey behaved without exactly as within the tube; they proved to be -ctilinear, deflected by a magnet and capable of producing fluores- - cence; also equally capable of making an impression on a photographic plate. Most extraordinarily they had preserved their negative elec- trification in spite of the thickness of the metal which they had tra- versed. This fact was unexpected and unexampled. It indicates that the negative electrical charge is an essential and indelible character of the cathode ray, and that it can not lose it without ceasing to exist. These experiments taught at the same time that the cathode rays possess a very limited power of penetration, even through gases. Unless these gases are extremely rarefied the rays are quickly stopped and scattered by molecular obstacles. On the contrary, when the vacuum is pushed very far they remain unchanged; it has been possi- ble to follow them the length of a meter and a half without. noticing any diminution of power. ta i a en ee ee ee eee ee ee a CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 279 In conclusion, two other characteristics of the cathode rays must be noticed. The first consists in the power that they transmit to gases through which they pass, of conducting electricity. Gases ina dry state, as is well known, are nonconductors; an electrified body, for instance, a, gold-leaf electroscope or a condenser, holds its charge. If it sometimes appears otherwise it is because the gas is not dry, and the diminution should then be attributed to the vapor of water. But if a cathode ray just comes in contact with air which is really dry, near this apparatus, the latter is seen to discharge itself at once. The gas has acquired a certain degree of conductivity. This same prop- erty belongs, as we shall soon explain, to Réntgen rays and to Bec- querel rays. This characteristic is common to all these radiations, and is probably the one which can be easiest investigated, and even measured. By means of an electroscope inclosed in a box full of dry air these divers radiations are studied. By this process Mme. and M. Curie discovered the new radio-active bodies, polonium and radium, and M. Debierne by the same means discovered actinium. The last peculiarity is also common to these three kinds of radiation, as well as to every species of electric current. It consists in this, that both effect condensation of the vapor o” water when the latter is near its point of saturation, producing a kind of mist. This mist, which forms instantly on the passage of the current, or of the rays, becomes a visible and palpable sign of their presence. It is a beautiful lecture experiment and one easily reproduced for public exhibition, and has often been repeated within the last two or three years. The invisible vapor escapes from a narrow tube connected with a flask full of boil- ing water; on approaching to it a metallic point strongly electrified and from which the fluid escapes in the form of an aigrette that an easily be distinguished in the dark. As soon as contact has been r the jet of steam assumes the aspect of a dense mist or of a thick s: Allusion may be made to the possible applications of this p enon to meteorology without insisting upon them. There is curious application which was made by J. J. Thomson in measyring the number of cathode projectiles which exist in a given space at a given moment. By combining this calculation with electro-metric investigations it has been possible by skillful comparison to determine the negative charge borne by each cathode projectile, and, finally, its mass. The latter is extremely small. The cathode rays of a single pencilare not all identical. The velocity of propagation is not equal, and that is the reason why a magnet deflects them unequally, just as a prism bends unevenly the rays which form a beam of solar light. There is magnetic dispersion and a magnetic spectrum for the rays emanating from the cathode, exactly like the luminous dispersion and luminous spectrum formed with the sun’s 280 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. rays. This fact was determined about the same time by Birkeland and Jean Perrin. By exceedingly clever experiments it has been possible to measure the velocity of propagation of the cathode rays, which is, according to the emission theory, the true velocity of the projectile thrown off by the electrode. This velocity is enormous and, moreover, varies greatly according to the circumstances of its production. It may be 200 kmns. a second, which is the lowest limit, andgnay reach 50,000 kms., which seems to be the highest limit. or one-sixth the velocity of light. We can scarcely point out the principles by which this calculation has been made. It is founded upon the experimental measurement of the magnetic deflection exerted by a known magnet and by the elec- tric deflection excited by an electric current having an intensity equally known. It is very clear that these deflections depend upon the velocity and the mass of the cathode projectiles. In short, it is evident that the magnet or the current will deflect the cathode ray more if it travels with a feeble velocity and less if the velocity is great. It is possible, moreover, to diminish this velocity in order to give greater accuracy to the methods. Lenard made use for this purpose not only of the rays produced in the Crookes tube but also of those the existence of which had been discovered by Gustave Le Bon and which result from the action of light on metals. The velocity of the cathode ray is prodigious and can produce mechanical effects surpassing the imagination, if you consider that the mass of the projectile is infinitely small and the projectile itself but the fragment of an atom. Jean Perrin has calculated one of the effects, the calorific effect which will be produced by the blows of an appreciable proportion of these projectiles. The quantity of ‘eat which a kilogram of this matter would generate, when suddenly ted by an obstacle in its course, would be sufficient to raise instantly boiling point the water of a lake 1,000 hectares in extent and 5 vers in depth. The measurement of the cathode velocity brings to bear a final argu- ment in favor of the ballistic or materialistic theory. If the cathode were the result of certain vibrations of the ether, instead of resulting from the projection of matter, it would not be possible to comprehend that such a disturbance should be propagated with a variable velocity of 200 kms., since the same medium transmits the solar disturbance with a uniform velocity of 300,000 kms. ; No matter from what side we study this question the advantage always remains with the theory of material emission. In this discus- sion which has been renewed in our time between the two systenis of emission and of undulations, this time it is the first that carries off the palm. The cathode ray may be considered, then, as formed of a row of (o.) toll CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 2 projectiles negatively electrified. Why should they move in a straight line perpendicularly to the surface of the cathode? Because they are repulsed and driven violently by the electric charge of the cathode. The electro-metric and electro-magnetic measurements, combined with those of which we have formerly spoken, and which allow the calculation of the number of cathode projectiles in a given space by means of the condensation of a mist have led to surprising results whose accuracy is amazing. By these means the cathode projectile has been found to have a constant mass, equal to the thousandth part of one atom of hydrogen. The projectile, then, does not depend upon the cathode, as Crookes had already determined. It is composed of hydrogen, as proved by M. Villard without question. It has its origin necessarily in the breaking up of the atom of hydrogen. This, instead of being the final expression of simplicity and of lightness, as chemists believe, appears to be a quite complex edifice and rather heavy, since the cur- rent of the Crookes tube removes from the stones which represent it but the thousandth part of its mass. These stones are the fragments of atoms, or the atomic corpuscles of J. J. Thomson. The atom is no longer indivisible. Here we shall stop, not pushing the analysis fur- ther, although the state of science would permit it; but we should enter upon the subject of the constitution of matter, a subject which can only be incidentally referred to here. er. Cathode rays have no practical application. They are produced under extremely peculiar conditions, in a barometric vacuum, in the interior of a bulb from which it is almost impossible to liberate them. We should have no excuse for having entertained our readers so long had this study offered only the interest of pure curiosity and an opportunity of proclaiming the cleverness of our physicists. But it has another bearing. In narrating the history of these rays we hav included that of rays of the same family—R6ntgen rays, of which tu applications are so numerous, and Becquerel rays, which are but a mixture of the two other kinds. In the second place, the cathode rays are the progenitors and the necessary generators of the others. The mechanism and the true nature of the latter are better known. Moreover, cathode rays (and Réntgen rays as well as those of Becquerel, which accompany them or emanate from them) are not merely the simple results of design on the part of physicists; they con- stitute a natural phenomenon which can not be neglected. Far from being of rare occurrence they are incessantly produced. Not a single ray from the sun falls upon a metallic surface, not a flame is ignited, not an electric spark flashes, not a current of electricity is produced, not a substance becomes incandescent without the appearance of a 282 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. cathode ray either in a simple or transformed condition. G. Le Bon deserves the credit of having first perceived the universality of this order of phenomena. Although he, indeed, made use of the inappro- priate term ‘‘black light,” nevertheless he recognized the general character and the principal properties of this creation. Above all, he assigned to the phenomenon its true place, transferring it from the workroom of the physicist to the grand laboratory of nature. P. de Heen, the well-known professor of the University of Liége, adopted a similar conception. He considers that nearly all the centers of dis- turbance of the ether generate emanations similar to those which take place in a Crookes tube. We shall have occasion to return to this in connection with the radio-activity of matter. EV: The enthusiasm and admiration which the discovery by Réntgen aroused at the close of the year 1895 is well remembered. The learned physicist of Wiirzburg exhibited photographic silhouettes obtained through opaque bodies, sheets of pasteboard, leaves of paper, thick books, dictionaries, and wooden boards several inches in thickness. He furnished the means of receiving on a screen the fluorescent shadows of bodies concealed by wrappings, or inclosed in boxes, that is to say, made it possible to see indirectly through these obstacles. Very soon useful applications added to the interest of mere curiosity which was manifested at the start. Radiography was applied to the detection of the sophistication of certain products, to determining the contents of a box without opening it, and to similar uses. But by far the most important of these applications was that made to medicine sad surgery. Everyone has seen these radiographs publicly exhibited. ‘hey portray the malformations, the injuries of the skeleton, the alterations of bones, the presence in the tissues of foreign bodies, such as shot, needles, fragments of metal and the like, and in certain vases they disclose the existence of lesions in the viscera of divers kinds. When perfected, they will realize the dream and the aim of normal and pathologic anatomy, which is to show the body sound or diseased as if it was transparent throughout. It is useless to dwell further on these particulars; their history is developed right under our eyes and the daily press details its progress from day to day. Rontgen rays derive their origin from cathode rays. Crookes’s tube, the generator of cathode rays, was the means employed by the Ger- man physicist, and by all investigators who have followed him. But in this apparatus the only part useful for producing the effects which we have seen is the fluorescent spot situated opposite to the cathode from which it receives the emission. From that point the new rays are projected in all directions and not merely in the original line. All substances which arrest the cathode CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 283 rays become the starting point of Réntgen rays. It makes little differ- ence whether a body is placed within the tube or whether it forms the wall of the tube, nor is it of any importance whether it becomes fluor- escent or not under the cathode action; from the moment that it receives and arrests the first ray it generates the second. It has been found advantageous to arrange a slight modification of the apparatus in order to increase its power. An electrode is used having the form of a spherical mirror which concentrates the cathode rays at a single focus. Near it isarranged a platinum foil or some other infusible sub- stance which intercepts the cathode emission and arresting it trans- forms it into R6ntgen rays, which pass through the thinnest point of the tube and may be collected without. This apparatus is called a focussing tube. The Réntgen ray is plainly to be distinguished from the cathode ray, which has given it birth by several characters, of which the two most essential, from a theoretical point of view, are that it is not attracted by the magnet, and that it is not electrified. The cathode ray, on the contrary, carries an electric current and can be deflected by a magnet. On these two characteristics has been founded the theory of its materiality, as we have already said. They are wanting in the Réntgen ray, therefore we can not be sure that it results from the emissiom of matter. On the contrary, circumstances are in favor of its immaterial, etherial, vibratory nature. To these two distinctive, essential, traits must be added the two following, which are no less important: The cathode ray has not the power of penetration. It is immediately absorbed or diffused; whereas the Réntgen ray is very penetrating and nondiftusible. We have just seen that the Réntgen rays originate at the point where the cathode rays encounter solid substances. The violence of the blow of the cathode projectile against the material molecule dis- turbs it and increases its calorific energy; at the same time it makes the surrounding ether oscillate and produces the fluorescence of Crookey’s tube. The operation which produces the X-ray yields then, at the same time and accessorily, luminous rays (visible fluorescence), and at other times chemical rays, ultraviolet rays (invisible fluores- cence), and probably still other unknown radiations. Setting aside these accessory radiations—that moreover may be absent—in order to consider the principal one, we have said that the latter is disclosed by its chemical action on the salts of silver (photo- graphic impression) and by its power of exciting the luminosity of phosphorescent screens. If an opaque body is placed in a straight line between the source of the ray in the screen its shadow appears thereon with an astonishing distinctness. The formation of these geo- metric shadows proves a perfectly rectilinear propagation and justifies the name of ‘‘ ray” here employed. 284 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. At the outset the most surprising characteristic of these rays is their power of penetration. They pass as easily through a volume of a thousand pages as a ray of light passes through a window pane. Both cases exhibit the same prowess of nature; and if the latter fact no longer astonishes us, it is because, as Montaigne says, *‘ familiarity with things removes from them their strangeness.” Our surprise arises in observing the newcomer accomplish that which was impossi- ble for our old friend, light. We were formerly no less surprised to learn that the ultraviolet rays of the Solar spectrum passed through a piece of silver foil, which, we may say, parenthetically, made possible for the first time photography of the invisible. That which is permitted to one ray is prohibited to another. Réntgen’s ray, which traverses an oak plank 2 inches in thickness and a plate of aluminum more than a centimeter thick, is stopped by several meters of atmospheric air, the passage of which is but a trifle for the ray of light. There is another difference between the Réntgen ray and the lumi- nous ray—their conduct in the interior of bodies. Both these rays are absorbed while on their journey; their nature is changed; they are annihilated; their energy is transformed into some other force heat for instance. This end is common to them. But light has another property which is peculiar to it. In certain bodies having a granular structure, such as roughened glass and the powder of rock crystal, the light is diffused; the path of the rays is broken by reflee- tions and by numerous refractions. Each particle, then, behaves as a source of light, emitting rays in all directions, and the body is illumi- nated. It would be useless to increase the intensity of the beam of light with the expectation of seeing it transmitted; the illumination would only be increased. The Roéntgen rays behave very differently. They are only lost through absorption. By increasing the intensity of the rays they will be seen to gain more and more in the power of penetration. They are not diffused. They pursue their path rigidly inflexible, undoubt- edly weakened, but never deflected by any obstacle. A ray of light hould not be taken as the type and symbol of ideal rectitude, but ither the ray of R6éntgen. .nere are several varieties of Réntgen rays, as there are of cathode rays. They form an entire scale, and may be distinguished from each other by their degree of penetration. Some are ultrapenetrating. Others are extinguished at a distance of a few millimeters from their origin. This depends upon the generating apparatus, on the current employed, and on other circumstances controlling their production. When a Rontgen ray happens to strike a solid body, particularly a metal, it gives rise to rays of the same nature, but having less pene- trating power. They are also much more active from electric and photograph points of view. ‘These secondary rays have been studied CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. 285 by M. Sagnac. In the same conditions the secondary rays originate tertiary, and so on, in sucha way that there exists at the surface of metals struck by Roéntgen rays a whole system of radiations, which form a complicated envelope, conducting electricity and photogenically active. It is easy to see that the fact that R6ntgen rays are not diffused entails other differences between them and light, and these are impor- tant. The rays are not diffused, because they do not submit to reflec- tion or to refraction. Their reflection has been thought possible at times, because they were mingled with other elements—for example, ultraviolet rays. M. Gouy has shown with wonderful accuracy that in reality they do not suffer the slightest refraction. They do not exhibit the phenomena of diffraction or of polarization. Reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization, and interference are universal characters of ethereal vibrations. They belong to all the rays of the spectrum, from the slowest to the most rapid. They are common to hertzian vibrations, to the infra-red or calorific, to the vis- ible vibrations, and finally to the ultraviolet or chemical vibrations. As to interference, the opinion of the scientific world is divided on the point whether Réntgen rays allow this or not. It appears, how- ever, that the phenomena observed by M. Jaumann, by means of two parallel electrodes connected with the negative pole of the coil by wires of equal length, should be regarded as illustrative of interference. Is it possible after this to compare Réntgen rays with luminous rays, or even to attribute to them any form of ethereal undulations? This is the general tendency. Wiedemann and Lenard regard them as forming a new round in the spectrum ladder beyond the ultraviolet. Roéntgen and Jaumann consider them as the products of longitudinal vibrations of ether. Rontgen rays discharge electrified bodies placed in their neighbor- hood. The rudiments of this electrical property are exhibited in the spectrum; ultraviolet rays destroy the negative charges of bodies with which they are brought into contact. This shows a greater or less analogy between the two kinds of radiations. It is only, however, under certain conditions that the Réntgen rays may be referred to small undulations, having the character of undulations of light, and thus continuing the spectrum beyond the violet. It would be neces- sary to conceive of these undulations as exceedingly short, or what is the same thing, that the vibrations are very rapid, which is a means of rendering the interference less appreciable, and still more so the diffraction. Besides, the velocity of the propagation can not be dif- ferent in the air and in the other bodies. A priori, this supposition is not improbable—it explains the absence of refraction and renders possible that of reflection. On the other hand, since there is no other way of realizing polarization except through recourse to simple or 286 CATHODE RAYS AND RONTGEN RAYS. double reflection, which are here insufficient, it is not surprising that the Réntgen rays are deprived of this property. Thus deprived of all its burdens and functions it yet possesses transverse vibrations, which place it in the family of spectra; but in these surroundings, after all the diminutions, restrictions, and limitations which it has undergone, it appears rather like a mangy sheep. We have said that some phys- icists are contented with this state of affairs. The same difficulties arise if the longitudial vibrations of the ether are introduced into the theory, and there is added, moreover, the uncertainty of the existence of these vibrations. There is nothing to prove, in truth, that they do not exist; on the contrary, it is evident that they are formed as soon as luminous rays change their direction are reflected or refracted. They could not be neglected except by regarding the ether as strictly incompressible. Some physicists affirm that it is, and, in short, if one relies upon experimental grounds it is sufficient to say that the longitudinal component can be neglected, owing to its insignificance. This is true if one ignores all the phe- nomena which can accompany the manifestation of light. In fact, by disregarding the longitudinal vibration, satisfactory agree- ment, as is known, is found to exist between theory and experiment. It is possible that the R6éntgen ray may be due to this longitudinal vibration, but this remains to be proved. Jaumann has endeavored to demonstrate this, but was refuted by M. H. Poincaré. Besides these explanations there is a third, which consists in saying, with M. A. Schuster, that the vibration of the ether which yields the Rontgen ray is not strictly periodic; periodicity being a condition of interference a troublesome objection is thus removed. On the other hand, explanations founded on the theory of the emission of matter are also problematical. M. Jean Perrin claims that the Réntgen ray is due to the vibration of atomic corpuscles, and is produced by their violent encounter with material molecules. This hypothesis has also the advantage of taking into consideration the conditions of its pro- duction. In conclusion, very little is positively known of the nature of this physical agent, which, to quote M. Bouty, has remained exceed- ingly mysterious in spite of the united efforts of the scientific world. a “ae i, - oe by Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marconi. PLate |. SIGNOR G. MARCONI, M. INST. C. E. 1 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. By Signor G. Marcontr, M. Inst. C. E.* When Ampére threw out the suggestion that the theory of a univer- sal ether, possessed of merely mechanical properties, might supply the means for explaining electrical facts, which view was upheld by Joseph Henry and Faraday, the veil of mystery which had enveloped elec- tricity began to lift. When Maxwell published, in 1864, his splendid dynamical theory of the electro-magnetic field, and worked out mathe- matically the theory of ether waves, and Hertz had proved experi- mentally the correctness of Maxwell’s hypothesis, we obtained, if I may use the words of Professor Fleming, ‘* the greatest insight into the hidden mechanisms of nature which has yet been made by the intellect of man.” A century of progress such as this has made wireless telegraphy possible. Its basic principles are established in the very nature of electricity itself. Its evolution has placed another great force of nature at our disposal. We can not pay too high a tribute to the genius of Heinrich Hertz, who worked patiently and persistently in a new field of experimental physics, and made what has been called the greatest discovery in elec- trical science in the latter half of the nineteenth century. He not only brought about a great triumph in the field of theoretical physics, but, by proving Maxwell’s mathematical hypothesis, he accomplished a great triumph in the progress of our knowledge of physical agents and physical laws. [ can not forbear saying one word as to the eminent electrician who was placed in his last home as recently as Saturday last, for it is mani- fest that several years ago Professor Hughes was on the verge of a great discovery, and, if he had persevered in his experiments, it seems probable that his name would have been closely connected with wire- Jess telegraphy as it is with so many branches of electrical work, in which he gained so much renown and such great distinction. The experimental proof by Hertz, thirteen years ago, of the identity “Reprinted from Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol. XVI, Part II, pp. 247-256. Read at weekly evening meeting, Friday, February 2, 1900, Alexander Siemens, esg., M. Inst. C. E., vice-president, in the chair. 287 288 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. of light and electricity, and the knowledge of how to produce and how to detect these ether waves, the existence of which had been so far unknown, made possible true wireless telegraphy. I think I may be justified in saying that for several years the full importance of the dis- covery of Hertz was realized but by very few, and for this reason the early development of its practical application was slow. The practical application of wireless telegraphy at the present time is many times as great as the predictions of five years ago led us to expect in so short a time. The development of the art during the past three or four years and its present state of progress may perhaps justify the interest which is now taken in the subject. Yet only a beginning has been made and the possibilities of the future can as yet be only incompletely appreciated. All of you know that the idea of communicating intelligence without visible means of connection is almost as old as mankind. Wireless telegraphy by means of Hertzian waves is, however, very young. I hope that if I pass over the story of the growth of this new art, as I have watched it, or do not attempt to prove questions of priority, no one will take it for granted that nothing is to be said on these subjects, or that all that has been said is entirely correct. The time allowed for this discourse is too short to permit me to recount all the steps that have led up to the practical applications of to-day. I believe it will probably interest you more to hear of the problems which have lately been solved, and the very interesting developments which have taken place during the last few months. I find that a great element of the success of wireless telegraphy is dependent upon the use of a coherer such as I have adopted. It has been my experience, and that of other workers, that a coherer as pre- viously constructed—that is, a tube several inches long partially filled with filings inclosed by corks—was far too untrustworthy to fulfill its purpose. I found, however, that if specially prepared filings were con- fined ina very small gap (about 1 mm.) between flat plugs of silver, the coherer, if properly constructed, became absolutely trustworthy. In its normal condition the resistance of a good coherer is infinite, but when influenced by electric waves the coherer instantly becomes a con- ductor, its resistance falling to 100 or 500 ohms. This conductivity is maintained until the tube is shaken or tapped. I noticed that by employing similar vertical and insulated rods at both stations it was possible to detect the effects of electric waves of high frequency, and in that way convey the intelligible alphabetical signals over distances far greater than had been believed to be possible a few years ago. I neal fon) ascertained * that the distance over which it is possi- “See paper read Before. the Tacceenen of Electrical Gane Se by G. Marconi, March, 1899. > : (lee tg in Amiel | A is en WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 289 ble to signal with a given amount of energy varies approximately with the square of the height of the vertical wire, and with the square root of the capacity of a plate, drum, or other form of capacity area which may be placed at the top of the wires. The law governing the relation of height and distance has already been proved correct up to a distance of 85 miles. Many months ago it was found possible to communicate from the North Haven, Poole, to Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, witha height of 75 feet, the distance being 18 miles. Later on two installations with vertical wires of double that length, i. e. 150 feet, were erected at a distance of 85 miles apart, and signals were easily obtained between them. According to a rigorous application of the law, 72 miles ought to have been obtained instead of 85; but as I have previously stated, the law has been ‘proved only to be approximately correct, the tendency being always on what I might call the right side; thus we obtain a greater distance than the application of the law would lead us to believe. There is a remarkable circum- stance to be noted in the case of the 85 miles signaling. At the Alum Bay station the mast is on the cliff, and there is no curvature of the earth intervening between the two stations; that is to say, a straight line between the base of the Haven and Alum Bay stations would clear the surface of the sea. But in the case of the 85 miles the two stations were located on the sea level, and between them exists a hill of water, owing to the earth’s curvature, amounting to over 1,000 feet. If those waves traveled only in straight lines, or the effect was noticeable only across open space, in a direct line, the signals would not have been received except with a vertical wire 1,000 feet high at both stations. While carrying out some experiments nearly three years ago at Salis- bury, Captain Kennedy, R. E., and I tried numerous forms of induction coils wound in the ordinary way, that is, with a great number of turns of wire on the secondary circuit, with the object of increasing, if pos- sible, the distance or range of transmission; but in every case we observed a very marked decrease in the distance obtainable with the given amount of energy and height. Similar results were obtained some months later, I am informed, in experiments carried out by the general post-oflice engineers at Dover. In all our above-mentioned experiments the coils used were those in which the primary consisted of a smaller or larger number of turns of comparatively thick wire, and the secondary of several layers of thinner wire. I believe I am right in saying that hundreds of these coils were tried, the result always being that by their employment the possible distance of signaling was considerably diminished instead of being increased. We eventually found an entirely new form of induc- tion coil that would work satisfactorily, and that began to increase the distance of signaling. The results given by some of the new form of induction coils have sm 1901 19 290) WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. been remarkable. During the naval maneuvers I had an opportunity of testing how much they increased the range of signaling with a given umount of energy and height. When working between the cruisers Juno and Europa, 1 ascertained that when the induction coil was omitted from the receiver, the limit distance obtainable was 7 miles, but with an improved form of induction coil included, a distance of over 60 miles could be obtained with certainty. This demonstrated that the coils I used at that time incxeased the possible distance nearly tenfold. I have now adopted these induction coils, or transformers, at all our permanent stations. A number of experiments have been carried out to test how far the Wehnelt brake was applicable in substitution for the ordinary make and brake of the induction coil at the transmitting station; but although some excellent results have been obtained over a distance of 40 miles of land, the amount of current used and the liability of the brake get- ting fatigued or out of order have been obstacles which have so far prevented its general adoption. As is probably known to most of you, the system has been in prac- tical daily operation between the East Goodwin light-ship and the South Foreland light-house since December 24, 1898, and I have good reason for believing that the officials of Trinity House are convinced of its great utility in connection with light-ships and light-houses. It may be interesting to you to know that, as specially arranged by the authorities of Trinity House, although we maintain a skilled assistant on the light-ship, he is not allowed to work on the telegraph. The work is invariably done by one of the seamen on the light-ship, many of whom have been instructed in the use of the instrument by one of my assistants. On five occasions assistance has been called for by the men on board the ship, and help obtained in time to avoid loss of life and property. Of these five calls for assistance, three were for vessels run ashore on the sands near the light-ship, one because the light-ship her- self had been run into by a steamer, and one to call a boat to take off a member of the crew who was seriously ill. In the case of a French steamer which went ashore off the Good- wins, we have evidence, given in the admiralty court, that by means of one short wireless message property to the amount of £52,588 was saved; and of this amount, I am glad to say, the owners and crews of the lifeboats and tugs received £3,000. This one saving alone 1s probably sufficient in amount to equip all the light-ships round England with wireless telegraph apparatus more than ten times over. The sys- tem has also been in constant use for the official communication between the Trinity House and the ship, and is also used daily by the men for private communication with their families, ete. It is difficult to believe that any person who knows that wireless i Pio’ Ts ee = c ye - T —~se = ee ee a. =. +. ie SS Se Ul | ae i i telegraphy has been in use between this light-ship and the South Fore-_ | ; j | WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 991 land day and night, in storm and sunshine, in fog and in gales of wind, without breaking down on any single occasion, can believe or be justi- fied in saying that wireless telegraphy is untrustworthy or uncertain in operation. The light-ship installation is, be it remembered, in a small damp ship, and under conditions which try the system to the utmost. I hope that before long the necessary funds will be at the disposal of the Trinity House authorities, in order that communication may be established between other light-ships and light-houses and the shore, by which millions of pounds’ worth of property and thousands of lives may be saved. At the end of March, 1899, by arrangement with the French Government, communication was established between the South Fore- Jand light-house and Wimereux, near Boulogne, over a distance of 30 miles, and various interesting tests were made between these stations and French war ships. The maximum distance obtained at that time, with a height of about 100 feet on the ships, was 42 miles. The com- mission of French naval and military officers who were appointed to supervise these experiments, and report to their Government, were in almost daily attendance on the one coast or the other for several weeks. They became intensely interested in the operations, and I have good reasons to know made satisfactory reports to their Govern- ment. I can not allow this opportunity to pass without bearing willing testimony to the courtesy and attention which characterised all the dealings of these French gentlemen with myself and staff. The most interesting and complete tests of the system at sea were, however, made during the British naval maneuvers. Three ships of the ‘‘ B” fleet were fitted up—the flagship Alevandra and the cruisers Juno and Europa. I do not consider myself quite at liberty to describe all the various tests to which the system was put, but I believe that never before were Hertzian waves given a more difficult or responsible task. During these maneuvers I had the pleasure of being on board the Juno, my friend, Captain Jackson, R. N., who had done some very good work on the subject of wireless telegraphy before I had the pleasure of meeting him, being in command. With the Juno there was usually a small squadron of cruisers, and all orders and communications were transmitted to the /wmo from the flagship, the -/wno repeating them to the ships around her. This enabled evolutions to be carried out even when the flagship was out of sight. This would have been impossible by means of flags or semaphores. The wireless installations on these battleships were kept going night and day, most important maneuvers being carried out and valuable information telegraphed to the admiral when necessary. The greatest distance at which service messages were sent was 60 nautical miles, between the Huropa and the Juno, and 45 miles, between the Juno and the Alexandra. This was not the maximum 292 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. distance actually obtained, but the distance at which, under all cirecum- stances and conditions, the system could be relied upon for certain and regular transmission of service messages. During tests messages were obtained at no less than 74 nautical miles (85 land miles). As to the opinion which naval experts have arrived at concerning this new method of communication, I need only refer to the letters published by nayal officers and experts in the columns of The Times during and after the period of the ‘autumn maneuvers, and to the fact that the admiralty are taking steps to introduce the system into general use in the navy. As you will probably remember, victory was gained by the ** B” fleet, and perhaps I may venture to suggest that the facility which Admiral Sir Compton Domvyille had of using the wireless telegraph in all weathers, both by day and night, contributed to the success of his operations. Commander Statham, R. N., has published a very concise deserip- tion of the results obtained in the Army and Navy, illustrated, and I think it will be interesting if I read a short extract from the admirable description he has published: ‘‘When the reserve fleet first assembled at Tor Bay, the /uno was sent out day by day to communicate at various distances with the flag- ship, and the range was speedily increased to over 30 miles, ultimately reaching something like 50 miles. At Milford Haven the Zuropa was fitted out, the first step being the securing to the main topmast head of a hastily prepared spar carrying a small gaff or sprit, to which was attached a wire, which was brought down to the starboard side of the quarter-deck through an insul: ator and into a roomy deck house on the lower afterbridge which contained the various instruments. “When hostilities commenced, the Huropa was the leading ship of a squadron of 7 cruisers dispatched to look for the convoy ‘at the ren- dezvous. The -/no was detached to act as a link when necessary and to scout for the enemy, and the flagship of course remained with the slower battle squadron. The Europa was in direct communication with the flagship long after leaving Milford Haven, the gap between reaching to 30 or 40 miles before she lost touch while steaming ahead ata fast speed. (This difference between the ranges of communication on these ships was owing to the Juno having a ‘higher mast than the Alewandra. ) ‘Reaching the convoy at 4 o'clock one afternoon, and leaving it and the several cruisers in charge of the senior captain, the Europa hast-, ened back toward anotber rendezvous, where the admiral had intended remaining until he should hear whether the enemy had found and captured the convoy; but scarcely had she got well ahead of the slow aime when the Juno called her up and announced the admiral coming to meet the convoy. The /wno was at this time fully 60 miles distant from the Huropa. ‘‘Now imagine,” says Commander Statham, ‘‘a chain of vessels 60 miles apart. Only five would be necessary to communicate some vital piece of intelligence a distance of 300 miles, receive in return their instructions, and act immediately all in the course of half an hour or ‘v * WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 293 less. This is possible already. Doubtless a vast deal more will be done in a year or two or less, and meanwhile the authorities should be making all necessary arrangements for the universal application of wireless telegraphy in the navy.” The most important results, from a technical point of view, obtained during the maneuvers were the proof of the great increase of distance obtained by employing the transformer in the receiver, as already explained, and also that the curvature of the earth which intervened, however great the distance attained, was apparently no obstacle to the transmission. The maximum height of the top of the wire attached to the instruments above the water did not on any occasion exceed 170 | feet, but it would have been geometrically necessary to have had masts 700 feet high on each ship in order that a straight line between their tops should clear the curved surface of the sea when the ships were 60 nautical miles apart. This shows that the Hertzian waves had either to go over or round the dome of water 530 feet higher than the tops of the masts, or to pass through it, which latter course I believe would be impossible. Some time after the naval maneuvers, with a view to showing the feasibility of communicating over considerable distances on land, it was decided to erect two stations, one at Chelmsford and another at Har- wich, the distance between them being 40 miles. These installations have been working regularly since last September, and my expert- ments and improvements are continually being carried out at Chelms- ford, Harwich, Alum Bay, and North Haven, Poole. In the month of September last, during the meetings of the British Association in Dover and of the Association Francaise pour lavance- ment de Science in Boulogne, a temporary installation was fixed in the Dover town hall, in order that members present should see the practi- eal working of the system between England and France. Messages were exchanged with ease between Wimereux, near Boulogne, and Dover town hall. In this way it was possible for the members of the two asso- ciations to converse across the-channel, over a distance of 30 miles. During Professor Fleming’s lecture on the Centenary of the Electric Current, messages were transmitted direct to and received from France, and via the South Foreland light-house to the East Goodwin light- ship. An interesting point was that it was demonstrated that the great masses of the Castle Rock and South Foreland cliffs lying between the town hall, Dover, and the light-house did not in the least degree interfere with the transmission of signals. ‘The result was, however, by no means new. It only confirmed the results of many previous experiments, all of them showing that rock masses of very considerable size intervening between two stations do not in the least affect the freedom of communication by ether wave telegraphy.* 4See Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, April, 1899, p. 280. 294 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. It was during these tests that it was found possible to communicate direct from Wimereux to Harwich or Chelmsford, the intervening distance being 85 miles. This result was published in a letter from Professor Fleming addressed to the Electrician on September 29. The distance from Wimereux to Harwich is approximately 85 miles, and from Wimereux to Chelmsford also 85 miles, of which 30 miles are over sea and 55 over land. The height of the poles at these stations was 150 feet, but if it had been necessary for a line drawn between the tops of the masts to clear the curvature of the earth, they would have had to have been over 1,000 feet high. I give these results to show what satisfactory progress is being made with this system. In America wireless telegraphy was used to report from the high seas the progress of the yachts in the international yacht race, and I think that occasion holds the record for work done in a given time, over 4,000 words being transmitted in the space of less than five hours on several different days. Some tests were carried out for the United States Navy ; but, owing to insufficient apparatus, and to the fact that all the latest improve- ments had not been protected in the United States at that time, it was impossible to give the authorities there such a complete demonstration as was given to the British authorities during the naval maneuvers. Messages were transmitted between the battle ship MJassachusetts and the cruiser Vew York up to a distance of 36 miles. A few days previous to my departure from America the war in South Africa broke out. Some of the officials of the American line suggested that, as a permanent installation existed at the Needles, Isle of Wight, it would be a great thing, if possible, to obtain the latest war news before our arrival on the S#. Paw at Southampton. I readily con- sented to fit up my instruments on the St. Paul, and succeeded in call- ing up the Needles station at a distance of 66 nautical miles By means of wireless telegraphy, all the important news was transmitted to the St. Paul while she was underway, steaming 20 knots, and messages were despatched to several places by passengers on board. News was collected and printed in a small paper called the Transatlantic Times several hours before our arrival at Southampton. This was, I believe, the first instance of the passengers of a steamer receiving news while several miles from land, and seems to point to a not far distant prospect of passengers maintaining direct and regular communication with the land they are leaving and with the land they are approaching, by means of wireless telegraphy. At the tardy request of the war office, we sent out Mr. Bullocke and five of our assistants to South Africa. It was the intention of the war office that the wireless telegraph should only be used at the base and on the railways, but the officers on the spot realized that it could only be of any practical use at the front. They there- fore asked Mr. Bullocke whether he was willing to go to the front. | ee iu. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. 995 As the whole of the assistants volunteered to go anywhere with Mr. Bullocke, their services were accepted, and on December 11 they moved up to the camp at De Aar. But when they arrived at De Aar, they found that no arrangements had been made to supply poles, kites, or balloons, which, as you all know, are an essential part of the apparatus, and none could be obtained on the spot. To get over the difficulty, they manufactured some kites, and in this they had the hearty assistance of two officers, viz, Major Baden-Powell and Captain Kennedy, R. E., who have often helped me in my experiments in England. (Major Baden-Powell, it will be remembered, is a brother of the gallant defender of Mafeking.) The results which they obtained were not at first altogether satis- factory, but this is accounted for by the fact that the working was attempted without poles or proper kites, and afterwards with poles of insufficient height, while the use of the kites was very difficult, the kites being manufactured on the spot with very deficient material. The wind being so variable, it often happened that when a kite was flying at one station there was not enough wind to fly a kite at the other station with which they were attempting to communicate. It is therefore manifest that their partial failure was due to the lack of proper preparation on the part of the local military authorities, and has no bearing on the practicability and utility of the system when varried out under normal conditions. It was reported that the difficulty of getting through from one station to another was due to the iron in the hills. If this had not been cabled from South Africa, it would hardly be credible that any one should have committed himself to such a very unscientific opinion. Asa matter of fact, iron would have no greater destructive effect on these Hertzian waves than any other metal, the rays apparently get- ting very easily around or over such obstacles. A fleet of 30 ironclads did not affect the rays during the naval maneuvers, and during the yacht race I was able to transmit my messages with absolute success across the very high buildings of New York, the upper stories of which are iron. : However, on getting the kites up, they easily communicated from De Aar to Orange River, over a distance of some 70 miles. I am glad to say that, from later information received, they have been able to obtain poles, which although not quite high enough for long distances are sufficiently useful. We have also sent a number of Major Baden- Powell’s kites, which are the only ones I have found to be of real service. Stations have been established at Modder River, Enslin, Belmont, Orange River, and De Aar, which work well and will be invaluable in case the field telegraph line connecting these positions should be cut by the enemy. It is also satisfactory to note that the military authorities have 296 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. lately arranged to supply small balloons to my assistants for portable installations on service wagons. While I admire the determination of Mr. Bullocke and our assistants in their endeavor to do the very best they could with most imperfect local means, I think it only right to say that if I had been on the spot myself I should have refused to open any station until the officers had provided the means for elevating the wire, which, as you know, is essential to success. bs Mr. Bullocke and another of our assistants in South Africa have been transferred, with some of the apparatus, to Natal to join General Bul- ler’s forces, and it is likely that before the campaign is ended wireless telegraphy will have proved its utility in actual warfare. Two of our assistants bravely volunteered to take an installation through the Boer lines into Kimberley; but the military authority did not think fit to evant them permission, as it probably involved too great a risk. What the bearing on the campaign would have been if working installations had been established in Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking before they were besieged, I leave military strategists to state. Iam sure you will agree with me that it is much to be regretted that the system could not be got into these towns prior to the com- mencement of hostilities. I find it hard to believe that the Boers possess any workable instru- ments. Some instruments intended for them were seized by the authorities at Cape Town. These instruments turned out to have been manufactured in Germany. Our assistants, however, found that these instruments were not workable. I need hardly add that as no appa- ratus has been supplied by us to anyone, the Boers can not possibly have obtained any of our instruments. I have spoken at great length about the things which have been accomplished. I do not like to dwell upon what may or will be done in the immediate or more distant future, but there is one thing of which I am confident, viz, that the progress made this year will greatly surpass what has been accomplished during the last twelve months; and, speaking what I believe to be sober sense, I say that by means of the wireless telegraph, telegrams will be as common and as much in daily use on the sea as at present on land. [Mr. Marconi’s experiments in trans-Atlantic telegraphing were thus described in the New York Herald of Sunday, December 15, and Tuesday, December 17, 1901: [Extract from New York Herald, December 15, 1901.] Sr. Jouns, NEwrounpDLAND, Saturday, December 1}. Mr. Marconi announced to-day that he has successfully received by wireless telegraphy, at the station on Signal Hill, messages from the WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY« 297 station recently erected near the Lizard, in Cornwall, England. These messages, Mr. Marconi said, were received on W ednesday and Thurs- day afternoons. He had arranged with the Cornwall station that the letter ‘*S” was to be signaled at 6 o’clock in the evening, which would be half-past 2 o’clock here, and signals were received as arranged on Wednesday and Thursday, though no signal came yesterday or to-day. MR. MARCONI DESCRIBES THE TEST. ‘**T thought it advisable,” said Mr. Marconi, *‘ with the machinery which had “escaped damage at Cornwall, to see whether it was possible to obtain signals here from England at the same time I tried experi- ments with trans-Atlantic liners. ‘* When the kite elevated the wire to a height of 400 feet above Sig- nal Hill on Wednesday a number of signals, consisting of the letter ‘S,? which signal was ordered to be sent from Cornw: all, were clearly received on Signal Hill by the receiving instruments. We again received the signals perfectly on Thursday. ‘The signals were obtained only when the kite was up to a consid- erable height. For some reason yesterday nothing was received, and to-day we “could not get the kite up on account of the weather. It has been blowing too heavily every day for balloons, which would be best to exper iment with. SUCCESS HAS ALTERED HIS PLANS. ‘*The success of these tests will alter my plans. I intend to sus- pend further tests with kites and balloons for a short time and erect a large station here, at a cost of $50,000, having towers, or masts, for supporting wires. This, of course, provided there is no gover nmental or other objection. This will necessitate my going back to England at the end of next week in order to have the necessary equipments sent here, with suitable transmitting machinery and other require- ments. ‘* By that time I hope to have the Cape Cod Station in working order again, so as to complete a regular triangular service. No doubt the success of my experiments here will cause a sensation in telegraphic circles, and many will find it difficult to believe it. **T myself had very little doubt as to our ultimate success, but I thought it advisable not to communicate beforehand the exact scope of these tests, as I considered it would be better to assure myself of suc- cess before publishing details even of installations at Cornwall and Cape Cod, and what we hoped to accomplish by them. It is right, however, that the public should now know of the grand result of my experiments here. **T hope in the course of a few months to have a system of direct communication across the Atlantic in working order, and it can then be easily ascertained whether the discovery is of practical use for commercial and other purposes. I have no doubt in the matter, but I am content to wait and let events prove that I am correct in my belief. ‘* The instruments I haye at present are extremely sensitive, and I am of the opinion that in order to make the signals absolutely reliable it will be necessary to arrange for more power at the sending station in Cornwall, which I will arrange for on my return to England.” 298 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Mr. Marconi’s company about a year ago decided to put up two very large stations, at a cost of $70,000 each, at Cape Cod, Massachu- setts, and near the Lizard, in Cornwall, England, the object being to ascertain how much an applic ation of a ‘large amount of power would increase the practical distance by which it is possible to communicate by wireless telegraphy. The stations in Cornwall and Cape Cod consisted of heavy machinery and 20 poles, 210 feet high, supporting a large number of vertical wires. The station in Cor nwall was practically destroyed during a heavy gale in September, and was only partially renewed. It will not be “completely repaired for another two or three months. The Cape Cod Station was also damaged recently. St. JoHNS, NEWFOUNDLAND, Saturday. Confirm that signals were received here Thursday and Friday direct from Cornwall, receiving wire suspended from a kite. Marcont. [From the New York Herald, December 17, 1901.] To the Editor of the New York Herald: I have to confirm the dispatch of your correspondent regarding the receipt by me here of signals direct from Cornwall. The exact par- ticulars are as follows: Before leaving England I arranged for our long distance station near the Lizard to ; sional me the letter “S” repeatedly for three hours when I had advised them that I was “ready to receive the same. I ‘abled on Monday that all was in readiness and asked the signal to be sent at short intervals between 3 o’clock and 6 o’clock, Greenwich time, and to be continued each day until ordered to stop. This time would correspond approximately with half past 11 to half past 2 here. I received on Thursday indications of the signals at half past 12, and with certainty and unmistakable clearness at 10 minutes after 1 quite a succession of ‘‘S” being received with distinctnes,. A further num- ber were received at 20 minutes after 2, the latter not so good. Sig- nals were received Friday at 28 minutes after 1 o'clock, - but not so distinct as on Thursday. Tam of the opinion that the reasons why I did not obtain continuous results, were: First, the fluctuations in the height of the kite, which suspended the aerial wire; and second, the extreme delicacy of my receiving instruments, which were very sensitive and had to be adjusted. repeatedly during the course of the experiments. Whena permanent station is installed here I will not be dependent upon fluctuations of the wind, and I am confident of making the signals strong and reliable—that is, not requiring such delicate and sensitive receiving instruments by employing much greater power at the sending station. I must go immediately to England to make arrangements for employ- ing more power at the sending station, and I trast ina very short time to establish communication between the two continents in a thoroughly reliable and commercial manner. Marconl. | Sr. JoHNs, NEWFOUNDLAND, December 16, 1901. TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING.* THE REMARKABLE INVENTION BY WHICH DR. M. I. PUPIN HAS REVO- LUTIONIZED THE TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY. By Witi1am A. ANTHONY, Former President of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. At last the problem of telephoning over long-distance lines and ocean cables has been solved, and we may hope soon to be able to talk across the ocean and recognize the voice of a friend as he replies to us from London or Paris. Dr. M. I. Pupin, of Columbia University, after years of patient labor, has pointed out the way where others had failed, and has accom- plished what many had believed to be impossible. To appreciate the importance of what Dr. Pupin has done, it is well to contrast the two problems of transmitting telegraph messages on the one hand, and of transmitting telephone messages on the other. In transmitting a telegraph message, the sender closes and opens a key that makes and breaks an electric circuit, sending to the line electric impulses that magnetize little pieces of soft iron, and so operate a lever in the receiving instrument in unison with the key. The alpha- bet is a combination of dots and dashes. When the key is closed for an instant only, a very short electric impulse travels along the line, causing a momentary attraction and depression of the lever, which is recognized as a dot. When the key is held closed for a little time the lever is held down for a corresponding period and records a dash. When the line is long and the electric impulses become weak, so that the lever responds feebly, a new source of current is introduced; a new ‘‘circuit” is established, extending on to the more distant point, and the lever of the receiving instrument in the first circuit is made to open and close this second circuit exactly as did the key at the begin- ning. So the message is given to the new circuit with renewed energy, and goes on again to produce a legible record at double the distance from the sending station. When the receiving instrument is made “Reprinted, by courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., from Everybody’s Magazine, Vol. LV, April, 1901. Copyrighted. ai 300 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. thus to open and close a new circuit, it is called a repeater, and ona land line such repeaters may be introduced as often as may be neces- sary to transmit the message as far as we please. On an ocean cable, however, it is impossible to introduce repeaters, and the only thing to be done is to construct receiving instruments of extreme delicacy, capable of responding to the greatly enfeebled elec- tric impulses. But the impulses on an ocean cable are not merely enfeebled. There is another difficulty more serious still. In conse- quence of what is called the capacity of the cable, the impulses are spread out or prolonged, so that a momentary impulse started at the sending end reaches the receiving end much prolonged. It may help to an understanding of what takes place if we consider a case more in line with every day experience. Suppose we try to transmit messages by sending puffs of air into a long tube. It is evident that we should succeed better if the tube be narrow than if it be widened into a chamber of considerable capacity where the puffs sent into the tube would make little impression, and where they would find room to spread out and become not only enfeebled, but prolonged. An ocean ‘able is just such a chamber or reservoir for electric impulses. It has a large capacity for an electric charge. Such impulses as we use on land lines make little impression upon it, and such effects as are pro- duced at the receiving end are so prolonged that they lose all their character as dots and dashes. It is possible, however, to adopt our sending to this condition. We can wait. We can allow a suflicient interval between the successive impulses to give time for each to pro- duce its effect at the receiving end. On an ocean cable we can tele- graph, but we must telegraph slowly. Very different is the problem of transmitting speech. . Everyone knows that audible sound is the result of vibrations in the air. The differences that we recognize between sounds must be due to differences between these vibrations or sound waves. ‘To each sound must corre- spond its own sound wave, distinctly different from all the others. It is wonderful, even when the air alone is the medium, that these dis- tinctive differences should be preserved and that we should be able to recognize such a great variety of sounds. It is still more wonderful when we study the sound waves and find in what small differences the distinction between different sounds consists. Far more wonderful still is it when we consider all that must take place in the several trans- formations between the speaker and the hearer when sound is trans- mitted by telephone. We speak against a thin sheet-iron disk a little larger than a dollar. The vibration is communicated to the disk, and this, through a deli- cately adjusted mechanism, gives rise to electric waves which traverse the wire and, in the receiving instrument, produce vibrations in another disk, which communicates them to the air and so to theear. Through ae—- - TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. 301 these various transformations all the distinctive characteristics of the sound must be preserved. The vibrations of the transmitter disk, the electric waves that traverse the wire, the vibrations produced in the receiver disk, must retain all the elements that characterized the origi- nal vocal sounds. ‘This must be, or we could not, as we do, recognize not only the spoken words, but the tone and modulations of the voice, and even the mood of the speaker. The imperfections of electrical conductors not only tend to enfeeble, but to distort the electric waves, and a little distortion is sufficient to change the character of the sound as it is reproduced, and render it unrecognizable. Whatis meant by a distorted wave may be seen from fig. 1, where @ may represent a wave as given to a telephone line, and 4, c, d the same wave which has become distorted by a change in the relation of its elements during transmission; @ would hardly be recognized as having anything in common with a. G * DON RE Oa a ay Gr ae d SIN SSN pe Nye HiGeels Let us consider a little further the effect of the conducting line upon the waves that transmit speech. Speak the words ‘‘ soap” and **soup,” *‘ mine” -and ‘*mean.” How do you make the distinction? By a little more or less opening of the mouth, and a little more or less pursing of the lips. Helmholtz has shown us in what respect the corresponding sound waves differ. It appears that it is only in the little waves superimposed upon the main wave, in the little ripples, so to speak, on the surface of the larger wave. The wave for the ‘‘ou” in “soup” might look like this: Pe ere eat And the wave for the ‘‘o” in ‘‘ soap,” like this: 302 TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. The ear distinguishes the difference between these much better than the eye. The effect of the long telephone line upon these waves is something like this: PO GF ee an q I OI ORS ee ee ee Fic. 4. The little ripples that distinguish the sounds die out before the main wave. Such changes as these render repeaters useless on a tele- phone wire, for no repeater can restore characteristics that have already been lost. On an ocean cable this dying out occurs more quickly than on a land line; and, besides, the main wave is distorted and flattened so as to lose its identity altogether. This was the situation in long-distance telephony when Dr. Pupin attacked the problem six or seven years ago. While tramping through Switzerland in 1894 he improved his spare moments by read- ing Lord Rayleigh on the theory of sound. That part relating to the vibration of strings led him to consider the telephone problem. Sup- pose a long string attached to a mechanism which can only be operated by transverse jerks of the string. If the end of the string at a dis- tance from the mechanism be moved back and forth, waves will travel along it, and may supply the jerks required to operate the mechanism. But if the string be very light, and the resistance to its motion great— if, for instance, it were in a tank of water—the waves impressed upon it would rapidly die out, and it might be necessary to swing the string back and forth with all the violence at our command, in order that they should reach the mechanism at all. Substitute a heavy string for the light one. Waves imparted to it will have a much greater power of persistence. It will be necessary to impart a much less violent motion, and this of itself reduces very much the effect of the resist- ance of the medium in which the string swings. But we need not use a string that is uniformly heavy. The effect of the heavy string may be closely imitated by distributing heavy masses along it at intervals. Dr. Pupin set himself to solve the problem of the behavior of such a loaded string in a resisting medium. Its solution had not been before attempted, for its tremendous intricacy would baffle anyone who had not at command, as Dr. Pupin has, the resources of the ‘* higher mathematics.” Many perplexing questions are involved. Given a certain amount of energy, to be transmitted by means of a string swinging in a given resisting medium, how heavy must be the masses ? How near together must they be placed? Can they be so placed and proportioned that they will serve equally well for the transmission of long or short waves; that is, of slow or rapid vibratory motions ¢ TRANSATLANTIC TELEPHONING. 3038 It will be asked what this has to do with the transmission of speech over long telephone lines. Speech is transmitted by electric waves, and waves are waves, subject to similar laws, whether they occur in a stretched cord, or in an elastic fluid, or in an electric current. From energy transmitted by waves in a cord, to energy transmitted by waves in an electric current, is only a step.. It has long been known that a conductor wound in a close coil gives to an electric current in it something of the properties of a massive body. It is hard to start a current in such a coil, but once started, it is just as hard to stop it. Coils placed along a telephone line will have an effect similar to the masses along the cord. Electric waves started on such a line will be persistent waves, they will not die out, they will retain their form and characteristics. With such an aid the New Yorker can ask of his Chicago correspondent, ** What will that mine cost?” without fear that he will understand it: ‘‘ Who was that mean - 7” But this is not the whole story. Let us go back to the weighted cord. It is plain that a small motion, a comparatively slow movement, given to the heavy masses would be the equivalent of a much more rapid movement given to the cord alone. Slow movements always mean small losses. The cost of carrying a ton from New York to Chicago ona slowly moying freight train is far less than of carrying the same on the high-speed passenger train. The slowly moving, heavily weighted cord will carry from end to end the power imparted to it with little loss in the resisting medium. So it is with the electric currents in Dr. Pupin’s line. It is a heavily weighted current. a and forced to move with the jaw. It will be seen that the motion is not a rotation round the joint, but takes place about instantaneous centers in the upright branch, while the condyle itself slides over the surface of the glenoid cavity, which is convex downward. In respiration bright points fixed upon the ribs are displaced with the latter and interpret the motions of the rising ribs on a circular are. The heart of an animal, laid bare and brilliantly illuminated, gives on the moving film the succession of systole and diastole of its auricles and ventricles. The motions of the eyes themselves have been studied at the physiological station by M. Orchansky. He has chronophoto- graphed the dotted trajectory of the eyes in reading, and in this motion has been able to distinguish the components, due respectively to the ocular muscles and to the displacements of the head. Motions of the air in the utterance of the vowels.—The eminent phys- icist, R. Koenig, conceived the idea of making the sonorous vibrations due to instruments or to the voice act upon capsules with membranous Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE VII. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF RAY AND CRANE-FLY. {7 Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Marey. PLATE VIII. Fig. 40. CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHS OF JAW MOVEMENT, AND OF AIR MOTION IN VOWEL SOUNDS. HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. DoD walls placed on little gas-burners. These ‘‘manometric flames” vibrate in unison with the sonorous waves. Their images, dissociated in a revolving mirror, appear with indented mantling of various forms, according to the sound. But this fugitive phenomenon could not be fixed by photography until M. Marage, who has charge of the acoustic work at the Physiological Station, rendered the flames photogenic by substituting acetylene for ordinary illuminating gas. He has taken the photographs by chronophotography on a ribbon of sensitized paper having a translation of 2 meters per second (100 feet in 0.254 minute). Fig. 40 (PI. VIII), shows the vibrations of the air for the French vow- els 7, u, ou, é, 0, a. At the same time as the vibrations of the vowels, those of a special burner acted on by a tuning fork of 45 V. D. are photographed also, so as to determine the an Representations of motions in scale pictures conformed to separate photographs.—The impressions by chronophotographs on a moving film, complete as they are, are hard to utilize, on account of the diffi- culty of comparing the separate photographs. In some cases this com- parison can be facilitated by bringing the photographs together. But it would be more satisfactory to be able to arrange them, each in its place, on a single picture to scale. The writer has accomplished this by means of successive projections and counter proofs on the same sheet of paper. Let a gymnast throw a weight. (This is chronophotographed on a ribbon.) Let us project the first photograph and carefully counter- prove the form of the body.* After this first projection, let us project the second photograph upon the same sheet, and then a third, taking care to preserve the registry exact by fixed points which we have chosen. (That is, the horizontal line and object 7 will have been sharply drawn on the back of the drawing paper; and in making subsequent projections care is taken to have that line and object fall upon precisely the same places.) We shall thus have obtained a series of counter-proofs representing the successive attitudes of the gymnast. Fig. 41 has been constructed in this way. It affords complete information as to the extent and velocity of each of the motions represented. In this case only every third photograph has been drawn, in order to avoid confusion in the picture to scale; but while reducing the num- *T suppose he means that the perverted negative is projected, or in some way that the projection is perverted, and that the projection is made on a board. This pro- jection must show the fixed object r (at the left of the horizontal line), which, with the horizontal line, is photographed from nature in all the photographs. He attaches, I suppose, to the board a sheet of carbon paper, and over it a sheet of drawing paper, face down. The projection appears on the back of the latter, and he marks with an agate stylus the outlines of the gymnast’s body, the horizontal Jine, and the object r. These outlines are thus drawn correctly on the face of the drawing paper. That is how | understand his description. —TRANSLATOR. 336 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. ber of images of the athlete we might show all the successive positions of the weight, which would then have been very numerous. The series of these positions would have given the law of the motion impressed a AMesre Fie. 41. on the projectile, and the acceleration would have given in its turn the measure of the forces developed by the gymnast at each instant. We can even push the analysis of muscular action so far as to give, in the successive pictures to scale, the positions of the skeleton within the subject, with the phases of extension and contraction of the prin- cipal muscles, whose insertions upon the skeleton are, of course, known. Fig. 42 contains such details. HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 337 This last application of chronophotography is sometimes somewhat laborious. It is only mentioned to show the extreme power of the method and the multiplicity of its applications. In closing it may be added that since the exhibition new applications of chronophotography have been made at the physiological station, which promise the experimental solution of certain problems hitherto looked upon as insoluble. [Subsequent notes by Dr. Marey, translated from the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences, Vol. CX XXII, p. 1291, meeting of June 3, 1901.] Since the communication which I had the honor to make to the Academy on the 27th of May, 1900, I have seen that my apparatus needed to be entirely reconstructed in a better form, but the resources of my own laboratory did not permit it. Our correspondent, Mr. Langley, who is interested in these studies, obtained from the Smithsonian Institution, whose Secretary he is, a subsidy which has permitted me to resume my experiments, and to present to the Academy these new results. I have also awaited the result of the remarkable experiments of Professor Hele-Shaw, and it has seemed to me desirable to bring together these two kinds of research, which have a common purpose, that of fixing by means of permanent images phenomena which escape direct observation. Besides this, since my last communication I have learned of the labors of Mr. L. Mach, which are so closely related to my own that I notice them in giving the history of the new methods which seem destined to numerous applications. It was on the 11th of March, 1893, that I had the honor of present- ing to the Academy my first experiments, made by means of chrono- photography, on liquid waves or movements of the internal molecules of these waves, and also of the changes of speed and direction in cur- rents which meet bodies of diverse forms. After Mr. Mach’s com- munication of his experiments on the behavior of a current of air under analogous circumstances, he developed this research in a later communication on the use of an inhaling turbine, passing a steady current of air into a quadrangular. prismatic tube, whose section was 18 by 24cm. ‘The face of this tube, turned toward the observer, was formed of transparent glass; the opposite face was blackened to form a dark chamber, and an are lamp projected its light into the interior of the tube. Mr. Mach placed bodies of different forms and made of transparent substances in the air current, and took different ways to render the movements of the air in the vicinity of the bodies visible. Sometimes he projected light bits of paper or silk in the air current sometimes fine dust, sometimes smoke, and sometimes he hung flexible silk sM 1901 22 338 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. threads, which the current moved along; while sometimes he explored the direction of the air movements by means of little gas flames, which he applied at different points of the bodies that were in the tube. But the method which gave him the best results was that of Schlieren, which consists of rendering visible the movements of very small streams of air by changing the index of refraction, which is done by sending a current of hot air into a colder current. The smali streams or threads, which are warmed, then show either clearer or darker than the sur- rounding air, and the magnesium flash light permits us to photograph the phenomenon. Mr. Mach’s experiments have given results quite conformable to those which I obtained in the movements of liquids under similar cir- cumstances. So, for instance, on meeting the bodies the air current divides and re-forms behind them without producing many whirlpools, and when the plane is inclined under different angles and solids of different forms these disturb the air as if it were water. Mr. Mach measured the speed of his air currents by means of an anemometer, regulating the indications of the instrument by an acoustic method devised by his father, Prof. E. Mach. The vibration caused by a Koenig flame introduced into the air current gives the appearance of a cluster of little clouds, which move on while keeping their respec- tive distance, and as the latter correspond to known intervals of time they enable one to measure the speed of the current. Mr. Mach noticed a lack of fixity in the direction of air currents, which showed continual oscillations, and he attributes these movements to changes in the aerodynamic pressure. These studies were not known to me when I presented to the Acad- emy the result of experiments where I had studied the action of differ- ent bodies in an air current placed in conditions identical to those which I had studied with the liquid currents. To follow the move- ments of the air, I_used smoke threads, which, drawn along with the air by the action of ventilators, entered with it and at the same speed into the glass tube. The air and smoke were filtrated through fine- meshed cloth and advanced parallel to each other in the interior of the tube as long as the current met no obstacle. These experiments, like those of Mr. Mach, have shown that at the ‘ates employed air and liquids behave in substantially the same way. At this time Mr. Bertin, an engineer of the Navy, brought me into correspondence with Mr. Hele-Shaw, of Liverpool, who had been pur- suing similar experiments in closed chambers for several years. The clear Images given by photographing colored glycerin threads showed how the incompressibility of liquids affect eddies in an inextensible space, while the eddies always occur in different degrees behind bodies immersed in an air current, or even in a liquid current if it is moving in an open tube, HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRA PHY. 309 In the construction of my new apparatus the section of the air tube was increased from 20 to 50 cm. and the number of threads of smoke from 20 to 58. The filtering cloths were replaced by silk gauzes with a very small mesh, and I finally introduced into the experiment a chronographic system which allows us to measure the speed of each smoke thread in different parts of its course. For this purpose the system of little tubes which bring the smoke threads which are about to be aspired is subject to a lateral shake, repeated ten times every second. An electric vibrator regulates this movement with the above- named frequency, and under this influence the smoke threads do not form straight, parallel lines, but sinusoidal curves. These inflections are preserved during their whole path. In the interior of the tube a small scale 20 cm. long, in the same plane as the smoke threads, serves to measure the space traversed by the molecules of air in each tenth of a second. Some examples of the results obtained will enable us to appreciate the progress which has been made in the new construction. When there is no obstacle offered to the air current the smoke threads remain rectilinear and parallel. If we place an inclined plane in the curreat the smoke threads enlarge in meeting it, which indicates that they lose velocity before following opposite directions. Some mount toward the upper edge of the plane, others glide upon each other without mingling and escape by the lower edge. On each side of the obstacle the smoke threads continue their motion very close together, leaving behind the inclined plane a space where the air is motionless, and only givesasmoky cloud. This space where the eddies or whirlpools occur is larger in proportion as the obstacle to the air current is larger. To note the speed of the air current in different parts of its course we repeat the experiment, subjecting the smoke threads to the above- mentioned vibrations, and then the threads instead of being rectilinear present a series of lateral inflections which are preserved during all their course. These inflections remain equi distant if the speed of the current is everywhere the same, but if the current speed diminishes the inflections are closer; if it is rapid, they are more distant from each other, and the space moved oyer in a given time is measured by means of the metric scale. The figures which we have just seen are observed by a magnesium flash; that is to say, in so short a time, that each smoke thread seems immovable. If the light lasted longer the aspect of the figure would change and give the further condition of the air current as we see it in fig. 4°, where the light produced by the prolonged combustion lasts about seven seconds. * This fig. 4 corresponds to fig. 29, Pl. v, of the foregoing paper on chronophotog- raphy, where are also shown other figures here referred to by Doctor Marey. 340 HISTORY OF CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. We can not enumerate all the numerous applications of this method, since the form and dimensions of the bodies in the air current and the velocity of this current itself can be varied without end. I have never observed the ** jumps” noted by Mr. Mach, as making the current deviate from one side to another. These ** jumps” might possibly be due to the unequal temperature of the moving air. It may be regarded, I think, as a proof of the precision of my method that if an experiment is repeated under the same conditions the observed images are identical and superposable on each other. I believe I may add that this method will give the mechanical solu- tion of many problems relating to propelling apparatus, fluids, and questions of ventilation, ete. [To Mr. Marey’s interesting article we add two other illustrations from his own experiments, since received from him by the Smithsonian Institution. These are numbered @ and 4, @ being a form producing very little eddy, while 4 (a form not noticeably different) produces a very great one. These seem to be well calculated to show the impor- tance and the delicacy of the method. | Report, 1901.—Marey PLATE IX, Smithsonian AIR CURRENTS PASSING CURVED OBJECT. THE AIMS OF THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN.* By R. T. Guazesroog, F. R. §., Director of the National Physical Laboratory.” A speaker who is privileged to deliver an experimental lecture from this place is usually able to announce some brilliant discovery of his own, or at least to illustrate his words by some striking experiment. To-night it is not in my power to do this, and I am thereby at a dis- advantage. Still, I value highly this opportunity which has been given me of making known to this audience the aims and purpose of the National Laboratory. The idea of a physical laboratory in which problems bearing at once on science and industry might be solved is comparatively new. The Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, founded in Berlin by the joint labors of Werner von Siemens and von Helmholtz during the years 1883-1887, was, perhaps, the first. It is less than ten years since Dr. Lodge, in his address to Section A of the British association, outlined the scheme of work for such an institution here in England. Nothing came of this. A committee met and discussed plans, but it was felt to be hopeless to approach the Government, and without Government aid there were no funds. Four years later, however, the late Sir Douglas Galton took the matter up. In his address to the British association in 1895, and again in a paper read before Section A, he called attention to the work done for Germany by the Reichsanstalt, and to the crying need for a similar institution in England. The result of this presidential pronouncement was the formation of a committee which reported at Liverpool, giving a rough outline of a possible scheme of organization. “Reprinted, by permission, from Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LX, December, 1901. » A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution. See also article by Henry 8. Carhart in the Smithsonian Report for 1900 giving a description of the Physikalisch- technische Reichsanstalt with several illustrations omitted from the present paper.— Epiror. 341 se) 342 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. A petition to Lord Salisbury followed, and as a consequence a treasury committee, with Lord Rayleigh in the chair, was appointed to consider the desirability of establishing a national physical laboratory. The committee examined over thirty witnesses, and then reported unanimously, ** That a public institution should be founded for stand- ardizing and verifying instruments, for testing materials, and for the determination of physical constants.” It is natural to turn to the words of those who were instrumental in securing the appointment of this committee and to the evidence it received in any endeavor to dis- cuss its aims. As was fitting, Sir Douglas Galton was the first wit- ness to be called. It is a source of sorrow to his many friends that he has not lived to see the laboratory completed. And here I may refer to another serious loss which in the last few days this laboratory has sustained. Sir Courtenay Boyle was a mem- ber of Lord Rayleigh’s committee, and as such was convinced of the need for the laboratory and of the importance of the work it could do. He took an active part in its organization, sparing neither time nor trouble; he intended that it should be a great institution, and he had the will and the power to help. The country is the poorer by his sudden death. Let me now quote some of Sir Douglas Galton’s evidence: Formerly our progress in machinery was due to accuracy of measure- ment, and that was a class of work which could be done, as Whitworth showed, by an educated eye and educated touch. But as we advance in the applications of science to industry we require accuracy to be carried into matters which can not be so measured. In the more delicate researches which the physical, chemical, and electrical student undertakes he requires a ready means of access to standards to enable him to compare his own work with that of others. Or again: My view is that if Great Britain is to claim its industrial supremacy, we must have accurate standards available to our research students and to our manufacturers. I am certain that if you had them our manufacturers would gradually become very much more qualified for advancing our manufacturing industry than they are now. But it is also certain that you can not separate some research from a standard- izing department. Then after a description of the Reichsanstalt he continues: What I would advocate would be an extension of Kew in the direction of the second division of the Reichsanstalt, with such auxil- iary research in the establishment of itself as may be found necessary. The second division is the one which takes charge of technical and industrial questions. Professor Lodge again gave a very valuable summary of work which ought to be done. Put briefly it was this: 1. Pioneer work. Verification work. PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 3438 3. Systematic measurements and examinations of the properties of substances under all conditions. 4. The precise determination of physical constants. 5. Observational work, testing instruments. 6. Constructional work (gratings, optical glass). 7. Designing new and more perfect instruments. Such were the views of those who took a prominent part in the founding of the institution. It is now realized, at any rate by the more enlightened of our leaders of industry, that science can help them. This fact, however, has been grasped by too few in England; our rivals in Germany and America know it well, and the first aim of the laboratory is to bring its truth home to all, to assist in promoting a union which is certainly necessary if England is to retain her supremacy in trade and in manufacture, to make the forces of science available for the nation, to break down by every possible means the barrier between theory and practice, and to point out plainly the plan which must be followed, unless we are prepared to see our rivals take our place. **Germany,” an American writer,* who has recently made a study of the subject, has said, ‘Sis rapidly moving toward industrial supremacy in Europe. One of her most potent factors in this notable advance is the perfected alliance between science and commerce existing in Ger- many. Science has come to be regarded there asa commercial factor. If England is losing her supremacy in manufactures and in commerce, as many claim, it is because of English conservatism and the failure to utilize to the fullest extent the lessons taught by science, while Ger- many, once the country of dreamers and theorists, has now become intensely practical. Science there no longer seeks court and cloister, but is in open alliance with commerce and industry.” It is our aim to promote this alliance in England, and for this purpose her National Physical Laboratory has been founded. It is hardly necessary to quote chapter and verse for the assertion that the close connection between science and industry has had a pre- dominant effect on German trade. If authority is wanted, I would refer to the history of the anilin dye manufacture, or to take a more recent case, to the artificial indigo industry in which the success of the Badiche Company has recently been so marked. The factory at Lud- wigshaven started thirty-five years ago with 30 men. It now employs over 6,000, and has on its staff 148 trained scientific chemists. And now when it is perhaps too late the Indian planters are calling in sci- entific aid and the Indian government is giving some £3,500 a year to investigation. As Professor Armstrong, in a recent letter to the Times, says: ‘* The truly serious side of the matter, however, is not the prospective loss 2 Prof. H. S. Carhart. 344 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. of the entire indigo industry so much as the fact that an achievement such as that of the Badiche Company seems past praying for here.” Or, to take another instance, scientific visitors to the Paris Exhibi- tion last year must have been struck by the German exhibit of appa- ratus. German instrument makers combined to produce a joint exhibit; a strong committee was formed. Under the skillful editor- ship of Dr. Lindeck, of the Reichsanstalt, a catalozue was compiled, in which, by a judicious arrangement of cross references, it was easily possible to find either the exhibit of a particular firm or the apparatus of a particular class. This was printed in German, English, and French, and issued freely to visitors. Dr. Drosten, the representa- tive of the exhibitors in charge, or one of his assistants, was ever ready to give information and advice. To one who wished, as I did, to see . eg Shhreereseen yaaa ges DA Sp eas. FEI 20 tues, 4) i@ 8 Plan of grounds. the most modern forms of German apparatus, the exhibit was a very realshelipigyis 0 <* #2 And now having stated in general terms the aims of the laboratory and given some account of the progress in general, let me pass to some description of the means which have been placed at our disposal to realize those aims. I here wish, if time permits, to discuss in fuller detail some of the work which, it is hoped, we may take up imme- diately. The laboratory is to be at Bushy House, Teddington. 1 will pass over the events which led to this change of site from the old Deer Park at Richmond to Bushy. It is sufficient to say that at present Kew Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Glazebrook. PLATE |. & Zieh BUSHY House, EAST FRONT. a A te AR. Wea BUSHY HOUSE, SOUTH FRONT. PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 345 Observatory in the Deer Park will remain as the observatory depart- ment of the laboratory, and most of the important verification and standardization work, which in the past has been done there, will still find its home in the old building. The house was originally the official residence of the ranger of Bushy Park. Queen Anne granted it in 1710 to the first Lord Halifax. Busty House In 1771 it passed to Lord North, being then probably — rebuilt. Upon the death of Lord North’s widow, in 1797, the Duke of Clar- ~ ence, afterwards William IV, be- came ranger. After his death, in 18.27, it was granted to his widow, Queen Adelaide, who lived here until1849. At her death it passed to the Due de Nemours, son of King Louis Philippe, and he re- { sided here at intervals until 1896. &. In spite of this somewhat aristo- cratic history it will make an admirable laboratory. The build- ing is very solid and substantial. There is a good basement under the main central block, with roof of brick groining, which makes a very steady support for the floor above. Such is the home of the laboratory. It may be of interest to compare : it with the Reichsanstalt. The floor space available is ss ance 3ushy House, ground plan. B much less than that of the OG TREE Reichsanstalt. But sizealone is notan unmixed advantage; e there is much to be said in ii favor of gradual growth and development, provided the — eS: conditions are such as to iL Si cal : “pane i favor growth. Personally I WS _ Se oy would prefer to begin ina ; Wesco ero i) small way, if only I felt sure oie ia — eee Se : = | I was in a position to do the Ba ee sn work thoroughly, but there isdanger of starvation. Even with all the help we get in freedom from rent and taxes, outside repairs and maintenance, the sum at the disposal of the committee is too small. Fourteen thousand pounds will not build and equip the laboratory. Four thousand pounds a year will not maintain it as it ought to be 346 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. maintained. Contrast this with the expenditure on the Reichsanstalt* or with the proposals in America where the bill for the establishment of a laboratory has just passed, and an expenditure of £60,000 on building and site and £9,000 a year has been authorized. * * * Science is not yet regarded as a commercial factor in England. Is there no one who, realizing the importance of the alliance, will come Engineering Laboratory, ground plan. forward with more ample funds to start us on our course with a fair prospect of success? One real friend has recently told us in print that the new institution is on such a microscopic scale that its utility in the present struggle is more than doubtful. Is there no statesman who can grasp the position and see that, with, say, double the income, the chances of our doing a great work would be increased a hundred- * Capital expenditure on the Reichsanstalt. DIVISION I. site; thepittiot Dr Siemens... yan. ane ne ee eee £25, 000 Cost ofibuildinosiss (3 2 aioe aoe tee nt 34, 275 LAWHEAD ovesspenoKeH TabhmabhqbUne ey me. Soe ace eee acest one sauces eesouse 2, 700 Machinery and-instruments 235625252. ooo ee ee ee 4, 100 £66, O75 Biter 2 Std see eee Ce ae Sie ee £18, 600 Buildimgg es Wok 2 cae ee ee es Se eee 88, 000 cua vavershecn ovo Wiha ovnbNRe eee Oe oe eke. Sake wa Ss Sees oeoke 5, 400 Machineryjand instruments-¢.0-1- ease ee 23, 550 135, 550 ANNUAL EXPENDITURE. Salaries-andewagesa-4 2. is selec. ee ee £10, 300 Maintenance of buildings, apparatus,.ete./. 52-22. 25 eee ee eee 6, 350 16, 650 See description, with illustrations of the Reichsanstalt, by Henry 8. Carhart, printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1900, pages 403-415. PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 347 fold? The problems we have to solve are hard enough; give us means to employ the best men and we will answer them; starve us and then jjuote our failure as showing the uselessness of science applied to industry. There is some justice in the criticism of one of our technical = asia PAARONA. THY SICAL JASOR a raRy: - ae) pes Prmmommet ‘weer > i > aang | Ki ft coe Ye < ee PS Engineering Laboratory, elevations and Sections. papers. I have recently been advertising for assistants, and a paper in whose columns the advertisement appears writes: **The scale of pay is certainly not extravagant, It is, however, pos- sible that the duties will be correspondingly light.” I have thus summarized in a brief manner the aims of the labora- tory and have indicated the effect which the application See Sa ae aes - ee 2 erescience to industry has 9 | Tal had on one branch of trade — | | | in Germany. And now let |_| atiovenowe 2 | me illustrate these aims by — | MAIN BUILDING OF SECOND DIVISION | | amore detailed account of w! & | : some of the problems of in- F dS aor neha i3 dustry which have heen ¢| vA [F solved by the application of | Fs science, and then of some z 3 others which remain un- j l solved and which the labora- | em mre cs | tory hopes to attack. The | esIoeNT’a eee story of the Jena glass works | ————————— | is most interesting; we will i ie ee ee sii, seers e Bea: 23 take it first. mote be i a one aaa os Reichsanstalt, general plan. An exhibition of scientific ; apparatus took place in London in 1878. Among the visitors to this was Professor Abbé, of Jena, and ina report he wrote on the optical appara- tus he called attention to the need for progress in the art of glass making if the miscroscope were to advance and to the necessity for obtaining 348 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. glasses having a different relation between dispersion and refractive index than that found in the material at the disposal of opticians. Stokes and Harcourt had already made attempts in this direction, but with no marked success. In 1881 Abbé and Schott at Jena started their work. Their undertaking, they write five years later in the first catalogue of their factory, arose out of a scientific investigation into the connection between the optical properties of solid amorphous fluxes and their chem- ical constitution. When they began their work some 6 elements only entered into the composition of glass. By 1888 it had been found possible to combine with these in quantities up to about 10 per cent 28 different elements, and the effect of each of these on the refractive index and dispersion had been measured. Thus, for example, the investigators found that by the addition of boron the ratio of the length of the blue end of the spectrum to that of the red was increased; the addition of fluorine, potassium, or sodium produced the opposite result. Now in an ordinary achromatic lens of crown and flint, if the total disper- sion for the two be the same, then for the flint glass the dispersion of the blue end is greater; that of the red less than for the crown; thus the image is not white, a secondary spectrum is the result. Abbé showed, as Stokes and Harcourt had shown earlier, that by combining a large proportion of boron with the flint its dispersion was made more nearly the same as that of the crown, while by replacing the silicates in the crown glass by phospates a still better result was obtained, and by the use of three glasses three lines of the spectrum could be combined. The spectrum outstanding was a tertiary one and much less marked than that due to the original crown and flint The modern microscope became possible. The conditions to be satisfied in a photographic lens differ from those required for a microscope. Von Seidel had shown that with the ordinary flint and crown glasses the conditions for achromatism and for flatness of field can not be simultaneously satisfied. To do this we need a glass of high refractive index and low dispersive power or vice versa; in ordinary glasses these two properties rise and fall together. Thus crown glass has a refractive index of 1.518 and a dispersive power of 0.0166, while for flint the figures are 1.717 and 0.0339. By introducing barium into the crown glass a change is produced in this respect. For barium crown the refractive index is greater and the dispersive power less than for soft crown. With two such glasses, then, the field can be achromatic and flat. The wonderful results obtained by Dallmeyer and Ross in this country, by Zeiss and Stein- heil in Germany, are due to the use of new glasses. They have also been applied with marked success to the manufacture of the object glasses of large telescopes. But the Jena glasses have other uses besides optical. **About twenty years ago” —the quotation is from the catalogue of the German glass. PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 849 exhibition—‘‘the manufacture of thermometers had come to a dead stop in Germany, thermometers being then invested with a defect, their liability to periodic changes, which seriously endangered German manufacture. ‘Comprehensive investigations were then carried out by the Normal Aichungs commission, the Reichsanstalt, and the Jena glass works, and much labor b- ought the desired reward.” The defect referred to was the temporary depression of the ice point which takes place in all thermometers after heating. Let the ice point of a ther- mometer be observed; then raise the thermometer to say 100° and again observe the ice point as soon as possible afterwards; it will be depressed below its previous position; in some instruments of Thu- ringian glass a depression of as much as 0.65° C. had been noted. For scientific purposes such an instrument is quite untrustworthy. If it be kept at say 15° and then immersed in a bath at 30° it will be appre- ciably different from tha* which would be given if it were first raised to say 50°, allowed to cool quickly just below 30°, and then put into the bath. This was the defect which the investigators set themselves to cure. Depression of freezing point for various thermometers. Degree. EL miTman BROUKOE eilfS aye roo Sec Sa a Tien tears a US altace se ae ee ene oe ees ee 0. 06 SHTRSENIN RIES WSC eS A ea IS os See ae a OE ee . 38 SS ELVIN AS iy Uae ae SSI ST 5 i Se i ee ae ee 44 MPN SR Cepia ttcee e MP eee re a gusts te Ge ee ee on Soe ea we cpien oo . 65 SES Wes Ne Se eA ce heh Ps Ree ee ee ee ee ee See 3 “DIP DIRE Ses See See ade OS eat Oe fe OP ee es ee ere em ee ae ee eee a .08 LO” See SBS Soe BES BR DESEO US BOE SS SOS oes 5 Se eae Se See tae ee . 05 ee ee ee es et aa ae Re Sor ge ee eee thee Do hoses 6 = . 02 Analysis of glasses. Oe Na CaO. ALOR ZnO~ BO, 16”’— 67.5 14 7 2.5 7 2 597/—72 11 5 12 Weber had found in 1883 that glasses which contain a mixture of soda and potash give a very large depression. He made in 1883 : glass free from soda with a depression of 0.1°. The work was then taken up by the Aichungs commission, the Reichsanstalt, and the Jena factory. Weber's results were confirmed. An old thermometer of Humboldt’s containing 0.86 per cent of soda and 20 per cent of potash had a depression of 0.06°, while a new instrument, in which the per- centages were 12.7 per cent and 10.6 per cent, respectively, had a depression of 0.65°. An English standard, with 1.5 per cent of soda, 12.3 per cent of potash, gave a depression of 0.15°, while a French *“Ver Deer” instrument in which these proportions were reversed gave only 0.8°. It remained to manufacture a glass which should have a low depression and at the same time other satisfactory properties. The now well-known glass 16’’’ is the result. Its composition is shown in 350 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. the table. The fact that there was an appreciable difference between the scale of the 16’ glass and that of the air thermometer led to further investigation, and another glass, a borosilicate, containing 12 per cent of boron, was the consequence. This glass has a still smaller depression. As a result of this work Germany can now claim that ‘the manufacture of thermometers has reached in Germany an unprec- edented level and now governs the markets of the world.” Previous to 1888 Germany imported optical glass; at that date nearly all the glass required was of home manufacture. Very shortly afterwards an export trade in raw glass began, which in 1898 was worth £30,000 per annum, while the value of optical instruments, such as telescopes, field glasses, and the like, exported that year was over £250,000. Such are the results of the application of science—i. e., organized common sense—to a great industry. The National Physical Laboratory aims at doing the like for England. The question of standardization of patterns and designs is probably too large a one to go into on the present occasion. Some months ago a most interesting discussion of the subject took place at the Institution of Electrical Engineers. To my mind there is no doubt that the judicious adoption of standard types combined with readiness to scrap old patterns, so soon as a real advance or improvement is made, is necessary for progress. One who has been over some good German workshop or has contrasted a first-class English shop where this is the practice with an old-fashioned establishment where standardization is hardly known, can have no hesitation on this question. It has its dis- advantages, less is left to the originality of the workman and in con- sequence they lose the power of adaptation to new circumstances and conditions. The English mechanic is, I believe, greatly superior to the German, but the scientific organization of the German shops enables them to compete successfully with the English. In 1881 the German Association of Mechanics and Opticians was formed, having for its aim the scientific, technical, and commercial development of instrument making. The society has its official organ, the Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde, edited by one of the staff of the Reichsanstalt. Specialized schools for the training of young mechanics in the scientific side of their calling have been formed and now the majority of the leading firms retain in their permanent service one or more trained mathematicians or physicists. In this way, again, the importance of science to industry is recognized. I have thus noted very briefly some of the ways in which science has become identified with trade in Germany, and have indicated some of the investigations by which the staff of the Reichsanstalt and others have advanced manu- factures and commerce. Let us turn now to the other side, to some of the problems which remain unsolved, to the work which our laboratory is to do and by > & - . Lary ; tee cols 7 Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Glazebrook. PLATE Il. Fia. 2.—SECTION OF BAD RAIL. FiG. 3.—SECTION OF GOOD Fia. 4.—SECTION OF BAD Fia. 5.—SECTION OF RAIL RAIL. RAIL, SHOWING SuUR- AFTER ROLLING. FACE TO WHICH FRAC- TURE WAS DUE. PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. aor doing wnich it will realize the aims of its founders. The microscopic examination of metals was begun by Sorby in 1864. Since that date many distinguished experimenters, Andrews, Arnold, Ewing, Martens, Osmond, Roberts-Austen, Stead, and others have added much to our knowledge. 1am indebted to Sir W. Roberts-Austen for the slides which I am about to show you to illustrate some of the points arrived at. Professor Ewing, a year ago, laid before the Royal Institution the results of the experiment of Mr. Rosenhain and himself. This microscopic work has revealed to us the fact that steel must be regarded as a crys- tallized igneous rock. _ Moreover, it is capable at temperatures far below its melting point of altering its structure completely, and its mechanical and magnetic properties are intimately related to its structure. The chemical constitution of the steel may be unaltered, the amounts of carbon, silicon, manganese, etc., in the different forms remain the same, but the structure changes, and with it the properties of the steel. Figure 1 on Plate II represents sections of the same steel polished and etched after various treatments. * The steel is a highly carbonized form, containing 1.5 per cent of carbon. If it be cooled down from the liquid state, the temperature being read by the deflexion of a galvanometer needle in circuit with a thermopile, the galvanometer shows a slowly falling temperature till we reach 1,380° C., when solidification takes place. The changes which now go on take place in solid metal. After a time the temperature again falls until we reach 680°, when there is an evolution of heat; had the steel been free from carbon there would have been evolution of heat at 895° and again at 766°. Now throughout the cooling molecular changes are going on in the steel. By quenching the steel suddenly at any given temperature we can check the change and examine micro- scopically the structure of the steel at the temperature at which it was checked. In the figure (Plate II), with the exception of specimen No. 6, the metal has not been heated above 1,050°, over 300° below its melting point. # Specimen. 1. Raised to 1000°.. Worked and cooled slowly. Masses of carbide ground work, bands of iron and carbide, pearlite structure. 2. Raised to 850° and quickly cooled. Masses disappear. 3. Raised to 850° and quenched in water. Arcicular structure. Martensite, hard steel. 4. Raised to 1,050° and quenched in iced brine. Martensite and Austenite. 5. Same cooled in liquid air to —243°. Much like martensite. 6. Heated to near melting point, quenched suddenly burnt steel. 7. Heated to 650°—annealed for a long time at this temperature and slowly cooled, bands of carbide and pearlite. 8. Any specimen except 6 heated to 850°, worked and slowly cooled, giving us the structure 1. Very marked changes might have been produced in 3 by annealing at 140°. 352 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. At temperatures between about 900° and 1,100° the carbon exists in the form of carbide of iron dissolved in the iron, at a temperature of 890° the iron which can exist in different forms as an allotropic sub- stance passes from the y form to the # form, and in this form can not dissolve more than 0.9 per cent of carbon as carbide. Thus at this temperature a large proportion of the carbon passes out of the solu- tion. At 680° the remainder of the carbide falls out of the solution as lamina. Thus the following temperatures must be noted: 1,380°, melting point; 1,050°, highest point reached by specimen; 890°, 0.6 per cent of carbon deposited; 680°, rest of carbide deposited. To turn now to the details of the photo, the center piece is the cemented steel as it comes from the furnace after the usual treatment. These slides are sufficient to call attention to the changes which occur in solid iron, changes whose importance is now beginning to be realized. On viewing them it is a natural question to ask how all the other properties of iron are related to its structure; can we by special treatment produce a steel more suited to the shipbuilder, the railway engineer, or the dynamo maker than any he now possesses 4 These marked effects are connected with variations in the condition of the carbon in the iron; can equally or possibly more marked changes be produced by the introduction of some other elements? Guillaume’s nickel steel with its small coefficient of expansion appears to havea future for many purposes; can it by some modification be made still more useful to the engineer? We owe much to the work of the alloys research committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Their distinguished chairman takes the view that the work of that committee has only begun and that there is scope for research for a long time to come at the National Physical Laboratory, and the executive committee have accepted this view by naming as one of the first subjects to be investigated the con- nection between the magnetic quality and the physical, chemical, and electrical properties of iron and its alloys with a view specially to the determination of the conditions for low hysteresis and nonaging properties. At any rate we may trust that the condition of affairs mentioned by Mr. Hadfield in his evidence before Lord Rayleigh’s commission, which led a user of English steel to specify that before the steel could be accepted it must be stamped at the Reichsanstalt, will no longer exist. The subject of wind pressure again is one which has occupied the committee’s attention to some extent. The Board of Trade rules require for bridges and similar structures (1) that a maximum pressure of 56 pounds per square foot be pro- vided for, (2) that the effective surface on which the wind acts should PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 350 be assumed as from once to twice the area of the front surface accord- ing to the extent of the openings in the lattice girders, (3) that a factor of safety of 4 for the iron work and of 2 for the whole bridge overturning be assumed. These recommendations were not based on any special experiments. The question had been investigated in part by the late Sir Wm. Siemens. During the construction of the Forth Bridge Sir B. Baker con- ducted a series of observations. Table JUL. : | Small fixed gauge. Large fixed gauge. Revol vine; SAUee ee eee ee aeeeera.* ao = = SED SPN eS URES) |) te Basterky: Westerly. | Easterly. Westerly. WA W. W. W. | W. | W. Oto 5 3.09 | 3.47 22925 | 2.04 | 1.9 5 to 10 7.58 | 4.8 Path 3.54 | L715 10 to 15 12:4) =| 6. 27 shy 4.55 8. 26 15 to 20 17.06 | 7.4 17.9 5.5 12. 66 20 to 25 21.0 12225 22.75 8.6 19 as TEV OS (Cn | ee Dai ral lasteen ae ae - 18.25 SOMO LES O2 1D lesen ars ae eee Sethi) gRe aes: se 5 9 21.5 Above Got MP llcetissesine cress. Ail Oe ates Sek Series cece 30025 (One observa- | | tion . only | | above 32.5). | | | | | | The results of the first two years’ observations are shown in Table II, taken from a paper read at the British Association in 1884. Three gauges were used. In No. 1 the surface on which the wind acted was about 1$ square feet in area; it was swiveled so as always to be at right angles to the wind. In No. 2 the area of surface acted on was of the same size, but was fixed with its plane north and south. No. 3 was also fixed in the same direction, but it had 200 times the area, its sur- face being 300 square feet. In preparing the table the mean of all the readings of the revolving gauge between 0 and 5,5 and 10, etc., pounds per square foot have been taken and the mean of the corresponding readings of the small fixed gauge and the large fixed gauge set opposite, these being arranged for easterly and westerly winds. Two points are to be noticed: (1) There is only one reading of over 32.5 pounds registered, and this it is practically certain is due to faulty action in the gauge. Sir B. Baker has kindly shown me some further records with a small gauge. According to these, pressures of over 50 pounds have been registered on three occasions since 1886. On two other occasions the pressures as registered reached from 40 to 50 pounds per square foot. But the table, it will be seen, enables us to compare the pressure on a small area with the average pressure on a large area, and it is clear that in all cases the pressure per square foot as given by the large area is much less than that deduced from the simultaneous observations on the small area. sm 1901 23 354 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. The large gauge became unsafe in 1896 and was removed, but the observations for the previous ten years entirely confirm this result, the importance of which is obvious. The same result may be deduced from the Tower Bridge observations. Power is required to raise the great bascules, and the power needed depends on the direction of the wind. From observations on the power some estimate of the average wind pressure on the surface may be obtained, and this is found to be less than the pressure registered by the small wind gauges. Nor is the result surprising when the matter is looked at as an hydro- dynamical problem—the wind blows in gusts—the lines of flow near a small obstacle will differ from those near a large one; the distribution of pressure over the large area will not be uniform. Sir W. Siemens is said to have found places of negative pressure near such an obstacle. As Sir J. Wolfe Barry has pointed out, if the average of 56 pounds to the square foot is excessive, then the cost and difficulty of erection of large engineering works is being unnecessarily increased. Here isa problem well worthy of attention and about which but little is known. The same, too, may be said about the second of the Board of Trade rules. What is the effective surface over which the pressure is exerted ona bridge? On this again our information is but scanty. Sir B. Baker’s experiments for the Forth Bridge led him to adopt as his rule double the plane surface exposed to the wind and deduct 50 per cent in the case of tubes. On this point, again, further experiments are needed. To turn from engineering to physics. In metrology as in many other branches of science lifficulties connected with the measurement of temperature are of the first importance. I was asked some little time since to state to a very high order of exactness the relation between the yard and the meter. I could not give the number of figures required. The meter is defined at the freezing point of water, the yard at a temperature of 62° F. Whena yard and a meter scale are compared they are usually at about the same temperature; the difficulty of the comparison is enormously increased if there be a temperature difference of 30° F. between the two scales. Hence we require to know the temperature coefficients of the two standards. But that of the standard yard is not known; it is doubtful, I believe, if the composition of the alloy of which it is made is known, and in consequence Mr. Chaney has mentioned the determination of coefficients of expansion as one of the investigations which it is desir- able that the Laboratory should undertake. Or, again, take thermometry. The standard scale of temperature is that of the hydrogen thermometer; the scale in practical use in England is the mercury in flint-glass scale of the Kew standard ther- mometers. It is obvious that it is of importance to science that the difference between the scales should be known, and yarious attempts haye been made to compare them, PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. oD But the results of no two series of observations which have been made agree satisfactorily. The variations arise probably in great measure from the fact that the English glass thermometer as ordina- rily made and used is incapable of the accuracy now demanded for scientific investigation. The temporary depression of the freezing point already alluded to in discussing the Jena glass is too large; it may amount to three to four tenths of a degree when the thermometer is raised 100°. Thus the results of any given comparison depend too much on the immediate past history of the thermometer employed, and it is almost hopeless to construct a table accurate, say, to 0.01, which will give the difference between the Kew standard and the hydrogen scale, and so enable the results of former works in which English thermometers were used to be expressed in standard dégrees. Values of corrections to the English glass-thermometer scale to give temperatures on the gas- Temp. Rowland, Guillaume. Wiebe. ° 1°) Le) 0 0 0 0 10 = ls — .009 =i Uo 20 = (Ib — .009 ae A 3 — .06 — .002 + .02 40 = Av =e (007 =- .09 50 =a 0H) 4-016 ae ic! 60 — .06 Stee et 70 = =- -.028 80 =e + .026 90 = ADI se Avy 100 0 0 This is illustrated by giving the differences as found (1) by Rowland, (2) by Guillaume, (3) by Wiebe, between a Kew thermometer and the air thermometer. It is clearly important to establish in England a mercury scale of temperatures which shall be comparable with the hydrogen scale, and it is desirable to determine, as nearly as may be, the relation between this and the existing Kew scale. Tam glad to say that in this endeavor we have secured the valuable cooperation of Mr. Powell, of the Whitefriars works, and that the first specimens of glass he has submitted to us bid fair to compare well with the 16”’. Another branch of thermometry at which there is much to do is the measurement of high temperature. Professor Callendar has explained here the principles of the resistance ther- mometer, due first to Sir W. Siemens. Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen has shown how the thermopile of Le Chatellier may be used for the measurement of high temperatures. There is a great work left for the man who can introduce these or similar instruments to the manu- factory and the forge, or who can improve them in such a manner as to render their uses more simple and more sure; besides, at tempera- tures much over 1,000° C. the glaze on the porcelain tube of the 356 PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. pyrometer gives way, the furnace gases get into the wire and are absorbed, and the indications become untrustworthy. We hope it may be possible to utilize the silica tubes, shown here by Mr. Shenstone a short time since, in a manner which will help us to overcome some of these difficulties. Here is another subject of investigation for which there is ample scope. So far we have discussed new work, but there is much to be done in extending a class of work which has gone on quietly and without much show for many years at the Kew Observatory. Thermometers and barometers, wind gauges and other meteorolog- ical apparatus, watches and chronometers, and many other instru- ments are tested there in great numbers, and the value of the work is undoubted. The competition among the best makers for the first place, the best watch of the year, is most striking, and affords ample testimony to the importance of the work. Work of this class we pro- pose to extend. Thus, there is no place where pressure gauges or steam indicators can be tested. It is intended to take up this work, and for this purpose a mercury-pressure column is being erected. Bushy House, from base- ment to eaves, is about 55 feet in height. We hope to have a column of about 50 feet in height, giving a pressure of about 20 atmospheres; it is too little, but it is all we can do with our present building. The necessary pumps are being fitted to give the pressure, and we shall have a lift set up along the column so that the observer can easily read the height of the mercury. This column will serve to graduate our standard gauges up to 20 atmospheres; above that we may for the present have recourse to some multiplying device. A very beautiful one is used at the Reichsanstalt and by Messrs Schaffer and Budenberg, but we are told we must improve on this. Again, there are the ordinary gauges in use in nearly every engi- neering shop. These in the first instance have probably come from Whitworth’s, or nowadays, I fear, from Messrs. Pratt & Whitney or Brown & Sharp, of America. They were probably very accurate when new, but they wear, and it is only in comparatively few large shops that means exist for measuring the error and for determining whether the gauge ought to be rejected or not. Hence arise difficulties of all kinds. Standardization of work is impossible. The new screw sent out to South Africa to replace one damaged in the war will not fit, and the gun is useless. A long range of steam piping is wanted; the best angle pieces and unions are made by a firm whose screwing tackle differs slightly from that of the fac- tory where the pipes were ordered. Delays and difficulties of all kinds occur which ready means for standardization would have avoided. Here is scope for work if only manufacturers will utilize the oppor- tunities we hope to give them. he PHYSICAL LABORATORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 357 In another direction a wide field is offered in the calibration and standardization of glass measuring vessels of all kinds—flasks, burettes, pipettes, etc.—used by chemists and others. At the request of the board of agriculture we have already arranged for the standardization of the glass vessels used in the Babcock method of measuring the butter fat in milk, and in afew months many of these have passed through our hands. We are now being asked to arrange for testing the apparatus for the Gerber & Leffman-Beam methods, and this we have promised to do when we are settled at Bushy. Telescopes, opera glasses, sextants, and other optical appliances are already tested at Kew, but this work ‘an and will be extended. Photographic lenses are now examined by eye; a photographic test will be added, and I trust the whole may be made more useful to photographers. I look to the cooperation of the Optical Society to advise how we may be of service to them in testing spectacles, microscope lenses, and the like. The magnetic testing of specimens of iron and steel again offers a fertile field for inquiry. If more subjects are needed it is sufficient to turn over the pages of the evidence given before Lord Rayleigh’s commission or to look to the reports which have been prepared by various bodies of experts for the executive committee. In electrical matters there are questions relating to the fundamental units on which, in Mr. Trotter’s opinion, we may help the officials of the board of trade—standards of capacity are wanted; those belonging to the British Association will be deposited at the laboratory; standards of electromagnetic induction are desirable; questions continually arise with regard to new forms of cells other than the standard Clark cell, and in a host of other ways work could be found. Tests on insulation resistance were mentioned by Professor Ayrton, who gave the result of his own experience. He had asked for wire having a certain stand- ard of insulation resistance. One specimen was eight times as good as the specification; another had only one one-hundred-thousandth of the required insulation; a third had about one three-hundredth. Mr. Appleyard again gave some interesting examples, the examina- tion of alloys for use for resistance measurements and other purposes, the testing of various insulating materials, and the like. I have gone almost too much into detail. It has been my wish to state in general terms the aims of the laboratory, to make the advance of physical science more readily available for the needs of the nation, and then to illustrate the way in which it is intended to attain those aims. I trust I may have shown that the National Physical Laboratory is an institution which may deservedly claim the cordial support of all who are interested in real progress. EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA.* By Prof. Wiru1am Herperr Hoprs. To discover the origin of the diamond in nature we must seek it in its ancestral home, where the rocky matrix gave it birth in the form characteristic of its species. In prosecuting our search we should very soon discover that, in common with other gem minerals, the diamond has been a great wanderer, for it is usually found far from its original home. The disintegrating forces of the atmosphere, by acting upon the rocky material in which the stones were imbedded, have loosed them from their natural setting, to be caught up by the streams, sorted from their disintegrated matrix, and transported far from the parent rock, to be at last set down upon some gravelly bed over which the force of the current is weakened. The mines of Brazil and the Urals, of India, Borneo, and the ‘‘ river diggings” of South Africa either have been or are now in deposits of this character. The ‘‘ dry diggings ” of the Kimberly district, in South Africa, afford the unique locality in which the diamond has thus far been found in its original home, and all our knowledge of the genesis of the mineral has been derived from study of this locality. The mines are located in **pans,” in which is found the ‘‘blue ground” now recognized as the disintegrated matrix of the diamond. These ‘* pans” are known to be the ‘‘ pipes,” or ‘‘necks,” of former volcanoes, now deeply dissected by the forces of the atmosphere—in fact, worn down if not to their roots, at least to their stumps. These remnants of the ‘‘pipes,” through which the lava reached the surface, are surrounded in part by a black shale containing a large percentage of carbon, and this is believed to be the material out of which the diamonds have been formed. What appear to be modified fragments of the black shale inclosed within the ‘‘pipes” afford evidence that portions of the shale have been broken from the parent beds by the force of the ascending current of lava—a common enough accompaniment to volcanic action—and have been profoundly altered by the high temperature and the extreme hydrostatic pressure under which the mass must have been held. The “Reprinted from Popular Science Monthly, New York, Vol. LVI, November, 1899, by permission of D. Appleton & Co., owners of copyright. 8360 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. most important feature of this alteration has been the recrystalization of the carbon of the shale into diamond. This apparent explanation of the genesis of the diamond finds strong support in the experiments of Moissan, who obtained artificial diamond by dissolving carbon in molten iron and immersing the mass in cold water until a firm surface crust had formed. The ‘‘chilled” mass was then removed, to allow its still molten core to solidify slowly. This it does with the development of enormous pressures, because the nat- ural expansion of the iron on passing into the solid condition is resisted by the strong shell of ‘‘chilled” metal. The isolation of the diamond was then accomplished by dissolving the iron in acid. The prevailing form of the South African diamonds is that of a rounded crystal, with eight large anda number of minute faces—a form called by crystallographers a ‘‘modified octahedron.” Their shapes would be roughly simulated by the pyramids of Egypt if they could be seen, combined with their reflected images, in a placid lake, or, better to meet the conditions of the country, in a desert mirage. It is a peculiar property of diamond crystals to have convexly rounded faces, so that the edges which separate the faces are not straight, but gently curving. Less frequently in the African mines, but commonly in some other regions, diamonds are bounded by 4, 12, 24, or even 48 faces. These must not, of course, be confused with the faces of cut stones, which are the product of the lapidary’s art. Geological conditions remarkably like those observed at the Kim- berley mines have recently been discovered in Kentucky, with the difference that here the shales contain a much smaller percentage of carbon, which may be the reason that diamonds have not rewarded the diligent search that has been made for them. Though now found in the greatest abundance in South Africa and in Brazil, diamonds were formerly obtained from India, Borneo, and from the Ural Mountains of Russia. The great stones of history have, with hardly an exception, come from India, though in recent years a number of diamond monsters have been found in South Africa. One of these, the ‘* Excelsior,” weighed 970 carats, which is in excess even of the supposed weight of the ‘‘Great Mogul.” Occasionally diamonds have come to light in other regions than those specified. The Piedmont plateau, at the southeastern base of the Appalachians, has produced, in the region between southern Vir- ginia and Georgia, some 10 or 12 diamonds, which have varied in weight from those of 2 or 3 carats to the ‘‘ Dewey” diamond, which when found weighed over 23 carats. It is, however, in the territory about the Great Lakes that the greatest interest now centers, for in this region a very interesting problem of origin is being worked out. No less than 7 diamonds, ranging in size from less than 4 to more than 21 carats, not to men- Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hobbs PLATE lI. GLACIAL MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES REGION. | CP FF Sr | SSS Driktless Areas. Odense aa eb Wewer Drift Morainee Glacial Striae. Trach of Diamonds Diamond Localities ——— —E Eagle 0. Oregon K Kohlsville O,Dowagiae. M. Milford. PPium Crk. 6 Burlington. We are indebted to the University of Chicago Press for the above illustration. Reprinted by permission of D. Appleton & Co. EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 361 tion a number of smaller stones, have been recently found in the clays and gravels of this region, where their distribution was such as to indicate with a degree of approximation the location of their distant ancestral home. In order clearly to set forth the nature of this problem and the method of its solution it will be necessary, first, to plot upon a map of the lake region the locality at which each of the stones has been found, and, further, to enter upon the same map the data which geolo- gists have gleaned regarding the work of the great ice cap of the Glacial period. During this period, not remote as geological time is reckoned, an ice mantle covered the entire northeastern portion of our continent, and on more than one oceasion it invaded for considerable distances the territory of the United States. Such a map as has been described discloses an important fact which holds the clew for the detection of the ancestral home of these diamonds. Each year is bringing with it new evidence, and we may look forward hopefully to a full solution of the problem. In 1883 the ‘* Eagle Stone” (PI. IT) was brought to Milwaukee and sold for the nominal sum of $1. When it was submitted to competent examination the public learned that it was a diamond of 16 carats weight, and that it had been discovered seven years earlier in earth removed from a well opening. Two events which were calculated to arouse local interest followed directly upon the discovery of the real nature of this gem, after which it passed out of the public notice. The woman who had parted with the gem for so inadequate a compen- sation brought suit against the jeweler to whom she had sold it, in order to recover its value. This curious litigation, which naturally aroused a great deal of interest, was finally carried to the supreme court of the State of Wisconsin, from which a decision was handed down in favor of the defendant, on the ground that he, no less than the plaintiff, had been ignorant of the value of the gem at the time of purchasing it. The other event was the ‘‘boom” of the town of Eagle as a diamond center, which, after the finding of two other dia- monds with unmistakable marks of African origin upon them, ended as suddeniy as it had begun, with the effect of temporarily discredit- ing, in the minds of geologists, the genuineness of the original Setind 7” Ten years later a white diamond of a little less than 4 carats weight came to light in a collection of pebbles found in Oregon, Wis. (Pl. I), and brought to the writer for examination. The stones had been found by a farmer’s lad while playing in a clay bank near his home. The investigation of the subject which was thereupon made brought out the fact that a third diamond, and this the largest of all, had been dis- covered at Kohlsville, in the same State, in 1883, and was still in the possession of the family on whose property it had been found. 362 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. As these stones were found in the deposits of ** drift” which were left by the ice of the Glacial period, it was clear that they had been brought to their resting places by the ice itself. The map reveals the additional fact, and one of the greatest significance, that all these dia- monds were found in the so-called ‘* kettle moraine.” This moraine or ridge was the dumping ground of the ice for its burden of bowlders, gravel, and clay at the time of its later invasion, and hence indicates the boundaries of the territory over which the ice mass was then extended. In view of the fact that two of the three stones found had remained in the hands of the farming population, without coming to the knowledge of the world, for periods of eleven and seven years, respectively, it seems most probable that others b»ve been found, though not identified as diamonds, and for this reason are doubtless still to be found in many cases In association with other local ** curios” on the clock shelves of country farmhouses in the vicinity of the ‘‘kettle moraine.” The writer felt warranted in predicting, in 1894, that other diamonds would occasionally be brought to ght in the ‘*kettle moraine,” though the great extent of this moraine left little room for hope that more than one or two would be found at any one point of it. In the time that has since elapsed, diamonds have been found at the rate of about one a year, though not, so far as I am aware, in any case as the result of search. In Wisconsin have been found the Saukville diamond (PI. II), a beautiful white stone of 6 carats weight, and also the Burlington stone, having a weight of a little over 2 carats (PI. II). The former had been for more than sixteen years in the possession of the finder before he learned of its value. In Michigan has been found the Dowagiac stone of about 11 carats weight, and only very recently a diamond weighing 6 carats and of exceptionally fine ** water” has come to light at Milford, near Cincinnati (PI. IIJ). This augmentation of the number of localities and the nearness of all to the *‘kettle moraines” leaves little room for doubt that the diamonds were conveyed by the ice at the time of its later invasion of the country. Having, then, arrived at a satisfactory conclusion regarding not only the agent which conveyed the stones, but also respecting the period during which they were transported, it is pertinent to inquire by what paths they were brought to their adopted homes, and whether, if these may be definitely charted, it may not be possible to follow them ina direction the reverse of that taken by the diamonds themselves until we arrive at the point from which each diamond started upon its jour- ney. If wesucceed in this, we shall learn whether they have a common home, or whether they were formed in regions more or less widely separated. From the great rarity of diamonds in nature it would seem that the hypothesis of a common home is the more probable, and this view finds confirmation in the fact that certain marks of ‘* consanguin- ity” have been observed upon the stones already found. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hobbs PLATE Il Copyright, 1899, by George F. Kunz. Five Virws or tHE Eaare Diamonp (sixteen carats); enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Tiffany and Company.) We are indebted to the courtesy of Mr. G. F. Kunz, of Tiffany and Company, for the illus trations of the Oregon and Eagle diamonds. Copyright, 1399, by George F. Kunz. Four Views or THE Orecon Diamonp; enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Tiffany and Company.) EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 363 Not only did the ice mantle register its advance in the great ridge of morainic material which we know as the ‘‘ kettle moraine,” but it has engraved upon the ledges of rock over which it has ridden, in a simple language of lines and grooves, the direction of its movement, after first having planed away the disintegrated portions of the rock to secure a smooth and lasting surface. As the same ledges have been overridden more than once, and at intervals widely separated, they are often found, palimpsestlike, with recent characters superimposed upon earlier, partly effaced, and nearly illegible ones. Many of the scat- tered leaves of this record have, however, been copied by geologists, and the autobiography of the ice is now read from maps which give the direction of its flow, and allow the motion of the ice as a whole, as well as that of each of its parts, to be satisfactorily studied. Recent studies by Canadian geologists have shown that one of the highest summits of the ice cap must have been located some distance west of Hudson Bay, and that another, the one which glaciated the lake region, was in Labrador, to the east of the same body of water. From these points the ice moved in spreading fans both northward toward the Arctic Ocean and southward toward the States, and always approached the margins at the moraines in a direction at right angles to their extent. Thus the rock material transported by the ice was spread out in a great fan, which constantly extended its boundaries as it advanced. The evidence from the Oregon, Eagle, and Kohlsville stones, which were located on the moraine of the Green Bay glacier, is that their home, in case they had a common one, is between the northeastern corner of the State of Wisconsin and the eastern summit of the ice mantle—a narrow strip of country of great extent, but yet a first approximation of the greatest value. If we assume, further, that the Saukville, Burlington, and Dowagiac stones, which were found on the moraine of the Lake Michigan glacier, have the same derivation, their common home may confidently be placed as far to the northeast as the wilderness beyond the Great Lakes, since the Green Bay and Lake Michigan glaciers coalesced in that region. The small stones found at Plum Creek, Wisconsin, and the Cincinnati stone, if the locations of their discovery be taken into consideration, still further circumscribe the diamond’s home territory, since the lobes of the ice mass which transported them made a complete junction with the Green Bay and Lake Michigan lobes or glaciers considerably farther to the northward than the point of union of the latter glaciers themselves. If, therefore, it is assumed that all the stones which have been found have a common origin, the conclusion is inevitable that the ancestral home must be in the wilderness of Canada between the points where the several tracks marking their migrations converge upon one another, and the former summit of the ice sheet. The broader the 364 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. ‘‘fan” of their distribution the nearer to the latter must the point be located. It is by no means improbable that when the barren territory about fHludson Bay is thoroughly explored a region for profitable diamond mining may be revealed, but in the meantime we may be sure that individual stones will occasionally be found in the new American homes into which they were imported long before the days of tariffs and ports of entry. Mother nature, not content with lavishing upon our favored nation the boundless treasures locked up in her mountains, has robbed the territory of our Canadian cousins of the rich soils which she has unloaded upon our lake States, and of the diamonds with which she has sowed them. The range of the present distribution of the diamonds, while per- haps not limited exclusively to the *‘kettle moraine,” will, as the events have indicated, be in the main confined to it. This moraine, with its numerous subordinate ranges marking halting places in the final retreat of the ice, has now been located with sufficient accuracy by the geologists of the United States Geological Survey and others, approximately, as entered upon the accompanying map. Within the territory of the United States the large number of observations of the rock scor- ings makes it clear that the ice of each lobe or glacier moved from the central portion toward the marginal moraines, which are here indicated by dotted bands. In the wilderness of Canada the observa- tions have been rare, but the few data which have been gleaned are there represented by arrows pointed in the direction of ice movement. There is every encouragement for persons who reside in or near the marginal moraines to search in them for the scattered jewels, which may be easily identified and which have a large commercial as well as scientific value. The Wisconsin geological and natural history survey is now interest- ing itself in the problem of the diamonds, and has undertaken the task of disseminating information bearing on the subject to the people who reside near the *‘ kettle moraine.” With the cooperation of a number of mineralogists who reside near this ‘‘ diamond belt,” it offers to make examination of the supposed gem stones which may be collected. The success of this undertaking will depend upon securing the cooperation of the people of the morainal belt. Wherever gravel ridges have there been opened in cuts it would be advisable to look for diamonds. Children in particular, because of their keen eyes and abundant leisure, should be encouraged to search for the clear stones. . The serious defect in this plan is that it trusts to inexperienced per- sons to discover the buried diamonds, which in the ‘‘ rough” are prob- Common forms of Quartz Crystals. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Hobbs. PLATE Ill. THREE VIEWS OF THE SAUKVILLE DrAmonp (six carats); enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.) We are indebted to the courtesy of Bunde and Upmeyer, of Milwaukee, for the illustra- tions showing the Burlington and Saukville diamonds. Turee Views or A Leap Cast or THE Mixrorp Stone (six carats); enlarged about three diameters. We are indebted to the courtesy of Prof. T. H. Norton, of the University of Cincinnati, for the above illustrations. Four Views or tHE Buruineton Diamonp (a little over two carats) ; enlarged about three diameters. (Owned by Bunde and Upmeyer, Milwaukee.) ea) ney rd ae ie a i Rr cece We tie offs 7 Bac a ee ht fi a. ee aoe y 4 a EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. 365 ably unlike anything that they have ever seen. The first result of the search has been the collection of large numbers of quartz pebbles, which are everywhere present, but which are entirely valueless. There are, however, some simple ways of distinguishing diamonds from quartz. Diamonds never appear in thoroughly rounded forms, like ordinary pebbles, for they are too hard to be in the least degree worn by con- tact with their neighbors in the gravel bed. Diamonds always show, moreover, distinct forms of crystals, and these generally bear some resemblance to one of the forms figured. They are never in the least degree like crystals of quartz, which are, however, the ones most fre- quently confounded with them. Most of the Wisconsin diamonds have either 12 or 48 faces. Crystals of most minerals are bounded by plane surfaces—that is to say, their faces are flat; the diamond, however, is inclosed by distinctly curving surfaces. The one property of the diamond, however, which makes it easy of determination is its extraordinary hardness—g¢reater than that of any other mineral. Put in simple language, the hardness of a substance may be described as its power to scratch other substances when drawn across them under pressure. Tocom- pare the hardness of two substances we common forms of Diamonds. should draw a sharp point of oneacross a sur- _—‘The African stones most resem- < 4 ble the figure above at the left face of the other under a pressure of the — (ctahedron). The Wisconsin fingers, and note whether a permanent scratch tones most resemble the figure = = : above at the right (dodecahe- is left. The harder substances will always aron). scratch the softer, and if both have the same hardness they may be made to mutually scratch each other. Since diamond, sapphire, and ruby are the only minerals which are harder than emery, they are the only ones which, when drawn across a rough emery surface, will not receive a scratch. Any stone which will not take a scratch from emery is a gem stone and of sufficient interest to be referred to a competent mineralogist. The dissemination of information regarding the lake diamonds through the region of the moraine should serve the twofold purpose of encouraging search for the buried stones and of discovering dia- monds in the little collections of ‘‘lucky stones” and local curios which accumulate on the clock shelves of country farmhouses. When it is considered that three of the largest diamonds thus far found in the region remained for periods of seven, eignt, and sixteen years, respectively, in the hands of the farming population, it can hardly be doubted that many other diamonds have been found and preserved as local curiosities without their real nature being discovered. 366 EMIGRANT DIAMONDS IN AMERICA. If diamonds should be discovered in the moraines of eastern Ohio, of western Pennsylvania, or of western New York, considerable light would thereby be thrown upon the problem of locating the ancestral home. More important than this, however, is the mapping of the Canadian wilderness to the southeastward and eastward of James Bay, in order to determine the direction of ice movement within the region, so that the tracking of the stones already found may be carried nearer their home. The director of the geological survey of Canada is giving attention to this matter, and has also suggested that a study be made of the material found in association with the diamonds in the moraine, so that if possible its source may be discovered. With the discovery of new localities of these emigrant stones and the collection of data regarding the movement of the ice over Canadian territory, it will perhaps be possible the more accurately and definitely to circumscribe their home country, and as its boundaries are drawn closer and closer to pay this popular jewel a visit in its ancestral home, there to learn what we so much desire to know regarding its genesis and its life history. BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES.* By C. Harr Merriam. A little more than a century ago the icv waters of Bering Sea were violently disturbed, and, in a tumult of thunder, earthquake, and steam, a voleanic island was thrust up from the deep; and again, in the sum- mer of 1883, the waters were once more convulsed, and, shrouded in steam and fog, a companion volcano was born. The advent of the new voleano seems to have escaped observation, but the terrific disturbances attending the upheaval of Old Bogoslof were witnessed by native Aleuts and by a Russian named Kriukof, resident agent of the Russian-American Company at Unalaska, who at the time chanced to be on the nearest part of the adjacent island of Umnak. Kriukof reported that on May 7, 1796, a storm from the northwest cut off the outlook seaward, but the following day, when the weather had cleared, a column of smoke was seen, followed by the appearance of a black object. During the night fire arose in this place, at times so bright that every object on the island could be clearly distinguished. An earthquake followed, accompanied by a terrific roaring, which seemed to come from the mountains to the south, and the rising island twice hurled stones as far as Umnak, a distance of 30 miles. In 1806 Langsdorf passed near it at sea, and said of it: ** The center point has on every side the appearance of a pillar and seems entirely perpendicular. On the northwest side are four rounded summits, which rise one above the other like steps.” ‘The new island continued to grow, and in 1817 its circumference was estimated at 23 miles, its height at 350 feet, and for 3 miles around the sea was covered with floating stones (pumice). By the Aleuts it was called Agashagok; by the Russians, Joanna Bogoslova, after St. John the Theologian. In 1832 it was described by Tebenkof as about 1,500 feet in altitude, roughly pyramidal in form, the sides covered with sharp crags, which threatened to fallat any moment. At this date (1832) Tebenkof made *Abstract by author of article in Harriman Alaska Expedition, Vol. II, pp. 291- 336, October, 1901. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. By permission of E. H, Harriman, 367 368 BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. a rough sketch (fig. 1; originally published in Lutke’s Atlas in 1836), which, so far as I have been able to ascertain, is the first published figure of the island; no others appear to have been drawn until 1873, foi; La 7 Zi 4 Upst 4 4 HI Ving) Fy) y Y/ A os if Us ‘ dy Ly; is isd ef ' / yh ‘h iG ay} f sf aes Buy |i St Uy f lng ith 4 Vly ath Be f Fic. 1.—Tebenkot s sketch of Bogoslof nal 1 Ship aoee in 1832. From the suit when Dall made six outline sketches from different positions. One of these, from essentially the same point of view as Tebenkof’s, is here reproduced for comparison (fig. 2). It shows how the island had Fic. 2.—Dall’s sketch of Bogoslof and Ship Rock in 1873. From the south. shortened, and how the elevated central peak had weathered and dis- integrated until it was hardly higher than the northwest end, which end had suffered most from the inroads of the sea. Fic. 3.—Old Bogoslof from west spit in 1891. In 1887, according to Greenfield, the northwest peak was crowned by a slender pinnacle, which, in 1891, the date of my first visit, had fallen, In the latter year this peak was a huge, bluntly rounded pillar, Smithsonian Report, 1901,—Merriam PLATE lI. Old Bogoslof. New Bogoslof. BOGOSLOF AND CONNECTING SPIT IN 1884. Photographs by Lieutenant Doty. BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. 369 lower than the middle peak, and the depression between the two had become a long, deeply excavated saddle (fig. 3). The illustrations already given show the island from the side, and give a false impression of its stability and form. When seen ‘‘end on,” it appears as a narrow-crested ridge. It was described by Dall in 1873 as ‘ta sharp, ser- rated ridge, about 850 feet in height, very nar- hs \ row, the sides meeting above in a very acute \ angle, where they are broken into a number of WZ, iy / AY us inaccessible pinnacles” (fig. 4). This extreme — Fis. 4—knd view of Bogoslof narrowness has, of course, materially hastened — Yom the Southeast an Isr. the disintegration of the upper part of the voleano. Some idea of the loss between 1873 and 1890 may be had by comparing Dall’s sketch (fig. 4) with a photograph taken by the Albatross in 1890 (fig. 5). When the Harriman expedition visited Bogoslof on the evening of July 8, 1899, fog rested so heavily on the summit that the form of the Fig. 5.—Old and New Bogoslof from the southeast in 1890, From photo by U.S. Fish Commission. two highest peaks could not be completely made out, but the ‘lowness of the ridge as a whole, the small size of the northwest peak, and the depth of the notch separating it from the rest of the mass, told too plainly of the rapidity with which the destruction is going on and foreshadowed the eventual downfall of the peaks. NEW BOGOSLOF OR GREWINGK.* The towering cliffs of Old Bogoslof no longer battle alone with the angry storms of Bering Sea, for close at hand a new island has risen. Its birth was not witnessed by human eye; no earthquake shock marked its advent, and the date of its upheaval may never be known. It was first seen by Captain Anderson of the schooner Matthew Turner, on September 27, 1883, and was then in active eruption, throwing out large masses of heated rock and great volumes of smoke, steam, and ashes, which came from the apex and from numerous fissures on the sides and base, some of which were below the surface of the sea. “Captain Hague suggested for the new me the name “New Beeson: 2 ha ‘Dall, in an article published in Science in January, 1884, proposed that it be named ““Grewingk,”’ in honor of the Russian Grewingk, who, in 1850, published an impor- tant compilation of the various early accounts relating to Old Bogoslof. sm 1901—— 24 370 BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. Large rocks were shot high in the air, and falling back into the water sent forth steam and a hissing sound. After nightfall, the vessel being then about 25 miles to windward, fire was observed on the island, A month later (October 27) Captain Hague of the schooner Dora approached within a mile, passing through a streak of red water and then into a streak of green water. He is quoted as saying that black smoke, like that from burning tar, was issuing from the volcano; that it threw out flame, smoke, and red-hot rocks, and that among the sea lions observed near by were a number which had been scalded so that the hair had come off. He thinks many were killed. Fic. 6.—New Bogoslof in September and October 1883. Drawn by Prof. George Dayidson from descriptions by Captains Anderson and Hague. A short time afterwards both captains returned to San Francisco, where they communicated their observations to Prof. George David- son, of the U. S. Coast Survey, who published a brief account in Science. They approached the island from opposite directions, passed close to it, and saw it from all sides. They agreed that the new island was larger than the old, from which it was distant about half a mile; that it rose precipitously from the sea with very steep sides; that great steam jets poured out around the base; that the summit was hidden by fog or clouds of steam, and that its height was somewhere between 800 and 1,200 feet. From their descriptions Professor Davyid- son made the accompanying drawing (fig. 6). “UBIO BH OD Aq Ydeasojoud “LOGL ‘LL LSNONY ‘SSAONVOIOA 4O71SOD0g Wt aLVviad ‘WeIeaYWj—' 106] ‘Woday uriuosyyiWs BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. Sirti On October 20, 1883, between the visits of Captains Anderson and Hague, a shower of fine volcanic ashes or dust fell at Unalaska, con- cerning which the signal observer there reported: ‘‘At 2.30 p. m. the air became suddenly darkened like night, and soon after a shower of mixed sand and water fell for about ten minutes, covering the ground with a thin layer. The windows were so covered that it was impos- sible to see through them.” Another eyewitness stated that a remark- able black cloud appeared in the north and soon overspread the entire heavens, settling down very low and cutting off the light of the sun. It finally broke and disappeared in a shower of ashes. The first landing on the new volcano, so far as known, was made nine months after its discovery, by the officers of the revenue steamer Corwin, Capt. M. A. Healy, on May 21, 1884. The report on this visit, written mainly by Lieut. J. C. Cantwell, states that the height of the new voleano was about 500 feet; that its upper third was cleft by a great fissure or crater, the interior of which could not be reached or seen, owing to the heat, steam, and fumes of sulphur; that steam issued not only from the crater, but also and with great violence from Fic. 7.—New Bogoslof from the northwest in 1884. From Lieutenant Cantwell’s sketch ‘tA.” On the right the northwest cliff of Old Bogoslof may be seen. rents or areas in the sides of the cone; that the numerous steam vents were lined with thick deposits of sulphur, and the escaping steam was suffocating; that the voleano was covered with a thin layer of ashes, the surface of which, from the action of rain, had been converted into a crust over which the party found great difficulty in climbing, break- ing through and sinking ankle-deep to knee-deep into an almost impal- pable dust which rose in clouds and nearly suffocated them. At this time the old and new voleanoes were connected by a broad bar or spit (shown in Lieutenant Doty’s photograph, Pl. I, and in Cantwell’s chart, Pl. III, fig. 1), from which, near the base of the new volcano, rose a tower-like rock 87 feet in height. Barnacles and water-marks on this rock, 20 feet or more above sea level, indicated recent elevation. P A week after the visit of the Corwin (May 21, 1884) Lieut. George M. Stoney, of the Navy, arrived at Bogoslof and spent three days in taking soundings. Many earthquake shocks were felt on the schooner as it lay at anchor, and Lieutenant Stoney states that once, when climbing the volcano, ‘‘a most sensible vibration of the whole mass e Be BOGOSLOF VOLCANOES. took place; rumbling sounds and a dull roar, similar to the discharge of distant cannon, were heard at intervals; and though flames were seen only upon two occasions, yet this is believed to have been due to the little darkness of the season at that latitude.” In September of the following year (1885) the Corwin paid another visit to the island, and on leaving in the evening witnessed a most extraordinary spectacle. The summit of the volcano was enveloped in a bright sulphurous light, which burst from long rifts in its side and shone out against the black sky in the background, a striking and impressive display. In 1890, when seen by the A/datross, the islands were still connected by the gravel bar or isthmus, and their collective length was estimated at a mile and a quarter (fig. 8). The following year, 1891, it was my good fortune to visit the vol- cano. Returning from the Seal Islands, which we left on the evening of August 10, on board the A/batross, we made direct for the volcanoes. The night was densely foggy, as usual in Bering Sea in summer, and AT PTDL TLL PIA ee fire, TDs pee eM MY, 2h py Aye, PELL =: LES LD) y/ Hyer % ‘ i! ihr be Ved CL yy a a oH WLM Hy IT Ih Ye WL is in i iiy With Tay VG Vi) Hii LH Wii) } WEE HOY i) if Hel | i Z fife, V br Ub ng, AST Mili = #5 Y ( WUELY. fi) ul & + / I, Th / 1 LI f Fic. 8.—The old and new volcanoes in 1890, from the southwest (being N.3 E.). From photograph by U.S. Fish Commission. the early morning brought no change. The ship was feeling her way cautiously, with no land in sight, when suddenly, about 7 o’clock, the fog lifted, and we saw directly ahead, and hardly a mile away, the bold front of the new volcano. It was with a thrill of excitement that we saw the precipitous cliffs of the northern end break through the fog, and heard the fieree rush of escaping steam, whose roar, when the engines stopped, drowned all other noises, not excepting the cries of the myriads of sea birds which swarmed about the rocks like bees about ahive. Cf. Arctowski, ‘‘ Les calottes glaciaires des régions antarctiques,’’ Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris, December 24, 1900. ¢The question of the level of perpetual snow in the region of Belgica Strait is a very complex one. Professor Penck, who was present at an address that I delivered at the ‘‘ Naturforscher-Versammlung’”’ at Aix-la-Chapelle, was tempted to suppose that there might well be two lines of perpetual snow, one above the other, in that region. Low-lying fogs are, in fact, very frequent there, and these protect the snow from the effects of solar radiation, while, on the other hand, the clouds which most frequently give rise to atmospheric precipitation likewise rest very low. The sum- mits and upper portions of the flanks of the mountains (1,000 feet and over) are therefore subject to a climatic régime decidedly different from that which prevails at sea level. The mean temperature of the air is possibly lower, but, on the other hand, the amount of atmospheric precipitation is less and the effect of radiation greater. This would explain the fact that the mountain slopes are sometimes bare of snow at an altitude of 1,500 feet or even higher. It follows that the idea of two levels of perpetual snow is quite a plausible one, 382 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. islands are too high in proportion to the area occupied by the base, and that therefore the mountains can not fail to pierce through the coating of ice. The antarctic glaciers are not stationary, any more than those of other regions, and though they remain perpetually under the sway of winter, they still move on. ‘The plasticity of the ice prevents its accumulation beyond a certain limit of height, and the mantles of ice must, even under extremely rigorous conditions of weather, be limited in thickness, while all the forms of the antarctic glaciers must be those of a semifluid mass. There are thus both ice rivers and cascades, and also forms recalling the ‘* corrie glaciers.” But all are alike buried beneath a mantie of perpetual snow, and bare ice is nowhere seen. ‘‘ Inland ice,” properly speaking, does not exist on the large islands of the Palmer Archipelago. On the other hand, on Danco Land and Graham Land, it is only the mountains situated near the coast which show themselves, while the whole interior of the land lying eastward is completely panied under the inland ice We must not, however, imagine that the antarctic lands are at the present day as heavily loaded with glaciers as they might be, for traces of a wider extension, dating doubtless from the Glacial epoch, are still preserved. The presence of these vestiges of the Glacial epoch seems to me remarkable for various reasons, and on this account I should like to bring forward some facts in support of my assertion. Gaston Islet, our eighth antarctic landing place, lying a mile from the coast, is a huge roche moutonnée, perfectly polished on the surface. At the time of our visit it was almost entirely bare of snow. Opposite this islet, at Cape Reclus, there rises along the coast a large moraine running from northeast to southwest. An examination of the map of the lands discovered by the expedition shows that the direction of the moraine is that of Belgica Strait, and we are led to the conclusion that the glacier which produced this moraine must have occupied the strait itself, which has at this point a breadth of 10 miles and a depth of 342 fathoms. Another argument is supplied by our seventeenth and eighteenth landings. On Bob Islet, not far from Wiencke Island, we discovered some well-preserved fragments of a moraine, from 15 to 20 feet high, resting against the sloping shore at a height of 80 feet above the sea. This moraine has the same direction as the channel, and its height decreases gradually toward the west. On it were some huge blocks of gneiss, perfectly polished. The red granite is in the form of rounded bowlders, and the same is the case with other rocks, while the diorite is often angular. On the other side of Belgica Strait, exactly opposite the former spot, we discovered a fine moraine on Banck Island. Its height was 65 feet, and its direction parallel to that of the strait. It rested against the sloping side of the mountain, which here displayed characteristic roches moutonnées, These moraines can only be explained as the prod- Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Arctowski. PLATE III. A TABULAR ICEBERG. From ‘“ Through the First Antarctic Night.’’ Photographs by F. A. Cook. ky) av + Se. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Arctowski. PLATE IV. ICE FLOWERS. From ‘Through the First Antarctic Night.’ Photographs by F. A. Cook. ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 383 uct of an immense glacier which must have flowed through Belgica Strait westward, i. e., toward the Pacific Ocean. Other proofs of the former wide extent of the antarctic glaciers are furnished by the erratics collected in Hughes Gulf, at our third, fifth, and sixth landings, as also by those found on Antwerp Island at the fourteenth landing place, where a bank of rolled pebbles and blocks extends fora certain distance from the shore. Further, in Errera Channel, a remarkable moraine runs transversely across. Lastly, we frequently saw perfectly polished roches moutonnées, either along the shore line or on small islands. The discovery of the former greater extension of the antarctic gla- ciers seems to me so important a fact to record, that I could not refrain from entering into these details. The discovery is interesting from various points of view. I will here merely call attention to a question which seems to me closely bound up with it—I allude to the climate of the Glacial epoch. In fact, this question aroused a keen interest in me from the moment when I noticed the morphologic analogy which exists between the southern extremity of South America and this northern point of the antarctic continent, and which suggests the question, whether the more thorough study of the climates of the two regions and of the glaciers might not permit us to calculate the point to which the mean temperature of the air must have fallen during the Glacial epoch. This epoch has left its mark in both regions, and the aspect presented by the antarctic lands in our day seems to afford an indication of the condition of the channels of Tierra del Fuego during the Glacial epoch. We are, therefore, justified in asking whether the existing climate of the antarctic lands in 64° may not be the same as that which prevailed in-latitude 54° during the ice age.* Jam confident that the investigations of the next antarctic expedi- tions which may visit the two regions will furnish us with the key to the problem here indicated. The icebergs of the arctic regions are, in general, of very varied form, and usually of small dimensions, although heights of 80 meters (260 feet) are frequently measured, and it seems that as much as 110 meters (360 feet) above sea level may be attained.” The tabular form has rarely been recorded in the arctics, although the icebergs do show it near the glaciers from which they are derived, if the slope of the glacier is slight and the berg retains its original position of equilibrium after detachment. The antarctic, on the other hand, is the region of immense tabular icebergs. In the southern seas bergs several kilometers in length, and rising to a height of 60 meters (200 feet), have been frequently met with. *H. Arctowski, ‘‘A propos de la question du climat de l’epoque glaciaire.” Ciel et Terre, March, 1901. »K. V. Drygalski, Grénland Expedition, Vol. I, p. 381. 384 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. In the seas navigated by the Belgica we have seen as many as 110 icebergs at once, distributed all around the horizon. Forty per cent of these would be of the characteristic tabular form, while the remainder resembled arctic bergs, or some form derived from the tabular. Large icebergs were rare; heights of 50 meters (164 feet) were quite excep- tional, and the tabular bergs averaged only 30 to 40 meters (98 to 131 feet). The tabular icebergs are covered over with nevé, and only show the alternate blue and white bands at the base. I only once had an opportunity of examining this stratification, in an iceberg which was inclosed in the pack and displaced so that the strata dipped at a con- siderable angle. Both the blue and white bands were formed of glacier ice with the characteristic grained structure; the strata were not sharply separated from one another, the only difference between blue and white being that the ice in the latter was more porous, inclosing a large number of air bubbles; the ice in both was compact. The supposition that tabular bergs are formed of sea ice is entirely wrong. The mode of formation of the sea ice shows that its thickness constantly tends to a limit, supposed by Weyprecht* to be 7 meters (23 feet) at a maximum, however low the mean winter temperature and however great the number of years. I think. Weyprecht’s limit is too great for the antarctic regions. In any case the continental origin of the antarctic icebergs is indisputable, for the bed of the Antarctic Ocean is covered with terrigenous deposits and erratic blocks laid down by the melting of the ice, and these materials are transported to great distances from the glaciers from-which they are derived. Our soundings” and those of Ross have shown that the continental inland ice does not extend (on the continental shelf) beyond the isobath of 400 meters (1,312 feet), and this may be taken as the maximum total thickness of the icebergs coming from the pole in the whole antarctic area of the Pacific. If one-eighth of the tabular icebergs appear above the surface, we go 50 meters (164 feet) as the limiting height of the bergs detached from the great ice barrier known to extend from Victoria Land to longitude 170° W., and which doubtless continues eastward to the land to south and west of Alexander_Land. As soon as the Le/gica entered the Pacific Ocean, the surveys of the strait discovered being completed, and the season already well advanced, de Gerlache did not wish to lose time, and set his course to the southwest in order to cross the pack which we entered in longitude 80° W. Several attempts to penetrate the pack failed. In longitude 85°, however, the edge of the pack was more to the south, and on February 27 we reached latitude 70° S. without difficulty, the ice being navigable, and, aided by a gale, we made rapid progress *“K. Weyprecht, Die Metamorphosen dos Polareises, p. 139. >H. Arctowski, The Bathymetrical Relations of the Antarctic Regions (Geog. Journ., July, 1899). eee a ee Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Arctowski PLATE V. CUTTING THE CANAL FOR THE BELGICA. ICE CRYSTALS WHICH GIVE ORIGIN TO POLAR ICE. From ** Through the First Antarctic Night.’ Photographs by F. A. Cook. i . re . = T r i & ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 385 for twenty-four hours; but the Belgica became altogether ipmovable in latitude 71° 30'S. on March 2,1898. This latitude was never exceeded later by more than a few minutes. No serious attempt was made to escape from our imprisonment. Wintering in the antarctic regions wes part of the programme of the expedition, and it was just as well to do so where we were in the mov- ing pack as to force a way out and return to a land station. Besides, in the explored land regions we had only seen one place where winter- ing was practicable—at the twelfth landing in Lemaire Channel. Lecointe made frequent astronomical determinations of position and deduced therefrom the direction of drift. Sometimes we moved north- yard with southerly or southwestly winds; this we heard with joy. But with change of wind we would again go toward the pole or east- ward or westward, and so we wandered from place to place, sometimes back in our old position, sometimes far to the westward. Apparently we remained immobile, for everything around us followed the same course; we always took our dreary scenery with us. The drift of the Le/gica with the ice is the longest experienced by any vessel; the chart shows that the movement of the pack was guided by an obstacle to the east and south of us, and the existence of land in those directions is further indicated by our soundings. Depths dimin- ished to the south and east, and my bathymetrical chart* shows that during nearly all the time we were on a continental plateau. The pack in which we were may be regarded as a coastal pack, no doubt of great extent, but different in every respect (especially with regard to its movements) from the pack of northern polar regions. It is possible that in some years the pack becomes detached like that in the Ross Sea, but the observations of Cook and Bellingshausen, as well as our own, in 1898 and 1899, indicate that this must be exceptional. 1 am of opinion that the great Graham Land peninsula forms an anticyclonic region, so that, far from driving the ice toward the ocean, the pre- vailing northeasterly winds of the summer months send it southward; but in the Ross and Weddell seas the same anticyclonic winds pro- duce the opposite effect, because, as they come from the southeast, they are diverted toward the north, Victoria Land being, in all like- lihood, equally a region of high pressure. The forthcoming English expedition should decide this question. The seals and penguins were our very good comrades from the begin- ning; they took the greatest interest in all our affairs. The penguins, particularly the small ones (Pygoscelis Adeliz), seemed to us remark- ably intelligent, and we took great interest in watching them. ‘They had an almost human appearance when walking across the snow, and, indeed, they had many human attributes, especially in their social customs. *Published in the Geographicai Journal, February, 1901. sm 1901 25 386 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. On May 17 we saw the sun for the last time. In the antarctic regions, thanks doubtless to the detestable climate, the disastrous effects of the polar night are far more marked than in the north. There is a gen- eral lowering of the system, and the heart acts feebly. Several of us developed serious symptoms, and without daily care on the part of the doctor others would not have survived the period of darkness, though it was relatively short. One part of Cook’s treatment was very effect- ive and ingenious. Those who were most affected by deficient circu- lation were made to stand ina half-naked condition close to the red-hot stove for several hours daily. In this way the action of the solar radiation was in part replaced by rays of artificial heat—in a manner admittedly primitive —but none the less beneficial. The sun reappeared on July 23. With its return our torpor disap- peared and gave place to general activity. Lecointe, Cook, and Amundsen even risked a long expedition, taking with them provisions for fifteen days, a fur sleeping bag for three, and a tent. They stayed out for a week, but did not make much progress, for after a strong breeze several channels formed in the ice field, and they had the great- est difficulty in regaining the ship in safety. We had no kayaks, and the practical result of this little expedition was to show that without them all attempts to traverse long distances on the pack must be futile. It was also made evident that it is impossible to go far from the floe on which an expedition is encamped without running grave risks of being unable to find a way hack. For this reason I do not appreciate the opinion of a German critic, who has expressed surprise that we did not try to attain a high latitude on the pack by following a direct route to the pole. The great problem is to find the position of the ship when it is time to return to it. If we had left the Belgica on August 10, in latitude 70° 50’ south, longitude 86° 30’ west, we should have had to find her again one month later, on September 10, in lati- tude 69> 50’ south, longitude 82° 40’ west, and I greatly doubt if my German critic, even with the most favorable hypotheses, could have accomplished this tour de force. The characteristic feature of the southern pack is the thick layer of snow which lies on it all the year round. Except for the young ice, which forms in the open channels, is broken up by every movement ‘aused by the wind, and often presents a bare, glassy surface, the floes resemble an immense plain covered by a thick mantle of snow. The weight of this snow is so great that the ice is often depressed below the water level, and the base of the snow is transformed into blue, granular, compact ice, very different in its physical properties (com- position, structure, etc.) from the ordinary ice produced by the freez- ing of sea water. The fallen snow is changed into nevé under the influence of solar radiation and frequent changes of air temperature. In normal circumstances the field ice may be taken as about 2 meters ‘yooo *V ‘a Aq ydeasojoyud =. USIN DMoLByUY Isdty oY} YSNOAYL, ,, WOM “SNINDNAd 4O dNOYS vy ‘IA 3LV1d "IySMO}DIY—" 1061 ‘Hoday uR!UOsY}WS ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. 387 (64 feet), or, in the case of ice several years old, not more than 3 to 4 meters (10 to 13 feet) in thickness. The freezing action clearly tends to a limit which can not be surpassed, however low the temperature. This is the invariable result of measurements in the arctic regions, and it is entirely supported by our me isurements during our wintering in the antarctic. The greatest cold we experienced occurred in September; on the Sth the thermometer sank to —43° C. (—+45.4° F.), an extreme temperature when one considers that we were very far from land, and only in 71° south latitude. We took advantage of the sunshine when it came, following the example of the seals, who lay motionless on the ice for hours together enjoying sun baths. When there was no wind we felt warm at a tem- perature of —15° C. (5° F.), and even 25° C. (—18° F.), which is easy to understand, as evidently the temperature of the air did not indicate all the heat we felt, and we had only to go into the shadow to feel the difference. In the antarctic there are strong equinoctial storms, which follow close upon one another. The storms which preceded the establishment of the summer régime were accompanied by tremendous snowdrifts, and as the el- gica presented an obstacle to these, large quantities of 6 v snow accumulated, and at length almost buried her. It became necessary to extricate her, and the work had to be done quickly, as she threatened to sink gradually, dragged down by the inclosing ice. Until December we had every confidence that the sun would melt the ice and break up the floes to such an extent that we could make our escape easily. But when December had passed, and the sun made his daily tour of the horizon without melting anything, we felt our- selves deceived; there we remained,at the mercy of fate, helpless in the middle of an ice field several miles in cireumference. We attacked our floe with the explosives with which the expedition was provided, but with no effect. A careful examination of our floe fortunately revealed an old fracture, close astern of the ship, on which the ice was only from 13 to 2 meters (4.9 to 6.6 feet) in thickness. Along this we cut a channel 700 meters (2,297 feet) long, and wide enough to allow the passage of the ship. The task was long and arduous, but as it was 388 ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF THE BELGICA. a matter of life or death to us the work went on cheerily, day and night, for a whole month. As we had only three saws we could not all work together, so we divided into two parties, one working by day, the other by night. The method we employed was very simple. Starting from the edge of our floe, A C, two lines, A B and C D, were cut, then E F,and the triangle A E F was detached and pushed out of the way. Next the line G H was cut and the quadrilateral E C HG removed; then E K, and another polygon was free. Thus we got rid of the ice piece by piece, and as each slab had to be pushed out the channel already cut was open. The work was almost completed when a storm came upon us. The Belgica was nipped between two large floes, and as the swell from the ocean reached us from outside, these crushed and left the vessel alter- nately with every wave. We had three days of anguish, but at last the sea went down, and after some more labor, aided by a free use of our tonite, the elgica was finally delivered on February 14, 1899. We made rapid progress northward for a whole day; but then, on the edge of the pack, our way was completely barred by a number of small floes packed close together. A long month’s waiting followed, tossed about all the time by the ocean swell, before we got a chance to escape to the open sea, toward which the water sky to the northward had all the time been showing us the way. The Belgica left the pack on March 14, and on the 28th we were back in Punta Arenas. oo 00% oor S81 WW Jo alwog pl puexany Ay~J aN RY BISDIUOT DZ A\\\ WAweyuy paveghio« 5) = R ) yur RS 2ST murat oyriAp st =i << “7 Nir Serle) A) } anf é Wy Vx, “A\\que. N= P913|ag 24740 yey or or S2itW yo A895 “8681 “31NI0931°9 idvo &q pafaaung nS OOV 1Ad IHOUV UAWTVd © B44dig We 7 anv LIVULS VOIDSTAY FHL QNV’T OONVG 40 HOLAMS HA 3LY1d “PISMO}HY—" 1061 ‘HOdey uBIUOSy;IWS i iin J 4 "9 pei A ay ! 2 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. By ALFRED KIRCHOFF. [A leeture delivered at the ‘Institut fir Meereskunde,” at Berlin.*] The only absolute power on earth is the sea. The bosom of the deep brought forth land itself, whose insular fragments only here and there break the continuity of the all-embracing ocean. The sea alone constitutes a whole between the atmospheric envelope and the mineral crust of the earth, and essentially the earth is still a planet surrounded by the ocean. Again, organic life in its mysterious origins must be explained as a pregnant result produced by the sea and its movements, at the period in which there was no land, and a single unbroken ocean inclosed the terrestrial sphere as a shell, similar to the atmospheric envelope in turn inclosing the ocean. And if, indeed, evolution of life on earth follows a uniform plan, then even vegetable and animal forms on land, including man himself, are descended from marine ancestors. However, in the course of sons, land animals adapted themselves to conditions outside the ocean, and so a vast chasm gradually arose between creatures of the land and of the sea. Rivers and lakes, by their nature elements of the land related to the ocean, do, indeed, in exceptional instances blur the sharp boundaries confining the fauna world of the sea. Some fish, like the eel and the salmon, live in either salt or fresh water, and some sea-fish gradually accustom themselves to the water at the mouths of rivers, which is less salt than that of the open sea, and, finally, their descendants, swimming upstream, remain in fresh water permanently. The little ccelentera, for instance, in recent years passed from the North Sea, through the brackish waters at the mouth of the Elbe, into the Elbe and Saale, and even reached the fresh-water lake at Eisleben. Seals bear on land; sea-birds with great powers of flight, like the frigate-bird and the albatross, ply their mighty wings over the sea thousands of kilometers away from the coast, for days at a time. Nevertheless, in the dispersion of living creatures the coast remains the sharpest dividing line, and it is obvious “Translated from Geographische Zeitschrift, Leipzig, 1901, pp. 241-250. 389 390 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. that man, whose entire organization points to the fact that his ancestors in the Tertiary age were fruit-eating inmates of the woods, from the beginning lived exclusively on land. The coast line of the Eastern Continent may be considered the uttermost limit of the original home of primitive man. Man could have been only affrighted by the sea when it first con- fronted him in all its inhospitality, with its sudden dangers threatening his fostering mother earth through high-tossing breakers, flooding tides, and fearful storms. In the face of this far-superior enemy, attacking him with elemental power, unprotected man in the first place felt himself forced into an attitude of defense, especially along flat coasts, where the rise and fall of the surface of the sea, corresponding to the incoming and outgoing tides, produced the floods that swept up far beyond the low land of the coast. Pliny has given a dramatic picture of a struggle with the ocean such as must have taken place in prehistoric times. He tells of the North Sea at the time of the Roman Empire, when the German coast was still unprotected by dikes. Every day, he says, the flood tide submerged the land of the Chauci, a German tribe. The people, who took refuge in their huts, resembled seafarers, and the setting in of the ebb tide lured them out, like castaways, to ‘atch fish in the receding waters, or to pick up turf washed upon the damp clay ground by the flood. This example does not present the most elementary aspects of man’s struggle for existence with the sea, for the means used were in a measure perfected. The Chauci had advanced so far as to provide a secure foundation for their huts by throwing up mounds, Warten, such as are still used by the inhabitants of the Halligen, marshy islands off the west coast of Sleswick, which, on account of their small size, are not provided with dikes. It needed only the ‘* golden circlet” of the dikes along the coast to secure per- manently to the German mainland the belt of land once the playground of the shifting tides as a heavy marsh land rich in pastures and wheat fields. We know from history what a blessing this triumph has been to the inhabitants of the German and Netherlands coast since the Frisian tossed up his last spadeful of earth, calling out proudly to the sea, the blanken Hans (gleaming Hans), now held within strong bonds, Trutz nun, blank Hans (Do vour worst now, gleaming Hans !). Since then the boast has been tino: Deus mare, Batavus litora fecit. The suecess achieved over the opponent hitherto all powerful only con- firmed the people in their pride of freedom. The construction of the dikes had required energetic, self-sacrificing effort of many working for a common end, and the more unremitting the necessity for united labor in order to preserve them, the hardier the growth of the com- munal spirit behind this fortification against the tyrant Okeanos, that spirit which restrains self-seeking individualism and makes for civil order. Thousands of years before, a similar result had been effected THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 391 by the construction of dams and canals on the lower Hoangho, in Babylonia, and on the Egyptian Nile. Incomparably more important, however, seems that decisive act of prehistoric man, when, conquering his terror of the unknown, he boldly trusted himself to the hostile element, and fared over the surging limitless waters on ‘a fragile raft, or in a rude dugout, or in a boat of roughly joined planks. This progressive act, containing the germ of man’s dominion over the earth, may have been independ- ently executed on more than one occasion, when the various hordes, strangers to one another, into which our race had long been split by extended wanderings, arrived at the shores of the ocean. Where streams empty into the ocean, the attempt to reach the high seas might be made in river boats. _ Elsewhere, the impulse to move upon the sea for a longer time than swimming permits led directly to the art of building and guiding ships, the art which, in its wonderful state of development, enables man, alone among all creatures, to overstep the limits of the coast line on all sides and reach the most distant points. But what could possibly have impelled man to this reckless venture on the ocean? Hunger, that stern and omnipotent educator of man- kind, was probably a frequent motive, as may be surmised from the custom of the Chauci to hunt for fish in the ebb tide. Again, in flight before a superior hostile tribe, fear may often have made man invent- ive, and led him to prefer the deceptive sea as a temporary refuge to the sure fate at the hands of the enemy. Ifa tribe took up its per- manent abode at the seacoast, two causes may have operated to educate man to gradual confidence in the once dreaded element: First, the value of the animals abounding in the waters along the coast; second, the allurements of an opposite shore. These causes may have operated separately or together. The lack of food stuffs in the polar lands would never have tempted the Eskimos to push beyond the eightieth degree of latitude. This was effected by the promise of food held out by the teeming animal life of the Arctic Sea; in fact, it was the capture of seals that led these stout-hearted inhabitants of polar lands to cross the icy American straits, and penetrate to the most northern point ever inhabited by man, making of them such unexcelled masters in the handling of kayaks that a skillful, hardy Eskimo can paddle his boat from Riigen to Copenhagen in one day. The colonization of the Hel- lenes progressed from the Aigean Sea, along the shores of the Black Sea, toward the course taken by the tunny in its wanderings, just as the colonization of their nautical masters, the Phoenicians, extended to various places on the shores of the Mediterranean, influenced by the presence of the shellfish from which they got their purple dye. In districts where the interior is forbidding (which is the case not only in the polar regions) through the bareness of sheer rock, the bleakness 392 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. of moorlands, and overgrown forests, and where the sea, on the other hand, with its fish, mollusks, and crabs, presents an inviting bill of fare, we find people who, like sea birds, live almost exclusively on sea food and use the land only as their dwelling place. Such are the Terra del Fuegans, who live at the extreme southern end of the inhabited earth, and the Tlinkit Indians, along the southeastern coast of Alaska, which is indented with fiords like the coast of Norway, and cut up into islands. The latter have become so accustomed to their slender, well- built boats that they use their feet unwillingly and awkwardly. Sim- larly, in Europe, the Danes have developed into an essentially coast- inhabiting, seafaring people, since a portion of them, under the appropriate name of Vikings (people of the fiords), established settle- ments between a sea teeming with fish and the bare fields of the inland. The history of the Normans unfolds an impressive picture, showing how readily the bold seaman turns sea robber. The Normans, their venturesome spirits lured by the wide freedom of the sea, soon trans- ferred their predatory expeditions from the home soil to foreign lands. They sailed up the streams of eastern England, up the Seine and the Elbe; they harried Cologne on the Rhine, and they entered Sicily as conquerors. Of the sea the same may be said as of the desert, that rich booty entices the foolhardy to brigandage, especially when acquaintance with the lay of the land and a sure hiding place promises. successful rape. The Dalmatian coast, with its concealed coves and narrow inlets, presents a number of such sally ports and loopholes for escape along one whole side of Adriatic ship routes. For this reason it was a constant seat of piracy, even in ancient times, and when Rome sent a messenger to the Illyrian queen Teuta to demand the cessation of buccaneering, her proud answer, that it did not concern Rome, that it was the custom of her people, had a certain geographical justifica- tion. Opportunity not only makes thieves, but rears a nation of robbers. Recently doubt has been expressed, rather hypercritically, of the value of sinuses and islands as a nautical impulse to the inhabitants of coast lands. Beyond the even coast line of the Australian and the African mainland, unfringed with islands, the inhabitants have lived from the earliest days devoid of all connection with the sea. Yet no one would venture to say that the negro shows no aptitude for the sea- faring life. On board our vessels many a black African has done valiant service as sailor. In fact, the whole race of Kru negroes, on the seaboard near Cape Palmas, have won world-wide fame as the best sailors employed in the West African merchant service, though, it must be confessed, that this is true only since passing European ves- sels have hired the ‘* Kru boys” for the work. However, it seems significant that the one tribe of negroes that pursue navigation of their own impulse, the Papel negroes of Portuguese West Africa, south of THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 393 Senegambia, should have developed precisely at the conduit-like mouth of the Rio de Geba, opposite to which lies the Bissagos Archi. pelago. Along those coasts of South America that are almost entirely bereft of islands and peninsulas the European discoverers encountered nothing more advanced than rafts, with the exception of the bark canoes of the Terra del Fuegans. On the other hand, near the mouth of the Orinoco, at the point where the West Indies start out from the mainland, the Caribs were using seaworthy vessels, steered with a helm and catching the wind in cotton sails. They were dreaded pirates, and had begun the conquest of the Antilles. Again, on the west side of North America the coast assumes a fiord-like character at the strait of Juan de Fuca, precisely the point at which the Indian tribes igno- rant of seacraft meet with those possessing a high degree of marine attainments. In Asia and Europe alike the acme of nautical develop- ment displays itself on the most indented edges of the continents. Among the Asiatic seafaring peoples from Arabia to Japan superiority was achieved early by those inhabiting the vastest of tropical archi- pelagos, which occupies the middle position in this chain of countries, Here, among the Malays, the origin of an excellent art of shipbuild- ing must be sought, as well as the starting point of the enormous dispersion of the Malay race over the crowded islands of the South Sea. Long before the Christian era the migration of the Malays, slowly consummated, had carried to all parts of the largest of the oceans one and the same type of rowboat—slender, sharp keeled, often provided with bowsprits as a safeguard against capsizing, and its speed increased by matting sails—a type which throughout the whole region has crowded out the awkward, barrel-form dugout. In such surround- ings developed the Polynesian variety of the brown race, of all branches of the human kind the one most intimately and most vari- ously connected with the ocean in material and in spiritual life, even as pictured in poetry and myth. These people upon their tiny coral] islands, always breathing the balmy sea air, lead an amphibious life, almost as upon ships riding at anchor on the high seas. They learn to swim earlier than to walk; as infants they are carried upon the arms of their mothers through the frothy breakers. Examining the southwestern part of Asia, the Indian and Arabian peninsulas, we ‘realize that the never-ceasing alternation of the monsoons has been the generous promoter of traffic on the Indian Ocean. During the winter season of the northern hemisphere, the monsoon steadily drove the vessels to the east coast of Africa, and in the summer the same force carried them easily homeward to the Indian or Arabian ports. In these regions, then, earlier than elsewhere, a profitable inter- course was established across a vast ocean between two continents and widely different races. Thus it came about that the Indian bride was adorned with bracelets of African ivory, and the Indian art of 394 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. rice-growing was transported by slave dealers as far as the Kongo. Thus originated the Ki-suahili dialect, the language of the Bantu negroes intermixed with Arabic elements, and the commerce, brisk to this very day, between German East Africa and Bombay. And thus it is explained why Indian capitalists of large means have never ceased to live on the coast under German protection. Finally, what a brilliant series of nautical achievements in the course of ages is summoned before our mind’s eye when we recall Greece, Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Atlantic coast lands of Europe. Navigation on the Mediterranean was of earlier date, but navigation on the Atlantic attained to a higher stage of development in antiquity, because it was infinitely more dangerous to wrestle with the ocean than with the sea. Greek or Roman merchant vessels could not pre- sume to enter the lists with the stout vessels of the Veneti, a Celtic tribe occupying what is now Brittany. They were built of solid oak planks, their anchor chains were of iron, and their sails were of leather. The journeys between Norway and Greenland, accomplished for centuries by the Normans in their great rowboats, their black- tarred *‘sea horses,” were more valiant achievements than the passage of the Columbus caravels across the quieter southern ocean, with a compass as guide. The latter, to be sure, was fraught, historically considered, with more important results. But it was reserved for modern times and for the four countries of central location—France, the Netherlands, England, and Germany—to derive greatest benefits, in the direction of world-commerce and the establishment of colonies, from their favorable position on the shores of the most frequented of the oceans. To bring about this unprecedented rise of seamanship, it was necessary that America should first be revealed to the eyes of Europe as a stimulating goal. In the New World, again, the greatest attainments in modern naval architecture and sea traflic were reached in those parts in which endless forests supplied shipbuilders with valu- able wood, and especially in those parts in which the indented coast line offered bays, inlets, sheltering ports at the mouths of rivers, and streams navigable many miles inward for moderate-sized vessels; that is to say, in Canada and the northeastern part of the United States— another evidence that a causal relation exists between the natural opportunities granted by coast lands and the nautical activities of their inhabitants. To invest this relation with the compelling force of a natural law were inane, pseudogeographic fanaticism. Man is not an automaton, without a will of his own. The suggestions thrown out by the nature of his birthplace sometimes find him a docile, sometimes an indifferent pupil. What is now the world-harbor of New York once served the Indians as nothing but a hunting place for edible mollusks. On the same rock-bound coast that educated the Norwegians into intrepid is ' THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 8395 sailors, the Lapps are at present eking out a paltry existence as fisher- men. The Anglo-Saxons, on their arrival in Britain, were so absorbed by combats with the native Celts, and later by agriculture and cattle raising, that they completely abandoned all vocations connected with the sea. Alfred the Great had to have his vessels built in German dockyards. To this day few of the inhabitants of the Cyclades take to a life upon the sea; they plant wheat, cultivate the vine, or pasture their goats. Since the Dutch have become affluent, the nautical activi- ties energetically prosecuted by their ancestors in more straitened circumstances have fallen into neglect, and in the Belgian provinces of Flanders and Brabant, the Netherlander, more easily winning a subsistence on his fruitful soil by agriculture, industries, and domes- tic trade, has always been apt to resign to foreigners the very consid- erable sea traffic of his country. If, however, man ventures to pit his strength against the elemental power of the sea; if he goes further and elects as his vocation the sailor’s struggle with storm and seething breaker, then the poet’s word in its full significance may be applied to him: ‘* Man’s stature grows with every higher aim.” The mariner’s trade steels muscle and nerve, it sharpens the senses, it cultivates presence of mind. With each new triumph of human cleverness over the rude force of nature it heightens the courageousness of well-considered, fearless action. Observe the weather-beaten countenances of our tars under their sow westers, how it has become almost a habit with them to dart searching looks into the distance. Their manner is taciturn, but betrays efficiency and alertness. No sooner are their latent reserve powers challenged than the apparent sluggishness of their inactive moments is replaced by energy and amazing endurance. In those countries in which, as in Great Britain and Norway, the sea attracts votaries from extended circles of the population, and the seafarer’s calling enjoys respect as a pillar of the commonwealth, the admirable traits of the seaman’s character stimulate wholesome imitation even among the landsmen, an effect that is heightened when the coast is but little removed from the interior, so that seacraft in all its clearly defined peculiarity is present to the minds of the people. Further- more, if in the wake of greater intimacy with the ocean, and through it with all parts of the world, the masses come to entertain transma- rine commerce and colonization schemes as familiar notions, as so often happens in the great nations that are the bearers of civilization, then the people as a whole fall heir, in large part, to the sailor’s fresh, venturesome spirit; to his daring courage and his wide intellectual borizon, enlarged by contact with foreigners. A typical illustration of this truth is afforded by the contrast between the Spartans and the Athenians of ancient times—the former, brave but narrow-minded, living a conservative life, walled in by the mountains that define their 396 THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. valley of the Eurotas, and further debarred from foreign trafic by the artificial obstacle of iron coin not passing current abroad; the latter, the Athenians, the Ionian race of progressive seamen, reveling in the sea breezes of the AWgean, and, their ambition overleaping the bound- aries of space, full of the joyous desire of achievement. Primitive man in all probability was barely acquainted with the ocean. For later generations it was an object of fear and terror; but when men began to inhabit the seacoast, drawing freely upon the treasures of the deep and making its broad back amenable to their pleasure in reaching distant shores, they approached it closer and closer. Yet man never succeeded in confining the sea in the fetters of slavery; on the contrary, he came to worship it as a creative deity. The entrancing beauty of the sea when in calm weather the sails glide peacefully across its mirror-like surface, genially reflecting by day the brilliance of the sun, and by night the silvery sparkle of the star- studded sky; or, when the storm whips up the waves, flaming streaks of lightning flash through the livid dullness of cloud and water, the breakers beat against the precipitous rock, and the vessel is tossed about by the tempest; and again, when, after the gale subsides, nature is once more serene, and deepening colors in many-hued play, never seen in such perfection on land, are shed harmoniously over sea and sky. All this not only inspired poetic descriptions in Homer’s and Ossian’s epics, it reechoes in accents true to nature, in the simple lyrics improvised by the strand folk; and the painters of all seafaring nations that have attained to distinction in art have immortalized the awe of man at first sight of the grandeur of the ocean. Closeness to the sea has powerfully promoted science and technical skill, if only by urging both the construction of necessary vessels and steady improvement in the art of building them. To adduce the com- pletest instance, how multifarious have been the applications of scien- tific principles and the demands made upon technical ingenuity since the nineteenth century created the steamboat, which enables man to cross the ocean in the face of wind and tide. The effort to make navi- gation as secure as possible has indirectly had a furthering influence upon a large number of the sciences. On the Caroline Islands there are still living, hoary with age, a few members of the remarkable euild in which certain astronomical knowledge valuable in steering boats was hereditary. It knew accurately the position of the fixed stars with regard to the summer and the winter horizon, and at the same time it had a more precise acquaintance with the relative situa- tion of islands for many miles around than the geography of the civil- ized nations contemporary with it could boast. To Italian navigators our sea service owes the introduction of the compass, based upon the peculiarity of the magnetic needle, first noticed in China. Not only has the compass kept numberless vessels from straying out of their 97 © THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. course in starless nights and foggy weather, but without the huge mass of observations seamen had made in all zones, by means of the compass, a Gauss could not have grappled successfully with the prob- lem of the magnetism of the earth. And if, hundreds of years ago, the surveyors in the Clausthal mines, consulting their compass by the light of the miner’s lamp, laid out their subterranean corridors with unhesitating certainty, then, verily, this is a cultural echo of tumul- tuous waves dying away in the womb of mountains far removed from the sea. But its supreme gift to man lies in the fact that the ocean alone afforded him a possibility of becoming acquainted with the globe as a whole; it unveiled the face of the earth for him. Knowledge of every part was followed by trade with every part, uniting the economies of single nations and sets of nations into a world economy. Finally, by means of universal commerce, such as only the all-embracing ocean can create, the olden separateness of the human races according to their native continents was wiped out, and the first steps were taken toward a spiritual alliance comprehending the whole of mankind. That this consummation shovld have been brought about primarily through world commerce is due to the not wholly evil power of the desire for gain. Nearly two thousand years ago Strabo watched sea- men risk their lives on the tossing billows of the high seas while transferring wares destined for Rome from merchant vessels to light- ers, because even then the Tiber was too shallow for heavy navigation, and he exclaimed, ‘* Verily, the desire for gain overcomes all difficul- ties.” Since time out of mind the ocean opened up to man the freest and, what is of paramount importance, the cheapest paths around the globe. From mines in the province of Sha.tung we shall soon be in a position to deliver cheaper anthracite coal at Tsingtau than could be offered for sale there if brought from England.: On the other hand, Milan, not to speak of the Italian coast, is too distant by the overland route for German coal to supplant English coal, because the latter can be transported by sea almost directly fromthe mines. Italian oranges can be bought for less in Hamburg than in Munich or Vienna, as freight by sea from Sicily to Hamburg is not so costly as freight by land, say, from Hamburg to Berlin. On account of the low freight charges, trade by sea 1s everywhere most lucrative. In order not to shorten the inexpensive sea route unnecessarily by a single kilometer, the great seaports have arisen in the innermost recesses of ocean sinuses. So enormous is the profit derived from world commerce by sea that it yields enough to furnish the vast sums swallowed by the construction of vessels and needed to reward the hard labor of the gallant crews who, far away from home, are exposed to constant peril, biddin : defiance even to the dread typhoon. **Unfruitful” Homer called the sea. Yet what a wealth of treasure 398 THE SEA IN THE -LIFE OF THE NATIONS. it showers upon man from out of its never-exhausted fund, and more still by carrying to his feet the products of the whole earth with the smallest conceivable injury to their marketable value. The countries situated on the seacoast, especially in the temperate zones, where devotion to work is at its intensest, are witness to this truth. The busiest cities, serving world commerce as seaports; the wharves; the industrial centers, desiring to have at first hand the raw material pro- duced in foreign ports, are connected by a chain of smaller coast settlements, which likewise depend in part upon sea commerce or upon the coasting trade and the fisheries, and are usually surrounded by well-cultivated fields, fertile by reason of the mild sea breezes wafted over them. It is the more easily attained prosperity that lures men to the coast. Therefore islands, as compared with the neighboring mainland, and smaller islands—conditions on the whole being equal— as compared with larger ones, are distinguished, in consequence of their relatively greater coast allotment, by greater populousness. Wherever land and sea touch each other, there, naturally, are most apparent the blessings which the sea bestows upon mankind. Finally, let us cast a rapid glance at the political importance of the sea. From what has been said it is obvious that every State, as soon as it realizes the advantages of sea life to its citizens, will strive to extend its territory to the sea, though it should only secure so tiny a strip of coast as Montenegro recently obtained on the Adriatic. He who has one foot planted on the ¢ ast can dispatch his vessels over the whole earth. With but a single port, to what a commanding position in sea commerce, in dominion over the sea, and in colonization as far as the most distant shores of the Black Sea, did Miletus attain in antiquity and Genoa in the Middle Ages. Switzerland, founded in the heart of Europe on the Alpine battlements, comes to mind as the only one and as a remarkable example of a State carrying on trade with the whole world by means of the vigorous industrial enterprise of its cit- izens, though it can never hope to acquire coast possessions. But, when disposing of her products and transporting them, how painfully Switzerland feels her dependence upon the customs regulations and the railroad rates prevailing in the four great powers encircling her. Russia, on the other hand, aff rds the most striking instance in history of a State purely inland in origin advancing with conscious intent, step by step, to the shores of all the seas in its surroundings and attaching them to itself until its banners wave from the Baltic to the Yellow Sea. But the best, indeed the most indispensable, gifts of the sea to the state, as such, are these three: independence, unity, and plenitude of power. Ratzel properly points out that the sea is absolutely uninhab- itable, hence constitutes the securest defense of a state. How much less guaranteed would the freedom of the greatest republic seem if THE SEA IN THE LIFE OF THE NATIONS. 399 the United States had not won the Pacific in addition to the Atlantic littoral. A state with seagirt territory, like Great Britain, Japan, and now Australia, the new island state, can be assaulted only in spots, with blockading fleets. By the preponderance of her sea front, France seems better protected than Germany. In the same way friendly intercourse can penetrate only here and there, at given points, to the interior of a state limited bya coast line. Therefore, state houndaries marked by the sea are ethnically more definite than the vaguer lines on land, and in this respect superior to them. They are a better aid in promoting and maintaining the unification of mixed races into a single nation. History affords a solitary example of the reverse; the Mediterranean, surrounded by the provinces, instead of itself sur- rounding them, was the power that bound and kept together the ele- ments composing the mighty world-empire of Rome. Incessantly the ocean brings unity and power from without to all states upon whose edges it breaks, ana which understand its admonishing call. Greece and the Apennine Peninsula, with their mountainous interior, transfer the better part of their traffic to the coasting trade, which day by day brings inhabitants and possessions from the north into contact with those of the south, heightening the community of interests, and at the same time leading the mind constantly beyond the home shores of the high seas. More than anything else sea trade, together with every sort of activity demanding transmarine effort, whether it be vast industrial enterprises, technical achievements on sea, or colonization, establishes an intimate connection between a nation and the great world. At the same time it welds together, in indissoluble union, the interior of the state with its coast provinces, the only paths along which lively exchange is effected with foreign parts. As with hammer blows, it brings home the realization of kinship and unites the parts into a whole. We Ger- mans feel this more strongly now than ever. No Hohenstaufen will again turn his back indifferently upon the German coasts, to cross the Alps and lead campaigns against Rome. No Hanseatic League of to-day would have to lower its flag in displeasure for lack of imperial protection of its glorious deeds. A fleet of ironclads floating the Ger- man imperial banner, and growing day by day, guards our merchant marine on all the seas, and to the furthermost shores within and beyond the territory under our protection it extends its sheltering arm over every honest enterprise undertaken by German citizens. Thus, defended from hostile injury, the goods of the world acquired by Ger- man industry flow over the threshold of the sea into all the provinces of our land, raising the prosperity of our people to heights never before attained, widening its spiritual horizon, and fostering the power of the state. The glory of the German Empire lies firmly anchored in the ocean. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Pinchot. PLATE I. Fia. 1.—CLEARING OF WESTERN FRONTIER, WASHINGTON. Fi@. 2.—RED FIR REOCCUPYING AN ABANDONED FIELD, WASHINGTON. FOREST DESTRUCTION. A.—NOTES ON FOREST DESTRUCTION. By Grrrorp PINcHoT. The point of view of the agricultural settler in any forest region, whether in the United States or elsewhere, is that of hostility to the timber which limits and confines his industry. To get rid of the tim- ber with him means expansion, progress, and well-being. As settle- ment progresses and the forests disappear, a second phase of opinion crystallizes and becomes effective. Its center of distribution is in the towns or cities, and it is largely concerned with purely sentimental considerations. This school of thought regards the preservation of the forest as an unmixed good with the same unyielding depth of con- viction which, among the early settlers, marked the opinion that. its existence was an unmixed evil.’ From the point of view of national progress the one opinion is as mistaken as the other. Both are likely to be survived by that phase of thought which regards forest protection as a means—not an end; which contends that every part of the land surface should be given that use under which it will contribute most to the general prosperity, and the purpose of whose action is best phrased, in the language of President Roosevelt, as ‘‘the perpetuation of forests by use.” The essential reasonableness of this point of view is gaining recognition among the adherents of both the schools of thought. which preceded it, and is doing more than any other single factor to call attention to the wastefulness of forest destruction and to emphasize the essential prac- ticability of conservative forestry. As a broad general rule, subject to many exceptions, it may be said that the destruction of a forest on land better adapted for forestry than agriculture is not likely to be more than temporary in character. Ultimately the forest will return, but the time which must elapse between the destruction of a forest and the reappearance of the same type of forest on the same ground, however brief geologically, is often of appalling length from the human point of view. Thus, great areas of land in New England, once cleared, are now returning, through the gradual spread of the forest in old pastures and on abandoned hillsides, to a wooded condition. The type of forest sm 1901 26 401 402 FOREST DESTRUCTION. that was destroyed may be slow in returning, even after the forest condition is established, and great length of time, in tens or hundreds of years of useful growth, may be lost; but, in the great majority of cases, the type of forest once best adapted to the land will clothe it again. The destruction of a forest through fire or otherwise brings about two results. In the first place, it disturbs the general balance of nature, sets free geological activities which were previously held in check, and begins a long process of readjustment. In the second place, it profoundly modifies the vegetation for a longer or shorter term of years, both before and after the forest condition is restored. The chief geological agent set at work by forest destruction is water. We are already well persuaded in general of the effect of forests on the flow of streams. Yet an illustration which I may bor- row from an unpublished paper by Mr. Filibert Roth will serve to set the matter in a clear light. If an ordinary desk or table be tilted and yater is sprinkled on its surface, the water speedily runs off. If the tilted table is covered with an inch or two of loose soil, the water falling upon it is at first somewhat retarded in its journey to the lower edge; but soon not only does it find its way there with rapidity, but it carries with it relatively large amounts of soil. As yet no reservoir has been established on the sloping surface. If now a layer of cotton batting, which we may liken to the mat of decaying leaves and twigs which constitutes the forest floor, be laid on the surface of the soil erosion ceases, the water which falls sinks gently into the soil, and the soil on the surface of the table has become in effect a reservoir for the temporary retention of water. Such a reservoir will continue to give out water long after the rain has ceased to fall. Over large areas of our country, especially in the far West and in the Southern Appalachians in the East, the water-conserving property of the forest is for the present, and is likely long to continue, its most important one. In addition to the loss of water by promoting its useless waste in floods there is the loss of the soil itself. Fertile soil is the product of long geological processes and is perhaps the most valuable asset of any nation. Forest destruction tends to convert the soil of productive fields into costly and dangerous bars at the mouths of rivers and harbors, by permitting its transportation by water to the sea. The washing away of cleared soil is proceeding with astonishing rapidity in many parts of the country. The damage is most visible in the gullying of hillsides, but it is not less destructive in the remoyal of the surface soil without gullying, where heavy rains and smooth steep slopes make the process possible.. Estimates of the loss from this source have been made, notably by Professor Shaler, of Harvard, but it is sufficient to say here that the damage is on a gigantic scale and that it is steadily increasing in the United States. Smithsonian Report, 1901. —Pinchot. PLATE II. Fic. 2.—HOLES OF UPROOTED TREES GRADUALLY FILLING WITH SOIL AND HuUMus, WASHINGTON. Nae v i : - PLATE III. port, 1901.—Pinchot. Smithsonian R SNF wae X RES « ha ADIRONDACKS. Fic. 1.—CONIFERS STARTING BENEATH POPLAR ON BURNED LAND, one Las Leek % Fia. 2.—LODGEPOLE PINE AND QUAKING ASPEN ON BURNED LAND, COLORADO. FOREST DESTRUCTION. 403 The forest is then the great moderator of geological action by trans- portation and here it renders one of its greatest services to man. Another service, indicated but not yet fully explained by observations already made, is the preparation, on land suitable for agriculture, of fertile soil for human use. The introduction of decaying vegetable matter, with the resulting liberation of carbonic-acid gas at consider- able depths in the mineral soil when roots die, is one of the means. Another, far more frequent, geologically speaking, than is apt at first glance to appear, is the plowing of forest soil by the wind. This takes place when trees are overturned and their roots carry with them to the surface considerable quantities of mineral soil as yet little mixed with vegetable matter. Into the hollow from which this soil came the leaves are washed and blown. Small quantities of humus find their way in from the edges and a deposit of fertility is made a foot or two or three below the general level of the surface. When once the attention has been called to it, the frequency of the little mounds, which remain long after the tree itself has entirely rotted away, is seen to be very great. Positive information is yet lacking by which to judge of the total effect of this curious function of the forest. The second effect of temporary forest destruction is to produce what may be called the preliminary vegetation and afterwards to modify the character of the forest itself when the latter finally returns. Take, for example, a recently burned area in the Adirondacks. The surface, if not too rocky in character, is densely occupied, within a year or two, with fire cherry, raspberries, and similar short-lived vegetation. In the shadow of these forerunners young trees start, but they are of comparatively worthless kinds. Fire cherry and poplar are usually the most common species. Short-lived, rapidly growing trees of little value in themselves, their principal use is to prepare a seed bed in which the seeds of spruce and pine, maple and birch may germinate and then pass through their delicate infancy under the protective shadow of trees which will disappear usually before their competition has become seriously dangerous, and sustained by the rich humus they have prepared. These are the wise nurses of the new forest, which retire when their charges are old and strong enough to shift for them- selves. In the Rocky Mountains the lodgepole pine and the quaking aspen—the latter one of the trees called poplar or popple in the North- east—are the principal nurses of more valuable kinds. Both form pure stands of their ownand both attain subordinate commercial value. The lodgepole is spreading over enormous areas through the agency of fire, and with the disappearance of fire it will gradually but inevi- tably lose its hold. Not all trees require nurses when their elders have been burned or cut away. Conspicuous exceptions are the red fir of Washington and Oregon, the redwood of California, and over large stretches from 404 FOREST DESTRUCTION. South Dakota to New Mexico and from Colorado to California, the Western yellow pine. These trees replace themselves. The loss from their destruction is to be measured in the fertility of the soil, in its water-storing power, and in amount of production measured by time. That a manufacturing plant should remain idle is instantly recog- nized as a loss to any community. The forest is a manufacturing plant for the production of wood. That a forest soil should remain idle from the production of trees, or should produce but a part of the wood it is capable of making, is as clearly detrimental as for a factory to be shut down or to be occupied but half the working days. About one-third of the total stand of forests in the State of Wash- ington when white men came there, has, since their arrival, been destroyed by fire. A very large part of this area is still producing but a fraction of the wood which it is capable of growing. The situa- tion of such a forest may be likened to that of a machine shop, fitted to produce shafts, cog wheels, and other mechanical devices, the owner of which, when he wanted a shaft or a wheel, should remove one from the machinery of the shop instead of using the shop to produce what he wanted. Forestry assumes and asserts that forests may be used for the production of wood without endangering or reducing their pro- ductive capacity. That this is so, and that forest destruction is a use- less waste, is being rapidly understood throughout the United States. When it is not only understood, but generally acted upon, as is now being done by some of the most progressive among the lumbermen and other forest owners, the situation in forestry will be secure. B.—DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST MEANS DESTRUCTION OF THE FAUNA AND FLORA. By C. Hart Merriam. The destruction of a forest is inevitably followed by a profound modification—amounting often to annihilation—of the forest fauna and flora. It goes without saying that when the trees are gone the birds that live in the trees, as nuthatches, creepers, woodpeckers, war- blers, vireos, jays, chickadees, and the like, and tree-loving mammals, as the arboreal squirrels, opossums, raccoons, martens, and others, can no longer exist. But a forest fauna is by no means restricted to the species that live in trees. In most forests the ground is covered and protected by bushes and small plants, which for successful growth and reproduction require both shade and moisture, and which in turn furnish food and shelter to many kinds of animals. When the forest is destroyed, par- ticularly in regions of scanty rainfall, the undershrubs and other forms Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Pinchot. PLATE IV. Fia. 1.—REPRODUCTION OF PURE RED FIR ON BURNED LAND, WASHINGTON. Red alder in the foreground. Fi@. 2.—A FOREST WHICH HAS BEEN LUMBERED CONSERVATIVELY, ADIRONDACKS. FOREST DESTRUCTION. 405 of lowly vecetation wither and die, and the forms of animal life depend- ent on tue shelter thus afforded are either destroyed or driven away. It often happens that this undervegetation is swept away by fire or devoured and trampled by sheep without immediate serious injury to the trees. Persons familiar with the forests of our western mountains do not need to be told that where sheep have been allowed to graze for several years the undervegetation is destroyed and the surface of the ground converted into an absolute desert, although the trees remain. In these cases the extermination of the fauna and flora is almost as complete as if the forest itself had been consumed. In other words, the forest fauna, consisting in the main of species dependent on the protection and food afforded by the smaller plants, can not exist when these plants are removed. ‘This is true not only of a host of insects and other lowly forms of animal life, but also of most reptiles and mammals, and many birds. Birds that nest on the ground or in logs or. shrubbery, such as grouse, sparrows, thrushes, wrens, and others, are completely exterminated by fire, sheep grazing, and other agencies which destrov the undervegetation. The same is true of mammals, for the numerous kinds of mice, shrews, chipmunks, ground squirrels, wood rabbits, weasels, and others that are dependent on the under- vegetation of forests disappear when this shelter is removed. It follows that preservation of the forests implies preservation of the native flora and fauna. Hence the movement now on foot to set aside certain forest reserves as permanent game preserves is worthy of the earnest support of all who have at heart the welfare and per- petuation of our forest fauna. ’ uy ae > ve ? yet i “s ‘aa bd Pat 7 i H = i 7m rf baa ; j iad 1 ao = i Thai), "i i ed ae Pies =i 1 i + i i t - = i hy ites arrtiog Saitace wiles hone crn leok wat. IRRIGATION. By F. H. NeEwe 1, Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey. With the cessation of Indian wars and of daily news of frontier strife, the people of our country have come to regard the United States as settled and no longer affording opportunity for notable expansion of internal resources. It is true that the frontier of civili- zation has disappeared as regards the United States proper, and inter- est in the warfare between the white settler and the savage, or native occupant of the soil, has been transferred to outlying possessions. Civilization in its march across the Mississippi Valley to the Rocky Mountains has reached the Pacific coast (Pl. 1), but in so doing took rapid strides across a third of the continent and left but few footprints on its course. Now, at the beginning of the twentieth century, when we come to take account of the progress made, we are surprised to find that one-third of the whole United States remains vacant land, still belonging to the people as a whole and at the disposal of Congress. The question may well be asked, Why is it, with the keen desire for land ownership possessed by the American people, that this one-third of the United States should be left untouched? The soil is known to be as fertile as that of any part of the globe, and the land laws are extremely liberal, so that there is no difficulty in securing title, and farms can be had almost for the asking. The anomalous condition exists that although one-third of the United States proper, excluding Alaska and outlying possessions, consists of vacant public land (as shown in fig. 1), yet there is no longer an outlet for the homeseeker upon these lands. In the past the vast unoccupied public domain has served as an outlet for surplus labor and has afforded scope for the energies of thousands of young, able-bodied men, who, while without financial means, have had the ambition to become landowners and to grow up with the increasing development of a new country. After the close of the Civil War and at times of great industrial depression, when men sought an opportunity to earn their daily living 407 408 IRRIGATION. and the doors of factories and machine shops were closed, there was a steady stream of pioneers, representing the best of the bone and muscle of the country, going out upon the broad plains and prairies, building up substantial communities and expanding within our own borders the area of the highest type of civilization. All this has passed away. There are no longer to be seen the prairie schooners and the emigrant wagons filled with household goods, with the children on Sj Forest reservations Fic. 1.—Map showing location of vacant public lands. [The open or white spaces show the vacant lands. } top or trailing behind. Only the Pike County wanderer, who is always seeking something better, is still to be found pursuing his aimless search for the promised land. It is true that the railroads have done away with the necessity for the overland journey, but the railroads cover only a very small extent of the vast inland empire of the United States. Stretches of hundreds of miles of vacant public land le between the railroads, but across these fertile plains the homeseeker no longer travels. IRRIGATION. 409 Vacant and reserved areas in the western public-land States, in acres. State or Territory. Total area. Vacant. Per cent.) Reserved. Arizona 72,268,800 | 48, 771, 000 67.5 | 18, 285, 000 California . 99,827,200 | 42,049,000 | 42.1 16, 064, 000 Colorado .... 66, 332, 800 39, 116, 000 59.0 5, 694, 000 Idaho 53, 945, 600 42, 475, 000 78.7 1, 747, 000 Kansas | © 62,288, 000 1, 085, 000 2.10 988, 000 WAST ENCH OF eS cs tere nea rene ADE ap eee a a en a 92, 998, 400 65, 803, 000 70.8 12, 348, 000 INLD IGS 0 se Aa Re ee Eo nee ee epee ee 49, 177, 600 9, 927, 000 | 20.2 70, 000 IS GROIN SF Bh on te ese ent ab SS as SSBB eae Sent oe 70, 233, 600 61, 322, 000 | 87.3 5, 983, 000 INeweMe@xiICO! ccc. joes Se fae Cee a oe es eres a ieee ee | 78,374, 400 55,589, 000 | 70.9 6, 385, 000 INONEMED AKOTA Ses cassis seas tenons oslo eee eas | 44,924, 800 16, 956, 000 Bit || 3, 370, 000 (QTE ITO ete Sata RAE SS OO RE HCE SBE Erect: Se GSne | 24,851, 200 4, 654, 000 18.7 7, 158, 000 COMer Ola rates Sacre cetaceans sen boas Soba eeiend , 60,518; 400 33, 784, 000 55.8 5, 500, 000 SOURED AKO tanner ane tees cee tenia ke sae 49, 184, 000 11, 869, 000 24.1 | 12, 803, 000 Uber Sess See HOO a Se ety 52,601,600 | 42,516, 000 80.8 5, 488, 000 Wires hime tomes. seep cece bs oe ces eeee seems 42, 803, 200 11, 913, 000 27.8 | 10, 765, 000 WOULD eee Sac csc et eae come eee haan 62,448,000 | 47, 657,000 76.3 | 7, 995, 000 SROGN Se eal = a al ae Se el Re ens eee 972,777,600 | 535,486, 000 5d. 1 120, 643, 000 It is not because there is lack of land, for in the Western States and Territories there are over 500,000,000 acres still vacant, much of it having the richest soil of any in the United States. It is not because Fic. 2.—Map showing arid, semiarid, and humid regions of the United States. [Comparing this with fig. 1, it is seen that most of the arid region is vacant. ] the pioneer spirit no longer prevails, for the country is as full of adventurous spirits as ever, and it requires merely the intimation that some Indian reservation is to be opened for thousands of people to gather to make the rush or try their chance in a lottery. There is plenty of land and there are numberless people eager to occupy it. What, then, is it that prevents their doing so? Simply the lack of water. The country is dry and the ordinary farm crops can not be cultivated without an artificial application of water at certain times and seasons. 410 IRRIGATION. It must not be supposed that there is no water to be had. On the contrary, occasional storms occur, sending down vast quantities of water and inundating the thirsty plain. This rushes off and in a few hours the channels of the rivers are nearly dry. There are also, at Fig. 3.—Map showing location of forests and woodlands of the west. [The solid black indicates the areas where trees valuable for lumber are growing, or recently have stood; the dotted areas show the open woodlands with seattered trees valuable for fence posts or other farm purposes. | long intervals, large perennial streams, but most of these flow in narrow, deep canyons. The country under discussion is not wholly uninhabited, but at nearly every spring and along every river which is not flowing in a narrow canyon there are to be found ranches and occasional small towns. All of the easily available sources of water supply have been Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE |. a. Irrigated farms in Atanum Valley, Washington. b. Sunnyside fruit orchard, Yakima Valley, Washington. DESERT LANDS NEAR PACIFIC COAST RECLAIMED BY IRRIGATION. ie ; 2 ee i Wepre - _ i Riad 2 ’ Lio ye IRRIGATION. 411 seized, and in the aggregate over 7,500,000 acres have been brought under irrigation, this being a little over 1 per cent of the total area of the remaining vacant lands. Not all of this 500,000,000 acres can be irrigated, for some of it is mountainous and covered in part with timber (fig. 3), other portions are rough and broken, and even if all of the floods were conserved in great reservoirs and all of the rivers which could be diverted were turned out from their canyons, there would not be water for more than 60,000,000 acres, or possibly 100,000,000 acres; but this would be a great increase—say, ten times—over the area now utilized. In that portion of the United States where the vacant public lands lie, and where farms and homes can not be made without irrigation, there are now living 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 people. If ten times the amount of land were irrigated it is possible that the population would be increased to at least 40,000,000 people, and possibly far more, because of the other industries which would be developed as more land is cultivated. The mineral wealth of the region is very great. Gold, silver, iron, and coal are now produced, the precious metals having special value. The poorer ores are for the most part neg- lected, because of the high cost of transportation, labor, food, and forage. With more land cultivated in scattered areas throughout this country and with greater population better transportation facilities must come, also cheaper food material, making it possible to work some of the low-grade ores. Great deposits which are now practically valueless could then be worked, affording employment for thousands of men and adding to the population and wealth of the country. With a regulated water supply, such as that needed in irrigation, cheap water power can be had, not only for pumping water to the fields, but for various industries connected with the handling and reduction of the ores, and thus, one industry feeding another, the West must develop its wonderful resources with increasing rapidity. But the questions may well be asked, Why is this not now taking place if there are so many people wanting land, and why is it that the settled area has actually diminished in some portions of the West and population has tended to concentrate in the towns? It is because the irrigators and investors in irrigation systems have utilized all the easily available sources of water and have developed agriculture by irrigation nearly to the limit of the capacity of the systems. ‘They have demonstrated that irrigation is not an experiment, but an assured success, highly profitable to the man who cultivates his own land. More than this, they have shown by numerous failures that reclama- tion works on a large scale do not pay financially nor yield the satisfac- tory returns that the small works have yielded. There are no longer opportunities for small works, and if the big enterprises can not be made sources of profit, what then is to be done? 412 IRRIGATION. Several stances can be cited where corporations have been formed, Stecks and bonds isswed. and a million dollars invested in great recla- mation works. in building reservoirs, dams, and canals, resulting in increasing land values im the vicinity toe 33,000,000, yet the investors lost every dollar, because they could not control and bring to them- selves the profits of the enterprise. These went to the public, and under existing conditions could not be realized by the men who took the msk. The people who bought stocks and bonds of irrigation enter- prises are no longer willing to play the part of philanthropist to bene- fit the public: and they say that ~although the schemes offered are equally enticing as those in the past, we will not be led into another enterprise of this character.” Hence. development has practically ceased, and compared with what might be done. the country with its vast opportunities seems almost stagnant. The following table gives the extent of Irrigation at the beginning and end of the decade 1890-1900, and shows the gradual increase of this method of tilling the soil: Area trrigaied. Private enterprise has already accomplished what it can im the utili- zation of the smaller streams, but there still remain great rivers and torrential floods whose control is beyond the possibility of individuals — or corporations seeking profitable financial enterprises. The work of reclamation, if done at all, must be through public agencies. (PL iL) These facts have been recognized by President Roosevelt in his first message to Congress. and by his Secretary of the Interior, as well as by numerous writers upon social and economic questions, who are beginning to sound the note of warning against further delay, against the policy of procrastination, which allows the speculative element te gradually acquire possession of the places where water can be stored, and to render difficult or impracticable the ultimate reclamation of the public land and the creation of homes for workers. President Roosevelt. in his clear-cut, decisive fashion, has reached to the very heart of the matter and has recommended that the Gov- Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell PLATE Il. a. Head of Sunnyside Canal, Washington. b. Along the line of Sunnyside Canal, Washington, RESULTS OF PRIVATE ENTERPRISE IN BUILDING IRRIGATION CANALS FROM THE SMALLER RIVERS OF THE WEST. IRRIGATION. 413 ernment, the great land owner, should construct and maintain the reservoirs as it does other public works. He says that this is properly a national function, and that it is as right for the National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid region useful, by engineer- ing works for water storage, as it is to make useful the rivers and harbors of the humid region by engineering works of another kind. There is a widespread demand on the part of the citizens of the country, the owners of this vast domain, for the adoption by the Gov- ernment of some policy leading to the ultimate reclamation of the West, such as will permit the largest possible number of homes. The labor organizations see in this an outlet for overcrowded condi- tions; the manufacturing, jobbing, and transportation interests of the country appreciate the overwhelming importance of this great home market; the more ‘intelligent farmers see here opportunities for homes for the younger members of their families and recognize that the agricultural prosperity of the country rests largely upon increased growth of manufactures and consequently enlarged demand for prod- ucts. The one discordant note is from the comparatively few who do not understand that the development of the Western lands must in any event proceed slowly, and that the agricultural products of the arid region do not and never can compete with those of the East, since the character of the crops and the time when placed upon the market differ widely from those of any other section of the country. The importance of this potential competition is overstated by some Eastern farmers.. They do not appreciate the fact that wheat, corn, and other staple products of the East are not raised by irrigation, save for the most limited local consumption, and never will be, because the cost of cultivation under irrigation is such that only the highest priced products can be raised. The citrus fruits and the green and dried fruits differ from those of the East, and have in no respect reduced the price or limited the product of apples, peaches, or any other fruit of the Eastern States. For sugar beets the arid climate has been found especially suitable, but the amount raised under irrigation, even under the most favorable circumstances, can not influence the sugar market, being infinitesimal in comparison with the product of cane sugar of Louisiana, the Hawaiian Islands, or Cuba. The fear of some of our Eastern farmers that the development of the arid West will further reduce the value of agricultural lands and products arises from a complete misapprehension of the subject. The great increase in farming area in the United States was from 1860 to 1890, in what is known as the North Central Division, including the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. The improved area increased from 52,000,000 acres to 184,000,000 acres, the principal increase being in Minnesota, Lowa, the Dakotas, Nebraska, 414 IRRIGATION. and Kansas. Over 80,000,000 acres were brought under cultivation during these thirty years in these five States alone. The population of the United States in 1870 was less than 40,000,000, or about half what it is at present. The most extraordinary increase in cultivated area was from 1875 to 1885. This wonderful increase of improved acreage in the North Central Division alone, of over 130,000,000 acres in thirty years (the popula- tion of the whole United States being less than half what it is now), has had an effect upon land values that can never again take place. There is no other area of agricultural land comparable to that of the Mississippi Valley. In arid regions there are vast tracts which ulti- mately may support a larger population, but these can not be brought under cultivation with anything like the rapidity of that practiced on the fertile prairies. Even with millions of dollars available it will not be possible to conserve water for the arid land as rapidly as the increasing population demands new farms. At most, water can be conserved for 60,000,000 acres, or possibly 100,000,000 acres. To do this will require one or more generations. Streams must be carefully measured year after year, reservoirs sur- veyed, foundations examined by diamond drill or excavation, plans and estimates prepared, contracts let and masonry structures built, tunnels dug through the solid rocks, and a thousand operations be successfully performed before water can be had. Then the ditches must be dug, the laterals laid out, the grounds cleared, and the soil plowed and leveled. There can be no greater contrast, so far as time is concerned, than is offered between this necessary long preliminary work and the conditions on the fertile prairies of lowa, where men have merely to drive the plow and plant the seed. (PI. III.) It is now too late to speak of Western competition with Eastern farms. This competition and its disastrous results to the far East has long since taken place. The cultivation of the prairies of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas revolutionized agricultural values and put them on a firm basis from which they can no longer be shaken. The Mississippi Valley now sets the standard, since the area of new land in the coun- try which can be brought under cultivation in any one year is almost inconceivably small when compared with that now cultivated. The increase of population in the United States is from 2 to 3 per cent per year. The increase of irrigated area has been less than one- tenth of 1 per cent per year of the improved lands of the country. By the most strenuous exertions it will be impossible to increase the area of irrigated lands to 1 per cent of the improved lands of the country, or less than half the rate of increase of population. It must not be supposed for a minute that because the increase of irrigated lands will be relatively so small as to be inappreciable in agricultural values their importance is correspondingly limited. “LMINA ATMOS SYNLONYLS LVEYH “WO ‘cdaIG NVS ‘WVG YSLVMLASaMS “TH ALWIdg *|[]EMAaN—' L061 ‘Wodey ueuosy}iwsS IRRIGATION. 415 While the irrigated lands have never and can never compete with the rest of the country in agricultural values yet they afford the only remaining opportunity for the creation of homes, and they insure the highest type of agricultural and social development. The small irri- gated farm, with intensive cultivation and the suburban conditions made possible under the circumstances, is the most attractive farm life. and the owners and cultivators of these farms form the most stable and substantial class of citizens, so that, although the numbers and the area may be relatively small, yet the opportunities are great. Fic. 4.—Map of irrigated and irrigable areas. |The solid black spots are the irrigated areas, the dotted areas are the localities where irrigation may be extended. ] It is estimated that by the construction of storage reservoirs, by diverting large rivers, and by sinking deep or artesian wells, it will be practicable ultimately to irrigate nearly ten times the area now cultivated by irrigation (fig. 4). There is a wide margin as to the probable acreage, and it has been placed at from 60,000,000 to 100,000,000 acres ultimately reclaimable within two or three genera- tions. The amount, however, will depend wholly upon the treatment now accorded by Congress to the public lands. By leaving matters as they are, only a small proportion of this extent will ever be irrigated, 416 IRRIGATION. because of the character of the vested rights now accruing and the impossibility of entry upon these large works when the control of the water has passed into the hands of the speculative element. National aid is not asked to secure the beginning of the work of irrigation, nor to take up an experimental enterprise. The whole object of national assistance is along the line of making it possible for the people of the country to continue to secure homes on the public A OLA Fic. 5.—Map of dry farming areas. [The black portions show the localities where crops have been raised by dry farming.] domain through the ability to obtain water to be brought to the land by ditches or conduits built by themselves. It is asked for the same reason that the settlers called upon the Government to protect them from the savages, from the overflows of great rivers, and to aid navigation by establishing light-houses and render it possible by dredging bars across the harbors. As before stated, none of these pay in the sense of a commercial undertaking, but the Government and the people as a whole secure a larger share of prosperity through making possible the opportunities for the pursuit of various industries. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE IV. a. Ruins of pioneer’s sod house, abandoned from drought. b. Home made possible by irrigation. SOD HOUSES OF THE SUBHUMID PLAINS. IRRIGATION. 417 The National Government has already begun in part the work of reclamation by setting aside the summits of the mountains from which issue the rivers most important in irrigation, and creating these into forest reserves for the beneficial influence exercised upon the stream flow. It is necessary to go still farther, and build within these forests certain large reservoirs to store the flood waters and regulate the flow of the streams. These should never fall into private or speculative control, but should be administered for the benefit of the communities situated often in various States. The people of the country have made strenuous efforts to utilize some of the lands now waste, and by individual experiment and failure have demonstrated that certain portions of these crops can be raised without irrigation. The accompanying small map (fig. 5) shows, in black, the localities where crops have been and can sometimes be raised by what is known as dry farming; that is, without the arti- ficial application of water. East of the 97th meridian nearly all crops are thus raised, but west of it the dry-farming areas rapidly diminish inextent. In westérn Kansas and Nebraska there are comparatively few places where crops are. successful more than three years out of five. During the years or cycles of unusual moisture settlement has progressed westward across these States and people have built homes, using for building material the tough sod which covers the ground, this being the only available material in a country destitute of trees and stones. The recurring droughts, however, have compelled many of these people to abandon their dry farms, and thousands of homes have been ruined, the only people left in the country being those who have secured a water supply through wells. The contrasting condi- tions are illustrated in Pl. IV, showing the ruined sod house and the successful home, the latter rendered possible by obtaining a water supply. The laws and customs governing the riparian rights in the humid and semihumid portions of the country have been modified or made of no effect in the States and Territories lying within the arid region. — It is there recognized that water is part of the common stock necessary for life and industry, to be drawn upon by all in accordance with certain orderly procedures. The United States, the original owner of the land, and still the possessor of the greater part of it, alone has the right and the ability to conserve the waters for the best interests of the several States and communities. Proprietorship of water should never be recognized, but the rights of each person who can put a certain amount to beneficial use should be clearly recognized and guarded in the order of priority, beneficial use being the measure and the limit of any right. The laws in the different States of the arid region differ widely, but there are certain underlying principles which are being established by sm 1901——27 418 IRRIGATION. court decisions, and through these most of the complications are being satisfactorily solved. The conditions which arise where a stream crosses State borders are, however, beyond the control of local legis- latures and must come within the cognizance of Congress. The cost of irrigation has been as low as from $2 to $5 per acre, irri- gated by the original or pioneer ditches. This matter has been thoroughly discussed by the Eleventh and Twelfth Censuses, and the average cost of bringing water to the land throughout the country is shown to have been, in round numbers, $12 an acre. The average annual cost of maintenance, repairs, or fees paid for conveying the water has been $1.25 per acre. In case of more expensive works built by corporations the cost of reclaiming the lands has ranged as high as $20 an acre, or even $25. Such land in first cost can not compete with that offered for sale in the Mississippi Valley. The expensive irrigated lands have the advantage of continual cropping, the ground being immediately prepared for seeding as soon as one crop is removed; or, in the case of alfalfa, one cutting follows another throughout the year, as many as seven crops being had from an acre. Private enterprise has already gone nearly to its full limit. State action has been confined almost wholly to attempted improvement in legislation and control of the distribution of the water among the irri- gators. National works are being urged by those who have most thor- oughly studied the subject, upon the ground that the nation alone is in a position to conserve the water supply, since it controls the land and the sources of most of the important streams. It is not suggested that there should be an interference with vested rights, nor with the distribution of water to the irrigators by State officials wherever such exist. Under anv suggested combination of interests in reclamation the nation must construct the reservoirs, the large tunnels and diver- sion works from great rivers, the experimental deep or artesian wells (Pl. V) which demonstrate the existence of underground supplies in desert areas, and other works the magnitude of which entails cost too great for private enterprise or too far-reaching for State action. The recognition of irrigation as a great national problem was first prominently given by Maj. John Wesley Powell, for more than thir- teen years the Director of the United States Geological Survey. In his explorations of the West, made shortly after the Civil War, Major Powell became impressed with the magnitude of the resources of the country, and the dependence of these upon water conservation and the largest development of irrigation. His report on the lands of the arid region, printed in 1879, is regarded as a classic on the subject. The weight of his personality and the impress made upon members of Congress resulted finally in the authorization, in 1888, of specific examinations of the extent to which the arid lands can be reclaimed. Soon after this work was begun, it was thought by some that this Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE V. ARTESIAN WELLS MAKING PRODUCTIVE LANDS OTHERWISE STERILE. IRRIGATION. 419 larger utilization of the resources of the West would interfere to a certain extent with other projects, and the cattlemen in particular, who at that time were not friendly to the development of irrigation, pro- tested against what they termed national ‘‘interference” with their exclusive use of the lands belonging to all. A select committee of the United States Senate was appointed to investigate the whole subject, and made a trip through the arid lands, accompanied by Major Powell. The report of this committee, in four volumes, embodies the observations and testimony, together with a majority and minority report, the latter outlining the line of action which Major Powell, from his thorough study of the region, deemed most feasible. The results of the diversity of opinion developed at that time were disastrous to immediate progress, but, public interest being aroused, resulted in the gradual crystallization of ideas along the lines which Major Powell had suggested, so that by the end of the decade, state- ments of facts which had aroused violent opposition at the outset were no longer disputed, but belonged to common knowledge. It is not too much to say that the people of the United States, par- ticularly those of the West, owe to Major Powell a debt of gratitude for the manner in which he brought forward the whole question of reclamation of the public lands and placed it far in advance of what it would otherwise have been. The investigation of the arid regions was never actually dropped after it was once begun, although it languished fora number of years. New life and energy were infused by Major Powell’s successor, the present Director of the United States Geological Survey, Hon. Charles D. Walcott, and a great popular movement has been started by an organization known as the ‘* National Irrigation Association,” com- posed largely of prominent citizens concerned in public affairs, phil- anthropists, eastern manufacturers, the representatives of tvanspor- tation interests, labor leaders, and others who see in the arid West a great potential market for goods and for labor, as well as an outlet for the growing population. A culmination has finally been reached in the report of the Secre- tary of the Interior recommending the immediate construction of certain large works; and most notably in the direct and incisive message of President Roosevelt, bringing the attention of Congress and the people to the fact that the utilization of the water resources of the West is one of the greatest internal questions of the day. All intelligent legislation is best promoted when based upon full knowledge, and an enterprise so vast in its ultimate magnitude should be undertaken only after thorough study of present conditions and future needs. The actual work of construction of reclamation proj ects should be entered upon only after a full knowledge has been had 490) IRRIGATION. of the cost and benefits of each, and every individual scheme should be considered solely upon its own merits and its relation to the full ultimate development of the country. This work, as above stated, has already been committed by Congress to the Geological Survey, which in 1888 was authorized to begin the investigation of the extent to whick the arid lands could be reclaimed by irrigation. In the succeeding years this organization has been systematically measuring streams, surveying reservoir sites, and has now a fully equipped and experi- Fic. 6.—Map showing (by cross lines) approximate location and extent of open range. enced corps of hydraulic engineers, many of whom have had experti- ence in the construction of large works. The necessity for prompt action is shown by the way in which the remaining public lands are being taken up by speculators. It has been pointed out by recent students and writers upon the subject that although several million acres are being disposed of annually, yet these are not passing into the hands of people who are making homes upon them, and that the homestead and desert-land act is being used as a means for securing titles to lands which are not brought under cultivation. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLATE VI. et - shies Sees — GRAZING LANDS AND WELLS UPON WHICH THEIR USEFULNESS LARGELY DEPENDS. IRRIGATION. 491 The greater part of the arid West is devoted to grazing. The accompanying small map (fig. 6) indicates the vast extent; the open grazing land being shown by the cross lining. Herds of cattle and flocks of sheep range over the public lands, eating the herbage with- out restriction, the whole country being practically an open common. This business is at times extremely profitable, and has attracted large vapital, influential companies being formed. The business has in- creased to such an extent that the ranges have been overstocked, and, being free to all, there has been a struggle for existence. Success in the grazing business upon the open land is dependent largely upon ability to control the water supply. If a man can obtain possession of a spring or stream he can exclude the cattle or sheep of other owners from the water, and thus be in a position to monopolize thousands of acres of grazing land, useless to others because their animals can not obtain water to drink. By systematically taking up small tracts along both sides of a stream these can be strung out in such a way as to control the water frontage, and by fencing contigu- ous 40-acre tracts a continuous line can be made for many miles, pre- venting access to water. Cattle companies have employed men with the understanding that they would thus take up land along the streams, and a glance at the map of the great unoccupied public domain shows the 40-acre tracts entered in such a fashion as to include nearly all of the running water. The keen competition for grazing brought about by overstocking the public ranges has thus resulted in putting a premium upon lands which, while not irrigable nor suitable for farming, yet control access to water. A recent advertisement in a Western paper illustrates the condition: ** For sale, 160 acres, controlling 10,000 acres of good Gov- ernment grazing.” No particular harm would result if the lands thus disposed of by the Government passed into the hands of men who would make best use of them, but asa rule this is not the case. Areas which might be made into many farms are held as portions of a great cattle range, the owners of which can make a larger interest on their investment by thus holding it than by attempting to conserve the water and to subdivide the land into small tracts. Many of the best reservoir sites are being taken up in one way or another by men who confess- edly do not intend to utilize them, but to hold the land for sale at a good price whenever water conservation is attempted. Speculations of this kind are lawful, and may be commendable to a certain degree, but when they result in tying up some of the best land of the country and in excluding population they become injurious to the public welfare. But the question may be asked, Why should so much interest attach to the West rather than to the humid East, where an artificial water supply need not be provided as a requisite for agriculture? The 499 IRRIGATION. answer is that the Government is the great landowner of the western half of the United States, and that it is for the interests of all of the people of the country to have these lands settled by men tilling their own farms; but, more than this, agriculture in an arid region yields results far greater than in humid climates or those of uncontrollable moisture. In countries where the sun shines every day the develop- ment of plant life, with proper moisture, is far greater than in regions of prevailing clouds and occasional storms. The yield per acre is greater, and where the temperature is favorable crop follows crop throughout the year. With unlimited sunshine and properly regu- lated moisture the farmer has a far safer and more remunerative occupation than in the East. Irrigation properly conducted means intensive farming, the cultiva- tion of the soil in the best possible manner, and diversified crops. The area which any one man can cultivate under such conditions is far less and the yield per acre correspondingly greater. In the best irri- gated regions farms are very small, the average size of cultivated area in Utah being less than 30 acres. Small farms and the economy which must be practiced in conveying water results in comparatively dense rural population. In southern California the irrigated tracts in orchards and vineyards are so small that the farming region takes on the appearance of suburban communities. The houses, instead of being a mile apart, as on the prairies and plains of the central part of the country, are within a few rods of one another. Social intercourse is possible, good roads are assured, and rapid communication through electric car lines. Cultivation of arid lands by means of irrigation results in a far higher type of civilization than is possible on isolated and lonely farms. Diversified agriculture, the raising of vegetables and small fruits, and the keeping of various domestic animals also necessitate greater mental as well as physical activity, continuous employment for all the members of a family, and many minor industries impossible where attention is concentrated upon a single crop, such as wheat, corn, or cotton. The small farms so successful under irrigation make possible a colony life such as that practiced by the Mormons in Utah and exemplified in the early history of the Greeley Colony in Colorado. The success attained has led to a most interesting experiment, that of the Salvation Army helping the people to get back to the soil. In their work in big cities the Salvation Army has come across almost innumerable men and women who are eager for an opportunity to get away and start life anew in the open air. Out of the thousands of applications there have been selected certain families apparently best qualified for success, and these have been located upon small irrigable farms. Nothing is actually given these people outright except the opportunity Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Newell. PLaTE VII. a. Orange grove irrigated by furrow method. oe A Oc og b. Young orchards under irrigation. BARREN LANDS RECLAIMED. IRRIGATION. 423 to help themselves. They are sold a tract of land and a small house, necessary tools, and seed upon credit, and are given a reasonable time to repay the loan thus made, with interest. From one aspect the enterprise might be regarded as money-making, but from the higher standpoint it is one of the greatest philanthropies yet undertaken. This work of the Salvation Army in establishing colonies in Colo- rado and in California is really more than an experiment, for sufficient time has elapsed to give it trial, and its success may be considered as demonstrated—sufliciently, at least, to justify further and larger efforts along this line. It is not believed that the ‘‘submerged tenth” ean be lifted bodily and put upon the land to become successful farm- ers, but the weight of humanity above this tenth, the keen struggle of those a little better off, helps to submerge the despairing portion of the community and to obstruct every avenue of escape. Relief from the congested conditions of the cities can come, in part at least, through furnishing opportunities for those who are able to go out upon the land and to become independent landowners and citizens. Ordinary farming can not offer any attraction to these people, who have spent much of their lives in the cities, as they are largely depend- ent upon keeping in crowds. The small farm and the suburban life possible under irrigation alone make it possible for such people to leave the city environment and become tillers of the soil. To sum up the problem, we may say that we have a vast extent of vacant public land of wonderful fertility; we have water which will make a portion of this productive; we have the people who are seek- ing an opportunity to make a living, and who would gladly escape from the congestion of the cities; and we have the public funds and the public interest toward developing our country to the highest degree; but we area long way from bringing these powerful forces to effective action. We are allowing the lands so necessary to the development of the nation to drift out of its control; we are allowing the waters and the opportunities to conserve them to be monopolized and become subject for speculation; and we are allowing barriers to be gradually erected shutting off the opportunities for development of our great internal resources. fal cl i 1 Soe ; ve THE PALACE OF MINOS.* By Artuur J. Evans. Less than a generation back the origin of Greek civilization, and with it the sources of all great culture that has ever been, were wrapped in an impenetrable mist. That ancient world was still girt round within its narrow confines by the circling ‘‘stream of ocean.” Was there anything beyond? The fabled kings and heroes of the Homeric Age, with their palaces and strongholds, were they aught, after all, but more or less humanized sun myths? One man had faith, accompanied by works, and in Dr. Schliemann the science of classical antiquity found its Columbus. Armed with the spade he brought to light from beneath the mounds of ages a real Troy; at Tiryns and Mycene he laid bare the palace and the tombs and treasures of Homeric kings. A new world opened to investiga- tion, and the discoveries of its first explorer were followed up success- fully by Dr. Tsountas and others on Greek soil. The eyes of observers were opened, and the traces of this prehistoric civilization began to make their appearance far beyond the limits of Greece itself. From Cyprus and Palestine to Sicily and southern Italy, and even to the coasts of Spain, the colonial and industrial enterprise of the ** Myce- neans” has left its mark throughout the Mediterranean basin. Pro- fessor Petrie’s researches in Egypt have conclusively shown that as early at least as the close of the Middle Kingdom, or, approximately speaking, the beginning of the second millennium B. C., imported “Reprinted from the Monthly Review, Vol. I, London, January-March, 1901, pp. 115-132. The most scientific account of the exploration of the Cretan labyrinth is the official statement of Mr. Evans in the Annual of the British School at Athens, 1899-1900. The following is a brief list of papers on the subject by men who speak with authority: (1) Paul Walters in Arch., August, 1900, 3, pp. 141-151 (pl.; 6 figs.); (2) Mr. Evans, Biblia, September, 1900; (3) Mr. Evans and Mr. D. E. Hogarth, Biblia, January, 1901 (see also Biblia, November and December, 1900); (4) Mr. Louis Dyer, the Nation, August 2, 1900; (5) Mr. Evans, Murray’s Monthly Magazine, February, 1901, ad (6) Mr. Hogarth in the Contemporary Review, December, 1900. In Biblia, 1901, pp. 121-128, Mr. Evans describes the recent cis- coveries at Knossus up to the middle of May; and the Nation, June 27, 1901, con- tains extracts from letters of Mr. Evans to the Times dated May 16 and June 12, telling of the latest results. 425 426 THE PALACE OF MINOS. {Hgean vases were finding their way into the Nile Valley. By the great days of the eighteenth dynasty, in the sixteenth and succeeding centuries B. C., this intercourse was of such a kind that Mycenean art, now in its full maturity of bloom, was reacting on that of the con- temporary Pharaohs and infusing a living European element into the old conventional style of the land of the Pyramids and the Sphinx. But the picture was still very incomplete. Nay, it might even be said that its central figure was not yet filled in. In all these excava- tions and researches the very land to which ancient tradition unani- mously pointed as the cradle of Greek civilization had been left out of count. To adapt the words applied by Gelon to slighted Sicily and Syracuse, ‘‘The spring was wanting from the year” of that earlier Hellas. Yet Crete, the central island—a half-way house between three continents—flanked by the great Libyan promontory and linked by smaller island stepping stones to the Peloponnese and the mainland of Anatolia, was called upon by nature to play a leading part in the devel- opment of the early A¢’gean culture. Here, in his royal city of Knossos, ruled Minos, or whatever historic personage is covered by that name, and founded the first sea empire of Greece, extending his dominion far and wide over the Aigean isles and coastlands. Athens paid to him its human tribute of youthsand maidens. His colonial plantations extended east and west along the Mediterranean basin till Gaza worshipped the Cretan Zeus and a Minoan city rose in western Sicily. But it isas the first lawgiver of Greece that he achieved his greatest renown, and the code of Minos became the source of all later legislation. As the wise ruler and inspired lawgiver there is something altogether biblical in his legendary character. He is the Cretan Moses, who every nine years repaired to the cave of Zeus, whether on the Cretan Ida or on Dicta, and received from the god of the mountain the laws for his people. Like Abraham, he is described as the ‘‘ friend of God.” Nay, in some accounts, the mythical being of Minos has a tendency to blend with that of his native Zeus. This Cretan Zeus, the god of the mountain, whose animal figure was the bull and whose symbol was the double ax, had indeed himself a human side, which distinguishes him from his more ethereal namesake of classical Greece. In the great cave of Mount Dicta, whose inmost shrine, adorned with natural pillars of gleaming stalactite, leads deep down to the waters of an unnavigated pool, Zeus himself was said to have been born and fed with honey and goat’s milk by the nymph Amaltheia. On the conical height immediately above the site of Minos’s city—now known as Mount Juktas—and still surrounded by a Cyclopean inclosure, was pointed out his tomb. Classical Greece scoffed at this primitive legend, and for this particular reason first gave currency to the proverb that *‘the Cretans are always liars.” St. Paul, too, adopted this hard saying, but in Crete itself the new THE PALACE OF MINOS. 427 religion, which here, as elsewhere, so eagerly availed itself of what might aid its own propaganda in existing belief, seems to have dealt more gently with the scenes of the lowly birth and holy sepulcher of a mortal god. On the height of Juktas, on the peaks of Dicta, which overlooked, one the birthplace, the other the temple of the Cretan Zeus, pious hands have built chapels, the scenes of annual pilgrimage, dedicated to Authentés Christos, ‘the Lord Christ.” In his shrine at Gaza the Minoan Zeus had already in pagan days received the distin- guished epithet of Marnas, *‘ the lord” in its Syrian form. If Minos was the first lawgiver, his craftsman Deedalus was the first traditional founder of what may be called a **school of art.” Many were the fabled works wrought by them for King Minos, some grew- some, like the brass man Talos. In Knossos, the royal city, he built the dancing ground, or ‘‘choros,” of Ariadne, and the famous laby- rinth. In its inmost maze dwelt the minotaur, or ‘* bull of Minos,” fed daily with human victims, till such time as Theseus, guided by Ariadne’s ball of thread, penetrated to its lair, and, after slaying the monster, rescued the captive youths and maidens. Such, at least, was the Athenian tale. A more prosaic tradition saw in the labyrinth a building of many passages, the idea of which Deedalus had taken from the great Egyptian mortuary temple on the shores of Lake Moeris, to which the Greeks gave the same name; and recent philological research has derived the name itself from the labrys, or double ax, the emblem of the Cretan and Carian Zeus. Mythological speculation has seen in the labyrinth, to use the words of a learned German, ‘‘a thing of belief and fancy, an image of the starry heaven with its infinitely winding paths, in which, nevertheless, the sun and moon so surely move about.” We shall see that the spade has supplied a simpler solution. When one calls to mind these converging lines of ancient tradition it becomes impossible not to feel that, without Crete, ‘‘the spring is taken away” indeed from the Mycenean world. Great as were the results obtained by exploration on the sites of this ancient culture on the Greek mainland and elsewhere, there was still a sense of incom- pleteness. - In nothing was this more striking than in the absence of any written document. A few signs had, indeed, been found on a vase handle, but these were set aside as mere ignorant copies of Hittite or Egyptian hieroglyphs. In the volume of his monumental work which deals with Mycenean art, M. Perrot was reduced to the conclusion that, *‘as at present advised, we can continue toaflirm that for the whole of this period, neither in Peloponnese nor in central Greece, no more upon the buildings nor upon the thousand and one objects of domestic use and luxury that have come forth from the tombs, has anything been discovered that resembles any form of writing.” But was this, indeed, the last word of scientific exploration? Was 498 THE PALACE OF MINOS. it possible that a people so advanced in other respects—standing in such intimate relations with Egypt and the Syrian lands where some form of writing had been an almost immemorial possession—should have been absolutely wanting in this most essential element of civili- zation? I could not believe it. Once more one’s thoughts turned to the land of Minos, and the question irresistibly suggested itself—was that early heritage of fixed laws compatible with a complete ignorance of the artof writing? An abiding tradition of the Cretans themselves, preserved by Diodoros, shows that they were better informed. The Pheenicians, they said, had not invented letters; they had simply changed their forms; in other words, they had only improved on an existing system. It is now seven years since a piece of evidence came into my hands which went far to show that long before the days of the introduction of the Pheenician alphabet, as adopted by the later Greeks, the Cretans were, in fact, possessed of a system of writing. While hunting out ancient engraved stones at Athens I came upon some three and four sided seals showing on each of their faces groups of hieroglyphic and linear signs distinct from the Egyptian and Hittite, but evidently rep- resenting some form of script. On inquiry I learned that these seals had been found in Crete. A clue was in my hands, and, like Theseus, I resolved to follow it, if possible to the inmost recesses of the laby- rinth. That the source and center of the great Mycenzan civilization remained to be unearthed on Cretan soil I had never doubted, but the prospect now opened of finally discovering its written records. From 1894 onward I undertook a series of campaigns of exploration chiefly in central and eastern Crete. In all directions fresh evidence continually came to light—Cyclopean ruins of cities and strongholds, beehive tombs, vases, votive bronzes, exquisitely engraved gems— amply demonstrating that in fact the great days of that ‘* island story ” lay far behind the historic period. From the Mycenean sites of Crete I obtained a whole series of inscribed seals, such as I had first noticed at Athens, showing the existence of an entire system of hieroglyphic or quasi pictorial writing, with here and there signs of the coexistence of more linear forms. From the great cave of Mount Dicta—the birth- place of Zeus—the votive deposits of which have now been thoroughly explored by Mr. Hogarth, I procured a stone libation table inscribed with a dedication of several characters in the early Cretan script. But for more exhaustive excavation my eyes were fixed on some ruined walls, the great gypsum blocks of which were engraved with curious symbolic characters, that crowned the southern slope of a hill known as Kephala, overlooking the ancient site of Knossos, the city of Minos. They were evidently part of a large prehistoric building. Might one not uncover here the palace of King Minos— perhaps even the myste- rious labyrinth itself ¢ THE PALACE OF MINOS. 4929 These blocks had already arrested the attention of Schliemann and others, but the difficulties raised by the native proprietors had defeated all efforts at scientific exploration. In 1895 I succeeded in acquiring a quarter of the site from one of the joint owners. But the obstrue- tion continued, and I was beset by difficulties of a more serious kind. The circumstances of the time were not favorable. The insurrection had broken out, half the villages in Crete were in ashes, and in the neighboring town of Candia the most fanatical part of the Mohammedan population were collected together from the whole of the island. The faithful Herakles, who was at that time my ‘‘guide, philosopher, and muleteer,” was seized by the Turks and thrown into a loathsome dun- geon, from which he was with difficulty rescued. Soon afterwards the inevitable massacre took place, of which the nominal British ‘* occu- pants” of Candia were in part themselves the victims. Then at last the sleeping lion was aroused. Under the guns of Admiral Noel the Turkish commander evacuated the Government buildings at ten min- utes’ notice and shipped off the Sultan’s troops. Crete once more was free. At the beginning of this year I was at last able to secure the remain- ing part of the site of Kephala, and with the consent of Prince George’s Government at once set about the work of excavation. I received some pecuniary help from the recently started Cretan exploration fund, and was fortunate in securing the services of Mr. Duncan Mac- kenzie, who had done good work for the British school in Melos, to assist me in directing the works. From about 80 to 150 men were employed in the excavation, which continued till the heat and fevers of June put an end to it for this season. The result has been to uncover a large part of a vast prehistoric building—a palace with its numerous dependencies, but a palace on a far larger scale than those of Tiryns and Mycene. About 2 acres of this has been unearthed, for, by an extraordinary piece of good for- tune, the remains of walls began to appear only a foot or so, often only a few inches, below the surface. This dwelling of prehistoric kings had been overwhelmed by a great catastrophe. Everywhere on the hilltop were traces of a mighty conflagration; burnt beams and charred wooden columns lay within the rooms and corridors. There Was here no gradual decay. The civilization represented on this spot had been cut short in the fullness of its bloom. Nothing later than remains of the good Mycenzan period was found over the whole site; nothing even so late as the last period illustrated by the remains of Mycene itself. From the day of destruction to this the site has been left entirely desolate. For three thousand years or more not a tree seems to have been planted here; over a part of the area not even a plowshare had passed. At the time of the great overthrow, no doubt, the place had been methodically plundered for metal objects, 430 THE PALACE OF MINOS. and the fallen débris in the rooms and passages turned over and ran- sacked for precious booty. Here and there a local bey or peasant had grubbed for stone slabs to supply his yard or thrashing floor. But the party walls of clay and plaster still stood intact, with the fresco painting on them, still in many cases perfectly preserved at a few inches depth from the surface, a clear proof of how severely the site had been let alone for these long centuries. Who were the destroyers? Perhaps the Dorian invaders, who seem to have overrun the island about the eleventh or twelfth century before our era. More probably, still earlier invading swarms from the mainland of Greece. The palace itself had a long antecedent his- tory and there are frequent traces of remodeling. Its early elements may go back a thousand years before its final overthrow, since, in the great eastern court, was found the lower part of an Egyptian seated figure of diorite, with a triple inscription, showing that it dates back to the close of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth dynasty of Egypt; in other words, approximately to 2,000 B.C. But below the foundation of the later building, and covering the whole hill, are the remains of a primitive settlement of still greater antiquity, belong- ing to the insular Stone Age. In parts this **Neolithic” deposit was over 24 feet thick, everywhere full of stone axes, knives of volcanic glass, dark polished and incised pottery, and primitive images, such as those found by Schliemann in the lowest strata of Troy. The outer walls of the palace were supported on huge gypsum blocks, but there was no sign of an elaborate system of fortification such as at Tiryns and Mycene. The reason of this is not far to seek. Why is Paris strongly fortified, while London is practically an open town? The city of Minos, it must be remembered, was the center of a great sea power, and it was in ** wooden walls” that its rulers must have put their trust. The mighty biocks of the palace show, indeed, that it was not for want of engineering power that the acropolis of Knossos remained unfortified. But in truth Mycenran might was here at home. At Tiryns and Mycene itself it felt itself threatened by warlike conti- nental neighbors. It was not till the mainland foes were masters of the sea that they could have forced an entry into the house of Minos. Then, indeed, it was an easy task. In the cave of Zeus on Mount Ida was found a large brooch (or fibula) belonging to the race of northern invaders, on one side of which a war galley is significantly engraved. The palace was entered on the southwest side by a portico and double doorway opening from a spacious paved court (fig. 1). Flanking the portico were remains of a great fresco of a bull, and on the walls of the corridor leading from it were still preserved the lower part of a procession of painted life-size figures, in the center of which was a female personage, probably a queen, in magnificent apparel. This corridor seems to have led round to a great southern porch or Propy- Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Evans. - Ce Fic. 2.—MAGAZINE No. 5, SHOWING GREAT STORE JARS. PLATE Smithsonian Report, 1901 —Evans PLATE III. Fic. 3.—LARGE CLAY STORE JAR. te ae ree ih a r AN ee Fae} ri nt Pa, > Oe eee “AONVY LNA NYSHLYON SLI WOHS N3ABS ‘WOOY ANOYH] OL YSEWVHOAZLINY—'p “Si4 “SPOQUINS POSTOUL ULM LOpPlatoOo JO syoorq winsdA+ Lose Ld YALA Youod ouos WNOD ISBO UO SULu9do soouwap Uo IMO gy Pure “Al 3LV1d *(,,Snoez Jo quIog, oUL,,,) SBIYNLE JUNO! ‘SUBAQ—' 1061 ‘HOdey URIUOSYyIWS _ a } od 3 . | t) i har “0 uh PIN ee ig ‘YSEWVHOSLNY Woas WwoUG “BOLOUOG LOMOT “OOSOL JO Sood “LOQUIBU) SUUIN [09 UOPOOM JO} Syoyoos “LOCUIVUYVOTUB JO LOUIO,) Udo MOG DUOIU usd. +) Ud[ [BJ puB tLOUog VUOTS AJOUUT JO ABMIOOC UIIM ZUR] JO YAIOMISBOIG 9UOIS Nae al cl *sueBAQG—'|06| ‘Hoday Ue|UOSY}ILUS THE PALACE OF MINOS. 431 leum with double columns, the walls of which were originally decorated with figures in the same style. Along nearly the whole length of the building ran a spacious paved corridor, lined by along row of fine stone doorways, giving access toa succession of magazines. On the floor of these magazines huge store jars were still standing, large enough to have contained the ‘‘ forty thieves” (fig. 2). One of these jars, con- tained in a small separate chamber, was nearly 5 feet in height (fig. 3). Here occurred one of the most curious discoveries of the whole excavation. Under the closely compacted pavement of one of these magazines, upon which the huge jars stood, there were built in between solid piles of masonry double tiers of stone cists lined with lead. Only a few were opened and they proved to be empty, but there can be little doubt that they were constructed for the deposit of treasure. Whoever destroyed and plundered the palace had failed to discover these receptacles, so that when more come to be explored there is some real hope of finding buried hoards. On the east side of the palace opened a still larger paved court, approached by broad steps from another principal entrance to the north. From this court access was given by an anteroom (fig. 4) to what was certainly the most interesting chamber of the whole building, almost as perfectly preserved—though some twelve centuries older—as any- thing found beneath the volcanic ash of Pompeii or the lava of Hercu- laneum. Already a few inches below the surface freshly preserved fresco began to appear. Walls were shortly uncovered decorated with flowering plants and running water, while on each side of the doorway of a small inner room stood guardian griffins with peacocks’ plumes in the same flowery landscape. Round the walls ran low stone benches, and between these on the north side, separated by a small interval and raised on a stone base, rose a gypsum throne with a high back, and originally colored with decorative designs. Its lower part was adorned with a curiously carved arch, with crocketed moldings, showing an extraordinary anticipation of some most characteristic features of Gothic architecture. Opposite the throne wasa finely wrought tank of gypsum slabs—a feature borrowed perhaps from an Egyptian palace— approached by a descending flight of steps, and originally surmounted by eyprus-wood columns supporting a kind of impluvium. Here truly was the council chamber of a Mycenean king or sovereign lady. It may be said to-day that the youngest of European rulers has in his dominions the oldest throne in Europe (fig. 5). The frescoes discovered on the palace site constitute a new epoch in the history of painting. Little, indeed, of the kind even of classical Greek antiquity has been hitherto known earlier at least than the Pompeian series. The first find of this kind marks a red-letter day in the story of the excavation. In carefully uncovering the earth and débris in a passage at the back of the southern Propyleum there came 432 THE PALACE OF MINOS. to light two large fragments of what proved to be the upper part of a youth bearing a gold-mounted silver cup (fig. 6). The robe is deco- rated with a beautiful quarterfoil pattern; a silver ornament appears in front of the ear, and silver rings on the arms and neck. What is specially interesting among the ornaments is an agate gem on the left wrist, thus illustrating the manner of wearing the beautifully engraved signets of which many clay impressions were found in the palace. The colors were almost as brilliant as when laid down over three thousand years before. For the first time the true portraiture of a man of this mysterious Mycenzan race rises before us. The flesh tint, following perhaps an Egyptian precedent, is of a deep reddish brown. The limbs are finely molded, though the waist, as usual in Mycenean fashions, is tightly drawn in by a silver-mounted girdle, giving great relief to the hips. The pro‘le of the face is pure and almost classically Greek. This, with the dark curly hair and high brachycephalic head, recalls an indigenous type well represented still in the glens of Ida and the White Mountains—a type which brings with it many reminiscences from the Albanian highlands and the neighboring regions of Montenegro and Herzegovina. The lips are somewhat full, but the physiognomy has certainly no Semetic cast. The profile rendering of the eye shows an advance in human portrait- ure foreign to Egyptian art, and only achieved by the artists of clas- sical Greece in the early fine-art period of the fifth century B. C.— after some eight centuries, that is, of barbaric decadence and slow revival. There was something very impressive in this vision of brilliant youth and of male beauty, recalled after so long an interval to our upper air from what had been till yesterday a forgotten world. Even our untutored Cretan workmen felt the spell and fascination. They, indeed, regarded the discovery of such a painting in the bosom of the earth as nothing less than miraculous, and saw in it the ‘‘icon” of a saint. The removal of the fresco required a delicate and laborious process of underplastering, which necessitated its being watched at night, and old Manolis, one of the most trustworthy of our gang, was told off for the purpose. Somehow or other he fell asleep, but the wrathful saint appeared to him in a dream; waking with a start, he was conscious of a mysterious presence; the animals round began to low and neigh and *‘ there were visions about;” ‘ pavracet,” he said, in summing up his experiences next morning, ‘“‘the whole place spooks !” To the north of the palace, in some rooms that seem to have belonged to the women’s quarter, frescoes were found in an entirely novel miniature style. Here were ladies with white complexions— due, we may fancy, to the seclusion of harem life—décolletés, but with fashionable puffed sleeves and flounced gowns, and their hair as elab- orately curled and frisé as if they were fresh from a coiffeur’s hands. PLATE VI. Evans. Smithsonian Report, 1901. Fic. 6.—FRESCO OF THE CUPBEARER (ORIGINAL LIFE SIZE). fee car 7 oa oy Piece 7 t i Fal f cae Gti aoe “WA ALV1d *sueA— [06 | ‘oday ueluosY}WS THE PALACE OF MINOS. 433 ** Mais,” exclaimed a French savant who honored me with a visit, ‘‘ ces sont des Parisiennes!” They were seated in groups, engaged in animated conversation, in the courts and gardens and on the balconies of a palatial building, while in the walled spaces beyond were large crowds of men and boys, some of them hurling javelins. In some cases both sexes were inter- mingled. These alternating scenes of peace and war recall the subjects of Achilles’ shield, and we have here at the same time a contemporary illustration of that populousness of the Cretan cities in the Homeric age which struck the imagination of the bard. Certain fragments of fresco belong to the still earlier period of A¢gean art, which precedes the Mycenzan, well illustrated in another field by the elegant painted vases found by Mr. Hogarth in some private houses on this site. A good idea of the refinement already reached in these earlier days of the palace is given by the subject of one fresco fragment in this ** pre- Mycenean” style—namely, a boy, in a field of white crocuses, some of which he has gathered and is placing in an ornamental vase. Very valuable architectural details were supplied by the walls and buildings of some of the miniature frescoes above described. In one place rose the facade of a small temple, with triple cells, containing sacred pillars, and representing in a more advanced form the arrange- ment of the small golden shrines, with doves perched upon them, found by Schliemann in the shaft graves at Mycene. This temple fresco has a peculiar interest, as showing the character of a good deal of the upper structure of the palace itself, which has now perished. It must largely have consisted of clay and rubble walls, artfully con- cealed under brilliantly painted plaster, and contained and supported by a woodwork framing. The base of the small temple rests on the huge gypsum blocks which form so conspicuous a feature in the exist- ing remains, and below the central opening is inserted a frieze, recall- ing the alabaster reliefs of the palace hall of Tiryns, with triglyphs, the prototypes of the Doric, and the half-rosettes of the ‘* metopes” inlaid with blue enamel, the Kyanos of Homer. A transition from painting to sculpture was supplied by a great relief of a bull in hard plaster, colored with the natural tints, large parts of which, including the head, were found near the northern gate. It is unquestionably the finest plastic work of the time that has come down to us, stronger and truer to life than any classical sculpture of the kind (fig. 7). Somewhat more conventional, but still showing great naturalistic power, is the marble head of a lioness, made for the spout of a fountain. It, too, had been originally tinted, and the eyes and nos- ‘trils inlaid with brightly colored enamels. A part of a stone frieze, with finely undercut rosettes, recalled similar fragments from Tiryns and Mycene, but far surpasses them in execution. sm 1901——28 434 THE PALACE OF MINOS. Vases of marble and other stones abounded, some exquisitely carved. Among these was one cut out of alabaster in the shape of a great Triton shell, every coil and fold of which was accurately reproduced. A porphyry lamp, supported on a quatrefoil pillar, with a beautiful lotus capital, well illustrates the influence of an Egyptian model. But the model was here surpassed. Among the more curious arts practiced in prehistoric Knossos was that of miniature painting on the back of plaques of crystal. A gal- loping bull thus delineated on an azure background is a little master- piece in its way. A small relief on a banded agate, representing a dagger in an ornamental sheath resting on an artistically folded belt, to a certain extent anticipates by many centuries the art of cameo ‘arving. A series of clay seals were also discovered, exhibiting impressions of intaglios in the fine bold Myceneen style; one of these, with two bulls, larger than any known signet gem of the kind, may well have been a royal seal. The subjects of some of these intaglios show the development of a surprisingly picturesque style of art. We see fish naturalistically grouped in a rocky pool, a hart beside a water brook in a mountain glen, and a grotto, above which some small monkey-like creatures are seen climbing the overhanging crags. But manifold as were the objects of interest found within the palace walls of Knossos, the crowning discovery—or, rather, series of dis- coveries—remains to be told. On the last day of March, not far below the surface of the ground, a little to the right of the southern portico, there turned up a clay tablet of elongated shape, bearing on it incised characters in a linear script, accompanied by numeral signs. My hopes now ran high of finding entire deposits of clay archives, and they were speedily realized. Not far from the scene of the first discovery there came to light a clay receptacle containing a hoard of tablets. In other chambers occurred similar deposits, which had orig- inally been stored in coffers of wood, clay, or gypsum. The tablets themselves are of various forms, some flat, elongated bars, from about 2 to 7% inches in length, with wedge-like ends; others, larger and squarer, ranging in size to small octavo (fig. 8). In one particular magazine tablets of a different kind were found—perforated bars, cres- cent and scallop-like ‘* labels,” with writing in the same hieroglyphic style as that on the seals found in eastern Crete. But the great mass, amounting to over a thousand inscriptions, belonged to another and. more advanced system with linear characters. It was, in short, a highly developed form of script, with regular divisions between the words, and for elegance hardly surpassed by any later form of writing. A clue to the meaning of these clay records is in many cases sup- plied by the addition of pictorial illustrations representing the objects concerned, Thus we find human figures, perhaps slaves; chariots and horses; arms or implements and armor, such as axes and cuirasses; PLaTE VIII. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Evans. Fia. 8.—CLAY TABLET WITH THE LINEAR PREHISTORIC SCRIPT. THE PALACE OF MINOS. 43 houses or barns; ears of barley or other cereals; swine; various kinds of trees, and a long-stamened flower, evidently the saffron crocus, used for dyes. On some tablets appear ingots, probably of bronze, fol- lowed by a balance (the Greek Taia VTOV), and figures which probably indicate their value in Mycenean gold talents. The numerals attached to many of these objects show that we have to do with accounts refer- ring to the royal stores and arsenals. Some tablets relate to ceramic vessels of various forms, many of them containing marks indicative of their contents. Others, still more interesting, show vases of metallic forms, and obviously relate to the royal treasures. It isa highly significant fact that the most characteristic of these, such as a beaker like the famous gold cups found in the Vapheio tomb near Sparta, a high-spouted ewer and an object, perhaps representing a certain weight of metal, in the form of an ox’s head, recur—together with the ingots with incurving sides among the gold offerings in the hands of the tributary Augean princes— on Egyptian monuments of Thothmes IIIs time. These tributary chieftains, described as Kefts and people of the isles of the sea, who have been already recognized as the representatives of the Mycenzan culture, recall in their dress and other particulars the Cretan youths, such as the cupbearer above described, who take part in the proces- sional scenes on the palace frescoes. The appearance in the records of the royal treasury at Knossos of vessels of the same form as those offered by them to Pharaoh is itself a valuable indication that some of these clay archives approximately go back to the same period—in other words, to the beginning of the fifteenth century B. C. Other documents, in which neither ciphers nor pictorial illustrations are to be found, may appeal even more deeply to the imagination. The analogy of the more or less contemporary tablets, written in cunei- form script, found in the palace of Tell-el-Amarna, might lead us to expect among them the letters from distant governors or diplomatic correspondence. It is probable that some are contracts or public acts, which may give some actual formulas of Minoan legislation. There is, indeed, an atmosphere of legal nicety, worthy of the house of Minos, in the way in which these clay records were secured. The knots of string which, according to the ancient fashion, stood in the place of locks for the coffers containing the tablets, were rendered inviolable by the attachment of clay seals, impressed with the finely engraved signets, the types of which represent a great variety of subjects, such as ships, chariots, religious scenes, lions, bulls, and other animals. But, as if this precaution was not in itself considered sufficient, while the clay was still wet the face of the seal was countermarked by a con- trolling official, and the back countersigned and indorsed by an inscrip- tion in the same Mycenean script as that inscribed on the tablets them- selves. 436 THE PALACE OF MINOS. Much study and comparison will be necessary for the elucidation of these materials, which it may be hoped will be largely supplemented by the continued exploration of the palace. If, as may well be the case, the languge in which they were written was some primitive form of Greek we need not despair of the final decipherment of these Knos- sian archives, and the bounds of history may eventually be so enlarged as to take in the ‘‘heroic age” of Greece. In any case the weighty question, which years before I had set myself to solve on Cretan soil, has found, so far at least,an answer. That great early civilization was not dumb, and the written records of the Hellenic world are carried back some seven centuries beyond the date of the first known historic writings. But what, perhaps, is even more remarkable than this is that, when we examine in detail the linear script of these Myceneean documents, it is impossible not to recognize that we have here a sys- tem of writing, syllabic and perhaps partly alphabetic, which stands ona distinctly higher level of development than the hieroglyphs of Egypt or the cuneiform script of contemporary Syria and Babylonia. It is not till some five centuries later that we find the first dated exam- ples of Phoenician writing. The signs already mentioned as engraved on the great gypsum blocks of the palace must be regarded as distinct from the script proper. These blocks go back to the earliest period of the building, and the symbols on them, which are of very limited selection, but of constant recurrence, seem to have had a religious significance. The most con- stantly recurring of these, indeed, is the labrys or double ax already referred to—the special symbol of the Cretan Zeus, votive deposits of which in bronze have been found in the cave sanctuaries of the god on Mount Ida and Mount Dicta. The double ax is engraved on the principal blocks, such as the corner stones and door jambs throughout the building, and recurs as a sign of dedication on every side of every block of a sacred pillar that forms the center of what seems to have been the inmost shrine of an aniconic cult connected with this indigen- ous divinity. The ‘Shouse of Minos” thus turns out to be also the house of the double ax—the labrys and its lord—in other words, it is the true Laby- rinthos. The divine inspirer of Minos was not less the lord of the bull, and it is certainly no accidental coincidence that huge figures of bulls in painting and plaster occupied conspicuous positions within it. Nay, more, on a small steatite relief, a couchant bull is seen above the door- way of a building probably intended to represent the palace, and this would connect it in the most direct way with the sacred animal of the Cretan Zeus. There can be little remaining doubt that this vast edifice, which ina broad historic sense we are justified in calling the ‘* palace of Minos,” is one and the same as the traditional ‘‘labyrinth.” A great part THE PALACE OF MINOS. 437 of the ground plan itself, with its long corridors and repeated suc- cession of blind galleries, its tortuous passages and spacious under- ground conduit, its bewildering system of small chambers, does in fact present many of the characteristics of a maze. Let us place ourselves for a moment in the position of the first Dorian colonists of Knossos after the great overthrow, when features now laboriously uncovered by the spade were still perceptible amid the mass of ruins. The name was still preserved, though the exact meaning, as supplied by the native Cretan dialect, had been probably lost. Hard by the western gate in her royal robes, to-day but partially visible, stood Queen Ariadne herself—and might not the comely youth in front of her be the hero Theseus, about to receive the coil of thread for his errand of liberation down the mazy galleries beyond? Within, fresh and beautiful on the walls of the inmost chambers, were the cap- tive boys and maidens locked up here by the tyrant of old. At more than one turn rose a mighty bull, in some cases, no doubt, according to the favorite Mycenean motive, grappled with by a half-naked man. The type of the Minotaur itself as a man-bull was not wanting on the soil of prehistoric Knossos, and more than one gem found on this site represents a monster with the lower body of a man and the forepart of a bull. One may feel assured that the effect of these artistic creations on the rude Greek settler of those days was not less than that of the disin- terred fresco on the Cretan workman of to-day. Everything around— the dark passages, the lifelike figures surviving from an older world— would conspire to produce a sense of the supernatural. It was haunted ground, and then, as now, ‘*‘phantasms” were about. The later stories of the grisly king and his man-eating bull sprang, as it were, from the soil, and the whole site called forth a superstitious awe. It was left severely alone by the newcomers. Another Knossos grew up on the lower slopes of the hill to the north, and the old palace site became ¢ **desolation and hissing.” Gradually earth’s mantle covered the ruined heaps, and by the time of the Romans the labyrinth had become noth- ing more than a tradition anda name. THE ENGRAVED PICTURES OF THE GROTTO OF LA MOUTHE, DORDOGNE, FRANCE.* By M. Enine Riviére. INTRODUCTION, BY O. T. MASON. The grotto of La Mouthe is in the commune of Tayac, Dordogne, France. This remarkable valley has yielded some of the most won- derful results in the history of paleolithic and neolithic man in France. The valley of the Vezére has been especially fruitful, the following well-known sites occurring there: Gorge-d’Enfer, discovered by Lartet and Christy; Cro-Magnon, explored by Massenat; les Eyzies; La Mouthe, explored by Riviére; and Laugerie-Haute. In these caverns are found remains and human workmanship belong- ing to the Mousterian, Solutréan, and Magdalenian epochs. ‘These three epochs form the close of the Paleolithic period in Kurope and lead to the polished-stone people, especially of the Swiss Lake Dwell- ings. The following tabulated form, copied from De Mortillet’s Le Préhistorique, will show the exact position which the discoveries made by Riviére in the cave of La Mouthe occupied in the series of epochs covering the entire history of France: Table of classification. Times. Ages. Periods. Epochs. Merovingian. Wabenian. ( Waben, Pas-de-Calais.) : Champdolian. (Champdolent, Seine-el- Oise. ) Roman. ; =F =< a Lugdunian. (Lyon, Rhone.) | SeLTOM: 2 a = Sa ee ee Beuvraysian. (Mont Bewvray, Niévre.) Historic. Marnian. SEAS (Département de la Marne.) Recent quaternary. Hallstattian. (Hallstatt, Haute-Autriche.) Protohistoric. Larnaudian. (Larnaud, Jura.) Bronze. Tsiganian. _ Morgian. (Morges, Canton de Vaud, Suisse.) “Translated from ‘‘ Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société @ Anthropologie de Paris.” Sér. 5, Tome 2, p. 569, 1901. 439 440 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. Table of classification—Continued. ‘ | | : yea Times. Ages. Periods. Epochs. ( Fére-en- Tardenois, Aisne.) ad e | Robenhausian. aS | (Robenhausen, Zurich. ) On Seolithi 25 Neolithic. == = — — as FES =e Tardenoisian. Tourassian. (La Tourasse, Haute-Garonne. Ancient Hiatus, Magdalenian. (La Madeleine, Dordogne.) | Eas ae Solutréan. (Solutré, Saéne-et-Loire. ) Stone. | Paleolithic. Mousterian. (La Mousier, Dordogne.) y Acheulean. (Saint-Acheul, Somme.) Chellean. ( Chelles, Seine-et-Marne. ) Prehistoric. Ancient quaternary. | Puycournian. (Puy-Courny, Cantal.) _ Eolithiec. — Thenaysian. (Thenay, Lotir-et-Cher.) Tertiary. For nearly ten years M. Riviére has devoted time to the exploration of these caves. His first paper was read before the Académie des Sciences, Paris. Perhaps the most interesting feature connected with the Dordogne caves is that upon their walls have been found, from time to time, fig- ures of animals cut into the rock or painted on the surface with ocher. In 1878 L. Chiron called the attention of archeologists to a grotto in the department of Gard, showing many lines cut into the sandstone wall; but it was in 1895 that M. Riviere explored another grotto or ‘avern—that at La Mouthe, Tayac, Dordogne. This remarkable cavern revealed, along with remains of bear and hyena, deposits of Mousterian and Neolithic relics, and also its walls and ceilings were garnished with sculptures cut in the rock and paintings in ocher. Franc¢ois Daleau also brought to the attention of the public his dis- coveries in the grotto of Pairnon-Pair at Marcamps, Gironde, which yas filled with archeological deposits. Here the walls also were adorned with figures of animals cut in, and the interior had been filled up by Magdalenian deposits quite to the ceiling. This deposit rested upon Solutréan and Mousterian layers below, and on the walls of these there were no engravings. This fact locates the engravings some- where between the Mousterian and the Magdalenian; that is, in or about the Solutréan, the horse epoch of ancient France. The carvings illustrated in this paper are in continuation of Riviere’s former explanations. They represent a portion only of the sculptures revealed; others will be reported on later by him. O. T. Mason. ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 44] 1 have the honor of presenting to the Anthropological Society of Paris reproductions of some of the new carvings discovered by me in the grotto of La Mouthe since my last communication, reserving still others for subsequent presentation. I shall not here review the circumstances of the discovery nor the appearance of the cave when, on June 11, 1895, 1 penetrated the cham- bers previously unknown; neither shall I speak of the extensive labors undertaken at that time, and which I have since pursued each year in one or more fields of research; nor shall I describe the hearths of different epochs, Paleolithic and Neolithic, which I have discovered and in great part explored from the entrance to a certain distance inward. Finally, I shall not enter into details concerning the fauna and the contemporaneous industry of each of those periods, whose dates may be determined with certainty. This would only needlessly repeat what I have said on several occasions here at the Institute, at the French Association, and elsewhere.“ I limit myself to the presenta- tion of the drawings which I submit to you, and to asummary descrip- tion of the carvings of which they are faithful reproductions. These drawings are at present only seven” in number, but there are several other carvings actually discovered, which lack of time has prevented me from stamping, tracing, or molding. In the study of La Mouthe, I have simultaneously occupied myself with the exploration of hearths, the discovery of pictures, and super- intending the excavation of the clay which fills the cave almost to the roof, and with greater thickness the further we penetrate. The engravings of La Mouthe form, so to speak, a certain number of panels ° on the walls of the grotto. The seven drawings of which I here present as faithful reproductions as possible, belong to three dif- ferent panels: one about 97 meters from the entrance of the cavern, the second at 113 meters, the third at 128 meters. Two of the drawings belong to the first panel, one representing a bison, the other a bovine animal with some traces of another species. Three drawings are taken from the second panel and represent a reindeer, an ibex, and a mam- moth. The figures from the third panel are of two horse-like animals. (1) The species of animal represented by the first drawing (fig. 1) can not be in doubt, thanks to its enormous hump (its dimensions are indeed, much exaggerated) and to the beard which it carries under the lower jaw. It is a veritable bison (Bos priscus). The creature is * Academy of Sciences, October, 1894; June and July, 1895; April, 1897; Septem- ber, 1901. French Association for the Advancement of Science, 1897. Anthropo- logical Society of Paris, June 3, 1897; November 4 and 18, 1897; November, 1899. Five of them are the reproductic 1 of tracings executed by me on October 1, 1900; the other two were made by M. H. Breuil on his second visit to the grotto of La Mouthe. . *These panels occupy a surface of several meters, and are separated from each other by more or less considerable intervals. 449 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. engraved in profile at 97 to 98 meters from the entrance and on the left wall of the grotto. The dimensions of the drawing are far from being those of the animal (0.91 meter in length from the forehead to the extremity of the tail with a height of 0.52 meter). The head is small and well drawn. The horns are well reproduced and almost Fia. 1. meet at their points, forming a nearly complete circle; but they have not the normal implantation of the horns of the bison. Under the lower jaw are seen numerous hairs. As to the hump which, above all, characterizes this bovid, it is enormous and, as just said, out of pro- portion with the dimensions of the animal. It begins behind the first FIG. 2. cervical vertebra, and extends back of the sacral vertebra or almost to the origin of the tail. The latter, relatively large at its insertion, 1s incurved in a quite pronounced fashion from above lownward, and ends in a tapering point. The well-made legs, as well as the hind quarters, are, however, a little too thin and long. The ventral line is slightly convex downward. considering the confusion of the strokes. suggestion of a bison. ‘e-DI | (fig. 2). ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 443 (2) The next drawing is also of a bovid, perhaps even of two bovids, In any case, there is no Here, in fact, there is no trace of a dorsal prominence, or of any hump whatever, nor any hair on the chin. The drawing measures 0.88 meter in length and 0.55 meter in height The two animals which it represents, if two animals there 444 -ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. be, have only a single head. The latter is fine and would seem to be rather that of one of the Cervide, were it not for the two horns which surmount the forehead and which are recurved iato nearly a com- plete circle, the two points being separated by only 33 centimeters. Between the two horns are seen a sort of ear—the right ear—but badly inserted. The two front legs are certainly those of a bovid. As to the hind limbs, they, as well as the rump, appear to belong to a second animal surmounting the first, and of which we can perceive no more than the dorso-cervical line which curves back in front, simulating a head. The bovid, properly so called, is drawn in left profile, while the bison is seen from the right, and upon the flank are a few marks, \ Fic. 4. some parallel and others intercrossing, which descend to the ventral line. By its intricacies this figure offers great analogies with the drawings engraved on bone or reindeer horn, which are found in the Magdalenian hearths. I ought to add that, above this double figure, we still see two engraved lines joining each other below in such a manner as to resem- ble the leg of another animal whose picture has been commenced on the same panel. (3) The engraving of the reindeer (fig. 3) is one of the most beau- tiful known. It measures 1.07 meters in length. The head of the animal is very well executed, I should say even in a remarkable manner; consequently it is among the more easily recognizable. It ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 445 is strong, all striated with a multitude of strokes, either vertical or slightly slanted from the right downward to the left, some of which reach the throat. They represent the hair. The head, seen in profile, is surmounted by a horn with its basal antler directed hori- zontally from behind toward the front. The muzzle is very well drawn. On the contrary, the body is pro- portionally too short, measuring 0.70 meter from the front part of the neck to the tail. I may add that the animal is incompletely figured, for the withers scarcely exist and a line only partially indicates the back and rump. (4) The picture of an ibex (fig. 4) now follows. Here the whole animal is given with the exception of the extremities of the front legs. It measures 0.80 meter in length by 0.77 meter in height. The head is too small in proportion to the body and is surmounted by a large Fic. 5. horn curved backward in a half circle. The ears are straight and well formed. The muzzle is well executed, but the jaw is too short. Then comes a neck much too large, resembling somewhat that of a bovid. The breast and belly are enormous. The line of the latter descends very lew in front, while the dorsal line is nearly straight, being slightly incurved to denote the slope of the rump and then the tail. The last, directed horizontally, is short and ends in a two-forked tuft. As to the limbs, the anterior are not terminated, and their length is about half that of the hind legs, which are thin and very long. In front of the ibex, and turned toward him so that the two heads face each other, is seen the engraving of a long-haired elephant. Although the animal is not complete, it does not seem to us possible to deny that it is intended for a mammoth. This is, moreover, also the opinion of those of my colleagues in the society to whom I showed the drawing (fig. 5) before the opening of the session. The form of 446 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. the cranium, the dorsal line, the tail, the origin also of the limbs and their size, finally the numerous strokes resembling hairs, which pass downward from the belly, are indeed those of a mammoth; but neither the trunk of the animal nor its tusks can be discerned. The dimen- Fie, 6. sions of the engraving are much reduced, 0.32 meter in length by 0.25 meter in height, all marks included. Such are the drawings from this prehistoric panel, selected among others of which I shall eventually make tracings. (6, 7) As to the two figures of the panel, situated at 128 meters from ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 447 the entrance, shown in the next pictures, they represent two equids, entirely different from each other, and appearing to belong to two dis- tinct species—the horse and the hemione. The one has the head fine, well drawn (fig. 6), as well as the neck, the breast, and the fore legs, which are entire, hoofs included, and pretty well proportioned. The ears are straight and the mane is erect. On the contrary, the but- tocks are enormous, the belly is very large, pendulous, so to speak, the line of the withers is straight, without the least incurving; finally the croup is much too pronounced, and the short tail is drogpae As to the hind legs, they are barely sketched. in WA WMitliyZ Fig. 7. The engraving of this equid measures 0.75 meter in length from the line of the nose to the tip of the tail, and 0.55 meter in height. The other drawing (fig. 7) is that of a kind of bearded horse whose long and bristling mane extends almost to the withers. The head is both long and directed vertically downward, the ears are somewhat long, the forehead is projecting, and the chin has a tuft of hairs. In departing from the neck, the body is represented only by a single line—the dorsal line—which extends from the mane to the tail, figured here by several strokes about 0.35 meters long. This drawing measures in all 1.31 meters in length. It is on this panel of the two equids that several other animals appear, such, for example, as a sort of bird (genus Anas ¢) recently 448 ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. discovered; a deer, spotted, or rather in part painted with ocher, whose reproduction figured last year with that of two other animals—the bison and a bovid, or equid—at the Universal Exposition in the section of megalithic monuments, at the request of the minister of public instruction. Such are the seven drawings which I wish to present to you to-day. I add also the reproduction of the well-made head of an ibex, which we see on the outer face of the lamp in sandstone from La Mouthe (fig. 8). As can be seen from this figure, which is identical in size with the original, this head of the ibex is almost as remarkably executed as that of the reindeer which we have reproduced in fig. 3. The head Fic. 8. on the lamp is that of a profile in all its details—nose, mouth, eye, var, and finally horns, which are of considerable length, measuring not less than 12 or 13 centimeters, and strongly curved in a semicir- cle.* There is nothing, even to the beard of the animal, which has not been engraved. The oval of the head measures 0.035 meter in length, and its greatest breadth is 0.023 meter. Two lines of unequal length, but nearly parallel, one descending from the left angle of the jaw, the other beginning behind the left ear, seem to attempt the representa- tion of the neck. On the other hand, the body and the legs are not figured. We perceive only, behind the line of the neck, several engraved lines, very much defaced and without any significance. “The lamp in sandstone from the grotto of La Mouthe (Dordogne), by Emile Riviere, 1899. ENGRAVINGS OF GROTTO LA MOUTHE. 449 Such is, ina few words, the description of the engraved sketches coming from the grotto of La Mouthe which I desire to present to you to-day. THE ENGRAVINGS FROM PEUCH, BY M. EMILE RIVIERE. I desire also to submit to-day for your examination one of the pictures which I have taken of the very curious engravings executed upon the wall of rock against which abut buildings of a farmhouse belonging to the village of Peuch. This presentation is merely to fix the date of this discovery, which goes back to the 5th of September, 1896, and was made by me in company with Dr. Burette, who had informed me of it a few days before. It represents a human being whose sex is not indicated. The engraving is very deeply scored in the rock. The individual measures 0.98 meter in height. The head, drawn from the front, is a simple oval, without eyes, nose, mouth, or ears. The arms are brought forward in such a way that the right hand is held upon the abdomen and the left hand hides the sex. The lower limbs end without feet at the level of the soil. To what date does this engraving go back? This isa question which I shall examine subsequently in presenting the drawing of a second human being, engraved likewise in sunken lines, nearly of the same size as this one—an engraving of which I limit myself to-day to make the announcement without entering further into details. sm 1901——29 | | THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 2 By Franz Boas. One of the chief aims of anthropology is the study of the mind of man under the varying conditions of race and of environment. The activities of the mind manifest themselves in thoughts and actions, and exhibit an infinite variety of form among the peoples of the world. In order to understand these clearly, the student must endeavor to divest himself entirely of opinions and emotions based upon the pecul- iar social environment into which he is born. He must adapt his own mind, so far as feasible, to that of the people whom he is studying. The more successful he is in freeing himself from the bias based on the group of ideas that constitute the civilization in which he lives, the more successful he will be in interpreting the beliefs and actions of man. He must follow lines of thought that are new to him. He must participate in new emotions, and understand how, under unwonted conditions, both lead to actions. Beliefs, customs, and the response of the individual _to the events of daily life give us ample opportunity to observe the manifestations of the mind of man under varying conditions. The thoughts and actions of civilized man and those found in more primitive forms of society prove that, in various groups of mankind, the mind responds quite differently when exposed to the same condi- tions. Lack of logical connection in its conclusions, lack of control of will, are apparently two of its fundamental characteristics in prim- itive society. In the formation of opinions, belief takes the place of logical demonstration. The emotional value of opinions is great, and consequently they quickly lead to action. The will appears unbalanced, there being a readiness to yield to strong emotions, and a stubborn resistence in trifling matters. In the following remarks I propose to analyze the differences which characterize the mental life of man in various stages of culture. It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge here my indebtedness to my friends and colleagues in New York, particularly to Dr. Livingston Farrand, with whom the questions here propounded have been a frequent theme of animated discussion, so much so, that at the present time I find it impossible to say what share the suggestions of each had in the devel- opment of the conclusions reached. * Address of the retiring president before the American Folk-Lore Society, Balti- more, December 27, 1900. Reprinted, by permission of the author, from The Journal of American Folk-Lore, Boston and New York, vol. xiy, Jan.—March, 1901. 451 A452 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. There are two possible explanations of the different manifestations of the mind of man. It may be that the minds of different races show differences of organization; that is to say, the laws of mental activity may not be the same forall minds. But it may also be that the organ- ization of mind is practically identical among all races of man; that mental activity follows the same laws everywhere, but that its mani- festations depend upon the character of individual experience that is subjected to the action of these laws. It is quite evident that the activities of the human mind depend upon these two elements. The organization of the mind may be defined as the group of laws which determine the modes of thought and of action, irrespective of the subject-matter of mental activity. Subject to such laws are the manner of discrimination between perceptions, the man- ner in which perceptions associate themselves with previous percep- tions, the manner in which a stimulus leads to action, and the emotions produced by stimuli. These laws determine to a great extent the manifestations of the mind. But, on the other hand, the influence of individual experience can sasily be shown to be very great. The bulk of the experience of man is gained from oft-repeated impressions. It is one of the fundamental laws of psychology that the repetition of mental processes increases the facility with which these processes are performed, and decreases the degree of consciousness that accompanies them. This law expresses the well-known phenomena of habit. When a certain perception is frequently associated with another previous perception, the one will habitually call forth the other. When a certain stimulus frequently results in a certain action, it will tend to call forth habitually the same action. If a stimulus has often produced a certain emotion, it will tend to reproduce it every time. The explanation of the activity of the mind of man, therefore, requires the discussion of two distinct problems. The first bears upon the question of unity or diversity of organization of the, mind, while the second bears upon the diversity produced by the variety of con- tents of the mind as found in the various social and geographical environments. The task of the investigator consists largely in sepa- rating these two causes and in attributing to each its proper share in the deyelopment of the peculiarities of the mind. It is the latter problem, principally, which is of interest to the folk-lorist. When we define as folk-lore the total mass of traditional matter present in the mind of a given people at any given time, we recognize that this matter must influence the opinions and activities of the people more or less according to its quantitative and qualitative value, and also that the actions of each individual must be influenced to a greater or less extent by the mass of traditional material present in his mind. We will first devote our attention to the question, Do differences exist in the organization of the human mind? Since Waitz’s thorough THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 453 discussion of the question of the unity of the human species there can be no doubt that in the main the mental characteristics of man are the same all over the world; but the question remains open whether there is a sufficient difference in grade to allow us to assume that the present races of man may be considered as standing on different stages of the evolutionary series, whether we are justified in ascribing to civilized man a higher place in organization that to primitive man. In answer- ing this question we must clearly distinguish between the influences of civilization and of race. A number of anatomical facts point to the conclusion that the races of Africa, Australia, and Melanesia are to a certain extent inferior to the races of Asia, America, and Kurope. We find that on the average the size of the brain of the negroid races is less than the size of the brain of the other races; and the difference in favor of the mongoloid and white races is so great that we are justified in assuming a certain correlation between their mental ability and the increased size of their brain. At the same time it must be borne in mind that the variability of the mongoloid and white races on the one hand and of the negroid races on the other is so great that only a small number, comparatively speaking, of individuals belonging to the latter have brains smaller than any brains found among the former; and that, on the other hand, only a few individuals of the mongoloid races have brains so large that they would not occur at all among the black races. That is to say, the bulk of the two groups of races have brains of the same capacities, but individuals with heavy brains are proportionately more frequent among the mongoloid and white races than among the negroid races. Probably this difference in the size of the brain is accompanied by differences in structure, although no satisfactory infor- mation on this point is available. On the other hand, if we compare civilized people of any race with uncivilized people of the same race, we do not find any anatomical differences which would justify us in assuming any fundamental differences in mental constitution. When we consider the same question from a purely psychological point of view, we recognize that one of the most fundamental traits which distinguish the human mind from the animal mind is common to all races of man. It is doubtful if any animal is able to form an abstract conception, such as that of number, or any conception of the abstract relations of phenomena. We find that this is done by all races of man. A developed language with grammatical categories presupposes the ability of expressing abstract relations, and, since every known language has grammatical structure, we must assume that the faculty of forming abstract ideas is a common property of man. It has often been pointed out that the concept of number is developed very differently among different peoples. While in most languages we find numeral systems based upon the 10, we find that certain tribes in Brazil, and others in Australia, have numeral systems based on the 3, or even on the 2, which involve the impossibility of 454 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. expressing high numbers. Although these numeral systems are very slightly developed as compared with our own, we must not forget that the abstract idea of number must be present among these people, because without it no method of counting is possible. It may be worth while to mention one or two other facts taken from the grammars of primitive people, which will make it clear that all grammar presup- poses abstractions. The three personal pronouns—l, thou, and he— occur in all human languages. The underlying idea of these pronouns is the clear distinction between the self as speaker, the person or object spoken to, and that spoken of. We also find that nouns are classified in a great many ways in different languages. While all the older Indo-European languages classify nouns according to sex, other Jan- guages classify nouns as animate or inanimate, or as human and not human, etc. Activities are also classified in many different ways. It is at once clear that every classification of this kind involves the forma- tion of an abstract idea. The processes of abstraction are the same in all languages, and they do not need any further discussion, except in so far as we may be inclined to value differently the systems of classi- fication and the results of abstraction. The question whether the power to inhibit impulses is the same in all races of man is not so easily answered. It is an impression obtained by many travelers, and also based upon experiences gained in our own country, that primitive man and the less educated have in common a lack of control of emotions; that they give way more read- ily to an impulse than civilized man and the highly educated. I believe that this conception is based largely upon the neglect to con- sider the occasions on which a strong control of impulses is demanded in various forms of society. What I mean will become clear when I ‘all your attention to the often described power of endurance exhib- ited by Indian captives who undergo torture at the hands of their enemles. When we want to gain a true estimate of the power of primitive man to control impulses, we must not compare the control required on certain occasions among ourselves with the control exerted by primitive man on the same occasions. If, for instance, our social — etiquette forbids the expression of feelings of personal discomfort and of anxiety, we must remember that personal etiquette among primi- tive men may not require any inhibition of the same kind. We must — rather look for those occasions on which inhibition is required by the customs of primitive man. Such are, for instance, the numerous cases of taboo—that is, of prohibitions of the use of certain foods, or of the performance of certain kinds of work, which sometimes require a con- siderable amount of self-control. When an Eskimo community is on the point of starvation and their religious proscriptions forbid them to make use of the seals that are hasline on the ice, the amount of self- control of the whole community w hich restrains them from killing these seals is certainly very great. Cases of this kind are very nu- > THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 455 merous, and prove that primitive man has the ability to control his impulses, but that this control is exerted on occasions which depend upon the character of the social life of the people, and which do not coincide with the occasions on which we expect and require control of impulses. The third point in which the mind of primitive man seems to differ from that of civilized man is in its power of choosing between percep- tions and actions according to their value. On this power rests the whole domain of art and of ethics. An object or an action becomes of artistic value only when it is chosen from among other perceptions or other actions on account of its beauty. An action becomes moral only when it is chosen from among other possible actions on account of its ethical value. No matter how crude the standards of primitive man may be in regard to these two points, we recognize that all of them possess an art, and that all of them possess ethical standards. It may be that their art is quite contrary to our artistic feeling. It may be that their ethical standards outrage our moral code. We must clearly distinguish between the esthetic and ethical codes and the existence of an esthetic and ethical standard. Our brief consideration of the phenomena of abstraction, of inhibi- tion and of choice, leads, then, to the conclusion that these functions of the human mind are common to the whole of humanity. It may be well to state here that, according to our present method of considering bio- logical and pyschological phenomena, we must assume that these func- tions of the human mind have developed from lower conditions existing at a previous time, and that at one time there certainly must have been races and tribes in which the properties here described were not at all, or only slightly, developed; but it is also true that among the present races of man, no matter how primitive they may be in com- parison with ourselves, these faculties are highly developed. It is not impossible that the degree of development of these fune- tions may differ somewhat among different types of man; but I do not believe that we are able at the present time to form a just valuation of the power of abstraction, of control, and of choice among different races. A comparison of their languages, customs, and activities suggests that these faculties may be unequally developed; but the differences are not sufficient to justify us in ascribing materially lower stages to some peoples and higher stages to others. The conclusions reached from these considerations are therefore, on the whole, nega- tive. We are not inclined to consider the mental organization of different races of man as differing in fundamental points. We next turn to a consideration of the second question propounded here, namely, to an investigation of the influence of the contents of the mind upon the formation of thoughts and actions. We will take these up in the same order in which we considered the previous ques- tion. We will first direct our attention to the phenomena of percep- 456 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. tion. It has been observed by many travelers that the senses of primitive man are remarkably well trained; that he is an excellent observer. The adeptness of the experienced hunter, who finds the tracks of his game where the eye of an European would not see the faintest indication, is an instance of this kind. While the power of perception of primitive man is excellent, it would seem that his power of logical interpretation of perceptions is deficient. I think it can be shown that the reason for this fact is not founded on any fundamental peculiarity of the mind of primitive man, but lies, rather, in the char- acter of the ideas with which the new perception associates itself. In our own community a mass of observations and of thoughts is trans- mitted to the child. These thoughts are the result of careful observa- tion and speculation of our present and of past generations; but they are transmitted to most individuals as traditional matter, much the same as folklore. The child associates new perceptions with this whole mass of traditional material, and interprets his observations by its means. I believe it isa mistake to assume that the interpretation made by each civilized individual is a complete logical process. We associate a phenomenon with a number of known facts, the interpretations of which are assumed as known, and we are satisfied with the reduction of a new fact to these previously known facts. For instance, if the average individual hears of the explosion of a previously unknown chemical, he is satisfied to reason that certain materials are known to have the property of exploding under proper conditions, and that con- sequently the unknown substance has the same quality. On the whole, I do not think that we should try to argue still further, and really try to give a full explanation of the causes of the explosion. The difference in the mode of thought of primitive man and of civy- ilized man seems to consist largely in the difference of character of the traditional material with which the new perception associates itself. The instruction given to the child of primitive man is not based on centuries of experimentation, but consists of the crude experience of generations. When a new experience enters the mind of primitive man, the same process which we observe among civilized men brings about an entirely different series of associations, and therefore results in a different type of explanation. A sudden explosion will associate itself in his mind, perhaps, with tales which he has heard in regard to the mythical history of the world, and consequently will be accom- panied by superstitious fear. When we recognize that, neither among civilized men nor among primitive men, the average individual carries to completion the attempt at casual explanation of phenomena, but carries it only so far as to amalgamate it with other previously known facts, we recognize that the result of the whole process depends entirely upon the character of the traditional material. Herein lies the immense importance of folklore in determining the mode of thought. Herein lies particularly the enormous influence of current philosophie THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 457 opinion upon the masses of the people, and herein lies the influence of the dominant scientific theory upon the character of scientific work. It would be in vain to try to understand the development of modern science without an intelligent understanding of modern philosophy; it would be in vain to try to understand the history of medieval science without an intelligent knowledge of medieval theology; and so it is in vain to try to understand primitive science without an intelligent knowledge of primitive mythology. Mythology, theology, and phi- losophy are different terms for the same influences which shape the current of human thought and which determine the character of the attempts of man to explain the phenomena of nature. To primitive man—who has been taught to consider the heavenly orbs as animate beings, who sees in every animal a being more powerful than man, to whom the mountains, trees, and stones are endowed with nations of phenomena will suggest themselves entirely different from those to which we are accustomed, since we base our conclusions upon the existence of matter and force as bringing about the observed results. If we do not consider it possible to explain the whole range of phenomena as the result of matter and force alone, all our explana- tions of natural phenomena must take a different aspect. In scientific inquiries we should always be clear in our own minds of the fact that we do not carry the analysis of any given phenomenon to completion; but that we always embody a number of hypotheses and theories in our explanations. In fact, if we were to do so, progress would hardly become possible, because every phenomenon would require an endless amount of time for thorough treatment. We are only too apt, however, to forget entirely the general, and, for most of us, purely traditional, theoretical basis, which is the foundation of our reasoning, and to assume that the result of our reasoning is absolute truth. In this we commit the same error that is committed, and has been committed, by all the less civilized peoples. They are more easily satisfied than we are at the present time, but they also assume as true the traditional element which enters into their explanations, and therefore accept as absolute truth the conclusions based on it. It is evident that the fewer the number of traditional elements that enter into our reasoning, and the clearer we endeavor to be in regard to the hypothetical part of our reasoning, the more logical will be our con- clusions. There is an undoubted tendency in the advance of civiliza- tion to eliminate traditional elements, and to gain a clearer and clearer insight into the hypothetical basis of our reasoning. It is therefore ' not surprising that, with the advance of civilization, reasoning becomes | more and more logical, not because each individual carries out his thought in a more logical manner, but because the traditional material | Which is handed down to each individual has been thought out and _ Worked out more thoroughly and more carefully. While in primitive | | i} | 458 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. civilization the traditional material is doubted and examined by only a very few individuals, the number of thinkers who try to free them- selves from the fetters of tradition increases as civilization advances. The influence of traditional material upon the life of man is not restricted to his thoughts, but manifests itself no less in his activities. The comparison between civilized man and primitive man in this respect is even more instructive than in the preceding case. A com- parison between the modes of life of different nations, and particularly of civilized man and of primitive man, makes it clear that an enormous number of our actions are determined entirely by traditional associa- tions. When we consider, for instance, the whole range of our daily life, we notice how strictly we are dependent upon tradition that can not be accounted for by any logical reasoning. We eat our three meals every day, and feel unhappy if we have to forego one of them. There is no physiological reason which demands three meals a day, and we find that many people are satisfied with two meals, while others enjoy four or even more. The range of animals and plants which we utilize for food is limited, and we have a decided aversion against eat- ing dogs, or horses, or cats. There is certainly no objective reason for such aversion, since a great many people consider dogs and horses as dainties. When we consider fashions, the same becomes still more apparent. To appear in the fashions of our forefathers of two cen- turies ago would be entirely out of the question and would expose one to ridicule. The same is true of table manners. ‘To smack one’s lips is considered decidedly bad style, and may even excite feelings of dis- gust, while among the Indians, for instance, it would be considered as in exceedingly bad taste not to smack one’s lips when one is invited to dinner, because it would suggest that the guest does not enjoy his dinner. The whole range of actions that are considered as proper and improper can not be explained by any logical reason, but are almost all entirely due to custom; that is to say, they are purely traditional. This is even true of customs which excite strong emotions, as, for instance, those produced by infractions of modesty. While in the logical processes of the mind we find a decided tend- ency, with the development of civilization, to eliminate traditional elements, no such marked decrease in the force of traditional ele- ments can be found in our activities. These are almost as much con- trolled by custom among ourselves as they are among primitive man. It is easily seen why this should be the case. The mental processes which enter into the development of judgments are based largely upon associations with previous judgements. I pointed out before that this process of association is the same among primitive men as among civilized men, and that the difference consists largely in the modifi- sation of the traditional material with which our new perceptions amalgamate. In the case of activities, the conditions are somewhat THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. 459 different. Here tradition manifests itself in an action performed by the individual. The more frequently this action is repeated, the more firmly it will become established, and the less will be the conscious equivalent accompanying the action; so that customary actions which are of very frequent repetition become entirely unconscious. Hand in hand with this decrease of consciousness goes an increase in the emotional value of the omission of such activities, and still more of the performance of actions contrary to custom. A greater will power is required to inhibit an action which had become well established: and combined with this effort of the will power are feelings of intense displeasure. This leads us to the third problem, which is closely associated with the difference between the manifestation of the power of civilized man and of primitive man to inhibit impulses. It is the question of choice as dependent upon value. It is evident from the preceding remarks that, on the whole, we value most highly what conforms to our pre- vious actions. This does not imply that it must be identical with our previous actions, but it must be on the line of development of our previous actions. This is particularly true of ethical concepts. No action can find the approval of a people which is fundamentally opposed to its customs and traditions. Among ourselves it is consid- ered proper and a matter of course to treat the old with respect, for children to look after the welfare of their aged parents; and not to do so would be considered base ingratitude. Among the Eskimo we find an entirely different standard. It is required of children to kill their parents when they have become so old as to be helpless and no longer of any use to the family or to the community. It would be considered a breach of filial duty not to kill the aged parent. Revolting though this custom may seem to us, it is founded on an ethical law of the Eskimo, which rests on the whole mass of traditional lore and custom. One of the best examples of this kind is found in the relation between individuals belonging to different tribes. There area number of primi- tive hordes to whom every stranger not a member of the horde is an enemy, and where it is right to damage the enemy to the best of one’s power and ability, and if possible to kill him. This custom is founded largely on the idea of the solidarity of the horde, and of the feeling that it is the duty of every member of the horde to destroy all possible enemies. ‘Therefore every person not a member of the horde must be considered as belonging to a class entirely distinct from the members of the horde, and is treated accordingly. We can trace the gradual broadening of the feeling of fellowship during the advance of civiliza- tion. The feeling of fellowship in the horde expands to the feeling of unity of the tribe, to a recognition of bonds established by a neigh- borhood of habitat, and further on to the feeling of fellowship among members of nations. This seems to be the limit of the ethical concept 460 THE MIND OF PRIMITIVE MAN. of fellowship of man which we have reached at the present time. When we analyze the strong feeling of nationality which is so potent at the present time, we recognize that it consists largely in the idea of the preeminence of that community whose member we happen to be—in the preeminent value of its language, of its customs, and of its tradi- tions, and in the belief that it is right to preserve its pecullarities and to impose them upon the rest of the world. The feeling of nationality as here expressed, and the feeling of solidarity of the horde, are of the same order, although modified by the gradual expansion of the idea of fellowship; but the ethical point of view which makes it justifiable at the present time to increase the well-being of one nation at the cost of another, the tendency to value one’s own civilization as higher than that of the whole race of mankind, are the same as those which prompt the actions of primitive man, who considers every stranger as an enemy, and who is not satisfied until the enemy is killed. It is somewhat dif- ficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization, and that it has been controlling all our actions since the time of our birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civiliza- tions, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilib- rium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours, although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without having grown up under their influence. The general theory of valua- tion of human activities, as taught by anthropological research, teaches us a higher tolerance than the one which we now profess. Our considerations make it probable that the wide differences between the manifestations of the human mind in various stages of culture may be due almost entirely to the form of individual experience, which is determined by the geographical and social environment of the indi- vidual. It would seem that, in different races, the organization of the mind is on the whole alike, and that the varieties of mind found in dif- ferent races do not exceed, perhaps not even reach, the amount of normal individual variation in each race. It has been indicated that, notwithstanding this similarity in the form of individual mental proe- esses, the expression of mental activity of a community tends to show a characteristic historical development. From a comparative study of these changes among the races of man is derived our theory of the: general development of human culture. But the development of cul. ture must not be confounded with the development of mind. Culture. is an expression of the achievements of the mind, and shows the cumu-| lative effects of the activities of many minds. But it is not an expres- sion of the organization of the minds constituting the community, which may in no way differ from the minds of a community occupying | a much more advanced stage of culture. TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS—A STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY AND INVENTION. By Oris T. Mason. That unicorns may be betrayed with trees, And bears with glasses, elephants with holes, Lions with toils, and men with flatteries, * * * Let me work; For I can give his humor the true bent, And I will bring him to the Capitol. Ue —Julius Cesar, U1, MEANING OF THE TERM AMERICAN. America, in this connection, embraces all of the Western Hemis- phere visited by the native tribes in their activities associated with the animal kingdom. It might be allowed to exclude a small number of frozen or elevated or desert regions untrodden by human feet, were it not for the fact that most of these were the resorts of zoo- morphic gods, creatures of the aboriginal imagination. The name America must in this study include also those oceanic meadows stretch- ing out from the continents, whereon were nourished innumerable creatures, which dominated the activities of the littoral tribes. DEFINITION OF THE TERM TRAP. A trap is an invention for the purpose of inducing animals to com- mit incarceration, self-arrest, or suicide. In the simplest traps the automatism is solely on the part of the animal, but in the highest forms automatic action of the most delicate sort is seen in the traps themselves, involving the harnessing of some natural force, current, weight, spring, and so on, to do man’s work. In capturing animals by the simplest methods they are merely taken with the hand as in gathering fruits. By a second step they are har- vested with devices—scoop nets, dippers, seines, hooks that are sub- stitutes for the crooked finger, reatas, dulls, bolas, and many more. A third step leads to active slaughter with clubs for bruising, knives and axes for cutting and hacking, and with a thousand and_one imple- 461 462 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. ments for piercing and retrieving. In these the hunters are present and active, making war on the animal. In the matter of automatism there is no great gulf between the trapper and the hunter. At both ends and in the middle of the trap’s activity the man may be present, but not to the victim. Not waiting for the victim to go to its doom of its own will, the hunter, having set his trap, proceeds to entice and compel the game. He has learned to imitate to perfection the noises of birds and beasts—it may be of those he is hunting, of others hunted by them, or their enemies. He knows the smells that are agreeable and the dainty foods most liked, On the contrary, he also knows how to allay suspicions in one direc- tion, to arouse them in another—always with the trap in his mind. The action of the trap itself is also frequently assisted by the hunter out of sight. He releases the pent-up force of gravity, of elasticity. Finally, the result of the trap’s action is to hand the victim over to the hunter to carry away or to kill. Often the trap does the killing outright, and the result is raw material for the elaborative industries; but in other cases the hunter must be near by to give the coup de grace. The instances are many where the victim must be dispatched at once, or the trap will be destroyed and the result lost. THE TRAP AS AN INVENTION. As intimated, the trap teaches the whole lesson of invention. At first it is something that the animal unwittingly treads on (Middle Low German, treppen, to tread; tramp is a kindred word). At last it is a combination of movement and obstruction, of release and exe- cution, which vies in delicacy with the most destructive weapons. Gravity and elasticity are harnessed by ingenious mechanical com- binations. THE TERM PSYCHOLOGY. In this paper the term ‘‘ psychology” stands for all those mental processes that are caused and developed by trapping. There is the mental activity of the animal and that of the man. The trap itself is an invention in which are embodied most careful studies in animal mentation and habits. The hunter must know for each species its” food, its likes and dislikes. A trap in this connection is strategy. Inasmuch as each species of animals has its own idiosyncrasies, and as the number of species was unlimited, the pedagogic influence of this class of inventions must have been exalting to a high degree for the primitive tribes. The varieties of execution to be done by the trap were very great. | It had to impound or encage, or to seize by the head, horns, limbs, » gills; to maim, crush, slash, brain, impale, poison, and so on, as though | TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 4638 it had reason—the thought of the hunter had to be locked up in its parts ready to spring at a touch. As population increased, wants became more varied and animals became more scarce, more intellec- ~tualand wary. If any reader of this may himself have been a trapper he will remember the scrupulous care with which he proceeded at _ every point, to make the parts stable or unstable, to choose out of ~ innumerable places one that to a careful weighing of a thousand indi- cations seemed best, to set the trap in the fittest manner, and at last to cover his tracks so that the most wary creature would not have the slightest suspicion. ~ To catch a fox it was necessary to win its confidence, and this the savage knew. So he prepared a trap that was perfectly harmless, and ~ let Reynard walk about over the ashes or fresh earth or chaff, picking up dainty bits until all suspicion was removed. Then was the time — to conceal the trap. But all vestiges of human hand or foot must be removed, and the apparatus must be cleaned and smoked most _ effectually. ee re NY —* PARTS OF TRAPS. The trap has two classes of parts, the working part and the mechan- ical, manual, animal part. The victim finds itself in a pound, deadfall, 2 es jf j 2, SS ho LS | Fic, 1.—Marmot trap. cage, hole, box, toil, noose, or jaw; on hook, gorge, pale, or knife, and so on. This dangerous element, to repeat, may not need any accessories. The fish swims into a fyke, the animal walks into a pit or pound, the bird or climbing animal finds itself in a cage with ratcheted entrance to prevent egress; that is all. In a higher stage of invention, where the forces of gravity and ticity are invoked to do the incarceration, arrest, or execution, 464 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. there has to be found between the lure and the execution a host of devices, and these form an ascending series of complexities. The simplest of these intermediary inventions is an unstable prop or sup- port of some kind; the slightest pull at a bait removes the ticklish thing, and weight or noose, or other deadly part, is set free. The trigger and the catch are more complicated and varied; the secret of them all, however, is that an unstable catch is released by the animal in passing, in prying curiosity, in gnawing, or in rubbing; this is con- nected by means of sticks and strings to the last release, since the operation of releasing is in connection with the device in which the force is confined and by which the work is to be done. In the highest forms of weight traps and spring traps there are veritable machines, since they change the direction and effect of motion. It is on these that most ingenuity has been expended, and in them is exhibited that wonderful threefold play of working force, work to be done, and proe- esses of reaching the end. Variations in the materials utilized will play no mean part, also, in a continent covering all zones save the ant- arctic, all elevations at which man can live, and all varieties ef vegetal phenomena growing out of temperature and rainfall. To proceed with some order it will be necessary to divide the Western Hemisphere into convenient culture areas. The following will serve for a provisional list: American culture areas. Areas. Peoples. LRAT CLI Cee omens tte: Sree Eskimo. PA OLNAv TONE hoe ieee meee eee ones ann fares eiey: Athapascan. SoPAG At CIS Oem saa eee ee eee ee A lgonquian-Iroquois. A VIISSISS ilu alll Cees eee ae ee Siouan. 5. Louisiana or Gulf ..........-.....Muskhogean. 6. Southeastern Alaska.......-.--..- Haida-Koluschan. Ja Cokumiblan neo onm: sere aaa Salish-Chinookan. Ssulmtenonmbasinnas = sa. eae Shoshonean. OmCalitonmiamer lioness 3— eee eee ae Very mixed stocks. 1OSsbueblomerione ss- = ec eee Tanoan-Tewan and Sonoran. 11.7 Middle American’ <2 - == seer Nahua-Mayan. 12-2 Cordillerantimeoi ones Chibcha-Kechuan. oo eATIGlLeanireslO nese ase ee Arawak-Caribbean. [Ay Wippemamazonian: = sss seer Jivaro, Peba, Puno, ete. 15. Eastern Brazilian region.......-.- Tupi-Guarani, Tapuya. 16. Mato Grosso and southward... --- Mixed people of Brazilian and Andean types. 17. Argentina-Patagonian region. ----- Chaco, Pampean, and Patagonian stocks. ISS hiuiesinsres| Oiisetee eee eae Aliculuf, Ona, and Yahgan. The inquiry will not be raised here whether the traps not made of metal and found in the hands of the American savages are entirely aboriginal, or whether there has been acculturation. A good knowl- edge of the traps as they exist or existed will go far toward settling | the question of origin. TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 465 CLASSIFICATION OF TRAPS. Traps are variously classified according to the concept in the student’s mind. If it be the natural element in which they work, there will be land traps for mammals, birds, reptiles, and invertebrates; water traps for mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and invertebrates; and air traps for birds and insects. With reference to their parts, either mechanical or efficient, there are a multitude of names which will appear in a separate vocabulary. In the setting they are man set, self-set, ever-set, and victim-set. For the purpose of this paper traps may be divided into three groups, namely: (A) Inclosing, (B) arresting, (C) killing. In each of these we may begin with the simpler forms—those with the least mechanism— and end with those that are more intricate. A.—Inclosing traps. (a) Pen—dam, pound, fyke. (6b) Cage—coop, pocket, cone, fish trap. (c) Pit—pitfalls. (d) Door—with trigger, fall cage, or fall door. B.—Arresting traps. (e) Mesh—gill, toils, ratchet. (f) Set hook—set line, gorge, trawl. (yg) Noose—snare, springe, fall snare, trawl snare. (h) Clutch—bird lime, mechanical jaws. C.—Killing traps. (i) Weight—fall, dead fall. (k) Point—impaling, stomach, missile. (1) Edge—wolf knife, braining knife. A.—INCLOSING TRAPS. _Inclosing traps are those which imprison the victim, most of them “without doing any further bodily harm, though there may be added to these some otiver devices which will injure or kill. There are four kinds of inclosing traps: (7) Pen traps, (4) cage traps, (c) pit traps, (2) | door traps. (a) Pen traps.—TVhese include pounds or corrals on land, and dams, fish pens, and fykes in the water, the idea being simply to inclose. Traps of this sort have no tops and therefore are not useful for birds. In connection with other forms, small inclosures are used to surround the bait and to guide the victim in a certain direction. How the animal gets in, how it is kept in, and what is done to it afterwards will decide whether the pound is a trap or a corral or whether it is a reservoir, an abattoir, or a domesticating device. The simplest form of pound is of | brush or reeds, and confines whatever enters, large or small; but the _ perfect form has interstices carefully adapted to retain certain species ie su 1901——30 4 —: 466 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. and to allow others to escape, or holds the adult individual in and lets the small and young out. The savage tribes, further, could make moy- able walls of reeds and long nets. Indeed, the great impounding nets are the last word in the series. Add to the pound an entrance and there begins another set of inventions around the notion of shutting. A gateway may be closed by nature or by device. The tide falls and leaves aquatic creatures imprisoned. Animals get under some obsta- cle and can not surmount it. They corral themselves. A gateway may be guarded by sentinels also, but gates may be intentionally shut or a pound-shaped barrier be set up, so that the return of those which pass in is impossible. Most pounds, whether in water or on land, have 2A “i ue : awe 3 es pe We Zo IS Ss EA site LT ny ne all aa ‘am, =| Mh iit ue sari ii nee A =~ AN) tty ne nade A, a ligeaays H i TE iH | | Fic, 2.—Fish weir of the Virginia Indians (after Hariot). some natural or artificial lane for conducting the game to the gate way. On either side may be precipices, trees with ropes or wattles” between wing nets, or something of the kind, along which animals pursue their natural course and are lured or driven to the pen (fig. 2). (2) Cage traps.—In this class must be grouped all forms of coops and strong house traps on land, and a great variety of cones, pockets, and fish traps in the waters. All of these are designed for climbing, — flying, or swimming creatures. The cage or coop trap, completely inclosed on every side, is a step in advance of an open pen, whether on land or in the water. The majority of cage traps have funnel- shaped entrances, into which the animal passes easily and unrestrained, but exit is prevented by means of a pointed strip of wood or other substance acting as a ratchet; or in the case of nets, the small end o | | é TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 467 the funnel consists of a series of string gates which the animal passes, and these close the mouth of the net so as to prevent es ‘ape (fig. 3). Among the Eskimo a unique contrivance for catching foxes was a net which was made to be set around a burrow, in the corners of which were long pockets, opening wide into the net, but gradually contract- ing until the fox could go no farther. Endeavoring to turn back, it became hopelessly entangled and died of fright and cold. (ce) Pits.—The digging of pits was not common in America before the discovery, owing to the lack of metallic excavating tools. Pits partially dug out and partially built wp were seen here and there as a blind for the hunter, who concealed himself therein. Boas, quoting Lyon, describes an Eskimo fox trap in the snow into which the animal jumped and was unable to extricate itself. The central Eskimo, according to the same authority, dig a wolf trap in the snow and cover it with a slab of snow on which the bait is laid. The wolf breaks through the roof, and as the bottom of the pit is too narrow to afford him jumping room, he is caught. The Cree, in the Saskatchewan country, place at the end of their deer drives a log of wood, and on the inner side make an excava- tion sufficiently deep to prevent the animal from leaping back. Pitfalls are said to have been used by the Indians of Massachusetts. They are de- scribed as oval in shape, 3 rods long and 15 <= pina feet deep. FiG. 3.—Fish trap. The Concow Indians of California are said to catch grasshoppers for food by driving them into pits. The Acho- mawi, or Pit River Indians, dug deer pitfalls 10 or 12 feet deep by means of sticks, and carried the earth away in baskets. In southern Brazil, also, wild beasts were caught in pits dug for that purpose and covered with leaves. - (d) Door traps.—The last form of inciosing trap to be mentioned here is also the most mechanical; it includes those in which a door falls and incloses the animal, or in which a cage, one side of which is held up by an unstable prop, falls and incloses the victim. Parry describes a small house trap, made. of ice and used by the Eskimo for foxes, at one end of which was a door made of the same material, to slide up and down ina groove. This door was sustained by a line which passed over the roof and was caught inside on a hook 468 TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. of ice by means of a loose grommet to which the bait was fastened. The fox, pulling at the bait, released the door of ice and found itself in prison. Crantz describes a house trap used by the Greenlanders in which a broad stone forms the movable door. I have seen a trap of similar mechanism used by folks in eastern United States, in which a cage or basket is propped up with a loop of splint; this, pulled inside by the animal tugging at the bait, brings down the cage over the victim. Doubtless this form of imprisoning animals designed to be taken alive was quite well spread over the continent. B.—ARRESTING TRAPS. The arresting traps are designed to seize the victim. (e) Mesh nets.—The mesh net is based on the fact that animals, by the conformation of their bodies or by the set of the hair, feathers, or gills, may rachet themselves. To this class belong ‘‘ toils” for land animals, trammels and gill nets for aquatic animals. Among the archologic treasures of our National Museum are many net sinkers, which would lead to the conclusion that netting is an old art among the aborigines. The majority of netting devices are for aquatic animals, but tribes on the coast of British Columbia sus- pend nets between poles in order to capture migratory geese and ducks. The Eskimo make nets of sinew, of rawhide, and of baleen; these are set across the rivers In open water, but more ingeniously under the ice by means of holes cut at such distances apart as to enable the fish- ermen to draw the net out and in. A device somewhat in the nature of this is used by the Eskimo of Point Barrow for catching seals; four holes are drilled through the ice about a breathing hole; from these a net is set under the breathing hole, the lines being worked through the four corners of the space; the net is hung under the ice, and the seal coming to breathe is entan- gled therein. Gill nets are set for seal after the ice forms along the shore. Mur- doch reports that smaller seals are captured also in meshing nets of rawhide set along the shore in shallow water; he thinks that the mesh- ing nets in northern Alaska came from Siberia. Elliott illustrates Eskimo women catching salmon in a gill net con- sisting of a pole and a triangular net attached. The pole rests ona stone at the water line, while the net sinks in the water; as soon as a fish strikes, the women lift the pole, extricate the fish, and reset the net. Mesh fishing is also quite common among the Athapascan tribes, both on the Yukon and on the Mackenzie. Charlevoix states that in St. Francis River, Canada, the Indians made holes in the ice, through which they let nets five or six fathoms long; he also describes the taking of beaver by means of nets. TRAPS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. 469 (f) Set hooks.—These may be employed on land or in the water. A toggle or gorge may be so baited or placed that a duck‘or a goose, by diving and swallowing it, may be held under the water and drowned. A single hook may be set for vermin, or baited and left in the water, especially for large fish; for the smaller fish, the trawl or trot line holding several hooks may be stretched across a body of water, and thus the game may be secured in the absence of the fisherman. In one sense, many hooks used in taking birds and fishes are traps. They are baited and cast into the water or placed in such position on land that the hunter is out of sight. 508 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. and the act the same. The brittle stone is struck and is broken, pro- ducing perhaps a cutting or piercing tool. A second blow produces a second tool, and also modifies the shape of the stone held in the hand. A two-blow tool has thus been made in shaping one-blow tools. By the time ten tools or flakes have been made the portion held in the hand has been shaped by ten blows not directed to its own development, but shaping it adventitiously as a nucleus or core. The results are so well defined and tangible that they could not escape observation, and further experiment would be encouraged. Skill to accomplish soon follows where wants direct the effort, and tangible results are at once attained. From the initial steps of intentional flaking the way would be always open to the achievement of higher and higher results. Advancement could not, however, be rapid; wants had to develop, conceptions ripen, skill increase, and methods differentiate by infinitesi- mal increments, and the highly specialized flaked implement is pos- sibly as far away from the first designed stroke in flaking stone as the printing press is from the well specialized flaked implement of savage days. On the other hand, again, the hard, tough stone fitted for elabora- tion by pecking is struck by the hammer stone, and the only result is a slight crumbling of the surface—a little white dust. There is no sug- gestiveness, no recognizable step of progress in this result, and even if a hundred blows were struck, no measurable progress would be made toward any tangible result, for a definite conception must be in the mind and a clear notion of how to realize it as well before such result would be possible. So far, then, as the pecking process of itself is concerned, it stands little chance of primal utilization as compared with the flaking process. But is it possible that a suggestion of the utilization of pecking could come from outside sources, from practice of the simple opera- tions of food preparation? In cracking nuts or pounding seeds (for these must have been among the primal activities), the stones employed would through wear finally exhibit slight concavities. The stones used in the hand would also be modified in shape by striking and rub- bing. Could such suggestions possibly give rise to the independent use of these operations in shaping implements of stone? It is not quite clear that the shaping accomplished in the mere routine of use would suggest to the very simple mind the idea of shaping in the abstract, for the shaping in use was adventitious and not necessarily observed. It seems likely that man would go on indefinitely using what nature and adventition supplied unless there was some positive suggestiveness in the results accomplished or some very exceptional exercise of forethought. Certainly the tedious pounding and abrading processes blindly operated in food preparation would, in primal days, stand little chance of being applied to the shaping of tools and utensils . DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING aRTS. 509 of specialized shapes and uses, and especially to the production of implements with sharp points or cutting edges. The natural tendency of the pecking blow is to blunt and destroy all edges, and the process would have to be diverted from its natucal channels by strong forces to make it produce anything like an edged tool; the conception of such a use would have to be acquired by famili- arity with edged tools of other classes and materials. The celt, gouge, and grooved ax are the principal implements made by pecking and grinding in common use among savage peoples. These can not be primal forms, as they represent ripened conceptions, specialized tech- nique, skillful manipulation, and highly differentiated uses and methods of employment. They are practically without ancestry in their own line. Altogether there seems to be little or no art produced by the pecking and grinding processes that could be safely assigned to primal times, save such adventitious shaping as comes from use. An examina- tion of pecked tools reveals the fact that in very many cases the process supplements that of flaking, and it is not impossible that it was first brought into notice and use as a means of getting rid of irregularities and excrescences commonly resulting from imperfect fracture. Peck- ing would inevitably be suggested in the progress of flaking operations, first, by the effect on the hammer stone, which is modified and special- ized by repeated contact with the stone flaked; second, by repeated efforts to remove flakes where the stone happens to be especially refractory. The repeated blows bruise the stone, modifying its shape, and suggesting the possibility of shaping by this means. The abrad- ing processes might also be suggested in similar ways, and especially by the use of flaked tools in operations which modified and polished their edges. Both the pecking and rubbing processes are especially adapted to elaboration and finish, and are poorly qualified to deal with shapes not already approximate. They did not attain their highest usefulness until superstition and wsthetics became factors in art, encouraging elaboration of form and delicacy of finish. The accompanying diagram expresses in the most general way my conceptions of the probable relationships of the four shaping pro- cesses to the stages of culture progress. The accumulation of addi- tional data will in time enable us to express these relations more fully and with more certainty, but the task is beset with difficulties, for the reason, mainly, that the origin and progress of these arts are not uni- form among all peoples. The genetic columns can at best but express generalizations, and are largely hypothetical. The column representing the development of fracturing arts, so far as it relates to the earliest times, is based on the observations and inferences already presented. The flaking act was a primal act, and the dotted line descending into the pre-human stage indicates this. On 510 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. crossing the line—or soon after crossing the line—separatinz the pre- human from the lowest art stage, I assume that the act was first utilized in the art sense, and that progress began. Being a simple act, and constituting, as operated in fracturing stone, a simple process giving immediate, tangible, and available results, I conceive that its use would increase rapidly through early savage times, dominating the other stone-shaping processes of that period and culminating in late savage é Zz c oe 5 Z n Fr 5 i La oO LNCISING ABRADING “ENLIGHTENED CIVILIZED BARBARIAN SAVAGE PRE -ART. Sr es epee canes ae www meeewe s+ Diagram of relative progress. times. The employment of the group of processes developed from the simple fracturing act probably decreased to a considerable extent in barbarian times as other processes came into prominence, but it has continued in active use, especially in quarrying and roughing out stone, for all classes of works, architectural, sculptural, and miscella- neous, up to the present day. The second column is intended to indicate the development of the arts which shape stone by bruising and crumbling its surface. I have DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. Hil already explained why the process in its simplest form may be consid- ered primal, as having its origin in the pre-human stage of man’s history. Its use in shaping must have been suggested to man at a very early stage of art development, and the lines of the diagram are allowed to expand gradually throughout the savage stages of progress. Obsery- ing the obscurity of the effects of the bruising act, the long series of operations necessary in producing the simplest art form known, and the comparative rarity of pecked implements that would fitly charac- terize the beginning stages of culture, the column has been made to expand very slowly at first, widening rapidly in barbarian times, dur- ing which pecked stone seems to have taken the lead among many peoples as a shaping process. The process in its purity appears to have fallen somewhat into disuse in civilized and enlightened times, the acquirement of hard metal tools having given incisive methods a very decided advantage. The fact is, however, that the shaping of hard stone by means of metal chisels partakes of the nature of a com- promise between the cutting and bruising processes. The germ of the incising arts must have come up with man from the state of nature as distinguished from the state of art as expressed in the third column; but the development would be slow, on account, first, of the absence of hard cutting tools, and, second, the absence of stone that could be cut with ease into useful forms. An expanding is indicated in late savage times, during which it is assumed that peoples began to use soft stones for vessels, ornaments, and ceremonial articles. The fact that the soft stones had, as a rule, to be quarried, probably retarded the development of this process. Again, when hard metals came into common use in late barbarian times and in early civilization stone cutting took a prominent place in the arts, and has never since yielded its ground. The history of the abrading processes is a very interesting one, but as indicated in the diagram there have been few viscisitudes in their progress. Beginning near the threshold of art, they advanced but slowly, serving mainly as an auxiliary to the other processes, being devoted especially to finish and beautification. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT. In discussing a scheme of evolution for the shaping arts, I have assumed what I conceive to be average conditions of environment; that is to say, an environment where all ordinary materials are present and available in like proportions. It is apparent, however, that deter- minations based on such an assumption, even if correctly made out, may not agree with the actual order in the earliest development of art. The environment of the first group of men may have contained all the ordinary elements of stone art, or it may have been without one or Falke DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. more of these elements. If it did not contain varieties of stone suit- able to each process, then there would be a disagreement between the ideal order as here worked out and the real order. But the race may have been scattered over a wide region at the period of the birth of art, separate groups having distinct ranges of mineral resources. Great diversity of art conditions would thus result. The group deprived of brittle stone would develop its lithic art—no doubt very slowly—through the bruising, grinding, and cutting process, and flaked objects would be practically unknown. ‘The group having only brittle stone would have but meager traces of pecking and cutting operations, and flaked art would have full sway. To cover the ground fully, a separate culture chart would have to be con- structed for each group of isolated peoples, for the flaked-stone age of one would occupy the position on the chronologic scale required for the pecked-stone period of the other. But the lines between mineral regions are not usually hard lines, and communities of men, howso- ever primitive, are not fixed in habitat. Arts change with change of place and consequent change of environment; and, taking the sum total of the conditions under which a large number of groups of men would live, the mean result must, it seems to me, correspond some- what closely to that expressed in the diagram, which makes the four primal shaping activities synchronous in origin but indicates different rates of development. Although expressing the view that the exclusive use of a single shaping process or a group of such processes for a long period seems improbable, | do not wish to antagonize the idea of a flaked-stone period in western Europe. My diagram allows for such a period, coy- ering the space from A to B. That sucha period should exist, even in approximate purity, however, until the highest flaked forms were developed, as to C, and until a graphic art equal to the realistic deline- ation of men and animals on bone and ivory, say to D in the incising column, should exist and flourish, is, in view of the considerations brought forward in this paper, not within the range of probability. CONCLUSION. This brief study can not assume to be more than an outline of the general subject. Prolonged investigation is essential to the comple- tion of such a work. I have sought means of approaching and exam- ining that part of primeval history not within the ordinary scope of research. Through an analysis of the elementary shaping processes— the agencies by means of which man gained his sway over nature—I have undertaken to determine the order in which these operations would probably originate and develop, and thus to place the varied art products to which they give rise in their proper relations with one another and with the successive stages of unwritten history. DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMAL SHAPING ARTS. 513 Such studies can not add greatly to our actual knowledge of events, although they may serve a good purpose in confirming or discrediting conclusions reached by other means, but they will materially assist in preparing the way for an intelligent consideration of those meager shreds of history that extend, like the edge of a frayed garment, back into the realms of the unknown. The present study suggests the need of conservatism in interpreting the scattered records available to prehistoric archeology. Where the conditions under which men have lived are so varied, there must needs be great diversity in art achievement, and the order of the steps of human progress established in one region can not be applied with safety to another or to all, notwithstanding strong tendencies toward uniformity. Regional art groups must be examined primarily in the light of local conditions, and general results are to be reached by ¢ comparative study of these special results. The actual order of pro- gress of the race in the primal stages can never be absolutely known; and thus it is that hypothesis is called upon to supply an order of events consistent with what is known of the laws of life and art. sM 1901 33 BOOMERANGS.* By Grpert T. WALKER. Boomerangs may be studied for their anthropological interest as examples of primitive art” or for the manner in which they illustrate dynamical principles.° But there is extraordinary fascination in mak- ing and throwing them, and in watching the remarkable and always graceful curves described in their flight. Accordingly, my chief object in the following paper has been to diminish the practical difficulties of the subject by giving some of the results of ten years’ experimental acquaintance with it. The Australian weapons vary enormously in shape and size, while the skill of the natives in throwing them is great in some districts and very small in others. The marvelous flights that were described by former travelers are but rarely seen to-day, and although it is unde- niable that many a native can make a boomerang go 80 meters away before returning to his feet, I know of only one trustworthy account of a much more sensational throw." In this the boomerang described five circles in the air, traveling to a distance of about 90 meters from the thrower and rising to a height of 45 meters. For present purposes it will be convenient to consider two types of implements. The first (fig. 1) is about 80 cm. in length, measured along the curve, is bent (at B) almost to a right angle, and has the cross section shown in fig. 2. It is about 6.5 em. wide and 1 em. thick in the center at B, and the dimensions of the cross section diminish slightly toward the ends A and C. The weight is about 230 grams. The arms are twisted from the plane A B C after the manner of the = Bo peinted Bon ie No. 1657, vol. 64, August 1, 1901, in which appears the following note: ‘‘This paper is here published by permission of the editors of the Physikalische Zeitschrift, for which it was originally written. A German transla- tion has appeared in that journal, and from its publishers the accompanying illustra- tions have been obtained. ”’ » The Native Tribes of Central Australia, by B. Sane and F. J. Gillen (1899), eh: xix. ek. O. Erdmann, Ann. d. Pyhs. u. Chemie, Vol. CXX XVII, p. 1 (1869); E. Gerlach, Zeitschr. d. D. Vereins z. Ford: d. Luftschifffahrt, Heft 3 (1886); G. T. Walker, London, Phil. Trans., Vol. CXC. p. 23 (1897). 4Mr. A. W. Howitt, anes July 20, 1876. 515 516 BOOMERANGS. sails of a windmill, being rotated through 2° or 3° in the direction of a right-handed screw about the lines B A, B C, as axes. This Ba iat eee Fig. 2. A @ Fig. 1. deviation from the plane is subsequently referred to as the ‘‘ twist,” and the peculiarity that, as seen in the cross section of fig. 2, one face is more rounded than the other, is called the ‘t rounding.” Boomerangs of the sec- ond type (fig. 3) are about 70cm. long and 7 em. wide, and have a cross. section similar to that of fig. 2. The ‘‘twist” is in the op- posite direction, involving a left-handed rotation of about 3°. The axes of rotation are now D KE, F E instead of E D, E F. (e ETGaoe RETURNING FLIGHTS. An implement of the first type is held with the more rounded side to the left and the concave edge forward. It is thrown, with plane vertical, ina horizontal direction, and as much rotation as possible is given to it. The plane of rotation does not remain parallel to its original direction, but has an angular velocity (1) about the direc- tion of translation, and (2) about a line in its plane perpendicular to this. z The effect of (2) is that the path curls ¢ to the left, while owing to (1) the plane of rotation inclines over to the right (i. e., rotates in the direction of the ‘s hands of a clock facing the thrower), and its inclination to the vertical becomes comparable with 30° in two seconds. The angular velocity (2) will now imply that the path bends upward as well as horizontally round to the left. When the boomerang has described a nearly complete circle its pace has diminished, and it falls to the ground near the thrower. (See figs. 4, 5, in which projections on a horizontal and on a vertical plane are B 72) Fig. 4.—Plan. BOOMERANGS. a ii given. The direction of the axis of rotation is indicated by ceiving the projections of a line of constant length measured along it. The scale of these diagrams is about 1: 1000.) The angular velocity (1) is in- % 2 creased by an increase of twistand by an increase of rounding; 1t also in- creases when cos @ increases, where 4 is the inclination of the plane of rota- tion to the horizontal. The curling to the left (2) is increased by an increase of twist, or of cos 6, and, in general, by an increase of rounding. a A Fiac. 5.—Elevation through C A. 2 a Z : Fic. 6.—Plan. Fig. 7.—Elevation through C E. If it be desired that the boomerang should describe a second circle in front of the thrower (figs. 6, 7), it must be thrown much harder, so that when one circle has been described it may still have sufficient forward velocity. When the projectile has described the first circle and is over the thrower’s head, the axis of rotation must point in an upward direction in front of him; if it pointed behind him the subsequent path would be behind his back, and a figure of 8 (figs. 8, 9) would become possible. For a path with a second loop in front of the thrower he should accordingly choose a boomerang with much twist and much rounding, and throw it with his body leaning over to the left, so that the angle 4 between the axis of rota- tion and the vertical may be slightly in excess of a right angle. The increased twist will mean that the first circle has a smaller circumference and that there will be more pace left after it has been described, and the increased rounding will keep the plane of rotation from becoming horizontal too soon. Fic. 8.—Plan. Fic. 9.—Elevation through C A G. 518 BOOMERANGS. For a figure of 8 we should require less rounding, or we might give more spin in throwing, and aim a little uphill, with @ rather less 1 7 Fie. 10.—Plan. Fic. 11.—Elevation through G F. than a right angle. There are so many elements capable of variation that nothing but experience can teach how to get the best results with any particular boomerang. c The most complex path that the author has succeeded in effecting is that of figs. 10 and 11. But it is certain that these fall far short of what is done by skillful natives of Australia. If the angle between the arms is increased and the : twist and rounding unaltered, the angular velocity (1) is af increased, and it becomes easier to hake a second loop behind than in front. If the angle exceeds 150° the angu- fe lar velocity of the first kind is so large that it is very Z hard to get a return at all. eno Pian When the twist is left-handed and the angle large we have a specimen of the second type (fig. 3), and it must be thrown with the more rounded side uppermost and the plane of rota- tion inclined at between 30° and 60° to the horizontal (1. e., 30° <4<60°); the angle of projection (i. e., inclina- tion to the horizon of the initial veloc- ity of translation) must be comparable with 45°. The uphill path is nearly straight until the forward velocity becomes small; the projectile then returns along a track close to that of the ascent (figs. 12 and 13). NONRETURNING FLIGHTS. Fic. 13.—Elevation through A C. A good boomerang of the second type Sail travel an immense distance ina nearly straight line if prop- erly thrown. The motion should resemble that of an aeroplane or flying machine; the plane of rotation must remain nearly horizontal, BOOMERANGS. 519 though slightly uphill, and the trajectory must be flat. There will thus be an upward pressure of air on the under surface of the imple- ment, and the force of gravity will be counteracted as long as there is sufficient forward velocity. The boomerang is thrown very slightly uphill, the angle of projection not being greater than 12°; the rounded side is uppermost and @ is initially 30°. The plane of rotation soon appears to the thrower to become approximately horizontal, and it remains so during the flight; the projectile rises to a height of about 12 meters from the ground and travels in a nearly straight path until its forward velocity is almost exhausted; it then strikes the earth ata distance of about 130 meters from the thrower. It will be seen that the angular velocity (1) is at first small and posi- tive, and that it subsequently disappears; the angular velocity (2) is small throughout. These results are due to the left-handed twist and the rounding. Considerable accuracy, both in making and in throwing, is necessary if the best results are to be obtained. If the plane of rotation slopes downward to one side, the boomerang will slide down in the inclined plane of rotation; thus the path will be bent and materially shortened. The correct relation has to be found between the twist, the rounding, the angle between the arms of the boomerang, the density of its material, and the amounts and directions of its initial linear and angu- lar velocities. An illustration of this is afforded by the first specimen of this type that I have made; it travels farther against the wind than with it. In the former case the boomerang keeps quite low, scarcely rising higher than 6 meters, and being retarded very little by frictional resistance, travels about 125 meters; in the latter case the body spends its energy in running uphill to a height of about 15 meters, and falls to the ground at a distance of about 90 meters. It is rather difficult to give sufficient spin to keep the motion stable through a long flight, and I have found it advantageous to wind round the wood about 60 grams weight of copper wire in three equal por- tions, of which one is’ in the middle and one near each end. This materially increases the moment of inertia about the center of gravity without interfering seriously with other details. I have thrown a loaded boomerang of this type 167 meters, and my range with a spher- ical ball of half the weight is only 63 meters. MODE OF MANUFACTURE. A block of straight-grained ash about 90 em. long, 7 em. (or 7.5 cm.) thick, and of width not less than 7 em., is taken. The block is soaked in steam, bent to the requisite shape and held in this shape until cool and dry. It is then sawn into strips 1.3 em. thick. After sufficient time has elapsed for the wood to be seasoned, each strip is trimmed into a boomerang, the most useful tool in general being a spokeshave. It is very important that the outer edge, at any rate in the neighborhood 520 BOOMERANGS. of the bend, should foliow the grain of the wood. When the projec- tile falls hard upon one end the stress near the center is very severe, and any point at which the direction of the grain meets the convex edge obliquely is likely to develop a split and ultimately a breakage. It is better to cut the material to its final twisted shape rather than to impart the twist by another steaming and bending. Considerable care is required in the process, for the removal of a layer of wood a millimeter thick in such a way as to increase or diminish the twist will cause a marked difference in the flight. It will be found to facilitate throwing to cut that end of the boomerang which is held in the hand to the somewhat square form shown at the right hand of figs. 1 and 3. There is some difficulty in avoiding warping, for boomerangs are less likely to get broken if thrown when the ground is damp and soft, and under these circumstances the moisture is likely to be absorbed by the wood. It is of great advantage, therefore, to make the surface of the implements very smooth with fine glass paper and to saturate them with linseed oil. The additional density thereby produced is also of service in that it diminishes the effect of the frictional resist- ance of the air. I have used artificially bent oak as a material, but have not found it as heavy or as strong as ash. Oak branches that are naturally bent are not hard to procure, but boomerangs made from them are liable to break at places where there are knots or irregularities in the grain of the wood. EVOLUTION. Boomerangs of every variety of shape are still to be found in Aus- tralia, and it appears impossible to get direct historical evidence as to the nature of the successive stages of development. But if specula- tion be allowed, the following series may be suggested: First, we should have a clumsy kind of wooden sword, curved, but without rounding or twist, and with one end roughened to form a handle; when the intended victim was out of reach it would be natural to throw the weapon, and at short ranges it would be extremely effective. Bad workmanship would involve the frequent production of implements of which one side was more rounded than the other, and it would soon be found that these missiles, when thrown with the rounded side uppermost, traveled much farther and straighter than the former. Boomerangs of this character vary in length from 50 to 110 em., and in weight from 200 to 1,250 grams. They are, for the most part, twisted in a manner that seems quite fortuitous, and form the enor- mous majority of the present native implements. Light specimens with a slight left-handed twist may have a fairly straight trajec- tory of 100 meters, and may return if aimed much uphill, especially BOOMERANGS. 521 when thrown against a wind. Those which are bent through a large enough angle and happen to be twisted (either by carelessness in manufacture or by subsequent warping") after the manner of a right- handed screw are returning boomerangs of the first type. In many of these the twist is so large as to be conspicuous, and when once the connection between the form and the return flight has been noticed, the process of development is complete. *This may be illustrated by the fact that when the author first made boomerangs he was only aware of the need for rounding; but the first two specimens that he con- structed happened to have right-handed twist and returned admirably. *s THE POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED UNDER THE EXISTING CONDITIONS OF LAW AND SENTIMENT.* By Francois Gauron, D. C. L., D. Se., F. R. S., London. In fulfilling the honorable charge that has been intrusted to me of delivering the Huxley lecture, I shall endeavor to carry out what I understand to have been the wish of its founders, namely, to treat broadly some new topic belonging to a class in which Huxley himself would have felt a keen interest, rather than to expatiate on his characte1 and the work of his noble life. That which I have selected for to-night is one which has occupied my thoughts for many years, and to which a large part of my pub- lished inquiries have borne a direct though silent reference. Indeed, the remarks I am about to make would serve as an additional chapter to my books on Hereditary Genius and on Natural Inheritance. My subject will be ‘‘ The possible improvement of the human race under the existing conditions of law and sentiment.” It has not hitherto been approached along the ways that recent knowledge has laid open, and it oceupies in consequence a less dignified position in scientific estima- tion than it might. It is smiled at as most desirable in itself and pos- sibly worthy of academic discussion, but absolutely out of the question as a practical problem. My aim in this lecture is to show cause for a different opinion. Indeed, I hope to induce anthropologists to regard human improvement as a subject that should be kept openly and squarely in view, not only on account of its transcendent importance, but also because it affords excellent but neglected fields for investiga- tion. I shall show that our knowledge is already suflicient to justify the pursuit of this, perhaps the grandest of all objects, but that we know less of the conditions upon which success depends than we might and ought to ascertain. The limits of our knowledge and of our ignorance will become clearer as we proceed. “The second Huxley Lecture of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, delivered October 29, 1901. Printed in Nature, November 1, 1901. 523 on bo ue IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. HUMAN VARIETY. The natural character and faculties of human beings differ at least as widely as those of the domesticated animals, such as dogs and horses, with whom we are familiar. In disposition some are gentle and good- tempered, others surly and vicious; some are courageous, others timid; some are eager, others sluggish; some have large powers of endur- ance, others are quickly fatigued; some are muscular and powerful, others are weak; some are intelligent, others stupid; some have tena- cious memories of places and persons, others frequently stray and are slow at recognizing. The number and variety of aptitudes, especially in dogs, is truly remarkable; among the most notable being the tend- ency to herd sheep, to point, and to retrieve. Soitis with the various natural qualities that go toward the making of civic worth in man. Whether it be in character, disposition, energy, intellect, or physical power, we each receive at our birth a definite endowment, allegorized by the parable related in St. Matthew, some receiving many talents, others few; but each person being responsible for the profitable use of that which has been intrusted to him. DISTRIBUTION OF QUALITIES IN A NATION. Experience shows that while talents are distributed in endless differ- ent degrees, the frequency of those different degrees follows certain statistical laws, of which the best known is the normal law of frequency. This is the result whenever variations are due to the combined action of many small and different causes, whatever may be the causes and whatever the object in which the variations occur, just as twice 2 always makes +, whatever the objects may be. It therefore holds true with approximate precision for variables of totally different sorts, as, for instance, stature of man, errors made by astronomers in judging minute intervals of time, bullet marks around the bull’s-eye in target practice, and differences of marks gained by candidates at competitive examinations. There is no mystery about the fundamental principles of this abstract law; it rests on such simple fundamental conceptions as, that if we toss 2 pence in the air they will, in the long run, come down one head and one tail twice as often as both heads or both tails. I will assume, then, that the talents, so to speak, that go to the forma- tion of civic worth are distributed with rough approximation according to this familiar law. In doing so, I in no way disregard the admirable work of Prof. Karl Pearson on the distribution of qualities, for which he was adjudged the Darwin medal of the Royal Society a few years ago. He has amply proved that we must not blindly trust the normal law of frequency; in fact, that when variations are minutely studied they rarely fall into that perfect symmetry about the mean value, which is one of its consequences. Nevertheless, my conscience is clear IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. Bye in using this law in the way Iam about to. I say that 7f certain quali- ties vary normally, suchand such will be the results; that these qualities are of a class that are found, whenever they have been tested, to vary normally to a fair degree of approximation, and consequently we may infer that our results are trustworthy indications of real facts. A talent is a sum whose exact value few of us care to know, although we all appreciate the inner sense of the beautiful parable. 1 will, there- fore, venture to adapt the phraseology of the allegory to my present purpose by substituting for ** talent” the words ** normal talent.” The value of this normal talent in respect to each and any specified quality or faculty is such that one-quarter of the people receive for their respective shares more than one normal talent over and above the aver- age of all the shares. Our normal talent is therefore identical with what is technically known as the *‘ probable error.” Therefrom the whole of the following table starts into life, evolved from that of. the ** probability integral.” TaBLeE I1.—Normal distribution (to the nearest per ten thousand and to the nearest per hundred). | 4°, 3°. 2°, TO UINGS pow Favor net egorls aengo: e Pay . ; Total vy and > r V and : below. u t $ ¢ R. 2 r ( above. 35 | 180 672 1,613 2,500 2, 500 1,613 672 180 35 10, 000 —nA ay = =e - 2 7 16 | 25 25 16 7 5} 100 It expresses the distribution of any normal quality, or any group of normal qualities, among 10,000 persons in terms of the normal tal- ent. The M in the upper line occupies the position of mediocrity, or that of the average of what all have received; the +1°, +2°, etc., and the —1°, —2°, ete., refer to normal talents. These numerals stand as graduations at the heads of the vertical lines by which the table is divided. The entries between the divisions are the numbers per 10,000 of those who receive sums between the amounts specified by those divisions. Thus, by the hypothesis, 2,500 receive more than M but less than M+1°, 1,613 receive more than M+1° but less than M+2°, and soon. The terminals have only an inner limit; thus, 35 receive more than 4°, some to perhaps a very large but indefinite amount. The divisions might have been carried much further, but the numbers in the classes between them would become less and less trust- worthy. The left half of the series exactly reflects the right half. As it will be useful henceforth to distinguish these classes, I have used the capital or large letters, R, S, T, U, V, for those above mediocrity and corresponding ¢¢alic or small letters, 7, s, 7, uv, v, for those below mediocrity, 7 being the counterpart of R, s of 5S, and so on, 526 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. In the lowest lines the same values are given, but more roughly, to the nearest whole percentage. It will assist in comprehending the values of different grades of civic worth to compare them with the corresponding grades of adult male stature in our nation. IJ will take the figures from my Natural Inheritance, premising that the distribution of stature in various peo- ples has been well investigated and shown to be closely normal. The average height of the adult males, to whom my figures refer, was nearly 5 feet 8 inches, and the value of their *‘ normal talent” (which is a measure of the spread of distribution) was very nearly 1% inches. From these data it is easily reckoned that class U would contain men whose heights exceed 6 feet 14 inches. Even they are tall enough to overlook a hatless mob, while the higher classes, such as V, W, and X, tower above it in an increasingly marked degree. So the civic worth (however that term may be defined) of U-class men, and still more of V-class, are notably superior to the crowd, though they are far below the heroic order. The rarity of a V-class man in each specified quality or group of qualities is as 35 in 10,000, or, say, for the convenience of using round numbers, as 1 to 300, A man of the W class is ten times rarer, and of the X class rarer still; but I shall avoid giving any more exact definition of X than as a value considerably rarer than V. This gives a general but just idea of the distribution throughout a popula- tion of each and every quality taken separately so far as it is normally distributed. As already mentioned, it does the same for avy group of normal qualities; thus, if marks for classics and for mathematics were severally normal in their distribution, the combined marks gained by each candidate in both those subjects would be distributed normally also, this being one of the many interesting properties of the law of frequency. COMPARISON OF THE NORMAL CLASSES WITH THOSE OF MR. BOOTH. Let us now compare the normal classes with those into which Mr. Charles Booth has divided the population of all London, in a way that corresponds not unfairly with the ordinary conception of grades of civie worth. He reckons them from the lowest upward, and gives the numbers in each class for East London. Afterwards he treats all Lon- don in asimilar manner, except that sometimes he combines two classes into one and gives the joint result. For my present purpose I bad to couple them somewhat differently, first disentangling them as I best could. There seemed no better way of doing this than by assigning to the members of each couplet the same proportions that they had in East London. Though this was certainly not accurate, it is probably not far wrong. Mr. Booth has taken unheard-of pains in this great work of his to arrive at accurate results, but he emphatically says that his classes can not be separated sharply from one another. On the IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 52a contrary, their frontiers blend, and this justifies me in taking slight liberties with his figures. His class A consists of criminals, semi- criminals, loafers, and some others, who are in number at the rate of 1 per cent in all London—that is, 100 per 10,000, or nearly three times as many as the » class; they therefore include the whole of the » and spread upward into the wv. His class B consists of very poor persons who subsist on casual earnings, many of whom are inevitably poor from shiftlessness, idleness, or drink. The numbers in this and the A class combined closely correspond with those in ¢ and all below ¢. Class C are supported by intermittent earnings; they are a hard- working people, but have a very bad character for improvidence and shiftlessness. In class D the earnings are regular, but at the low rate of 21 shillings or less a week, so none of them rise above poy- erty, though none are very poor. D and C together correspond to the whole of s combined with the lower fifth of 7. The next class, EK, is the largest of any, and comprises all those with regular standard earnings of 22 to 30 shillings a week. This class is the recognized field for all forms of cooperation and combination; in short, for trades unions. It corresponds to the upper four-fifths of 7 and the lower four-fifths of R. It is, therefore, essentially the mediocre class, standing as far below the highest in civic worth as it stands above the lowest class with its criminals and semicriminals. Next above this large mass of mediocrity comes the honorable class /4 which consists of better-paid artisans and foremen. These are able to provide adequately for old age, and their sons become clerks, ete. G is the lower middle class of shopkeepers, small employers, clerks, and subordinate professional men, who as a rule are hard-working, energetic, and sober. F and G combined correspond to the upper fifth of R and the whole of 5, and are, therefore, a counterpart to D and C. All above G are put together by Mr. Booth into one class, H, which corresponds to our T, U, V, and above, and is the counterpart of his two lowermost classes, A and B. So far, then, as these figures go, civic worth is distributed in fair approximation to the normal law of frequency. We also see that the classes ¢, w, v7, and below are un- desirables. WORTH OF CHILDREN. The brains of the nation lie in the higher of our classes. If such people as would be classed W or X could be distinguishable as children and procurable by money in order to be reared as Englishmen, it would be a cheap bargain for the nation to buy them at the rate of many hun- dred or some thousands of pounds per head. Dr. Farr, the eminent statistician, endeavored to estimate the money worth of an average baby born to the wife of an Essex laborer and thenceforward living during the usual time and in the ordinary way of his class. Dr. Farr, 528 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. with accomplished actuarial skill, capitalized the value at the child’s birth of two classes of events, the one the cost of maintenance while a child and when helpless through old age, the other its earnings as boy and man. On balancing the two sides of the account the value of the baby was found to be £5. On a similar principle, the worth of an X-class baby would be reckoned in thousands of pounds. Some such ‘ttalented” folk fail, but most succeed, and many succeed greatly. They found great industries, establish vast undertakings, increase the wealth of multitudes, and amass large fortunes for themselves. Others, whether they be rich or poor, are the guides and light of the nation, ‘aising its tone, enlightening its difficulties, and imposing its ideals. The great gain that England received through the immigration of the Huguenots would be insignificant to what she would derive from an annual addition of a few hundred children of the classes W and X. I have tried, but not yet succeeded to my satisfaction, to make an approximate estimate of the worth of a child at birth according to the class he is destined to occupy when adult. It is an eminently important subject for future investigators, fer the amount of care and cost that might profitably be expended in improving the race clearly depends on its result. DESCENT OF QUALITIES IN A POPULATION. Let us now endeavor to obtain a correct understanding of the way in which the varying qualities of each generation are derived from those of its predecessor. How many, for example, of the V class in the offspring come respectively from the V, U,T. S, and other classes of parentage? The means of calculating this question for a normal population are given fully in my Natural Inheritance. There are three main senses in which the word parentage might be used. They differ widely, so the calculations must be modified accordingly. (1) The amount of the quality or faculty in question may be known in each parent. (2) It may be known in only one parent. (3) The two parents may belong to the same class, a V-class father in the scale of male classification always marrying a V-class mother, occupying identically the same position in the scale of female classification. I select this last case to work out as being the one with which we shall here be chiefly concerned. It has the further merit of escaping some tedious preliminary details about converting female faculties into their corresponding male ejuivalents, before men and women can be treated statistically on equal terms. I shall assume in what follows that we are dealing with an ideal population, in which all marriages are equally fertile, and which is statistically the same in successive generations, both in numbers and in qualities, so many per cent being always this, so many always that, and so on. Further, I shall take no notice of offspring who die before they reach the age of marriage, nor IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 599 shall I regard the slight numerical inequality of the sexes, but will simply suppose that each parentage produces one couplet of grown-up filials, an adult man and an adult woman. The result is shown to the nearest whole per thousand in the diagram up to ‘*U and above.” It may be read either.as applying to fathers and their sons when adult, or to mothers and their daughters when adult, or, again, to parentages and filial couplets. I will not now attempt to explain the details of the calculation to those to whom these methods are new. Those who are familiar with them will easily understand the STANDARD SCHEME OF DESCENT PARENTAL ores S| alr Solty NUMBER IN EACH | 22 | 67 | 161 | 250| 250 | 161 | 67 | 22 1000 COUPLES rt BOTH PARENTS OF ere SAME GRADE AND’ ONE ADULT CHILD TO EACH REGRESSION OF PARENTAL TO FILIAL CENTRES 22 CHILOREN OF 67 163 exact process from whatfollows. There are three points of reference in ascheme of descent, which may be respectively named ‘* mid-parental,” ‘“‘eenetic,” and ‘‘filial” centers. In the present case of both parents being alike, the position of the mid-parental center is identical with that of either parent separately. The position of the filial center is that from which the children disperse. The genetic center occupies the same posi- tion in the parental series that the filial center does in the filial series. Natural Inheritance contains abundant proof, both obseryational and sm 1901——34 580 IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. theoretical, that the genetic center is not and can not be identical with the parental center, but is always more mediocre, owing to the combi- nation of ancestral influences—which are generally mediocre—with the purely parental ones. It also shows that the regression from the parental to the genetic center, in the case of stature at least, would amount to two-thirds under the conditions we are now supposing. The regression is indicated in the diagram by converging lines which are directed toward the same point below, but are stopped at one-third of the distance on the way to it. The contents of each parental class are supposed to be concentrated at the foot of the median axis of that class, this being the vertical line that divides its contents into equal parts. Its position is, approximately, but not exactly, halfway be- tween the divisions that bound it, and is as easily calculated for the extreme classes, which have no outer terminals, as for any of the others. These median points are respectively taken to be the positions of the parental centers of the whole of each of the classes; therefore the positions attained by the converging lines that proceed from them at the points where they are stopped represent the genetic centers. From these the filials disperse to the right and left witha ‘‘ spread” that can be shown to be three-quarters that of the parentages. Calculation easily determines the number of the filials that fall into the class in which the filial center is situated and of those that spread into the classes on each side. When the parental contributions from all the classes to each filial class are added together they will express the distribution of the quality among the whole of the offspring. Now it will be observed in the table that the numbers in the classes of the offspring are identical with those of the parents, when they are reckoned to the nearest whole parentage, as should be the case according to the hypothesis. Had the classes been narrower and more numerous, and if the calculations had been carried on to two more places of decimals, the correspondence would have been identical to the nearest ten thousandth. It was unnec- essary to take the trouble of doing this, as the table affords a sufficient — basis for what I am about to say. Though it does not profess to be more than approximately true in detail, it is certainly trustworthy in its general form, including as it does the effects of regression, filial dispersion, and the equation that connects a parental generation with a filial one when they are statistically alike. Minor corrections will be hereafter required, and can be applied when we have a better knowl- edge of the material. In the meantime it will serve as a standard table of descent from each generation of a people to its successor. ECONOMY OF EFFORT. I shall now use the table to show the economy of concentrating our attention upon the highest classes. We will therefore trace the origin of the V class, which is the highest in the table. Of its 34 or 35 sons pen IMPROVEMENT OF THE HUMAN BREED. 531 6 come from V parentages, 10 from U, 10 from T, 5 from $, 3 from R, and none from any class below R; but the numbers of the contributing parentages have also to be taken into account. When this is done, we see that the lower classes make their scores owing to their quantity and not to their quality, for while 35 V-class parents suffice to pro- duce 6 sons of the V class, it takes 2,500 R-class fathers to produce 3 of them. Consequently, the richness in produce of V-class parentages is to that of the R class in an inverse ratio, or as 143 to 1. Similarly, the richness in produce of V-class children from parentages of the classes U, T, 5, respectively, is as 3, 114, and 55 to 1. Moreover, nearly one-half of the produce of V-class parentages are V or U taken together, and nearly three-quarters of them are either V, U, or T. If, then, we desire to increase the output of V-class offspring, by far the most profitable parents to work upon would be those of the V class, and in a threefold less degree those of the U class. When both parents are of the V class the quality of parentages is greatly superior to those in which only one parent is a V. In that case the regression of the genetic center goes twice as far back toward mediocrity, and the spread of the distribution among filials becomes nine-tenths of that among the parents, instead of being only three- quarters. The effect is shown in Table II. TaBLE II.—Distribution of sons.—(1) One parent of class V, the other unknown; (2) both parents of class V (from Table II, with decimal point and an 0). Distribution of sons. 7 ak ae Total. t. s five 58 SS) in U \ — —— | = — = —— = PRONE) Vi Pareuit sco: sete oe em ieyslaies eins swan, for the body was small and the bones reached the extreme of lightness, being far lighter than inany bird. This may be appreciated by quoting Professor Williston’s remark that the bones were almost papery in their character, one of the finger bones 26 inches long and 2 inches in diameter being no thicker than a cylin- der of blotting paper. The same authority, basing his estimate on this extreme lightness of structure and the small size of the body, places the weight of one of these pterodactyls at only 25 pounds, and with this weight and its great spread of wings the creature must have flown as lightly asa butterfly. Even if we increase the estimated weight by 20 per cent, we have a creature weighing but 30 pounds, so that the body was even more an appendage to the wings than in the frigate bird, and seems to have been just heavy enough to counterbalance the weight of head and neck and insure equilibrium. How the wing of Ornithostoma is sup- ported. “This is stated with some hesitancy, as nosternum of a large albatross is available, and it may be that, all things considered, the albatross has the least amount of wing muscle. The ratio of wing muscle to wing is smaller in the turkey buzzard than in the frigate bird, being, respectively, 1:125 and 1: 114, this owing to the much broader wing of the buzzard. On the other hand, the great humming bird (Patagona gigas) has a ratio of muscle to wing area of 1:23, and a small species a ratio of but 1:11.39. TINOSU, APISTOATU) OBA OUI UL uoatttoods % HOLT “YWOLSOHLINYO TALOVGOHSLd LV3YD 3HL JO TINS “HA SLv1d ‘ginyeaid BulA| 4 yseye9iH—' 1061 Woday uelUCsu}IWS : we re ie ny Te THE GREATEST FLYING CREATURE. 659 As Ornithostoma was capable of long sustained flight, and as its bones are found under conditions indicating that it went far out to sea, it is not improbable that it fed largely or entirely on fish. That they formed a part of its diet is certain, for fish bones and scales are found with the remains of pterodactyls, and it is easy to imagine this great reptile oliding over the sea, with outspread wings, snatching up fish right and left with its long beak as easily as a museum assistant picks them out of a jar of alcohol witha pair of forceps. The bird in the foreground is represented in our illustration as just turning to its right, the left wing being advanced and raised to cause the turn. With its small body and enormous wings Orn/thostoma may be looked upon as the king of flying creatures, and as more highly spe- cialized than any flying animal before or since his time. Finally, it is an interesting question as to whether or not the con dor, the albatross, and the pterodactyl mark the limit of size attain- able by flying creatures—are the mechanical difficulties in the way of using wings so great that evolution stops at a weight of 30 pounds and a spread of wing of 20 feet? Would animals above that size have trouble in manipulating their wings and be unable to compete with smaller and more active forms, or is it that the exigencies of life have never called for the development of a larger creature These are queries that may not be settled offhand, and it may only be said that the vast majority of birds are small and agile, and that, although birds and pterodactyls flew side by side over the Cretaceous seas and shores, the birds never reached the size of their reptilian associates, and, so far as we know, these mark the limit of size among ilying animals. ~- Eagle 2 aie Pleat cae + rs 7! ; ; a j =e é a - , - = = 1 I Pei oe - a a] a = : ' | | * | we gee ee Pe fae ie OT (Wie, yea a F i cae eel ae SMITHSONIAN REPORT, 1901, JOHNSTON PEs H. H. JOHNSTON PINX THE OKAPI. (OKAPIA JOHNSTONI) REDUCED ONE HALF FROM SIR HARRY JOHNSTON’S ORIGINAL PAINTING REPRODUCED FROM PROCEEDINGS ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON, 1901. VOL. I! THE OKAPI; THE NEWLY DISCOVERED BEAST LIVING IN CENTRAL AFRICA.* By Str Harry H. Jonnsron, K. C. B., Special Commissioner for Uganda, British East Africa; the discoverer of the Okapi. The author of this article remembers having encountered in his childhood—say, in the later, sixties—a book about strange beasts in Central Africa which was said to be based on information derived from early Dutch and Portuguese works. The publication of this book was more or less incited at the time by Du Chaillu’s discoveries of the gorilla and other strange creatures on the west coast of Africa, and its purport was to show that there were in all probability other wonderful things yet to be discovered in the Central African forests. Among these suggested wonders was a recurrence of the myth of the unicorn. Passages from the works of the aforesaid Dutch and Portu- guese writers were quoted to show that a strange, horse-like animal of striking markings in black and white existed in the very depths of these equatorial forests. The accounts agreed in saying that the body of the animal was horse-like, but details as to its horn or horns were very vague. The compiler of this book, however, believed that these stories pointed to the existence of a horned horse in Central Africa. Somehow these stories—which may have hada slight substratum of truth—lingered in the writer’s memory, and were revived at the time Stanley published his account of the Emin Pasha expedition, In Darkest Africa. < 10: Wing. X 8. Termes tenuior. Soldier. 8. Under side of soldier’s head. ™ 8. Imago. X 8. Wing. X 8&8. Termes dubius. Soldier. 8. Under side of soldier’s head. 12. Imago. X 8. Wing. xX 6. Termes sulphureus. Soldier. 8. Side view of soldier’s head. > 10. Imago. X 8. Termes dentatus. Soldier. 8. Side view of soldier’s head. ™ 8. Imago. X 6. Wing. X 4. Termes bilobatus. Soldier. 6. Side view of soldier’s head. 6. Imago. X 6. Wing. X 3. Termes nemorosus. Soldier. 6. Side view of soldier’s head. 6. Imago. X 6. Wing. X 4. PLATE IV. Termes setiger. Soldier. > 6. Side view of soldier’s head. 8. Imago. X 6. Wing. xX 4. Termes comis. Soldier. 8. Side view of soldier’s head. X 8. Imago. X 8. Wing. xX 5. Termes foraminifer. Soldier. X 8. Side view of soldier’s head. > 10. Imago. X 8. Wing: < 6. Termes fuscipennis Soldier. 8. Side view of soldier’s head. > 8. Imago. 6. Wing. xX 3. Termes regularis. Soldier. > 6. Imago. X 6. Wing. x 4. ~I -~J 678 TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS. 76. Termes singaporiensis. Soldier. >< 10. fe Side view of soldier’s head. 10. 78. Imago. & 6. ioe Wing. X 3. 80. Termes lacessitus. Soldier. 8. 81. Side view of soldier’s head. 8. ‘ 82. Nymph. X 6. 83. Termes hospitalis. Soldier. 8. 84. Side view of soldier’s head. 8. 85. Imago. X 6. 86. Wing. X 3. PIPAteEs le Haviland. Smithsonian Report, 1901. Nest OF BORNEAN WHITE ANTS. PEATEs: Haviland. Smithsonian Report, 1901. MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES. Explanation of plate on page 676. PLATE III. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland. MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES. ta Explanation of plate on page 677. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Haviland. PLATE IV » 1 } ~ a E & + Gace Eb = x » MALAYAN AND SOUTH AFRICAN TERMITES. Explanation of plate on page 677. tee ee a ae a © THE WANDERINGS OF THE .WATER BUFFALO.® The Indian government has recently formed dairy farms to supply milk and butter for the use of the troops. The fine breeds of Indian cattle are used in these dairies, but cow buffaloes are also kept on account of the richness of their milk. Europeans sometimes object to use it,as the domesticated buffalo is often kept as a sort of scaven- ger to the cow byres of the Indian cities, and eats the litter and refuse of the farmyards. But properly fed the buffalo is by no means the bovine pig which it becomes when kept in Hyderabad or Benares. It is not only a first-class dairy animal, but the strongest beast of draft in the world except the elephant. Great areas of rich river delta and marsh in three continents are maintained in cultivation by buffaloes when no other animal could possibly be used to plow the rice fields or drag carts over and through miles of liquid mud. The value of this, probably the latest of all large animals to be domesticated, is so well known in the East that it has for centuries past been carried to places so remote from its original home and apparently so inaccessible that the extent of its involuntary migrations in the service of man has a peculiar interest. Besides this it is one of the very few domesticated animals which, like the yak and the gayal (possibly a tame form of the gaur), are still found in their original wild state, with form and habits scarcely altered. The wild buffalo is among the most dangerous and formidable of the big game of India, never hesitating to charge when wounded, and noted for the persistency with which it seeks to destroy the person who has injured it. Its natural home is in the grass jungles and swamps of India, Nepaul, and Assam. It is also found wild in the island of Formosa. It is a huge black beast, with no hair, a skin like black gutta-percha, immense horns, sometimes measuring more than 12 feet along the curve, though not spreading like a shield over the forehead as in the Cape buffalo, but set like a pair of scythes on each side of its head. A bull stands 6 feet high at the shoulder— eighteen hands, that is; its bulk is enormous, and its great spreading feet are well adapted for walking in the swamps. By choice it is semi- aquatic. A herd will lie for hours in a pool or river with just their eyes, horns, and great snub noses above water. “Anyone who blunders “Reprinted from The Spectator, August 31, 1901, pp. 278-279. 679 680 WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO. onto a buffalo in a wallowing-hole and frightens it out may be excused for imagining that he has just come on a mud volcano at the moment of eruption. This is the real buffalo—called in India the arnee—and not to be confounded with the gaur or the banteng, the wild oxen of India and the Far East. It will be seen that the buffalo in its wild state is limited to a not very large area, namely, the country south of the Himalayas, © and extending for some distance, the limits of which are not perfectly known, in the territory of the Indo-Chinese states. Yet this enor- mously powerful and fierce animal has been so completely domesticated by the Hindoos that the tame herds are regularly driven out to feed in the same jungles in which wild buffaloes live, the bulls among which will often come down and, after giving battle to the tame bulls, annex the cows for a time and keep them in the jungle. The only striking difference in appearance between the tame and wild buffalo is that the horns of the former do not grow to the size attained in the wild speci- mens, and alter their curve and pitch. Mr. Lockwood Kipling notes the curious effect of the grove of long horns above a herd of these animals, no two buffaloes having them of the same pattern. Traces of the lateness of the date of their apprenticeship to the service of man are seen in their power of self-defense and combination when threat- ened with attack by tigers or leopards, by their mating with the wild stock, and by the uncertainty of their temper, especially toward Europeans. Wherever they are used by oriental races these outbreaks of savageness are always in evidence from time to time when the white man encounters them. In China they have been known to chase Euro- peans when the latter were riding, as well as when passing on foot. They will do the same in India, in Egypt, and in Burmah. Yet in India they are generally taken out to pasture by some small boy, who is their tyrant and master, and will protect him, their calves, and themselves from the tiger. An account appeared recently in Country Life of the use of a herd of these animals to beat the jung'e for a wounded tiger which had killed a native. The buffaloes were driven up and down for a whole day, beating the ground in a compact body, until they found the tiger, whose hiding place was shown by the excitement of the herd, at which it charged almost as soon as they observed it. and was shot by the guns following them. As a beast of draft the buffalo has astonishing powers of hauling heavy traffic over bad roads. It can plow in mud over its hocks. It is most docile. It can swim a river going to and from work, tow barges along canals and streams, sometimes walking in the shallow water by the banks, like the horses did on the Lower Thames before the towpath was made. It will eat anything it can get, and asks only for one indulgence, a good hour’s swim or mud bath in the middle of the day. The rice fields which feed so great a percentage of the popu- WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO. 681 lation of eastern Asia could scarcely be cultivated without its aid, and it is so valuable as a dairy animal that the percentage of butter in its milk equals that of the best breeds of English dairy cattle. The result is that it has become an equal favorite with the Hindoo, the Arab, and the Chinaman, and plays a most important part in the agriculture of the Lower Nile Valley. The great distance from its original home in India at which we now find the buffalo established is evidence that the animal has a history of an exceedingly adventurous kind, were it possible to trace the story of its travels. Starting from the Indian jungles, and then domesticated on the Indian plains, this erstwhile wild beast has reached and been domesticated and plays a most important part in Egypt, Palestine, southern Italy and the Campagna, the south and east of Spain, Hun- gary, Turkey, and western Asia as far as the borders of Afghanistan. By some unknown route it has reached the west coast of Africa, and is established as a beast of draught and cultivation on the Niger. It has traveled far up the Nile, and will go farther, for it would be invalu- able on the great swamps Fashoda way. In the Far East the Chinaman has made it his own peculiar pet, having, it is believed, first learnt its value in the rice grounds of the south. It has been taken to Japan, where it now works in the rice grounds; to the Philippines and the islands of the Malay Archipelago; and there is no doubt that it would be useful in British Guiana. Possibly the Italians who are crowding over into America will introduce it in the Lower Mississippi Valley; but it is by nature a brown and yellow man’s beast, and only appre- ciated in Europe by the South Latin races. How did the buffalo get from India to Africa? Who first took it to Egypt? How did it get from Egypt round to the West Niger? And who brought it to Italy, and from whence? All these are most inter- esting questions, and as the distance of time which has elapsed since the animals were introduced into Europe does not fall beyond the historic period, may possibly be answered. In Egypt, for instance, there exists a pictorial record on the tombs and elsewhere, covering many thousands of years, in which pictures of animals play an important part. If the first appearance of the water buffalo in these paintings were noted, the date of its importation from India to Egypt would be known. From inquiries kindly made by M. Maspero at the suggestion of Lord Cromer, it appears that nowhere in the long ** pic- ture history” of ancient Egypt does the water buffalo appear. The African buffalo is seen there; not so the domesticated Asiatic one. This is very interesting negative evidence that this domesticated animal was not known in ancient Egypt. It is surmised, probably rightly, that it was imported after some great epidemic of cattle plague, or it may have been taken from the west coast of India up the Euphrates Valiey, and thence down the Jordan Valley to Egypt. Arab dhows 682 WANDERINGS OF THE WATER BUFFALO. have for ages done a regular trade in carrying horses from the west coast of India to the Persian Gulf. It is probably one of the oidest forms of shipping which exists, and the Arabs who now ship horses from Bombay to the Persian Gulf may have been in the cattle trade in very early days. It is also probable that in the era of Hindoo maritime enterprise these creatures were taken both to the Far East and to the east coast of Africa. The circumstances which led to their introduction into Italy and Spain are probably to be found in some existing record; but it is not one generally known, the nearest surmise being that they may have been given to a Longobardian king with other animals by the chief of a horde of Asiatic invaders. They were not known in Italy in Roman times. But if they had been introduced as recently as the camels which are still used on one of the royal estates in Tuscany (an enterprise due to the Medici), the fact would probably have been matter of common knowledge. "ALI NOLONIHSVM “XYVd WWOIDO1IOOZ IVNOILVN NI O1VS5NG YALV AA PSB EA/A fa ‘oleying 19}2\A—' 1061 ‘Hodey uriuosyyWS eke > % rd t , ON THE PRESERVATION OF THE MARINE ANIMALS OF THE NORTHWEST COAST. By Witiiam H. Dat. L have been requested by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion to record any facts in my possession bearing on the preservation from extinction by the hand of man of the various marine animals of the northwestern coast of America: _ The preservation of wild animals in menageries and zoological gar- dens is necessarily of a most temporary nature, since many of them will not breed in captivity and all require the greatest care to preserve them in even moderately good health. It is very rare that we find among the carnivores a large mammal which has reached a point as bred in captivity are generally available. Even the European bison, which has been preserved in the forests of eastern Europe in small numbers for several centuries in a state as near as possible to that of untroubled nature, are now, it is reported, on the point of extinction from disease and weakness due to constant inbreeding. Unless actually domesticated this is what may be reasonably expected to occur in time with any limited number of uncivilized men or wild animals. If the stock is kept pure it will perish from breed- ing in and in; if it is mingled with other blood the original type grad- ually fades out. We may, therefore, look forward to a time, nearer perhaps than we suspect, when all large animals and most of the attractive wild birds will be known only from pictures or the rare and precious specimens preserved in museums. Those animals capable of domestication in large numbers, like certain deer, will alone survive to represent to future generations the varied fauna of large wild animais of to-day. The boreal swamps may still afford a refuge to some of the more hardy fur-bearing creatures, but the use of furs taken from wild animals will by that time be wholly superseded by still more beautiful products of the loom. _ The lovers of nature and the uncommon (which includes the greater part of the civilized races) can not contemplate such a state of affairs with equanimity. Like the man who committed suicide because he 683 684 MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. was tired of buttoning and unbuttoning, the average citizen would find | such monotony unendurable. The day when circuses are shorn of their attendant menageries will sensibly diminish the gayety of nations. and deprive the youthful of a most cherished source of amusement, and instruction. Without its bears and wolves, leopards and tigers, | elephants and hippopotami, the natural world would have far less | interest and the distant day of its final extinction would be palpably | foreshadowed. It is said of man that he shall inherit the earth; and as population | grows this prophecy is gradually being fulfilled. Though there are. Paconte | in the south, swamps and panels a in the north, and mountain— ranges everywhere, where man can not find a subsistence or create a_ home, no doubt can exist that in the fullness of time all productive regions of the earth’s surface will be occupied; and only such animals in the wild state as can secure subsistence from the most inhospitable areas can be expected to survive. The sea, however, is different. Here man, who began by fishing | from the shore, then whitened the ocean highways with the canvas of his sailing ships, and now blackens them from the smoking funnels of the sea tramp or the majestic liner, is distinctly a temporary sojourner, He embarks upon the sea because he must cross if, or carry the goods of others across it; because for a brief season he enjoys trying his wit and strength against the forces of nature and defying her barriers; or because he seeks to wrest her treasures from the sea. However crowded the continents may be, it seems improbable that men, away from their shores, will ever mae their homes upon the sea. There is then some hope for the marine animals. There will always be food for them, always a vast extent of ocean for them to roam in undisturbed, and no man will grudge them the occupancy of the reefs and sandbars which they may seek, at certain seasons, to bring forth their young or lie untroubled in the sunshine. Whatever may be the ultimate fate of the purely terrestrial animals, in a sense competitors with man, there is no sufficient reason why the marine animals may not survive on the globe as long as man himself. The latter, from a geological standpoint, but recently feral himself, still preserves in great strength certain primal instincts. There is a legend of two Englishmen who, hunting in the wilds of central Asia, during the temporary absence of the seraphic guardians, ignorantly came to pitch their tent in the Garden of Eden. Waking with the light of dawn when the descendants of the animals named by our first par- ent were in primevai amity, wandering peacefully over the green slopes before him, one of the intruders looked from the door of his tent and shouted to his comrade, “Wake up! wake up! Here is a chance to kiil something!” Whether this be authentic or not, it is cer- tain that the desire to kill is one of the most general and strenuous MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. 685 instincts in man, even of the highest civilization. For unnumbered centuries his subsistence depended upon his ability to kill, and his very existence upon the power to restrain, by killing first, those who would kill him. It is not to be expected that these instincts can be changed or eliminated in afew generations. Nevertheless, the desire to kill for the sake of killing has been modified in the more intelligent of civilized men to a desire to kill for some definite purpose, such as the accumulation of property, the protection of domestic animals. or the elimination of vermin. We may hope that the more intelligent body of those who make and enforce the laws may so restrain the less intelligent, who kill in wantonness or for a trifling gain, as to defer the extinction of the sea animals indefinitely. It is entirely possible, though up to the present time effective measures of protection have, so far as inter- national law would admit, been carried out solely for one animal—the fur seal. Others, like the sea otter and salmon, have been legislated for, but it is universally believed on the northwest coast that no honest attempt to enforce this legislation has ever been made, and. certainly none has been efficient. The prospect would indeed be dark if we could hope for nothing better than the conditions which have heretofore obtained. But there is no reason why conditions should not improve, and the writer believes that if the American public were fully aware of the present state of things they would insist on a change; and if any general appreciation of what the present destructiveness implies could be brought about, the merest commercial self-interest would force a reform in the absence of other motives. The marine animals which may be considered in this connection are as follows: The sea elephant, Macrorhinus angustirostris; The walrus, Rosmarus obesus; The sea lion, Humetopias stelleri; The lesser sea lion, Zalophus californianus; The fur seal, Callotaria ursina; The hair or harbor seal, Phoca largha; The ringed seal, Phoca fetida; The harp seal, Phoca grenlandica; The saddleback seal, Histriophoca fasciata; _ The bearded seal, Hrignathus barbatus; _ The sea otter, Enhydris marina. The fur seal has been the subject of so much writing and has excited -so much popular interest from its commercial value and other causes that it will not be further referred to in this discussion, except to say that there is no question in the mind of anyone qualified to judge that if the destructive pelagic sealing were stopped, the seals would, in the course of eight or ten years, increase so as to restore the valuable industry now approaching extinction. " 686 MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. The sea elephant, formerly ranging from the vicinity of San Fran- cisco, at Point Reyes, to the we-t shore of the peninsula of Lower California, is believed to be, if not actually extinct, at least reduced to a few individuals which are finding a temporary refuge among the reefs of Lower California. No one knows of any living specimens and the species, for present purposes, may be left out of consideration. The bearded seal is supposed to occur very rarely on the coast of Eastern Siberia near Bering Strait. It is a common Atlantic species and may be merely a straggler in the Far West. The saddleback, a remarkably handsome and very rare animal, is believed to be confined to Kamchatka, the Okhotsk Sea, and the Kurile Islands. These two may also be dismissed from our reckoning. The harbor seal is common in the colder waters of the coast, and colonies occur where the glaciers of southeastern Alaska drop their shattered ice blocks into bays and inlets. The mass of the species, however, is more northern and frequents the region of Bering Strait and the polar sea, especially about the edges of floe ice. It is a small species and largely utilized by the natives of those coasts for many purposes. The ringed seal, a somewhat larger and handsomer animal, exists under nearly the same conditions and is hunted by the natives for the same purposes. The harp seal, a much larger animal, is also of great importance to the native population and occupies the same region, though it never occurs in the vast numbers which make its pursuit by the Newfound- land sealers of commercial importance in the Atlantic. These three are speared through the ice, at their blowholes in win- ter, or caught in nets ingeniously spread under the ice by the aid of long poles. They are shot or lanced near the edge of the floe in spring, and supply food, oil for fuel, soles for foot wear, coverings for boats, and a multitude of other articles essential to the existence of the native population. The number killed, though large in the total, is not so great as to disturb the balance of nature; and with the rapid decrease of the native population, due to introduced diseases, it will be less and less, year by year. They do not exist at present in numbers sufficient to tempt commercial slaughter, and so we may regard these species at least as practically safe under existing con- ditions. The lesser sea lion is a native of the coasts of California, where it exists in large rookeries at a few places, especially on the Farallones Islands—fortunately a Government light-house reservation. Here they are not disturbed, though every few years a foolish agitation: arises among the fishermen of San Francisco calling for their destrue- tion on the ground that they are destroying the salmon, or other fish. No one has ever found a piece of salmon in the stomach of a sea lion MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. 687 in the wild state, and the danger appears to be wholly imaginary, as the sea lions have existed as long as the fish, and, until man with his disregard of the future and his desperate endeavors to get rich rap- idly, entered the field prepared to capture and kill wholesale for immediate profit and the subsistence of nations beyond the sea, there was fish enough and to spare. However, the sea lions are in no imme- diate danger, and a better knowledge of their food and habits will probably remove what seems to threaten in the future. The great sea lion of Steller has been less fortunate and his fate has been curiously bound up with the sea-otter fishery, now in such a state of decay as to be almost negligible. The sea lion, in the absence of the larger hair seals, has been the chief reliance of the Aleutian otter hunters for the hide, with which they cover their hunting kyaks. This hide is far inferior to that of the seal, and must be renewed every year. Without sea-lion skins the hunters could not go to sea on their perilous hunting trips among the reefs for the precious otter fur. Control of the supply of sea-lion hides means more or less control of the hunting. So competing traders attacked the sea-lion rookeries, partly to get hides to trade to the hunters or supply their own fleet of kyaks; partly to destroy those they did not need, so that competitors for trade should not be able to get sea-lion skins, and thus should have their business crippled. The shy and elusive otter in the strenuous competition was soon so generally killed off that the trade has diminished to a point where it is dying for want of skins. The natives, diminishing at an astonish- ing rate from measles, influenza, and other introduced diseases, are obliged to earn a living otherwise than by hunting. So the devastated sea lion rookeries are slowly recovering, and as their value and num- ber are too small to tempt destruction on commercial grounds by the whites, we may regard the danger point as passed. The burly mon- arch of the island reefs is no longer in need of immediate protection. The strong arm of Russia, guided by expert knowledge, has pro- vided and efficiently protected a reserve on the Commander Islands, where the sea otter is now flourishing and a valuable industry slowly reviving. When a single good skin is worth $400 at any furrier’s, the whole power of the United States, as at present exerted in such matters (witness the buffalo in the Yellowstone Park), is incompetent to protect or preserve an animal or an industry against the poacher on her own soil. Spain may recoil in defeat, but the poacher boldly scorns the guardians of a reservation and jingles the dollars in his pocket. We may therefore give up the case of the sea otter as hope- less. Democracy has its disadvantages. There remains the case of the walrus. There were, a few years ago, several small herds of this animal existing at little-frequented points in Bering Sea. This animal seems to be able to change its habits. At 688 MARINE ANIMALS OF NORTHWEST COAST. least, the main walrus population has always lived on the edges of the floe ice, which advances in winter to the latitude of the Pribilof Islands and retreats with the melting pack ice in summer to the Polar Sea. Yet certain small colonies have in historic times always existed in certain localities winter and summer, perhaps attracted by an excep- tional abundance of their favorite food. A small bunch of walrus for many years occupied Walrus Island, of the Pribilof group, but this was an assembly of a peculiar character. It was entirely composed of old males driven away from the herds by the competitive valor of their younger and more active congeners, and forming a sort of old gentleman’s club, existing in torpid dignity away from an atmosphere of irritating disrespect. We are informed that this retreat is now untenanted and the assembly scattered or destroyed. The walrus feeds on clams, sea snails, and other mollusks of the kind which frequent sand banks in shallow water. These are rooted out of the sand by the aid of the powerful tusks and swallowed whole, with a stone or two to aid digestion. The shells pass through the body in the natural way and are discharged on the rookeries, largely in an unbroken state. It is therefore necessary that the herd should have a large area to dig over, as such enormous animals must require a large supply of food. Thev appear to increase slowly, and being, when well fed, of a rather sluggish disposition, fall an easy prey to the hun- ter intent on ivory or oil. I understand that the Secretary of the Treasury has forbidden the wanton shooting of these animals by tray- elers bound to Nome, who, while waiting on board ship for the ice to open, formerly amused themselves in this way. The number of the animals has very greatly diminished owing to destruction by whalers unable to get any whales, who a few years ago attempted to make up for other deficiencies by filling up with walrus oil and ivory. This has not been done of late years owing to the great distress the absence of walrus brought upon the natives of the Arctic coast, who were very dependent upon them for food and coverings for their boats. The diminished numbers of the animals, of whom 11,000 were killed in a single season at the height of the fishery, have also tended to make their pursuit unprofitable. It is evident that the walrus can not be preserved in confinement, nor could a herd flourish in a restricted area. Their preservation, in the case of the small herds referred to as stationary, is a very simple matter. If they are let alone, they will take care of themselves, as hitherto. If protected from the poacher, they need no other care. The way to keep them in existence is not to kill them. They will do the rest. WG 7. a née a . | ¢ ; a : : Ee ¥ SOME PRIVATE ZOOS.* By F. G. AF.Ato. Those who freely criticise the scant accommodation allotted to many inmates of the London Zoo are, no doubt, expressing a very com- mendable sentiment; but they do not appear to realize that it is a case of little or nothing, and that, circumscribed as it is by public property, not a fraction of an acre can be added to that corner of the Regent’s Park already covered by the familiar paddocks and buildings. It is another matter altogether when private gentlemen, with the right tastes and opportunities, give over their parks to beautiful and inter- esting animals of all lands, and accord them, amid enchanting sur- roundings, a liberty which, little more restricted than in their natural homes, knows little of the perils of nature and nothing of the cruelties of sport. The majority of men and women like to surround them- selves with favorite animals; and if we must sometimes regret the proclivity when we see larks beating their wings vainly against jealous bars, we can have nothing but appreciation for such private zoos as I have selected for notice in the present article. There is, as a rule, no ulterior motive beyond the mere pleasure in seeing these animals well and happy in their new homes, though in some few instances, it 1s true, the fostering of science or sport has been at the bottom of such experiments in acclimatization. The Duke of Bedford seems, with his hundreds of wild deer and antelopes, cattle, sheep, and goats, which tuxuriate at Woburn in amaz- ing herds, to have taken over the scientific research once projected, but since abandoned, by the society of which he is president. The Jardin d@Acclimatation in Paris is similarly interested in the practical side of introducing useful or ornamental exotic animals. Sport, again, has been responsible for the introduction into these islands, at more or less remote dates, of the pheasant, red-legged partridge, and carp. If we have borrowed, we have also lent; and our red grouse, once found only in the United Kingdom, has succeeded so well in parts of Belgium and Germany that new game laws are now necessary for its preservation on the continent. The only government, however, which “Reprinted, by permission, from Pall Mall Magazine, London, Vol. XXV, Sep- tember, 1901. * sm 1901——44 689 690 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. concerns itself with such operations is, if we except the more or less private undertakings of more than one reigning sovereign, that of America, in which the game and fisheries departments of the chief States devote considerable sums of money to the introduction of suit- able game beasts and birds. Private enterprise takes with us the place of public usefulness, and we thus have in our midst a number of sportsmen and naturalists who extend their protection to foreign animals, and spend their money in giving them every chance of doing well amid their new surroundings. I have chosen four of these zoos, situated in widely different parts of the country, to illustrate some points of interest in the man- agement of such establishments, and all of these I have visited per- sonally. My scheme does not include the aforementioned preserve of Woburn, nor have I seen the famous Japanese deer at Powerscourt, where Viscount Powerscourt was the first to acclimatize that graceful species as a park animal. At the same time, I think it may be shown that these four animal sanctuaries—they are Tring, Vaynol, Haggers- ton, and Leonardslee—on the resources of which I have drawn for these notes, have succeeded under sufficiently marked differences of soil, climate, and situation to encourage anyone who may contemplate establishing yet another reserve in no matter what district of England. Each of them has its prominent feature, and in each there is some lack that we tind supplied in one or other of the rest. I suppose that of all four Leonardslee comes nearest to the ideal for the purpose. Sheltered by the South Downs its sandy soil throws up a luxuriance of flowering shrubs and appears to favor all manner of foreign trees, no matter whence Sir Edmund Loder brought them in the seed. Its hilly tracts are in parts so wild that London might well be 400, instead of merely 40, miles away. Its climate is more equable than would be expected so near the home counties; and the higher portions of the estate are bracing, while the lower hold an abundant supply of water that not even the caprices of its famous beavers can divert. Touching Tring, there is, I think, nothing of extreme importance to be noted with reference to its climate or situation; but Vaynol and Haggerston present diametrically opposite physical conditions, their only drawback in common being, perhaps, a too heavy rainfall in the wet season. While the latter lies between the imposing slopes of Snowdon and the Menai Strait, amid scenery of great variety, and in a soft western climate, the more northerly estate is on the lowlands of the Northumbrian coast, exposed to every cold and violent wind that blows across the neighboring North Sea, while equally bitter winds reach it from the southwest, straight from the Cheviot Hills, that are often snow clad until early summer. The feature of the Hon. Walter Rothschild’s collection at Tring is, Smithsonian Report 1901.—Afia! WILD CATTLE. VAYNOL. Pit is Li- cI hi THE HON. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, M. P., DRIVING ZEBRA. PLATE |. PLATE Il. Aflalo. 1901 Smithsonian Report GIANT TORTOISE AT TRING. A CORNER OF SiR E. LODER’S MUSEUM. . SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 691 of course, the excellently ordered private museum, the stocking of which keeps his collectors busy in all parts of the world. Mr. Roths- child has, indeed, deposited so many of his animals in the London Zoo that it is not easy to form any adequate idea of all the curious creatures that he has brought to England without visiting both. It is in London, indeed, that we find most of his gigantic tortoises, rescued from a near extinction in the southern islands, where once, cut off from the evil- doing of man and his dogs, they contrived to grow to such mighty measurements. Tring Park has, however, its interesting inhabitants as well; and kangaroos and emus roam so obviously at large that, but for the more pleasing variety in the vegetation of the northern hemi- sphere, one might well picture it a corner of Australia. At Hag- gerston, on the other hand, there is the prospering herd of American bison, of which Mr. Christopher Leyland takes every care; while at Vaynol Mr. G. W. Duff Assheton Smith has his wild white cattle. Visitors to Leonardslee, too, will find just such an assemblage of horned game as, roaming at liberty up and down hills intersected by game paths, might be expected to conjure up pleasant scenes to a famous traveler whose rifle made top score in an all-England eight. The Leonardslee Museum, too, though less systematic in its arrange- ment than that at Tring, is more purely sporting, showing a fine col- ection of its owner’s trophies. Unless, as in the case of the wild white cattle, there is any techni- cal objection to interbreeding, it is in most cases usual to allow the different kinds of animals to intermingle without restraint; and now and then, even in the seclusion of cage or paddock, some strange part- nerships are the result. At Vaynol, for instance, a young Sambur deer and pony are boon companions, and have a field to themselves; while in the building in which Mr. Assheton Smith keeps his pumas and monkeys there is a most entertaining trio in the shape of two white wolves and a little Malayan bear. Whenever the horseplay of the wolves becomes unendurable, the bear, not without a parting cuff, makes his way up a tree and out into the open air above, whither, since dogs can not climb, the wolves are unable to pursue. It will easily be understood that so varied a collection of animals as inhabits each and all of these zoos includes individuals of various degrees of shyness, and not all the animals may be seen at the first attempt. Only on my sixth night at Vaynol, for instance, did I see the wild roe deer that hide away in the dense cover beneath the heronry; and the Leonardslee beavers are still more secretive than the prairie dogs that burrow in their sandy inclosure on the hill close beside the house, baffling all but the most skillful and patient pho- tographers. It is to Mr. R. B. Lodge that I am indebted for the accompanying picture of one of these interesting little hermits, most of which utter their angry squeal and dive below as soon as the intruder comes within 20 yards of their watchtowers. 692 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. Haggerston lies, as I have said, on the bleak coast of Northumber- land, and the visitor must alight at the little station of Beal, changing out of the express, which ignores it, into a slower local train that runs from Newcastle to Berwick. The lodge gates adjoin the station, and on either side of the winding track that leads to the castle are inquisi- tive wapiti, bison (both pure and half-breed), genus, and other strange creatures. The crowning success of acclimatization is fully attested by the numbers of young animals intermingled with their sires and dams (for the Nilghai antelopes often produce twins); and there are the ‘alves of the zebu and, one had almost added, of the gnu, but that, in spite of its ox-like exterior, the gnu is an antelope and its young are in consequence styled fawns. Although we see before us miles of wire fence and inclosed buildings, there is liberty, too, for the Haggerston animals; and at one turn of the road Mr. Tait, who has charge of them all, points out a rock- vallaby reclining lazily in the branches of a low tree, leafless this January afternoon. These rock-wallabies are also very fond of the cedars, which they ascend to a great height. Bennett’s wallabies and great kangaroos gaze stolidly at the emus and black swans, maybe with memories of a distant home that they have no cause to regret. Right through the grounds goes the sluggish Low, its waters holding numbers of small trout, and the moaning of the North Sea can be heard whenever the wind blows from the east. The emus and rheas (their South American cousins) have bred less satisfactorily these past three years, a falling off which Mr. Leyland attributes to excessive rains, and more particularly to late frosts, during incubation. This year, however, there are again some young emus. Japanese apes run free in a large inclosure, but no families have so far blessed their cap- tivity. Mr. Leyland tells me that he started this wonderful collection some twenty years ago in Wales, with emus, kangaroos, pheasants, waterfowl, and various small birds. Some ten years ago their owner moved north and took with him his herds of wapiti and bison. It is with the last named that animal lovers must always associate his work. Thanks to American railroad enterprise and Indian greed, the bison has long been a vanishing type. Indeed, the absolutely wild condi- tion knows it no longer, which sad fact makes it the more gratifying that the Haggerston herd is slowly but surely on the increase. Mr. Leyland has crosses between bison bull and Highland cow, and the heifers have for two generations been bred back to pure bison bull. The larger birds kept in the paddocks include no fewer than five kinds of cranes; but only one, the Demoiselles, have ever mated, and even they did not hatch. . Having visited Tring in December, Haggerston in January, and both Leonardslee and Vaynol in the loveliest time of spring, I offer comparisons with all reserve. Tring, however, if it does not perhaps Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo, PLATE III. YOUNG SAMBRU AND PONY. VAYNOL. PRAIRIE DoGs. LEONARDSLEE PARK. Smithsonian Report, 1901,—Aflalo. WapPITI STAG. EMUS AND YOUNG. HAGGERSTON. HAGGERSTON. PLATE IV. SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 693 offer any striking variety of scenery, never, on the other hand, looks as dour as the north country, in the barrenness of which the master of Haggerston has made his paradise. In addition to its sheep and cattle and shire horses, domesticated types that stand apart from the wilder subjects of these notes, Tring has close on a hundred Japanese and fallow deer, about thirty kangaroos and wallabies, rather less than a score of emus, and some rheas and cassowaries. These great struthi- ous birds do not all accommodate themselves to captivity with the same thoroughness. Thus, while the emus hatch out regularly year after year, the cassowaries never get beyond the laying stage. The private museum at Tring, which was mentioned above, must be one of the finest of its kind inthe world, I have met Mr. Rothschild’s collectors at work in southern islands and continents; and on one occasion I traveled some 12,000 miles in company with mysterious chests addressed to him, the contents of which I subsequently had the pleasure of seeing in their new quarters. In the working rooms of his museum he studies and writes about the pheasants and other groups of birds in which he takes a special interest, and his pheasant- ries contain half a dozen species, including the elegant pheasant, not found elsewhere alive in Europe except at Berlin. It would be unpar- donable to write, however briefly, of Mr. Rothschild and Tring with- out some allusion to his successful domestication of the Burchell zebra, which he was in the habit of driving in harness. Those who know anything of zebra morals will admire his enterprise. Those who have a regard for him and his work will not be sorry to hear that he has handed the contumacious brutes over to a cousin who resides in France. I have already admitted that my visits to both Leonardslee and Vay- nol were made under seasonal conditions that showed those beautiful places at their fairest. The memory of Leonardslee on the last day of April is as of a corner of the Kew hothouses gone astray, with all their wealth of rhododendrons and camellias, a wild conglomeration of half the zoological and botanical regions that lie between the Tropics and the Poles. Here we stand beneath a 90-foot fir tree from the icy north and gaze on prancing gazelles from the Arabian Desert; we move into the slighter shade of dwarf firs from the Atlas Mountains; wallabies from Australia and axis deer from the East gaze wonder- ingly at us from behind bushes of American origin. The trees and shrubs, like the beasts and birds, have apparently made themselves quite at home on a soil so poor that nature would seem to have destined it for the maintenance of nothing above mean and lowly heaths. A closer inspection of the Leonardslee Zoo reveals the thorough wildness of the animals. Here, within 5 miles of Horsham, representative groups of the fauna of three continents run as free as in their own lands. The skill of the vet can never reach them; Dallmeyer’s tele- 694 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. photographic lens alone could imprison the image of more than one or two of the most trusting. Only when their race is run and their per- verted morality calls for the euthanasia of an unerring rifle does their owner seek them out and end each doomed career. The most interest- ing members of this assorted family—the eight beavers of Montana stock—do not put in an appearance until daylight wanes, and those with thoughts of evening engagements in town and return trains must be content with the sight of their wonderful dams and take the engi- neers themselves on trust. Further negative and positive evidence, too, of their restless energy they may find in the spectacle of splen- did trees either sheathed with iron mail against those untiring teeth or else gnawed through more than a moiety of their thickness. ‘The wood that is given to them every day provides both nourishment and exercise, since the saplings of beech or fir are propped upright in the earth, and the beavers have to work hard for each meal of bark. Nature has furnished the beaver so that it must either labor unceas- ingly or sicken to the death, and work they do beyond any other creature on earth. No strikes, no eight-hours’ creed; but an aston- ishing application to the work of destruction. The woods provided for the colony at Leonardslee are not of the hardest, but Sir Edmund Loder has in his museum a mighty fragment of British oak, the iron hardness of which was no match for their teeth. Indeed, one would not at first sight gather the meaning of that unobtrusive specimen of damaged wood, hidden away as it is in that jostling crowd of elephant, boar, tiger, antelope, goat, and gazelle, all brought back by the owner from the sands and snows of four continents. The Leonardslee beavers have so dammed the water in which they make their home, that no visitor would be likely to trace unaided its original course to the sea, Nature is, however, sometimes stronger than even the beavers, and there was a sorry spate two years back that washed the beavers a dis- tance of 2 miles into some eel traps, from which they were presently rescued and restored to their anxious owner. Old female beavers occasionally make mischief in the otherwise peaceful little colony; for like old hen grouse, they grow very jealous of their juniors once they have done with the softer emotions of life, and their pugnacity is incurable. When their case is thus past remedy, they are eliminated. An operation is also sometimes needed for the overgrowing teeth, and it takes five men to hold a self-respecting beaver still enough for the purpose, one gripping each leg, while a fifth keeps the ever-ready teeth gripped on a piece of soft wood. It would, I imagine, take a Mussul- man to photograph beavers in the natural state. Theordinary patience of Western photographers is not equal to the ordeal. But your Mus- sulman would uncomplainingly sit beside his subject’s dwelling for a month or two, never leaving his post for such petty considerations as rest or refreshment, and he would, with a whispered ** Inshallah!” of PLATE V. Aflalo. Smithsonian Report, 1901. HAGGERSTON. BISON BULL. TRING. CASSOWARY. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Aflalo. TELEPHOTOGRAPH OF STAG. SURRENDEN. KANGAROOS. LEONARDSLEE. PLATE VI. ee ot ews OO SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. 695 eternal hope, but otherwise without a murmur, waste dozens of plates, and at length success would be his. At the antipodes of shyness, as of homeland, are the great kangaroos. Now, the kangaroo is in its own country anything but confiding. Its impressive 20-foot leaps have kept me on hands and knees, with a heavy Winchester rifle slung over my neck, by the hour, and it never reposed inme that perfect trust which would have enabled an easy shot. Fluk- ing kangaroos at 300 or 400 yards is not exhilarating sport, as anyone might understand if he tried catapulting ¢ ‘asshoppers at 50. The con- ditions as to movement and size of the target would approximate. At Leonardslee, however, the only rifle that ever breaks the stillness is that with which Sir Edmund Loder practices at his private ranges; and the beasts have got to know and disregard its voice. So the kan- garoos come quite close to even the stranger, and have in consequence no secrets from the camera. The Japanese deer, on the other hand, which seem to have learnt their leaping tricks, remain out of focal range, and nothing but the telephotograph, one of which Mr. Walter Winans has kindly sent me from his deer park at Surrenden, will avail. The big game of Leonardslee, however, is usually collected on a high, grassy plateau on the farther side of some pheasant coverts, and our sudden appearance round a bend sends herds of browsing mouffion and Barbary sheep, in a moment of forgotten confidence, prancing over the sky line. Among the rarities mention should per- haps be made of a pair of Marica gazelles, the only living specimens, I believe, in Europe. The best known protégés of the Squire of Vaynol are perhaps his wild white cattle, of Sir John Orde’s old Kilmory stock with a cross of Athol bull. Visitors to the Zoological Gardens during the past year or so must have noticed the Vaynol cow, with her little white calf by a Chartley sire. The remaining herds of British wild cattle are not more than three or four in number, and those at Vaynol were established there by the present owner. Though never aggressive, they are very wild in the sense of resenting the close approach of strangers, as the unsatisfactory result (given at the head of this arti- cle) of several hot days of stalking them in various parts of the park will bear witness. There.is usually a herd of deer mingled with the cattle, and both graze close to the house and round the lake. Just before my stay, a cow had come to grief right under the windows, and had to be shot; and for several nights after the eventa mighty bull fight took place in the moonlight on that spot—an episode that might perhaps have been valued more at a less restful hour of the twenty- four. The calves are noticeably whiter than their elders, which seem to assume a varving degree of yellow or cream-color as they advance in years. Of hares, Vaynol has three kinds (the English, Scotch, and Irish), and, for all I should care to swear to the contrary, about three 696 SOME PRIVATE ZOOS. million of them. There are other dwellers in the park, however; and there is room for them, seeing that the wall inclosing it runs a good 8 miles under its chevaux-de-frise of slate. There are Indian pigmy rattle (a very recent addition), sheep from Iceland and St. Kilda, emus, rheas, herons, wild roe, and an appalling abundance of game and domestic stock that would break the heart of a census enumerator. Then, too, there are the wild boar recently presented by His Majesty the King. [assisted (in the French sense of the word) from the security of a high wall in their liberation from the crates in which they had traveled overnight; and they are now accommodated in an ideal pig- gery —fourteen acres of dry and sloping woodland fenced in and over- looking the carriage drive—which Mr. Assheton Smith had specially constructed for their reception. Of all that disbanded Windsor herd, none, I trow, will find better quarters. Vaynol has no museum, for the Squire likes his animals alive; but there is a bijou menagerie, from which the London Zoo might learn. The monkey house, for instance, has optional outdoor playing grounds, reached by way of trees and a tunnel; while the golden and imperial eagles are able to stretch their wings in large inclosures, and look very different from the pictures of misery usually presented by these great fowl in captivity. And this, I take it, is the striking note of difference between the private and the public zoo. The latter must always, whether it be the property of a scientific society or whether it be run as a syndicate investment, be conducted on economic lines that promise a return on capital sunk in its construction and upkeep. The private zoo, on the other hand, is kept up solely for the comfort of the animals and the pleasure of the owner in seeing them happy and prosperous. There is no question of restricted quarters, insufficient food, inadequate artificial heating or ventilation. As much as possible is left to nature, and the rest is very carefully adjusted in close imitation of her best conditions in the lands from which these attractive strangers were originally brought. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Afialo. PLATE VII. MARICA GAZELLE. LEONARDSLEE. DEER. VAYNOL. THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON,* A STUDY OF ITS ANIMALS IN RELATION TO THEIR NATURAL ENVI- RCNMENT. By Ernest THOMPSON SETON. if At the beginning of this century the continent of North America was one vast and teeming game range. Not only were the buffalo in millions across the Mississippi, but other large game was fully as abundant, though less conspicuous. Herds of elk, numbering 10,000 or 15,000, were commonly seen along the Upper Missouri. The ante- lope ranged the higher plains in herds of thousands; whitetail deer, though rake gregarious, were seen in bands of hundreds; while bighorn sheep, Seped still less disposed to gather in large flocks, were rarely out of sight in the lower parts of he eastern Rockies, and it was quite usual to see several hundred blacktail in the course of a single day’s travel. But a change set in when the pioneer Americans, with their horses, their deadly rifles, their energy, and their taste for murder, began to invade the newly found West. The settlers increased in numbers, and the rifles became more deadly each year; but the animals did not improve in speed, cunning, or fecundity in an equal ratio, and so were defeated in the struggle for life, and started on the down grade toward extinction. : Aside from sentimental or vsthetic reasons, which I shall not here discuss, the extinction of a large or highly organized animal is a serious matter. 1. It is always dangerous to disturb the balance of nature by remoy- ing a poise. Some of the worst plagues have arisen in this way. 2. We do not know, without much and careful experiment, how vast a service that animal might haye done to mankind as a domestic species. The force of this will be more apparent if we recollect how much the few well-known CURES ppecies have SEO for the advancement of ® Reprinted, te permission of the author and of The Gane Fone from The Century Magazine, vol. lix, March, 1900; vol. 1x, May, 1900. Copyrighted, 1900. 697 698 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. our race. Who can decide which has done more for mankind, the cow or the steam engine, the horse or electricity, the sheep or the printing press, the dog or the rifle, the ass or the loom? No one, indeed, can pronounce on these, yet all on reflection feel that there is reason in the comparisons. ‘Take away these inventions, and we are put back a century, or perhaps two; but further, take away the domes- tic animals, and we are reduced to absolute savagery, for it was they who first made it possible for our aboriginal forefathers to settle in one place and learn the rudiments of civilization. And it is quite possible, though of course not demonstrable, that the humble chuckie barn-fowl has been a larger benefactor of our race than any mechanical invention in our possession, for there is no inhab- ited country on earth to-day where the barn fowl is not a mainstay of health. There are vast regions of South America and Europe where it is tie mainstay, and nowhere is there known anything that can take its place, which is probably more than can be said of anything in the world of mechanics. Now, if the early hunters of these our domestic animals had suc- ceeded in exterminating them before their stock was domesticated, which easily might have been, for domestication succeeds only after long and persistent effort and, in effect, a remodeling of the wild animal by select breeding, the loss to the world would have been a very serious matter, probably much more serious than the loss of any invention, because an idea, being born of other ideas, can be lost but temporarily, while the destruction of an organized being is irreparable. And we to-day, therefore, who deliberately exterminate any large and useful, possibly domesticable, wild animal, may be doing more harm to the country than if we had robbed it of its navy. This is the most obvious economic view of the question of extermi- nation. But there is another, a yet higher one, which, in the end, will prove more truly economic. We are informed, on excellent authority, that man’s most important business here is to ‘‘know himself.” Evidently one can not comprehend the nature of a wheel in a machine by study of that wheel alone; one must consider the whole machine or fail. And since it is established that man is merely a wheel in the great machine called the universe, he can never arrive at a comprehension of himself without study of the other wheels also. Therefore, to know himself man must study not only himself, but all things to which he is related. This is the motive of all scientific research. There is no part of our environment that is not filled with precious facts bearing on the ‘great problem,’ and the nearer they are to us the more they contain for us. He who will explain the house spar- row’s exemption from bacteriological infections, the white bear’s —_e THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 699 freedom from troubles that we attribute to uric acid in the blood, or the buffalo’s and the flamingo’s immunity from the deadliest malaria, is on the way to conferring like immunities on man. Each advance of science enables us to get more facts out of the same source, so that something that is studied to-day may yield a hundred times the value that it could or did ten years ago; and if that source of knowledge happens to be perishable, one can do the race no greater harm than by destroying it. The Sibylline books were supposed to contain all necessary wisdom; they were destroyed, one by one, because the natural heir to that wisdom did not realize their value. He did waken up at last, but it was too late to save anything except a fragment. What Tarquin did to the books offered by the Cumean Sibyl, our own race in Americe has done to some much more valuable books offered by nature. To Ulustrate: Each animal is in itself an inexhaustible volume of facts that man must have, to solve the great problem of knowing himself. One by one, not always deliberately, these wonderful volumes have been destroyed, and the facts that might have been read in them have been lost. It is hard to imagine a greater injury to the world of thought, which is, after all, the real world, than the destruction of one of these wonderful unread volumes. It is possible that the study of *‘ man” would suffer more by the extinction of some highly organized animal than it did by the burning of the Alexandrian library. This is why men of science have striven so earnestly to save our native animals from extinction. In 1878 there were still millions of buffalo in the West. That year the Northern Pacific Railroad opened up the Missouri region, and the annual slaughter was greatly increased. In 1882 there were still thousands of buffalo. In 1884 all were gone but a few small, scattered bands. In 1885 there were probably less than five hundred buffalo left alive in the United States. In 1886 an expedition fitted out by the Government secured with great difficulty enough specimens to make the mounted groups in the National Museum, and it was then clear that unless the authorities took immediate and vigorous steps, the buffalo, within a year or two, would cease to exist. About this time there appeared a number of articles by well-known observers, calling attention to the fact that the buffalo’s fate was also awaiting, in the near future, all our finest animals, the probable order of extinction being buffalo, elk, antelope, moose, bighorn sheep, mountain goat, mule deer, Virginia deer; and the farthest probable date for the ruthless consummation was put at twenty years hence. It required no great argument to convince the public of the truth of these writers’ main statements. It was obvious that no possible good was to be gained by exterminating these harmless animals, for the TOO THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. love of slaughter, not the need for their skin, flesh, or range, was the incentive; and the public, though not yet able to look on these animals as the student does, nevertheless realized that it was about to be robbed of something valuable by a few mean-spirited and selfish hunters. Additional point was given to the obvious moral by the circumstance that, through its far-reaching system of correspondence, the Smith- sonian Institution was continually receiving gifts of living animals, which, for lack of space to keep them, had either to be turned into dead specimens or given away to outside zoos, or else returned to their donors. This was the state of affairs in 1887, when the newly appointed See- retary of the Institution, Mr. S. P. Langley, who, though an astrono- mer and a physicist, had been very strongly impressed by the fact that all our largest and most interesting native animals were rapidly approaching extinction, conceived the idea of securing a tract of coun- try, as primitive as possible, that might be made a lasting city of refuge for the vanishing races. This was the main idea, when first Mr. Langley went before Congress to urge the establishment of a national zoological park. ; In all ages it has been the custom of potentates to keep a collection of wild animals for their amusement, and the American people, being their own ruler, had numberless precedents before them when urged to make this much-needed collection of animals. In such a case the advantage of a monarchy is that only one man must be convinced, whereas in the republic the consent of a majority of seventy millions had to be obtained. This took time. Fierce battles had to be fought with ignorant and eaptious politicians. One objected that he did not see why the people should pay ‘‘to have the Nebraska elk and Florida alligators cooped- up.” If they had to spend money for it they would want things they could not see at home—dog-faced baboons, kangaroos, man-eating tigers, etc. Another, a fervent patriot, objected to any money being spent on exotic species, as it was contrary to the spirit of the Consti- tution to encourage or import foreigners! Altogether the Secretary of the Smithsonian found it no easy bill to carry, though it was indorsed by nearly every scientist and educator in the country. After three years of persistent effort, involving vastly more worry than the management of the whole Smithsonian Institution for three times that period, Mr. Langley succeeded in carrying both Houses of Congress over the successive stages of ridicule, toleration, and favor- able consideration, to the point of accepting and providing for the scheme. An appropriation was made for a national zoological park to be established in the District of Columbia for the ‘‘adyvancement of THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. TO1 science and the instruction and amusement of the people,” as well as a city of refuge where those ‘‘ native animals that were threatened with extinction mighé live and perpetuate their species in peace.” An appropriation of $200,000 was made, but it was clogged with “several irksome conditions. One-half the expense was to be paid by the District of Columbia, thereby giving the commission a control which changed the plan, making the collection more like the ordinary -menagerie. No animals were to be bought, which was much like a rich man building himself a picture-gallery, and saying, ‘* Now, if my _ friends choose to present me with pictures, all right, Pll house them; but P’ve done enough for myself in building the gallery.” And yet, though falling short of its promoter’s original wish, the scheme has - notably progressed, and no one who is capable of measuring the future of the institution can doubt that in founding this park, where those “native animals that were threatened with extinction might live and perpetuate their species in peace,” Congress has done more for the learning, science, and amusement of the nation than it would in ~ expending a much larger amount in a university, a theater, and a _ choice library combined; for the fields of the three are already well covered, but the park, by preserving the nation’s heritage of wild animals, has opened important regions of biological research and zoological art. He was a wise old farmer who said to his son, ** John, make sure of your land, and everything else will take care of itself.” The whole appropriation was wisely expended in securing land, and although scientists have not the highest reputation for business sense, the Park’s projector was enough of a business man to secure land that would now fetch at least ten times what was paid for it ten years ago. It comprises 167 acres of land, beautifully diversified with woods and streams, in the suburbs of the city of Washington—land which the Secretary had discovered years before when on rides for recrea- tion, and the absolute fitness of which for the purpose in hand had been helpful in developing the original plan. It included the histor- ical grounds and building of the Quincy Adams Mill and the classical old Holt House; but, better still, it secured a region that had always been a familiar resort of the native birds and quadrupeds of the Dis- trict of Columbia, affording the best of expert testimony in favor of its salubrity. Mr. Langley recognized the merit of Mr. W. T. Horna- day, the well-known naturalist and taxidermist, and obtained his able and energetic superintendence during the earliest formative period of the park; and when he was called to duties elsewhere, Dr. Frank Baker took up the burden, and, under the direction of the Secretary, whose other duties have never interfered with the attention he has given to his own creation (the park), it has been carried on with all the success that could be expected under conditions of madequate support. 702 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. Thus the National Zoo was founded under conditions that illustrate in a curious way the adage that the onlooker sees more than the players. Goethe, the poet, surrounded by zoologists, was the first to point the true way for zoological science; it was for Franklin, the philosopher-printer, to teach his contemporaries how a perfect fire- place might be made; and so also Langley, the physicist, though sur- rounded by zoologists, has been the first to discern the pressing need of the study of American zoology. The circumstances which led up to the idea were then unusual, as the plan itself was unique. There have been many menageries in which the animals were confined in box cages, and there have been many game parks where the various animals inclosed have wandered at will, with no barrier but the outward wall of the grounds; but this was to be the first zoological collection in which each kind of animal was to have a park of its own, where it could live as its race should live, among natural surroundings, with as little restraint as was compatible with its safe-keeping. The available acreage was barely enough to allow of the park scheme being extended to our more important native animals, so that the foreigners, particularly those from the tropic regions, are perforce managed as in the better class menageries elsewhere. But the glory of the place is in its individual parks. The fencing used is of the invisible kind, which rarely intrudes itself on the observer, and yet is strong enough to restrain the biggest buffalo. The ample stretches of woods and hills in each inclosure are unmarred by its lines, and the effect is as nearly as possible of seeing animals in the open. Here they live, and no doubt enjoy their lives, and the observer has a chance to see them pretty much as they were in their native range. They group themselves naturally among trees and rocks, while the uneven ground induces attitudes of endless variety, and the close imitation of natural conditions causes the animals to resume the habits native to their lives in a wild state, thus affording the zoologist and the artist'an opportunity for study never before equaled among captive animals. The scheme is of course in its infancy yet. Wonders have been done with small appropriations, but many of its essential divisions have not yet been touched. The antelope are provided with a little plain, and the deer have a small woodland where none can harm them or make them afraid. The buffalo has its little rolling prairie land, where it may bring forth its voung without fear of the deadly omnipresent rifle, and regardless of its ancient foe, the ever-near gray wolf, that used to hang on the outskirts of the herds to kill the mother at her helpless time, or fail- ing, to sneak around, ready, like an arrow in a bent bow, watching his chance to spring and tear the tender calf. Here, indeed, the elk can bugle his far-sounding love-song in the THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON 703 fall, without thereby making his stand the center of a rush of ruthless hunters. But many of our forest animals are still unprovided for. The bighorn sheep, the coast blacktail, the mule deer, the moose, and the mountain goat, as well as the grizzly bear, so rapidly following the buffalo, have as yet no refuge in the National Zoo. It is too late to talk of such species as the great auk, the Labrador duck, and the West India seal; and in one year, or at most two years, unless Congress is willing to devote the price, or at least half the price, of a single big gun to it, the world will have lost forever the great Alaskan bear, the largest and most wonderful of its race. iT. The paddock immediately to the left on entering by the west gate of the Zoological Park brings us face to face with the first game animals that met the eyes of the Pilgrim Fathers, as well as those of the first settlers of Virginia; and it is tolerably certain that General Washing- ton himself hunted the superb creature, the Virginia deer, over this very ground where it is now protected in the city of Washington and assured a little land of lasting peace. Ofall the American game animals the Virginia or whitetail deer is the greatest success as a species; that is, it has developed a better com- bination of hardiness, fecundity, speed, intelligence, keen wits, and adaptability than any of its relatives, and therefore maintains itself better in spite of the hunter. Its ancient range covered all of the United States east of the Rockies, as well as part of Canada, and to-day, notwithstanding guns, more numerous and deadly each year, there are whitetail deer in every part of their original range that still contains primitive woods. In the list giving the probable order of extinction of our great game it will be seen that the Virginia deer stands last, despite the fact that it is the only one in that list whose home is in the thickly settled East- ern States. An incident will show the respect in which hunters hold the whitetail’s gift for taking care of himself. During October of 1899 I was staying at a camp on the east side of the Rockies. One morning a miner came in and reported that he had started four deer less thana mile away. Meat was scarce, and a hunter present became keenly interested. ** Whitetails or blacktails?” said he. ** Whitetails,” said the miner. ‘**That settles it,” said the hunter, resuming his seat by the fire. ‘If they were blacktails ’'d get one within a mile, but a scared white- tail knows too much for me.” Although some of the deer in this paddock were born in the park, they show many of their wild habits. During the heat of the day they lie hidden among the bushes at the back end of their range; but early 704 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. in the morning or late in the evening they come to the watering place in the open, and if alarmed there they. make for the trees, raising and waving as they go the ** white flag” famous in all hunting lore. This conspicuous action might seem a mistake in an animal that is seeking to escape unnoticed; but the sum of advantage in the habit is with the deer, or he would not do it, and its main purpose will be seen in one very important and frequent situation. A mother deer has detected danger; she gives a silent but unmistakable notification to her fawns by raising’ the ‘* danger flag,” a white one in this case; and then when she leads away through the woods they are enabled to keep sight of her in the densest thickets and darkest nights by the aid of the shining beacon, which is waved in a way peculiar to this species, and is not therefore liable to be mistaken for the white patch on any other animal. In the sign language of the Indians the gesture for whitetail deer is made up of the general sign for deer, and then a waving of the flat open hand with fingers up, in imitation of the banneret as it floats away through the woods. The form adopted for the whitetails’ paddock is the result of expe- rience. It was found that the animals became alarmed sometimes and dashed along the invisible fences, until suddenly met by another at right angles, and in this way several were hurt; but the improved plan of substituting obtuse angles, or a curve at the corners, causes them to be turned aside without injury. One can not linger many minutes by the Virginia deer paddock without seeing some of those gorgeous Asiatics, the peacocks, walking about among the thicket or negotiating the wire fences with absolute precision whenever it suits their purpose to do so. The original half dozen birds have increased to a hundred, and the vast stretch (several hundred acres for them) of broken, wooded country is so perfectly suited to their needs that they give us a very good imitation of life in the Indian jungle. During the winter they roam about in promiscu- ous troops, but when the early spring comes and the cock is in his full regalia the mating instinct prompts them to scatter, and each family withdraws to a part of the jungle—the park, | mean—that is under- stood to be theirs, and to defend which the cock is ready to do battle with all feathered intruders. Close to the deer paddock is a sunny open glade that was for long the special domain of one particular peacock. All about it is thick shrubbery, where the soberly dressed hens might have been seen quietly moving about, paying no obvious heed to their gorgeous partner, who mounted habitually on a little sand bank and spread and quivered his splendid jewelry in the sun, turning this way and that way to get the best effect, occasionally answering the far-away call of some rival with a defiant ‘*qua,” or replying to the dynamite explosions in a near Smithsonian Report. 1901.—Seton. PLATE |. STUDIES OF ANTELOPE HEADS. Smithsonian Repoit, 1901.—Seton. PLATE Il. AN ANTELOPE POSE THE CHRYSANTHEMUMS IN BLOOM. eo THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 705 quarry with a peculiar ‘*‘bizz,” the exact meaning of which I have failed to discover. The daily display here and in many parts of the park gives the observer a chance to see the geometric perfection of the pattern made by the ‘‘eyes” when the peacock’s train is raised. I reproduce a dia- gram of this made and published some years ago, when first I discov- ered the mathematics of this miracle in feathers. (Plate III.) On crossing the road from the deer paddock toward the middle and more open part of the park the stranger is likely to come suddenly ona band of antelope. They seem to be grazing along their native upland prairie, not far from timber, and the visitor, if he have any of the feeling of the hunter-naturalist, is sure to feel the same little thrill that would come if he met with them thus in the wild West. He has ample time to admire and watch their chunging and picturesque group- ing before he realizes that between him and them is the slight but necessary wire fence. The effect of this invisible fence is seen on the animals if they have been undisturbed for some hours, as well as on the onlooker; for the sudden appearance of a human being close at hand, with no massive screening barrier between, causes them to behave for a moment much as they did when wild and free, and their startlement is expressed in pose and act exactly as it might have been on their native wilds; but they soon realize that they are safe and no harm is done. The erected mane and rump patch sink and the ani- mals resume their feeding, leaving, nevertheless, on the air a peculiar musky odor that is quite strong when one is on their lee side. Some years ago, while riding across the upland prairie of the Yel- lowstone, not very far from where these very antelope had been cap- tured, I noticed certain white specks in the far distance. They showed and disappeared several times, and then began moving southward. Then, in another direction, I discovered other white specks, which also seemed to flash and disappear. A glass showed them to be ante- lope, but it did not wholly explain the flashing or the moving which ultimately united the two bands. I made note of the fact, but found no explanation until the opportunity came to study the antelope in the Washington Zoo. I had been quietly watching the grazing herd on their hillside for some time; in fact, | was sketching, which is quite the best way to watch an animal minutely. I was so quiet that, the antelope seemed to have forgotten me, when, contrary to rules, a dog chanced into the park. The wild antelope habit is to raise its head every few moments while grazing, to keep a sharp lookout for danger, and these captives kept up the practice of their race. The first that did so saw the dog. It uttered no sound, but gazed at the wolfish- looking intruder, and all the long white hairs of the rump patch were raised with a jerk that made the patch flash in the sun like a tin pan. Every one of the grazing antelope saw the flash, repeated it instantly, sm L901 45 706 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. and raised his head to gaze in the direction where the first was gazing. At the same time I noticed on the wind a peculiar musky smell—a smell that certainly came from the antelope. Some time later the opportunity came to make a careful dissection of the antelope’s rump patch, and the keystone to the arch of facts was supplied. My specimen, taken in Jacksons Hole, was a male under six months old, so that all the proportions, and indeed the character, are much less developed than in the adult. (Plate ITI.) The fresh skin was laid flat on a board, and then the pattern and mechanism of the rump patch were clearly seen. The hairs at the upper part of the patch (4A) were 3% inches long, grading to the center (4) and lower parts, where they were only 1% inches long, all snowy white, and normally lying down flat, pointing toward the rear. At the point B, among the roots of the hair, was a gland secreting ¢ strong musk. On the under side of the skin was a broad sheet of mus- cular fibers, which were thickest around 4; they have power to change the direction of the hair, so that all below #& stands out, and all above is directed forward. As soon, therefore, as an antelope sees some strange or thrilling object, this muscle acts, and the rump patch is changed in a flash into a great double disk or twin chrysanthemum of white, that shines afar like a patch of snow; but in the middle of each bloom a dark brown spot, the musk gland, is exposed, a great quantity of the odor is set free, and the message is read by all those that have noses to read. Of all animals man has the poorest nose; he has virtually lost the sense of smell, while among the next animals in the scale scent is their best faculty; yet even man can distinguish this danger scent for many yards down wind, and there is no reason to doubt that another ante- lope can detect it a mile away. Thus the observations on the captive animals living under normal conditions prove the key to those made on the plains, and I know now that the changing flecks in the Yellowstone uplands were made by this antelope heliograph while the two bands signaled each other, and the smaller band, on getting the musky message, ‘* Friends,” laid aside all precaution and fearlessly joined their relations. This animal has five different sets of glands about it, each exuding a different kind of musk for use in its daily life, as a means of getting and giving intelligence to its kind. These are situated one on each foot between the toes, one on each angle of the jaw, one on the back of each hock, one on the middle of each disk on the rump, and one at the base of the tail. Those on the jaw seem related to the sexual system, as they are largest in the buck; those on the rump, as seen, have a place in their heliographic code; and the purpose of the others, though not yet fully worked out, is almost certainly to serve in conveying the news. To Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. Pate Ill DIAGRAM OF ANTELOPE’S Doa@ AND WOLF Rump PATCHES. TYPe OF EYE. PLAN OF THE PEACOCK’S TRAIN, TO SHOW THE GEOMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT WHEN EACH FEATHER IS PRESENT IN PERFECT CONDITION. From Mr, Seton-Thompson’s “‘Art Anatomy of Animals.” THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 707 illustrate: An antelope passes along a certain plain, eats at one place, drinks at another, lies down at a third, is pursued by a wolf for half a mile, when the wolf gives up the unequal race, and the antelope escapes at hisease. A second antelope comes along. The foot scent from the interdigital glands marks the course of his relative as clearly for him as the track in the snow would for us. Its strength tells him some- what of the time elapsed since it was made, and its individuality tells him whether his predecessor was a stranger or a personal friend, just as surely as a dog can tell his master’s track. The frequency of the tracks shows that the first one was not in haste, and the hock scent. exuded on the plants or ground when he lay down, informs the second one of theaction. At the place where the wolf was sighted, the sudden diffusion of the rump musk on the surrounding sagebrush will be per- ceptible to the newcomer for hours afterwards. The wide gaps between the traces of foot scent now attest the speed of the fugitive, and the cause of it is clearly read when the wolf trail joins on. This may sound a far-fetched tale of Sherlock Holmes among the animals, but not so if we remember that the scent faculty is better than the sight faculty in these animals, while their sight faculty is at least as good as ours, and that, finally, if all this had been in the snow we also could have read it with absolute precision. The pronghorned antelope, or prongbuck of books, is the only horned ruminant in North America that has only two hoofs on each foot. Nature’s economic plan has been to remove all parts that cease to be of use, and so save the expense of growing and maintaining them. Thus man is losing his back or wisdom teeth since civilized diet is rendering them useless. The ancestor of the antelope had four hoofs on each foot, like a deer or a pig, but the back pair on each foot has been dropped. At an earlier step the common ancestor of antelope and deer had five well-developed toes on each extremity, but it seems that while this makes an admirable foot for wadding in treacherous swamps, it is for mechanical reasons a slow foot; the fewer the toes the greater the speed. The deer still living in swamps could not afford to dispense entirely with the useful little hind or mud hoof. There they are still for bog use, though much modified from the original equal-toed type, more nearly shown in the pig. But the antelope, living on the hard, dry uplands had no use for bogtrotters, and exchanged them fora higher rate of speed, so that it now has only two toes on each foot. The horse family went yet further, for they lived in a region where evolution went faster. They shunned the very neighborhood of swamps; all their life was spent on the firm, dry, level country; speed and sound feet were their very holds on life, and these they maintained at their highest pitch by adopting a foot with a single hoof-clad toe. There is one other remarkable peculiarity of the antelope to note, 708 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. and that is its horns. The ox and sheep tribes of the world have sim- ple horns of true horny material permanently growing on a bony core which is part of the skull. The deer have horns of branched form and of bony material sprouting from the head, but dropping off to be renewed each year. Our antelope is the only animal in the world whose weapons are of true horn growing on a bony core, as in the ox tribes, yet branched and dropping off each year, as in the deer. It is now an axiom of science that not the smallest detail is without a distinct purpose, for which it has been carefully adapted after ages of experiment; yet long ago Darwin, the apostle of the belief, con- fessed himself puzzled by the form of the antelope’s horns. It seemed as though a simple, straight spike would be so much more effective. If the great philosopher had been with me in the Washington Zoolog- ical Park that day, his puzzle would have been solved for him by two of the antelopes themselves. They were having one of their period- ical fights for the mastery; they approached with noses to the ground, and after fencing for an opening they closed with a clash, and as they thrust and parried the purpose of the prong was clear. It served the antelope exactly as the guard on a bowie-knife does a Mexican or that on a foil does a swordsman, for countless thrusts that would have slipped up the horn and reached the head were caught with admirable adroitness in this fork. And the inturned, harmless-looking points! I had to watch long before I saw how dangerous they might be when the right moment arrived. After several moments of fencing one of the bucks got under the other one’s guard, and making a sudden thrust, which the other failed to catch in the fork, he brought his inturned left point to bear on the unprotected throat of his opponent, who saved himself from injury by rearing quickly, though it seemed to me that such a move could not have stopped a fatal thrust if they had really been fighting a deadly duel. Ill. it is a common saying among keepers that, averaging one animal with another, a menagerie must be renewed every three years. Yet I know of one manager who kept most of his animals, those of Wood- ward’s Gardens, San Francisco, alive, healthy, and happy from the beginning of his time to the end, sixteen years later, when the estab- lishment was broken up, and the animals were ordered to be shot in their cages. The great secret of his success, he tells me, was caring for their minds as well as for their bodies. It is a well known fact that lions and many other animals in traveling circuses are healthier and live longer than those in ordinary menage- ries. At first one might think that the traveling animals get more fresh air and exercise than the others. Yet this is not the case, for the circus cage is always very small and cramped. While traveling it is THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 709 usually shut up, and when showing it is in the tent, always a drafty, ill-ventilated, foul-smelling place. The great advantage of the circus is the constant change of scene—the varied excitements that give the animals something to think about, and keep them from torpid habits and mental morbidness. It has long been known that caged animals, especially the highly organized kinds, suffer from a variety of mental diseases. Mr. Ohni- mus, the superintendent referred to, informs me that camels and several other species commonly end their cage lives in lunacy. The camels turned loose in Arizona some years ago were reduced at length to one -oldmale. In course of time his solitary life affected his brain. Accord- ing to local tradition, he went crazy, and used to attack every living creature near, until he was killed by a mounted cowboy whom he had pursued with murderous intent. Captive bears are apt to fall into a sort of sullen despondency. Foxes and cats often go crazy, and no matter how obviously mental the disease, it is usually set down to hydrophobia, and the unanswered question is, How did they get it? Dogs that are constantly chained up commonly become sullen and dangerous. The higher apes and haboons rarely thrive in cages. Soon or late they become abnormally vicious, or else have a complete physical breakdown. All this is so human, and so emphasizes the great truth of evolution, that the wise keeper seizes on the cue, and in his management of his charges treats them like human beings of a lower development than himself. Many a man shut up in a cell has saved his mind by inventing some trifling amusement. It is recorded that one set a daily watch on the movements of a spider. Another tried how many times he had to toss five pins before they fell in just the same way. Another tried to run 10 miles each day in his narrow limits. Yet another busied himself inventing new arrangements for the two or three articles of furniture in his cell. Many have paced up and down each day for a number of hours. And whatever they did, all alike were seeking to put in time, to while away the awful tedium of their monotonous lives, to respond to the natural craving for exercise, and to save their minds and bodies from actually withering from disuse. If instead of ‘‘human captives” we read ‘* wild animals” in all this, we shall have a very fair portrait of what we may see every day in an ordinary menagerie. Why does the elephant swing to and fro forever from his chain picket? Why does he gather from the floor all the straw he ean reach, throw it over his back and over the stable, to be regathered later? Why does the squirrel enter and work for hours the aimless treadwheel, and the marten leap listlessly half a day from point to point—floor, perch, slat, box; floor, perch, slat, box—again and again, with monotonous sameness day after day‘ Why does the lone ostrich waltz far more than does his wild kinsman that has many 710 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. admiring spectators of his own kind, and why do the fox and the wolverene trot miles and miles of cage front every day? Why does the bear roll and tumble for hours over the same old wooden ball as if it were a new-found chum; or, if no ball is supplied, swing back and forth on pivotal hind foot for hours each day? Why does the rhi- noceros keep on forever nosing at some projection that his horn ean almost fasten under, till it gets more and more elusive through the smoothening of perpetual use? Why do wolves and monkeys put in hours and hours over humble duties that in their wild state were the work of a few minutes at most? ‘To all, the answer is the same as to the similar query about the man prisoner. They are putting in time. They are responding to the natural craving for exercise. They are trying to pass the tedium of their hopeless lives. They are doing anything—everything—their poor brains can suggest to while away the weary drag of dull, eventless days. Their bellies are well cared for, or at least are always plentifully cared for, but how few keepers have learned that in each animal is a mentalitv, large or small, that ought to be considered! Here is where Ohnimus scored. He tried to make their lives inter- esting. The excitement of the chase must necessarily be denied those animals whose nature prompts them that way, but one of his first and most successful moves was made in consideration of their special case. He divided the single meal of all flesh-eating animals in two; the same. in quantity each day, but a light morning meal and a light afternoon meal. Thus, he ‘‘gave them something more to think about.” It made two breaks in the day’s monotony, and in time it unquestionably bore good fruit. Another variation was made by changing them into new cages. An animal soon learns a cage by heart. He knows every bar and bolt, and every trifling roughness in wall or floor. He can walk to and fro without his eyes if need be. But putting him into a new cage is like opening to him a new life. Everything new and to be learned must naturally create new interests, and be of corresponding benefit, unless it has come too late. There is a pathetic story of an old tiger that had passed his life in a traveling cage until in a railway accident his car and his cage alike were overturned and broken open. The tiger was unharmed, and he passed out through the broken grating, and for the first time since he left India as a cub he was free, standing untrammeled, with the whole world open to him. But all his splendid powers were gone or were dwarfed. He seemed appalled by the new responsibilities. After a moment’s hesitation he declined the freedom that had come too late and crawled back again into his narrow cage, realizing that this was the only thing that he was fit for now. One of the best expedients of all to enliven and brighten the lives of the caged animals is friendship with the keeper. ‘There was no such Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton, Pp LATE IV. TIGER IN WRECK OF CAGE. THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. (Gia thing as solitary confinement in Woodward’s Gardens. Every pris- oner there had at least one powerful friend who was always near and ready to attend to all his wants, including the craving for sympathetic companionship which few animals are entirely without. But all these allayments are mere expedients. The real plan is to restore the natural conditions. We are slowly grasping the idea, taught by the greatest thinkers in all ages, that the animals haye an inalienable, God-given right to the pursuit of happiness in their own way as long as they do not interfere with our happiness. And if we must for good reasons keep them in prison, we are bound to make their condition tolerable, not only for their sakes, but for our own, because all the benefit that we can get out of them in bondage is increased in proportion as we slacken their bonds within the limits of judicious restraint. If a Chinaman after going through Sing Sing were to say, ‘* I have heard much of the high mentality, the attainments, and the refinement of the white race, but these seem to me merely a lot of sullen, stupid brutes,” it would about parallel the case of an ordinary menagerie viewed by an ordinary onlooker. If we wish to enjoy the beauty of the animals, or study their development and learn how it bears on our own, we must see them living their lives. This can not be done in box cages, is very difficult. in the wilds, and is easily possible only in a zoological park. Occupation and plenty of good food are not the only things needful to a well-rounded life. No matter how cared for, fed, and housed, the occupants of every well-known monkey house were formerly afflicted with coughs, colds, and lung diseases, that made their abode like a hospital and carried off the inmates at plague rates, so that but few monkeys saw their second season in confinement. All sorts of remedies were tried without avail; hothouses with natural accessories, continual medical treatment, and all, failed to lower the death rate. At last it occurred to the monkey keeper of a European zoo that all this coddling would be very bad for a human being, so why not bad for monkeys/ He decided to treat them like fellow-creatures; he dis- carded the stuffy hothouses; he gave his monkeys free access to the pure air and the sun, in a cage as large as he could get it, large enough to give room for exercise, and the result was that coughs and colds began to disappear. The death rate rapidly fell; each month and year that passed gave fuller indorsement to the idea. In short, he had learned the art of monkey-keeping. Each advance of knowledge has emphasized these great principles that the lower animals are so like ourselves that to keep them in health we must give some thought to their happiness, and in aiming at both we must accept the ordinary principles obtained from study of ourselves. These are among the considerations that shaped the scheme of the (ay THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. National Zoo at Washington; or, more comprehensively put, the restoration of the natural conditions of each animal was the main thought in Mr. Langley’s plan—a plan that, though not yet fully realized, has been more than justified by the results. Dye In the center of the park is the coon tree. This very tree had undoubtedly been climbed many a time by the wild coons, within a few years, before it was selected to be the center of a little coon kingdom. It is now the abode of over 30 thrifty specimens, which live their lives here much as they once did in the woods, and there is no reason to suppose that they suffer in any way, since all their needs—food, shel- ter, companionship, and amusement—are cared for. They have indeed all the good things that their wild brethren have, excepting only that there is a limit to their liberty. Usually they may be seen all day sunning themselves in the high crotches, and the sunnier the day the higher the crotch, so that they are a living barometer. When there is a prospect of continued fine weather the coons climb up as far as they can safely go, and at a dis- tance they look like fruit still hanging on the tree. But in doubtful weather they sit lower and nearer the trunk; there they look more like nests, and give the tree the appearance of a rookery; while, in a storm, all descend and huddle together in the great hollow trunk that hes on the ground below and at all times serves as the bedroom of the colony. The scientific name of the coon means ‘* washer,” and one of his pop- ular names is ‘‘ wash bear,” from the peculiar trick he has of carefully washing all his food. This interestingly Mosaic habit the coons keep up in captivity, no matter how clean the morsel or how doubtful the water may be; and as their tactile paw is busied soaking the next piece of provender, their eyes take in the surroundings as though they were not needed in the supposed purification of the food. These, of course, are habits learned in the woods. The coon feeds along the edges of the creeks and ponds, picking up crawfish, frogs, and other mud- dwellers. Then, having secured them, he is careful to clean them off in their native stream, so as not to eat mud with every course. And this being a matter he can very well leave to his very sensitive fingers, his eyes are judiciously employed in scanning the woods about, either for more game or to guard against being made game of himself by some powerful enemy. Those who have seen the little ones when they are old enough to be brought to the water by their mother, and there receive their first lessons in frog hunting, describe them as doing everything just as she does, copying her in all things, dabbing their paws in the mud as their watchful eyes rove about scanning the neighboring woods. PLATE V. Seton, Smithsonian Report, 1901. THE COON FAMILY. —s THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. 713 Another microcosm, and even more picturesque than that for the coons, is the one planned for the mountain sheep, but still delayed for lack of means. Mr. Langley proposes to inclose a tract of several acres of rocky, hilly land, more or less covered with timber. and therein to establish a miniature of the Rocky Mountains, where the bighorn sheep and his neighbors, the calling hare and the mountain marmot, may live together and show us how they used to live at home. There are many obscure problems of life history and environment that might demonstrate themselves in an inclosure of this sort. To illustrate the complexity of such questions: The presence of the peli- cans on Pelican Island, Yellowstone Lake, is declared by authority to be essential to the life of the parasites that infest the trout of the same waters, since at one stage the parasite lives in the bird. This case is of a type that iscommon. No man can say now whether or not the general failure in other zoos to preserve the mountain sheep in con- finement is due to the need for any one element of its native environ- ment, but the way to find out is by restoring the proper surroundings, animate as well as inanimate, as far as possible. Experiments of this sort must increase our knowledge of the laws of life, and in time will solve the problem of successfully maintaining our mountain sheep in captivity. For the bears also is planned a roomy park with restored environ- ment. Bears are restless, roving animals, much more so than deer, or indeed than most of our large quadrupeds, and they suffer propor- tionately when shut up. Many carnivorous animals breed in captivity, but bears are among those that do not, not more than two or three cases being on record. ‘This is an evidence of the great pathological disturbance from caging in the ordinary way. The added feature of a geological disturbance in the small bear pen near the south entrance resulted in a little ripple of excitement some yearsago. A heavy rain storm during the night washed down from the cliff into the unfinished pen such a pile of rocksand sand thata young grizzly mounting on it was enabled to climb up and escape into the open. He hid himself in the thickest shrubbery of the park and for a day or two eluded recapture, to the consternation of numerous mothers whose children going to school had to pass near the park. Each one, of course, could in imagination see her own particular offspring suffering the fate of the naughty children who scoffed at the baldheaded prophet. But those who saw the grizzly during his brief spell of liberty say that he was so over- whelmed by the novelty of his situation that he was quite the most timorous of all concerned in the affair. The buffalo was one of the American animals chiefly in view when the idea of the park occurred to Mr Langley. The present herd isa fine one, but the amount of ground available for them is not sufficient for ideal conditions. G14 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. I have heard it said that a little enmity in the life of a caged animal is better than absolute stagnation; but of course the enmity must be within limits. The buffalo herd had so far reverted to the native state that the old bull ruled for several years, much as he would have done on the plains. He was what the keeper called ‘*not a bad boss;” that is, he was not malicious in his tyranny. One of the younger bulls made an attempt to resist him once, and had to be punished. The youngster never forgot or forgave this, and a year or so later, feeling himself growing in strength, he decided to risk it again. He advanced toward the leader, *‘ John L.,” and shook his head up and down two or three times, in the style recognized among buffalo asa challenge. The big fellow was surprised, no doubt. He gave a warning shake, but the other would not take warning. Both charged. But, to the old bull’s amazement, the young one did not go down. What he lacked in weight he more than made up in agility. Both went at it again, now desper- ately. After two or three of these terrific shocks the old one realized that he had not now his old-time strength and wind. As they pushed and parried, the young bull managed to get under the other, and with a tremendous heave actually pitched his huge body up into the airand dashed him down the hillside. Three times the old bull was thus thrown before he would yield, and then he sought to save his life by flight. But they were not now on the open plains; the pen was limited, and the victor was of a most ferocious temper. The keepers did what they could, but stout ropes and fences interposed were no better than straws. The old bull’s body was at last left on the ground with 63 gashes, and his son reigned in his stead. This is one of the melancholy sides of animal life—the weak to the wall, the aged downed by the young. It has happened millions of times on the plains, but perhaps was never before so exactly rendered for human eyes to see. A more peaceful and pastoral side of life is to be seen among the waterfowl ponds. At one time the park waters were a favorite rest- ing place of the gulls and ducks that passed over in the migrating season, a few of the ducks remaining to breed. But the encroachment of the city frightened all away, until the establishment of the park resulted in a new arrangement, whereby gulls, swans, ducks, geese, etc., instead of passing over in spring and fall merely, are induced to stay as permanent residents. Food, protection, and cover are pro- vided for them, that they may live their lives before us; and, in order that they may not forget their part of the supposed bargains, a deft, slight operation is performed on the tip of one wing. It leaves no sign of mutilation, but it effectually induces them to remain perma- nently in the park. Among the birds of prey many old friends of the woods and plains are to be seen, though not taking to their cage lives as do the more cheerful waterfowl. The familiar red-tailed buzzard is here, but his eye has ever kept ‘O1V45NG JHL ONOWY =. ee — = = % = Jo Ome eS Soe, aero a ne oad ‘IA 31 V1d UO}SS—'| 06] HOasy UeRIUOSYyyIWS PLATE VII. Seton. Smithsonian Report, 1901. A BUFFALO Cow. I ) 1 ‘ ! far 4 i j D ’ 4 ' ’ i : f ; H ! f jul / D , i i ¢ ; ' i ‘ t ‘ h t i 1 , f nf es by - ‘ae ) f ty i i ; ‘ i ‘ ‘ i ‘ i ( A : % ' i U j { f i } a . PLATE VIII. Seton. Smithsonian Report, 1901. BUFFALO CALF A WEEK OLD. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. PLaTE IX. A BUFFALO DUEL IN THE ZOO. ar) - “THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. (ARs the look of untamed savageness; he has no appearance of being even partly at home in his cage. None of his race has ever been known to accept submissively the prisoner’s condition, so that the species does not breed in captivity, nor do his relatives and fellow-captives, the buzzard hawk and the serpent eagle. Doubtless this is simply another case where it is necessary to restore the wild condition in order to know the perfect bird. Some day we may have a cage large enough to give them a chance really to use their wings, and then they may condescend to show us how their forbears built their nests and reared and trained their offspring for the chase. The fine collection of wolves, still in small quarters, gives a good opportunity of seeing how near they are to dogs in their general habits and appearance. Zoologists have long discussed the origin of the dog. Some con- sider it the descendant of a wolf; others, of an extinct species; and some say that the jackal is the wild stock it came from. There are many good arguments against the second theory. To-day it is believed that either the wolf or the jackal was the wild ancestor of the dog. I am convinced that the jackal is the stock parent, though a strain of wolf blood has certainly been infused in some countries. It long ago struck me that reversion is the best evidence in a dis- cussion of this kind, and my own observations on dogs that have reverted, or gone back, to their ancestral form point very uniformly to one conclusion. The general color of a wolf is grayish, with a black or dark tail tip, rarely with light-colored spots, or ‘*‘ bees,” over its eyes, and with a height at the shoulder of about 26 inches. The general color of a jackal is yellowish, with more or less white hair in the tip of its tail, and invariably with bees over its eyes. Its height is about 20 inches at the shoulder. All the largest breeds of dogs show signs of overdevelopment, such as faulty teeth, superfluous toes, frail constitutions, etc. All dogs that have any white about them have at least a few white hairs in the tip of the tail; and when allowed to mongrelize freely—that is, to revert—the dog always. becomes a small, yellowish animal, with brown bees over its eyes, a white tail tip, and a height at the shouider of about twenty inches—that is, it resumes the jackal type. Another argument, which I have not seen in print, is this: Although the wolf was abundant in Europe during the old stone age, the dog was unknown till it appeared on the scene with the Neoliths, a race that came from the home of the jackal. My observations on the habits are evidence for the jackal theory. Wolves rarely turn around before lying down; dogs and jackals usually do. Wolves rarely bark, while jackals, as is well known, do fre- quently bark after the manner of dogs. While sketching among the jackals in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 716 THE NATIONAL ZOO AT WASHINGTON. in 1895, I discovered an interesting bit of evidence on the question. Wolves’ eyes are set obliquely, as in figure 2, plate III, and dogs’ eyes are set straight, as in figure 1. This, of course, is well known. But of the 9 jackals then in the menagerie 2 had their eyes set wolf- fashion, and the remaining 7 had them set like those of a dog. Of course, the fact that both styleseare found in the same animal takes from its weight as proof, and yet great stress has been laid on this different angle of the eyes as an important difference between dog and wolf. What weight, then, this argument has, is for the jackal. While making these notes among the animals of the Washington Zoo, I used to go at all hours to see them. Late one evening I sat down with some friends by the wolf cages, in the light of a full moon. I said, ‘‘ Let us see whether they have forgotten the music of the West.” I put up my hands to my mouth and howled the hunting song of the pack. The first to respond was a coyote from the plains. He remembered the wild music that used to mean pickings for him. He put up his muzzle and ** yap-yapped” and howled. Next an old wolf from Colorado came running out, looked and listened earnestly, and, raising her snout to the proper angle, she took up the wild strain. Then all the others came running out and joined in, each according to his voice, but all singing that wild wolf hunting song, howling and yelling, rolling and swelling, high and low, in the cadence of the hills. They sang me their song of the West, the West: They set all my feelings aglow; They stirred up my heart with their artless art, And their song of the long ago. Again and again they raised the ery, and sang in chorus till the whole moonlit wood around was ringing with the grim refrain—until the inhabitants in the near city must have thought all the beasts broken loose. Butat length their clamor died away, and the wolves returned, slunk back to their dens, silently, sadly I thought, as though they realized that they could indeed join in the hunting song as of old, but their hunting days were forever done. PLATE X. 901 Smithsonian Report \\\ i ANY lan \ \\ GRAY WOLF WATCHING HIS CHANCE. ‘SIOM ONINNOAY VW SS a a ee I RC EC LR I a "IX 3LV1d "U0}AS—'|06| ‘HOday uRiuosyyiWis \ i 5 et Seon = : nl , way Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. PLATE XII. RED-TAILED BUZZARD. SERPENT EAGLE. BuZZARD HAWK. PLATE XIll. Smitnsonian Report, 1901.—Seton. a at THE WALTZING OSTRICH. THE SUBMARINE BOAT: ITS VALUE AS A WEAPON OF NAVAL WARFARE. By Grorce W. MeEtvItxe, Rear-Admural, Engineer in Chief, United States Navy. The advocates of the submarine boat during the past year have con- siderably modified their claims as to the value of this type of naval construction as a future weapon of war. The zeal of the new convert is proverbial, but those who have had experience either in the man- agement or construction of this type of craft are making fewer prom- ises, and are quite content with the accomplishment of performances that can in no wise be regarded as of an extraordinary nature. It is thus along more conservative lines that those who have faith in the ultimate efficiency of the boat are now working. The demand is not now seriously made to build these boats by the score. The more modest request is urged that we should authorize sufficient con- struction to hold together the skilled workmen that are required to build this type of craft. This is a very fair proposition so long as it is not restricted to building boats of a special firm. DEVELOPMENT STILL IN AN EXPERIMENTAL STAGE. Fortunately for the interests of the Government, there were but few practical naval architects, marine engineers, or distinguished naval officers who were carried off their feet by the exaggerated state- ments made as to the capabilities of this type of craft. Asa result of a conservative policy, we have only eight boats built, building, or authorized. As to whether this number is sufficient for present pur- poses, the views of Admiral Dewey, written a month ago, probably reflect the general sentiment of the Navy. Upon this matter Admiral Dewey thus wrote to a member of the Committee on Naval Affairs, House of Representatives, May 27, 1902: ‘“‘The next two questions which you ask relate to the necessity and advisability of providing now for the construction of additional boats of the Holland type. With regard to this matter, I concur with the Secretary of the Navy in the opinion expressed in his letter of Jan- uary 9, 1901, to your committee, to the effect that as a number of boats of this type are now under construction, it is wise to await their completion before providing for others.” eh: (ii 718 THE SUBMARINE BOAT. JNITED STATES STRENGTH IN SUBMARINES ONLY EXCEEDED BY FRANCE. Our strength in submarine boat construction is only exceeded by that of France and England. Without taking into consideration the strength of France and England, the United States possesses or has authorized more submarine boats than all other naval powers com- bined. Compared with most countries, we are, therefore, in advance in this form of naval construction. Our only regret should be that all of our boats are of a particular type, and that this type should not have yet been proved to have developed beyond the experimental stage. The fact that not one single boat of the Holland type con- tracted for in August, 1900, and which should have been completed July, 1901, has yet bad an official trial, conclusively shows that boats of this design have not yet been developed to a stage that makes them reliable weapons of war. CHARACTER OF EXAGGERATED CLAIMS ADVANCED. There have been some wonderful claims made for the submarine. Only a year ago it was maintained that one of the boats under con- struction would be able to steam across the Atlantic. Less than a month ago, in an official hearing before the Committee on Naval Affairs, House of Representatives, on submarine boats, an expert of the Hol- land Company testified that the air-supply storage, which is 69 cubic feet at a pressure of 2,000 pounds, is sufficient for a crew of seven or eight men for three months for submerged work. When questioned upon this point the expert said: ‘* I not only think it, I am quite sure of it.” Even a distinguished naval architect is very fond of stating: ‘*The boat performs in a way that can best describe it asa fish of steel with the brains of aman.” Such are the character of the exaggerated claims that have been made as to the efficiency and performance of these boats. It is not surprising, in view of such testimony, that the subject appeals very strongly to the imaginative. The reaction, however, has already commenced. The admiralty officials of the several countries have discovered that the capabilities of these boats have been so greatly magnified, and their weaknesses so adroitly passed over, that there is now a tendency to construe contract requirements very strictly, and to demand, that promises will turn into performances. ABSURD SECRECY ENVELOPING THE QUESTION OF SUBMARINES. There has been an absurd and pedantic secrecy enveloping the sub- marine which has caused the general public to attach great value to the boat as a weapon of war. Comparatively few naval officers have had an opportunity to estimate its powers for offensive and defensive work. 1 - tte i Bd ee Se 8" : THE SUBMARINE BOAT. (By SPIRITED COMPETITION IN SUBMARINE-BOAT CONSTRUCTION EXTREMELY BENEFICIAL. The advent of the Lake company into the field of submarine-boat construction has been of incalculable advantage to the interest of the Government. The strong presentation of the merits of this boat has materially assisted in preventing the naval service from being saddled with dozens of boats of a type whose efficiency and utility has yet to be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Board of Construction of the Navy Department, as well as to the Congress. The problem of a submarine may not only involve a change in naval construction, but a revolution in naval tactics. That nation will fall behind in relative naval strength of every description which refuses to encourage competition among designers, and which is wedded to the belief that in this mechanical age the solution of any technical problem can only be solved by a few persons. THE POLICY OF EXPERIMENTATION A WISE ONE. Before the Congress again assembles the Navy of the United States should have some definite knowledge as to the capabilities and possi- bilities of submarine boats. The boats now under construction should be commissioned immediately after they have met contract require- ments. Then they should be subjected to surface and submerged runs which will not only show their endurance in these respects, but also the limit of endurance of the working crews. It can be expected that the several young officers placed in charge of the boats will be intent upon making their individual commands the most efficient. By thus creating a spirited rivalry between these young commanders the prac- tical advantage and disadvantage of the craft will be ascertained. Our policy as regards further construction should therefore be in the direction of finding out the actual military value of the boats that we have contracted for. We should also determine the relative worth of these boats as compared with craft of different designs. Time is not an essential element in this matter, for by offering a premium for rapid speed construction it will be possible to induce many shipbuilders to construct them within six months. If the inducement is made sufficiently attractive, there are shipbuilders who will guarantee to do the work in four months. _ The policy of determining the substantial worth of the boats now under construction before authorizing more of this special type has been urged by the Board of Construction of the Navy. This Board consists of the chiefs of the Bureaus of Ordnance, Steam Engineering, Construction and Equipment, also the Chief Intelligence Officer of the Navy. Such a board should have opportunities for securing reliable information upon the subject. The General Board of the Navy, pre- sm 1901——47 738 THE SUBMARINE BOAT. sided over by Admiral Dewey, also believes in the policy of finding out the possibilities of the boats that are nearing completion. The Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, the President of the War College, and several of the gallant captains who fought at Manila and Santiago are members of this Board, and surely such men have the best interest of the service at heart. The Secretary of the Navy approves such a policy of experimentation. The Congress of the United States, after carefully considering the matter, refused to authorize any further construction. Such a proposition must favorably commend itself to all fair-minded and business men, even though it may be opposed by — those who have wares to sell. AN APPROVED TYPE OF SUBMARINE HAS NOT YET BEEN DEVELOPED FOR THE NAVY. The Navy can well afford to wait before settling upon an approved type of submarine boat. The more haste that is exercised, the more liable the naval service is to be misled by the promises of promoters. There is practically no conflict of opinion in the Navy as to the value and efficiency of the battle ship. The same general testimony will be cheerfully paid to the work of the submarine when it is developed to a state where it is an efficient and reliable weapon of war. No attempt has been made in this monograph to tell of the advan- tages of an efficient and reliable submarine. The possibilities are only limited by the imagination of the reader. WASHINGTON CITY, Sune, 1902. Smithsonian Report, 1901.—Mendenhall. PLATE I. HENRY A. ROWLAND. Born, November 27, 1848; died, April 16, 1901. COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND.®* By Dr. Tuomas C. MENDENHALL. [The colleagues, pupils, and friends of the late Professor Rowland assembled Saturday, October 26, 1901, at 12 noon, in the lecture room of the physical laboratory, to commemorate the life and services of the distinguished physicist. An address, which is printed below, was delivered by Dr. Thomas C. Mendenhall, recently president of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. | ADDRESS OF PROFESSOR MENDENHALL. In reviewing the scientific work of Professor Rowland one is most impressed by its originality. In quantity, as measured by printed page or catalogue of titles, it has been exceeded by many of his con- temporaries; in quality it is equaled by that of only a very, very small group. The entire collection of his important papers does not exceed 30 or 40 in number, and his unimportant papers were few. When, at the unprecedentedly early age of 33 years, he was elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences, the list of his published contributions to science did not contain over a dozen titles, but any one of not less than a half-dozen of these, including what may properly be called his very first original investigation, was of such quality as to fully entitle him to the distinction then conferred. _ Fortunately for him, and for science as well, he lived during a period of almost unparalleled intellectual activity, and his work was done during the last quarter of that century to which we shall long turn with admiration and wonder. During these twenty-five years the number of industrious cultivators of his own favorite teld increased enormously, due in large measure to the stimulating effect of his own enthusiasm, and while there was only here and there one possessed of the divine afflatus of true genius, there were many ready to labor most assiduously in fostering the growth, development, and final fruition of germs which genius stopped only to plant. A proper estimate of the magnitude and extent of Rowland’s work would require, therefore, a careful examination, analytical and historical, “Reprinted, by permission, from Johns Hopkins University Circulars, Vol. X XI, No. 154, Baltimore, December, 1901. 739 740 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. of the entire mass of contributions to physical science during the past twenty-five years, many of his own being fundamental in character and far-reaching in their influence upon the trend of thought, in theory and in practice. But it was quality, not quantity, that he himself most esteemed in any performance; it was quality that always commanded his admiration or excited him to keenest criticism. No one recognized more quickly than he a real gem, however minute or fragmentary it might be, and by quality rather than by quantity we prefer to judge his work to-day, as he would himself have chosen. Rowland’s first contribution to the literature of science took the form of a letter to The Scientific American, written in the early autumn of 1865, when he was not yet 17 years old. Much to his surprise this letter was printed, for he says of it, ‘‘ 1 wrote it as a kind of joke and did not expect them to publish it.” Neither its humor nor its sense, in which it was not lacking, seems to have been appreciated by the editor, for by the admission of certain typographical errors he practi- cally destroyed both. The embryo physicist got nothing but a little quiet amusement out of this, but in a letter of that day he declares his intention of some time writing a sensible article for the journal that so unexpectedly printed what he meant to be otherwise. This resolution he seems not to have forgotten, for nearly six years later there appeared in its columns what was, as far as is known, his second printed paper and his first serious public discussion of a scientific question. It was a keen criticism of an invention which necessarily involved the idea of perpetual motion, in direct conflict with the great law of the conserva- tion of energy which Rowland had already grasped. It was, as might be expected, thoroughly well done, and received not a little compli- mentary notice in other journals. This was in 1871, the year following that in which he was graduated as a civil engineer from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and the article was written while in the field at work on a preliminary railroad survey. eee COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 749 wholly absorbed in the love of nature and in the study of nature’s laws, and the whole situation was to his ambitious spirit most artificial and irksome. Time did not soften his feelings or lessen his desire to escape from such uncongenial surroundings, and, at his own request, Dr. Farrand, principal of the Academy at Newark, New Jersey. to which city the family had recently moved, was consulted as to what ought to be done. Fortunately for everybody, his advice was that the boy ought to be allowed to follow his bent, and, at his own sueeestion, he was sent, in the autumn of that year, to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, where he remained five years, and from which he was graduated as a civil engineer in 1870. It is unnecessary to say that this change was joyfully welcomed by young Rowland. At Andover the only opportunity that had offered for the exercise of his skill as a mechanic was in the construction of a somewhat complicated device by means of which he outwitted some of his schoolmates in an early attempt to haze him, and in this he took no little pride. At Troy he gave loose rein to his ardent desires, and his career in science may almost be said to begin with his entrance upon his work there and before he was 17 years old. He made immediate use of the opportunities afforded in Troy and its neighborhood for the examination of machinery and manufacturing processes, and one of his earliest letters to his friends contained a clear and detailed description of the operation of making railroad iron, the rolls, shears, saws, and other special machines being represented in uncommonly well-executed pen drawings. One can easily see in this letter a full confirmation of a statement that he occasionally made later in life, namely, that he had never seen a machine, however com- plicated it might be, whose working he could not at once comprehend. In another letter, written within a few weeks of his arrival in Troy, he shows in a remarkable way his power of going to the root of things, which even at that early age was sufticiently in evidence to mark him for future distinction as a natural philosopher. On the river he saw two boats, equipped with steam pumps, engaged in trying to raise a half-sunken canal boat by pumping the water out of it. He described engines, pumps, ete., in much detail, and adds, ** But there was one thing that I did not like about it; they had the end of their discharge pipe about 10 feet above the water, so that they had to overcome a pressure of about 5 pounds to the square inch to raise the water so high, and yet they let it go after they got it there, whereas if they had attached a pipe to the end of the discharge pipe and let it hang down into the water, the pressure of water on that pipe would just have balanced the 5 pounds tothe square inch in the other, so that they could have used larger pumps with the same engines and thus have got more water out in a given time.” The facilities for learning physics, in his day, at the Rensselaer Poly- 750 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. technic Institute were none of the best, a fact which is made the sub- ject of keen criticism in his home correspondence, but he made the most of whatever was available and created opportunity where it was lacking. The use of a turning lathe and a few tools being allowed, he spent all of his leisure in designing and constructing physical appa- ratus of various kinds, with which he experimented continually. All of his spare money goes into this and he is always wishing he had more. While he pays without grumbling his share of the expense of a class supper, he can not help declaring that ‘‘it is an awful price for one night’s pleasure; why, it would buy another galvanic battery.” Dur- ing these early years his pastime was the study of magnetism and elee- tricity, and his lack of money for the purchase of insulated wire for electro-magnetic apparatus led him to the invention of a method of winding naked copper wire, which was later patented by some one else and made much of. Within six months of his entering the insti- tute he had made a delicate balance, a galvanometer, and an electrom- eter, besides a small induction coil and several minor pieces. A few weeks later he announces the finishing of a Ruhmkorff coil of consid- erable power, a source of much delight to him and to his friends. In December, 1866, he began the construction of a smal] but elaborately designed steam engine which ran perfectly when completed and fur- nished power for his experiments. A year later he is full of enthusi- asm over an investigation which he wishes to undertake to explain the production of electricity when water comes in contact with red-hot iron, which he attributes to the decomposition of a part of the water. Along with all of this and much more he maintains a good standing in his regular work in the institute, in some of which he is naturally the leader. He occasionally writes: ‘* 1 am head of my class in mathemat- ics;” or ‘I lead the class in natural philosophy;” but official records show that he was now and then ‘‘ conditioned” in subjects in which he had no special interest. As early as 1868, before his 20th birthday, he decided that he must devote his life to science. While not doubt- ing his ability ‘‘to make an excellent engineer,” as he declares, he decides against engineering, saying: ‘* You know that from a child I have been extremely fond of experiment; this liking instead of decreasing has gradually grown upon me until it has become a part of my nature, and it would be folly for me to attempt to give it up; and I don’t see any reason why I should wish it, unless it be avarice, for I never expect to be a rich man. I intend to devote myself hereafter to science. If she gives me wealth, I will receive it as coming from a friend; but if not, I will not murmur.” He realized that his opportunity for the pursuit of science was in becoming a teacher; but no opening in this direction presenting itself, he spent the first year after graduation in the field as a civil engineer. This was followed by a not very inspiring experience as instructor in COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. 751 natural science in a Western college, where he acquired. however, experience and useful discipline. In the spring of 1872 he returned to Troy as instructor in physics, on a salary the amount of which he made conditional on the purchase by the institute of a certain number of hundreds of dollars’ worth of physical apparatus. If they failed in this, as afterwards happened, his pay was to be greater, and he strictly held them to the contract. His three years at Troy as instructor and assistant professor were busy, fruitful years. In addition to his regular work he did an enor- mous amount of study, purchasing for that purpose the most recent and most advanced books on mathematics and physics. He built his electro-dynamometer and carried out his first great research. As already stated, this quickly brought him reputation in Europe and what he prized quite as highly, the personal friendship of Maxwell, whose ardent admirer and champion he remained to the end of his life. In April, 1875, he wrote: *‘It will not be very long before my reputa- tion reaches this country;” and he hoped that this would bring him opportunity to devote more of his time and energy to original research. This opportunity for which he so much longed was nearer at hand than he imagined. Among the members of the visiting board at the West Point Military Academy in June, 1875, was one to whom had come the splendid conception of what was to be at once a revelation and a revolution in methods of higher education. In selecting the first faculty for an institution of learning which within a single dec- ade was to set the pace for real university work in America, and whose influence was to be felt in every school and college of the land before the end of the first quarter of a century, Dr. Gilman was guided by an instinct which more than all else insured the success of the new enterprise. A few words about Rowland from Professor Michie, of the Military Academy, led to his being called to West Point by tele- graph, and on the banks of the Hudson these two walked and talked, ‘‘he telling me,” Dr. Gilman has said, ‘‘ his dreams for science and I telling him my dreams for higher education.” Rowland, with char- acteristic frankness, writes of this interview: ‘* Professor Gilman was very much pleased with me;” which, indeed, was the simple truth. The engagement was quickly made. Rowland was sent to Europe to study laboratories and purchase apparatus, and the rest is history already told and everywhere known. Rowland’s personality was in many respects remarkable. Tall, erect, and lithe in figure, fond of athletic sports, there was upon his face a certain look of severity which was, in a way, an index of the exacting standard he set for himself and others. It did not conceal, however, what was, after all, his most striking characteristic, namely, w perfectly frank, open, and simple straightforwardness in thought, in speech, and in action. His love of truth held him in supreme control, 152 COMMEMORATION OF PROF. HENRY A. ROWLAND. and, like Galileo, he had no patience with those who try to make things appear otherwise than as they actually are. His criticisms of the work of others were keen and merciless, and sometimes there remained a sting of which he himself had not the slightest suspicion. ‘‘ I would not have done it for the world,” he once said to me after being told that his pitiless criticism of a scientific paper had wounded the feelings of its author. As a matter of fact, he was warm-hearted and generous, and his occasionally seeming otherwise was due to the complete separa- tion, in his own mind, of the product and the personality of the author. He possessed that rare power, habit in his case, of seeing himself, not as others see him, but as he saw others. He looked at himself and his own work exactly as if he had been another person, and this gave rise to a frankness of expression regarding his own performance which sometimes impressed strangers unpleasantly, but which, to his friends, was one of his most charming qualities. Much of his success as an investigator was due to a firm confidence in his own powers, and in the unerring course of the logic of science which inspired him to cling tenaciously to an idea when once he had given it a place in his mind. At a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in the early days of our knowledge of electric generators he read a paper relating to the fundamental principles of the dynamo. . 7 ; ag * . ¥ oa € a cs Ps y a i SEL OMY via 4 th a: = “ J a. i bowl ee) fa i ‘ es IST 1) yee A. - Page Abbot, C. G., on some recent astronomical events ..............2.-........ 153-169 RS aMeeIp Se Or AOU. Jes) Bi ek ea oh 45, 124, 161 report on Astrophysical Observatory by........-.......--.-- 119-128 PBnteEaMmes Erancis, paper by :..<-<-..--:20--ss.eceke seble be ceckce cd 138 PUL ent eCOleCtiONS YOM = .< 2.022... 26s... -----eebeotes.. 33: 56,475-492 exploration of Andaman Islands by.........-.----.----<<- 475-492 tS JNCVONENTSY EUR O00 20) Ie eS 66 Midna CHarleseurancis, paper by s:-.-..2.2--..--.8 00. ocsdence se. Pee ee 140 MudMs HODert, jx. at. meeting of Regents ......:.5...222---2--csceneecee XIII ResemiTOmLne UNSttMOns2 2: Sk a4 a eae du, ff Piano lrVMine weurapeam trip Of: i225. 22-2-.o cee cc cee on cbs ee cewoen 51 on European exchange service..............--..-.---- 88-92 OREO itis Vil DEArAnesOpOLL DY 3eaaas: a eee 119-128, 149 Secretary’s) Teportion.. 35.5 a0 eee 44 solar atmosphere observations by --..-.----.... 123 INDEX. 757 . . ° = ae Atmosphere, constitution of......___..-- 175 oF Be aI mmm meme i == =e lm mm iw” Sleciziieds StHGy Of si). ek 8) Soe ed 13 exploration of, by kites at sea ye iS PN TORE OAR Atmospheric air, researches in ....................---.--............. ete Atomic corpuscles, Réntgen rays vibration of............................. ogg caoomeeekeron range of... 2222... fee et 189 MERIC SARCS ee eee cee PE se 261 Seamer eatieP Gen. NAtUTEG Of. 5... 2-24-22. ese ee ele, 176 LISS GORD S/S 21 a ae ee CM RA 231-243 BeBe NON FO Pen bra ey ect SSS 184 Ewinberousoravel man, Elolmes:on-.:<2=- 02. o222iss--22-2.-022--.- 0. 132 Smeal reaiE ONION Olre = <2 te so. oee SOL To So le ee 242 Peoumeamaeliwing, experiments by.-....22.....2...622.25- 2822222 cole. 207 mustria-Lungary, €xchangeservice with ...........-.0.2222--.-2-nccee cee 88 NEED ELS, CUTS) a 726 EtenniehOULMier On xcsenss. St heute ao kB Oo eet 593 TSR mE RO OSM oe eet yaciore eae ke RE ak Sey seed 595 Panisuberlineerhaee eat oka ete Ast slaw sees LT 606-609 Paris=5 ordeals teehee. ors A MEO eee eS 597-604 APCederecordshiness seas = sey sake See eee. ee eM Pa 595 MCLE asbALeMment Ol 2225-2 S5s52ct2.55sh te ccteecsele ell ele XVI B. Babylonian expedition of Edgar James Banks.............-..------------ XX, 5 Baird. pspencer i. secretary of the Institution..-.---.---..---.--..---..-- 148 Baker bs adrspressure experiments by”... 2.-.-.------2---2--ceac1sstecce 353 Baker, Frank, on operations of Zoological Park ...:....------------------ 105-118 supermtendent of Zoological Park. .2. <2. 52. jo2- en ene nee 701 Pompe simmeopent. on Ward + - 5622s .oo. 2s i2.-- 2-2 s-2eeseeees--- see e = 133 Balloon, Santos-Dumont’s, circling Eiffel tower ....-.....---------------- 575 epretinius meme tae Rees peo eae eet ona ne isos = asp == 32, 133, 577 Banks, Edgar James, Babylonian explorations by------------------------- XXop Banks. Nathan. paper by ....--.2 2-22... .--2- 42-22 ------- 2-02. = ae : 138 Barnard, Professor, eclipse observations by .--.------------------------- _ 162, 166 Barrows, W. E., minerals from......-.-.----------------++-+-+---++------ 60 Barus, Carl, researches in ionized air by .--.------------------------------ 13, 129 Pasiet work of Atidamanese -....2..2:4.4-22---------2-----------2- ==> 483 Bean, Barton A., fishes collected by -..-.-------------------------------> 61 Bears, care of captive......... -------------------- 22-22 ee eee rere 713 Belgica, Antarctic voyage of.........-------------------2-22222-22 0000 377-388 Bell, Alexander Graham, at meeting of Regents. -.--.-------------------- XI RN Ado are eae oan aee Seppe cena pote LVI member of executive committee ....------------ XII on telegraphone ..-.--.-.------------------------- 307 on students’ use of Government departments. - - - - XVIII, 4 presents executive committee report ------------ XV, Ave Regent of the Institution ---.-------------------- XI, 7 reports presented by -------------------------7- 3 Wilson resolutions by.------------------------- xi, 51 Bell, James M., Philippine collections frome (tos tec tne ee pe eee a 56 peiemiia = Oharles 2 =. 22°22 22525-29222 -- = <- manne on nes oan : 64 Benedict, J. E., collections liyenecoonees Secs a SEES SSeS a id jad} Pe Desc Ree aCe ee ee Song TS ie aa -I Or oO INDEX. Benson, H.C, birds presented: by 22: 3: 99.22 5s ee Bequests, permanent committee report on....-.---.---.-------:---------- Berliners solomon Wanzarotte pigeons ihOnle= =a = = Jerry, I. 'V.,.on, London, exchanges! 5% 2h So. 26.5 oben ee eee Beyier, Louis, analysis of vowel sounds by Bibpliograp liyanc ema Cal GSS ers tabs OT Sp Sclentitie literatures. 2 a2 42 ee ee ee XXI,6 sillings, John 8., on progress in medicine Biologicalicollectionsims National ivi seine srs ees ae ee Biology in nineteenth century 2.25625. 2 eat eee eee eee list.of papers: onv seuss use betes Sot Sets pace are eee ee Birds and eggs for scientific purposes, legislation on ._-...--.------------- Care Of Captive: ssc. sen ae as a ee ee eee destroyed ‘by. forest destruction’. ....32<2s05 son: 6-Beceen essere ee house for}in:Zoological: Park =~ 5. «.-..c-e scsgne- J ee eee eee in’ children?s 700 iMeje 2-6 ot 5-2 ooGase Seiko ene ee lite rimistories <0 fe: esas ata Sees Bree le OTDM Of Se saewie ater Se eae oes ee ae ee eee ee photographs of motionsiol, 522222). 253s See ee ee ee relative;power of flight, of 2252245535 sees bios Ss SOSA sense oftsmiellsingass 552 seb eee ee eee ee Ssoaringand flapping compared 2220 -ee es. ee ae oe ee eee theoreatestioks 2455 ook cscs meee eee Soe ee er Blumentritt, berdinand, paper, byice- 2 25 eee ae eee Boass Hiram za alin diane stidiies alo sy sess ae a On Mind sof primltiyewmanaer Sass oe eee Bodiesssmallerthanyatom se Uino mi Sonn ore eee IB OCOS) Ole VOl Gam Oes a Cape bel erste rays a Ch ee Bolometerwextremescusitiyenesdiole sass eees eee eee eee eee Bonaparte, Prince Roland) 2-462. 23322 3 See oe ee eee Books ;appropriations fon). 5.2 3c. eee See eee Boomerangs, Gilbert-T. Walkerioni252 522% 3. Bos ante eee eee forms and: Use-0f: 52.52 2 4. Sa ee eee eee Booth}; Charlesyon nornmaliclassesion mentee === sass see eee eee Bororoindians “studi of 222.22 = Sa as ee a ee Botany, .DapersvOne. ee 22 $25 sac eck ess See oe eee eee ee ee BOW Stall GA ENO WS: Atma Gein Ta CSC es ae Boyle; Sir Courtenay, deathsol -2e-esseee 134, 341 Carter, Martin J., Newfoundland caribou from ..........---.------------- 109 Pater wale eCONechiOns ILOMsoe:.s. 5. . ssi. 2. -aenesack oes 131, 134 Guasplidebny Mrogenes os22% 22 bth. as eS ee ee ee aL 251-261 Dewey, Admiral, on value of submarine boat ..-.....-....---.-------.---- 717 Dimon Gas rane hry ei. ee 8 Sit Se 359 enn ora PaO AUMNeTICAsrs << Sotoee eee oe. Sue ee eS 309-306 WOPHOIS), OU ci os Sa ee en ae Se eee 361 Mic hipameamdsOnerOn.. faq 4 tof - nn estos 4 gh ack each Se bee 361 Oni gino tw EOD DS/ ONuAr sere sees sost.ce is ae sisue Sie eae ioe er 359 Borie imeine en mecee: HOR. oot ie oe a so eRe ee 359 nalleVipmibainsy eee sy eo Pe eee ae se a Pe ect ee 359 arent Gr COLGIS 325.12 Sees Be cave’ Sees ae ee eee 359 WER TSUN, G2 ea ce PE 361 Danionatne Tun MANCS Ole ess. ya oe GS Socios oa seep Se acess =e 641 GISTHIMMAR BOM 8-766. o 3 th chee ek goes Sons 642 RenerreOleriZards. pS Cas, ON.e. 32 3s.ee Ge. L aee Cae teen oe 641-647 PENNE ESRC Ole ose 5 Hla.) SAS Rua ce alse are wine SA SG wei 643 Dinsmore, Hugh A., at meeting of Regents. .......-..-------------------- Xl Regent of the Institution........-------------------- x0, 7 Woe, Seton on origin of ......-.-...-2-------+-- +--+ 22-22-25 ee eee eee 715 Dohrn, Dr., on Naples zoological station -.....-.------------------------- 17 Domestic animals, importance of ......---------------------------------- 698 Dordogne, caves of, pictures in-....-...-------------+--------+++---+---> 439 Doty, Lieutenant, Bogoslof volcanoes photographed byAner Sees = eee 371 Drake, Noah Fields, fishes collected by ---.------------------------------ 138 Draper, Paul, member of Sumatra eclipse expedition 4-422 -e eee a=-= 45, Ln Dugmore, Radclyffe, papers by.....-.-------------------++---2-etrttc eee 135 Dutch Government, courtesies from......-------------------------------> a3 Dyar, Harrison G., on moths. -----.------------------ ees See ere 37 E. Barth, quantity of matter of ......-.---------------------+--20 2-2-2220 206 Eastlake, W., shell collections from... .--------------------------7+77777> 762 INDEX. Page. Eclipse expedition to Sumatra....... Pe ee Meer Sa AE 45, 124, 125, 161 Belipseexpeditionssd 224 2) 0285 RSS ey ees YOK Ecuador, exchange service with... ...-- eters Es es Ee ee eee ee 87 Edison’s kinetoscope,:deseriptioniofs.. 5-5 sss545s044-es eee ee 327 Editor, report:0f.25 22 eo: ee nd ee 129-140 Hey pt, Petrie’s researches .dms.a2 28262264 ee 425 Hey ptians,, primitive; stone: implements of... Sse ee ee ee BBY 5i7/ Bitelt tower santos umiomt cimeliin eae see ee eee 575-592 Bldridee Gavi, collections! froma 5 = as oe 7 AO As Hee ays = 59 Electric corpuscles. 2.52222.25.- Si ast See IN aS PER ee eee 234 current, ‘centenaryxot Js 855 325-2 eee 293 discharge im rarefied! gases 242 a Se 273 fiuid' theory of Brankelim: 3-25 ee ee ee 235 installationsin=muUsewIM sss aoe ee tee ee ee Kale traction inetunnelssmeed Olesya ree ee eee 629 Electrical: conductivity of metals\...—..5- Sg 2ee sae SS eae 240 current matureiOhs sa5e- Steere Se ee 184 phenomena ofvanimals and) plants. 25 55.24526)-.250 352 ee eeere ne 131 researches) Vd eewlen Oma SO Des eee 233 standards: need: Gf; esas os oe ee ee ee 357 Blectricity. conducted throug hy thingnretals ee eee see 239 frees Inametals a 2..'s sees tee ee ae ee Oh ese ae 238 IN CASeS. fost uss e aS sao ons ee ee 183, 253 negative,.consists.of, corpuscless2225-- Sessa) a eee 235 nineteenth ‘century, progress inulsssosSet soe te eee 134 positive Mature ol5 eee ese ac oe eee 235 Pupin. system -oftransmitting <-0e0eee 468 =] Kiske, John, on Huxley ---..-...----- TSE ore en aS aie eae oes ee 136 peblenine-brotessun.quetedone «olor. oo Stee ses ov feed) ucete sede 2 2l- 287 e letcher,A lice C.,. Indian: studies by -..---<<------2 ice. se 28 oo oe. Stee 68, 82 Pee bond) Ragleieh: OU. cco soe eet scenic ones Jace ac Janos Stee ceeee use 133 = IMeehanien | ,ex periment aM an. obs. inne ame eee eae 133, 649 eh PETIO EL, TENS aVSSTS AO ee eee ne 61 meee eel helix. exChanre ACM. 2-02 22 22 Selo ieee a= oe eS = 2 = ee 87 Pf filyauptcreatune, joreatest, Langley On .:.--2-22----<--++----c0--<2s-ce-5-- 649-654 TIGRTRGEY= Cane ot ee a Rr Oe ey SOAR 654-65 9 ieeelabnnves: TD raved Ve. ee ee Pe eee ee eer fore es oo iiss MARES MCIPeTOC ACU Ye ARG) Sar anette ay oie ae ot See ee an 649 Fog, comparison of molecules and .........-.----.------------------------- §3 Horhessvt.. explorations bye 2: : 26 ss -cei.\ 2 san 45-2~222-2 25225-2522 67 Forest destruction, fauna and flora destroyed by.....-.------------------- 404 INGA CM Sas 5 Sak oaa acon eee ease caseae sos Sen Se 404, 405 IRincho toner ee cece eer Baas ore ee eho eee 401-404 Forests, geological action of -........--.-----------------------------05-> 403 Fossil plants, new collection of ......-.----------------+---------+--+--- 59 PEOCETOR SbeMCAS Ol! ose oceanic on See ees eS one ao ee ee 137 Fossils, new collections of....-..--.----------------+-----------2--0-00-e> 33, 59 g@irafie-like ..:..--2+---2+22---se+-2- 222-2 gnc sseen se see s=ee= 664 imutation theory. Of 2.2<=-5-==--~-s2se=---2s-45--2---228-4-2=5-* 638 oster, sir Michael... -..-----.-------2------- 22-9 -- 2+ 255-2 Se2 2 senses BIE sal Fournier, Henri, in automobile races - ------------------------++--+--+---- 593-609 on automobile manufacture ...----.-------------------- 593 Fowle, F. E., assistant in astrophysical observatory . -..-------------------- ! ie 617-63 Fox, Francis, on great Alpine tunnels ....-------------------+-+----+7+77-- 764 INDEX. Page Fox, Miz,acentifor Avery, propenty co --o-2- en eae eae eee ee XVI Hirancevexchamee) Serv Ce wtln sce cee ae Sees anon ep nen Ca 92 Braniklin’is,one-tluid! theory. 22a. eee so ee eee eee 235 Frigate bird, Lucas:on ‘tight Of.2.2./-2. 2. 32sec. = jock See eee 654 Brye;; William: Po. [38 see vee as cece hb ee ee eee Se eee ere IIT, XII Fuel supplies of the world, Thurston .on_2 2233-4 ce 55-8 as eee 263 Kuller Melwille W. Chancellor of thednstitutions ss. -—-- sss =e eee eee e ae GO 7/ member of Smithsonian Establishment. --..--.-------- Sat 2 Hulton submarinesboatutesttoteen messes eee ee ere ere eee eee eee 722 Hunctionalamotions; photographs Olees-pesene = eee ee ee eee eee eee 334 Hund. smithsomanrsta temremt 0 lessee eee ae ee ee XXIII, 6,8 Fur seal, Dall on preservation Of. 2-2 =. <25 22-22 oes ee ee ee eee 685 G. Gage, Lyman J., member of Smithsonian Establishment.............------ Xe Galleries, National Museum, appropriation for -.......-----.------.------- 10 COST Of aa ee ae ee eee XLVI Galleryof art, expenditures for... «22-20 sac' see as eee ee eee XXVI Galton,-Sir Douglas, on physical laboratory... ......-.22.. i-2.2.----2222- 341 Galton, Francis, on improvement of human breed -.-..--....----.--.------ 523-537 Galvanometer, 1m provenentsin@=s=seeser soos eee ae eee eee 120 Garden andsits development) =: --2224: 22 Sa5e- oo. oe ee ee eee 132 Gases-atomic' volumesiol 2.3. 52.32 822 oes. - ee ee ee 261 electricity ime S22 ese a ee ee ee eee 183, 233 experiments-in solidifying... 435 22220) -=- Goes Gee ee eee eee 251 Gates, Peter'G.,-explorations by... 2.2222 24-2.0 Sees eee seen eee 60 Gatschet, Albert S., Indian language studies by ..........-----.---------- 79 Geocraphiciconquestsiofmineteenbhycentuny.: oo ee == eee eee 134 Geology, aud -mutation-theory.-252: 5. 222222252 = eee ee eee 638 increase Olcollectionsines==-ee eee eee eee oe eee eee eee 59 PAPers:ON . Ss. -.2 2's sees de sees bastls tase P woe ee eae 151, 154, 156 Georgia; Indianvquarries Ine qo sec = aes saree eee = ae Ee ee eee 60 Gevers;e Barone We Ate E2 sCOUGbES1 spelt O Imeem 45 Gibbs; Wallardresearches byi-en 4s" 5s eee Cee ee Sa 174 Gila‘ Valley,-explorations|inw..i59. ces 2e see ee ae ee eee 67 Guill) DesLancey.explorationssby 2. t-a-.22 2-2 = ae eee ee eee 67 illustrative: work.Ofs.. os. 22 2s'sece = eee ee 84 Gull, "Bheodore. N.,4paperiby2cescae 222 bh ese. See eee 139 representative to Glasgow University jubilee -.....-.--- 26 Gilman, President, of Johns Hopkins University ...........-------.-----: 749 Giraffe-like- fossils 2.024232 2 ead bees es ae eee Rel ee rae eee eee : 664 Glacial(epochuneAntarcticmerionsasee see nee eee eee eee eee eee 383 Glaciers Am tanct oc unnO laa == jonas Sea eee ee ee ee 380 Glasgow University, jubilee, ofz,.2.. 22cs.cce5 setae ee eee eter ee eee 26 Glazebrook, R. T., on national physical laboratory.......-.-.------------- 341-357 Gokteik bridge: erection: of =. 22 sec. eS aCe oe eee 611-615 Goldvandilead>interpenetrationiotze -sseeee soe see ee eee 177 Gossant)sioscillatine: objective photecraphsha==s-===—— === eeeeee eee ee 328 Government Departments, utilization of, by students....--...------- XVIII, Lvit, 4 Gravitation, Jaw -of foree Ol sac 22 22S eee 2. ee ee 199 récent: studies in: 2.2 oes 2 et ee ee oe eee eee 199-214 Gravitational matter muntinite/space=ssseee ae see eee CE ee 215 . INDEX. Gray, George, at meeting of Regents Grazing area of Western States S. P. Langley on Greek civilization, origin of Grosvenor, Gilbert H., paper by Grotto of La Mouthe, pictures in (Es ELCHIVRLED ChE TES ai a2 7s Oa a el en oe a re Pemiemirearly Sculptures! Of <= 95- 2+ 2..- 525222 222s-2 ccd de. Bente ebabece Gudgeon, Colonel, on fire-walk ceremony lil fale EINEM SDE CIES Ole. a5 oe Seles hase Scie tutes Soe Y eae el ea PeeeCGhimeed vy KCOUPTESICS IPO . 5-55-2502 scaee ccc ccusee-eoccSeseeck SIDES 6) ON? 8 coos eg a hs ee ee Haeckel, Professor, on life in ether and matter Ue DUT. EUS Sa) Se ie a ee Hallock, William, researches in articulate sound by ..........-...--.....- LEE LPO. ATT 00 UGS OG = Bae a cn ae Hamnrer, Wilham J.,on telephonograph ...:....i-222--.2.-2:02.2-----2- SOURS Syke ee ered Os a a ee SAME AS AC eK MOGI OMete = sen a s.2 foc Sats loe. 2 So se eck Shee. li se fasslereemillacolLecthlonsmnOmereerera cane su). Sees bo ooo ee eee enclimLiclens birds iromimeeese ess hoes bt oe EY ee Eo to ee anon Vee DicosduaphoLorraphisi bye. sce i=ssne. 2 ose soe efsese eee see havdland Gals sonehabits olwhiterantss.o22--- 2. .2!+.2--. 622552226 soe lei arie co lechronsmimome steerer ek oot oee a et Se Le eA ws eed Hay, John, member of Smithsonian Establishment.....-.....------------ Mesivevitwns One bOrOsiGL VOLCANO . <2... Jone. nonce ene bse shel ees ie - 28 eat amiechamcaenuivaleny Olas 4-2-2 2edasisc ios se2be seis sss. = Seas VOM LOnGROMBMA TINCT Olmaes ae oe ars Se sists moo Sees eee cee Stell aneln CASUNCIOIMN Sen ee ete oe Es Aes 5 ee eee oa ee aa eebas eh UnstOMOM he S522 ase eee eee ca tee eet ae MOVIE: G Nein We See ieee ae A a Be eee Mele slaw ano: wexpenmments by 22e.. el lose Soe s. o2uh. os esse o PACT ON eee aaa aa ee ch cta= a eae Oates ses See Henderson, J. B., chairman of executive committee-....----------------- Regent of the Institution. .-.-.-.-..-------+------------ XI PAS AON osc Steet Oe Stee eee eee ees ata (ienlornnres) UO AW) Iba \WMRaNot leh ee esas! Henderson, J. B. jr., collections by.-.-..------2-----<------++--+-+++----- Henry, Joseph, laboratory notes of........-------------------------+----- on catalogue of scientific literature. -.-.------------------- on Smithsonian library ..-.-.----------------------------- on Smithsonian reports.....----------------------------- on theory of universal ether..-..---.---------------------- Herbarium, National, additions to -...-.-------------------------------- Heredity, Galton on._..2-.. 2-2 ---.---2- Hews sass ese stan nee ook season =e Herisson, Count D’, on loot of summer palace --..------------------------ 12] 654-659 649-654 426 429 ») 134 109 134 439 578 132 539 188 58 15 XxV, 8 307-312 140 367 56 109 319 667 56, 61 Xie By fl 741 178 157 270 179 9907 ool 131 XII, LVI I xn 766 INDEX. Page. Herschel Sin Walliams nonicolorsplhotogralp lye ee ee eee 313-316 Hertwig, Oscar, paper -by.2.2.0- 3-2 Sosa. sea 134 Hertz, ‘Hemrich, researches by. 25. == 225250-55=--eeeee 287 Hewitt,«). N. B., dndian.researchesby,.5. 2242 6 ee eee 67, 77 Fieroclyplierwritine, @recame eee cers see cea se eee er 428 Hildebrandson, Professor, atmosphere experiments by.......---.--------- 248 Euilder,-E.-F., Philippine collections *by- = = eee 60, 82 History, American, collectionsillustrating.—-—o4555-- =_=ssee eee 57 Hitchcock, E. A., member of Smithsonian Establishment............----- at Hitt, Robert R., member of Executive Committee .................-.- LAN O.Qiy, Rerentrotithesmstibutions =e KTS TT EXON reportsibys..2oh ae shee Soe ee 3 Hhittorf rays, (Dastre. ons 222 ass sa. dee aso eee 272 Hobart, Jennie dt 3.5202 Yor oe ee Se ae a eee XI HobartsVice President.deathbohes soa cce. 2 ee eee eee Xie member of Smithsonian Establishment. -..---.----- 2 Hobbs, William Herbert, on American diamonds. ..............--..-.---- 359-366 Hocken yi Me cont fire: walkecenem omy ae aes ee 539 Hodge, F>W..; editorial workolt: 20-535) sos ea ace Se ee eee eee 83 report/as) Curatorof Exchanges mes 3445-5 eee oe 85-104 representative to Congress of Americanists............----- 26 work on Cyclopedia of Indian tribes by.......--.---------- 82 HModekins, Thomas: G.,. gift 0 o-sec 255 -ceest- rc ose eee an ee EodgkimsHund sy conditionsioteeramit sino nee re 15 researchswork under -2 22-2902 aes See eee 11 Statem enitiol Gass See Seer ae eas 5 eee XVI Foimanny O-ansecticollectionioleae = een oe eee 58 Holland type of submarine boat, Melville on...............-----.-------- 718, 730 Holmes; We. ; collections by < 2222 2-22.35. 235) eee eee eee 57 explorations by-s-.2-.2395. cee a ee eee 60 OMANI TO US era vie | ea Ay ee 132 onyprimalishapin pants sess ae ee 501-513 TOPOL De Jeee esac eases oe eae Se eee 136 representative to Congress of Americanists --...---..----- 26 Hoprlndians(study:ob > S355 -2- o-oo eee eee EA oie 70, 72 Hornaday, W. T., superintendent of National Zoological Park ..-.....-..-- 701 Horseprehistories pictuteol.. 222: ccc22287eecese 7 eee ee eee 446 Hough, Walter, explorattonsby= 2-2-8 62-2 oe ee ee 60 on development of illumination: 2355-4 See eee 493-500 paper by- 222258520 he seh 25 -tesse eee eee 136 lahiregcanars, (Sie \vaNlhevon, Chel ioaves\oot SeuibliNe = Soe oo ccasceuseecececenosscceue= 176 researches by-z,0.4-4:2hSse55> 2ik Soe ee 153, 154 Hughes, Brotessor, electricallmesearches bye sass 5200 eee ee eee eee 287 Haman’ breed, Galtonon-improvementsol-s2s-ses ss. 22 ae 523-537 mind elements ole achiydislesn@ lis eee 452 qualities, distribution oft << 222.2 csessd4ce4> 255es ae eee eee eee 524 variety Galton :O%, 2s = 2 2/s Re ae 2 eee 524 Etutton, Ee ew. collectionsifrom seen oso eee ee ee 59 Huxley; lesson of Iie) of se 2222 65d sensei eee ee eee 135 reminiscences, Of GaSe semient os See ee See eee 136 Hy bridity,.elementar¥y; -..< 2.2.28: 2262ms 5 See eee 632 Hydrogen; density, of, indifferent conditiouse:---s esse eee eee ae 260 electricity itt .c<.¢ i4su<5<50 spas t eseeee ae ee ee nN 233 INDEX. "67 PereroOn giGUil CONS YAOL =... 314 J. Japan, exchange service with.....---------------------2-07--0000-r0t0> 87 PIC HsRReTiie ys See ee os an sas neato tet alee acing eee ee ae 58 Janssen, on progress in aeronautics. ..-..-------------------70000r ttre 133 Janssen’s astronomical revolver-.-------------------------77 770700 317 Jefferson, President, on meteorites. ...---------------------77rtrrttttrr 193 Jenks, Albert E., Indian researches by------------------ cece eeceteeetee: 72 Jennings, O. P., collections from....-----------++-+-+-----2700eettttr ee Jewish ceremonial objects. -.----------- at set ER A age Te ae eo mi (68 INDEX. Page. JOEkKESs GOverNOr :COULLCSLES Lr O TI oe eee eee ee a 46 Johnston; Margaret. Av ae 5.52 s3cce cee Soe ee ee ee XII Johnstons WalliameRrestor sac ect lay fesse rae eee ee XII SUCCESSOF tO). 325.5 eee eee ee See XII Johnston, Sir Harry EH.,.on the Okapi: 232-2 522-2-22 > ee eee 661-666 Joly. ; J:,:on, age. of the-earthion 2. os. 22 9a Soe se See ee ere 131 Jordan Davids Starry papersibDyeseeeee eee oe eee ee ee eee 138 K. Kadiak: bear efforts t0:8CCUre2 55.0 ose ae oe ne ee eee eee 41 Keeler, Professor, nebulz photographs by... ....-.-.22s.5:.2- 2. 22 sea sao eee eee 46 degree conferred on, by Cambridge University..--..-..--- XIv, 3 honoranyacurator of.childrenss0.0 nase 5D0 on: cheapest form of light: 2222 422 see eee 129 on chronophotography = 2 9. -s-2=42 2255 eee O37 on:fire-walk ceremony in Tahiti. - 23.52 252eeccs 3-2 eee 539-644 on greatest /flyino creature: sss. canoes See ee eee 649-654 INDEX. 769 Langley, S. P., on inadequacy of Smithsonian fund................._.. Sie 2. LENS LOTTE 1 2 a 45-552 Bmecoranieclipse Of 1900! 22. ye oe 3 Bebe mew spectrum: ..... 02.000 fe ee 35 report on operations of Institution by (tl eine Te l 140 Seercwany. of the Institution ::-.2-222 0.2... x1, 149 secures establishment of National Zoological Park.......__. 700 ieee Reo LeAnn yrs est ke fee eer Oe 18 Langley aerodrome, description of 29 Muu te eer On the Okapi.._ 2.5220... .0.2-. 2222-2 el ee. aes PCE Merah Pahith 2° 222. fc flo fe en 54] ipemmemmadhe .oF Langley on .... 252.222.2222... 545-552 Seemitnisiaye, researches by......2..-..-..222.....-.--.. 0... 7 920 Bcemmte «xeoree, antarctic voyage by.-.....02..4:2..-. 2-2... 378 i enreen nape! Wy... o 22 ec leet eo 13 Hepislation for Smithsonian Institution -...............2.22...2..-...---.-- LYII LeMesurier, E. A., letter concerning Smithson’s remains.._.._._......._.. XIX Semmanamemmecttiar, researches 43-22 3...025. 2.2. lols. lee ee lec leet c ee. 237 imemmormtacbekt researches by... ---.24.-Sk.2 2222-052 32a cccnsee.- 261 ens improvement in manufacture of -........-.-.2.-02.. 22s eee eee eee 348 enamine ePaper DY. 1)... 2. So... 2-2 Se seen be 13 Momeametriotopiier, private-z00 Of 2... 2.2525 be. 2 i. sec ee eee tee 691 SmaMEIE EMC INGGTCLAN $2 — = SL. 2 22S og ces ese wee ee ences eel eles 43 0 EDT URE) 1 GS ea a me a AO ga ak CR Os Oa RL oe 64, 128 Peete seEGNMEEE OT OL. Sao! Us os Drs Be oat en ia 20 Pi ManneTepONG ON. == 2. 2os 02 52h sat tle eee ep cee te 126-128 faibrary of Congress, Smithsonian deposit in......-..-...----.-----;----- XX, 6,22 sick Observatory, Nova Persei observations at ..-.-..-.---.......---..... 168 ee ememmmietia Ol, RUCKer ON. 22. 1-< 22/2 ee emis swe oe soe cede been ee oe 188 Beeeemorcicetricity, identity of...2::.....2- 5 252.2 2k oo oes Sosa tee eee. 288 Sc Humans SbUC v7 Olesen eee ee ee ee 12 G2 So 23E ERTET Cle ae a eee aS mee Se eee 19, 129 peanizen- mechanical energy Of = .2<- 2-52 == 2229 s2s2n5 cen eee ee st 217 EET C OREO, aon. .os cans s Serge Dose So soe ee eee oe 131, 215 Pm prunitive methods of .-......---..)-=:-++-2+-------2-son-- eee 493 mnieay Wy Wiliam, Smithsonian Regent....--..----.----.--+--.--+2-.--+- XU, XU, 7 PEA eLermInaAtlONS .~ ==... 2. be. o2 689 Long, John D., member of Smithsonian Establishment. ---.--------------- x1, 2 Mootor Pekin Observatory -...----------------------- ---- 2-0-2207 - 700 33 summer palace at Pekin .....-.------------++-eerere errr ett 139 sm 1901-——49 Gi® INDEX. Page. oper. S: Ward; tossils:collectedsbyeeess a ssaee a eee eee 59 Loubat,-Ducidexcollectionsirom) 32242 s-aee 33,00 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, law providing --=------------™*-.-.-------- LXI Joueas;-F. A., curator of/comparative anatomy 2< = -es2 anes ee 64 mastodon:collected) by e222-sees tee See ee eee 61 ON GIN OSAUTS. ye fos en re FN a teal er ee ee eee 641-647 on fossil shinoceros:s: -os eee ee ea ae ee eee 137 on greatest flying creatnre- 25322 26sene ee ee re ree 654-659 on restoration/oL extinct animalss: = 22 hee e- sae ah ee 134 on: hres mera Oty pare eae a eee eee es 132 Luey,. M; de;:on wing. surfacerof-birds:-.*s.. 25 = as sete ee aes ee 653 Iuudington,.M,.I-, courtesies: irom’ 3222-23225 Sete eit ee ce nee 45 Imumiére’s: cinematography: sais eee 2 Oe oe ae oe eee re eae ee 327 lbydekKer;:.R-.; on mammothAvory 22) h5.5. 2 ees Se sae oe eee 132 Lyle, Eugene P., jr., on Santos-Dumont, balloon ..---:..--..-.--=-1..-----= 575-592 yon, Marcis.W..,.j7:, animals obtamed toy-jse- 7-9 a ee eee 110 PAPER DY 0 as te Seema. Can tron gee neve ieee separa 139 M. MeGeex Wi.Js< Collections Dy Ss s.15 2 ets Se sasein sistas ee eee eae ees 60 explorations: DY (zis ee. sor 2ecse ee ores enues oe Eee eee 66 on operations of Bureau of American Ethnology ...-.-.------ 65-84 McGuire, J. D., on pecking process of working stone.......-..---.--------- 507 stone implements from a2. - is be oa hese One eee 33, 57 McKinley, William, member of Smithsonian Establishment. .......------- XI,.2 MeNeill, Jerom6,.paper by. 2. 22s. =5 se eed as okie eee ane eee ae eee 138 Mach. 91)., researches (Dy 2s5 re Sao oo ces ates ee ene 337 iMapnetic attractionol cathode ways=2.0 oe 22 2. sees See ee a eee 277 effect of electrostatic discharges =" 22-860. 25-56 -6 eeeeee 740 OKC, UENO IO’ VAINENOM NN oo oooe oaoe saeco goe BR ye a ee ee 183 permeability of metals, Rowland on_..-...-----..--2222:2---5-- 739 Macnetophonograph,, Poulsen’ s = |... sc 42S oe eee ee 307 Mahan, Captain,’on yalue of ‘submarine boati:c<2 a5: 2. 2226 22 sea ones 721 Makaroff-\Vice-Adumrral paper bys: 2¢ 35-2 es ce oe er ee see ee 134 Malania:transmitted. by:mosquitoes 2c. =< 2 3-2 2: fa. a ee eee 135 Mammoth; preservation olin Siberia... - 3.50). ase os ee eee 37 truthy abouts JEW CAs Ones ee see ee ie eyes ae 132 Marmmoth-ivory,: luydekker On s22 5 392 60 Mills spectograph, work of.......---------------------+--+-02 +2200 -00077- 154 Mindlof primitive man... .....--.----------2--------<42-25+-95-2+------- 451-460 Minerals, new collections of....-..-------------+------+----02-tre srt ; 60 Minos, palace of, excavation of.......---------------------2 70252 2t ctr 425-437 Muracles, gospel, Hume on..-..---------+--+------------- 735-26 aee 548 Model of Nature, by A. W. Rucker.....----------------+--+-----2+---°-- 171 Molecules, compared with fog-.--..---------------------+---05-0000ttrr 183 prapettios Ole as. 22 uts 2c Ls tke + eae = +2 Re tee eB 184 PR eS oe ea od See eh oa ete ee ae 186 Mollusks, new collections of. :....---------------------+22--crsrcctrr 58 Moloch, Australian, description of..---.-----------++--------rrttrttttt 644 Mignikeys, care of captive... .----+-----------<05- 206 $e e enone nn genanrne 711 Mont Cenis tunnel, description of -..----+-----------+- +++ 25252-20292 622 Moon radiations, researches in ..-.------------------ 0-25 rrrrrrt rr 120 Mooney, James, Indian studies by...------------#------ +++ r0rt errr ert es de Moore danger of extinction of .....5-- +. 708 econ neste enen sneer ncees 772 INDEX. Page. Moose, present. scarcity of: 23-2 2.2222) So ee eee a ee 40 Morgan, Mrs: (George W., collectionsfrom)222-- 22. 222s ee 57 Motor, petroleum; secret. of powerrol:2.2. 2 Sao-520 Sacro. hae ee ee 587 Moutllard on poweror aight Of-binds' a2. -5-<2- ae ee a ee te eerie 653 Mountain: coat; danger of extinction of. 5515259502 25.5 eee 699 Mounts Dictas onen ts Cay 6 10 faye as eee ge ree ee 426 Mousterian ‘epoch; pictures: of5 2054 seem as 2 eee ee emg aenee 439 Murray, Sir John;~paperbys-22 5 26s cock cere ee ee eee 131 Museum propesedvat SantaMe: Palace -s82o sors eee ee ee 27 Mussels: fresh water; Simpsonyom=ss sy: esta oy ee dr ee 137 Mutation theory of Professor De Vries, by C. A. White................._- 631-640 Muy bridge’s’animal-motion: pietures< =< -525¢ 2 sae eee ee ee 318 My cen, excavations atiec2 cs eee, Sei eS een ey eee ie eee ee 425 Myths, Indian, study: of 202-2 6, aes nye eee oad ie oe ee ea 81 N. Naples Zoological Station, Smithsonian table at .....................----- 15 Natick Indian dictionary, Trumibullies: 35222 asa te ee ne a eae 79 National Museum; JaCCesslOns tOlsa eae eee oie ee 33, 09 AC MMM Stra O Ine Olas epee a eae KX XK appropriations for <<<..=5. 52.) 2-$2 224 a RRS Assistant Secretary Rathbumion—: <_2-s22ses5-- oe -2o ne 53-64 building? ;costioiss 25 Vo Pte Sa ah ee eee 32 enubicicontents' of Ya. 552520 shee ae eee ees 32 TEA) OLN C Wit Se os ee en a = ee ee pn 30, 151 children?s Troomvols23!es. ses sos 53, 553-560 census of colléctionsiinds 3.5.3, = 242 ee ee: See 147 comparedewith other museums \s55. 5245-25 eee eee 31 Congressional acts:conceming 25s: Sas 4 bee ee eaeeee LVIII electricunstalllationmne= ane sone re ee XL, 05 exchanges ibys: os aoc Se eee sete ee eee 61 finances! of (22 S2.5. Se oe 5 Sa ee eae eV gallerieghimes eee ae Se ae ee aap a XLVI, 10, 54 larger appropriations needed for..-...-.--...---.-.---. 30 lecture halltolzess 35. S540 so cae ee eee 54 libranyOlSe asec es aos ee ee 64, 128 OVI SUB a ce 2B as ose Sa oa 147 publications-olt<¢ <5 6 Sos rs a ee 63, 187 Scientificistathio ii: ac ae eee eee ee ne ae 54 Secretary OMEMECES Olea meer eaten eG NGIT 70) Sécretanrys:reportion'. = sss ae5. ne see ere eee 29 WISItOTS: OSs on le eae ay ec aaa gee eae ee 53, 148 National Physical Laboratory of Great, Britain: 222s aee see oe eee 341-357 National ‘University, Mr..Bells oms254.0 345 34 ee ee eee XVUI National Zoo at Washington, Ernest Thompson Seton on.......----------- 697-716 National) Zoo) ooicall seat kamera tilt Si eee gee 105, 110, 111 aniinialiquarterssms ssc eee eee eee 702 ADPLOpHavlonMOris: sees see ee Lx, 10, 106 aquariumins 332555255 ss aoe eee ae ee 107 bird /housenn<2%,.25585 255. Us ee a ees 106 elephant house needed in.........-.....-------- 110 finances Obsss2cseeseks aoe ee eee RGLE history olj.:3.2)ss0 seed 2 eee 700 INDEX. "73 National Zoological Park, important accessions to.........._.. pe losses in ESTP PEI Oe RES Seat Ae NR are Sows do! il MOCO OLY 2 sens Re See Me Te xiv. 110 ME WADA docks Unease aye ete ewer ah eae De a 107 OWieUr Ons OU wae ee ete ee Ey Pe oe 38, 149, 700 DEOPGKiY OL ho aces 7 ee rae ae ek, 5 ne ene ee 105 report of Superintendent of............/.......- 105-118 report Ob Seeretary Onc =. a ke See oe 38 NOACWAYS nls So ... =... 2--s<----<- +26 s+ = ~e pane eee ae 134 Oceanic areas, Murray on...-.--.------------+----+----- 22222222 2er ree 131 (£nothera, De Vries’s experiments with ...------------------------+------ 635 Okapi, Sir Harry H. Johnston on...---.---------------------++++-++++--+- 661-666 pizermoecolorition Of: 22 -2fse2c 2+ oes 0 ose es =p opie am ee 663 Olney, Richard, Regent of the Imstitution: 2b se eno a eee ae eee XE, KU 7 Origin of species, Darwinian theory of.-..-..--------------------------7+-- 631 De Vries’s mutation theory of.-.-.----------------------- 631 Ornithostoma, Lucas on ....-----. ---------------2222 2-22-02 errr 654-659 the greatest flying creature. -.-.---------------------+------- 649-659 Oxygen, liquid, researches with.....--------------------++2rrtrrertttt 252 By Paine, Albert Bigelow, on children’s room...-------------+-+---++77-777- 55 aie Paintings, ancient Cretan ...-.-.-------------------22r tr eerer rr 774 INDEX. Page. Palace:of Minos; Evans, 0n2.2.j.3a. sae ee ee Oe ee eee 425-437 Paleolithic:period an urope= = 2s. > as-2 3-= es - ee eee ee eee 439 Palmer) Walliam- collections *byesce—sss-2 =o eee eee eee eae 59 Pamamarylndians, collections{trom: \22552 ees Sa eee 56 Ran-Am ericanvH xpositions collections iron === ee ees ee 60 TEPOLU ONes asa e ee ee eee eee 63 Papago Indians; stud y-of iss s2.,s5425... 362.08 ee See en ee ee 66 iPapi-ltarnatine wallksceremonve ==. 5 5S eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee 539-544 Pawnee: Indian’ ceremonies study olesace-ee eee eee ere aera 68 Pearsons Karl. quotedies 2.5 So eee re to ee ee ee 181 Pekin; Jootiot summer :palacelatesccsa. ess =- See eee a ee eee eee 20, 135 Pekin’ Observatory; loot:of 2223-225 32 a ee ae ee ee 133 Péiree, Charles'Ss, onl ereatimenvof sciences as yee ee eee 155 Permanentcommitteesreportiol-=-=- as ne eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee XVI Perrin,,J ean, reseavChes Dyn. 5.22 Sass se Se aes a oe ee ee ee 286 Rerrines Micrso) ame elipse70 Serv aiul ONS! yates ree 166 RErSCUSs Me Wa Stale @ OSE VAUGLOT SO eee eee ae ee 167 Petersen Ee P.-mineral stro mics! f= Bae Sens ene er ae eee re nee 60 Petrified stonrestsrok cAI Z Oman: \VGaTGle Ona eres oe ee eee een cee eee Sil Phenomenare lites Ruck eros ese ye ea oe ee eee 188 Philippines; collections promises see eae ee ee ee ee 56, 60 listob native tri bes Otc sec we eee a ee anny ee 132 Peo pling Oise see See re eee ee 2 eee a ee ee 132 Phillips; OP: movie. pictures by-2- =. 9. Soe eee eee oo eee 68 Phillips; We A. cexplorations doy: so. eset ee SSS See ee ee ee eee 60 Philology ;stirdies cir. 5 ie Ses Oy x ae Se ee erode ce rte sre ee 78 Phonographs maenetoxOr MaCkO \ sees ey rare Sie tare ate ee ee 307 Phosporescemce forms: Of ath weer os Evra oa ann ae epee or eae eee 2a 494 ‘Photographiceunyd escriptiom Ole ss a0 222 (ean sas eee ee eo 322 lens sim provenmlentsims 22 S22 2a cere he cea ee ee eer eee 348 Photorrapinys astronomnl caller chy mes iin se epee ae en 155 chrono; Marey “on™ ater ii een en eet ee ee 317-340 Colorranti Gleaner as s8 ese es ee ee Oe ee yep te eee ee 135 da Keygoto) 02) (0) cea ees eee rey aE aren ES ee ee oT es 313-316 SOU GSW VS ete eS ae BS ae ene cae eae 154 SPCCLIUME aes Res eae eae a rae ates rere eR era eee ee ee 744 Play Seale Lier OVA CO Ts yO es Grete eat seen me 341-357 theories: lim rtsko tee I a eS oor ane eS 190 Physics progress Mendendallltone == essere serene ee eee 134 Physiological usesvot salt. cp =e at toe ec eer ge ee eee 561-574 RAC Ke rim oii, Css Peas eee eee oe ane ee eee 44. observationsonyplanet Wrosibyssenese see eee eee eee 160 Pinchot Gittords onttorestad CSU CULO Merete ee 401-404 Planet Hrosso bservatiOngroleie 2 eee eae ee ean 159 Plants;.electricalphenomena Glezes eee sce: oe ease ee eee eee 151 mews Collections: Of x ste ee a es re ne ee 59 Platt.OrvillessesRerentrofaoiem lin stitution eee Selig, SGU, Of Plomacher gH Ele Crocodile tro ree eee 109 Poincaré> Protessor on scientitic method sae e eee 171 Pollard; ©: Ls; collections: by2i422 2s see ee eee ee ee 59, 61 PortowRicovColle ct Ons ree eee 33 Postage, Museum, appropriation tore sis-- ee Sse oe ae eee eee 10 Pottery; “Andamaneses 3.222 555222 oo ager es oa eee de eee eee 483 INDEX. 775 Pottery, West Virginia, Hough on Poulsen, Waldemar, magneto-phonograph of 307 awl dio WW $2455 Soc SoBe eee ee ee a i eee eee eerie 36 OTAGINET OGL ON rae eae Nena ee a 118 representative to Congress of Americanists.................-- 26 OW erEsOUnCes Ol OndNOUStMaAlUSeS) <_2eerea nets 132 Rathbun, Richard, Assistant Secretary of the Institution .------------- x1, XX, 64 report on National Museum DYs5 or sa2 poe eer nar eae 53-64 Belveieha bord, cited,.-2-- 4-2 -y--0--=2-nvnn= rec hesnr sete seer an ate 231 pnMlipht|>.2 ee ae - -n--+ -genneno sre tae een neem eer 7 13: _ 153 Recent astronomical events, Abbot on...-------22------ecerr tert rr 776 INDEX. Page. = Regents-listof datesiof appoimtmentes= == ss sees eee NARS SIO 7 proceedings yoL mee Hints sO hae ese te ee ae ae ee eee XIII Reichsanstalt, descriptiontol 2 shes soars ae ee eee 341 Reports. ss art Som ary 1O by] CC LSC Lee a ea 20 Researches: bye bureau oi Ethno @ payee ae 66 expenditures for: 2tci isostatic eee Soe en cee eee XXVI Sécretary’s report On sca -e see es ee ee eee 11 Resonances; Rowland One8se 22s ae ee eee 738 Reyndersy Ja VenWe, bridgeibull hiya ses= = =e eee ee eR sine mis atm Ne Ri 611 Rhees, W. J., history of Smithsonian Institution by --..-.---..--..-.----. 19, 129 RhodessJames*Hordspapersbya sees eee een ae eee est eet, 140 Rice sWalliam-Northi paper bye.22 seen tetiece ae ee ee See ee eee 132 Richardsony Harriet,-collaboratons==-4—- eee eee ee eee 54 OM TSOPOCS hes ees ees eee ree ee aera re 138 Richarzebrolessor, cravdtabloneexperinne nts lee eee 205 Ridgeway, Robert; birdcollectiontironmi 225 2 5-22 6-2 24 ee eeee 58 Riker-vAL- 1; -automobile-race iD yeseees eae oe Sees See ee ee ee 596 Riley Js.“ collections spy, Se = ser eee rs re eee ees 59 Ritcheys irs nebuleeiphotographsthys-=-= esse ee ee 156 Riviere, Emile, on pictures in grotto La Mouthe................-.-.-..--- 439 Koberts-Austen,-Sir°W:, researches: byet-=—--- fase eee ee ee ee Ay VG PIMASOMS WV UPS Ta ea] Seo Cer GA oy ager 110 Rontgentraysapplicationsioleas= reese aan ee ene ea eee eee 282 DAStrOLO Mr eas soe SOs Sey tn ee ee ee 271-286 GiscOVERY Of S. /s epi ec ees ee 740 due to vibration of atomic corpuscles......--..-...--------- 286 MACUTE7OR | Fae Ss: eh aa eet ee Se eae cele ar eee Ee VO penetrating power ol 2.22 eo. Get ereee ere oe. ae eee 284 Varieties Of ois oe = San She hae See ee ees 284 vibratory, mot emissions: = eer ee ee eee 283 Roosevelt, Theodore, member of Smithsonian Establishment..........--.- KON on ‘forest destruction'2- 2 {soe ee ee ae ee eee 401 on irrigation 2o5- st ces oe oe on 3S See Ue Sele 412 on needs of Smithsonian Institution -......---.----- 145 Rerentiobthesinstitutio ne sere eee Dai Root, Elihu, member of Smithsonian Establishment................------ Daye Roscoe sir Henry won Bunsen seeseesee aes ee ee ee 133 Rotch; “Ac: Lawrence; kite researches Diy sss arse ee = cee eee 125133 on exploration of sea atmosphere by kites-...-. ------ 245-249 Roth shilibentsomstores ti Ges tr ure ti cn ey ee 402 Rothsehild, Baron Edinundde- 2 (08). = = ee eee 580 Rowland, Henry A., electrical researches by.-.:.....-..---..------------- 742 hedtresearches DVcasases2 ae Seas oo Soe ee eee eee 743 lite and: work of. 2.228 Soe. Ga ee eee eee 739-753 mechanical talentiof 282i m ates ee ee een 748 menorial addressionlssess ose eae eee eee 739-753 personality ofas<2 Xt 22 Ae see ee ee 751 researches ‘by: i252 eee eee 184 Rucker) Arthur W., modelioimatune byes = se-—= = eee ees ral Rumford, Count; quoted 22235 sac fas nose eee eee 178 researches 'bY.2 2: 2 Se ee eee 174, 744 Russell Brame, ‘rv cli aml tier lies ay irs ee re 67 Rust; Horatio wNe. collections drone: eee 55, 83 RutherfurdLewiseMsestsae0 eee eo eee eee fee eee 745 INDEX. 777 S. . . . Pe ’ Sabine, Wallace C., sound investigations by..........__.. 3 I Safford, Lieut. W. E., on Abbott collection from Andaman Islands _...___- $75—-492 Salt and its physiological uses, Dastre on..................... 1-574 constituent of animal organisms.............___. 570 solution, life prolonged by universal use as food Se Eee ah aint RRS cS VO a BE a Salvation Army, farming colonies of ................................. 23 santa Fe Palace, museum proposed afssetsi, eae 2 Nee Jou ee 97 Behl ePCOlOhires Of 62. os. sot sei 2ecel lo 132 ee eemamOnis WCCOUNOL. 5 >. 20 Sos Sates ee 8H balloonieireling Biffeltower..../.2..-2_ 2) 975-592 “SE LEOND, TIES Gig D012 CO 0) ee 175 meme iamon, paper bys oc 5 Or el 140 penamalensee: M4 -fossils collected by’. .922-2 201220222 59 pemuenert, Charles, fossils collected: by .2.-....22i5.2.5..--..---2-2b-e- 61 Samaiinnt vichor researches Dy o.22 02 -' 5-022. ee ot a ee 12 Banicien ne nToressor researches Dy 222224222 .0022. 2 ecole eek 233 Sclencesslelmholtz-om limitations Of 20-625. sso a.8 2 190 Scientific literature, international catalogue of....................--. XXI, 6, 23, 127 DO Ony re RUC KEE OMET Mase ise 20 se 2 ee A ae 72 SED LS VI Gls: a0) 08) 2a 0S es ee ee a ee 13 Pepin Studies pHlolopy DY. 22 25.4 5. Salk owe Sl este ey ky 78 PoMmipnine wamelent) Grelatkar ae tenon ot oho Ceo BC ey gee fea 433 SO thie OMNOMONS Ae nen Soe eee ss. Soe Se ok ce Se ok ee ace 389-399 Dequigne wat om preservadom Olesos. 6.00 52)5. J Sso.0 2ek- 2 se oc ee 687 Sea wer, allen preservalian Oro... G2... 2 Se ssl ee RA eee 685 Seals NOnuMwest: Codsts DalleOnee=.. se st 5 Sooke ween Cee ee eee 685 Seton, trnest Thompson; on National’ Zoo 2.2 22252.2--.-.-2.----.222 22-2 697-716 Servo kann ea We Collection irOM= ss sos .6 ee ees eee oee 6 Sees 33, 57 SHambaneh benjamin t.. paper by-sis. 255.0 25. ee et cae eke 140 Sisto tls MGI portraits trom: 22. So. ovehseces ol = 2 -Se bnew tenn 83 Shepherd, oauger, on color photography : 5. 2. -2/2.2s2s-- - 55 Sse eo ee 315 Part iaeraiclese IE CeOMILES NG = a2 2522 Vat 2's et Danaea oe tame ae 195 Shee ldneviiosevasAG HCOMeCWONS ALON. 2° 2.204 02). o costo cae went os gceees 56 SUDPDUESS FOI) 80) ETT hes oe rae ne ne Se 56 Suuplemiiaael, Cescripllon Ol... 2. 222... -2-'. "222+ 2 ----- anaes n= =e 626 Simpson Charles Torrey, paper DYy'.---_-..---=2--)-----=5- -7-2 ve2---e--= 137 COUPE ODSWIY cease ee ete eae een ee 58, 61 Skinner, Professor, eclipse observations by.-..--..------.---------------- 164 Bitmeryamone MNGiaUS <2 02.5. 56-52 - << -- Secs ae a ried se enn ee 74 Smith, Charles Emory, member of Smithsonian Establishment. ----------- XI, 2 Smith, Fred, minerals from .-..--.:.-.----.---------------<---+----<---- 60 Smith, G. W. Duff Assheton, zoo of ......-.---.------------------------- 691 Smith, James Walter, paper by ---.----------. ----------+---+----------- 133 Simitu John B., paper by: -=-.-..----..--------------- 20-0 nseenee-=n== 137 Smithson bequest, amount of.....--.------------------------+++--------- XXV Smithson’s remains, question of removal of......------------------------- XVI, 5 Smithsonian deposit in Library Of Coneress-=---- >= Ups ae a XX, LVI 22, 127 Smithsonian Establishment, members of .-------------------------------- XI Smithsonian fund, executive committee’s report on. -.--------------------- / XXV-LVI MECO OMINCLCASCLOL = 42 - soe ee ea eee 6 Secretary’s statement concerning ---------------------- Xx111,8 778 INDEX. : Page. Smithsonian Institution compared with large universities ..............--- XXIII finances ‘Of 22.2 2jc08 deb es cea) te oe io oe eae ee een fubUne Ofer Oars on eee ee eee ee 150 Prowthiol Ses sa~ sae aes eee a ee 149 legislative: history Of 225-150 52s ae re ee 19; 129 organization ofa. 2ees-4 © 8 Sy ye ee 146 President Roosevelt'on= 225-3 cee eee eee 145 Work and alm siOiaas ee ee ne 145 Smithsonian table jat Naples :2-2 252 or. ae So ey en eg 16 Suy ders Johns © titer eins soap ely ae ee eee 138 Sokeland; Herrman, paper byes 5-222 a. e oe eee ee eee 135 Solar atmosphere, observations on.........-...---.-- Kee tiene See eee 123 eclipse expedition of: 1900 soc. sec... ta ee ee eee 44,133 ot 190i sto Sumatra see =e ere 44, 124, 125, 161 energy, investivation Of. S222 saat ieee eae ere eee ee 266 engines, “Thurstomionm)=s2 21s 55 a2 ay ee es ee 265 spectrum, sRowland’s nesearchesaime 33.356 eee ee Ss | eee ee 743 temperature am cl elim Greyman ball] sere pe ee eee ae 133 Solid hydrogen, Dewar Qnty es54-s-s2e8 eee Ss Sa ee sue Sapele ti a ee ae or 251-261 CISCOVErynOP or Stasis eos ass Sea eee eyo ee ee ee 251 NIEPOSSM, |) SWAT: O Me se eee spe es See Say rete rete a gn eS ces ee 252 Sound articulateshallock’s researches sini esa asa eer 15 propagation ‘and -retlection Ol asen soe sana a ee 14 researches:1n,- by: Ws-C; Sabine ss eeepc te ee ees eee eee 11 waves; photography OLS. 6. 21s site oi senien oesto G ote eee oe eee 134 Soundsvowell “analysis oles es ce yee peed eee ee ee eee een ee 13 SoutheAmericanelndians colllectronsmin ory =r eee eee aa 56 Spectra; stellar; lockyerone ic ose face net a ee ee eee ae 184 PESearChes il ile ee, owt eee ee tea ee Een 153 epectrorraph. Malls. workiotie ce See so. en eee ee eee ee or ee 154 spectroscope; stellar. worksawithiacssce.c os oe ce Sete eee re eee 154 spectrum, .Langley’s: work on: 222% 2s 2st cee eee ec eee et ee 149 OPINOVa Perse rs ne Soe 0 sel ac oo NN mecca Se oe ya re gee 168 photopraphisnolscs. see cei ee See Se eye eee 744 photographsiduring solar echipses 2 4a. 9 a eee an oa eee 166 Rowiland’s researches tc: tac ee Pee Gees es eee 743 the new, Wangley on cs)sces se aoe 2 oe eer en ee ee 135 Spectrum oratim ecko yale Cle sae sees eee esr ae ae ere 743 Spencer vibierbert quoted 2-3 see cee ee een Seen ee eee 634 spracsue, Joseph White, sbequest ore :5 et eees. a aoe oe eee eee ee XVI Spurgeon,James Re, Liberian eagle from. 222.6 an 2s ee ae See eee 109 Standardizine: bureau ‘at (bushy. Park =" 25 oo. Sis oe ee ee ee eee 300 Stanley's Attrican’ explorations... 25-225 so)5s0e se ae eee ee 661 Starks, Pdwin Chapin, paper by access. =seceee oe = ee eee 139 Star'spectra;*Lockyer:on<- o. 2 2S oe eee ae er ee ee 184 Stars;; measure of heat ol'..s..5 66 oe sen ee ee ee ee ee ee 157 velocities of, incline .Of sight-2-55 224. e222 Se ee ee ee 224 Steamen gine; MorOsneSs aN 1s is ase ee sey ete yaaa wee nee ee 13: Navigation; progress ins. 25a eye See sep se lee 132 Steere, J.,8;, collections: frome) S22 255 ar eee tee eee eee 56, 60 Stesosaunston platedalizand Sis cere eee eee 646 stein, Robert, Arctic researches by 5. .222.2.882 68-45 eee ee 68 Stemer Roland) collections miro meee ae ee eee 60 INDEX. 779 ewecccemeonhard, papers by ....-..5..---.---.-cceteeencene ec cee. pee Peuammetion, determination of ..............................-......... 153 ee Wiener ume ieee eae a A | See 225 Sternberg, George M., on malaria and yellow fever_...................... 35 ptevens; F. L., at Smithsonian Naples table_.........................-... 16 Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, on Indian ceremonies ty RI I ey Ng REN ea nee eg pe eam = 624 Seeeomamxposition, law providing ..........0.2.------encs--csecececeee LXI eskcee soi George, researches by... ...-...--.- 2-2. scone nen cececceuccee 233 Seouedmplements, method of making. .......-..-......----- cece ccccee 501-513 paaeeye corre: M-. on Bogoslof yoleano -.-......-.-..---0-2- lee cen esdnn 37 ee moOnnstone, paper by =--...~.-=-22--2.<.-se0-- cscs soc cbc ween 13 DeaeeT MAM WADET WY. ooo... 25 2-52 + na Jone won mene anne a nse 32 SMMniovaniic Io Ds -meteorite trom ...5.2--..---.22es-ves-eceet tee so ee 60 Submarine Hosts Admiral Melville on. =.2---3..-5...2-4..--.-------- eecee 717-738 SUL TOL Gest basen p as cree tess SSE tr Tees Rad Le oe 727 COT PAssIMEC MADISON, 4.0 See 8 De os on bees 723 Consivuctlonsimplennicharacters «22 bene. see oes aoe 720 Mewes OMA NCIOn e Aer eo Se A le ae a 717 RUA EVDO ten eer eine ors Se es SSS ee te 721 Endurance OMNCKeWaON ees satan] eee aca as See ee eee 721 Mrancevandy th cts sects Seis ees a eek ee coe a 728 Genmanygand ee tae eee ee ae sae ns ok ae a ste oe tee 730 Greate nitaimrald pean eae 2. on Soe ash Shee See eee 729 Majhranvoninvaluevotes see: seme te nee =e Bate ee Satine ae te oe 721 INGOT W any pam Gee erg rato eS oan st eminos sects esl e oe 731 TRUSS AT lee eer Naresh oat oe Po Ste ee ee 730 AuMeneedabest Ob. t UNON = oso. 2k 5a eae 722 the nakenGesieibee aero tet eo eae. te Sen 734 VALUER WAT AT On eee soe Aa See ee ee eee eee een 717 PAIIC-Of. LOLPCAOES ON. sae so Siaa)- a’ae win bats ace seen a2 oS 725 Samatra eelipse expedition. +42. 2... - o... 22. sas eeee nse se - 45, 124, 125, 161 Sun, cierey Of, researches IN-- 2. =. 2...-.)-- --2------*>-<--+--- ee ee oe 266 MOIOE II BNOREE DERE Se pete Nine cn aceeoteme oe eset one nn ae en 225 Sains NMMIDERMOLAses res 25- a5 2 0.8 ae Sawn gme woe a 2 2 = ent meee 223 Sun’s energy, utilization of, Thurston on ....----------------------------- 263-270 Sunlight, mechanical value of cubic kilometer of... .-.-.------------------ 216 Swanton, John R., Indian researches by-.-.------------------------------- 67,79 Swastika, study of _......-.2---2.------------- +2222 - 2-2 eee ener ener eee 68 Switzerland, exchange service with .....-.------------------------------- 91 T. Mablets. ancient Cretan.....------------------<--=--9---- 0-7 = -2-en-n errs 435 Tahiti, fire-walk ceremony in......------------------------22-00rtrrre 539-544 Telegraph, instruments, collection of ...----------------------+--+++7+0777- 57 ocean, Pupin system of .......--------------------+--+--+---" ao) Telegraphone or telephonograph -.-.---------------++-----r7rtttttttttt te ah Telegraphy, wireless, Marconi on.--.----------------------77000000000077 281-206 LrANsoAtlantiCs secs ese = aoe ee sn alana a alate nn 206 @elephoning, method of;.....-.-----------=----=--=---=2---- 2 oeno=an ne = os trans-Atlantic, Anthony on ...-..----------------<------++77- 4% -306 307-312 Telephonograph, W. J. Hammer on ....---------------++7----0000rrr707* 780 INDEX. Page. Temperature, ait, livestigation Of 222 as = oe roe ee ee ee ee 247 change in metal structure: by. 0.82 aaee eee ee 302 high, «methodsof-measuring 222 Soe 4 ee ee 355 in-Alpine\tunnels\-2222 say. sens se ee ee ee 623 low, Dewar’s experiments in. 250s. ate eee ee 251 of nebulies 22 so. 8s See es ee ee eee 243 TOCK AMES ts GOLMATG GUT lie pe ee ee 624 solar anddirdrayrantatallll see tees ee ee ee nee 133 Tennessee Centennialt Exposition; Téportion:. 5-22 ace 2 es eee eee ee LXI Topeka Indians study ol. -c-noc. Stace san oc ce RCE eee eee eee 37, 66 Mermnites:orswihiteram ts: wldlalva lean (ones ee 667-678 Rerry,, ‘Seth: Spracue, -bequestto = s.- 22 ss aca- See saoe Sea oe ee ee XVI Theatrephone experiments with: 5 3-5-2 ose see oa see Oe re ee 311 Mheories: physical, limitsolsee le hs ee a ee 190 DPheory, scientific, Rucker one: -4. se eer he eee ee Ses ee 172 Thermometers, «standardizingole. ses nest acee see eee ee eee 355 Rbespeésius; description ofs=2- ses se hee os sce Se Se Lee eee eee 646 Thomas,-Cyrus; Indian studies by <2. 22 S32 22ce hee as ee oa ee 78, 81 PhOmass Jessie ys He Ome eye gl aT O11 re eee er 79 Thompson-Seton, Ernest. (See Seton. ) Thomson: Hlihu,paperwbys.se aces ee coe eee eee ee eres 131, 134 Mhomson, Jes, .onsbodiesismalliersthanvatonise ses se— eee ee eee 231-234 on divisibility.obatomis==.2 ss. (sess ese! INU et SE ima eo 184, 185 researches Dy 2e's saa tice eee oer keene pe een ea ere ae 183, 272 Thurston; Robert H.; on. utilizing the sun’senerpy ©. 2-—- - 2222-2 eee 263-270 paper bys ts fos. Sates Stee ey ere eas ae ae 133 Didal power -utilizationvoh 255.) sasss oe aac ne tee ee Ee ne eee eee 265 Tierra del-Nuego:during: slacial epoch 2 -sasee-- ose ee eee ee 383 Torpedo=Ww hitehead valueless Se peat oa see eee ee 722 Traditional ‘elements of primitive minds 222) 55 222 822 Sas 2s 458 Trans-Atlantic telephoning, Anthonyson= 022 ne eee ee eee 299-306 wireless ‘telegraph 222. shoe asec see ee eee 296 4brgn ofsbel baVeb EN OMS NIKER AKON O Ge Ree ce OE ei Se Ae Pe 465 Mason onic s¢ 2 eae eee eee eee 461-473 Pricératops,; skull Of 325-213-2833 oni ee aera ee ea a 644 True; Frederick W., exposition representative: =< 322.22.) 2222-56 se oe eee 26 report-on. biolégy iby = -25. 32a =o eee eae 136 Trumbull, James Hammond, Natick dictionary by.................------- 79 funnels Babylomian’< 2.32222. qoogse eo eee ee Teen ee eee ee 617 Mont Cems, = 5 oes Saas eee eee ie or eee Stee eee 622 Mool.of- Siloam sh 5 Se es easter ee 618 Smal OM 22752 sce a eee ee oe ee IT ee ane 626 St: Gothard. 22 1.5- ace. 5256 Sseboe de a ese ee ee 624 Tunnels, “Alpine, temperaturein=.22 05-0325 2422 ee see ee ee ee eee 623, 624 ATI CIEE, ACEO UM EOL apap a aye eer es 617 great Alpine: . courtesies from’.........-....-..<................. 16. 124. 164 peoranions, sympathetic, Rowland on....................-.............¢. 738 Seeateameenireniny, courtesies by = 22220 0..¢ 2... ec. 50) Bemmwtererer wrcoearches Dy 202 2te 2) be eS 3 2c. cen le 273 Te ASO E gy 102s RT SOT Te BSS tl gc a 189 Pema mitorensor, LOsearches by !-.=:..-22.2...-----22- 2-2-2 2. eee 154 Serenrsnakatau, emiption Of. - 92.20.2022. 022-022 ee the 163 menos boros ot dvwerriam, On. — 2.22 9s2ie he 228s tls le ele 367-375 = vom Helmholtz, electrical researches by .-......-.-..-.-.......-.-...---- 740 DiirmnplneninrmereCOMecttOns tromises. = some eke ee ck ee ese! 58 Von Lendenfeld, Dr., MmeteirolmicaPsindies Of S522. 2 5 2 ess doen 12 OEP AELSREING Sh SPUN A FSTSTC) 2 ai a 3 W. Mealcou, Charles Ds tossils:collected "by. 2-2. .s.. tet see ee ne eee een 657 Willson Ces RES ESCA Cl Ge) yr ets eee nee ea ee ge ea 183, 233 Wilson, James, member of Smithsonian Establishment ................--- XI, 2 Walson, William yne!- death ty yee see ee eee ee eee O00 Henderson’s:tributeto0ce <3 spe ee ee 51 MeEMOrIa | TESOMItLOMS tots a ee xu, 51 Smithsonian Regent to) 2.s. 2 omes, cope toa aes XII successor tO: Eee asc e eee eee a e ee ae XIV, LVIT Wan dino DServatlOnsto lp iii Uipp pe Ici pre eyes eae ae i ee ee 247 Wand: power, Wtihizationvols 222-225 su cehson Gost see ae eee eee 265 Wankler,Captain,- paper: by 2-25-5522 ces see ose eee ee eee 132 Wireless telegraphy, across English Channel -.-...--- scenes cer Sea este, eet ca 293 coherer necessary fore) 2.20) kos ace eee eee 288 in naval MAVEUVeTse ss! eset ee ee 290 in: South Ateea ys Ce = ait ee llew eye ele eee eed near 294 Limite Ofc 23 nas so oe eu ae Sie ee ete eee nie ene Trane 288 Marconi: Oni ss sos % oe Soe ew ee ens a rece epee 287-298 trans-A Clanive a6 soso oe eee ose ene ae erie oe eee 296 Watt, discovered planet ros 2222272 at ee 2 eee oe eer aes See ee 159 Wood. De; Volson, on'sun’s energy: 2 928 a see ee eee re eee 267 Wood, 2: W.,on photography of soumd “waves=.—= 24-3 s25 ces eee eee 134 Wood, is l.; collections-Dy'] a5 => 4.222 tee ae ele ere ee 58 World?s' Columbian: Exposition; reportione 2-> 4252) a ee LX Writing: ancient Cretanacsc es = sone ss es te ee eee eee eee eee renee 436 Wwuviine-fang articles 2s sone se ieee eee nee ee 20, 135 X. X-rays, Dastreon, (seesRonteen rays co eee aoe eee ne ee eee 271-286 Xs VYakisimdrans-scerem oniesiOl aes oe eee ee ee ee eee 80 Nellow fever, transmitted: by mosquitoes’. 2222: see. Sess ee 13 ‘Yellowstone: Park.-antelopesn: <2 -.ene seer ee eee eee eee 705 Yerkes Observatory, photographs! by-2.2 355 922 - ems ca eee eee 156 Yermakicejbreaker ss 2-452 bese ase eee eee eee 134 Zi: Zeppelin’s'dirigible air’ship: 5-4. 22. 2-<- 2-2252-2- See eee sae 132, 133, 577 Zoological Park. (See National Zoological Park). Zoo; National; Mirnest Lhomipson: Seton) otlee os eae nent eee 697-716 Loos private; Aflalo Ole. 28 Se a2 5 as see eee ee a ieee 689 we ah cs es eae wes SMITHSONIAN INSTIT UTION WASHINGTON SM Il 3 WATE ‘ . vk Wey ; ebay ( : " he Cy ms Lato +4 ’ H DALY 4 ‘ 4 * re A\ ve A i 4 hea A} Ft) ITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES LTT 9088 01421 6774 ' 4 | \) 4 ‘ “ ‘ ¥ ; elk i i ‘ ‘ i { ; ' ; ‘ ‘ 4