¥ 2 —_ — ee! ache aN ta v ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF Pah ovr PrHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 1915 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 " ABIAORHTIM2 1HnT MOITUTITEMI. = "3 ‘ 2 ; tHT OYVIWOHEe OGE .2aREPTI CAA Ra CAOTTAAILO~ AOTUFITEAY JHE TO AOITIGZOD 0b AAUL OYIGVA AAAY AHT 204 OCS MTHER > eae UA) eT AOFM vid. ‘ier : reer | . na Pay Uae Mee a ee LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 15, 1915. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30,1915. Ihave the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Cuartes D. Watcortt, Secretary. III sees as 4 oF ae ee 4 uy ve ie ieee, bes ee ig ae a ee sinha - ey ti a —— Fos ean HOT PAL a reais Hike ut Sain at sana fon Kk . -niieaalek wen ae Gat t estsSll Busirst aiff to GR moitoes Bin osnateoaan - Sets 61 Yo Irtenkl od to thuled i soaud odt oat 1 corte baa ot 6) eurOLI Todo add to toga Uhura tary. tiled Bo tor a) 1 wis ien onan o to eos nn a | ot ovad I GIVE OF sank x CONTENTS. Page. Letter from the Secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to PMOES soe Sere gk eas nie Fic ee eae i On EO ey a kw ad ul Gaatents of the report... <= 35 ~4445-+~++-< Sse => = Wertab.) oy/itueex? do. v WE OL PI RGE Se a an 5 54.4525 thhiss = 554-S55sen- BSeuell to 4pen Hl Ac pooeik VII General subjects’ of the annual reports. 3... .. 2.222.445. 225 50-45.) <8 2-525-4 IX Officials of the Institution and its branches........................-..2------ XI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The Smithsonian Tnstitubionence:ig22! $n geededogined! legs aegheue he cigdte tas if Ps Bish iON ern at RE 2 eer Be so eyo ae Gene ee i adierioart. of Ropentsn24 45 48. occ AI A et. ce he ate 1 Minaneesc-) , itivnald oiseact yt Lyietl degen!) aevigig ht et} sd aeieenstrs 2 Researches and explorations: Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains..............-.-.-- 5 Stratigraphic studies in central Tennessee............-..---.-------- 6 Fossil Echinoderms in western New York......-...-.-.-.---..------- 6 Vertebrate tosgtisain-Mon tang: fd - lect t fe ese he ang hes ott Se amd 7 Coral: inyestigaitene 2 yas ate ccou decd: ot ee g-esise-aentt 7 Borneo. and:Celebes.expedttions. 2.000 . Y- yk cc pews Seen: ts eae 7 Expeditions to the: Mardeast?! - 23 sed — spe qee os od -R > sods en eed -eppes 7 Bird studiesin- bilimoisss . £52: SER SP ee Se eee se 8 Henderson.expedition in: Cabad . .os3648- sates 2d pee es eee 8 Botanical explorations in South America ..........-...-.------------ 9 Anthropological researches in Africa and Siberia ................---- 10 The natural bestony ef Maan. 21494.) thot i gueane sb PREP gece ee 10 talsndvot Tamor expeditions <2 5.2... 2.007) sss Ss aged sch eat vee 12 Clearing of fog by electrical precipitation...............--..-..----- 12 cccaren mM onpotaiinmns~ Sead. Sores te te eee eee ae vic a Re 12 Harriman Teust Mandya s2ehe. foun cons Fastest els y evrsetd Cay Bone hie 13 Langley Aerodynamical ‘Laboratory; ..--2ceencef sted - % = bce Bice BPs 14 Pa blieationee is pnt SOE 9 ete ewe a. Cae oP es en ee 15 DBI eke ene et Ge ee te ee ee eee A Neem Sout ene teleost k mee! 16 icy © anuocorre Ws Poore und. ..05 2. 83ers 2s 14 le Serres: Se 17 US DMDR A ee ETS 100) Thee apap ae i pag ge 7 Rpt Orc Rnierer en ant ten > onrte. 1. < 2s. Senate, Seman a rte eee 20 bares of Amoenicn MatinGlapy” 2022-7 2000 582-2 ee oe en sels eae. t Malan 22 Astrophysical Observatory............-- Be Ren et ae ane ee 23 Tiaiterna trons! phx nanreseeesseere seat arene Se te ee Ps ae Sears 24 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.............-.-.....--- ees 24 ent Het A OlOmiCe ereBEK As Semen ere ov sao yee it yoeealncain'e sine he see's ose Sears 25 Necrology........-- Eee ee Ail to Rete oe tases ui aia ener 26 VI CONTENTS. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY—Continued. Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum. ..............-- . Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology.........-.---.--- . Report on the International Exchanges................-.--++--- . Report on the National Zoological Park.............--.-------- . Report on the Astrophysical Observatory.............----------- . WReport:on the laibratyes ete seamen act eae sae aciece tees . Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. - . Report on publications: =-o-5 2. ones. sect cess bate a oan eens Con oo Ot mR © LO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND REGENTS. Report of Executive Committee: ). <5. .ss00i cece nes ccecete dR Froceedines of Board.of Repents. 5.1. 0262. caecideer sd aoe sie ceases eeeen GENERAL APPENDIX. Review of astronomy for the year 1913, by P. Puiseux ...............------- The utilization of solar energy, by A. 8. E. Ackermann..................-..-- The constitution of matter and the evolution of the elements, by Ernest Ruther- Submarine signaling, by R. F.-Blake .......222. 022222. -5. 0002901), OILS The earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy, by Ernesto Mancini........... Atlantis, by Pierre Termmier-..... 2.2... .-)-=- 2522... eee Evidences of primitive life, by Charles D. Walcott.........-....-..--------- The place of forestry among natural sciences, by Henry 8. Graves............- Lignum Nephriticum, by W. E. Saffdtd . 2.64 sft lo. A cen. ee. Impressions of the voices of tropical birds, by Louis Agassiz Fuertes........-. The Eskimo Curlew and its disappearance, by Myron H. Swenk........-..--- Construction of insect nests, by Y. Sjdstedt 2/227) 29. Meo OUUOeEL Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus, by C. R. Eastman. .............---. Heredity, by William Bateson. ......:2...-5...22.. 200A DE ee Some aspects of progress in modern zoology, by Edmund B. Wilson........-.-. Linguistic areas in Europe: Their boundaries and political significance, by iaon Dominian:.-....0--2. 2.20 SI a aia Excavations at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, in 1913-14, by Ludwig Borchardt. ----. Waccines; by UL. Roger.<.:.. 2... 225. :22. sere: =. 2. SA SORE Ip ee Progress in reclamation of arid lands in the Western United States, by John BORIS 220s ois iene occa da ncn dane ewan dase coe eRe Uer eres.» Boe eeeen: Some recent developments in telephony and telegraphy, by Frank B. Jewett. Sir Dayid Gill, by A; 8. Eddington-~...: JST e See ae Walter Holbrook Gaskell, by J. N. Langley ......--..--. idva - «June eeeOeeee LIST OF Secretary’s Report: Page. IR Tate wel es es cs 72, Solar Energy (Ackermann): 12 Gay esis |e eee 154 Tat CS hoe es et oe 160 Pistes: DOs tee so eee 164 Constitution of Matter (Ruther- ford): VES MEH So ee tS Sey rn oe ene 172 LEG Re Ee ee eee ee eer 180 TIES No}) 2 eee 182 1 2G Het 3 de, Sa OR a eae ne een 190 Earthquake (Mancini) : Plated ee seer. AS Pipe. 218 Primitive Life (Walcott) : 12 oe ee ee ee ees 235 EAGAN ite ah os epee eae Ne 240 PLCS aes ee ee ee 242 lates Gia eee ee 244 PAGES 1S. cO= i eerese tela 8 SVE 246 Pigtes. 10. ile ee hes 248 Tiley desea Pa ee 250 ALCS aah te oe eee Se 252 Plates rliG— 16's iat aah Soe ee 254 Lignum nephriticum (Safford) : Plate1..(colored)22225-s 226 <2 271 LEARY ey ee Ee. ee Se ial LAE ees ee a ee De. Sea tey 280 Plate 4 (colored)____________ 282 Elate:s (colored) === = 283 TEAC Wet (elem Aire Me lcnl SE ee a 292 Rigtett(2 2223 a 296 Bird Voices (Fuertes) : TEAS Wetstel [A eee oA Ce aati 300 PIgtkeS 3. 4222 eee eee 304 Plates) Os GO) wese ee EP Sl 310 PLATES. Bird Voices—Continued. Page. PIAteS Ni 8 = tae Bie a 312 Pilates: 00 NQ2 S26 ee ee 314 Plates) dl O26 eee 316 Plates Se Wide Sc eed ee 318 Platess1osdG eee eee 322 Eskimo Curlew (Swenk) : Pel ae ye NS oe 338 Insect Nests (Sjéstedt) : BlatesMl (22 eee ar 342 TAT Cig oh = coe a 344 Hippocampus (Hastman) : Platess 2 Qo. 2 - ae 352 Babes a ptAe ee oe. eee 354 Linguistic Areas (Dominian) : EAE eked Ua ed prepa a caps a 412 lates 25 ite. SER eee ee SE 414 IPTSGG: Beet vee ee ee es oy 426 Plate ae eo eee 434 Rigteg) 2222 Saas se ee ee 442 Excavations in Egypt (Borchardt) : Plate ik. 2 Seer eee ait fee 446 PIatest2 eee = eee ee eee 448 PIRteskA (eet ee Se bee era 450 Blases, Gy Fs et eh 452 BIA teS SRG te es see Aes 454 Plates, 10-(3a ss. 7s en 456 Reclamation (Beadle) : Plates ee oe oe eek 472 PIALCS 3 Aor ee nee era 474 PIates Oy G22 ee ee ee 478 PIAS (5 Siete nr emer aes 480 PlatessO Osea ce ea ereg 482 Piagtes Miva 2S ee Soe aes 484 Tater ales Sees een os EPs ee 486 — ys hay ea Se Per Saar a Feiesidacaieeh dee eae \ ; Tarai ay iss Ut Regaine Ji Xgel Pues ; 7 S. sagas Sie he Mire he Migertcays. - €-seiery Yea Rene ee : Lake kinw he an ROE BFF, 4 = ; Fad ae ers, : sti pe Pah iy (ORR eee tereeinge Ge ng aM on a, eat ato tyke]. ign" > Scape ec kot « Vs-—eaetn Aang oie — GUE J: 9t2 eee Seen Otoeaielt | eine ac: SEE eee on (laa Ry wel) oithaat |” Sate voSine 3 MOR 2a wine ce 3 Otilssy ie, : Be esr Git Bownk 7 seo erie fr. a SOLE at ae bei re a ae a ee eo am A ite ee ae A pe =~ yer San ‘hp ee <= = apy a= * mi ae 7 y = ag poe A testi a end | ea eee ae : oh ; oa J ON ah ah ae ae | oo) Smet Py - hae Pr PEWS TG Tales tg SS a ee 24, 534.92 Total of fund deposited in the United States Treasury__.__. 987, 600. 00 Other resources. Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value)________ 42, 000. 00 ERO tala WeEMANeNt UME ate tee etd Bee ed oe I hy 1, 029, 600. 00 The first installment to the Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, amounting to $24,534.92, was received in March, 1915, and was im- mediately deposited in the United States Treasury to the credit of the permanent fund. Other deposits to this fund during the year were from the income of several funds amounting to $2,565.08, or a grand total of $27,100, making a total now deposited in the Treasury to the credit of the permanent fund of $987,600. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions of the act organizing the Institution and an act of Congress approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to $112,035.90, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent foundation, $59,310; contributions from various sources for specific purposes, $12,000; first installment of a bequest known as the Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, amounting to $24,534.92; the original bequest designated as the George H. Sanford fund of $1,020; the balance of the William Jones Rhees fund, amounting to $248.05; and from other miscellaneous sources, $14,922.93; all of which was de- posited in the Treasury of the United States. With the balance of $30,560.13 on July 1, 1914, the total resources for the fiscal year amounted to $142,596.03. The disbursements, which are given in detail in the annual report of the executive com- mittee, amounted to $100,480.17, leaving a balance of $42,165.86 on deposit June 30, 1915, in the United States Treasury and in cash. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1915: International xXCchances sess) =e ee esis we SEE Ce ere $32, 000 AMericanyH thn ology ts tatu MRI ET Pai dO A EL eR BY 42, 000 Astrepbysical Observatory iia ti) 1 eae Bits pry ewes ob oro Ly tie 13, 000 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, National Museum: Farniture and. textures’) = = en tee ee eee ee eee $25, 000 Heating “and dightine 2S ee ee ee ee 46, 000 Preservation ofcollections== =" = === Ss ee ee eee 300, 000 IB00Ks ee a ee a ae er ee ee ee 2, 000 IPOStHE Gis Ee ee ae ee a ee ee ee ee 500 Building repairs S=< 2 2 oss. bee ee ae ee eee es 10, 000 Bookstacks for Government bureau libraries_________________________ 10, 000 National 7o0loricals Park = 5:56 t2 eS Sve ee ee eee 100, 000 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_______________________ 7, 500 Tower telescope, Astrophysical Observatory, Mount Wilson, Cal_______ 2, 000 Repairs smithsonian su UG Ss Se ee ee ee ee ee 16, 000 Notales Sese2 vot ed Sa ee a ee ee ee 606, 000 In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed ‘by the Institution there was included under the general appropriation for public printing and binding an allotment of $76,200, to cover the cost of printing and binding the annual report and other Govern- ment publications issued by the Institution, and to be disbursed by the Public Printer. EXPLORATIONS AND RESEARCHES. The “ increase of knowledge ” is one of the fundamental objects of the Smithsonian Institution, and toward the accomplishment of that object it has imaugurated and maintained or has participated in astronomical, anthropological, biological, and geological explora- tions in every portion of the world, resulting in greatly increasing our knowledge of the meteorology, the geography, the fauna and flora, and the ethnology of all lands, and in the acquisition of a large amount of valuable material for the National Museum. The Insti- tution has likewise, through special grants, aided laboratory re- searches in practically every line of natural science. The extent of these explorations and researches during the last 60 years covers a wide range, although a great deal more of most important work could have been accomplished had adequate funds been available. Friends of the Institution have many times, and particularly during the last few years, generously aided the work through the contribu- tion of funds for specific purposes, but much yet remains undone, and opportunities for undertaking important lines of investigation are constantly being lost through lack of means to carry them into execution. I will here allude only briefly to some of the activities of the Insti- tution in these directions during the year and for details of other investigations may refer to the appendices containing the reports of those directly in charge of the several branches of the Institution. \ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. In continuation of my previous geological researches in the Rocky Mountains of Canada and Montana I spent a week during the field ‘season of 1914 at Glacier, British Columbia, where I assisted Mrs. Walcott (née Mary M. Vaux) in measuring the flow of the Illecille- waet and Asulkan Glaciers. From Glacier we proceeded to White Sulphur Springs, Mont., for the purpose of studying the ancient sedimentary pre-Paleozoic rocks of the Big Belt Mountains. These explorations were made on the eastern and southern slopes of this range, and then extended to the south on the Gallatin, Madison, and Jefferson Rivers. ~ It was found that the pre-Paleozoic sedimentary rocks were ex- posed by the uplift of the granite mass forming the summit of Mount Edith of the Big Belt Mountains in such a way that the thickness of the sandstones, limestones, and shales could be readily measured in the numerous sections exposed in the canyons worn by waters descending from the higher points to the valley surrounding the range. Nearly 5 miles in thickness of rock were measured, and in the limestone belts reefs of fossil algal remains were studied and large collections made with the assistance of Mrs. Walcott and Charles EK. Resser and sent on to Washington. It was found that the algal remains were deposited very much in the same manner as those that are now being deposited in many fresh-water lakes, and that many of the forms had a surprising simi- larity to those being deposited in the thermal springs and pools of the Yellowstone National Park. In the lower portion of Deep Creek Canyon, southeast of the city of Helena, a deposit of siliceous shale was examined where some years ago I had discovered the remains of crablike animals suggest- ing in form the fresh-water crayfishes found in the streams and ponds all over the world. These fossils are the oldest animal remains now known, and the algal deposits which occur at intervals for several thousand feet below the shales containing the crustaceans are the oldest authentic vegetable remains. It is also most interesting that two types of bacteria have been found in a fossil state in the rock in association with the algal remains. On the north side of the Gallatin River two very rich beds of algal remains were found, many of which, on account of the fossil being silicified and embedded in a softer limestone, were weathered out in relief. For the season of 1915 I have planned some investigations in the Yellowstone Park in order to be able to better interpret the fossil algal remains found in and about the Big Belt Mountains. 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES IN CENTRAL TENNESSEE. Under the joint auspices of the United States Geological Survey and the United States National Museum Dr. E. O. Ulrich and Dr. R. S. Bassler, of the Museum, were engaged for several weeks dur- ing the summer of 1914 in a study of debated points in the stratig- raphy of the Central Basin of Tennessee with a view to determine accurately the division line between the Chazyan and Black River groups and to secure additional information on the black shale problem. The well-known marble beds of east Tennessee and associated shales and sandstones of Upper Chazyan age, with a thickness of over 8,000 feet, have never been found in central Tennessee or, in fact, in any area west of the Appalachian Valley. The first problem was therefore to determine either the corresponding rocks in the more western areas or, if such strata were wanting, to discover the unconformity representing this great thickness. It was found that the Lower Chazyan or Stones River rocks of central Tennessee are succeeded directly by the lowest Black River or Lowville formation, - and central Tennessee therefore was presumably a land area during the time of deposition of the celebrated east Tennessee marbles. The second problem entailed further work on the determination of the age of the widespread Chattanooga black shale, which previously had been considered to be middle to late Devonian. In recent years this determination had been questioned, and facts had accumulated showing it to be of younger age. Two features of considerable sig- nificance in this problem were the discoveries in northern Tennessee, where the shale is well exposed, that (1) this black shale passes with- out a discernible break into the overlying Mississippian (Kinder- hook) shales, and (2) that the fossils of this overlying shale are of late instead of early Kinderhook age. As a result of this work good collections of several well-preserved faunas were added to the Mu- seum collection. FOSSIL ECHINODERMS IN WESTERN NEW YORK, Field work carried on during the summer of 1914 under the super- vision of Mr. Frank Springer, for the purpose of adding to the Springer collection of fossil echinoderms in the Museum, was devoted mainly to a careful examination of Silurian rocks exposed along the new Erie Canal in western New York, especially the waste material thrown out in excavations for the canal. The most valuable speci- mens from this part of New York occur in the Rochester shales of Niagaran age, which weather rapidly into mud upon exposure to the elements, and it was therefore necessary that the new outcrops be examined at once to secure the best results. Numerous specimens REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 of crinoids and cystids were found, a number of them having, as is rarely the case, root, stem, and crown preserved. VERTEBRATE FOSSILS IN MONTANA. Through cooperation with one of the field parties of the United States Geological Survey, Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, of the National Museum, spent three weeks during the summer of 1914 searching for fossil vertebrate remains in the Judith River formation in north central Montana. The most noteworthy discovery was the fragmen- tary remains of a fossil bird related to Hesperornis. It came from practically the same locality as the type of Coniornis altus Marsh, and is of importance as showing these bird remains as occurring in the upper part of the Claggett formation, whereas heretofore it was thought that Coniornis had come from the lower part of the Judith River formation. CORAL INVESTIGATIONS. Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan has for some time been engaged under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution in a study of the growth of corals, their role in reef building, and related problems. His field of investigation has been chiefly the coast of Florida, the Bahamas, and other regions of the West Indies. Large collections made by him in those localities have been received by the Museum. BORNEO AND CELEBES EXPEDITIONS, Through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, who for so many years has been a most generous contributor to the zoological and ethnological collections of the Museum, Mr. H. C. Raven conducted a collecting expedition in Borneo for a period of about two years. His work there was completed in September, 1914, having yielded about 3,000 interesting specimens of mammals and birds. Mr. Raven next crossed the Macassar Strait to the Island of Celebes, where he expects to remain for a considerable period and to secure impor- tant collections from a region heretofore poorly represented in the National Museum. EXPEDITIONS TO THE FAR EAST, Through the liberality of a gentleman who desired to remain un- known, Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby has continued his zoological ex- plorations in Manchuria and northeastern China- and has forwarded a valuable collection of insects and vertebrates, including two wapiti bucks, a roe deer, two bears, and a peculiar rabbit. Mr. Copley Amory, jr., a collaborator of the National Museum, joined a party accompanying Capt. J. Koren to the northeast coast 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, of Siberia. It was Mr. Amory’s intention to explore such territory as may be practicable from Nijni Kolymsk as a winter base, giving special attention to mammals and birds. When last heard from he had made a trip up the Lesser Ammi River, where he obtained a good number of fossil specimens, also some birds and small mammals. BIRD STUDIES IN ILLINOIS. Incidental to continued work on preparation of manuscript of the unpublished volumes of “ Birds of North and Middle America” (Bulletin 50, U. S. National Museum), Mr. Robert Ridgway, during the past year, made a careful study of bird life in southern Illinois in order to compare present conditions with those existing half a century ago. It was found that with few exceptions the native birds are greatly decreased in numbers. At least three species (the pas- senger pigeon, wild turkey, and ruffed grouse) have totally disap- peared from the region examined, while several others are on the verge of extermination. A few species, such as the crow blackbird (bronzed grackle) and blue jay, and perhaps the robin, are, appar- ently, as numerous as they were 50 years ago. The principal causes which have brought about this greatly dimin- ished bird life are: (1) In the case of the game birds, relentless shooting; (2) greatly reduced breeding and shelter areas, through clearing of forests, cutting away of woody growths along roadsides and fence lines, and drainage of swampy or marshy areas; (3) intro- duction of the European house sparrow, which has increased to such. an extent that it now outnumbers, even on the farms, all the smaller native birds combined, greatly reducing their food supply and mo- nopolizing the nesting sites of such species as the bluebird, purple martin, wrens, swallows, and other birds that nest in cavities or about buildings; (4) invasion of the woods and fields by homeless house cats and destruction of eggs and young (often the parents also) of ground-nesting species by “self-hunting” bird dogs (setters and pointers) ; and, probably, (5) spraying of orchards. HENDERSON EXPEDITION IN CUBA. Since the Tomas Barrera expedition to western Cuba, Mr. John B. Henderson, a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, has made two trips to eastern Cuba to supplement the work of that expedition. One of these visits was to Cardenas Bay, where extensive, as well as intensive, dredgings yielded a lot of interesting marine organisms. The second trip embraced Cubitas Mountains, and was made in quest of land shells, which were needed to elucidate problems in the geo- graphic distribution of the land mollusks. As heretofore, Mr. Henderson’s yacht, the Holis, has been kept busy exploring the Pourtales Plateau. Numerous hauls in all depths REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 of water have been made, and the material, which has arrived here from time to time, is exceedingly rich in marine invertebrates, par- ticularly mollusks. This year’s efforts have resulted in the discovery of grounds with a more prolific, varied, and interesting fauna than previously known in this region. BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN SOUTH AMERICA, Through cooperation with the Carnegie Institution of Washington the Museum was enabled to benefit by an expedition carried on by Dr. J. N. Rose during the summer and fall of 1914 along the west coast of South America in furtherance of his work on the Cactacee. About 3,000 specimens of cacti and other plants collected by him have been permanently deposited in the National Herbarium. Dr. Rose explored a section through central Peru from Callao to Oroya, from sea level to the top of the Andes, at an altitude of 15,665 feet. Cacti were found in the greatest abundance at an altitude of 5,000 to 7,500 feet; but the various species range from a few feet above sea level to as high as 12,000 to 14,000 feet. A second section was made across southern Peru, from Mollendo to Lake Titicaca via Arequipa. The highest point reached was 14,665 feet. Here also the cacti are found from near sea level nearly to the top of the Andes; but the most remarkable display is on the hills surrounding Arequipa, at an altitude of from 7,000 to 8,500 feet. While the cacti are abundant in both these regions, they are, with only a few possible exceptions, quite distinct. Side trips were made from Arequipa to Juliaca and Cuzco, in Peru, and to La Paz, Oruro, and Comanche, in Bolivia. On the pampa below Arequipa are found the famous crescent-shaped sand dunes. Each dune or pile of sand is distinct in itself, often separated some dis- tance from any other dune, and occurring, too, on rocky ground devoid of other ‘sand. The dunes are found on the high mesa some 5,250 feet above the sea. They form definite regular piles of sand, each presenting a front 10 to 100 feet wide and 5 to 20 feet high, nearly perpendicular, crescent shaped, amd from the crescent-shaped ridge tapering back to the surface in the direction from which the wind blows. These piles of shifting sand go forward about 40 feet a year. In Chile two sections were made into the interior—one from Antofagasta to Calama, and one from Valparaiso to Santiago. The first is through the rainless deserts of northern Chile, the whole region being practically devoid of all vege- tation. The second is across central Chile, the hills and valleys of which are veritable flower gardens, the hills often being a mass of yellow. Various trips were made in the central valley of Chile and one journey along the Longitudinal Railway of Chile extended from Caldera to Santiago. Special trips were made for certain rare plants like Cereus castaneus, first collected in 1862 and not since observed until found by Dr. Rose; and Cactus horridus and Cactus Berteri, de- scribed in 1833, but long since discarded by cactus students. In the central valley of Chile is seen that beautiful palm, the only one native of Chile, Jubaea spectabilis H. B. K., which often forms forests of considerable extent. From this palm is made the “ Miel de Palma” so much used as a sirup on ships and at hotels. Botanical explorations by Dr. Rose on the east coast of South America were in progress at the close of the fiscal year. 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN AFRICA AND SIBERIA. In connection with the work of the division of physical anthropol- ogy in the National Museum, two expeditions were sent out during the year 1914 under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego. One of these expeditions was in charge of Dr. V. Schiick, anthro- pologist of Prague, Bohemia, and its objects were: 1, to study the negro child in its native environment, and thereby create a basis of comparison for the study of the negro child in our country; 2, to visit the South African Bushmen for the purpose of obtaining meas- urements, photographs, and facial casts of the same; and 3, to visit British East Africa in search of the Pygmies. The tribe chosen for the child study were the Zulu, of Natal or Zululand, and over 1,000 children and adolescents of all ages—ages which could be definitely determined—were examined. These data are expected to contribute some very important results to anthropology. The Bushmen were reached in the Kalahari Desert, and besides other results 20 first-class facial casts were obtained of the people, which have since then been installed among the anthropological exhibits at San Diego. As to British East Africa, the work soon after a successful beginning was interrupted by the war. The second expedition was in charge of Dr. St. Poniatowski, head of the ethnological laboratory at Warsaw. The object of this expedi- tion was to visit a number of the remnants of native tribes in eastern Siberia, among which are found physical types which so closely resemble the American Indian. The expedition reached two such tribes, and secured valuable data, photographs, etc., when its work also was interrupted by the war. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. Some of the results of exploration and field work by the Institution among various races of mankind are shown in connection with the anthropological exhibits of the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego. These exhibits were in preparation for over three years. ‘hey are original and much more comprehensive than any previous exhibits in this line, either in this country or abroad. Dr. Hrdlitka, under whose direction this exhibit was prepared, describes it as fol- lows: The exhibits fill five large connecting rooms, which occupy the building of the Science of Man at the Exposition. Four of these rooms are devoted to the natural history of man, while the fifth is fitted up as a modern anthropological laboratory, library, and lecture room. Of the four rooms of exhibits proper, the first is devoted to man’s phylogeny, or evolution; the second, to his ontog- eny, or life cycle at the present time; the third, to his variation (sexual, indi- vidual, racial) ; and the fourth, to his pathology and death. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11 The exhibits in room 1, on Human Evolution, consist of: (a) A large series of accurate, first-class casts of all the more important skeletal remains of au- thentic antiquity; (b) photographic enlargements and water color sketches showing the localities where the specimens were discovered; (c) charts show- ing the relation of the archeological position of the various finds, and their relation to the extinct fauna and to archeological epochs; (d) a series of sketches by various scientific men showing their conception of the early man, with several illustrations of drawings, statuettes, and bas-reliefs, showing early man as drawn or sculptured by the ancient man himself; and (e) a remarkable series of 10 large busts prepared by the eminent Belgian sculptor, M. Mascré, under the direction of Prof. Rutot, representing early man at different periods of his physical advancement. The main part of the exhibits in room No. 2, devoted to man’s development at the present time, from the ovum onward, are three series of true-to-nature busts, showing by definite age-stages, from birth onward and in both sexes, the three principal races of this country, namely, the “ thoroughbred ” white Ameri- can (for at least three generations in this continent on each parental side), the Indian, and the full-blood American negro. These series, which required two and one-half years of strenuous preparation, form a unique exhibit, for nothing of similar nature has ever been attempted in this or any other country. Each set consists of 30 busts, 15 males and 15 females, and proceeds from infants at or within a few days after birth to the oldest persons that could be founda. The oldest negro woman is 114. After the new born, the stages are 9 months, 3 years, 6, 10, 15, 20, 28, 35, 45, 55, 65, and 75 years. The utmost care was exer- cised in ascertaining the age, particularly among the negro and Indian. No choice was made of the subjects beyond that due to the requirements of pedi- gree, age, and good health. The whites and negroes were obtained, with a few exceptions, in Washington and vicinity, but their places of birth range over a large part of the Eastern, Southern, and Middle States; for the Indian, we chose the Sioux, a large, characteristic, and in a very large measure still pure- blood tribe, and one in which the determination of the ages of the subjects was feasible. Special trips were made to these people, and no pains were spared to get just what was wanted; in the case of the new born, it was actually neces- sary to wait until they came. Other exhibits in room 2 show the development, by various stages, of the human brain, the skull, and various other parts of the body. A large series of original specimens show the most closely related animal forms to man at the present time, particularly the anthropoid apes; a series of charts on the walls deal with the phenomena of senility; finally, 10 photographic enlargements show living centenarians of various races. Human variation is shown in room 38 by 10 sets of large busts representing 10 of the more important races of man; by 200 original transparencies giving racial portraits; by over 100 bronzed facial casts, showing individual vari- ations within some of the more important branches of humanity ; and by numer- ous charts and other exhibits. In room 4 a series of charts and maps relates to the death rate in various countries, to the principal causes of death in the different parts of the world, and to the distribution of the more common diseases over the earth. Actual pathology is illustrated extensively by prehistoric American material. Many hundreds of original specimens, derived principally from the pre-Columbian cemeteries of Peru, show an extensive range of injuries and diseases, such as have left their marks on the bones. In many instances the injuries are very interesting, both from their extent and the extraordinary powers of recupera- 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. tion shown in the healing; while among the diseases shown on the bones there are some that find no, or but little, parallel among the white man or eyen the Indian of to-day. In addition this room contains a series of 60 skulls with pre-Columbian operations (trepanation). ISLAND OF TIMOR EXPEDITION. Among the projected expeditions interrupted by the European war was one to the Island of Timor, inthe East Indies. This island has been a rich collecting ground for scientific study, though little has been done by the paleontologist. An opportunity was offered for making collections at Timor through the courtesy and interest of Mr. N. E. Crane, a retired engineer, of Pittsburgh, who had planned to visit the island. The fund for this enterprise was contributed by Mr. Crane, Mrs. EK. H. Harriman, and Mr. Frank Springer, but the expedition has been postponed for the present. CLEARING OF FOG BY ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATION. The fact was long ago scientifically established that all dust and fog particles in the open atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation, but how to clear fog frém a street, along a railway, or from the neighborhood of a ship at sea, and to do it in a manner commercially feasible has been a matter of serious study for many years. The question having recently aroused fresh atten- tion, particularly in the neighborhood of San Francisco, through re- searches planned by the University of California in cooperation with the United States Lighthouse Service, it was decided by the Smith- sonian Institution during the past year to make an appropriation to further this investigation, which is under the general direction of Dr. F. G. Cottrell, who has done so much toward the practical pre- cipitation of dust, smoke, and chemical fumes at large industrial plants. The American Institute of Electrical Engineers has also appointed a committee to cooperate in this great work, and reports on the results of the study are awaited with much interest. The essential element to success in scattering fog seems to be some form of electrical apparatus of very high direct voltage, with facilities for its control and ready application. RESEARCH CORPORATION. In previous reports I have called attention to the Research Cor- poration formed primarily to undertake the development of certain precipitation patents generously offered to the Institution by Dr. F. G. Cottrell. Although it was impracticable for the Smithsonian Institution to administer this work directly, yet there was no objec- tion to the Secretary becoming a member of a distinct organization REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 that would undertake its development. An independent organiza- tion was accordingly formed in 1912 under the laws of the State of New York, the Secretary of the Institution becoming one of the directors of the Research Corporation and a member of the executive committee. The board of directors includes a number of prominent men of wide business experience, such as James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., Boston; Charles A. Stone, of Stone & Webster, Boston; Arthur D. Little, of the Little Chemical Co., Boston; T. Coleman du Pont, of Wilmington, Del.; Elon H. Hooker, president of the Hooker Electrochemical Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.; Benjamin B. Lawrence, mining engineer, New York; George F. Kunz, of Tif- fany & Co.; Frederick A. Goetze, dean of the engineering depart- ment of Columbia University, New York; William Barclay Par- sons, engineer, of New York; and Hennen Jennings, mining engi- neer, of Washington. The principal object of the corporation is to acquire inventions and patents and to make them more available in the arts and indus- tries, while using them as a source of income, and, second, to apply all profiits derived from such use to the advancement of technical and scientific investigation and experimentation through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution and such other scientific and educa- tional institutions and societies as may be selected by the directors. The chief assets of the corporation at present are the Cottrell pat- ents relating to the precipitation of dust, smoke, and chemical fumes by the use of electrical currents. Dr. F. G. Cottrell, the inventor and donor of these patents, has described their operation’ and advan- tages and the progress thus far made in their installation in an article printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1913. There is now under consideration the acceptance and develop- ment of other patents besides those presented by Dr. Cottrell. It is planned that when the funds of the corporation received from royalties and other sources shall have reached $100,000, to apply the income “to the advancement of technical and scientific investigation and experimentation ” as provided by the act of incorporation. Owing to the wide experience of the members of the board and their standing in the business community, it has been possible to do work in connection with the Research Corporation that would have required the expenditure of large sums if undertaken by an ordinary business organization or private individual. HARRIMAN TRUST FUND. Aided by the income of a special fund established by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate of the Institu- tion, has continued and practically completed his studies of the big bears of America, so that it is now possible to determine the relations 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, of most of the species and to arrange them in definite groups. Of the true grizzlies there appear to be about 38 species and subspecies representing a dozen groups, and of the brown bears about 10 species, representing 5 groups. Opportunity will now be afforded for study in other fields of biological research. THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY. The Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory was reopened under reso- lution of the Board of Regents adopted May 1, 1913, and on May 23 an advisory committee was organized, as detailed in my report for that year. In my last report I reviewed what had been accomplished up to June 30, 1914, in certain lines of investigation, including the successful flights of the Langley aeroplane built in 1898-1903, and further trials of that machine were described by Dr. A. F. Zahm in an article in the general appendix of the Smithsonian Report for 1914. During the past year it was found necessary for legal reasons to discontinue the advisory committee as originally organized, and it therefore seemed advisable to call upon Congress to authorize the establishment of a national advisory committee for aeronautics. Following an urgent appeal by myself and others to the Senate Committee on Naval Affairs, there was inserted in the naval appro- priation act (Public, No. 271, 63d Cong.) approved March 3, 1915, the following provision for a national advisory committee for aeronautics. *: * * + * * * An Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is hereby established, and the Presi- dent is authofized to appoint not to exceed twelve members, to consist of two members from the War Department, from the office in charge of military aero- nautics; two members from the Navy Department, from the office in charge of naval aeronautics; a representative each of the Smithsonian Institution, of the United States Weather Bureau, and of the United States Bureau of Stand- ards; together with not more than five additional persons who shall be ac- quainted with the needs of aeronautical science, either civil or military, or skilled in aeronautical engineering or its allied sciences: Provided, That the members of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, as such, shall serve with- out compensation: Provided further, That it shall be the duty of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical solution, and to determine the problems which should be experimentally attacked, and to discuss their solu- tion and their application to practical questions. In the event of a laboratory or laboratories, either in whole or in part, being placed under the direction of the committee, the committee may direct and conduct research and experiment in aeronautics in such laboratory or laboratories: And provided further, That rules and regulations for the conduct of the work of the committee shall be formulated by the committee and approved by the President. That the sum of $5,000 a year, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for five years is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not other- wise appropriated, to be immediately available, for experimental work and in- vestigations undertaken by the committee, clerical expenses and supplies, and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 necessary expenses of members of the committee in going to, returning from, and while attending, meetings of the committee: Provided, That an annual report to the Congress shall be submitted through the President, including an itemized statement of expenditures. On July 27, 1914, the Institution published a report by Dr. Zahm on European aeronautical laboratories, in which he describes the buildings, equipment, and operations of laboratories in England, France, and Germany. Although, as above stated, it was not practical to continue the advisory committee of 1913 as originally planned, nevertheless the individual members of the committee have been active in their in- vestigations, and several valuable reports have been received, some of which are as yet confidential or incomplete, one of those being a report on wireless communications to and from air craft. Mr. Buckingham completed and published a masterly paper on the mathematical principle governing the relations of experimental mod- els of all sorts to those of full-scale machines. Dr. Humphreys pub- lished a long paper on the Physics of the Atmosphere. Dr. Zahm helped to design for the United States Army a 200-horsepower bi- plane, and published a mathematical method of analyzing the stresses sustained by such an aeroplane during flight. At the annual meeting of the Regents on December 10, 1914, Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Senator William J. Stone, Representative Ernest W. Roberts, Mr. John B. Henderson, jr., and Secretary Wal- cott were appointed a committee to consider questions relative to the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year comprised a total of 6,753 printed pages, accom- panied by 655 plates of illustrations, and the number of copies dis- tributed of these various publications, both pamphlets and bound volumes, aggregated 132,010. The Institution has for one of its primary objects the “ diffusion of knowledge,” and this aim is carried out by printing and distribu- ting the results of scientific investigations, accounts of explorations and researches, of progress in the various branches of science, and of development in any phase of human endeavor which would tend to increase “knowledge among men.” Of its three series of publica- tions, the Contributions to Knowledge, Miscellaneous Collections, and the annual reports, the first two are issued in limited editions at the expense of the Institution and are sent out to libraries, institu- tions, and interested individuals throughout the world. The annual reports, containing in addition to the administrative reports a gen- eral appendix of original and selected papers showing the recent progress made in all branches of natural and applied science, are 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. printed under congressional appropriation, so that a larger edition and more widespread distribution is possible. Under the direction of the Institution are issued the various pub- lications of its branches, (a) the Annual Report, the Proceedings, and the Bulletins of the National Museum, including the series of Con- tributions from the National Herbarium; (2) the Annual Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and (c) the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. These series are all public documents and are printed by means of annual allotments by act of Congress. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—The requirements for memoirs in this series are that they be accounts of extended original research constituting important additions to knowledge. Since the first appearance of this series in 1848, 85 quarto volumes containing 150 memoirs have been issued, the most recent one being the “ Lang- ley Memoir on Mechanical Flight,” in which are recorded the results of the late Secretary Langley’s experiments establishing the practica- bility of heavier-than-air flying machines. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections Fourteen papers forming parts of four volumes of this series were issued during the year, among them one paper on Cambrian geology by your Secretary. Another interesting paper was that by Messrs. Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich recording new solar radiation researches, in the course of which free balloons carrying recording apparatus, ascended to a height of over 15 miles and were found on their descent with the records in good condition. As a result of these and other experi- ments, the authors abide by their former results, namely, that “the mean value of the ‘solar constant’ is 1.93 calories per square centi- meter per minute.” In this series, the sixth revised edition of the Smithsonian Physical Tables was issued, and was practically ex- hausted at the close of the year, showing the continued popularity and usefulness of this work. The publication of a further edition was being considered at the close of the year. The usual annual account of the Institution’s explorations and field work was issued, and being profusely illustrated, was of considerable popular interest. Smithsonian report.—The report for 1913 was received from the printer and distributed during the year. Separates of the articles forming the general appendix of the 1914 report were issued, the completed volume, however, not being received from the printer until shortly after the close of the fiscal year. Incorporated in the con- gressional act providing for printing for the Institution and its branches was a clause increasing the edition of the Smithsonian annual reports from 7,000 to 10,000, a very desirable change, as the edition of this volume has heretofore been exhausted almost imme- diately following its appearance. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 Special publications.—Of the opinions rendered by the Interna- tional Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, which the Institu- tion has published for some years past, Opinion 66 was issued, and the Institution has continued to provide clerical services in connec- tion with the office of the secretary of the commission. Among other special publications was a short biographical sketch of James Smithson, abridged from the chapter on Smithson by S. P. Langley in the history of the first half century of the Institution. National Museum publications —The National Museum issued an annual report, 1 volume of the Proceedings and 41 separate papers forming parts of this and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and 1 volume of Contributions from the National Herbarium. Bureau of Ethnology publications—The Bureau of American Ethnology published two bulletins and three miscellaneous publica- tions. Among the latter was a circular of information regarding Indian popular names, to be distributed in response to the numerous letters requesting information of this kind. Four annual reports and five bulletins were in press at the close of the year. Reports of historical and patriotic societies—The annual reports of the American Historical Association and the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution were submitted to the Institution and transmitted to Congress in accordance with the charters of these organizations. Allotments for printing—The allotments to the Institution and its branches under the head of “ Public printing and binding” were utilized as far as practicable, although there was a large amount of material which the Public Printer was unable to complete, and this will therefore become a charge against the 1916 allotment. The allotments for the year ending June 30, 1916, are as follows: For the Smithsonian Institution: For printing and binding the annual reports of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the edi- tions of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies________-_- Yor the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen- dices, and for printing labels and blanks, and for the Bulletins and Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies, and binding, in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or acquired by the National Muséum Niraryeece 2 ie i Pe ee For the annual reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Eth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau____ For miscellaneous printing and binding: Internacionaleb XChange eS ee ee ee ge a International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_._____________ NEON /7OOLO Si Call Mar cores Pee eve LAREDO Leet ee SY Regn TOL ASinophySsicaly ObSErMatoRryie jee SOs ys a I Te For the annual report of the American Historical Association PRO eee es ee a ke ee Ee 18618°—sm 1915——2 $10, 000 37, 500 21, 000 200 100 200 200 7, 000 76, 200 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Committee on printing and publication—All manuscripts sub- mitted for publication by the Institution or its branches have, as usual, been examined and passed upon by the Smithsonian advisory com- mittee on printing and publication. The committee has also con- sidered various general matters concerning printing and binding. During the year 18 meetings were held and 109 manuscripts acted upon. The personnel of the committee was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, acting chair- man; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory ; Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the National Zoological Park; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Smithsonian Institution, secre- tary of the committee; Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, United States National Museum. THE SMITHSONIAN LIBRARY. The formation of a library of science was one of the earliest activities of the Smithsonian Institution and its natural growth during the last 60 or more years has resulted in the accumulation of nearly half a million works bearing on practically every branch of natural science, the fine arts, and the industrial arts. For adminis- trative reasons a large portion of the library, consisting in the main of transactions of learned societies, was in 1866 deposited in the Library of Congress. This deposit is constantly being increased, the accessions during the past year numbering 24,718 items of publica- tions and making the total number of entries to June 30, 1915, 521,616. The several libraries still directly maintained by the Institution and its branches include the Smithsonian office library; the libraries of the National Museum, comprising over 100,000 titles; the Bureau of American Ethnology, about 35,000 titles; the Astrophysical Ob- servatory; the National Herbarium; and in addition to these should be mentioned the more recently formed aeronautical library, which contains probably the most.complete series of works on this sub- ject in the United States. One of the chief contributors to this library during the year was Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, whose gift included a working library of 46 volumes and 156 volumes of newspaper clippings covering the recent years of rapid development of the art of aeronautics. Among other accessions to the art section of the library during the year I may mention the loan by Mrs. Walcott of nine volumes of Japanese art and about 400 volumes of architectural publications which formed the library of her brother, Mr. George Vaux, of Philadelphia. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 The report of the assistant librarian, appended hereto, describes the improvements recently made by the construction of steel stacks in the Smithsonian building for assembling in accessible quarters many general works belonging to the Government bureaus under the Institution which had heretofore been widely scattered in unsuitable rooms. LUCY T. AND GEORGE W. POORE FUND. In my last report I referred to a number of bequests then awaiting settlement. One of these was the bequest of George W. Poore, of Lowell, Mass., who died December 17, 1910, and by the terms of his will made the Smithsonian Institution his residuary legatee. As mentioned in my 1910 report, the estate, estimated at about $40,000, is bequeathed under the condition that the income of this sum should be added to the principal until a total of $250,000 should have been reached, and that then the income only should be used for the purposes for which the Institution was created. Although I have heretofore called attention to Mr. Poore’s reason for making this bequest, it is so apt and appropriate that I will repeat it here. The will says: I make this gift not so much because of its amount as because I hope it will prove an example for other Americans to follow, by supporting and encouraging so wise and beneficent an institution as I believe the Smithsonian Institution to be, and yet it has been neglected and overlooked by American citizens. In March, 1915, the Institution received from the executors of the Poore estate the first installment of the bequest, amounting to $24,534.92, as noted under the head of finances. It will be known as the Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund. THE FREER COLLECTION. In 1906 Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich., presented to the Institution about 2,300 paintings and other objects of art, and from time to time since then he has supplemented that gift by further generous donations until this wonderful collection now aggregates 4,811 pieces, including 991 paintings, engravings, lithographs, etc., by American artists, and 3,820 oriental works of art, many of them of high historic and intrinsic value. It was stipulated by Mr. Freer in connection with the gift that the collection should remain in his custody during his lifetime, and that he would provide funds for the erection of a suitable building for the permanent preservation of the collection. He is now considering the question of erecting such a building and a committee of the Regents has been appointed “on the securing of a site for the Freer Art Gallery.” 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. The report of the Assistant Secretary in charge of the National Museum, hereto appended, indicates most gratifying progress in all lines of Museum activities. To the collections there have been many large and most valuable additions, and installation of exhibits, par- ticularly in the new or natural history building, has been greatly ad- vanced and improved. More than 800,000 specimens were He aan during the year, over two-thirds = which pertained to paleontology and zoology, one-sixth to botany, and the remainder to anthropology, geology, mineralogy, textiles, and to other divisions of the Museum. The ethnological exhibits were enriched by a large series of old Japanese art assembled some 30 years ago by the late J. Crawford Lyon; baskets, musical instruments, and other objects from Dutch Borneo, presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott; also many interesting ar- ticles pertaining to the American Indians. In American archeology the principal accession was a series of implements and other objects of stone, metal, and terra cotta from various parts of the United States and Mexico, secured through cooperation with the management of the San Diego Exposition. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell added very greatly to the electrical exhibits by his gift of 280 pieces of experimental phonographic apparatus and several relics relating to the early history of the telephone. Special mention should also be made of the gift of Mr. Hugo Worch of a large number of pianofortes, illustrating the progress and development of piano making from about 1770 to 1850. The earliest of European pianos in the series dates from about 1770 and of American pianos about 1790. Many interesting accessions per- taining to American history are mentioned by the Assistant Secretary in his report, as also important additions to the zoological, geological, and botanical collections. A most notable contribution of mollusks, consisting of a very large collection of specimens from practically every part of the world, was a gift from Mr. John B. Henderson, a Regent of the Institution. As in previous years, much material was received from the United States Geological Survey, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Department of Agriculture, and other Government establishments, these accumu- lations from various field researches having served their purpose in the preparation of reports on scientific investigations. The National Gallery of Art has already outgrown the space allotted to the display of paintings. Each year the additions to the permanent collection of paintings, as well as the loan exhibits, causes more and more embarrassment to those in charge of their installa- . REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 tion, and the time has now come when serious consideration must be given to securing adequate quarters for these national collections. T can not pass without mention of the very interesting exhibition of laces, embroideries, and other art textiles, as also the historical cos- tumes, especially those representing the several administrations at the White House since the period of President Washington. I will not attempt to describe any of the gowns recently received, further than to say that they include a lavender silk dress worn by Mrs. Fill- more, one of black moiré worn by Mrs. Pierce at the inauguration of President Pierce in 1853, and a pale green brocade worn by Mrs. Cleveland during President Cleveland’s first administration. The division of textiles has greatly increased in popular interest through the installation of a series of machines illustrating methods of manufacture as well as exhibits of the raw and finished products. Likewise, mineral technology is being illustrated by models and products, showing the manufacture of mica plate from material here- tofore thrown away as waste, the preparation of asbestos products, and the manufacture of graphite and its industrial products. The Museum is participating in the expositions at San Francisco and San Diego, although the very small allotment allowed the Institu- tion and its branches from the appropriation for Government ex- hibits permitted only a comparatively small display at San Fran- cisco. At the San Diego Exposition, however, for which no appro- priation was granted for Government exhibits, it was ‘possible, through cooperation with the exposition management, to prepare an interesting exhibit of physical anthropology and one illustrating American aboriginal industries. The former exhibit, more fully de- scribed on a previous page, is an entirely novel one. It illustrates man’s evolution, his development or growth, his racial, sexual, and individual variations, and the causes, other than normal senility, which result in the decline of the human organism. For many years it has been possible to aid the schools and colleges of the country in their teaching of natural history through the dis- tribution of duplicate material. During the past year 163 sets of such duplicates, aggregating 14,843 specimens, were thus distributed. And about 8,000 duplicate specimens, nearly three-fifths of which were plants, were utilized in exchanges with other museums and in- stitutions. The total number of visitors to the older Museum building during the year was 133,202, and to the new building 321,712. The latter aggregate includes 59,577 Sunday visitors to the new building, the older building not being open on that day. The Museum issued its usual annual report and series of scientific papers, the total distribution for the year aggregating 54,000 volumes and pamphlets. 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The field work of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the last year resulted in the accumulation of a large amount of im- portant data relating in particular to the early inhabitants of the western and southwestern portions of the United States. There was also brought together a great deal of material bearing on the habits, customs, beliefs, institutions, ceremonies, and languages of vanishing tribes of Indians throughout the country. The report of the ethnolo- gist-in-charge, appended hereto, reviews in detail many lines of sys- tematic research now being conducted by the bureau. Among these I may note interesting explorations in New Mexico and Utah among ancient village sites which appear characteristic of peoples prob- ably of a considerable earlier period than those heretofore known from those regions. Ancient earthenware collected by Dr. Fewkes in such sites in the lower Mimbres Valley in New Mexico bear deco- rations of animals and geometric designs in some measure resembling certain ancient paintings on the walls of caves in France, In south- ern Arizona are some extensive aboriginal ruins awaiting investiga- tion, which bid fair to add much to our knowledge of the early in- habitants of that region. Among documents preserved in the Santa Ines Mission in Califor- nia there has been brought to light an old manuscript of special in- terest in connection with the study of the former Chumash Indians, and a complete copy of the manuscript has been made for the use of the bureau. Special researches have been in progress for some years in the preparation of several series of handbooks relating to American In- dians. One of these series, devoted to Indian languages, is in course of publication, the first volume already having been issued, under the editorship of Dr. Franz Boas. A Handbook of American An- tiquities, the first part of which will soon be ready for the printer, is being prepared by Mr. W. H. Holmes. The “ Handbook of Ameri- can Indians North of Mexico,” published some years ago, has had several reprintings, and the public demand for it still continues. A handbook in course of preparation is devoted to Aboriginal Remains East of the Mississippi. There had been such doubt and discussion as to the probable age of certain Indian mounds in northeastern Kansas and southeastern Nebraska that it seemed important for a representative of the bureau to make an investigation of the facts in the case. This task was undertaken by Mr. Gerard Fowke. His report indicates that instead of dating back many thousands of years, as some had claimed, “ it is safe to say that no earthwork, mound, lodge site, or human bones along this part of the Missouri River has been here as long as 10 centuries.” REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2a The study and analysis of Indian music is a subject to which the bureau has devoted considerable attention during the last few years, and there have already been published two bulletins on Chippewa music, which have attracted much attention in the musical world. There is now in press an extended account of “ Teton Sioux Music” with transcriptions of 240 songs and about 100 illustrations; and a paper on the music of the Ute Indians is in preparation. The collection of manuscripts pertaining to American Indians which has been accumulated by the bureau during the last 30 years now numbers about 1,700 items. Many of these manuscripts have come to be of priceless value, comprising as they do records which it would be impossible now to duplicate. There was added to this collection during the last year a number of interesting records, including a Laguna Indian dictionary, 49 Arapaho and Gros Ventre notebooks, the war record of “Sitting Bull” depicted in 55 pictographs, and a photostat copy of “A Grammar of the Pottewatomy Language.” - The bureau issued two bulletins, and there was in press at the Gov- ernment Printing Office at the close of the year the twenty-ninth, thirtieth, thirty-first, and thirty-second annual reports, and four bulletins. The completion of several of these works is delayed by the European war, the authors in some cases residing in belligerent countries. The distribution of publications aggregated 10,185 vol- umes and pamphlets. There were about 500 books added to the library, which now numbers 20,237 volumes, 13,188 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. One of the principal researches by the Astrophysical Observatory during the past year was the continuation of observations as to the intensity of solar radiation at various altitudes, with a view to defi- nitely determine the value of the solar constant of radiation. By means of sounding balloons, to which were attached automatic record- ing pyrheliometers, successful records were secured up to a height of 25,000 meters or about 15 miles, where the barometric pressure is only one twenty-fifth that at sea level. Director Abbot, in his report and in a special publication (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 65, No. 4, June 19, 1915), reviews the observations in solar radia- tion made at various altitudes from sea level up to the highest prac- ticable mountain peak (Mount Whitney), thence in a balloon as high as man could live, thence to a height of 15 miles, and concludes that the solar constant of radiation is 1.93 calories per square centimeter per minute. Dr. Abbot discusses also the interesting fact that con- siderable fluctuations of the “solar-constant” values occur from day to day ranging over nearly 10 per cent between the extreme limits, 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 1.81 and 1.99 calories. In 1913 the radiation of the sun was 2.5 per cent below the mean, and 1 per cent above the mean in 1914. A high average value is said to be indicated for 1915. In concluding his re- port for the year Dr. Abbot says: Short-period fluctuations of solar radiation were large in 1913, but small in 1914. Associated with these quick, irregular fluctuations are found variations of contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk. Curi- ously enough, while greater contrast is associated with greater radiation and with numerous sun spots in the general march of the sun’s activity, lesser con- trast is associated with greater solar radiation in the march of the quick, irregu- lar fluctuations of the sun’s emission. This paradox points to two causes of solar radiation—the long period changes may probably be caused by changes 9f the sun’s effective temperature attending the march of solar activity; the quick fluctuations may be ascribed to changes of the transparency of the outer solar envelope. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The operations of the International Exchange Service have been necessarily curtailed for some months because of the European war. The total number of packages handled during the year was 275,756, or 65,911 less than the year before, and their weight was 367,854 pounds, a decrease of 199,131 pounds. There has accumulated, more- over, a large number of packages awaiting opportunity of shipment, particularly to Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Roumania, Russia, Servia, and Turkey, which were en- tirely shut out of the service at the close of the year, although cor- respondence is in progress to secure renewal of shipment with some of those countries. One of the important functions of this service is the interchange of official Government documents with various countries, resulting in the building up of a most important division of the Library of Congress. During the past year there was received in this connection from the Chinese Government a set of the Imperial Institute of the Ching Dynasty and other valuable records aggregating 684 volumes. Fifty-six full sets and 36 partial sets of United States official publi- cations are now sent regularly to depositories abroad, in accordance with treaty stipulations and congressional resolutions. A list of these depositories and detailed statistics of the service are given in the appendix to this report. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The Smithsonian Institution has administered the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue since its organization in 1901. There are 33 of these regional bureaus located in the principal coun- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 tries with a central bureau in London, where reference cards are as- sembled and published annually in 17 volumes covering each branch of science. During the past year there were collected and classified in the Smithsonian office and sent to London 12,386 cards of reference to the scientific literature of the United States for the year 1914, be- sides 14,027 references for the years 1906 to 1913, or an aggregate of 26,413 cards, making 345,349 references to American literature since 1901. Through a minute system of classification, the equivalent of a brief digest of the subject contents of each paper, the International Cata- logue places before students and investigators references to practi- cally all the scientific literature of the world. On account of the necessarily high cost of the annual volumes sub- scriptions to the series are limited as a rule to the most important institutions and libraries, where, however, the catalogue is available to everyone desiring to consult this work. As in all lines of scientific work, the European war temporarily in- terferes with the finances and general work of the catalogue and the amount of literature produced in most of the countries at war is greatly curtailed. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. There was added to the collections in the National Zoological Park during the past year a number of interesting animals, including 25 species not before represented there. The total accessions ager seared 498. The census of animals on hand June 30, 1915, was 1,397 indi- viduals, representing 151 different species of patina) 185 of birds, and 22 of reptiles, as compared with 1,362 animals on hand July 1, 1914. The report of the superintendent of the park, on another page, records a detailed systematic list of all the animals, numbering 629 mammals, 696 birds, and 72 reptiles. Every year since 1890, when the park was established, many speci- mens have been received through the individual donations of those interested in its growth. Forty-three such donors during the past year contributed 60 animals. The total number of visitors was 794,530, an increase of about 60,000 over the year preceding, and the largest attendance in the his- tory of the park. Among the visitors were 3,485 students from vari- ous schools and classes on special visits to the park for educational purposes. The superintendent notes among the improvements of the year the construction of a cage and shelter house for pumas; and an out-of- doors inclosure with a small shelter house for a band of 25 rhesus monkeys which thrived there well throughout the winter. 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Near the close of the year work was begun on a hospital and labor- atory building, the urgent need of which was noted in my last report. In the sundry civil act making appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, provision was made for the acquisition of about 10 acres of land along the western boundary of the park, but neces- sary legal proceedings to complete the purchase had not come to a close at the end of the year. Among the primary objects in establishing the Zoological Park was the “instruction and recreation of the people.” To this end the playground department of the District of Columbia has been allowed to install several pieces of apparatus in a meadow tract which has become a favorite resort for picnic parties. The needs of the park become greater with the growth of the col- lections and the increasing popularity of the resort as an attractive public institution. The appropriations from year to year, while sufficient for absolute maintenance, have permitted the construction of but few of such permanent buildings as are needed for the ade- quate care of the animals. Among these urgent needs I may mention an aviary building and a building for the proper housing of ele- phants, hippopotami, and certain other animals now sheltered in mere temporary quarters. Accompanying the superintendent’s report is an outline map on which are indicated desirable building sites where necessary grading for that purpose would permit the desirable filling of certain ravines now practically useless. NECROLOGY. THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL. Theodore Nicholas Gill was born at New York March 21, 1887, and died at Washington September 25, 1914. The following tribute to his memory was adopted at a meeting of his associates on Sep- tember 26: TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF DR. GILL. Theodore Nicholas Gill, master of arts, doctor of medicine, doctor of philos- ophy, doctor of laws, associate in zoology in the United States National Museum. died at Washington, D. C., September 25, 1914, in the seventy-eighth year of his age. ; His associates in the Smithsonian Institution and its several branches, assembled at a meeting in his memory at the National Museum on September 26, do here record their deep sorrow in the loss of a sincere friend, profound scholar, one of America’s foremost men of science, and one officially connected with the Smithsonian Institution in various capacities for more than half a century. Trained in private schools and by special tutors in New York City, he early acquired a love for natural science which he made his life work, rising to the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a7 highest rank in the field of zoology, and through his critical studies adding greatly to the sum of human knowledge. As one of the founders of the Cosmos Club; as a professor in the Columbian (now the George Washington) University for more than 50 years; as a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Philosophical Society, the National Academy of Sciences, and of many other scientific socie- ties in the United States and foreign lands, Dr. Gill was most highly esteemed and was widely known to biologists throughout the world as a man of deep and accurate learning, particularly in the study of his specialty, ichthyology. A man of phenomenal memory, familiar with many languages, he was a veritable cyclopedia of science and knew how to make plain to the layman its technical phraseology. He was a constant and willing source of information and in- spiration to all who sought his aid in professional studies. Through devotion to his chosen calling and his genial disposition Dr. Gill has left to his associates a cherished memory and a brilliant example worthy of emulation. WILLIAM WOODVILLE ROCKHILL. — William Woodville Rockhill, former ambassador to Russia, Tur- key, and other countries, one who had ably filled many other im- - portant diplomatic positions in China, Korea, and elsewhere, and had served as Assistant Secretary of State, was born in Philadelphia in 1854 and died in Honolulu, December 8, 1914. From 1888 to 1892 he conducted two scientific missions to China, Mongolia, and Tibet under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, resulting in a large accumulation of most interesting and important data bearing on the habits and customs particularly of the then little-known Tibetans. Much of this valuable information was embodied in his “ Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet,” published by the Institution. To the National Museum collections he added a large amount of ethnological material resulting from his journeys. Mr. Rockhill was intensely devoted to oriental study and had been a con- stant collaborator of the Smithsonian Institution throughout all his official career. At the time of his death he was en route to assume his duties as financial adviser to the Chinese Government. Respectfully submitted. Cuaries D. Watcort, Secretary. APPENDIX 1. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year end- ing June 80, 1915: {NTRODUCTORY. In the last two reports the general status and arrangement of the public collections in all departments were briefly reviewed. Since then the exhibits of anthropology, biology, and geology in the new building have undergone few material changes, though they have received many important additions and there has been an improve- ment in the condition of a large number of specimens which needed renovation. It having become necessary to provide a place for the larger whale skeletons, which were not transferred at the time of the general moving of the zoological collections, the south hall in the second story of the west wing, previously assigned to marine in- vertebrates, was allotted to this purpose and the invertebrates were taken to the north side of the building on the same floor. The re- installations necessitated by these changes were in progress at the close of the year. : The accommodations afforded by the improvised picture gallery in the north main hall have been entirely outgrown and the point has been reached where the paintings must be so crowded as to utterly destroy their effect. There is no other suitable location to which this important collection can be extended and would-be con- tributors find no encouragement in the conditions. The time has certainly arrived when serious consideration should be given toward providing proper means for sheltering and displaying the art treas- ures of the Museum, in which connection the interests of the Na-_ tional Gallery of Art are vitally at stake. The work of renovation of the main hall in the Smithsonian building, which continued throughout the year, prevented the exe- cution of the proposed plans for the enlargement and improvement — of the exhibition series of the graphic arts. In the older Museum building the installations, especially in the recently reorganized di- visions, steadily progressed with very measurable advancement. In 28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 the division of textiles much material was added, many gaps were filled, and numerous novel features were introduced. In mineral technology, where the construction of models makes progress slower, the number of comprehensive educational features was nevertheless considerably increased, and so many more are in course of preparation that another year should see a wide representation of the subjects covered. Toward the end of the year a section of wood technology was established with the main object of setting forth in a manner to satisfy the artisan and the public the qualities and sources of the woods available for any purpose to which that material is put. It is not doubted that a creditable collection can soon be gathered. COLLECTIONS. The additions to the collections, comprised in 1,481 accessions, aggregated approximately 304,647 specimens, which were classified and assigned as follows: Anthropology, 15,140; zoology, 101,928; botany, 51,295; geology and mineralogy, 4,063; paleontology, 129,981 ; textiles and animal and vegetable products, 1,511; mineral technol ogy, 607; National Gallery of Art, 122. Loans for exhibition were also received to the extent of 1,760 articles, consisting of paintings and sculptures, laces, embroideries and tapestries, costumes and other ‘historical objects, ethnological specimens, etc. The number of lots of material sent in for examination and report amounted to 790, of which about 64 per cent were geological and 28 per cent zoological. Among the more important gifts to the division of ethnology were a large series of old Japanese art, assembled about 30 years ago by the late J. Crawford Lyon and presented by the Misses Lyon; a col- lection of baskets, bark cloth, sword hilts in process of making, quivers for blowgun darts, musical instruments, and other objects, gathered in Dutch Borneo by Mr. H. C. Raven, and donated by Dr. W. L. Abbott; examples of modern Egyptian clothing contributed by Mr. Herbert E. Winlock; and interesting articles from the Plains Indians, which belonged to the late Maj. George Henry Palmer, United States Army, presented by Mrs. Palmer. A valuable series of musical instruments, household articles, tools, and other objects from the Ute Indians of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation, south- eastern Utah, was purchased. The loans comprised objects from southern Mindanao, P. I., Abyssinia, Japan, China, Egypt, and Europe. The principal accession in American archeology was secured through the cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution with the management of the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego, and comprised important series of implements and other objects of stone, 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. metal, and terra cotta from various localities in the United States and Mexico. Many specimens of like nature from the same countries were also received in exchange from the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseum at Stockholm, and the Bureau of American Ethnology transmitted a quantity of pottery displaying a distinct type of decoration from the lower Mimbres Valley, N. Mex. A banner stone of rose quartz, a very remarkable Indian relic and probably one of the finest ex- amples of its kind yet brought to ight, from Woodruff County, Ark., and one image of gold and two of gilded copper from Chiriqui, Panama, were purchased. The principal gifts consisted of a notable jade ax from Alta Verapaz, Guatemala, a small stone celt from Ahuachapan, San Salvador, and a clay figurine from Tepecoyo, in the same country, presented by Mr. Emilio Mosonyi, of San Salvador, and a pottery vase from a mound in Marion County, Tenn., con- tributed by Mr. Clarence B. Moore. In Old World archeology there were only two relatively important accessions. The first, an exchange from Dr. Rutot, of the Royal Museum of Natural History at Brussels, consisted of 90 Neolithic stone implements from Belgium, representing the first epoch of pol- ished stone culture in Europe, known as the “ Spiennian”; the sec- ond, a gift from Mr. Herbert E. Clark, of Jerusalem, of 19 stone implements, forming a valuable addition to the present collection from Palestine. The more important contributions in physical anthropology com- prised skeletal material from a Minsi burial place on the Jersey side of the Delaware River, 3 miles below Montague, N. J., one of the most complete and carefully recorded collections of such specimens so far acquired, from Mr. George G. Heye, of New York; similar material from Alabama and Tennessee, from Mr. Clarence B. Moore; eight prehistoric skeletons and four skulls from Bohemia, from Prof. J. Matiegka, of the University of Prague; and three nearly complete and four partial human skeletons, from Montana, collected by Mr. C. W. Gilmore, of the Museum staff. The electrical collections were enriched by a most noteworthy gift from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, consisting of 280 pieces of experimental phonographic apparatus and several relics connected with the early history of the telephone. Under a special act of Congress, the Coast and Geodetic Survey transferred a large number of antiquated surveying instruments which are now of much his- torical importance; and a quantity of guns needed to fill gaps in th¢g collection were deposited by the Navy and War Departments. Of especial interest is a gasoline automobile of 1896, presented by the Olds Motor Works. The section of musical instruments received during the year such a contribution as places its collection among the most notable of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31 kind in the world. The gift came from Mr. Hugo Worch, of Wash- ington, D. C., a student of the history of the pianoforte in America, who has been assembling a collection of these instruments, which he offered to the Museum in order to provide for their permanent preservation. While accommodations for the entire series may not be found, 70 instruments have already been delivered, the selection following lines to best illustrate the progress and development in piano making down to about 1850. Too much praise can not be accorded Mr. Worch for this splendid donation, which now includes 24 examples of European make and 46 of American make. With few exceptions, the latter are the product of manufacturers in Philadel- phia, New York, Baltimore, and Boston, and represent, among others, the names of Taws, Albrecht, Harper, Geib, Kearsing, Loud, Hisky, Osborne, Nunns, Goodrich, Stewart, Chickering, Meyer, Bab- cock, and Wise. The earliest of the American pianos is of date about 1790 and of the European about 1770. While in most cases the ex- amples are no longer in playing shape, the mechanism is preserved, and some remain in excellent condition. In the section of ceramics the more noteworthy additions con- sisted of two loans, one including an old porcelain rice bow] and a tea set of cloisonné on porcelain from Miss Julia H. Chadwick, the other being a collection of Chinese and Japanese porcelains from Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. The division of graphic arts received a large number of specimens mainly required for filling gaps in the collections, among the more important being illustrations of a process for color printing from photographs and of the rapid rotary in- taglho process, besides many examples of lithographs, collotypes, and other prints. The additions to the memorial collection of American history were numerous and of great variety, the most important being loans, in which were included a water-color portrait of Washington by James Peale; articles of military equipment carried by Capt. William Wal- ton during the War of the Revolution; a silver tea service of five pieces once the property of Laura Wolcott, daughter of Oliver Wolcott, a signer of the Declaration of Independence; a pair of gold - and jeweled earrings formerly belonging to Mrs. Rebecca Madison, niece of President Madison; and three gold medals and one of bronze added to the collection of Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary, United States Navy. There was also a large contribution of silver and bronze coins of the nineteenth century, issues of the United States and several foreign countries; and the collection of postage stamps, envelopes, and post cards was very materially increased. The exhibition of historical costumes was greatly increased both by gift and loan, most noteworthy being appropriate costumes for repre- senting four additional presidential administrations at the White 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. House. The earliest of these belonged to Betty Taylor, daughter of President Zachary Taylor, 1849-1850. The next, a lavender silk dress, was worn at the White House by Mrs. Fillmore, wife of President Millard Fillmore, 1850-1853. The third, a black moiré, was worn by Mrs. Pierce on the occasion of the inauguration of her husband, Franklin Pierce, March 4, 1853. The last, a pale-green brocade, was used by Mrs. Cleveland during the first administration of President Cleveland, 1885-1889. Tn the section of art textiles the acquisitions, all loans, comprised over 100 pieces of lace, besides embroideries, brocades, velvets, tapes- tries, etc. Six tapestries of great beauty and value were also lent for a short period by Messrs. P. W. French & Co., of New York. The room containing this collection was entirely renovated and repainted, the materials were also for the most part rearranged, and where necessary new and more effective backgrounds were substituted. As during many successive years, the Museum was indebted to Dr. W. L. Abbott for large collections of the higher animals, one made at his expense in Dutch East Borneo by Mr. H. C. Raven, the other, composed entirely of mammals, obtained by himself in Kashmir. Of no less importance was a collection from the northwest coast of Cuba, secured during an expedition by Mr. John B. Henderson, comprising at least 10,000 mollusks and other invertebrates, nearly 3,000 fishes, and many reptiles and batrachians. The Bureau of Fisheries made extensive deposits of marine invertebrates and fishes; and Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby continued to transmit valuable series of vertebrates and insects from little known districts in China. Birds, reptiles, batra- chians, fishes, and marine invertebrates from Panama were contrib- uted by Mr. James Zetek; plants and marine invertebrates in large numbers by the Carnegie Trstitition of Washington; and ional of various groups by the Biological Survey. Besides those above mentioned, interesting collections of birds were received from Ecuador and Australia. A unique accession consisted of the last of the pair of passenger pigeons which had been so long preserved in the Cincinnati Zoological Gardens, and whose death sig- nalized the absolute extinction of this remarkable form. Additional specimens of reptiles and batrachians were obtained from Texas, Cali- fornia, Mexico, and Baluchistan; and of fishes from the Philippine Islands, Formosa, and Panama. The most notable contribution of mollusks was a gift from Mr. John B. Henderson of a very large collection of selected and gen- erally identified specimens assembled from practically every part of the world. Eight separate transfers of invertebrates by the Bureau of Fisheries were of much scientific value. Four of these consisted of material that had been studied and described and therefore contained numerous type specimens, and the remainder of new collections from REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 recent surveys of the steamer Adbatross on the Pacific coast. Through the courtesy of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, about 1,000 specimens of corals from the Bahama Islands and Florida, 800 specimens from Australia, and many other marine forms were acquired. The Bureau of Entomology was the principal con- tributor of insects, which belonged mainly to the Hymenoptera, Dip- tera, and Odonata. Peruvian Diptera to the number of over 3,000, besides several hundred preparations, were presented by Dr. C. H. T. Townsend; and numerous wasps and other insects, by Dr. T. D. A. Cockerell. Two other important collections, consisting of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, were received from Copenhagen. The number of plants received was greater than in any of the pre- vious 10 years except 1913. Nearly one-fourth were deposited by the Department of Agriculture, including 7,300 specimens of grasses, of which the larger part will be distributed in sets to scientific establish- ‘ments. Two other noteworthy collections from the same department consisted of phanerogams from the western United States and west- ern Canada. Important accessions otherwise obtained came from the West Indies, the Philippine Islands, China, the Canary Islands, western South America, Mexico, and several of the States. Though the accessions in geology were not extensive, they fur- nished a considerable variety of valuable material. A collection from the Geological Survey was illustrative of the economic phases of the feldspar deposits of the United States. Individual gifts com- prised excellent specimens of ferberite-bearing pegmatite from Ari- zona; tungsten ore and roscoelite-bearing sandstone from Colorado; and a sample of ferro-vanadium made from patronite ores of Minas- ragra, Peru; besides several slabs of marble for the exhibition series of ornamental stones. The meteorite collection was enriched by specimens from 13 falls, obtained by gift, exchange, and purchase, to which may be added fragments of 12 meteorites deposited by the National Academy of Sciences. The most important single accession in mineralogy consisted of several hundred specimens of minerals and cut stones, including a suite of unique titantic crystals from an exhausted locality at Bridge- water, Pa., received as a bequest from the late Brig. Gen. William H. Forwood, United States Army. Among the transfers from the Geological Survey were various lots of gem minerals, in both rough and cut form, including many specimens of exceptional value, con- sisting for the most part of types of new species, or restudied and redescribed material from new localities. From several other sources rare and interesting examples were also obtained, such as one of the largest known nuggets of osmiridium, large crystals of phenacite, tarbuttite, roepperite, pseudomorphs from the Blue Jay Copper Mine, scheelite, large rhodonites, ete. The additions in petrology 18618°—sm 1915——3 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. consisted, as usual, largely of studied material, representing folio series, deposited by the Geological Survey. Mention should also be made of an interesting collection of obsidians from Iceland, pre- sented by Dr. F. E. Wright, and illustrating his studies on the origin of spherulitic structure. An extensive series of Devonian fossils, representing the lifelong collecting of Prof. Henry Shaler Williams, and including many faunas not previously represented in the Museum, formed the largest and most important accession in invertebrate paleontology. It was transferred by the Geological Survey, which also deposited nearly 600 specimens of type and other monographic material. Other large acquisitions consisted of about 5,000 specimens of European Paleo- zoic and Mesozoic fossils; some 6,000 specimens of Ordovician and Silurian fossils from Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky; and about 5,000 Cambrian fossils from China. 2s beeen Te See ees a ih a eee ee See 1, 239 MB Ue aS es ea ey ee cy ge Ty EE ee ee ee OE A ee 8, 515 Gomtributions to North American Ethnology ——_ ~._- —_»*+—- "= “2s s- 25 STG LSTS OGL UL (CURR) TN See ee ne eee Se Ae ee re ee ee ee ee ee 8 MVS COLAO OSes ee eek eee eee Ee See ae ee ee 398 ETO Gels = = eh A 2B he eee 10, 185 This total shows a decrease of 2,634 volumes in comparison with the year 1913-14, due largely to the retention in the transmission of certain publications to Europe by reason of the war. ILLUSTRATIONS. The preparation of illustrations for the publications of the bureau and of photographic portraits of the members of visiting Indian deputations has continued in charge of Mr. De Lancey Gill, illus- trator, assisted by Mr. Albert Sweeney. The photographic work during the year may be classed as follows: Portrait negatives of visiting delegations (Crow, Osage, Chippewa, and S10 Ure TL ES) fea a Se eee 10 Negatives of ethnologie subjects to illustrate publications_______________ 52 Development of negatives exposed by field parties______________________ 548 Photographic prints for distribution and for office use__________________ 690 Photographic prints for publication and for office use__________________- 120 Photographic prints for exhibition purposes.+-=--222 4+ 22-2 115 Small photographic prints distributed chiefly for scientific purposes_____~ 350 Drawings. prepared. tor illnstravions. 222-2 2 =e ee eee 30 Photostat copies (pages) of books and manuscripts_________ Wears serene 1, 452 In addition Mr. Gill gave the usual attention to the critical exami- nation of engraver’s proofs of illustrations designed for the publica- tions of the bureau, submitted by the Public Printer. In the last report mention was made of a series of photographs of Indian subjects that has been exhibited successively by the New York Public Library, the Library Commission of Indiana, and the Providence Public Library. In September, 1914, in response to the 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. request of the Public Library of Haverhill, Mass., this series of pic- tures was sent for public exhibition in that library. In addition, collections of photographs of Indian subjects, designed to illustrate in part the work of the bureau, were sent for exhibition at the Pan-' ama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco and at the Panama-Califor- nia Exposition in San Diego. LIBRARY. The reference library of the bureau has been in the continuous charge of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mrs. Ella Slaughter until her death on November 1, 1914, and subsequently by Charles B. Newman, messenger boy. During the year 997 books were acces- sioned, but of this number only 448 were newly acquired, the remain- der being represented by the binding and by entry on the records ef serial publications that had been in possession of the bureau for some time. Of these accessions 138 volumes were acquired by pur- chase and 310 by gift or through exchange. The serial publications currently received number about 700, of which only 17 are obtained by subscription, the remainder being received by exchange of the bureau’s reports and bulletins. Of pamphlets, 294 were acquired. The number of volumes bound was 678. The library contained 20,237 volumes, 13,188 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals at the close of the year. The number of books borrowed from the Library of Congress for the use of the staff of the bureau in prosecuting their researches was about 450. The new steel bookstacks in the eastern end of the main hall of the Smithsonian building, referred to in the last annual report, were finished and placed at the disposal of the bureau in August, when the work of reinstallation of the library was undertaken by the librarian and promptly carried to completion. The facilities afforded by the new stacks are an improvement over those of the old library equip- ment, while safety is greatly increased. COLLECTIONS. The following collections were acquired by the bureau or by mem- bers of its staff and transferred to the National Museum, as required by law: Model of Cherokee packing basket from the Hast Cherokee Reservation, Swain County, N. C. Collected by James Mooney, Bureau of American Ethnology. (57699. ) 179 archeological objects from the lower Mimbres Valley and an earthenware vase from Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico. Collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Bureau of American Hthnology. (57777.) Three stone figurines from the Tewa Indians of New Mexico. Collected by Mrs. M. C. Stevenson, Bureau of American Ethnology. (58129.) Snipe flute of the Sioux Indians. Received from Rey. A. McG. Beede, of North Dakota. (58254.) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 Five archeological objects from Virginia. Gift of Dr. W. B. Barham, of New- soms, Va.; and a necklace presented by Mrs. J. R. Kello and her daughter, Miss Hattie Kello. (58177.) PROPERTY. The most valuable property of the bureau consists of its library (of which brief statistics have been given), a collection of unpub- lished manuscripts, and several thousand photographic negatives. Comparatively little of this material could be duplicated. The other property of the bureau is described in general terms in the last annual report. The total cost of furniture, typewriters, and other apparatus acquired during the fiscal year was $553.35. MISCELLANEOUS. QUARTERS. The quarters of the bureau have been improved by the completion of the library bookstacks, previously referred to, and the installation of additional electric lights in the library and in one of the office rooms. PERSONNEL, The personnel of the bureau has been changed by the appointment of Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, on February 20; the death of Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, ethnologist, on June 24; the death of Mrs. Ella Slaughter, classified laborer, on November 1, 1914; the transfer of Thomas F. Clark, jr., to the National Museum; the ap- pointment of William Humphrey, stenographer and typewriter; and the appointment of Dennis Sullivan, messenger boy. The corre- spondence of the bureau and other clerical work has been conducted with the assistance of three clerks and a stenographer and typewriter. Respectfully submitted. I’. W. Hopes, Ethnologist-in-Charge. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcorr, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the oper- ations of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915: The system of international exchanges is based on the convention and the resolutions of Congress briefly referred to below: Convention between the United States and several other countries for the international exchange of official documents and scientific and literary publications, concluded at Brussels in 1886 and pro- claimed by the President of the Ynited States in 1889. (Stat., XXYV, 1465.) (Since the ratification of this convention, several additional Governments have signified their adherence thereto; while a number of other countries, though they have not officially adhered to the con- vention, have established international exchange bureaus.) Resolution providing for the exchange of certain public documents, approved March 2, 1867. (Stat., XIV, 573.) This resolution pro- vides that 50 copies of all documents printed by order of either House of Congress, and also 50 copies of all publications issued by any bureau or department of the Government, shall be placed at the dis- posal of the Joint Committee on the Library for exchange with for- eign countries through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution. Joint resolution to regulate the distribution of public documents to the Library of Congress for its own use and for international ex- change, approved March 2, 1901. (Stat., XX XI, 1464.) By this resolution it is provided that, in lieu of the 50 copies of the publica- tions referred to in the above-mentioned resolution, there shall be placed at the disposal of the Library of Congress for its own use and for international exchange 62 copies of such documents, with the privilege, at the request of the Librarian, of enlarging this number to 100. Joint resolution for the purpose of more fully carrying into effect the convention concluded at Brussels in 1886 in reference to the im- mediate exchange of the official journal, approved March 4, 1909. (Stat., XX XV, 1169.) This resolution provides that such number as may be required, not exceeding 100 copies, of the daily issue of 60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 the Congressional Record shall be supplied to the Library of Con- gress for distribution, through the Smithsonian Institution, to the legislative chambers of such foreign Governments as may agree to send to the United States current copies of their parliamentary record or like publication. The estimate submitted for the support of the service during 1915 was $32,200, including the allotment for printing and binding, and this amount was granted by Congress. The repayments from private and departmental sources for the transportation of exchanges ag- gregated $4,819.41, making the total available resources for carrying on the Exchange Service $37,019.41. During the year 1915 the total number of packages handled was 275,756, a decrease of 65,911, as compared with the preceding year. The weight of these packages was 367,854 pounds, a decrease of 199,131 pounds. ‘These decreases were caused by the suspension of shipments to a number of countries on account of the European war, as explained below. The number and weight of the packages of different classes are indicated in the following table: Packages. Weight. Sent. |Received.| Sent. |Received. Pounds. | Pounds. United States parliamentary documents sent abroad...........- 135; O50" Sasce sess T4A5A26) |. 253 ae Publicationsreceived in return for parliamentary documents..-..}.......... 2,305) ste d--peae 5,817 United States departmental documents sent abroad..........-. 73, G34) )2. heer as W465 549 5 oars somes Publicationsreceived in return for departmental documents. ....|......-.-- ASSO N Gc acts ss 9,389 Miscellaneousscientific and literary publications sentabroad ...| 39,164 |....--..-- 805448 ||a. LeSe Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States...........-.......|-.-------- rt 20 6275 cee aah 52,525 MObal sa: cissan ete atsdsardde ssse st scp sneceescde ewes cess se | 247,848 27,908 | 300,123 67,731 Grandst otal le py-e25 2 2S: os tee eee es reese Stes wee 275, 756 367, 854 It should be added that the disparity between the number of pack- ages dispatched and those received in behalf of the Government is not so great as indicated by these figures. Packages sent abroad usually contain only a single publication each, while those received in return often comprise many volumes. In the case of publications received in exchange for parliamentary documents and some others the term “package” is applied to large boxes containing a hundred or more publications. No lists of these are made in the Exchange Office, as the boxes are forwarded to their destinations unopened. It is also a fact that many returns for publications sent abroad reach their des- tinations direct by mail and not through the Exchange Service. 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Of the 1,653 boxes used in forwarding exchanges to foreign agen- cies for distribution, 220 contained full sets of United States official documents for authorized depositories and 1,433 were filled with departmental and other publications for depositories of partial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents. The total number of boxes sent abroad during 1915 was 812 less than the preceding year. This decrease was due to the suspended shipments to certain countries owing to the inability of the Institution to secure transportation facilities for forwarding consignments to the various exchange agen- cies, which condition has been brought about by the European war. Owing to the disturbed conditions which existed in Europe and the interruption to transportation facilities, shipments to all European countries were suspended during August and a part of September, 1914. On September 17 transmissions were resumed to Great Brit- ain, and during the month of October to Denmark, Holland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden. Through the courtesy of the minister of the Netherlands at Washington, arrangements were made to send consignments to Switzerland by way of Rotterdam, and transmissions to that country were resumed on November 2. On December 8 shipments were resumed to Greece, and on January 238 to France. At the close of the fiscal year, therefore, the only coun- tries to which shipments were not being made were Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Montenegro, Roumania, Russia, Ser- bia, and Turkey. Steps are being taken through the Department of State to send exchanges for Germany to the American consul general at Rotterdam for reforwarding to the German exchange agency in Berlin, and it is hoped that the exchange of publications with Germany will be resumed at an early date. Through the assistance of the De- partment of State, arrangements have also been made for the for- warding of exchange consignments from Germany to the United States through the American consul general at Rotterdam. The Russian Commission of International Exchanges was ap- proached with a view to sending exchange consignments to Petrograd by way of Archangel during the summer months, but the commis- sion replied that, as the route in question presents so many difficul- ties and is so encumbered, it would prefer not to make use of it, and not to renew the sendings until after the conclusion of peace and the reestablishment of the regular communications. The number of boxes sent to each foreign country and the dates of transmission are shown in the following table: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries. Country. ARGENTINA (s3- 2-525 =445-=2 ACOSTA? LS 22 HSS 5 oo. SEEE Se Ses BRBEGruatas &. 226 ..sh 05st. oS IB OLIVA soon so cee tenet esac BRAZID Te. osteo tso tensed BRITISH COLONIES....-....---- IBRITISH GUIANA! 0.0 -o2-2-550 WANADAGT 2 S25 255 5 seen ace bs ec|dacedee GREG se wate 5 eres. GUATEMALA ....)...\... ee er DEV ATOIEO Fe Sess Ee SIS 2k HONDURAS 2 ee 38s. 288i. LOURENGO MARQUEZ...-....-- MANTITOB AS Sou Sot zebras INE Wea AGAND ook osc cece INTGARAGUAL EE: ct 2sas-2 0c NOR Watyacue eee RUE Oates -_ 91 Sas Date of transmission. July 16, Sept. 9, Nov. 17, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 27, Feb. 26, Apr. 22, May 20, June 22, 1915. July 8, 1914.1 July 11, 1914.1 Oct. 8, Dee. 10, 1914; Jan. 28, May 10, June 16, 1915. July 16, 20, Oct. 19, Nov. 18, 20, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 27, Feb. 26, Apr. 22, May 20, June 22, 1915. July 31, Sept. 17, 25, Oct. 26, Nov. 7, Dec. 5, 1914; Jan. 2, 16, 23, Feb. 6, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 20, May 1, 29, June 12, 19, 1915. Oct. 31, 1914; Mar. 12, May 7, 1915. July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. July 16, Oct. 19, Nov. 18, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 26, Apr. 23, May 20, June 22, 1915. Oct. 28, Nov. 4, 1914; Jan. 2,30, Mar. 2, Apr. 12, May 13, June 12, 1915. Oct. 20, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 15, June 16, 1915. Oct. 21, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 5, June 16, 1915. July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. July 24, Oct. 10, Nov. 12, Dec. 14, 1914; Jan. 14, Feb. 20, Mar. 30, May 4, June 4, 1915. Oct. 31, Dee. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 5, June 16, 1915. July 24, Nov. 16,1914; Jan. 12, May 22, June 23, 1915. July 3, 1914; Jan. 23, Feb. 23, Apr. 30, May 14, 29, June 14, 1915. July 7, 1914.1 July 3, 11, 18, 31, Sept. 17, 25, Oct. 26, Nov. 7, 23, Dec. 5, 12, 19, 26, 1914; Jan. 2,9, 16, 23,30, Feb. 6, 13, Mar. 12, 27, Apr. 20, 24, May 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, June 5, 12, 19, 26, 1915. Oct. 9, Dec. 8, 1914; Mar. 13, May 10, June 22, 1915. Oct. 31, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 7, June 17, 1915. July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. Oct. 31, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 7, June 17, 1915. July 8, 1914.1 July 3, 16, 31, Sept. 17, 25, Oct. 26, Nov. 7, Dec. 5, 26, 1914; Jan. 16, 30, Feb. 6, 13, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 10, 24, May 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, June 12, 19, 26, 1915. July 18, Oct. 7, Nov. 12, Dec. 11, 1914; Jan. 13, Feb. 12, Mar. 11, Apr. 12, May 11, 25, June 11, 25, 1915. Oct. 8, Dec. 8, 1914; Jan. 28, Mar. 12, May 10, June 22, 1915. July 15, Nov. 28, Dec. 22, 1914; Jan. 26, Feb. 26, May 4, June 4, 1915. Jan. 2, Mar. 12, May 12, June 22, 1915. July 24, Noy. 16, 1914; Mar. 12, May 12, 1915. Dec. 10,1914; Mar. 10, 1915. July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. July 20, Nov. 20,1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. Oct. 12, Nov. 3, Dec. 9, 1914; Jan. 6, Feb. 10, Mar. 10, Apr. 13, May 13, 27, June 14, 26, 1915. July 14, Oct. 2, Nov. 14, Dec. 15, 1914; Feb. 24, Apr. 8, May 8, June 8, 1915. July 14, Oct. 2, Nov. 14,1914; Feb. 24, Apr.9, May 8, June 8, 1915. Oct. 31, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 7, June 17, 1915. July 24, Oct. 10, Nov. 12, Dec. 14, 1914; Jan. 14, Feb. 20, Mar. 30, May 4, June 4, 1915. 1 Shipments temporarily suspended on account of the European war. 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries—Continued. Num- Country. ber of Date of transmission. boxes ONTARIO (099. 0 ee 5 | July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. PARES TEN eejoce rear ee eee 1 | June 30, 1915. IPARAGUAY saa re: Shoe Moraes 4 6 | Oct. 31, Dec. 4, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, Mar. 12, May 5, 1915. PRE pate e eee Le sero een 19 | July 16, Oct. 20, Nov. 18, Dec. 17, 1914; Feb. 27, Apr. 20, May 20, June 22, 1915. BORTUGAL 288. 2s0so pease 16 | July 24, Oct. 9, Nov. 12, Dec. 14, 1914; Feb. 20, Mar. 30, May 4, f June 4, 1915. QUEBELG. .cia- -ti82s.ceees = 5 | July 20, Nov. 20, 1914; Jan. 21, Mar. 31, May 29, 1915. QUEENSLAND. . 262 -2jah0-32224- 17 | July 14, Oct. 2, Nov. 14, Dec. 15, 1914; Feb. 24, Apr. 9, May 8, June 8, 1915. PRUIBBEAVS SS 3 Hau ee yop ae Ae 9 | July 9, 1914.11 DAL VAD OBE «fags ots ane pene 5 | Oct. 31, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, May 7, June 17, 1915. TA Mere episins yaa ae were Sid Seg 4 | Dec. 10,1914; Mar. 12, May 12, June 22, 1915. SOULE AUSTRALAS 2255.2 52 23 | July 14, Oct. 2, Nov. 14, Dec. 15, 1914; Jan. 20, Feb. 24, Apr. 9, May 8, June 8, 1915. Spams 20 ot oho SADE EA 24 | Oct.9, Nov. 16,1914; Jan. 12, Feb. 17, May 7, June 7, 1915. SWEDEN........ EB nee Sx 59 | July 9, Oct. 15, Dec. 1, 1914; Jan. 6, Feb. 10, Mar. 10, 19, Apr. 29, May 26, June 24, 1915. SWITZERLAND......2..2---2-..- 42 | July 11, Nov. 2, Dec. 8, 1914; Feb. 9, Mar. 11, Apr. 28, May 14, 28, 1915. SYRTAsas. ts? LANE, Sak ot 2) July 25, Oct. 28, 1914.1 TVA MANTA: c84 20. ta Gaerne Oe. 38 14 | July 18, 31, Sept. 25, Oct. 26, Nov. 7, Dec. 5, 1914; Jan. 2, 16, Feb. 13, Apr. 20, June 19, 1915. SERINGDA 2= ceca cnceeacecemen ne 5 | Oct. 8, Dec. 10, 1914; Jan. 25, May 10, June 22, 1915. PRORKGY, =o53- Us: Seas ose 3 | July 25, Oct. 28, 1914.1 UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA..... 30 | July 23, Oct. 30, Dec. 10, 1914; Jan. 12, Feb. 16, Apr. 30, May 27, June 25, 1915. WRUGUAY:..2 Sasa. Se Sale 17 | July 16, Oct. 20, Nov. 18, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 27, Apr. 23, May 20, June 22, 1915. MENEZUEUA Se. eae nee ae 11 | Oct. 20, Dec. 17, 1914; Jan. 28, Feb. 29, May 5, June 16, 1915. VICTORIAS: AL Seists -eee tose 25 | July 14, Oct. 2, Nov. 14, Dec. 15, 1914; Jan. 20, Feb. 24, Apr. 8, May 8, June 8, 1915. WESTERN AUSTRALIA......... 20 | July 3, 31, Sept. 17, 25, Oct. 26, Nov. 7, Dec. 5, 12, 1914; Jan. 16, 23, Feb. 6, 13, Mar. 8, 20, Apr. 20, June 12, 1915. WINDWARD AND LEEWARD 3 | Dec. 10, 1914; Mar. 12, June 22, 1915. ISLANDS, 1 Shipments temporarily suspended on account of the European war. With the exception of one package for the chief secretary to the government of Madras, India, and one for the undersecretary to the government of the United Provinces, Allahabad, India—each con- taining 12 United States governmental documents—no consignments have, so far as the Institution has been informed, been lost during the year, which is considered remarkable in view of the number of ships sunk by war vessels. A number of boxes have been detained at several ports of de- barkation owing to the fact that the vessels on which they were forwarded have been interned. Wherever possible the Institution has obtained the release of these consignments and they have been REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 sent forward to their destinations. At the close of the year one box for Sofia, one for Serbia, and two for Syria, all forwarded from New York July 2, 1914, per steamship Barbarossa, were held at Bremen, Germany, and four boxes for Pretoria, forwarded from New York July 10, 1914, per steamship Rauenfels, were held at Bahia, Brazil. With the exception of the latter, these consignments will probably be held until the close of the war. The Institution is endeavoring to have the boxes for the Government Printing Works at Pretoria released and forwarded from Bahia to destination. During the year the Institution has obtained for the Library of Congress from the Chinese Government, in exchange for the full series of United States official documents sent to China, a set of the Imperial Institutes of the Ching Dynasty and of the Imperial Rec- ords Relative to the Suppression of Rebellions. These valuable works comprise a total of 684 volumes. Many other foreign govern- mental documents have been obtained through the Exchange Service for the Library of Congress. In special instances, when requested to do so, the Institution has used the facilities of the Exchange Service to procure publications for both foreign and domestic gov- ernmental and scientific establishments. Quite a number of requests of foreign organizations for publications have been received from American consular officers through the Department of State. Owing largely to the efforts of Mr. Vittorio Benedetti, recently ap- pointed chief of the Italian office of International Exchanges, the service between Italy and the United States has been very much improved during the year. Mr. Benedetti has presented the Insti- tution with a typewritten copy of an account prepared by him of the origin and development of the International Exchange Service. A translation will be made of this interesting document and placed in the archives of the exchanges for reference. The act making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, included a pro- vision authorizing the Government branches under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution to exchange typewriters, adding ma- -chines, and other labor-saving devices in part payment for like ar- ticles. This office exchanged four typewriting machines during the year. The multigraph duplicating machine supplied by the Institution, which has been in use in the Exchange Office since 1908, has been replaced by a new machine. This multigraph, with stand, cost $283.50, and was purchased from the appropriation for the Inter- national Exchanges. It has been found to be very useful in the printing not only of circular letters, but of envelopes, labels, and other forms. 18618°—sm 1915——5 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The walls, ceilings, floors, and woodwork of the government and shipping rooms were painted during the year and the government room was provided with a large sorting table 27 feet 3 inches long, 2 feet 103 inches wide, and 3 feet high, with drop leaf at end and two drawers and shelves. There are only two windows in the gov- ernment room, and on account of the thickness of the walls of the Smithsonian Building these admitted very little light. The windows in that room have therefore been splayed, with the result that the lighting has been greatly improved. Another room has been assigned by the Institution for the use of the Exchange Office, which has facilitated the handling of the many packages received for transmission through the service. The unsatisfactory electric lighting system throughout the Ex- change Office has been very much improved by the installation of a semi-indirect lighting system. The washroom provided for the use of the employees has been fitted up with two lavatories. FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS. In accordance with treaty stipulations and under the authority of the congressional resolutions of March 2, 1867, and March 2, 1901, setting apart a certain number of documents for exchange with for- eign countries, there are now sent regularly to depositories abroad 56 full sets of United States official publications and 36 partial sets. The partial set of publications sent to Ceylon has in the past been forwarded in care of the American consul at Colombo. The consul now informs the Institution that the documents in question are de- posited in the Record Department of the Library of the Colonial Secretary’s Office, and consignments will therefore be sent direct to that office in the future, The recipients of full and partial sets are as follows: DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS. ARGENTINA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne. Austria: K. K. Statistische Zentral-Kommission, Vienna. BavEN: Universitits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the Grand Duchy of Baden.) Bavaria: K6nigliche Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich. BeEteiuM: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels. BompBay: Secretary to the Government, Bombay. Brazi.: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Buenos Arres: Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. (Deposi- tory of the Province of Buenos Aires. ) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67 CanapbA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago. CuinAa: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai. CotomBrA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José, CusAa: Secretaria de Estado (Asuntos Generales y Canje Internacional), Habana. ; DENMARK: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen. ENGLAND: British Museum, London. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin. Guascow: City Librarian, Mitchell Library, Glasgow. GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens. Hartt: Secrétairerie d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince. Huncary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. Inp1A: Department of Education (Books), Government of India, Calcutta. IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. Iraty: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Hmanuele, Rome. JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. Lonpon : London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) MANITOBA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Mexico: Instituto Bibliografico, Biblioteca Nacional, Mexico. NETHERLANDS: Library of the States General, The Hague. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Storthingets Bibliothek, Christiania. OntTARIo: Legislative Library, Toronto. Paris: Préfecture de la Seine. Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. PorRTUGAL: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. Prussia: Koénigliche Bibliothek, Berlin. QueEBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec, Quebec. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Russt1a: Imperial Public Library, Petrograd. Saxony: K6nigliche Oeffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden. SErB1A: Section Administrative du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade. SoutH AUSTRALIA: Parliament Library, Adelaide. Spain: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Facultativo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arquedlogos, Madrid. SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Fédérale, Berne. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. Turkry: Department of Public Instruction, Constantinople. Union oF SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Victoria: Public Library, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. WURTTEMBERG: KO6nigliche Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart. 68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS. ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. ALSACE-LORRAINE: K. Ministerium fiir Elsass-Lothringen, Strassburg. Boxtv1A: Ministerio de Colonizacién y Agricultura, La Paz. BreEMEN: Senatskommission fiir Reichs- und Auswirtige Angelegenheiten. British CotumMpBiA: Legislative Library, Victoria. BritisH Gurana: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. BuuGaRiA: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sofia. Cryton: Colonial Secretary’s Office (Record Department of the Library), Co- lombo. Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. Eeyret: Bibliothéque Khédiviale, Cairo. IintAnpD: Chancery of Governor, Helsingfors. GUATEMALA: Secretary of the Government, Guatemala. Hambure: Senatskommission fiir die Reichs- und Auswirtigen Angelegenheiten. HeEssE: Grossherzogliche Hof Bibliothek, Darmstadt. Honpuras: Secretary of the Government, Tegucigalpa. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. LisEeRIA: Department of State, Monrovia. LourENGO Marquez: Government Library, Lourengo Marquez. Lupeck: President of the Senate. Mapras, Province oF: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public Department, Madras. Matra: Lieutenant Governor, Valetta. : MonTENEGRO: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Cetinje. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Colonial Secretary, St. John’s. NICARAGUA: Superintendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua. NorTHWEST TERRITORIES: Government Library, Regina. Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Oficina General de Inmigracion, Asuncion. PrIncE Epwarp ISLAND: Legislative Library, Charlottetown. RouMANIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest. SALVADOR: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. S1Am: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS: Colonial Secretary, Singapore. Unitep Provinces oF AGRA AND OvupH: Under Secretary to Government, Alla- habad. ViennA: Biirgermeister der Haupt- und Residenz-Stadt. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNALS. There are now 33 countries with which the immediate exchange of official journals with the United States is carried on, the Government of Costa Rica having been added during the year. A complete list . of the Governments to which the Congressional Record is now sent is given below: Argentine Republic. Belgium. Australia. Brazil. Austria. Buenos Aires, Province of. Baden, Canada. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69 Costa Rica. Portugal. Cuba. Prussia. Denmark. Queensland. France. Roumania. Great Britain. Russia. Greece. Serbia. Guatemala. Spain. Honduras. Switzerland. Hungary. Transvaal. Italy. Union of South Africa. Liberia. Uruguay. New South Wales. Western Australia. New Zealand. LIST OF BUREAUS OR AGENCIES THROUGH WHICH EXCHANGES ARE TRANSMITTED. The following is a list of the bureaus or agencies through which exchanges are transmitted : ALGERIA, via France. ANGOLA, via Portugal. ARGENTINA: Comisi6n Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Reconquista 538, Buenos Aires. Austria: K. K. Statistische Zentral-Kommission, Vienna. AzorES, via Portugal. Brterum: Service Belge des Hchanges Internationaux, Rue des Longs-Chariots 46, Brussels. BottviA: Oficina Nacional de Estadistica, La Paz. Brazit: Servico de Permutacées Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. BrivTisH Cotontes: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. BritisH Guiana: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown. BritisH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize. Burearta: Institutions Scientifiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Sofia. CANARY ISLANDS, via Spain. CHILE: Servicio de Canjes Internacionales, Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. Cuina: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai Bu- reau of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai. CotomsriA: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José. DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. DutcH GUIANA: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo. Hcvapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito. Eeypet: Government Publications Office, Printing Department, Cairo. FRANcE: Service Franeais des Hchanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle, Paris. GERMANY: Amerika-Institut, Berlin, N. W. 7. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Messrs. William Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London. GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens. GREENLAND, via Denmark. GUADELOUPE, via France. GUATEMALA: Instituto Nacional de Varones, Guatemala. 70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. GUINEA, via Portugal. Hartt: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince. Honpuras: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Hunecary: Dr. Julius Pikler, Municipal Office of Statistics, Vaci-utea 80, Buda- pest. IcELAND, via Denmark. Inp1A: India Store Department, India Office, London. Jraty: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Eman- uele, Rome. JAMAICA: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. JAvaA, via Netherlands. KoreA: His Imperial Japanese Majesty’s Residency-General, Seoul. LiseriA: Bureau of Exchanges, Department of State, Monrovia. Lourenco Marqurz: Government Library, Lourenco Marquez. LUXxEMBURG, via Germany. MADAGASCAR, via France. Mapetra, via Portugal. MontENEGRO: Ministére des Affaires Mtrangéres, Cetinje. MozAMBIQUE, via Portugal. NETHERLANDS: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Bibliothéque de l’Uni- versité, Leyden. New Guinea, via Netherlands. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. New ZEALAND: Dominion Museum, Wellington. NicAarRAGua: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet Bibliotheket, Christiania. PaNAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones HExteriores, Panama. PaRAGuay: Servicio de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Seccién Consular y de Comercio, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Asuncion. Persta: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York City. Peru: Oficina de Reparto, Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Ministerio de Fomento, Lima. PorTUGAL: Servico de Permutagdes Internacionaes, Inspeccio Geral das Biblio- thecas e Archivos Publicos, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Sec- retary’s Office, Brisbane. RouMANIA: Academia Romana, Bucharest. Russta: Commission Russe des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Im- periale Publique, Petrograd. Sarvapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. Serbia: Section Administrative du Ministére des Affaires Ktrangéres, Belgrade. Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. Sparn: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Faculta- tivo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arquedélogos, Madrid. SumatTrA, via Netherlands. SweEDEN: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm. SwirzERLAND: Service des Echanges Internationaux Bibliothéque Fédérale Centrale, Berne. Syrra: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, New York. TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart. TRINIDAD: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. eal TUNIS, via France. TurKEY: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston. UNIon oF SoutH ArricA: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal. Urucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. WINDWARD AND LEEWARD ISLANDS: Imperial Department of Agriculture, Bridge- town, Barbados. Respectfully submitted. C. W. SHOEMAKER, Chief Clerk International Exchange Service. Dr. Cuarites D. WaALcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Aveust 24, 1915. APPENDIX 4. REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report concerning the operations of the National Zoological Park during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915. The sundry civil act approved August 1, 1914, provided $100,000 for.improvement and maintenance. The cost of food for the animals during the year was about $23,000, being slightly less than the previous year, when it attained the highest figure yet reached; exten- sive repairs were required on roads and a considerable amount had to be expended on some of the buildings, all of which reduced the amount available for additional improvements. ACCESSIONS. Eighty-eight animals were born and hatched in the park. Among these were a South American tapir, an Arabian camel, 4 otters, 5 bears, a beaver, and various other mammals and birds. The accessions included altogether 25 species not hitherto repre- sented in the collection, and although considerably greater in number than during the previous year, included few of importance, as the supply of foreign animals was largely cut off by the war. BAN OCMNaANSH Ww "fo WHORE PH Ee Cw ore bo e bo = ar Ll te I) BO) eS 300 POL & Ob to = 76 Rocky Mountain jay (Perisoreus cana- densis capitatis) =o ee eee White-throated jay (Garrulus leucotis) — Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)__-_---_ American magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) — Red-billed magpie(Urocissa occipitalis) — Yellow tyrant (Pitangus sulphuratus TUPENNAS) = 22 ss. ke Es CE eee be Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)_-_---__- Concave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros O1COTNTS) a SO ee ee Reddish motmot (Momotus subrufes- Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua ga- LOTTE) = a te EEE oh White cockatoo (Cacatua alba) ----_--_ Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua lead- DEE CRI asa Le nie a a Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gymno- DAB) ii to ne eh tS A Ae el Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ararauna) — Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara AVOLCOO ) xn 2 in ate ee aes Red and blue macaw (Ara chlorop- tera) Great green macaw (Ara militaris)___ Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) — Orange-winged amazon (Amazona ama- gonica) Festive amazon (Amazona festiva)___ Porto Rican amazon (Amazona_ vit- tata) Yellow-shouldered amazon ochroptera) Yellow-fronted amazon (Amazona och- rocephala) Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona auri- palliata) Yellow-headed amazon (Amazona le- vaillanti) Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona estiva) - Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Banded parrakeet (Paleornis fasci- OG) ee ee eh ee ge Love bird (Agapornis pullaria) ——_—-~ Shell parrakeet (Melopsittacus undula- EUS) a ie ore NEE ey as ee Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) — Arctic horned owl (Bubo virginianus SILO QU CLICUR)) gine ees Se ee Barred owl (Stri# varia)_________=—= Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius)———— Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus)_— Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwetus leuco- cephalus alascanus)—-~—_______.-— Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos)_-___ Harpy eagle (Thrasaétus harpyia)_—--_ Crowned hawk eagle (Spizaétus coro- natus) Rough-legged hawk (Archibuteo lago- pus sancti-johannis)——___________ Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi) -—- Venezuelan jhawhke = 2 ser ees Sr (Amazona km Oo Co ee 69 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) ___ South American condor (Sarcorham- phusrgryphus) ose sie ee California condor (Gymnogyps califor- RIO) ya Sos see bo ieee 28 Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)_--_____ Cinereous vulture (Vultur monachus) — Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnop- Cer WS ess es eee eee ee Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)_-_~ Black vulture (Catharista urubi)--__ King vulture (Gypagus papa)—_--_-_ Snow pigeon (Columba leuconota)____ Red-billed pigeon (Columba flaviros- tris) White-crowned pigeon (Columba leuco- cephala) Band-tailed pigeon (Columba ae Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) — Peaceful dove (Geopelia tranquilla) __- Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) ________ Collared turtie dove (Turtur risorius) — Cape masked dove (Gna capensis) —__ Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) Wonga-wonga picata) Nicobar pigeon (Calenas nicobarica)_— Red-billed curassow (Craz carunculata) — Wild turkey (Weleagris gallopavo sil- UESTVIS) 2 a SO Bee ae Peafowl (Pavo cristata) —_-_.-.._.._= Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron chin- pigeon Huropean quail (Coturnia communis) — Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) -~---- Curacoa crested quail (Hupsychortyzr CTI ST GINS ioe 5 ae ee Pe te ts Se Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) —-—~ Valley quail (Lophortyx californica vallicola) ea 4 Gambel’s quail (Lophortyxr gambeli) —_ Massena quail (Cyrtonye montezume) — American coot (Fulica americana) ~~~ Great. bustard,, (Otis stard@) 2+. ..-— Common cariama (Cariama cristata)_~ ~ Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) —~ Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) — Whooping crane (Grus americana) ——~ Sand-hill crane (Grus mexicana) —~---~ Australian crane (Grus australasiana) — Huropean crane (Grus cinerea) -~--~~ Indian white crane (Grus leucogera- A) a eee ee eee er eee ene Ruff (Machetes pugnar)=-—-~——+-----— Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax NYCLiCOTAL .NECVULS) — ees Snowy egret (Zgretta candidissima) —_ Great white heron (Herodias egretta)~— Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ~~~ Great black-crowned heron (Ardea co- ee > Nwbd pe PAD tS AR to lor} i RPRORNARPREP ORF w ee | I) bo REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Marabou stork (Leptoptilus dubius) —-~ 1 | Fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bi- Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) _—_-_~ 2 COLON) ee aE Te ey Oe ee Sacred ibis (1bis wthiopica) __________ 3 | Wandering tree duck (Dendrocygna ar- White ibis (Guara alba) _~--_--_---~- 13 CUGTO) SE es Se a ae Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja)__-_-_-_- 2 | Ruddy sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea) _— Turopean flamingo (Phenicopterus ro- Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)___-____ SEALS ae en ee es ee 2 | East Indian black duck (Anas sp.) —-_~ Whistling swan (Olor columbianus)_—_ 6 | Black duck (Anas rubripes) _-________ Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus)_----__--_ 6 | European widgeon (Mareca penelope) -_— Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancory- Chilean widgeon (Mareca sibilatriz) __ NE) | ee 2.| Pintail (Dafila acuta),_---_2--...-_-= Black swan (Chenopis atrata) -~-------~ 3 | Blue-winged teal (Querquedula discors) — Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gam- Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana pepo- Lay Oh Ie aes een oN ee ee ee, uf SOCQ) eae Fe a BN a Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) ~~~ 2 | Red-headed duck (Marila americana) __ White muscovy duck (Cairina mos- American white pelican (Pelecanus (BUCO) ca ee ee a ee 1 CHYylhTerhyncnos) pee eee ee Wood duck,( Air: sponsa) =. — 13 | European white pelican (Pelecanus Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galericu- ONOCrOUOLUS) 22 == ae TTD ek LOE RE SARE AIT 10 | Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus)___~— Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis nove-hol- Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) _ LL TEUL ACE, en arene ne ne OR ree a ey 2 | Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspi- Lesser snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) — 3” CHUTES) a ee a Ee Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraxz au- AEE UU UL L193) ee ee ee 1 TGs: flovidaniws) a Ross’s goose (Chen rossi) __--_---____ 2 | Water turkey (Anhinga anhinga) —-___- American white-fronted goose (Anser Great black-backed gull (Larus mari- atbijnons gambels) 22 x2. es 5 COI) eo = See ae, SEE ene oe ener Barred-head goose (Anser indicus) —-~~ 2 | American herring gull (Larus argenta- Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) ~---~ 2 tus smithsonianus)s—- 22-255 Canada goose (Branta canadensis)____ 12 | Laughing gull (Larus atricilla)__--___ Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis South African ostrich (Struthio austra- TURE ECIUATES UD) ere te ae no ee me ees 3 Saas =e a ee Es Sees eee Cackling goose (Branta canadensis mi- Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdo- ULNA) oe oe a eh a 2 PIONS) a ee ee Se Upland goose (Chloéphaga magella- Common cassowary (Casuarius galea- TAC ye a ES eee pod ee eb Serb 1 CUS) (So hele 28 eer ye re pe ees ey ated White-faced tree duck (Dendrocygna Common rhea (Rhea americana) ---__~ DELS ATH SG 9) oe ND I SN ace cl 2 ' Emu (Dromeus nove hollandie) ____-_ REPTILES. Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)._ 22 | Black snake (Zamenis constrictor) —-~ Painted box tortoise (Cistudo ornata) — 2 | Coach-whip snake (Zamenis flagellum) — Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- Water snake (Natrixz sipedon)__-_____ ILLENT) eee oe he Le ee 2 | Common garter snake (Hutenia sirta- Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo vi- 9) os ee ee ee RS ee eee ee GUE) OO SEE Ss ARETE EA i Ros 1 | Texas water snake (Hutenia proxima) — Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum) — 1 | Pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus) — Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — 2 | King snake (Ophibolus getulus) _--___ Regal python (Python reticulatus) —~-- 3 | Water mocassin (Ancistrodon piscivo- Common boa (Boa constrictor) _—______ 5 fUS8)\ === lo a ee ee Cook’s tree boa (Corallus cookii) ----~ 1 | Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz) _— Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)_—___-_-__ 1 | Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus ada- Velvet snake (EHpicrates cenchris)_-_-~ 2 DIU ONUE CLES) ee ee Spreading adder (Heterodon platyrhi- MUS) Lee oe ee al STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. FAPESON CCC Ree LS NP ee 8) Da Nw PS EN BID BOR RS Sd hae EEE Wen 7SCQU Aas ot et ge aa eae eh ep etn re a OY es ake ey oye Byer et, hh oe Born and hatched in the National Zoological Park______________--____-- FRCCe i eaani tee XChl alll Doe memenmrei henner an ae ee ee eee ee ee Deposited in National Zoological Park ONNWNNAOEDS on © 60 225 88 82 43 498 78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. SUMMARY. Animals ‘onohanadyiby aly WOU at ea Tek pe a OI ee te 1, 362 Alccessions during “they Cara == Se 8 in ea ee ee 498 1, 860 Deduct.loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, ete.) ____-___________ 463 One HAN Ge UUeT ONe ee eae 2 Lane St ee 1, 397 Class. Species. penis LEAT ee ee eS aa sar Se eae ae ae ee ee Seen Mei fan ne Se SS 151 629 POSS ARONA (MERIAL DAT | IEE SS oe RO I A 185 696 MB ORGS ose esc join wma cin oe Se SE SPs © Seb Balen Sache cece eee yo 22 72 MPOTE ss. 2 sce sesh aes o as Siesta cltdaip Suiseele sowie Se iefes coe on tote ote amen etn Soman 358 1,397 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined by count and estimate, was 794,530, a daily average of 2,176. This was the largest year’s attendance in the history of the park. The greatest number in any one month was 153,452 in April, 1915, an average per day of 5,115. Sixty-two schools, classes, etc., visited the park, with a total of 3,485 individuals. IMPROVEMENTS. A cage for pumas was built near the lion house. The cage is 22 by 28 feet, 10 feet high, and attached to it is a well-built shelter house, which provides four compartments for the animals and ample space for the keeper in caring for them. : In order to provide for keeping a band of rhesus monkeys out of doors throughout the year, a small shelter house with thick wooden walls was built and connected with it a yard 25 feet square. Twenty- five monkeys were placed there in October; all came through the winter in good shape except one, which was taken out as it appeared to suffer from the cold. A new machine lathe was added to the shop equipment, replacing one of inferior type which had been in use since the early years of the park. A tool grinder and power hack saw were also installed and overhead equipment of shafting and pulleys arranged for the several machines. le RBRIY oOomooo US MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS, INCLOSURES, ETC. The roads and walks in the park had received almost no repair since 1910, when a special appropriation was made for that purpose. Their condition had become so bad that repairs had to be made early in the year. The roads were extensively patched and given a general surfacing throughout with tar and crushed stone, over 2 miles of roadway being thus treated. Portions of the walks were repaired in the same manner. The total area of roads and walks repaired was 8,330 square yards. The ford near Klingle Road also had to be thoroughly repaired, and toward the close of the year it became nec- essary to pave with concrete the ford on the driveway to Cathedral Avenue, which, from the effects of high water and heavy ice in the creek, had become impassable. The total cost of this road work was $4,075 (upper ford $325, lower ford $615). It was also necessary to clean out and repair the larger pond for waterfowl, in which an extensive bank of sand and mud had been deposited at time of flood by the water supply from the creek; this cost $850. Progressive deterioration of the temporary bird house again made repairs necessary there. The wooden floor, which had already been rebuilt twice, was replaced with concrete, as was also a part of the wooden foundation. The cost of this work was $700. This building is an example of the ultimate costliness of cheap temporary con- struction, 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The roof of the office building had to be reshingled and some other repairs made at a cost of $400. The section of the heating main between the temporary bird house and the antelope and elephant houses was repaired and a considerable part of the pipe replaced. A new hot-water boiler, for auxiliary heating of snake cases, was also put in at a total cost of $500. ALTERATION OF 'THE WEST BOUNDARY OF THE PARK. The acquisition of the land required to extend the park to Con- necticut Avenue from Cathedral Avenue to Klingle Road, for which an appropriation of $107,200 was made in the sundry civil act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, has not yet been accomplished. There was great delay at several stages in the proceedings for the condemnation of the land. A special survey and map of the prop- erty involved was required; the preliminary proceedings were then postponed from time to time in order that the property owners interested might submit arguments regarding the instructions to be given to the jury of condemnation; the work of the jury in arriving at the value of the land to be taken and the amount of benefits which should be assessed against neighboring property occupied several months; the hearing by the court of objections on the part of prop- erty owners to the verdict further delayed the matter, especially as the time of that court from November, 1914, to May, 1915, was al- most entirely occupied by the contest in an important will case. Changes in the personnel of the court and of the Government attor- neys also operated to delay and complicate the matter. The court finally, on June 28, 1915, confirmed the verdict of the jury as regards the awards of damages for land to be taken and a portion of the benefits assessed against neighboring property, but set aside the ver- dict as to benefits in all cases where the owners of the property had filed exceptions to the verdict. The amount awarded for the land to be taken was $194,438.08, and to this is to be added the cost of the proceedings, $2,203.35, msi a total of $196,641.43. The benefits were assessed at $66,013.50, but a considerable part was set aside by the court. The exact amount that is involved in this decision of the court has yet to be determined by the Government attorneys upon examination of the land records. The total amount required to purchase the land and meet the costs of condemnation will therefore be considerably greater than the sum that was appropriated, so that an additional appropriation will have to be obtained in order to secure all of the land for which the act provides. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 ROCK CREEK INTERCEPTING SEWERS. The District of Columbia completed the construction of the main intercepting sewer through the park in October, 1914, and shortly thereafter built a large connecting sewer to this from the intercept- ing sewer that had been constructed through the park some years before. In accomplishing this work there was necessarily a‘con- siderable amount of destruction and defacement of natural features along the line of the work. The District authorities and the con- tractor have removed the excavated material and restored the ground to its original condition so far as that is practicable, but some ex- penditure on the part of the park and considerable time will be re- quired to bring it again into satisfactory condition. PLAYGROUND PRIVILEGE. At its request, the playground department of the District of Co- lumbia was allowed to install several pieces of apparatus on a meadow near which is a favorite resort of picnic parties. The apparatus has been quite largely used. Objectionable features thus far have been _some temporary disfigurement of an attractive part of the park and the tendency to extend playground operations beyond the area that was allotted for that purpose. IMPORTANT NEEDS. BUILDINGS. The importance of providing certain permanent buildings for housing the collection and for other purposes has been urged for several years past, but, with the scanty means available, all that could be done was to provide, from two yearly appropriations, a small building to meet the bare necessities of a hospital and laboratory. An aviary building is still a most urgent need, and repeated efforts have been made to secure an appropriation for this purpose. A building to accommodate elephants, hippopotami, and certain other animals whose requirements as to housing and care are similar will soon be a necessity, as the present temporary quarters are already too small and insecure for the young animals, which are rapidly grow- ing and acquiring formidable strength. The need of a public-comfort and restaurant building has been stated repeatedly and attention called to the fact that the facilities which it has been possible thus far to provide are altogether inade- quate and not befitting a public institution of this character. Gatehouses should be provided at the principal entrances, all of which are at considerable distance from the exhibition buildings, and 18618°—sm 1915——6 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. they should include a small room for watchmen and limited toilet facilities for visitors. PREPARATION OF SITES FOR BUILDINGS. The park includes but little ground that is even comparatively level, and in order to provide a building site of any considerable extent it is usually necessary to grade off a hill or fill up a valley. This involves the destruction of the trees and shrubs on the area and their replacement after the grading is completed by others required about the building for shade and ornament. Early preparation of such sites is highly desirable, in order that the planting may be done in advance and as much time as possible utilized for growth, especially of trees for shade. The site that has been selected for the aviary will require grading over practically the entire area needed for the building, the attached outdoor cages, and the walks about them. This would involve the excavation and removal of some 14,000 cubic yards of earth. The location is indicated at A on the accompanying map, which also shows where the excavated material could be used to fill a deep, narrow valley adjoining the bear yards at B. Nearly 70,000 square feet of ground would thus be made available at the aviary site and some 34,000 square feet would be added to the usable area where the fill is made. It is estimated that the cost of this work would be about $4,000, and it is recommended that Congress be asked to appropriate that sum for the purpose. ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION. Attention is again called to the desirability of adding to the exhibit some of the more important animals which it still lacks, such as anthropoid apes, rhinoceros, giraffe, African buffalo and ante- lopes, and the mountain sheep and goat of our own country. Respectfully submitted. Frank Baker, Superintendent. Dr. Cuarites D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 | A. SITE FOR AVIARY. B Area of Cut B. LOCATION OF PROPOSED FILL. 3.-ANTELOPE HOUSE. 4.—INDIAN ELEPHANT. 5.—MONKEY HOUSE. 6.—AFRICAN ELEPHANTS. 7.-TEMPORARY BIRD HOUSE. 8.—BEARS. 9.—SEA LIONS. 10.—WOLVES. 11.—ZEBRA. 13.—BEAVER. 14.—FLYING CAGE. 16.—RESTAURANT. ee SSAR : 85 < S38 roo ~ ss li o =e: ff SAE | f ‘APPENDIX 5. REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Sir: I have the honor to present the following report on the operations of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the year ending June 380, 1915: EQUIPMENT. The equipment of the observatory is as follows: (a) At Washington there is an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet, containing five small frame buildings used for observing and computing purposes, three movable frame shelters covering several out-of-door pieces of apparatus, and also one small brick building containing a storage battery and electrical distribution apparatus. (6) At Mount Wilson, Cal., upon a leased plat of ground 100 feet square, in horizontal projection, are located a one-story cement ob- serving structure, designed especially for solar-constant measure- ments, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for observer’s quarters. Upon the observing shelter at Mount Wilson there is a tower 40 feet high above the 12-foot piers which had been prepared in the original construction of the building. This tower is being equipped with a tower telescope for use when observing (with the spectro- _ bolometer) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk. This has been made possible by an appropriation by Congress of $2,000 for this purpose. During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or constructed at the observatory shop. The value of these additions to the instrumental equipment, not counting the tower equipment above mentioned, is estimated at about $500. WORK OF THE OBSERVATORY. AT WASHINGTON. Observations were made for the testing of pyrheliometers. As in former years several silver-disk pyrheliometers were prepared and sent abroad by the Institution after standardization at the Astro- physical Observatory. 84 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 Several automatic recording pyrheliometers were raised to great heights in sounding balloon experiments at Omaha early in July, 1914. These instruments were all recovered, and the one which made the most successful flight was received back entirely uninjured. A great many experiments were made with it at Washington to inves- tigate certain peculiarities of its record, and to more thoroughly standardize its pyrheliometric and barometric elements. ‘These ex- periments consumed much time of the director and Mr. Aldrich. The results reached from these balloon pyrheliometer records will be summarized below. Further experiments were made with sky-radiation apparatus. As in former years the major portion of the time of Mr. Fowle and Miss Graves, and a considerable part of that of Mr. Aldrich and Mr. Carrington, has been used in measuring and reducing the Mount Wilson bolographic data. This work is heavier than for- merly, as it now includes the tower-telescope observations on the dis- tribution of brightness along the sun’s diameter. These are now made at seven different wave lengths of the spectrum on each day that solar-constant measurements are secured. Owing to the de- mands of the Mount Wilson work, Mr. Fowle has devoted but little time to his research on the transmission of long-wave rays in air containing water vapor. The instrument maker, Mr. Kramer, was occupied mainly on the construction of sky-radiation apparatus, and on many improvements for the Mount Wilson tower telescope. AT MOUNT WILSON. Observations by Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich were continued at Mount Wilson from July to about November 1, 1914, and were begun again about June 1, 1915. Asin former years measurements of solar radiation were made on every favorable day, with the purpose of following the course of the solar variation. On each day of observa- tion the distribution of brightness along the diameter of the solar image of the tower telescope was also observed at seven different wave lengths. AT OMAHA. As stated in last year’s report, Mr. Aldrich, in cooperation with Dr. Blair and other representatives of the United States Weather Bureau, made sounding-balloon experiments at Omaha early in July, 1914. Three flights with automatic recording pyrheliometers were made on July 1, 9, and 11, respectively. The first was made at night, with electric lamps for recording, as a test of certain antici- pated sources of error. In the second flight the instrument was 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, much damaged when landing and remained a great while undis- covered, so that the record was quite spoiled. Apparently, too, the clockwork had stopped before reaching a very great elevation. The third flight was highly successful. RESULTS OF BALLOON PYRHELIOMETRY. A complete account of the balloon pyrheliometers, the circum- stances of the flights, and the results obtained has been published in a paper by Messrs. Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich, entitled, “ New Evi- dence on the Intensity of Solar Radiation Outside the Atmosphere ” (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 65, No. 4, 1915). The following is a summary of the principal results: In the flight of July 11, 1915, the balloons reached an elevation of approximately 25,000 meters, or 81,000 feet. The pressure of the air remaining above the instrument was approximately 3 centimeters, or 1.25 inches of mercury, about one twenty-fifth of the barometric pressure at sea level. Seven readable measurements of solar radia- tion were recorded at various levels. Of these the three near highest elevation were the best. Their mean gives a value of 1.84 calories per square centimeter per minute, as the intensity of solar radiation at mean solar distance, at noon on July 11, at the altitude of about 22,000 meters, or 72,000 feet. It appears reasonable to add about 2 per cent for the quantity of solar radiation absorbed and scattered by the air above the instrument. This gives 1.88 calories as a value of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere, on this day, according to the balloon pyrheliometry. Unfortunately no solar-radiation measurements were secured on Mount Wilson on July 11, but the result falls well within the range of values for the solar constant of radiation which have been obtained by the bolometric method at various stations, and compares well with the mean of these values, 1.93 calories. UNIFORMITY OF ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION AT MOUNT WILSON. In solar-constant measurements on Mount Wilson the atmospheric transmission for vertical rays is determined in the following man- ner for numerous spectrum wave lengths: Spectrobolographic observations are made at different zenith dis- tances of the sun, usually between 75° and 30°. Between these limits the length of the path of the rays within the atmosphere is proportional to the secant of the zenith distance. Knowing the length of path and the intensity of the transmitted rays, the co- efficient of transmission for any ray is readily computed. In this determination it is assumed that the atmosphere remains unchanged in transparency during the whole period of observation. Several REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 critics have objected against the Mount Wilson measurements that a progressive decrease of transparency occurs during the morning hours, and especially during the period ordinarily used in our ob- servations, so that our estimates of atmospheric transmission are in their view too high, and our solar-constant values too low in con- sequence. It has been suggested by one critic that the period during which the zenith distance of the sun changes from 85° to 75° would be more suitable for the work. To test this matter, observations were begun at sunrise on Septem- ber 20 and 21, 1914, and continued until 10 o’clock, the usual clos- ing time. These days were exceptionally clear and very dry, and seemed well suited to give excellent solar-constant values. The conditions of experiment, discussion of observations, and results are given in full in the paper by Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich above cited. The principal results are these: No considerable difference in trans- mission coeflicients appeared whether these were based on the whole morning’s observations, on the range of air masses usually employed, or on the range recommended by the critic above mentioned. Six solar-constant values were derived for the two days, based on these three different treatments of the data. All six values fall between 1.90 and 1.95 calories per square centimeter per minute, in good agreement with values obtained as usual on other days. The ex- periments confirm the view that the atmospheric transparency above Mount Wilson is sufficiently uniform for the purposes of solar- constant investigations. LONG-PERIOD VARIATION OF THE SUN. In the year 1913 the solar activity, as judged by the prevalence of sun spots, was less than at any time for about a century. The mean of all solar-constant values obtained at Mount Wilson from July to October, 1913, inclusive, was 1.885 calories per square centimeter per minute. This value falls 2.5 per cent below the mean value for the years 1905 to 1912, which was 1.933 calories. Beginning September 9, 1913, observations of the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the solar disk were secured on about 45 days of September, October, and November. These showed that the increase (or contrast) of brightness of the center of the sun’s disk over that which prevails near the edge was less than that which was found from Washington observations of the years 1905 to 1907. In the year 1914 the solar activity became distinctly greater than in 1918. The number of spots, to be sure, was not great, but other phenomena joined in showing that the period of maximum sun spots was about to come. The mean of all solar-constant values obtained at Mount Wilson from June to October, inclusive, was 1.950 calories. 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This value is 3.5 per cent above that of 1913 and 1 per cent above the mean for former years. Indications are that the value for 1915 will also fall very high. The contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk was greater in 1914 than in 1913, and, in fact, almost as great as was found from Washington work of 1905 to 1907. These facts confirm the result derived from earlier observations, namely, the solar emission of radiation varies along with the solar activity as revealed by sun spots and other phenomena. Higher values of solar radiation prevail at times of greater solar activity, as expressed by sun spots. The connection does not, however, appear to be a strictly numerical one between solar radiation and sun spot numbers. In the return of solar activity presaged in 1914 the solar radiation rose almost to its maximum value before the number of sun spots had greatly increased. Associated with these changes, greater contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk prevails when the solar activity is greater. SHORT-PERIOD VARIATION OF THE SUN. In the year 1913, as in former years, considerable fluctuations of the solar-constant values occurred from day to day. The values found ranged over nearly 10 per cent between the extreme limits 1.81 and 1.99 calories, but seldom more than 38 per cent in any 10-day interval. The periods of fluctuation were irregular, as heretofore. Associated with these fluctuations, though perhaps not strictly con- nected numerically, the contrast of brightness between center and edges of the solar disk also varied. Curiously enough, however, the correlation between solar-constant values and contrast values proves to be of opposite sign for these short irregular fluctuations to that which attends the long-period changes which are associated with the general solar activity. In other words, in the progress of the sun spot cycle high solar-constant values and increased contrast between center and edges of the solar disk are associated together with numer- ous sun spots, but for the shor¢ irregular period fluctuations of solar radiation, higher solar-constant values are associated with diminished contrast of brightness along the diameter of the solar disk. The year 1914 was singularly free from large fluctuations of solar radiation. The extreme range of solar-constant values was only 4 per cent be- tween limits 1.91 and 1.99 calories. Accordingly the year was not very favorable for testing the relation just described. Nevertheless, the results tend to confirm rather than disprove the conclusion reached that for short, irregular fluctuations of the solar radiation high values are associated with less contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the sun. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 The somewhat paradoxical conclusions above stated seem capable of explanation as follows: Associated with the great increase of solar activity attending the maximum of the sun spot cycle, increased convection is continually bringing fresh hot material to the sun’s surface, so that the effective solar temperature is then higher, and greater emission of radiation prevails. At such a time the contrast, which would be zero if the solar temperature were zero, is naturally also increased. As for the quick, irregular fluctuations, it must be supposed that the sun’s outer envelope hinders somewhat the passage of radiation from within outward. This hindrance is greater at the edges of the sun’s disk, where the path of the rays in the line of sight is oblique, than it is at the center of the sun’s disk. Suppose now that the obstructive property of these layers varies from day to day. When their transparency is increased the solar radiation must increase; but as the effect will be most conspicuous at the edge of the solar disk, where the path of the rays is longest, the contrast of brightness between center and limb must thereby decrease. Two kinds of causes may, therefore, contribute to the sun’s vari- ability. The one, a change of effective temperature attending the general march of solar activity, may cause the variability of long period. The other, a change of opacity of the outer solar layers, may cause the variability of short irregular period. SUMMARY. Successful records of the intensity of solar radiation up to 25,000 meters were secured by means of automatic recording pyrhelio- meters attached to sounding balloons. The mean’‘of the three highest values reduced to mean solar distance is 1.84 calories per square centimeter per minute. Making 2 per cent allowance for scattering and absorption in the air above (which gave a barometric pressure only about one twenty-fifth of that at sea level), the value 1.88 calories is obtained as the probable intensity of solar radiation out- side the atmosphere at mean solar distance on this day. This value falls near the mean of numerous values obtained by spectrobolo- metric observations on Mount Wilson. Experiments begun at sunrise and continued until 10 o’clock on September 20 and 21, 1914, indicate great constancy of transparency of the atmosphere above Mount Wilson, and yield solar-constant values independent of the altitude of the sun. These results con- firm the substantial accuracy of the Mount Wilson observations of the solar constant of radiation. The radiation of the sun was 2.5 per cent below the mean, accord- ing to the average of observations extending from July to October, 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 1918, inclusive, and 1 per cent above the mean from similar studies extending from June to October, 1914, inclusive. A high average value for 1915 is indicated. The contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk was less in 1913 than in 1905 to 1907, but was restored to the earlier condition in 1914. Short-period fluctuations of solar radiation were large in 1913, but small in 1914. Associated with these quick, irregular fluctua- tions are found variations of contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk. Curiously enough, while greater contrast is associated with greater solar radiation and with numerous sun spots in the general march of the sun’s activity, lesser contrast is associated with greater solar radiation in the march of the quick, irregular fluctuations of the sun’s emission. This paradox points to two causes of solar variation—the long- period changes may probably be caused by changes of the sun’s effective temperature attending the march of solar activity; the quick fluctuations may be ascribed to changes of the transparency of the outer solar envelopes. Respectfully submitted. C. G. ABBor, Director Astrophysical Observatory. Dr. C. D. Waucort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 6. REPORT ON THE LIBRARY. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report upon the operations of the library of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915: In common with other libraries of the world, the Smithsonian library has had to confront a serious situation during the last year. This was the difficulty experienced in the securing of current parts and the completing of sets of the publications of learned institutions and scientific societies that have been received from European sources for many years. Some of these series have ceased publication, others have been published with fewer pages and in smaller editions, while still others have been issued but not forwarded, all due largely to the military service required of the contributors and publishers at this time at the front and the risk involved in transportation. Not- withstanding these conditions, the efforts to keep the library ex- changes alive have been continued with marked success. ACCESSIONS. During the fiscal year a total of 26,928 packages of publications were received, of which 25,097 came through the mails and 1,831 through the International Exchange Service. The correspondence necessary in connection with these receipts numbered about 1,400 letters, requesting publications and acknowledging them, and 5,148 acknowledgments on the regular form. The publications for the Smithsonian library were entered, acces- sioned, and forwarded to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress each day as received, numbering in all 24,713 publications, as follows: 3,043 volumes, 1,179 parts of volumes, 1,763 pamphlets, 17,410 periodicals, 594 charts, and 724 parts of serials to complete sets. The numbers in the accession record run from 517,777 to 521,616. There were catalogued during the year 3,451 publications, of which 1,000 were charts. Four thousand one hundred and twenty-two volumes were recatalogued from the old records and entered in the new catalogue. The cards typewritten and filed in the catalogue numbered 4,038. 91 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The sending to the Library of Congress of public documents pre- sented to the Smithsonian Institution, without stamping and record- ing, has been continued, and 4,675 were forwarded in this way. The accessions for the office library, which includes the Astro- physical Observatory and the National Zoological Park, numbered 561 publications, distributed as follows: 351 volumes, 35 parts of volumes, and 40 pamphlets, for the office library; 72 volumes, 11 parts of volumes and 25 pamphlets for the Astrophysical Observa- tory, and 21 volumes and 6 pamphlets for the National Zoological Park. : Complete sets of inaugural! dissertations and technological publica- tions from 12 universities and technical high schools were received from the following places: Baltimore, Basel, Copenhagen, Delft, Ithaca, Lund, Paris, Philadelphia, Toulouse, and Ziirich. EXCHANGES. The sendings from Europe have been restricted compared with those of former years, but there has been no cessation in the efforts to secure new exchanges and missing parts in the series, and many have been received. The new series added to the hbrary numbered 48, and all of the 887 want cards for the series searched in the Library of Congress were considered and some action taken on each at the Smithsonian Institution, with the result that 82 sets of publications of learned institutions and scientific societies in the Smithsonian division were entirely or partially completed by the supplying of 460 parts; in the same way 254 parts of 48 sets were supplied to the periodical division, and for the part of the deposit in the general classification 10 parts of 4 sets. Among the more important of these series secured for the Smith- sonian library may be cited the following: Australia : Sydney, New South Wales.—Royal Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man. Belgium: Brussels.—Académie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin, Classe des lettres. Association des industriels de Belgique pour l’étude et la propagation des engins et mésures propres 4 préserver les ouvriers des accidents du travail. Rapport. St. Nicholas.—Cercle archéologique du pays de Waes. Annales. England: ; London.—Agricultural Economist and Horticultural Review. Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal. Birmingham.—Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. Report. France: Nice.—Association Procincials des architectes francais. Bulletin. Paris.—Société Francaise de Physique. Résumé des communications. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93 Germany: Berlin.—Berliner Missionsgesellschaft. Berliner Missions-Berichte. Deutscher Fischerei-Verein. Zeitschrift fuer Fischerei. Darmstadt.—Historischer Verein fuer das Grossherzogthum Hessen. Quartalblitter. Dresden.—K. Oeffentliche Bibliothek. Papyrus-Fragment aus der Kgl. Oeff. Bibliothek zu Dresden. Munich.—Kk. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, Denkschriften Gelehrte Anzeiger Sitzungsberichte. India: Calcutta.—Medical and Sanitary Departments of India. Scientific Memoirs by the Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments. Italy: Florence.—Societa Botanica Italiana. Bullettino. Siam: Bangkok.—Siam Society. Journal. The exchange of publications with historical societies in this coun- try and abroad has been continued, resulting in many additions both in the form of new exchanges and the supplying of missing parts. READING ROOM. In the reading room the current foreign and domestic scientific periodicals have been in constant use by the staff and the members of the scientific bureaus of the governmental establishments in Wash- ington, and there are now 294 titles on the shelves. Three thousand five hundred and three publications from the reading and reference rooms were circulated during the year. Of these 3,161 were single numbers of periodicals, and 342 were bound volumes. THE AERONAUTICAL LIBRARY. One of the important collections of reference works at the In- stitution is that relating to aeronautics, and is, in all probability, the most complete series on this subject in the United States. The collection had its origin with Secretary Langley when he was carry- ing on his aeronautical experiments, at which time he was able to secure many early works that can not now be purchased. One of the chief contributors during the year was Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, a Regent of the Institution, whose gift consists of his working library on the subject, numbering 46 volumes, and another series of 153 volumes of newspaper clippings relating to the im- portant period when the Wright brothers were making their initial flights. The additions to the collection during the year, including those from Dr. Bell, were 256. 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. . ART ROOM. Mrs. Charles D. Walcott has added to the collection of works on art an exceptionally valuable loan, consisting of nine magnificent volumes on Japanese art, fully illustrated in color. Mrs. Walcott has also deposited the architectural publications, numbering 394 volumes, and parts of serial publications which formed the library of her brother, George Vaux, an architect of prominence in the city of Philadelphia. EMPLOYEES’ LIBRARY. The employees’ library has also received a contribution from Mrs. Walcott by the deposit of a collection of popular works, numbering 145 volumes. NEW STEEL STACKS. - The work on the new steel stacks for the books belonging to the libraries of the Government bureaus under the Smithsonian Institu- tion has been continued, and at the close of the year this work is nearly completed. With the passage of the appropriation bills in August, 1914, the additional sum of $10,000 became available, and immediately an order was issued for the erection of as much of the second half of the stacks in the west end of the main hall as the money available would permit. Those in the east end were completed in August, and the moving of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology to its new quarters was accomplished within a very short time. The old wooden galleries in the west end were then removed, and this part of the hall was turned over to the contractors for the erection of stacks. Congress having appropriated an additional sum of $6,500 during the last session, the steel stacks were practically finished at the close of the year. The libraries of the Government bureaus under the Institution have heretofore been cared for in the bureau offices and wherever there was space for shelving. Proper classification and arrangement were im- possible, owing to lack of space, and much time was lost in looking for references. The new stacks have a capacity of 100,000 volumes, and make it possible for the first time to bring all publications relating to one subject together, so that each is available for consultation. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Tt seems desirable, after a period of a third of a century, to briefly review the growth and progress that have been made in the Museum library. The formation of a working library in the National Museum in 1881 was largely due to the increased activity in investi- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95 gations and the need of reference works for the curators in their study of the collections which were moved from the Smithsonian Building to the separate building erected for the Museum. A nucleus was begun in the northwest corner of the Museum build- ing with a collection of publications for the most part made up of standard zoological and industrial works and bound pamplets, com- posing the library of Spencer Fullerton Baird, second Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which he had presented to the Museum. The Library has grown steadily until it now occupies not only the old rooms, but additional larger quarters in the new building as well as space for the special libraries in the various sections. Within a year after the first books had been brought together there were 5,450 volumes and 4,750 pamphlets; in all, 10,200 publications. Now, in the thirty-fifth year of its existence, there are 45,818 bound volumes, 76,295 pamphlets, forming a collection of 122,113 titles, from which the duplicates have been removed. The system of arrangement has been modified to some extent, but the plan upon which the Museum library was organized has been continued, in that the general library has retained all books treating of more than one subject, such as periodicals, proceedings of socie- ties, dictionaries, and encyclopedias, together with such monographs as are not constantly needed in the sectional libraries; and the sec- tional libraries have had assigned to them only those publications which relate to the work of the department or division. A little more than a year ago the general library and works relating to anthro- pology, biology, and geology were moved to new quarters in the new building, where up-to-date facilities for the consultation of publications have been provided. This left the old rooms where the library had had its inception free, and the space thus made vacant is now being used for the accumulation of another collection of works of reference of equal importance relating to history and the collections of arts and indus- tries of a technical nature, which are being developed in the older Museum Building. While this library has but recently been started, the indications are that it will have a growth equal to that of the parent library, and it promises to become one of the most important technical series of publications in the country. The establishment of sectional libraries of special reference works bearing on the collections has been of importance to the curators, and the number has been increased in proportion to the growth of the Museum. Beginning with 8 in 1881, there are now 33 collections of publications on special subjects. Considering the ways and means for adding to the library in the early days, its growth has been remarkable. The library for the first 18 years was dependent largely for its increase upon the exchange 96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of the publications of the Museum descriptive of its collections in the various fields of science. This plan for increasing the library was very successful, but it did not provide books of reference, in part published at a loss, which could only be secured by purchase. In 1898 an appropriation of $2,000 was made by Congress for the pur- chase of such books, but this sum was barely adequate then, and while the appropriation has been continued, it has not been in- creased. This lack of sufficient funds will be more keenly felt in the very near future, owing to the present conditions in Europe and the inability of the scientific societies and institutions abroad to supply even exchange copies. ACCESSIONS. The Museum library now contains 45,818 volumes, 76,295 pam- phlets and unbound papers, and 124 manuscripts. The accessions during the year covered by this report number 2,209 volumes, 2,530 pamphlets, and 183 parts of volumes. CATALOGUING. The books catalogued number 1,550, pamphlets 2,530, and the total number of cards made 4,664; completed volumes of periodicals catalogued, 756; parts of publications, 183; parts of periodicals, 9,805; new periodical cards made, 389. The old catalogue of the Museum library was entered on cards of about twice the size of the standard card now in use without sufli- cient information for the proper identification of the publication. For a number of years the recataloguing of these publications on standard cards has been carried on as the other work permitted until at the present time only the publications in the sectional libraries remain. With the continued increase in the work it is hardly pos- sible to do more than recatalogue 100 volumes in a year, but with ad- ditional help this work could be completed at once, and would be of great value to the Museum in connection with reference work. EXCHANGES. The existing conditions in Europe have interfered to some extent with the securing of new exchanges as well as with the receipt of publications which have been coming for many years. In the matter of exchanges and the securing of publications needed to complete the series 297 letters were written, with the result that many new titles of publications issued in series were added to those already coming. The receipts of publications from abroad have been de- layed, and in many cases the institutions and societies are holding the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97 sets and series until it will be safe to transmit them. Also, for economic reasons, only limited editions with fewer pages are issued, which gives a special value to those received. LOANS. The use of the library has been largely by the scientific staff of the Museum, but other departments of the Government, particu- larly the Department of Agriculture, have availed themselves of the opportunity of consulting the publications relating to the various branches of science. During the year the loans from the general library numbered 12,492 publications, which includes 5,272 books assigned to the sectional libraries, 3,020 books borrowed from the Library of Congress, 111 from the Department of Agriculture library, 72 from the United States Geological Survey, 44 from the Army Medical Museum and Library, and 13 from other places. From the Museum shelves there were borrowed 3,960 volumes. One of the important matters ea during the latter part of the year was the return of books that had been borrowed from the Library of Congress on the older records, and while only the charges for books coming under the first three letters of the alphabet were acted upon, the indications are that those running back as far as 1876 will be cleared up. During the year 3,487 books were re- turned to the Library of Congress and 294 to other libraries. BINDING. The binding of volumes received in separate parts is still a serious matter, and it is hoped that some provision can be made at an early date, so that all of them may be bound. To cite an instance, there are now in the technical series of recently catalogued works over 100 volumes that should be bound at once, in order that they may be preserved intact. There were 812 volumes prepared for binding and sent to the Gov- ernment bindery. GIFTS. Gifts of importance have been received from the following per- sons: Dr. Charles Doolittle Walcott, Mrs. Richard Rathbun, Dr. William Healey Dall, Dr. Oliver Perry Hay, Dr. Charles W. Rich- mond, Mr. George C. Maynard, Dr. Robert W. Shufeldt, Mr. Austin Hobart Clark, Mr. Robert Ridgway, Dr. Joseph Nelson Rose, Dr. I. M. Casanowicz, Mr, William R. Maxon, and also the library of the late Dr. Theodore Nicholas Gill has been presented by Mr. Herbert A. Gill. 18618°—sm 1915——7 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. DALL COLLECTION. Dr. William Healey Dall contributed 162 titles, at a cost of about $60, as additions to the collection of books relating to mollusks which has been brought together by him as curator of that division, as a reference library. These and the publications previously received now number approximately 7,662 titles. BOTANICAL LIBRARY. A large collection of botanical books, the property of Dr. Edward L. Greene, which had been on deposit in the United States National Museum since 1904, was withdrawn during the year as it was imprac- ticable to secure the sum of $20,000 required for their purchase. TECHNOLOGICAL SERIES. In this branch of the library, which has only recently been formed, and which is cared for in the older Museum Building, special efforts have been made to put the classes of publications in more conven- ient places and to make them more accessible for consultation. Those relating to music, ceramics, photography, and botany have been critically examined, recatalogued, and put in order on the shelves. Those of the following classes have not as yet been considered: Art and architecture, physics, chemistry, history, literature, sociology and economy, and political science. This branch of the library is very deficient in general reference books, such as an exhaustive encyclopedic work, technical diction- aries, and dictionaries of some of the foreign languages, and while a few of these works can be purchased during the present year, there will not be money available to secure them all. The additions to this part of the library numbered 1,061 volumes, 3,073 parts of volumes, and 2,631 pamphlets and 4 maps. The cataloguing for the year numbered 660 volumes, 1,131 pam- phlets, and 4 maps, requiring 1,406 cards. The number of periodicals entered on the records were 801 volumes and 6,253 parts of volumes. Special efforts have been made to catalogue the entire collection in the library, and until this is completed the record for cataloguing will not cover the receipts. Books and pamphlets loaned during the year, in addition to those from the general library, numbered 258 volumes and 346 pamphlets, while there were consulted in the read- ing room about 520 publications. In addition to the work on the catalogue, about 800 volumes and 7,000 pamphlets and parts of volumes were filed on the shelves, to be added to the records later. In the scientific depository set of printed cards from the Library of Congress about 30,000 were filed alphabetically by authors. This index will be of great value when the subject cards are included, as REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99 it will then contain a complete reference list of publications available on all subjects considered in the Museum. SECTIONAL LIBRARIES. While progress has been made in the revision of the records for reference publications which are permanently deposited in the sec- tional libraries it has not been possible to carry the systematic check- ing very far, and my recommendation of last year that a competent cataloguer be employed to do this special work is renewed. While this condition is largely due to the overcrowded condition of the library for so many years, it is essential to the work of the Museum that the sectional libraries should be in perfect order and that the records in the main library should be complete. The following is a complete list of the sectional libraries: Administration. Materia medica. Administrative assistant’s oflice. Mechanical technology. Anthropology. Mesozoic fossils. Biology. Mineralogy. Birds. Mineral technology. Botany. | Mollusks, Comparative anatomy. | Oriental archeology. Editor’s office. Paleobotany. Ethnology. Parasites. Fishes. Photography. Geology. Physical anthropology. Graphic arts. Prehistorie archeology. History. Reptiles and batrachians. Insects. Superintendent’s office. Invertebrate paleontology. Taxidermy. Mammals. Textiles. Marine invertebrates. : Vertebrate paleontology. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. This library is administered under the direct care of the ethnolo- gist-in-charge? and an account of its operations will be found in the report of that bureau. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Publications relating to astrophysics have been assembled: in the bookcases just completed in the east end of the main hall of the Smithsonian Building. This situation is convenient to the observa- . tory, and the new facilities make it possible for the first time to properly classify this library. During the year there were added 72 volumes, 11 parts of volumes, and 25 pamphlets. Fifty-five vol- umes were bound. 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. This library contains publications relating to the work of the park in the care of the animals, reports of other zoological parks, and a few works on landscape gardening. The number of publications received was very small as compared with the previous year, and this may be due to the fact that none of the parks abroad, except that at Gizeh, Egypt, issued any publications. During the year there were received 21 volumes and 6 pamphlets. SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS. The following statement summarizes the accessions during the year, with the exception of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology: To the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress, including parts to complete 'sets.2% = Skat es ee ee ee eo ee ee (, 308 To the Smithsonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoo- logicalsiParks 2. 22. Ser Se ee ee eS ee ee ee 560 Mo sthe iWnited. States National Museum] ot ee ee 4,922 TAS O then = SAE EE PA RS es Se ees 12, 785 Respectfully submitted. Paut Brocxert, Assistant Librarian. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 7. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the oper- ations of the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915: This international cooperative enterprise has since 1901 published annual classified index catalogues of the current scientific literature of the world. The following-named branches of science are repre- sented each year by a separate volume: Mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, anthropology, physiology, and bacteriology. « All of the first 10 annual issues of 17 volumes each have been pub- lished, together with 15 volumes of the eleventh issue, 9 volumes of the twelfth issue, and 2 volumes of the thirteenth issue; a total of 196 regular volumes in addition to several special volumes of schedules, list of journals, etc. The 15 volumes of the eleventh issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, and anthropology. The nine volumes of the twelfth issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, paleontology, general biology, and zoology. The two volumes of the thirteenth issue published are mathematics and zoology. During the year there were 26,418 classified references to American scientific literature prepared by this bureau, as follows: Literature of— AOD OG 2 Dee ee eter Incr ye te ee 10 AGO FE See = A SU ea es ue DOOSr eats pes yt) ose seroes see 3 oth ee OG ae ee 192 M909, 43 Teale og emert a en oot pees 8 Su 195 AQAQ wre ett seh sphuneey siz) TU ys aise tay 348 WGA ise sep ie twats Bieta oe ty seed eye era 1, 358 io) DS Se ee ae ee ee 8, 511 CSAS pets al yale Rael pe a a NS SE SO 8, 394 SG Lak A Me ef eS sh 12, 386 Notas 223 ae Se ae eerie 26, 413 101 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The object of the catalogue is not only to publish references by authors to current scientific literature, but also to supply practically a digest of the subject contents of each paper by means of minutely classified subject catalogues. The elaborate classification schedules used render it possible to refer to all subjects treated in each paper indexed. It is the duty of this Bureau of the International Catalogue to analyze and classify the contents of all scientific papers published in the United States. An idea of the extent of the work may be gained from the fact that between 25,000 and 30,000 citations are sent each year to the London central bureau for publication, the subjects classified covering all branches of science. In this day of specialization it is not possible for one or two individuals to have a thorough knowledge of all the sciences, and as economy of adminis- tration would not warrant the employment of, say, a dozen special- ists, it was the practice for a number of years to refer some of the more technical papers to specialists for classification. ‘These special- ists, being employees of the various scientific branches of the Gov- ernment in Washington, have, while not engaged in their official duties, aided the catalogue by furnishing the classification data required. Payments averaged approximately $600 per year, divided among five or six individuals. It may be said that while the specialists were willing to aid in this important international under- taking for a comparatively nominal compensation, the catalogue was benefited to a very great extent, for each citation furnished was the equivalent of a specialist’s decision as to the value and application of the scientific subject of each paper classified. This method of compensating employees of other scientific bureaus of the Govern- ment was decided on in 1905 after a conference between the disburs- ing agent of the Smithsonian Institution and the then Comptroller of the Treasury. The present Comptroller of the Treasury does not agree on this subject with the former comptroller, and in a letter dated February 4, 1914, referring to a number of similar payments stated : I am of the opinion that the payments in question come within the prohibi- tion of sections 1764 and 1765, Revised Statutes, and were not authorized by law. In view of the fact that this office, in letters dated October 24, 1905, and February 15, 1906, sanctioned the payments to employees of other bureaus and departments, which seems to have been construed to sanction the payment for both classes, no disallowance will be made in the present settlement, but payments made subsequent to the date of this decision will not be allowed. _ This decision has greatly embarrassed the work of the bureau, and it is hoped that Congress will so change the wording of future appro- priations for the maintenance of the bureau as to authorize payments of this character being made. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103 The general organization of the International Catalogue of Scien- tific Literature consists of a central bureau in London whose duty it is to assemble, edit, and publish classified references to current scientific literature supplied by the various regional bureaus repre- senting the cooperating countries. The following named countries have established regional bureaus, supported in most cases by direct Government grants: Argentine Repiilics Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, India and Ceylon, Rite Japan, Mexico, New South Wales, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Queensland, Russia, South Africa, South Australia, Spain, Straits Settlements, Sweden, Switzerland, United States of America, Victoria and Tas- mania, and Western Australia. The present war in Europe has seriously interfered not only with the finances but with the general work of the catalogue. Before hostilities began the receipts and expenditures of the London cen- tral bureau just balanced. These receipts are derived from the sale of the catalogue to the various subscribers throughout the world and are used entirely to defray the cost of printing and publishing. Subscriptions aggregating almost $6,000 a year, due from five of the countries engaged in hostilities, have been either delayed or stopped by the war. The Royal Society of London, realizing that it would be impossible for the central bureau to continue aE the catalogue in the face of this deficit, has very generously made a grant of a sum almost suflicient to cover the deficit caused by the first year of the war. It may be said that the Royal Society has not only stood sponsor for the catalogue since its inception, but it was through the good offices of this society that the enterprise was begun. It is greatly to be hoped that this action of the Royal Society will stimulate similar institutions in the United States to aid in making up the annual deficit until a readjustment of the affairs of the bureaus affected can be made after peace has been declared. Very respectfully, yours, Lronarp C, GUNNELL, Assistant in Charge. Dr. Cuarues D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, APPENDIX 8. REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year ending June 30, 1915: The Institution proper published during the year 14 papers in the series of “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” two annual re- ports, pamphlet copies of 68 papers from the general appendices of these reports, and 8 special publications. The Bureau of American Ethnology published 2 bulletins and 8 miscellaneous publications, and the United States National Museum issued 1 annual report, 1 volume of the Proceedings, and 41 separate papers forming parts of this and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and 1 volume pertaining to the National Herbarium. The total number of copies of publications distributed by the In- stitution proper during the year was 77,710. This number includes 620 volumes and separate memoirs of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 30,058 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 30,909 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian annual reports, 10,185 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 5,424 special publications, 86 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 121 reports of the Harri- man Alaska Expedition, 245 reports of the American Historical Association, 5 publications of the United States National Museum, and 108 publications not of the Smithsonian or its branches. There were distributed by the National Museum 54,300 copies of its several series of publications, making a total of 132,010 publications dis- tributed by the Institution and its branches during the year. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. QUARTO. No publications of this series were issued during the year. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. OCTAVO. Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume 57, the title-page and table of contents was published; of volume 62, 1 paper; of volume 63, 104 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105 4 papers and title-page and table of contents; of volume 64, 1 paper; and of volume 65, 8 papers; in all, 14 papers, as follows: Volume 57. Title-page and table of contents. July 31, 1914. (Publ. 2270.) Volume 62. No. 38. Report on European aeronautical laboratories. By A. F. Zahm, July 27, 1914, 23 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2273.) Volume 63. No.6. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Sixth revised edition. By F. HE. Fowle. November 10, 1914. xxxvi-+355 pp. (Publ. 2269.) No. 8. Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1913. November 27, 1914. 88 pp. (Publ. 2275.) — No. 9. The olfactory sense of insects. By N. E. McIndoo. November 21, 1914. 63 pp. (Publ. 2315.) No. 10. Archeology of the lower Mimbres Valley, N. Mex. By J. Walter Fewkes. December 18, 1914. 53 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2316.) Title-page and table of contents. January 30, 1915. v pp. (Publ. 2320.) Volume 64. No. 2. Cambrian geology and paleontology. III. Pre-Cambrian Algonkian algal flora. By Charles D. Walcott. July 22, 1914. Pp. 77-156, pls. 4-23. (Publ. 2271.) Volume 65. - No.1. The present distribution of the Onychophora, a group of terrestrial in- vertebrates. By Austin H. Clark. January 4, 1915. 25 pp. (Publ. 2319.) No. 2. The development of the lungs of the alligator. By A. M. Reese. March 8, 1915. 11 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2356.) No.3. A study of the radiation of the atmosphere. By Anders K. Angstrim. Hodgkins fund. 159 pp. (Publ. 2354.) In press. No. 4. New evidence on the intensity of the solar radiation outside the atmos- phere. By C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich. Hodgkins fund. June 19, 1915. 55 pp. (Publ. 2361.) No. 5. The microspectroscope in mineralogy. By Edgar T. Wherry. April 7, 1915. 16 pp. (Publ. 2362.) No. 6. Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1914. June 80, 1915. 95 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 2363.) No. 7. Two new sedges from the southwestern United States. By Kenneth K. Mackenzie. April 9, 1915. 3 pp. (Publ. 2364.) No. 8. Report upon a collection of ferns from western South America. By Wil- liam R. Maxon. May 3, 1915. 12 pp. (Publ. 2366.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. Report for 1913. The Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1913 was received from the Public Printer in completed form in December, 1914. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution show- ing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1913. xi+804 pp., 169 pls. (Publ. 2277.) 106 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915.. Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen- dix of the annual report for 1913, were issued in pamphlet form: The earth and sun as magnets, by George E. Hale. 14 pp., § pls. (Publ. 2278. The acne of the planets upen the sun, by P. Puiseux. 16 pp. (Publ. 2279.) Recent progress in astrophysics, by C. G. Abbot. 20 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2280.) The earth’s magnetism, by L. A. Bauer.- 18 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2281.) Modern ideas on the end of the world, by Gustay Jaumann. 9 pp. (Publ. 2282.) Recent developments in electromagnetism, by Hugene Bloch. 19 pp. (Publ. 2283. ) Wireless transmission of energy, by Elihu Thomson. 18 pp. (Publ. 2284.) Oil films on water and on mercury, by Henri Devaux. 13 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 2285. ) : Water and volcanic activity, by Arthur L. Day and HE. S. Shepherd. 381 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2286.) Ripple marks, by Ch. Epry. 11 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2287.) Notes on the geological history of the walnuts and hickories, by Edward W. Berry. 13 pp. (Publ. 2288.) The formation of leaf mold, by Frederick Y. Coville. 11 pp. (Pubi. 2289.) The development of orchid cultivation and its bearing upon evolutionary theories, by J. Costantin. 14 pp. (Publ. 2290.) The manufacture of nitrates from the atmosphere, by Ernest Kilburn Scott. 26 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2291.) The geologic history of China and its influence upon the Chinese people, by Eliot Blackwelder. 12 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2292.) The problems of heredity, by E. Apert. 17 pp. (Publ. 2298.) Habits of fiddler-crabs, by A. 8S. Pearse. 14 pp. (Publ. 2294.) The abalones of California, by Charles L. Edwards. 10 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2295.) The value of birds to man, by James Buckland. 20 pp. (Publ. 2296.) Experiments in feeding hummingbirds during seven summers, by Althea R, Sherman. 10 pp. (Publ. 2297.) What the American Bird Banding Association has accomplished during 1912, by Howard H. Cleaves. 11 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2298.) The whale fisheries of the world, by Charles Rabot. 9 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2299.) The most ancient skeletal remains of man, by AleS Hrdli¢ka. 62 pp., 41 pls. (Publ. 2300.) The redistribution of mankind, by H. N. Dickson. 17 pp. (Publ. 2301.) The earliest forms of human habitation, and their relation to the general development of civilization, by M. Hoernes. § pp. (Publ. 2302.) Feudalism in Persia; its origin, development, and present condition, by Jacques de Morgan. 28 pp. (Publ. 2303.) Shintoism and its significance, by K. Kanokogi. -9 pp. (Publ. 2804.) The Minoan and Mycenaean element in Hellenic life, by A. J. Hvans. 21 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2305.) Flameless combustion, by Carleton Ellis. 14 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 2306.) Problems in smoke, fume, and dust abatement, by F. G. Cottrell. 33 pp., 37 pls. (Publ. 2307.) Twenty years’ progress in marine construction, by Alexander Gracie. 21 pp. (Publ. 2308.) Creating a subterranean river and supplying a metropolis with mountain water, by J. Bernard Walker and A. Russell Bond. 14 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2809.) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107 The application of the physiology of color vision in modern art, by Henry G. Keller and J. J. R. Macleod. 17 pp. (Publ. 2310.) Fundamentals of housing reform, by James Ford. 14 pp. (Publ. 2311.) The economic and social role of fashion, by Pierre Clerget. 11 pp. (Publ. 2312.) The work of J. van’t Hoff, by G@. Bruni. 23 pp. (Publ. 2313.) Report for 191}. The report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution, as well as the report of the Secretary, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, both forming part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, were published in pamphlet form in December, 1914, as follows: Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents for the year ending June 380, 1914. 17 pp. (Publ. 2318.) Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1914. iii, 117 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2317.) Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen- dix of the report, were issued in June, and the complete volume was received from the printer shortly after the close of the fiscal year: The radiation of the sun. By C. G. Abbot. 16 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2322. Modern theories of the sun. By Jean Bosler. 8 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 23823.) The form and constitution of the earth. By Louis B. Stewart. 14 pp. (Publ. 2324.) Some remarks on logarithms apropos to their tereentenary. By M. d’Ocagne. pp: 2, Diss (EB ubls 2325.) Modern views on the constitution of the atom. By A. S. Eve. 9 pp. (Publ. 2326.) Gyrostats and gyrostatic action. By Andrew Gray. 16 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. Peal te)) Stability of aeroplanes. By Orville Wright. 8 pp. (Publ. 2328., The first man-carrying aeroplane capable of sustained free flight—Langley’s success as a pioneer in aviation. By A. F. Zahm. 6pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2329.) Some aspects of industrial chemistry. By L. H. Baekeland. 25 pp. (Publ. 2330. ) Explosives. By Edward P. O’Hern. 27 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 2331.) Climates of geologic time. By Charles Schuchert. 35 pp. (Publ. 2332.) Pleochroic haloes. By J. Joly. 15 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2333.) _ The geology of the bottom of the seas. By L. de Launay. 24 pp. (Publ. 2334.) Recent oceanographic researches. By Ch. Gravier. 10 pp. (Publ. 2335.) The Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1913. By H. M. Cadell. 20 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 2336:) The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants. By Duncan §8. Johnson. 24 pp. (Publ. 2337.) Problems and progress in plant pathology. By L. R. Jones. 13 pp. (Publ. 2338. ) Plant autographs and their revelations. By Jagadis Chunder Bose. 23 pp. (Publ. 2339.) The National Zoological Park and its inhabitants. By Frank Baker. 34 pp., 4i pls. (Publ. 2340.) 108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. On the habits and behavior of the herring gull. By R. M. Strong. 31 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2341.) Notes on some effects of extreme drought in Waterberg, South Africa. By Eugéne N. Marais. 12 pp. (Publ. 2342.) Homeeotiec regeneration of the antennze in a Phasmid or walking-stick. By H. O. Schmit-Jensen. 14 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2348.) Latent life: Its nature and its relations to certain theories of contemporary biology. By Paul Becquerel. 15 pp. (Publ. 2344.) The early inhabitants of western Asia. By Felix V. Luschan. 25 pp., 12 pls. (Publ. 2845.) Excavations at Abydos. By Edouard Naville. 7 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2346.) An examination of Chinese bronzes. By John C. Ferguson. 6 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 2347.) The role of depopulation, deforestation, and malaria in the decadence of certain nations. By Felix Regnault. 5 pp. (Publ. 2348.) The story of the chin. By Louis.Robinson. 11 pp., 12 pls. (Publ. 2349.) Recent developments in the art of illumination. By Preston 8, Millar. 18 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2350.) The loom and spindle: Past, present, and future. By Luther Hooper. 49 pp., HS pisieGeubl apie) The demonstration play school of 1918. By Clark W. Hetherington. 29 pp. (Publ. 2352. : Sketch of the life of Eduard Suess (1831-1914). By Pierre Termier. 10 pp. (Publ. 2353. ) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS. The following special publications were issued in octavo form: Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and June 80, 1914. Published August 8, 1914. 2 pp. (Publ. 2274.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and September 80, 1914. October 7, 1914. 2 pp. (Publ. 2314.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and December 31, 1914. January 23, 1915. 3 pp. (Publ. 2355.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and March 31, 1915. April 17,1915. 1p. (Publ. 2365.) Biographical sketch of James Smithson. October 30, 1914. 17 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2276.) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Opinion 66. March 8, 1915. Pp. 171-176. (Publ. 2359.) An index to the Museum Boltenianum. By William H. Dall. March 29, 1915, 64 pp. (Publ. 2360.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report to Congress; (>) the Proceedings of the United States Na- tional Museum; and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Marcus Benjamin. During the year the Museum published an annuaf report, one volume of the Proceedings and 41 separate papers forming parts of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109 this and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and one volume of Contributions from the National Herbarium. The issues of the proceedings were as follows: Volume 47, papers 2052 to 2063, and the complete volume; volume 48, papers 2064 to 2091; volume 49, paper 2093; Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1914. The bulletins were as follows: Bulletin 71, A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean, Part V, Rotaliidae. By Joseph Augustine Cushman. Bulletin 82, A monograph of the existing Crinoids, Vol. 1, The Comatulids, Part1. By Austin Hobart Clark. Bulletin 88, Revision of Paleozoic Stelleroidea, with special reference to North American Asteroidea. By Charles Schuchert. Bulletin 89, Osteology of the Armored Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genus Stegosaurus. By Charles Whit- ney Gilmore. Bulletin 90, A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax Pugnax Zone of the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida. By William Healey Dall. Special Bulletin, American hydroids, Part III, The Campanularidae and the Bonneviellidae. By Charles Cleveland Nutting. In the series of Contributions from the National Herbarium there appeared volume 19, Flora of New Mexico, by E. O. Wooten and Paul C. Standley. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau are discussed in Appendix 2 of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work of the bureau has been continued by Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor, who has been assisted from time to time by Mrs. Frances 8. Nichols. Two bulletins and three miscellaneous publications were issued dur- ing the year, as follows: Bulletin 46. Byington’s Choctaw Dictionary. Edited by John R. Swanton and Henry 8S. Halbert. Bulletin 58. List of publications of the bureau. No. 10. Circular of information regarding Indian popular names. No. 11. Map of linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico. No. 12. List of Indian words denoting ‘‘ man,” prepared in placard form for use in the Smithsonian exhibit at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Four annual reports and five bulletins were in press at the close of the year. PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The annual report for 1912 was published in August, 1914. In September, 1914, the manuscript of the 1913 report was sent to the printer, but it was not completed at the close of the year. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Na- tional Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year ending October 11, 1914, was communicated to Congress March 3, 1915. THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. To this committee have been referred the manuscripts proposed for publication by the various branches of the Institution, as well as those offered for printing in the Smithsonian series. The committee also considered forms of routine, blanks, and various matters pertaining to printing and publication. Eighteen meetings were held and 109 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. Howarp Cuarn, Yditor. Dr. Cuaries D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 380, 1915. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi- cal Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Lit- erature for the year ending June 30, 1915, together with balances of previous appropriations: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. ; Condition of the fund July 1, 1915. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it has been derived are as follows: DEPOSITED IN THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES. BequesteorsemMithsons, 1S40es = 2 Lil A ee a ee ee ee $515, 169. 00 Residuary legacy of Smithson, USGt 2 2 22 ae ee ee ee 26, 210. 63 WEPOSIEM TOM Savines, O1INCOMeC. SO ae. ee ee 108, 620. 37 Bequest of, james Eamiltony 1Lo(oos- 2 = ee $1, 000. 00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895_________ 1, 000. 00 —_—__—— 2, 000. 00 CONES Oly SIMICOM ET AD Els lies Ms es ee ate ee eee 500. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881___--__-----_______ 51, 500. 00 GitirorPniomas G. Hodgkins, 1890.22.22. 2 ee 200, 000. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894___________ 8, 000. 00 DeppSsit; trom savinestofineome, 19032 = 20 _ 25, 000. 00 Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907__-_--_-__--_____ 7, 918. 69 Deposit: from savings ob income: 191g. = 250s So SL ae 636. 94 Part of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1913_-----------__-___ 251. 95 Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan- arm A VET.) Py OS eta SE i ea ee eS 9, 692. 42 inequest of Addison T.. Reid; 1904. a= 2 ee ee ee, 4, 795. 91 Deposit of savings from income of Avery bequest, 1914___________ 204. 09 Balance of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1915-_--____-___-__- 248. 05 Deposit of savings from income of Rhees bequest, 1915_--__-_-_-_ 28. 39 aati 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Deposit of savings from income of Avery fund, 1915_-_-___-_______ $1, 862. 60 Deposit of savings from income of Reid fund, 1915__-------_____ 426. 04 Deposit of first payment Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, 1915_ 24, 534. 92 Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury___-___ 987, 600. 00 OTHER RESOURCES. Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value) _----______ 42, 000. 00 Total’ permanent fund 202. See ee Eee 1, 029, 600. 00 Also three small pieces of real estate located in the District of Columbia and bequeathed by Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, D. C. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions of the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, organizing the Institution, and the act approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The real estate received from Robert Stanton Avery is exempt from taxation ‘and yields only a nominal revenue from rentals. Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1914, to June 30, 1916. RECEIPTS, Gashyon: deposit-and. in) safe July a 914 es ee eee $30, 560. 18 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury, que duly .1;, 1914, sand: Jan. 1, 019102 see ee $57, 630. 00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1914; ‘and Janieae Omg ace Save ars Shee ace l ey yy 1, 680. 00 Repayments, rentals, publications, ete________-_-___--___. 14, 922. 93 Contributions from various sources for specific pur- OSES eee kane So ene eee ei anaes Sh Spee eee 12, 000. 00 iRucy “hand Georse We Poore, founds 222 ee ee 24, 584. 92 George EL Santord shun 2 22 ee ee ee 1, 020. 00 Walliamvydones Rhees stund 2s = see ee eee 248. 05 ————-— 112, 035. 90 142, 596. 03 DISBURSEMENTS. Buildings: care-and-repairsre sss sewed ask Cee ees ees 5, 468. 44 Kurniture and-fixtures=s==s3e stesso ee eee ee 1, 290. 04 General expenses: SSE ATIOS |= es oe ei os ve A ee eee 18, 514. 26 Meetings. ae aut. Se) 27 Sea epee kee oo 148. 00 Stationery 22 sas ae eS are ee leew 770. 91 Postage, telegraph, and telephone______-._________ 9938. 74 Hreicht.. sss ses SEA eh ea ee ee ENS 93. 05 Ticidentals;--fuely and -lietits: = - ears sae eS 1, 264. 47 Garage - 22s essen. ce ee Sh 1, 827. 36 —_————_ 23, 411. 79 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 113 NE ATV ces Ee oe a a Pe a ae ee a Be Tn ee lle $2, 554. 13 Publications and their distribution: Miseclianeous | COWCCLIONS = === .2 sae eee oe $5, 447. 87 IRODORUSE © Stee ee oe Ses ee ed Ie 493. 42 Speciale publicaitons sees. ee ee 553. 21 Publication Supple see sean 2 ee eee 181. 86 SPEC OSE ite ee a ene ee ee, eee 6, 892.72 5 = 13, 569. 08 Explorations: -researches,” and’ collections 2* = 24 2-7 = ik ee 6, 358. 03 Hodgkins specific fund, researches, and publications_______________ PA its, Clk international hxchaneesk = es — bleep ee 5, 022. 74 Cra eren (Ok ArT: (yee ee ek aE ee ee ee ee 19, 53 Advances. for fieldwexpenses. .Ct@s 22 So sats ne ee ee 12, 464. 60 Mepositedsto: credit. of Mermanent tounge as eee eee 27, 100. 00 lancley sAerodynamical MaborpatOnyen a= = ee a ee 418. 58 100, 430. 17 Balance, June 380, 1915, deposited with the Treasurer GEALNEMUOTLLEd SCALCS: ee er eee ee eee ee $41, 965. 86 Cash on hand 27s Sees ne a eae 200. 00 ——————. 42,165.86 142, 596. 03 By authority your executive committee again employed Mr. Wil- liam L. Yaeger (now Capital Audit Co., William L. Yaeger, presi- dent), a public accountant of this city, to audit the receipts and dis- bursements of the Smithsonian Institution during the period covered by this report. The following certificate of examination supports the foregoing statement and is hereby approved: Capiran AupiIt CoMPANY, METROPOLITAN BANK BUILDING, Washington, D. C., August 6, 1915. Executive Committee, Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution. Sirs: We have examined the accounts and vouchers of the Smithsonian In- stitution for the fiscal year ending June 80, 1915, and certify the following to be a correct statement: PR raaRe COL CS) aes at ee eer eee a er UE ee eee oe $112, 035. 90 MPEGS teed eg CLUS BD MIT STITT M Gg Siesta cs 8 De RA ee 100, 450. 17 Excess of receipts over disbursements___-------__________ 11, 605. 73 NOTHING s TOM MUL Y pile) OM A ie es ee es Se ee re ae 30, 560. 13 Balance-on hand waUnero0. 1 Oli — = eae eee eee 42, 165. 86 Balance shown by Treasury statement of June 30, 1915____-_____ 46, 428. 25 mMeRsvoOuULstandine Checksas 25s ee ed ee 4, 457. 39 41, 965. 86 COVS] ou anal asia YG Le wales ORS Ss ee it RR eee hk Lo dell Die ae 200. 00 PD aA CerUMer sae Oty mene et Se ee ee 42, 165. 86 The vouchers representing payments from the Smithsonian income during the year, each of which bears the approval of the secretary, or, in his absence, of 18619" suc 1915S 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, the acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution, have been examined in connec- tion with the books of the Institution and agree with them. CapitaL AvpiIT Co., By WittiaAm L. YArcer, President. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise are deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Institution, and all payments are made by checks signed by the secretary. The expenditures made by the disbursing agent of the Institution and audited by the Auditor for the State and Other Departments are reported in detail to Congress and will be found in the printed document. Your committee also presents the following summary of appro- priations for the fiscal year 1915 intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations at ihe beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on June 30, 1915: Available | Balance Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the institution: imtenniational HixChanees sn Oise ome mest om ome eee atom meee aie a= ieee $0. 02 1 $0. 02 Mmternmational- Exchanges: LOLs Se otters «goat tome cece ee onene ease teem 1, 622. 22 -01 ater ational Chant esi Ol posse sectemr a anemia) = lala ot seeps os ae lnainlaae 32, 000. 00 3, 453. 79 I Neostyle nail Dy dab alo) (ajeargalit) Be as ee BSR AEN See Oe ee or eseoe Sees eco. 1, 250. 74 1 400. 74 Atmericanidh thology; (Ql4S sos. oe eee set i eee ete eeioncetem ckiienice somes 2, 676. 68 185. 30 Nears Dyna ato) Fofeqyo IS yee SORE A ee SRE SEP oo soo cee oe = 42, 000. 00 3, 854. 52 Astrophysical Observatory, 1913.....-.-..2.-..2..1.. Bis at mlene ec liegr einen ae A ean 142. 42 1 41.04 INStropiysical ODSenvat Ole aban. oc rse peer sia ete ale aioe ee area eae 779. 87 62. 36 ASiLOPDYSICal OMSErValOR Ys olor seas ee = sem te ale atta =e a area eee lane 13, 000. 00 1, 263. 57 Bookstacks, Government bureau libraries, 1914........-....--.---..-.-------- 13, 559. 77 33. 61 Bookstacks, Government bureau libraries, 1915...............---...-.------- 10, 000. 00 35. 36 Tower telescope on Mount Wilson, 1915... 202... 05.222 -- 222-22 et eee eee eens 2,000. 00 1, 284.17 Repairs toiSmithsontanvB mild inp OIG eS ook ce ee reece cee wes 16, 000. 00 452. 13 MTEGerMavIOMal CaralOBMescl Ole see ein ec aime ore, ames tee aa tee te ree te aan rte eae 291. 73 1291.73 international CatalopieyOl 4 oes o.oo een eeges nieelomisae ee een 720. 09 21. 50 international Catalomuer to loca-stemeeman siesta see eee ae eae sere oie ee eee 7,500. 00 864. 45 National Museum— Ublasitibegereh ave ieib-an bitsy ths Wee = SSE Bee wee Pee nee cee Se ere 42. 58 1 42.58 Purmiture and fixtures! LOU Tio see cca celine nee see es see cee sere 10, 369. 30 56. 85 Murniture anditistures moles sneer eee ce oe cece meee eet ateees 25, 000. 00 1, 048. 83 Heating and lighting, L013 2 boos: jaca 2 sees eeiscss se ciines sn cn weno eoeeas 151. 81 1151. 81 Heating'and lighting, 1914.2. soc. dso) eee places eitenite- bcurs. sabes 5, 902. 35 242. 62 Heatme' and lighting Gib lc> See cence ene ote chee nie myareteet= cetera oe rene 46, 000. 00 4, 473. 33 Preservatiow of collections, 1913 osiac secre eowiw eminem cise re win oes eit s ete 3,659.15] 411,485.78 Preservatiomor collections; ISU ea. sms ssee bee teem sen ae ean oan eee 7,652. 72 744. 09 Preservation of collections, 1915.......- Spe tie pea eetee mee aoae na 300, 000. 00 8,774. 88 BOOKS, 1913. -c7o5 cectcu sees Ree SORE eR ore eee att ant A 10. 67 13.67 IBOURKS 1014 ee oo bcs cccsccenwecetereree cheeses taccen See eenee wre seamen 1,091.35 25. 83 BOOKS; LOLS... cur eccmec datos be ste sapere Ses. Jase opa sae pe ee oe eee 2,000. 00 1,389. 73 POstaze, 191b Sooo coco opal cues eee eRe eee sale neice ciel Grate ne eee DOO OO Wawsaacuconen IBnGidine T enaIEs 1918 oan cb te ee peepee se ce eee. oo 1.14 11.14 Ging repairs 114. oo. ooo. ane e ee ears eae cheek ieee ite ee 1, 298. 78 5.03 BUNdMeE repairs OURO yok ok aa so ee ie re ere isa aie nee ae 10,000. 00 487.15 National Zoological Park, TO1G oo 8 Se ek See eee ae eee Rene eee 9.18 1,18 National Zcological Park; (914: 2. oo202. jac oeemenees seem ner see oe anc ee eee 6, 210. 30 3.94 National Zoological Park, 1916 soo oso roe eee eee eeenseeeeessseeeseeeee ee 100, 000. 00 6, 261. 07 Bridge over Rock Creek, National Zoological Park.........-....--.----+---- 3,018. 67 1, 830. 90 1 Carried to credit of surplus fund. REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 115 Statement of estimated income from the Smithsonian fund and from other sources, accrued and prospective, available during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916. Balancey june oO) Ol hee ee ee ee eee ae ee eee oo eee Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury GUE ulyeslge Od one alien Ol Ga ee $58, 000. 00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, iS ae a0 Nad ah oes Len Lo See ee a 1, 680. 00 Hxchange repayments, sale of publications, refund of ad- RETESET 11, 901. 88 Deposits. for specific purposesss asset Sa as eae 12, 000. 00 Total available for year ending June 30, 1916_____._________ Respectfully submitted. Gro. Gray, $42, 165. 86 83, 581. 83 125, 747. 69 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Matricre ConNnouty, Executive Committee. Wasuineton, D. C. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 10, 1914. Present: The Hon. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor, in the chair; the Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Senator William J. Stone; Senator Henry F. Hollis; Representative Maurice Connolly; Representative Ernest W. Roberts; Dr. Andrew D. White; Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. George Gray; Mr. John B. Henderson, jr.; the Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks; and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. DEATH OF SENATOR BACON. The secretary announced the death of Senator Bacon, who had been a Regent of the Institution since 1905, and chairman of the executive committee for the last three years. Senator Stone submitted the following tribute to his memory: Augustus Octavius Bacon, doctor of laws, United States Senator from Georgia, and Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, died February 14, 1914, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. His associates on the Board of Regents, assembled in annual meeting, do here record their personal sorrow in the loss of a distinguished citizen, lawyer, and statesman; one whose sound advice will be greatly missed by the Regents in their deliberations on the affairs of the Institution, in whose development and in whose plans for the advancement of science and the general welfare of mankind he at all times exhibited the deepest interest. He was a most worthy exemplar of a gentleman, a scholar, a legislator, and a councilor. On motion, the tribute was unanimously adopted, ordered to be spread upon the records of the board, and a copy directed to be sent to the family of Senator Bacon. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. Senator Henry F. Hollis, of New Hampshire, was appointed by the Vice President on March 10, 1914, to succeed the late Senator Bacon. Mr, Charles F. Choate, jr., was reappointed for six years by joint resolution of Congress, approved March 20, 1914. 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. Ly CHAIRMAN OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The Hon. George Gray was elected chairman of the executive committee to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Senator Bacon. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. Judge Gray, as chairman of the executive committee, submitted the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The annual report of the executive committee, showing the finan- cial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, was adopted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. Hodgkins fund.—There has been no change in the status of this fund since the last report of the committee. The sum of $5,000 was allotted from the income of the fund, in accordance with the formal action of the board at the meeting of May 1, 1918, for the purpose of continuing the work of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory during the past year. Two thousand dollars was allotted to Mr. F. G. Cottrell for experiments in the clearing of fog by electrical precipitation. Avery bequest.—This bequest has remained unchanged during the past year. Three parcels of land are still to be sold. The Poore bequest—A recent report states that this property is being closed up as rapidly as possible, and it is expected that within a short time it will be turned over to the Institution. The whole estate is now valued at approximately $35,000 to $40,000, but under the terms of the will the income is to be added to the principal until the latter has reached the sum of $250,000, the income of which will then become available for the Institution’s purposes. On motion, the report was accepted. THE SECRETARY’S ANNUAL REPORT. The secretary presented his report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, and stated that since the last annual meeting of the Regents there had been printed a total of 90 publications, aggregating about 6,000 pages of text and 650 plates. Of this aggregate 23 volumes and pamphlets (1,626 pages and 289 plates) pertain to the institu- tion proper; 55 volumes and pamphlets (4,170 pages and 352 plates) 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. were issued by the National Museum; and 2 volumes and pamphlets (115 pages and 11 plates) by the Bureau of American Ethnology. In addition there are now in page proof 5 annual reports (about 2,000 pages) and 3 pamphlets and 1 special publication (about 1,000 pages) ; these will probably be ready for distribution within a few months. The total number of copies of all publications distributed during the year was about 169,000. There were also transmitted through the institution to Congress two annual reports of the Amer- ican Historical Association and the Annual Report of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Among the Museum publications is the sixth volume of the De- scriptive Catalogue of the Birds of North and Middle America, a work in which there has thus far been technically described more than 2,500 species and subspecies of American birds. A second edition of the Hodgkins fund prize essay by Dr. Hins- dale on atmospheric air in relation to tuberculosis was published to meet the general demand for this work. The institution also published through the generosity of Mrs. E. H. Harriman two elaborate volumes by Prof. Verrill, on the Starfishes of the Pacific Coast. On motion the report was accepted. THE SECRETARY’S STATEMENT. The secretary made personal statements as follows: Death of the assistant secretary, Dr. F. W. True—Dr. True died on the 25th of June, 1914, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. He entered the service of the Institution as the youngest member of the scientific corps brought together by Profs. George Brown Goode and Spencer F. Baird during the primitive stages of the National Museum, his first work being in connection with investigations by the U. S. Fish Commission. Later he had been placed in charge of the mammal collections in the Museum, and upon its reorganization into three principal departments became head curator of biology. For a number of years he had served as executive curator of the Museum and at times had been designated acting secretary of the Institution. June 1, 1911, he had been appointed an assistant secre- tary, his special duties being in connection with the library and International Exchanges. The secretary added a tribute to Dr. True’s ability and loyalty. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Statue of Lafayette—The Museum was honored during the past summer by receiving as a gift from the sculptor, Mr. Paul Wayland Bartlett, a copy of his equestrian statue of the Marquis de Lafayette PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 119 erected in 1900 in the Court of Honor of the Louvre, Paris, France. The statue in Paris is of heroic size and in bronze, and was presented to France by the school children of the United States. The copy given to the Museum is the original plaster model, of natural size, in excellent condition, and has been installed in the rotunda of the new building. Collection of pianos—Since the beginning of the present fiscal year the Museum has received a remarkable donation consisting of an historical collection of pianos, the gift of Mr. Hugo Worch, of Washington, by whom they had been assembled. Mr. Worch is a student of the piano, on which he is preparing an extensive memoir, which is now approaching completion, hence he has sought a place where his collection could be permanently preserved. The series consists of over 200 examples, covering the entire period from the invention of the piano, shown in the various changes in construction . and the great variety of form and decoration of the case. The col- lection is very beautiful, instructive, and has involved a very large expenditure on the part of Mr. Worch. It is being installed in the first gallery of the rotunda in the new building, which it will entirely fill. The Museum was already in possession of one of the best col- lections of musical instruments in any of the museums of the country and the addition of such an important aie series will probably give it a very high standing. Gift of Mr. John B. eee ae ce a number of years the Museum has been placed under deep aiigeaone to Mr. John B. Henderson, jr., a Regent of the Institution, for valuable collections of marine animals secured in the course of his own explorations, in a’ number of which members of the Museum staff have participated as guests of Mr. Henderson. Very recently Mr. Henderson has made a most exceptional donation to the Museum, consisting of over 30,000 specimens of land, fresh-water, and marine mollusks, assembled dur- ing a long period of years and representing in a broad sense the donor’s special lines of study. Notable among its contents are specially fine series from Japan collected by Hirase, and from the Philippines by Quadras; the old and valuable collection of J. H. Redfield in its entirety; and a complete set of the fluviatile and land shells of the Southern States. This is unquestionably one of the most valuable additions to the division of mollusks of the Museum since the bequest of Dr. Isaac Lea. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology has been devoting special attention to the study of certain tribes of Indians on the verge of extinction. To this end successful efforts have been made in record- ing the languages, beliefs, and customs of some of the tribes of 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Oregon, Oklahoma, and Texas. In some cases these remnant groups are represented by only one or two survivors who speak their native language, hence the very last opportunity of gaining authentic in- formation regarding them has been embraced. In other directions also the bureau’s activities are being vigorously pursued and several volumes will soon be published. ADDITIONAL LAND FOR NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, Since the statement at the last meeting of the board much delay has been encountered in the steps taken to acquire the land on Con- necticut Avenue, for which Congress appropriated $107,200 by the act of June 23, 1913, but it is now understood that the jury cf con- demnation has completed its work and will shortly present its find- ings to the court. As previously stated, the land in question has a ‘frontage on Connecticut Avenue of 1,750 feet and covers about 10 acres, and when acquired will bring the park area to 180 acres. THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY, The first year’s work of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory, reopened by authorization of the Board of Regents in May, 19138, was’ to organize an advisory committee, arrange a comprehensive program of operations, devise ways and means of carrying on investigations and publishing reports, conduct such active experiments as were pos- sible with the means immediately available, and secure and arrange in the library all available aeronautical literature. The reports of the committee thus far published have appeared as individual papers in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The first of these recounts the organization of the advisory commit- tee and the resources of the Langley Laboratory. The first technical publication sets forth the results of experiments made at the model tank at the Washington Navy Yard. Another report describes the organization and equipment of the leading aeronautical laboratories of England, France, and Germany. Some of the reports of the com- mittee are as yet confidential or incomplete, such as Hammond’s re- port on wireless communications to and from air craft. The members of the various committees of the Langley Laboratory have been active in aerodynamics and allied subjects. Naval Con- structor Hunsaker has completed the installation and equipment of the aerotechnical laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology and has sent the Smithsonian the results of the first researches for publication. Mr. Buckingham has completed and published a masterly paper on the mathematical principle governing the relations of experimental models of all sorts to those of full-scale machines. Dr. Humphreys has published a long paper on the physics of the PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. beep 6 atmosphere. Dr. Zahm has helped to design for the United States Army a 200-horsepower biplane and has published a mathematical method of analyzing the stresses sustained by such an aeroplane during flight. The library has been furnished with the chief aeronautic periodi- cals and the best books thus far published. The recent additions number 120 publications, of which 71 were purchased and the others received in exchange. The publications were chosen from a list specially prepared by Dr. Zahm and Naval Constructor Hunsaker while visiting the leading aeronautical libraries of Europe. The rehabilitation and successful launching of the Langley aero- plane, constructed over a decade ago, was accomplished last May. The machine was shipped from the Langley Laboratory to the Cur- tiss Aeroplane Factory to have the planes recanvassed and hydro- aeroplane floats attached before launching on Lake Keuka May 28. With Mr. Curtiss as pilot the machine planed easily over the water, rose on level wing, and flew in steady poise 150 feet. Subsequent short flights were made in order to secure photographs of the craft in the air. Then Mr. Curtiss was authorized, in order to prolong the flights without overtaxing the bearings of the Langley propulsion plant, to install in its place a standard Curtiss motor and propeller. On October 1, hovering within 30 feet of the water and without material loss of speed, the great craft made in quick succession flights of the following duration and length at an average speed of 50 feet per second: Twenty seconds, 1,000 feet; 20 seconds, 1,000 feet; 65 seconds, 3,250 feet; 20 seconds, 1,000 feet; 40 seconds, 2,000 feet; 45 seconds, 2,250 feet. The total weight of the aeroplane with its hydro floats and the pilot was 1,520 pounds. The tests thus far made have shown that former Secretary Lang- ley had succeeded in building the first aeroplane capable of sus- tained free flight with a man. It is hoped that further trials will disclose more fully the advantages of the Langley type of machine. Tt may be recalled that this aeroplane was begun in 1898 for the War Department, and in the interest of the national defense. The numerous and comprehensive aerotechnical investigations planned for the Langley Laboratory can be successfully carried out only when increased funds are available. Properly equipped and endowed, the laboratory would serve as a national aeronautical in- stitute suitable for conducting the aerotechnical investigations and tests required by the Government and the aeronautical industries of this country. The secretary further spoke of the personnel of the advisory com- mittee, and said that its operations were very much hampered by the recent decision of the Comptroller of the Treasury that it was illegal for the members already in the Government service to act as an ad- 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. visory committee to the laboratory. All of the gentlemen selected have expressed their interest and willingness to serve, but in view of the decision referred to were able to do nothing except in a most informal manner. The secretary expressed the opinion that a com- mittee of the Regents should be appointed to take up matters in this connection.* | Dr. Bell said that he was much gratified at the secretary’s state- ments in regard to the successful flights of the Langley aeroplane. He was familiar with its history and had been present at the flights of the models, and now that the large machine, with the addition of floats weighing upward of 400 pounds, had actually flown, he felt that the Institution, and the board also, should be congratulated at the verification of Langley’s work. He thought that the Langley type of machine was a correct one, and he hoped that this would be further proved by the additional flights contemplated. He thought that the important work of the laboratory should be facili- tated in every way, and he hoped that the committee recommended by the secretary would be appointed, Dr. Bell then submitted the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That a committee be appointed by the chancellor, to consist of four members of the board and the secretary, to consider questions relative to the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. The chancellor appointed the following as the committee: Dr. Bell, Senator Stone, Representative Roberts, Mr. Henderson, and the secretary. RESEARCH CORPORATION. It will be recalled that when Dr. F. G. Cottrell presented his pre- cipitation patents to the Smithsouian Institution, the Board of Re- gents decided that it was not practicable for the institution to under- take the commercial development of the patents, but there was no objection to the secretary becoming a member of a distinct organiza- tion that would undertake their development. This independent organization was formed under the laws of the State of New York as the Research Corporation, as reported to the Board of Regents at the meetings in 1912 and 1913. The secretary became one of the directors of the corporation and a member of the executive committee. The board includes a number of prominent men of wide business experience, such as James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., bankers, Boston; Charles A. Stone, of Stone & Webster, Boston; Arthur D. Little, of the Little Chemical Co., Boston; T. Coleman Du Pont, of Wilmington, Del.; Elon H. Hooker, . 1 By act of Congress approved Mar. 3, 1915, the President was authorized to appoint an advisory committee for aeronautics. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 123 president, Hooker Electrochemical Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.; Ben- jamin B. Lawrence, mining engineer, of New York; George F. Kunz, of Tiffany & Co., New York; Frederick A. Goetze, dean, engineering department, Columbia University, New York; William Barclay Par- sons, engineer, of New York; Hennen Jennings, mining engineer, of Washington. The development of a patent on a commercial basis is a very difli- cult proposition, and it was only through the active cooperation of Dr. Goetze, chairman of the executive committee, and other gentle- men on the board, in connection with the engineers of the corpora- tion, that success has been attained. On a capital of $10,100, subscribed by the directors, and the fees received for engineer services, work was carried on for 18 months. In July last there was but $1,200 in the treasury and many monthly expenses to be met. This was the low-water mark, as payments then began to come in in the form of royalties and payments for the per- manent use of the patent, so that on December 1 there was $65,000 in the treasury besides $100,000 in approved notes. At a recent meeting of the board of directors it was decided that no grants for general research would be made until after the invested funds of the corporation were $100,000 with cash in bank for ex- penses. In addition to the Cottrell patents, the corporation is now consid- ering the acceptance of certain rights in connection with a patent for a reinforced concrete railroad tie that is quite promising. There are also several other patents that have been brought to the attention of the engineers, but owing to the necessity of concentrating all effort upon the commercial development of the Cottrell patents, it was not deemed best to undertake other investigations. Now that the finan- cial conditions are improved, some money and energy will be ex- pended in looking up the concrete tie and other promising patents. Owing to the wide experience of the members of the board and their standing in the business community, it has been possible to do work in connection with the Research Corporation that would have re- quired the expenditure of large sums if undertaken by an ordinary business organization or private individual. CLEARING OF FOG BY ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATION. Science has established the fact that all dust and fog particles in the open atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation. It is apparent, therefore, that a source of very high direct voltage with facilities for control and application, may be of inestimable value in certain quarters and seasons for clearing fog from a street, from along a passenger railway, from around the land- - 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ing stages of a ferry, or possibly about and in advance of a ship under headway at sea. z Sometime ago Mr. Cottrell, who has been referred to in connec- tion with the work of the Research Corporation, expressed to the secretary his desire to take up the investigation of the possibility of clearing away fog by the precipitation method mentioned, and he was asked to communicate again later when his ideas and plans were more fully developed. He has recently written from San Francisco to say that the idea is now arousing interest in various quarters; for instance, the Uni- versity of California is actively engaged in the investigation, while the United States Lighthouse Service has placed its boats and facili- ties at his disposal when needed, while assurances have been received from certain transportation companies that as soon as definite effects in the open were shown they would assist in the further development of the work. Mr. Cottrell stated that funds were urgently needed to enable the university people to carry through what he termed the academic part of the program. They had already accomplished a great deal with their own funds and the apparatus and supplies contributed by the electric companies, but certain essential equipment was needed that could not be obtained through these channels. Chief among these was a transformer of at least 250,000 volts, which would cost about $1,500; and $500 additional was desired for smaller items of special equipment. The importance of this work was apparent, and as it came within the scope of researches outlined in the Hodgkins fund, an allotment of $2,000 was made. In acknowledging this action, Mr. Cottrell stated that the San Francisco section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers had appointed a committee to cooperate in this great work. Reports will be submitted from time to time on the progress of the investi- | gation. THE FREER COLLECTION. The original gift of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich., made in 1906, comprised about 2,326 paintings and other objects of art. The additions since that date, recorded in five supplementary inven- tories, the last submitted in February. 1914, increase the total extent of this wonderful collection to 4,/U1 pieces, of which 983 are paint- ings, engravings, lithographs, etc., by American artists; and 3,718 are oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, stone and wood carvings, lacquered objects, glass, etc. In the eight years which have inter- vened since the acceptance of Mr. Freer’s offer the collection has, PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 125 therefore, been doubled in extent, and its value has been increased far beyond all earlier expectations. The secretary added that Mr. Freer was considering the matter of erecting the building to house his gift, and that the question of a site was now an important one, and he suggested that a committee be appointed to take the matter up. Dr. White offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That four members of the board and the secretary be appointed by the chancellor as a committee on the securing of a site for the Freer Art Gallery. The chancellor appointed the following as the committee: Senator Lodge, Senator Hollis, Judge Gray, Representative Connolly, and Secretary Walcott. WORK UNDER THE HARRIMAN TRUST FUND. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate under the special fund established by Mrs. EK. H. Harriman, has continued his studies of the big bears of America and has practically completed the research work. In addition to the technical studies, the literature of early explora- tion and hunting in the western and northern parts of the continent has been searched for records concerning the former ranges and habits of the grizzlies and big brown bears, and it was now possible to determine the relations of most of the species and to arrange them in definite groups. Of the true grizzlies there appear to be about 38 species and subspecies, representing a dozen groups; of the big brown bears, about 10 species, representing five groups. REPAIRS, SMITHSONIAN BUILDING. The appropriation of $16,000 for the repairs to the exterior of the Smithsonian Building became available on August 1,1914. These repairs are now practically completed, well within the limits of the appropriation, the balance remaining being set aside for exterior painting and some further minor repairs which will be undertaken in the spring. EXPEDITIONS. Borneo expedition—F¥or over two years an expedition has been engaged in Borneo through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, a collaborator of the National Museum, who had at the time of the last . meeting contributed $8,000 for this purpose. Dr. Abbott has since added $3,000 to this sum for the completion of the work in Borneo and the further work of collecting in Celebes, the fauna of which is . practically unrepresented here. Mr. H. C. Raven, who has been 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. conducting this expedition, left Borneo in June, 1914, crossing with his native boat and crew to Celebes. In addition to the gifts already mentioned, Dr. Abbott has sup- plied Mr. Raven directly with ammunition and supplies and with funds aggregating between $500 and $1,000. Much valuable material has been received from Borneo and the work in Celebes is expected to prove of great interest. Biological work in north China.—At the last meeting mention was made of the work being carried on in north China by Mr. A. de C. Sowerby through the liberality of a gentleman who desired to re- main unknown. There has been no change in this condition. Mr. Sowerby has already sent numerous valuable specimens to the Mu- seum and other collections are understood to be nearly ready for shipment. British Columbia and Montana.—The Secretary continued the work of exploration among the fossil beds of British Columbia inaugu- rated some years ago, and extended the work to Montana. A week was spent in measuring and recording the flow of two glaciers near Glacier, British Columbia, before beginning the meas- urement of sections and the collecting of fossil remains in the very ancient pre-Paleozoic rocks of central Montana. In Montana a camp was established in July and field work con- tinued until a heavy snow storm closed the season early in October. A number of great sections of bedded rocks were studied and meas- ured. Large collections were made from the limestones, that in- clude the oldest and most simple forms of life yet recorded in the early history of the earth. They are mainly algal deposits that may be compared with those now being made in fresh-water lakes and streams by the beautiful blue-green algae. At the secretary’s request, Dr. Albert Mann, the distinguished microscopist, began a search for microscopic organisms in thin, translucent sections of the algal deposits. He has discovered the remains of two types of bacteria in great abundance. These, in connection with the microscopic cells of the algae, furnish positive proof of the organic origin of the limestones in a period that hereto- fore had furnished no evidence of such life. Solar radiation.—Observations have been continued on Mount Wilson, Cal., for the purpose of observing the variability of the sun, and of confirming the newly discovered relationship between the variation of the total heat of the sun and the variation of the distribution of its light over the solar surface. Computations of the results are now in progress, and it is hoped very soon to make a satisfactory confirmation of this discovery. Mr. Aldrich, in cooperation with the United States Weather Bureau, sent up several sounding balloons with apparatus attached PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. Ela for measuring the heat of the sun at high altitudes. In spite of unlooked-for difficulties, an excellent ascension was made to an alti- tude above 15 miles and very fine records were obtained, the pre- liminary reduction of which indicate that they will confirm the value of the solar constant of radiation which has resulted from years of observation at the Astrophysical Observatory. Additional flights were made up to altitudes of 20 miles, but no records were obtained at that height owing to the freezing of the mercury in the thermometers. By invitation of the Australian Government and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory, attended the meetings of the British association in Australia and submitted to the Australian Government a recommendation for the establishment in that country of a solar observatory particularly devoted to the measurement of the radiation of the sun. Owing to the breaking out of the war in Europe, the Australian Government was unable to promise definitely the early establishment of such an observatory, but expressed great interest in the project. Island of Timor expedition—The island of Timor in the East Indies has been a rich collecting ground for scientific study, though little or nothing has been done by the paleontologist. An expedition for this sole purpose would be a very expensive undertaking, but an opportunity presented itself for acquiring many of these collections through the courtesy and interest of Mr. W. E. Crane, of Pittsburgh, a retired engineer and an enthusiastic collector, who had planned to visit the East Indies and to aid in making collections on the island of Timor for the National Museum. The expense of the enterprise was estimated to be $2,000, one-half of which was con- tributed by Mr. Crane, while Mrs. E. H. Harriman and Mr. Frank Springer gave $500 each. Unfortunately, about the time Mr. Crane was to start, the war broke out in Europe and the expedition had to be abandoned for the present. Western Siberian expedition—During the spring of 1914 the secretary received information that an expedition was being fitted out for western Siberia to take in the Kolyma River region, for the purpose of making collections in general ethnology and natural history. The locality was represented as particularly rich in such material, and after consultation with those qualified to advise, the secretary decided that it would be well that the Institution par- ticipate in the results of the expedition. There being no funds of the Institution that could be allotted for this purpose, however, steps were taken to secure the means by pri- vate subscription, and it is with pleasure that the secretary an- 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. nounces that a sum sufficient for the purpose, $3,500, was contributed by the Telluride Association of Provo, Utah, and Ithaca, N. Y. The expedition is under the direction of Mr. John Koren, an ex- plorer of experience. He is accompanied by Mr. Copley Amory, jr., who made collections for the Institution in 1912 along the Alaskan- Canadian boundary, and by Mr. Benno Alexander, of Tolt, Wash., who is the special representative of the Institution. The chief object of the expedition, so far as the Institution is con- cerned, is to secure remains of the Siberian mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the mastodon; it is also desired to secure skulls, tusks, hair, skin, flesh, and anything to indicate the contents of the stomach and the nature of the food. Other much desired remains are those of the bison, musk ox, camel, and bear. In addition to the above, collections will be made of geological, mineralogical, and paleontological material likely to be of interest to the Museum. The expedition sailed from Seattle on June 26, 1914, and touched at Nome on August 1, since which date no word has been received from the party. It is expected that they will return to Seattle by the end of September, 1915. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1915. 129 18618°—sm 1915——9 ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the Generau Arrenpix to the Annual Report of the | Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 380 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom- inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1915. 130 REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY FOR THE YEAR 1913.1 By P. PuIsEux, Member of the Institute, Astronomer at the Observatory of Paris. STUDY OF PLANETS AND COMETS. The increasing knowledge of the phenomena of the globe that carries us puts us in a position to interpret more surely what we observe in the celestial bodies. The astronomer, who gives to the mariner and the geodecist the means for determining their time and precise position, hopes some day to receive some recompense for these services. He is examining now the facts which come from the scien- tific stations established at diverse latitudes. One of the least ex- pected among these facts is a small annual variation in geographic latitude. This variation had not been predicted by dynamical theory. It takes place as though the center of gravity of our globe were displaced alternately about 3 meters toward the North, and then toward the South Pole. Several explanations come to mind, but have to be abandoned under closer analysis. For instance, the melting of the ice, taking place alternately each six months in the region of the two poles, acts in the right direction, but in order to correspond with the magnitude of the observed change, would have to affect masses of ice very improbable in size. The most-favored opinion, developed by the recent studies of Kimura, Ross, and Biske, assumes that the isobars (lines of equal pressure) of the air vary with the sea- son, oscillating about a mean configuration. There would result, for a series of stations at the same latitude, a variation in the same man- ner of the atmospheric refraction, and an annual, purely apparent oscillation would be mixed with the one of 430 days, the reality of which we have no reason for doubting. The movements of the magnetic needle show bizarre caprices which would seem to escape all prediction. However, in a long series of means, each magnetic element is seen to be affected by four super- posed fluctuations the periods of which are the day, the year, the synodic rotation of the sun, and the sun-spot-cycle period. From this we conclude that the sun acts upon the earth’s magnetism, not only through the unequal heating to which it subjects our globe, but also through a direct action, doubtless the restricted emission of electrified 1 Translated, by permission, from the Revue générale des Sciences, vol. 25, p. 746, 1914. 131 132 . ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. particles. According to the calculations of Chapman, the moon also possesses this power in much less degree but nevertheless surely. To it are due several oscillations the most marked of which has a period of half a lunar day. We are not yet in the position for studying the distribution of magnetism on the moon. But in lunar topography we are making progress. The valuable collection of plates collected at the Observa- tory of Paris furnished the basis to Le Morvan of a new 48-plate atlas of our satellite. One half of this work had appeared in 1913. This chart, less expensive and more manageable than the great atlas of this observatory, is well conceived, admirably executed, and will be of great value to observers. The planetoid Eros, which so held the attention of astronomers in 1900, had at that time surprised them by its rapid variations in brightness. Now we find that its orbit is contracting more than we would have predicted. There will result far more favorable condi- tions for a new determination of the solar parallax. In 1931 the dis- tance of this planetoid from the earth will be decreased to almost one- half of the smallest value reached in 1900. The system of planets which revolve about the sun, and ‘the two systems of moons which keep company with Jupiter and Saturn, re- spectively, have always attracted calculators in a search for numerical analogues. The well-known law of Bode serves as the point of de- parture for such calculations, and its aspect is changed slightly, according as weight is attached to the exactness of the verifications, the absence of discontinuities, or the small number of parameters. Miss Blagg has made a marked advance over her predecessors, includ- ing the three series of distances in one formula, analogous to one which connects the reciprocals of the wave-lengths in the spectra of simple bodies. The existence of this relation between such apparently different systems makes us feel that we are dealing with some mysteri- ous physical law imposed in the formation of the planets as well as of the satellites. Such grouping could not be the effect of fortui- tous and successive aggregations, as the theory of capture would have. It rather forces us to require in each system a unity of origin, retaining the general idea of the cosmogony of Laplace. None of the laws derived from that of Bode would have foretold the existence of the distant and retrograde moons which both Jupiter and Saturn possess. In studying these two exceptional cases, which have been considered by certain authors as irreconcilable with the ideas of Laplace, Jackson found that these anomalous moons. could be considered as the remains of a nebulous ring, the component parts of which possessed confused movements, and sufficiently vast to have expanded beyond the sphere of effective attraction of the planets. Certain distances from the planets and certain angular velocities are REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 133 more favorable to stability and are just such as correspond to the distances and velocities of the retrograde satellites. An analogous conclusion is drawn by Eddington from the statistics of the elements of the comets. The positions of their aphelia, as a rule, group about two directions which seem to depend in no way upon the general movement of the solar system. These directions rather reveal the direction of the elongation of the one or two primi- tive rings at the expense of which the comets were formed. The short-period comets form an exception possibly because they are endowed with a shorter longevity. They are to be considered as revolving in their actual orbits through the intervention of the greater planets. Thus the comet Neujmin (1913c), discovered the 6th of September, 1913, was the third member of the cometary family of Saturn. It was remarkable for its almost constant stellar aspect. The Westphal comet (1852, IV), refound September 26, 1913, by Delavan, underwent in October a considerable and unex- plained decrease in brightness. In comparison with the planets and the stars the comets are doubt- less ephemeral. What becomes of the matter—tenuous, to be sure, but in time abundant—which is left in their wake? Fessenkoff con- siders that it must expand in the region of the ecliptic in the form cf a vast flattened, lens-shaped mass centered about the sun and de- creasing in density with increasing distance from the sun. All the well-known traits of the zodiacal light could thus be explained. Fessenkoff believes that certain unsymmetrical and changeable fea- tures which have been noted are due to insufficient allowance for the effects of atmospheric absorption. The total mass of the zodiacal matter is certainly very small compared with that of the principal planets, indeed compared with that of the comets and meteors. We may suppose that certain meteors are efficacious for troubling the surface of the sun because they are subject to closer approaches to it. Turner was led to adopt the idea, formerly held by J. Herschel, while trying to represent the variable frequency of sun spots by a series of periodical terms. For a course of years certain constant values may be adopted for the coeflicients of these terms, and then these values have to be altered. The epochs of all these perturba- tions, according to Turner, fall close to the time of the perihelion passage of the Leonides. It is true the distance of the Leonides from the sun, even at perihelion passage, is somewhat great and necessitates recourse to a secondary stream derived through the inter- vention of some planet. This theory finds a certain degree of con- firmation in the Chinese Annals, which record ancient increases in the number of sun spots at epochs when the Leonides swarm must have passed close to Saturn. 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. STUDY OF THE SUN. Is the periodic increase in the number of sun spots definitely con- nected with the flux of heat which we receive from the sun? The question has been answered in various senses, and it must still be con- sidered as under litigation. The discordance of the statistics, when they are not coordinated in point of time, may result from a general variation in the transparency of the earth’s atmosphere. For in- stance, the greater or less diffusion of volcanic dust suffices to explain this discordance. And it seems quite certain that the eruption of Mount Katmai (Alaska) in 1912, as well as that of Krakatoa in 1883, have had effects of this nature. At any rate the passage of this atmospheric disturbance does not occur simultaneously in widely separated countries and the parallelism of the solar-constant values found by the methods of Dr. Abbot in California and in Algeria, Africa, prove that very perceptible variations can be imputed to the sun. These variations up to the present appear rather irregular than periodic. Fabry and Buisson have found that the solar spectrum is cut off at the violet end by an absorption band due to ozone. The presence of a layer of ozone, formed in the upper part of our atmosphere by the action of the ultra-violet light of the sun, is not improbable. It would in that region somewhat alter the laws of absorption and (shghtly) alter the value of the solar constant. The micrometric examination of the numerous plates taken at the Observatory of Zo-Sé (China) under the direction of P. Cheva-- her, shows that the sun underwent, from 1905 to 1909, a measurable and somewhat variable elongation along the polar diameter. It is | not the first time that such a change has been suspected, but it is as- serted now, it seems to us, with an imposing train of evidence. The mean photographic diameter surpasses by 0.6’’ that which is gener- ally admitted on the authority of Auwers. An indication pointing in the same direction, results from the discussion by Simonin of the plates of the eclipse of April 17, 1912. . The documents resulting from the last solar eclipse still furnish material for interesting publications. Father Cortie gives the de- scription of several limited bundles of rays, each one issuing from a spotted region of the sun and showing marked effects upon terrestrial magnetism. In the American photographs of the flash spectrum taken at Daroca in 1905, Mitchell found the whole counterpart of the Fraunhofer spectrum. The only differences occur in the relative in- tensities of the lines. Neither Mitchell nor Evershed are disposed to consider the presence of radium as established in the sun’s chromo- sphere. The powerful spectroscopes continue to give numerous results rela- tive to the velocities which rule at the various levels in the sun. But REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 135 their interpretation is complicated and the results change according as we consider some special spectrum line or the diverse parts of the same line. For Evershed the dominant fact is the general expanding out of the metallic vapors as they leave the border of each spot. St. John finds that the centripetal tendency again becomes predominant above a certain elevation. The analogies which have been attempted between sun spots and cyclones or the whirlpools in water currents give little satisfaction. The ascending movements which the spectroscope records toward the center of the disk of the sun are not as rapid as the horizontal movements, but it is not a rare occurrence for them to be accelerated as if the weight was opposed effectively by a repulsive force. These vertical velocities, in every case, are sufficiently great to make us consider very hazardous the attempt of Schulz to revive the former theory of Kirchhoff concerning the general constitution of the sun. According to that theory the sun is liquid up to the level of the spots and the latter are floating scum. Every difficulty is removed by that theory relative to the existence of a continuous spectrum but not relative to temperature and velocities. Fowler prefers to admit the existence in the sun of some unknown physical agent capable of maintaining certain refractory elements in a pulverulent state at temperatures above 6,000° C., the temperature above which pyrhelio- metric measures show that the sun must be. We must resign our- selves for a long while yet perhaps to see Nature use in the stars far more powerful sources than those at our disposal in the laboratory. Deslandres and d’Azambuja continue to devote themselves to the isolation of the light of the central parts of the strongest lines of the solar spectrum and its use in their solar photographs, and that choice is justified by the striking originality of the photographs ob- tained. The astronomers at Meudon, despite the doubts raised by A. Buss, maintain an essential distinction between “ filaments” and “alignements.” ‘The latter, fainter but more prolonged, are char- acteristic of the upper layers. They appear as far as the greatest latitudes and are not dependent upon the Schwabe cycle. The existence of the Zeeman phenomenon at the border of the spots, shown by Hale, as we know, has furnished him with a means of measuring the local magnetic fields. We see no other probable origin for these magnetic fields except the motion of electrified par- ticles, but one would suppose that electricity would be conducted with great difficulty in as rare a medium as that which surrounds the sun. This objection has been very much weakened, although not nullified, by the recent experiments of Harker, who found that a rarified gas becomes an effective conductor for electricity in the neighborhood of a body at a very high temperature. 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. STARS AND NEBULZ. The observatory at Greenwich has undertaken the task during re- cent years of the redetermination of the precise positions of all the bright stars of the corona borealis, stars already included by Car- rington in a catalogue which is now half a century old. It has thus become possible to study and classify a gre eat number of proper mo- tions. The discussion made by Dyson gives a result favorable to the views held by Schwarzschild that the existence of a single pref- erential direction for stellar motions is probable. In measure as we consider a direction differing from this, the number of stars having this different direction diminishes regularly. From the re- lation between the brightness of a star and its apparent motion, it may be deduced that the distribution of stars in space is neither uniform nor fortuitous. The greatest frequency is found in the constellation of Gemini at a distance which is small compared with the dimensions of the Milky Way. When we depart from this central region the frequency of the stars diminishes without limit, so that we may speak of the stars visible in meridian instruments as a limited system of definite structure. Analogous conclusions were derived by Eddington from the study of the catalogue of Boss, in which are collected the most accurate data concerning the bright stars in all parts of the sky. It is espe- cially in high galactic latitudes that the density is found to decrease most markedly. We must therefore regard the stars connected with the Milky Way—that is, the great majority of the visible stars—as forming a globular cluster with a very marked flattening. At each point of such a cluster the Newtonian attraction must pro- duce a field of force. A star, obedient to this field of force and sensibly untroubled by neighboring bodies, would complete its revo- lution about the center in about 300,000,000 years, and we would expect a definite, dominant direction in each region of space. The researches of L. Boss and of Messrs. Hertzsprung and Plum- mer have definitely revealed the existence of several groups or fami- lies of stars, all the members of which travel with equal and parallel velocities and having a yet further kinship in the character of their spectra. These stars thus preserve a trace of their common origin and move freely or under the action of a common field of force, and resemble very little the final state of bodies intermingling with diverse velocities. It is therefore necessary to abandon the com- parison of the Milky Way to'a gaseous mass where the velocities of the molecules result from multiple collisions in every direction and with velocities showing definite relationship to the masses, but no regularity as to direction. Jeans, starting with the stellar density calculated as existing in the neighborhood of our sun, has found REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 137 that the dispersion of a swarm, once formed, would require billions of years—a time much greater than the probable life of a star as a bright star. Results well worthy of attention have been obtained lately through the formation of tables having as headings the principal character- istics of the stars, spectrum class, annual parallax, magnitude of mo- tion, intrinsic brightness. Thus, Campbell has shown that the white stars (A and B of the Harvard classification) are more numerous than other stars near the Milky Way, have small velocities, great distances from the sun, and great brightness. The red stars are, on the average, nearer the sun and have greater velocities. There is reason for con- cluding, according to Stratton, that the stars have their birth close to the plane of the Milky Way and depart from it with time with increasing velocities. H. N. Russell thinks that he can go yet further, laying stress upon the fact that statistics separate the red stars into two classes—one much brighter intrinsically than the sun, and the others decidedly fainter. The former (giant stars) are less advanced in their evolution. Their destiny is to contract, and consequently become warmer and whiter, losing in size and gaining in velocity. They again become red before their final extinction. These correla- tions are valuable for guiding researches, but it will without doubt be necessary to wait until their degree of generality is better estab- lished. The existence of a particularly close analogy between certain stars and the sun results from the work of the observers at Potsdam. They have found that in the spectra of Arcturus and Aldebaran we can observe the partial reversal of the H and K lines, that is to say, the formation of a brilliant central line in them such as those seen in the troubled regions of the sun. The category of spectroscopic double stars, enriched continually by the work of the Lick and Allegheny observers, presents on the other hand a phenomenon of which we find no analogy in the sun. We know now several instances of the fact, noted first in 3 Orionis, that the calcium lines do not follow the periodic oscillations of those due to hydrogen and helium. Possibly clouds of calcium, unconnected with the stars, are interposed in the line of sight. In the Cepheid variables, compared with one another, Ludendorff has noted the existence of a proportionality between the amplitudes of the varia- tions which the brightness and radial velocities respectively undergo. Tt will be useful, in order to interpret these and similar laws, to be able to reach greater precision in the measure of faint magnitudes. All methods, in which the judgment of the eye is utilized, involve a certain inaccuracy of physiological origin. Attempts are being made to substitute for the operator’s eye an apparatus of rigorously im- personal measures, indefatigable and of a superior sensitiveness. 138 - ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Stebbins uses for this purpose the variable resistance which selenium offers to the passage of the electrical current when the selenium is more or less exposed to light. But the results do not appear to be regular except when the selenium is kept at low temperatures. Messrs. Elster, Geitel, and Guthnick have utilized the property which certain alkaline metals, such as sodium and calcium, offer of emitting, under the influence of light, corpuscles capable of acting upon an electrometer. They have thus obtained a sensitiveness of one part in a thousand in estimating the brightness of faint stars. The photographic study by Prof. Bailey of the cluster Messier 3 has shown the existence in this single group of 137 variable stars, all of the same type and having periods of about a half a day. Stars - showing such rapid changes are rarely found outside of clusters. There has, however, meanwhile been found a new example in uae star RR Lyre, Fees eater by ISiess. In order to establish a homogeneous system of magnitudes in a photographic catalogue there has been used with success at the Greenwich Observatory a diffraction grating formed of metallic wires stretched across the front of the objective of the telescope. Each star then furnishes a central image with a series of secondary images on either side. The ratio of the brightness of the successive members of each series can be calculated with precision if a micrometrical study is made of the grating and the widths of the wires and spaces are made very uniform. Each bright star thus will give in the field of the telescope a scale of magnitudes to which the fainter stars may be referred. Messrs. Chapman and Melotte have thus been able to make a complete catalogue of the stars down to the fifteenth magni- tude and within a radius of 25’ of the pole. The examination made by Reynolds of the distribution of bright- ness in the great Andromeda nebula makes it seem as though a great part of that nebula’s brightness were due to a central star too envel- oped and obscured in the diffused matter for us to see it. In the spectrum of this same nebula, generally held to be continuous with a few absorption lines, Messrs. Fox and Max Wolf have found bright lines, and in the spectrum of the Wolf-Rayet stars, characterized by bright lines, Max Wolf finds also the lines of gaseous nebule. We are thus forced to believe that bright lines are a general characteris- tic of true nebulee, which do not shine by reflected stellar light, and that the Wolf-Rayet stars show a transition type between such nebule and ordinary stars. How is the evolution from one to the other effected? Nicholson has tried to determine it by a subtle analysis of the numerical values of the wave lengths. The only terrestrial elements known with cer- tainty as existing in the nebule, and accordingly in the Wolf-Rayet stars, are hydrogen and helium. The other lines which are in the REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 139 spectra, and as yet unreproducible in the laboratory, are distributed in series, and the structure of these series allows us to attribute to them modified forms of these simple elements. The passage takes place by discontinuous steps, corresponding to successive whole num- bers of electrons. The transmutation of the nebula into the star results less from a concentration of visible matter than from new intraatomic configurations, the reverse of that which radioactive matter undergoes in our laboratories and which has helium for its final product. Nicholson, faithful to the traditions of Laplace, considers the nebula as the primal form of matter in preference to the star, which seems to him on the track toward a more complex structure. One is tempted to regard the reverse route as probable if we consider two incontestable facts: The practical irreversibility of the radioactive transformation and the constant evolution of new stars toward the nebulous state. The artificial production of the nebula spectrum, if it ever becomes possible, will of course throw light upon this problem of the utmost importance to cosmogony. May we live long enough to be witnesses of this conquest, the object of so much of our striving! eh an . THE UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY. By A. 8. E. AcKERMANN, B. Sc. (Engineering), A. C. G. I., M. Cons. -E., A. M. Inst. C. E. [With 6 plates. ] As it has been justly said that the play of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark is somewhat dull, perhaps it will be well to devote a few words to the principal actor in all schemes for the utilization of solar energy, viz, the sun. He is no longer regarded as a monster fire, burning in the manner of fires in our grates. Great as is his mass, it would be comparatively rapidly consumed if such combustion were taking place. Another reason why this old idea was given up is that the temperature of the sun has been determined by several experimenters, and all agree that it is about 6,000° C. This is far too high to permit of the formation of most chemical compounds, and for the production of heat by combustion it is necessary for such com- pounds to be formed. Briefly, such a temperature decomposes nearly all compounds into their elements and prevents their reuniting and the consequent production of heat. Scientists are by no means certain how the sun’s heat is produced, but one theory is that it is due to radioactivity; and another. due to Helmholtz, that the energy to keep up the radiation could be sup- plied by a relatively microscopic contraction of the sun’s volume, though even this theory is not a complete success, as it implies that the age. of the sun is 17,000,000 years. Great as is this lapse of time, geology indicates that our earth is considerably older; but as the earth can not very well be older than the sun, we must conclude that the sun is older than 17,000,000 years. As to what the structure of the sun is there is also doubt; but the inner portion is spoken of as the nucleus and the outer portion as the - atmosphere, and as the outer layers of the atmosphere get relatively cooled they sink to a lower level, and their place is taken by hotter layers. Thus there is a continual circulation of the sun’s atmosphere. The specific gravity of the sun is only about a quarter of that of the earth, whose specific gravity is 5.538. A cubic foot of water weighs 1 Reprinted, by permission, from the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, London, April 30, 1915, 141 a 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 624 pounds, and hence an average cubic foot of the sun weighs 864 pounds, while an average cubic foot of the earth weighs 345 pounds. For comparison it may be mentioned that a cubic foot of granite weighs 165 pounds. The density of the sun being so small, it is concluded that it can still go on contracting, and hence that it is probably getting hotter instead of cooler, as is popularly supposed. If this be so, it is a hopeful feature for future workers in the field of solar energy. The diameter of the sun is 863,600 miles, or about one hundred times the diameter of the earth, and an earthly pound weight at its surface would weigh 274 pounds. The glowing surface which the sun presents to us, even considering him as a flat disk, has the enor- mous area of 585,750,000,000 square miles, each square foot of which emits the enormous amount of about 12,500 horsepower, and the radiant energy received at the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere is equivalent to 7,300 horsepower per acre. Of this about 70 per cent (say, 5,000 horsepower per acre) is transmitted to the land sur- face of the earth at noon on a clear day, and Jess in the morning and evening, owing to the greater thickness of atmosphere through which the radiation has to pass. The quantity of solar heat per unit area which arrives in unit time at the outer surface of our atmosphere is called the solar constant, and its value, as determined in 1913 by C. G. Abbot, of the Smith- sonian Institution, after making 696 experiments in different parts of the globe, is 1.93 calories per square centimeter per minute (equal to 7.12 B. t. u. per square foct per minute). Its value given by various experimenters between 1881 and 1909 was considerably higher, and this makes it all the more remarkable that John Ericsson, the engineer and inventor, who spent some £20,000 on experiments with solar energy, when writing in 1876 a record of his life’s work, gave the value of the solar constant as 7.11 B. t. u. per square foot per minute and said, “In view of the completeness of the means adopted in measuring the energy developed and the ample time which has been devoted to the determination of the maximum intensity, it is not probable that future labors will change the result of our determina- tion,” and, as\shown above, his confidence was justified. Perhaps the most remarkable things about solar radiation are that it passes through the 93,000,000 miles (1,000,000 is 2,740 a day for a year) of space between the sun and the earth, the temperature of | which is nearly absolute zero (1. e., it is about —263° C.), and that only three-fifths of it produces any impression on the eye. It is not till the radiant energy impinges on some material body that it is con- verted into heat. The best body for causing such conversion is a dead- black one. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 143 The absorption of solar energy by the atmosphere is about 20 per cent greater in summer than in winter. This may be due to there being a larger total quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere in summer than in winter. It has long been known that the greater the humidity of the atmosphere the greater the amount of heat stopped SUN POWER PLANT AT MEAO/, ECYPT, 19173 Curves showing etfect of humidity on steam [voduchion g The numbers are those & the Fials © Trial mith vorered boilers wet » = 6 ahem produced PS UT Oy (8 WILE ABSOr Der 7 Wis, 3° — Ye : Soe heal (Rae O5S-1 Spe Tes 19-2 b&b g | pL © Pest! os Tow-n0 Tih Rew 338 o3if PB 7B eee § - 90 VALUE FIGURE FOR THE STEAM. NOTE: The value figure X 1025 gives the heat aatieo in UR o the total meight ¥: Ps ee ‘ss HUMIDITY PER CENT Fig. 1. by it; but the author believes that his experiments in Egypt in 1913, with the Shuman-Boys sun-power plant, were the first which de- termined the quantitative effect of humidity, especially on so large a scale. The curves on figure 1 record the results, from which it is seen that when the humidity decreased 20 per cent the quantity of 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. steam increased about 30 per cent, thus showing the great importance of humidity in.connection with this subject. The great possibilities of this field of work, and the obvious fact that there is a limit to our supplies of coal and oil, have naturally attracted many workers, of whom the following is a chronological list. Some of them, however, have not been engaged in the practical utilization of solar energy, but in determining the solar constant and atmospheric absorption which tell us the theoretical quantity of heat available for power purposes. Name. miele 4 ey ft first solar work. Solomon! de Cauxi(Hrance)= = 2) 3-2 === ice sae ee ee eS Fo) ee 1576 * 1626 1615 eB de Saussure (Swedeneec.e ot re so ee ae ee ee Oe eee Soe 1740 1799 1766 Sin Jonneererschel (Mingland) 53022522625. 2steeee a5 fos eccaee < Be Le 1792 1871 1836 CoS Me Pouiller CEraAncs) J3s1.5 2 se eee eee kee eee: ee 1791 1868 1838 Cob /ATih ans: (Germany) csc os aia ne Ree eee oe (2) (2) 1853 CaniGuntners CATSirIg) | Sa anc tees e oe chet ere eee Ge eee re See eee (?) (?) 1854 PAuSist Monechot CErance) cS ceo once eee ene eee oe ee ae ene (2) (?) 1860 John Ericesson:(United States:of America) =. . - <2 25-hides. 242 ee ce as 1803 1889 1864 C. H. Pope (United States of America)........-..- ne san gs es Nr (?) (?) 1875 WitiieInoAtisIms ( Hmeland 9a ccck cee cs au male eens ee: s See tee (?) (?) 1876 PALME AITO CHUATCO) so5 26 oro. Aes ISSO ete coe eee See vote ceaneya meas (?) (?) 1878 Sow. Laneley (United States of, A merica)i22 os: 223 282.8 ee Sse bsee 1834 1906 1881 Meerrandime: ((Himpland)) 5 3 eee on ee ee eee ee ee ee cee (?) (Goes 1883 Ohaswouis Apel Lellier (france): ssc ot one ee ete ee aE erred (?) 1913 c. 1884 A. G. Eneas (United States of America).....-..-.-.-- L saa 9 Sees 3 Sear Ge) Tolecesseeses 1900 EP REE WiIISIOSs . 5: acco cals obec es UReae Poet eee ae eee ee ene oe GCOSIES ESE 1902 CiG. Abbot (United States of America): = <5. 5..252-3--.-- 25-4 S-sesbeemee TST 5 aie heer sohebe 1905 Frank Shuman (United States of America) .......-...-..--.---------.---- LSC Dill] hndretiercrarc 1906 SHC YN (TANGO) As. .ce eee ee acct: eee - ean eee te Ree eens i RUG p OR Paget, we eee 1906 Gevillochath (hrance)t 524. sess sees ees ee eee os We tae ee 35k. Tey CI Gre) ll bk oes 1906 Now, although the theoretical power value of the heat reaching the surface of the earth is no less than 5,000 horsepower per acre, it must not be thought that anything like this amount can be converted into mechanical power any more than can all the heat of coal be converted into its theoretical equivalent of mechanical power. For example, the heat value of good coal is about 14,500 B. t. u. per pound, equal to 12,760 horsepower hours per ton, but in fact the best result, even under test conditions, ever obtained from a ton of coal by means of a boiler and steam engine is only about 1,470 brake horsepower hours, or 11.5 per cent of the heat value, while in the case of a gas engine the corresponding figure is 25.5 per cent, and of a Diesel oil engine 31 per cent. The chief loss is in converting the steam into mechanical energy, and most of the loss is inevitable for thermodynamic reasons. With this fact in mind, you will not be so surprised to learn that the best overall thermal efficiency obtained from the Shuman-Boys plant in Egypt was only 4.32 per cent, the chief reasons for this being so much less than 11.5 per cent being that the steam pressure was so low, and UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 145 that the best efficiency of the sun-heat absorber was only 40.1 per cent, compared with 75 per cent for the best coal-fired boiler. But it has taken boilermakers many years to attain this efficiency, so that 40.1 per cent is not a bad result when the number of sun boilers that have been made is taken into account. Thermal efficiencies of engines are materially affected by the heat fall of the steam, just as the efficiencies of water turbines are affected by the height of the waterfall. The larger the fall in either case the better the efliciency. It is interesting to realize from the foregoing figures that the value of 24 acres of bright sunshine for an hour is 1 ton of coal. This fact is more readily realized in Egypt in the summer. With this we may compare what Mr. J. C. Hawkshaw said in his presidential address to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1902, viz, that the wood fuel produced by an acre of land in Europe is equivalent to at least 1 ton of coal a year. With so much heat generated at the surface of the earth it might be thought that the temperature of the earth would rise. So it would do were it not for the fact that the earth radiates into space as much heat as it receives, though some of it may be stored on earth for a time in the form of vegetable growth (including coal) or water raised to high levels. Coal has been called “ bottled sunshine,” but the cork of the bottle must be a leaky one, for Abbot says (The Sun, p. 360): “It appears from such investigations as have been made that plants may store up as chemical energy in round numbers 1 or 2 per cent of the energy of solar radiation which shines upon their leaves.” With regard to the earth’s own heat, it has been estimated that the continuous supply coming from the interior to the surface is equivalent to 1,280 horse- “ power per square mile, or only 2 horsepower per acre. Having now considered the nature of the source and the quantity of heat available, we will give a brief description of the plants which have been constructed by various experimenters for the purpose of utilizing solar heat. They are given in chronological order as regards their solar work so far as the author has been able to discover the facts. At one stage the author thought he had discovered the earliest worker at the subject when he came across a record of Sir John Her- schel’s experiments in 1836, but further research disclosed that Buf- fon, the celebrated French naturalist, was at work in 1747, and on April 10 of that year he succeeded in setting fire to a plank of tarred wood, at a distance of 150 feet, by solar rays reflected from a combina- tion of flat mirrors. He did this to show the possibility of the legend that Archimedes set fire to-the fleet of Marcellus at Syracuse in 212 B. C. 18618°—sm 1915——10 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Other early workers were Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk, who died in 1294; Solomon de Caux (1576-1626), a French engineer, who, in 1615, invented and described the first machine for raising water by solar heat and the expansion of air; Ducarla; and H. B. de Saussure, the Swiss geologist, physicist, and naturalist, who made (in 1787) the second ascent of Mont Blanc. To de Saussure the credit is due for inventing the “ hot box” (1. e., an insulated air-tight wooden box, black inside, and covered with two layers of plain glass with an air space between them), which has since been such a favorite with other workers. It was he, too, who found that a cover of two sheets of glass gave the best results. Next in the field was Sir John Herschel, F. R. S., who in 1837 took the temperature of the surface soil near Cape Town, and for dry earth recorded temperatures varying from 120° F. to 162° F., the latter having been obtained on December 1, 1837, at 0.36 p. m., in a sand heap sheltered from the wind in a sail garden inclosure, the soil being moist 3 inches or 4 inches below EBS surface. He also experimented with a “small mahogany box, blackened inside, covered with windowglass fitted to size, but without putty, and simply exposed perpendicularly to the sun’s rays.” In this box he recorded a temperature of 152° F., but “ when sand was heaped around the box to cut off the contact of cold air, the temperature rose on December 3, 1837, to 177° F. And when the same box, with its inclosed thermometer, was established under an external frame of wood well sanded up at the sides, and protected by a sheet of win- dowglass (in addition to that of the box within), the temperatures attained on December 3, 1837, were— Time (p.m.). ba ios 2 WSOms ety bacer: 207 ASCE Sete Coes eae 217.5 PAA = me yc 218 and that with a steady breeze sweeping over the spot of exposure. Again, on December 5, under a similar form of exposure, tempera- tures were observed: Time (p.m.). pee 3 OF O19 bBo akk eet Boe 224 OP20). 52 2 ee eae 230 BS Spelt 239 RSG. AOA eee 248 DEST Mead: Wie FES 240.5 As those temperatures far surpass that of boiling water, some amusing experi- ments were made by exposing eggs, fruit, meat, and in the same manner (Dec. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 147% 21, 1887, et seq.), all of which, after a moderate length of exposure, were found perfectly cooked, the eggs being rendered hard and powdery to the center; and on one eccasion a very respectable stew of meat and vegetables was prepared, and eaten with no small relish by the entertained bystanders. Sir John then described his method of determining the solar con- stant by means of a tinned iron vessel 33 inches diameter, and 2.4 inches high filled with inked water, upon which he allowed the nearly vertical rays of the sun to play through a 3.024-inch-diameter hole for 10 minutes and noted the rise in temperature, of course allowing for cooling losses. The mean of six experiments, made between De- cember 23, 1836, and January 9, 1837, inclusive, gave a rise of 0.38° F. per minute, the quantity of water being 4,638 grains. Allowing for the obliquity of the sun’s rays, the mean area of the normal cross-sec- tion of the beam of sunlight was 7.01 square inches. From these par- ticulars we are able to calculate that Herschel’s value of the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface was 1.38 calories per square- centimeter-minute, while if we assume the coefficient of atmospheric transmission to have been 0.70, his value of the solar constant was 1.98, agreeing well with 1.93, the value now accepted as correct. From these experiments he deduced that a cylindrical rod of ice, 45.3 miles in diameter, and of indefinite length, continually darted into the sun with the velocity of light (186,000 miles per second), would barely suffice to employ the whole radiant heat for its fusion, without at all reducing the temperature of the sun. For comparison with Herschel’s sand temperatures recorded above, the author gives the following similar readings, which he obtained at Meadi, Egypt: alae Reading Pe yaad mometer| ofther- |" with | Shade | Humid- Date. Time. pager noes blacked | tempera-| ity per my OFS , Terre | ring RU EV lH, | Suan | Ringe Foe sand. ants. 1913. eee ei 25 Ses ae ae DuubyplAs. oo. 42: A230 Deh oe bere INK Gace ese 93 37 Fair breeze. Lian ERE ALSO Dey Tso |hysyeeee U2 ee oes segeice: 90 OYE Ree SOS recone tS ease eee aa are rte | ee ee ee 120) | ee here = 92% 45 Waariia: PESO omens eee ea SO ilen sere aoe 924 4.2039 Is. | oo. 055-5 177534 ee Se 97 34 Slight wind. TOS, 2G. 383 APTOS E75] F AEE IZGAEE Gases 94 33 | Slight breeze. DAN ese =het 11.45 a. m. 107 AD | Saeck -Eese 894 40 2.7 | N. BON a tte tami. *4 122 132 144 893 12 noon... 127 138 145 914 33 2.9 [Sipe ince 3) 127 125 128 94 Nw. 4 pymMe 120 115 123 94 | 39 2.7 Losier 105 103 105 91 anna es ee 11.10 a. m. TLS Peee creer 3 143 99 12 noon... LPN ee ae 144 102 33 1.9|NE. 2.45 p.m. GLa peepee GES eure 4.22 p.m... nS) A Lee peepee 125s \essee sn 2c 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Almost contemporaneous with the work of Herschel was that of M. C. 8. M. Pouillet, a record of which, on the determination of the solar constant, appears in Comptes Rendus, Vol 7, 1838, pages 24-65. His value of the solar constant was 1.763 calories per square-centi- meter-minute. Carl Gintner was at work experimenting with reflectors in Lai- bach in 1854, and in 1873 he exhibited one at the Vienna Exposition. Giintner wrote in the Scientific American Supplement of May 26, 1906, pages 25, 409-412: This reflector possessed, however, the disadvantages common to all sheet-metal reflectors—that to maintain the surface in proper condition when exposed to all sorts of weather requires careful and costly attention. Being convinced, however, that the exploitation of solar heat will come more and more into vogue, even in spite of the disadvantageous periodicity of this source of warmth, I have taken the trouble to put aside the evil mentioned above and overcome it by an entirely new method of reflector construction. * * #* This plane reflector consists of a large number of long, narrow mirrors placed at suitable distances from one-another, and which, when upon level ground, lie parallel with each other horizontally, extending either from north and south or from east to west. Each one of these mirrors revolves about a horizontal axis, and by means of a simple parallelogram motion may be made to follow the sun in such a manner that all the sun’s rays falling upon the plane mirrors may be reflected on the surface of u tube or boiler, the long axis of which lies also in the plane of the mirror axis * * *, By a simple movement of a hand lever, all the mirrors nay be simultaneously turned through an are of 180°, which means that all the mirrors may thus be made to look toward the ground and be in this way pro- tected from the destructive action of sudden falls of hail. He claimed that the reflector could be made at a cost of 8s. 6d. per square yard of reflecting surface, and that it required “ but 200 square feet of surface to generate steam sufficient for 1 horsepower.” He proposed to construct the reflectors of thin corrugated steel plates, faced with lead and then coated with tin. Hence it is necessary to discover the value of e (the amount of useful heat dispensed per unit of surface per minute) which affords the unit of heat that can be made available for effective service from a square foot of catching sur- face per minute. Being deprived of the experience of any former experimenter in this direction, I myself made appropriate trials with reflectors * * *. The two opposite sides, each 3 feet long, of a wood right-angular frame, having a width of 1 foot and a length of 3 feet, were hollowed out to correspond with a previously de- signed parabolic template, and upon the parabolic curve thus established two sheets of white tin were nailed. Four supports, which were fastened to the sides of the frame, carried a 34-inch tube erected in such a manner that its axis coincided with the burning axis of the reflector * * *,. The catching surface presented a superficial area equal to 8 square feet * * *, The boiler was not lagged with glass or anything. a UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 149 He then gives a table of four tests of one hour each, varying from 9a.m.to4 p.m., and goes on to say: From these experiments it has been deduced that the amount of heat given off per square foot per minute is about equal to 1.8 (major) calories (equal to 1.4 minor calories per square-centimeter-minute). For our zone [probably Laibach, Austria], then, the mean value of e may be set down as 1.3. The work of August Mouchot in connection with the utilization of solar energy was certainly of great importance. It is recorded in his book entitled “ La Chaleur solaire et les Applications industrielles,” second edition, 1879; but, as with other workers in this field, he gives extremely meager information as to results of: experiments. Mouchot started his solar work in 1860 and took out his first patent, No. 48,622, on March 4, 1861. In the first edition of his above-named work (p. 231) he stated that theoretically, on an average, $6 square feet of reflecting surface are required for 1 horsepower. ‘Then, to allow for losses, he doubled the area, thus making it 172 square feet. It is to be noted that he referred to reflecting surface and not the area of radiation collected, which would almost certainly be a smaller quantity. On page 195 he described one of his boilers as having a capacity of 34 pints. It consisted of two cylindrical concentric copper vessels with domed tops and the water space between them. The vertical height of the outer vessel was 16 inches. The boiler was covered by a bell glass and placed at the focus of a reflector. The water boiled in one hour from an initial temperature of 50° F. In August, 1866, Emperor Napoleon IIT of France saw Mouchot’s first solar engine at work in Paris, and in 1872 Mouchot (with the monetary assistance of the French Government) constructed another sun boiler. This was described by M. L. Simonin in the Revue Des Deux Mondes of May 1, 1876, as follows: The traveler who visits the library of Tours sees in the courtyard in front a strange-looking apparatus. Imagine an immense truncated cone, a mammoth lamp shade, with its concavity directed skyward. This apparatus is of copper, coated on the inside with very thin silver leaf. On the small base of the trun- cated cone rests a copper cylinder, blackened on the outside, its vertical axis being identical with that of the cone. This cylinder, surrounded as it were by a great collar, terminates above in a hemispherical cap, so that it looks like an enormous thimble, and is covered with a bell glass of the same shape. This curious apparatus is nothing else but a solar receiver—or, in other words, a boiler—in which water is made to boil by the heat rays of the sun. This steam generator is designed to raise water to the boiling point and beyond by means of the solar rays, which are thrown upon the eylinder by the silvered inner surface of the conical reflector. The boiler receives water up to two- thirds of its capacity through a feed pipe. A glass tube and a steam gauge communicating with the inside of the generator, and attached to the outside of the reflector, indicate both the level of the water and the pressure of the steam. Finally, there is a safety valve to let off the steam when the pressure is greater 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. than desired. Thus, the engine offers all desirable safety and may be provided with all the accessories of a steam boiler. The reflector, which is the main portion of the generator, has a diameter of 2.60 meters at its large and 1 meter at its small base, and is 80 centimeters in height, giving 4 square meters of reflecting surface or of insolation. The in- terior walls are lined with burnished silver, because that metal is the best reflector of the heat rays; still, brass with a light coating of silver would also serve the purpose. The inclination of the walls of the apparatus to its axis measures 45°. Even the ancients were aware that this is the best form for this kind of metallic mirrors with linear focus, inasmuch as the incident rays par- allel to the axis are reflected perpendicularly to the same and thus give a focus of maximum intensity. The boiler is of copper, which of all the common metals is the best conductor of heat; it is blackened on the outside, because black possesses the property of absorbing all the heat rays, just as white reflects them; and it is inclosed in a glass envelope, glass being the most diathermanous of all bodies; that is to say, the most permeable by the rays of luminous heat. Glass further possesses the property of resisting the exit of these same rays after they have been trans- formed into dark rays on the blackened surface of the boiler. The boiler proper of the Tours solar engine consists of two concentric bells of copper, the larger one, which alone is visible, having the same height as the mirror, i. e., 80 centimeters, and the smaller or inner one 50 centimeters. Their respective diameters are 28 and 22 centimeters. The thickness of the metal is only 8 millimeters. The feed water lies between the two envelopes, forming an annular envelope 3 centimeters in thickness. Thus the volume of liquid is 20 liters, and the steam chamber has a capacity of 10 liters. The inner envelope is empty. Into it pass the steam pipe and the feed pipe of the boiler. To the steam pipe are attached the gauge and the safety valve. The bell glass covering the boiler is 85 centimeters high, 40 centimeters in diameter, and 5 millimeters in thickness. There is everywhere a space of 5 centimeters between its walls and those of the boiler, and this space is filled with a layer of very hot air. Mechanism was provided whereby the reflector was adjusted by hand to follow the movement of the sun. On May 8, 1875, a fine day, 20 liters of water, at 20° C., introduced into the boiler at 8.80 a.m., produced steam in 40 minutes at 2 atmospheres (30 pounds) of pressure to the square inch, i. e., a temperature of 121°, or 21° above boiling water. The steam was then raised rapidly to a pressure of 5 atmospheres (75 pounds to the square inch), and if this limit was not exceeded it was because the sides of the boiler were only 3 millimeters thick, and the total effort sup- ported by these sides was then 40,000 kilograms. It would have been dangerous to have proceeded further, as the whole apparatus might have been blown to pieces. Toward the middle of the same day, with 15 liters of water in the boiler, the steam at 100°—that is to say, at a pressure of 1 atmosphere—rose in less than a quarter of an hour to a pressure of 5 atmospheres, equal to a temperature of 158°. Finally, on July 22, toward 1 p. m., an exceptionally hot day, the appa- ratus vaporized 5 liters of water per hour, which is equal to a consumption of 140 liters of steam per minute, and one-half horsepower. Tor these experiments the inventor used an engine which made 80 strokes per minute under a con- tinued pressure of 1 atmosphere. Later on it was changed for a rotative engine—that is to say, an engine with a revolving cylinder—which worked admirably, putting in motion a pump to raise water, until the pump, which was too weak, was broken. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. V5] In 1878 Mouchot used a boiler made of many tubes placed side by side (pl. 1) and having a capacity of 100 liters (70 for water and 30 for steam). Mouchot seems to have been the only inventor of a solar plant, with the exception of Shuman, who has had his apparatus tested by inde- pendent engineers. The following refers to Mouchot’s plant. In Comptes Rendus, Vol. 94, 1882, pages 9438-945, M. A. Crova reports that— The minister of public works appointed two commissions, one at Constantine and the other at Montpellier, to make experiments with two identical mirrors of 5.22 square meters in section normal to the sun’s rays and to evaluate their practical utility. The commission of Montpellier was composed of MM. Duponchel, engineer in chief of Ponts et Chaussées, as president; Col. Fulcrand, R. E.; Guibal, and myself. The experiments (at Montpellier) lasted from January 1 to December 31, 1881, and were made from hour to hour every day during which the sun was bright and the observations possible. The solar rays concentrated at the focal line of the mirror were received on a black boiler placed at the axis and which was inclosed by a glass shade. The number of major calories utilized, divided by those incident, received in one hour upon 1 square meter of surface normal to the rays, gives the efficiency of the apparatus. Here are the principal results obtained during 176 days which gave 930 ob- servations, during which 2,725 liters of water were distilled. Moyenne générale des valeurs mesurées pendant Vannée 1881 et rapportées a 177, et & 1, Ay a Maximum Calories. ealoniess Date. Whaleurirecue'directement.2<1.93=1.31 calories per square-centimeter-minute are available at the earth’s surface. Hence the efficiency of Ericsson’s boiler was 295><100=72.5 per cent, which is remarkably high. In 1872 Ericsson built his hot-air solar engine, which had a reflector the shape of which was approximately a portion of a sphere and which concentrated the solar radiation onto one end of the cylinder. The power of both these engines was evidently very small. On July 9, 1875, Ericsson wrote that he had up to that time constructed and started seven sun motors. j Ericsson wrote in Nature of January 3, 1884, an illustrated article describing another of his sun motors which he erected in New York in 1883, in spite of his opinion as to the cost of solar steam (previ- ously quoted) expressed in 1878 (pl. 1). His description was as fol- lows: The leading feature of the sun motor is that of concentrating the radiant heat by means of a rectangular trough having a curved bottom lined on the inside with polished plates so arranged that they reflect the sun’s rays toward a cylindrical heater placed longitudinally above the trough. This heater, it is ‘searcely necessary to state, contains the acting medium, steam or air, employed to transfer the solar energy to the motor, the transfer being effected by means of cylinders provided with pistons and valves resembling those of motive engines of the ordinary type. Practical engineers, as well as scientists, have demon- strated that solar energy can not be rendered available for producing motive power, in consequence of the feebleness of solar radiation. The great cost of large reflectors and the difficulty of producing accurate curvature on a large seale, besides the great amount of labor called for in preventing the polished surface from becoming tarnished, are objections which have been supposed to render direct solar energy practically useless for producing mechanical power. The device under consideration overcomes the stated objections by very simple means, as will be seen by the following description: The bottom of the rectangular trough consists of straight wooden staves, supported by iron ribs of parabolic curvature secured to the sides of the trough. On these staves the reflecting plates, consisting of flat window glass silvered on the under side, are fastened. Jt will be readily understood that the methed thus adopted for concentrating the radiant heat does not call for a structure of great accuracy, provided the wooden staves are secured to the iron ribs in such a position that the silvered plates attached to the same reflect the solar rays toward the heater. Referring to the illustration, it will be seen that the trough, 11 feet long and 16 feet broad, including a parallel opening in the bottom, 12 inches wide, is sustained by a light truss attached to each end, the heater being supported by vertical plates secured to the truss. The heater is 6} inches in diameter, 11 feet long, exposing 1309.8=1.274 superficial inches to the action of the reflected solar rays. The reflecting plates, each 3 inches wide and 26 inches long, inter- cept a sunbeam of 130X180=238,400 square inches section. The trough is sup- ported by a central pivot, round which it revolves. The change of inclination 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. is effected by means of a horizontal axle, concealed by the trough, the entire mass being so accurately balanced that a pull of 5 pounds applied at the extrem- ity enables a person to change the inclination or cause the whole to revolve. A single revolution of the motive engine develops more power than needed to turn the trough, and regulates its inclination so as to face the sun during a day’s operation. The motor shown by the illustration is a steam engine, the working cylinder being 6 inches in diameter, with 8-inch stroke. The piston rod, passing through the bottom of the cylinder, operates a force pump of 5 inches diameter. By means of an ordinary crosshead secured to the piston rod below the steam eylinder, and by ordinary connecting rods motion is imparted to a crank shaft and fly wheel, applied at the top of the engine frame, the object of this arrange- ment being that of showing the capability of the engine to work either pumps or mills. It should be noticed that the flexible steam pipe employed to convey the steam to the engine, as well as to the steam chamber attached to the upper end of the heater, have been excluded in the illustration. The average speed of the engine during the trials last summer was 120 turns per minute, the absolute pressure on the working piston being 35 pounds per square inch. The steam was worked expansively in the ratio of 1 to 3, with a nearly perfect vacuum kept up in the condenser inclosed in the pedestal which supports the engine frame. - In view of the foregoing, experts need not be told that the sun motor can be carried out on a sufficient scale to benefit very materially the sun-burnt regions — of our planet. From the particulars given it is easily calculated that the “ con- centration ” of this absorber was 9. The Rev. C. H. Pope has produced a useful little book entitled ° “Solar Heat,” the second edition of which was published in 1906. In it he tells us he started his experiments (which do not appear to have included the conversion of solar radiation into mechanical energy) in 1875. He used a modification of Mouchot’s truncated cone reflector formed of many plane mirrors, the plan adopted about the same time by Adams. Pope has fallen into the same error re the connection between temperature and concentration of radiation as did Adams, for he says (p. 17): That the degree and amount of heat at the focus will be proportionate to the area of the opening of the lens or mirror, and that thus the only limit to the temperature which may be reached is the size to which such lenses and mirrors may be constructed and revolved. And (p. 93): These rays may, therefore, be gathered together and made to unite, as if they became one denser, stronger, hotter ray, so that the temperature of the con- densed rays will be raised in proportion to the number of rays blended, and we can thus cause the heat to increase to any degree our apparatus can be enlarged. W. Adams, deputy registrar, High Court, Bombay, seems to be the sole Englishman who has worked on the practical side of the prob- lem of the utilization of solar energy. His work was done in India, and is recorded: in his interesting book, Solar Heat (Bombay, Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 1. TE TAR REMAITIOX ok: NAOT SH BES BPAISS MoucHoT’s MULTIPLE TUBE SUN-HEAT ABSORBER OF 1878. ASHRAM AURA ERICSSON’S SUN-POWER PLANT OF 1883. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 2. = PIFRE’S SUN-POWER PLANT OF 1878 DRIVING A PRINTING PRESS. ‘UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 155 1878). He started on the work in 1876, and his experiments led him to conclude, as did Buffon, that silvered-glass mirrors were superior to polished-metal ones. This is no doubt true for ordinary use, though for laboratory experiments the polished-metal ones give better results, as there is then no absorption by the glass (pl. 2). In two particulars Adams was much at fault—(1) in believing that the solar rays which reach the earth are not practically parallel, and this in spite of the opposite opinions of the many physicists whom he quotes, and (2) in believing that the temperature attained at the focus of a lens or mirror is directly proportional to the con- centration of the rays. As a consequence, he stated that if a lens 85 feet 4 inches in diameter concentrated the radiation onto a circle one- half inch in diameter the temperature would be 73,400,320° F. This is equal to 40,780,000° C., while the temperature of the sun itself is only 6,000° C., and no amount of such concentration could produce a temperature in excess of this. This error on the part of Adams and Pope seems to be due to a confusion of “temperature” with “ quan- tity of heat.” His experiments were all made with plane or flat glass mirrors, the use of which he strongly advocated in preference to curved metal ones, which Mouchot used. Sometimes he used groups of 18 mirrors, each 17 by 104 inches, and sometimes of 32, each 9 by 6 inches. The latter he arranged in a concave wooden frame in 4 tiers of 8 in each tier. Such a group of 32 formed 1 unit, of which he had 16, all focused onto one boiler. When placed together the 16 units formed a portion of the surface of a hollow sphere 40 feet in diameter. One of his boilers was of copper one-sixteenth inch thick, 16 inches diam- eter, 2 feet 7 inches high, and held 9 gallons of water, which boiled in 30 minutes and evaporated 3? gallons in an hour. His next boiler was also of copper one-fourth inch thick, and of the same design and external dimensions as Mouchot’s, but with a water space between the inner and outer shells of 3 inches instead of 3 centimeters, and containing 12 gallons of water as compared with Mouchot’s 44 gallons. The 12 gallons of water were boiled and the pressure raised to 10 pounds to the square inch in the half hour from 7.30 a. m. to 8 a. m., and by 8.30 a. m. the pressure was 70 pounds to the square inch, when the safety valve opened, whereupon he goes on to say: A gentleman present kept the valve down by placing his foot on it, till the steam, escaping from several leaks in the joints of the fittings made the position untenable. The weight on the safety valve was then supplemented by a brick suspended from the lever by a piece of string, when suddenly the packing and red lead at the top of the dome under the socket of the steam pipe (which had been fixed by my butler, who professed to have formerly been a fitter) gave way, and, with a terrific noise, the whole volume of steam rushed out of the 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. opening. . On turning off the solar rays and examining the boiler it was found to be dry. All the water had either been evaporated or blown out. When this boiler had been properly fitted up by professional fitters, a steam pump was hired, said to be of 23 horsepower, and it was connected with the steam pipe. At 7.30 a. m. fire was opened on the boiler from the whole battery of 16 mirrors at a range of 20 feet, the boiler containing 12 gallons. At 7.45, i.e. a quarter of an hour there was a pressure of about 2 pounds and at 8.50 a, m. 55 pounds. The steam was then turned into the cylinder of the pump, and the pump was kept working at a uniform pressure of about 30 pounds to the square inch. This pump, the first steam engine ever worked in India by solar heat, was kept going daily for a fortnight in the compound of my bungalow at Middle Colaba, in Bombay, and the publie was invited, by a notification in the daily papers, to witness the experiments. Adams also made a solar cooker, the reflector of which was formed of eight sheets of plane glass arranged so as to form a hollow truncated octagonal pyramid 2 feet 4 inches in diameter at the larger end. The food was placed in a cylindrical copper vessel, at the axis, covered with an octagonal glass shade. With this he and others cooked many meals, both stews and roasts, and he records that both he and Mouchot found (p. 98) that animal fat— When exposed to the direct or reflected rays of the sun was converted into ~ butyric acid, a substance having such an offensive odor and taste as to render the roast unpalatable. Mouchot then discovered that a sheet of red, pink, or yellow transparent glass interposed between the roast and the reflector had the effect of preventing this fermentation, as those colors have the curious property of absorbing, neutralizing, or eliminating the rays by which it is caused. Adams also states (p. 36) When the sacred fire that burned in the Temple of Vestal became extinct, the ancient Romans used to rekindle it by placing a piece of dry wood in the linear focus of the conical reflector * * * To bring fire from heaven, by supernatural aid and a metal reflector was, no doubt, one of the most ancient miracles of priestecraft.” He suggested many uses for solar heat, among others (p. 96), “ for the cremation of deceased Hindus and others.” Taking into account the facts that he did not expend much money on his experiments, and that he did the whole of his solar work in 18 months, it will be admitted his was a most creditable piece of work, especially as he was neither an engineer nor a physicist. To make this amply clear, he says: I have neither the capital, the time, nor the practical knowledge required to conduct any business in which steam machinery is used. I know now that the “ oovernors’”’ of a steam engine are the two iron globes which revolve about it, and not, as I had supposed, the two men who lubricate the machine and feed the boiler with coals. This is nearly the extent of my knowledge of steam machinery. 1 Vesta, the Goddess of the Hearth. ee UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. Tad In concluding this brief account of Adams’s work you will be pleased to learn that he was awarded the gold medal of the Sassoon Institute of Bombay for his essay on The Utilization of Solar Heat, which he submitted in March, 1878. In Comptes Rendus, Volume 91, 1880, pages 388-389, M. Abel Pifre claims an efliciency of 80 per-cent for his apparatus when he says he obtained a rate of absorption of 1.21 calories per square-centimeter- minute. If such a rate were obtained we now know it would mean an efficiency of 89.7 per cent, which is improbable. Pifre used a para- bolic reflector (instead of a truncated cone), and reduced the surface of the boiler, thus increasing the concentration. The capacity of his boiler was 11 gallons, and he collected 100 square feet of solar radia- tion so the diameter of his reflector was about 11 feet 4 inches. He used a rotary pump, and raised 99 liters of water 3 meters in 14 minutes, which is equivalent to 0.065 horsepower. He ran a printing press with his sun-power plant, and claimed that if he had collected 216 square feet of radiation he could have produced 1 horsepower, which is quite likely (pl. 2). Next in order we have Langley’s work, which consisted of many ex- periments to determine the value of the solar constant, the value of which he gave as 3 calories per ae -centimeter-minute. Langley experimented with de Saussure’s “ hot box,” and was the leader of the expedition to Mount Whitney, where some of his best work wasdone. He gave a preliminary account of this trip in Nature of August 3, 1882, pages 314-317, and a full record of it under the title “ Researches on solar heat” in the United States of America War Department, Papers of the Signal Service, 15, 1884. He also referred to it in the New Astronomy (1900). In Nature (p. 315), he said: As we still slowly ascended and the surface temperature of the soil fell to the freezing point, the solar radiation became intenser, and many of the party pre- sented an appearance as of severe burns from an actual fire, while near the sum- mit the temperature in a copper vessel, over which were laid two sheets of plain window glass, rose above the boiling point, and it was certain that we could boil water by the direct solar rays in such a vessel among snow fields. In Volume 73 of the Proceedings, Inst. C. E., 1883, page 284, is described a plant designed by J. Harding, M. Inst. C. E., for dis- tilling water by solar radiation. This plant was erected at Salinas, Chile, 4,300 feet above sea level, and had 51,200 square feet of glass arranged in sections 4 feet wide, and in the form of a very flat A, forming the roof of a shallow water trough. The sun evaporated the water, and the resulting vapor con- densed on the glass, for the temperature in the box was far higher than that of the atmosphere, and hence of the glass. The pure water trickled down the sloping glass and dripped from its lower edge into 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. a small channel on the top of each side of the box. These channels delivered into larger ones, and thus the distilled water was collected. The plant yielded 5,000 gallons of pure water per day in summer, 1. e., 1 pound of water per square foot of glass. Allowing for interest on capital, cost of repairs, etc., the cost of the pure water is said to have been less than one-half penny per gallon. ‘The chief item of expense was the breakage of glass by whirlwinds. Distillation started at 10 a. m. and continued to 10 p. m. The maximum temperature of the water in the troughs was 150° F. The total cost of the plant, includ- ing pumps, windmills, and tanks, was $50,000, or Is. 6d. per square foot of glass. It is not clear when the solar energy problem first engaged the atten- tion of C. L. A. Tellier, a French refrigerating engineer, but in 1889 he published his book, “Elévation des Eaux par la Chaleur Atmos- phérique,” in which he gave many drawings and details, and a very full description of his plant. He may have been the first to use the lamellar boiler, but the United States patent No. 230323, of July 20, 1880, of MM. Molera and Cebrian, shows that they proposed this form of boiler. The dimensions of each section of Tellier’s boiler were 3.5 by 1.12 meters. They were made of thin plates of iron, so riveted together as to give them a quilted formation. They were filled with ammonium hydrate, which, he says, when heated by the sun produced gaseous ammonia at a pressure of “several atmospheres.” ‘The ammonia gas was used in a small vertical engine, and was then liquefied in a condenser and used again. The boilers were fixed in a sloping position so as to “ face the sun,” and two somewhat fanciful illustrations show them used as roofs of verandas. The boilers were insulated on their lower or shade sides to prevent loss of heat, and were placed in shallow boxes with only one layer of glass to form the cover. He experimented with different colored glass, and found, as might be expected, that colorless glass gave the best results. He also gave complete details of his invention as applied to the manu- facture of ice. With so much detail it is disappointing that the au- thor could not find the results of a single experiment with the plant. In fact, he is not sure whether Tellier ever constructed one. In his work La Conquéte Pacifique de VAfrique Occidentale (1890), Tellier discussed social and economical questions, and showed _ how improvements might be made by rendering the deserts of Africa productive by means of his sun-power plants. A. G. Eneas, in the United States, used the popular truncated, cone-shaped reflector, collecting about 700 square feet of solar radia- tion. The weight of the reflector was 8,300 pounds. The boiler was formed of two concentric steel tubes, the two together being incased in two glass tubes with an air space between them and another air space between the inner glass one and the outer steel tube. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 159 The water circulated up between the inner and outer steel tubes and down the inner tube. The boiler was placed at the axis of the cone. Its length was 13 feet 6 inches, its water capacity 834 pounds (13.4 cubic feet), and steam space 8 cubic feet. Hence the diameter of the outer tube appears to have been 1 foot 2 inches and the concen- tration of radiation 13.4; 1. e., 13.4 square feet of sunshine were con- centrated on each square foot of the external surface of the boiler. C. G. Abbot (The Sun, p. 369) states that Eneas gave him the following particulars: February 14, 1901.—Pasadena, Cal., 11.30 a. m—0.80 p. m.; 642 square feet sunshine. Temperature of air, 61° F. Steam pressure, 145-151 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 123 pounds. October 8, 1903.—Mesa, Ariz., “about midday”; 700 square feet sunshine. Temperature of air 74° F. Average steam pressure, 141 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 183 pounds. October 9, 1904.—Willeox, Ariz., 11 a. m.—12 a. m.; 700 square feet sunshine. Steam pressure, 148-156 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 144.5 pounds. The temperature of the feed water is not given, but, assuming it to be the same as the temperature of the air, we can deduce the rate of absorption per square foot of radiation and the thermal efficiency of the absorber. This being done, we obtain the following table: Rate of Mean absorption Weight of | pressure of ner pote gee . steam steam in oot oO efficienc Place and date. Period. produced | pounds per] radiation of the am in pounds. | square inch} collected, | absorber. of absorber. = Lipgtie per hour. Per cent.1 Pasadena, Feb. 14, 1901-...... 11.30 a. m. to 0.30 p. m.. 123 163 223 74.6 Mesa, Oct. 3, 1903.....-. eee) SA bowt midday’: - ae... 133 156 219 73.3 Willeoxs'Oct. 95190822. =... 5: bem ito tamales =- 144.5 167 238 79.6 1 For a maximum transmission of radiation through ths atmosphere of 70 per cent. Eneas refers to his “nine different types of large reflectors,” and found that he obtained better results when he concentrated the re- flected rays “on two parts of the boiler instead of its entire length, -as in the Pasadena machine.” The unexposed portions of the boiler then appear to have been lagged. Eneas said, “I find 3.71 B. t. u. per square foot per minute as the greatest amount of heat obtainable during the trial runs.” This gives a maximum efficiency of 74.5 per cent, which agrees with the result given for his Pasadena plant in the foregoing table. Eneas also stated that “the interposition of a single thin glass plate in a beam of sunlight diminishes the intensity about 15 per cent. This decrease is owing principally to reflection.” On page 466 of 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Preston’s Treatise on Heat, it is stated that “mirror glass 2.6 milli- meters thick transmitted 39 per cent of the radiation that fell on it from a Locatelli lamp, while rock salt transmitted 92 per cent.” The diathermancy of each substance varies with the nature of the source of heat, so the result just given is not comparable with that given by Eneas. Abbot found the following percentages of heat were transmitted through sheets of glass, each from 1.5 to 2 millimeters thick. In one set of experiments the glass was normal to the rays and the other at 45°. Percentage transmis- sion. Number of sheets of glass. | Raysnor- | Rays at mal to 45° to glass. glass. 1 86.5 85 2 74.5 71.8 3 63.5. 60 4 53.3 49 The sun-power plant known as the Pasadena? one was described and illustrated in the August, 1901, issue of Cassier’s Magazine by Prof. R. H. Thurston, LL. D., D. E., and on page 103 of the Railway and Engineering Review of February 23, 1901. It is stated to have been designed by, and erected at the expense of, “a party of Boston inventors whose names have not been made public.” It consisted of a truncated cone reflector, 33 feet 6 inches in diameter at the larger end and 15 feet diameter at the smaller, with a boiler 13 feet 6 inches long, having a capacity of 100 gallons (U.S. A.) plus 8 cubic feet of steam space (pl. 3). The article in the Railway and Engineering Review states: “According to newspaper accounts, the all-day average work per- formed by the engine is 1,400 gallons (U. 8. A.) of water lifted 12 feet per minute, which is at the rate of 4 horsepower.” It is more nearly 44 horsepower; thus, this plant required 150 square feet of radiation per horsepower, and the concentration appears to have- been 13.4. The Pasadena plant is said to have cost £1,000, and Willsie, writing of it in 1909, says it was “the largest and strongest of the mirror type of solar motor ever built.” H. E. Willsie and John Boyle, jr., started their work in America in 1902. The method they adopted was to let the solar radiation pass through glass and heat water, which in turn was used to vaporize 1There appear to have been several plants erected at Pasaderfa by different experi- menters. Probably Eneas designed the plant above described. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 3. THE PASADENA SUN-HEAT ABSORBER OF 1901. "LLOL ‘ANOOVL ‘YaauOSSY NVWNHS AHL 4O SSM SHL WOYS M3lA IVYSN35 ‘py ALVId ‘UUBWeYIY—'G1 6, ‘HOdey ueluosy}iWS UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 161 some volatile fluid such as ammonium hydrate, ether, or sulphur dioxide, the vapor being used to drive an engine. Willsie thinks he was the first to propose this two-fluid method for the utilization of solar energy, and, so far as the author knows, his claim is correct. Their first sun-heat absorber was built at Olney, Tll., and consisted of : A shallow wooden tank tightly covered with a double layer of window glass. The sides and bottom were insulated by inclosed air spaces filled with hay. The tank was lined with tar paper, well pitched, to hold water to the depth of 3 inches. Although the weather was cold and raw, even for October, with occa- sional clouds, the thermometer in the water showed temperatures higher than were needed to operate a sulphur dioxide engine. The next solar heater was built at Hardyville, Ariz. Sand was used for insulation. Three tests for the amount of heat gave these average results in December : peal eee absorbed per Test No. | “square foot per hour. 1 120 2 122 3 148 An estimate showed that 50 per cent of the heat reaching the glass was absorbed into the water. In 1903 some further heater tests were made, patent applications filed, and to earry on experiments on a more extensive scale the Willsie Sun Power Co. was incorporated. In the spring of 1904 a complete sun-power plant was built at St. Louis. In this installation a 6 horsepower engine was operated by ammonia. The heater consisted of a shallow wooden basin coated with asphalt and divided by strips into troughs. It was covered by two layers of window glass and insulated at the sides and bottom by double air spaces. Each trough of the heater formed a compartment. The troughs were inclined so that a thin layer of water flowed from one trough to the next. In this heater was collected and absorbed into the water from the sun’s rays 211,500 heat units per hour at noon, or 3877 heat units per hour per square foot of glass exposed to the sun. As, according to accepted solar observations, about 440* heat units per hour reached a square foot of glass, this heater was showing the surprising efficiency of 85 per cent, and collecting nearly twice as much solar heat per square foot per hour as did the apparatus of Ericsson. Of the lost heat I estimated that 40 heat units were reflected and absorbed by the glass and that 23 heat units were radiated. On cloudy days the water could be heated by burning fuel. A de- scription of this plant appeared in a St. Louis paper and in a New York paper, but, so far as I know, it has not been mentioned in any technical publication. It was then decided to build a sun-power plant on the desert, and some land about a mile from The Needles, Cal., was purchased for a site. tNo; only 299. Note: 0.70X1.93=1.352 calories per square-centimeter-minute=299 B. t. u. per square-foot-hour. 18618°—sm 1915——11 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This Needles plant used sulphur dioxide, and its results decided them to build a larger plant, which Willsie speaks of as their third sun-power plant, and describes as follows: A 20-horsepower slide-valve engine was connected to an open-air water-drip condenser and to a fire-tube boiler 22 inches by 19 feet having fifty-two 1-inch tubes. The solar-heated liquid flowed through the tubes giving up its heat to the sulphur dioxide within the boiler. Boiler pressures of over 200 pounds were easily obtained. The engine operated a centrifugal pump, lifting water from a well 43 feet deep (sic), and also a compressor, in addition to two circulating pumps. Their fourth plant was a rebuilding of the third, and they tried the expedient of covering the heat-absorbing water with a layer of oul, but the results were not so good as when a heat-absorbing liquid (water, or oil, or a solution of chloride of calcium) was rapidly circulated in a thin layer. The sun-heat absorber for this plant was in two sections, one covered with one layer of glass and one with two layers, and both on a slope, the liquid running from the first to the second, and its temperature in the two sections being 150° F. and 180° F., respectively. The liquid at 180° F. was distributed over a “heat exchanger” consisting of horizontal pipes about 3 inches in diameter, arranged in a vertical plane, something like an air con- denser. The pipes contained sulphur dioxide, and the heat-absorbing liquid lost about 100° F. in its descent. The cooled liquid was returned to the two sections of the absorber to be reheated. The heat exchanger was inclosed in a glass-covered shed. Willsie says: The engine used in this experiment was a vertical automatic cut-off, which at times, with a boiler pressure of 215 pounds, probably developed 15 horse- power. The two-heater sections exposed an area of about 1,000 square feet to the sun, but as the heat was taken from storage and not directly from the heater, it is not fair to assume the above proportion of heater surface to horse- power developed. The condenser consisted of 6 stacks of horizontal pipes, 12 pipes to the stack. The cooling water, pumped from a well 48 feet deep, had a temperature of 75° F. Only enough water was allowed to drip over the pipes to keep them wet, and so great was the evaporation in the dry desert breeze that the cooling water left the lower pipes at 64°. By using the cooling water over and over, the condenser gave very satisfactory results. A shade of arrow weed, a straight willowlike shrub abundant along the Colorado River, kept the sunshine from the condenser pipes and permitted a good air circulation. Willsie estimated the cost of his sun-power plant, complete with engine, at £33 12s. per horsepower. With regard to Willsie’s results, it is to be noted that 377 B. t. u. per 377X100 600.70 X7.12 know that a maximum of only about 299 B.t.u. per square foot per hour penetrate the atmosphere. The author agrees with the 50 per cent efficiency given a little earlier by Willsie. hour means an efficiency of =126 per cent, for we now UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 163 Frank Shuman, of America, started on the problem in 1906, and in 1907 he had a plant running which developed about 34 horsepower ; 1,200 square feet of sunshine fell onto a fixed, horizontal water box with a glass top. In the water there were rows of parallel horizontal black pipes containing ether, and exposing 900 square feet of surface to the solar radiation. The water also became heated and conveyed heat to the under sides of the pipes. The ether boiled, and its “steam” drove a small vertical, simple, single-cylinder engine. The exhaust ether vapor passed into an air surface condenser, and the liquid ether from this was pumped back into the tubes of the “ boiler ” already described. This plant, Shuman says, ran well even when snow was lying on the ground. This at first seems very remarkable, but though in the winter the number of solar rays falling on a given horizontal area is smaller than in summer, the permeability of the atmosphere is about 20 per cent greater in winter than in summer, which counteracts the other effect; but of course the loss of heat by conduction from the boiler is greater in winter than in summer. In 1910 Shuman constructed an experimental unit of an absorber measuring 6 by 9 feet. This unit combined the lamellar boiler of Tellier and the “ hot box” of de Saussure, for it consisted of a shallow black box with double glass top, with 1 inch of air space between the two layers of glass, another air space of an inch between the lower glass and the boiler, which was 6 feet long (up the slant), 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 4} inch thick over all. The box was so sloped that at noon the rays of the sun were perpendicular to the glass. The box was not moved to follow the sun, but it was adjusted about every three weeks, so that the condition just named was comphed with. The remarkable thing about the absorber was that there was no concentra- tion of any kind of the sunshine by mirrors, lenses, or other means, and yet the author on one occasion recorded a temperature of 250° F. in the box. The best run of an hour’s duration produced steam at atmospheric pressure at the rate of 7} pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine falling on the box. The author’s tests of a Shuman 100 horsepower low-pressure engine at Erith showed the steam consump- tion to be 22 pounds at atmospheric pressure per brake-horsepower- hour. Hence, with an absorber of the type just described, it would be necessary to collect solar radiation to the extent of 300 square feet per brake horsepower, which is a much larger area than any named by other workers. The maximum thermal efficiency of this absorber was 24.1 per cent. In 1911, with the aid of some English capitalists, Shuman con- structed his third absorber at Tacony (a suburb of Philadelphia), which was almost identical with the one just described, except that it had two plane mirrors, one at the upper edge of the “hot box” and 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. one at the lower, so arranged that 6 square feet of sunshine were con- centrated onto 3 square feet of “ hot box”; i.e., the concentration was 2to 1. Its position was adjusted about every three weeks. This time the total quantity of solar radiation collected was many times as large as the largest collected by any previous worker, for the total area was 10,296 square feet. In the best run of one hour this plant pro- duced 816 pounds of steam at atmospheric pressure. This is at the rate of 9 pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine, and therefore equiva- lent to an allowance of 245 square feet of sunshine per brake horse- power. The maximum thermal efficiency of this absorber was 29.5 per cent (pl. 4). Toward the end of 1911 the Sun Power Co. (Eastern Hemisphere), (Ltd.), requested their consulting engineers (Messrs A. 8S. E. Acker- mann and C. T. Walrond) to select and invite some distinguished physicist to join them in a consultative capacity. Hence Prof. C. V. Boys, F. R. 8., became associated with the work, and he suggested a vital change in the design of the absorber, viz, that the boilers should be placed on edge in a channel-shaped reflector of parabolic cross section, so that solar radiation was received on both their surfaces, instead of one being worse than idle, as it was when the boilers were placed side on to the sun. The design immediately received the hearty approval of the consulting engineers and Shuman, and at the time we all thought the arrangement was novel, but the author has since found and recorded herein that Ericsson used a very similar reflector and boiler. An absorber of this design was constructed and erected at Meadi on the Nile, 7 miles south of Cairo, in 1912, but the boiler was constructed of thin zinc and failed before the official tests could be made. This boiler was replaced by a cast-iron one in 1913, and the author (accom- panied by his old pupil, G. W. Hilditch, A. M. Inst. C. E., as his chief assistant, now Lieut. Hilditch of the Divisional Engineers, Royal Naval Division) spent two most interesting months with the plant in July and August, 1918. He went out in time to tune up the Shuman engine (a 100-horsepower one) taken out from Tacony, and make all the necessary preparations for the trials, of which there were over 35. In addition to the alteration of the shape of the reflectors, another very important change was made. Their axes were placed north and south, and they were automatically heeled over from an eastern aspect in the morning to a western one in the evening, so as to follow the sun. Thus the same number of solar rays were caught all day long, and the small decrease in steam production in the morning and even- ing was almost entirely due to the greater thickness of atmosphere through which the rays had to pass. The total area of sunshine col- lected was 13,269 square feet (pls. 5 and 6). ‘OLBL ‘lQVAIN ‘YSSuOSaYY SAOG-NVWNHS SHL SO HLNOS SHL WOYS M3IA IWYSNa5 “pce tee aaa OD A ALLL LOLA 4. CNA Be ‘"G ALV1d ‘uUuBWaY9Y—'G16| ‘HOdey URiUOSY}IWS "HLYON SHL Wous ‘YaauOsSay SH JO NOILOSS SNO ‘“EL6L "9 ALVId avalN ‘yaauosay SAOG-NVWNHS ‘uURWUaxOW—'G L6| ‘HOdey uBlUOsY}!LUS UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 165 The boilers were placed at the focus of the reflectors and were covered with a single layer of glass inclosing an air space around the boilers. Each channel-shaped reflector and its boiler was 205 feet long, and there were five such sections placed side by side. The con- centration was 44 to 1. The maximum quantity of steam produced was 12 pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine, equivalent to 183 square feet per brake horsepower, and the maximum thermal efficiency was 40.1 per cent. The best hour’s run gave 1,442 pounds of steam at atmospheric pressure, hence, allowing the 22 pounds of steam per brake-horsepower-hour, the maximum output for an hour was 55.5 brake horsepower—a result about 10 times as large as anything pre- viously attained, and equal to 63 brake horsepower per acre of land occupied by the plant. A pleasing result was that the output did not fall off much in the morning and evening. Thus on August 22, 1913, the average power for the five hours’ run was no less than 59.4 brake horsepower per acre, while the maximum and minimum power on that day were 63 and 52.4 brake horsepower per acre, respectively. The work of MM. G. Millochau and Ch. Féry was started in 1906 to determine the solar constant and the temperature of the sun. Their work is recorded in Comptes Rendus for 1906 and 1908, and in the Revue Scientifique of September 7, 1907. They give the absolute temperature of the sun as 6,042° C., and the value of the solar constant as 2.38 calories per square-centimeter-minute. This latter value was the result of experiments they made on the summit of Mont Blane in 1908. The article in the Revue Scientifique of September 7, 1907, is by Millochau, and in it he gives the following list of experimenters and the results of their determination of the solar constant, after reading which some may consider the word “constant” a misnomer: ROUINLE Rg See ae ee ee ea PE ee 1. 793 TOT OYE «SY eae ce eS eS ee ee 2. 82 COLE IG WERE TA IST a a Pe es 0h eo a 1S WUC M DM eases ASH Ca sk Ha lL RA 3 SL ha ea eS 2.28 to 2.37 Daneaicy Gules serCaReETY AMEE, seca, iN 3. 068 SAV EIIC iy al SSO Meee ea Sa ie cy eee Se cre aes 3. 47 RETIN gel SSO memes steer ne ood eh et 3.05 to 3.28 PNTTESINASTL C1 Rats 0 ake Ont a Se a 4 EPA Sic Vaan OU) yee enorme a Oc Bike ee 3. 29 To these we may add: ETerSche le: oS Sane see Ses. 1.98 BETTS CONN a Seen arene a ee oe 1.93 Wea AHO Mer ye LOUts 2.6 nos A eee 2. 38 ADDOU 1013 Sees Meese ee Suis = ees ee 1. 93 In spite of this history of comparative failures, the author is of opinion that the problem of the utilization of solar energy is well worthy of the attention of engineers, for even now it is very nearly 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. a solved problem where there is plenty of sunshine and coal costs £3 10s. a ton. It is fortunate that where coal is dear sunshine is often plentiful, and it is to be remembered that coal will gradually get dearer while the cost of manufacture of sun-power plants should decrease. Sun-power plants are admirably suitable for pumping in connection with irrigation, for where there is most sunshine there is need for most irrigation, and the slight variation in the quantity of water pumped throughout the day does not matter. Also, when temporarily there is no sunshine (due to clouds), probably little or no irrigation is required. In conclusion, the author would refer those who are interested in the subject to his paper (8vo, 86 p., 22 illus.), bearing the same title as this one, presented to the Society of Engineers on April 6, 1914. Therein he dealt fully with the whole of Shuman’s work from 1910-19138, inclusive, and gave details of the results of the 62 trials of the plant made by the author in England, the United States, and Egypt. THE CONSTITUTION OF MATTER AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTS. By Prof. Sir Ernest RUTHERFORD, F. R. S. [With 5 plates. ] Speculations as to the constitution of matter have occupied an important place in the development of scientific knowledge. The idea that all matter was composed of minute particles called atoms was put forward long ago by the Greek philosophers and was ad- vanced again with varying degrees of confidence by philosophic men at the dawn of the scientific age. For example, Newton sug- gested that matter was composed of atoms which were likened to “hard massy balls,’ while Robert Boyle regarded a gas to consist of atoms which were in brisk motion. The first definite formula- tion of the atomic theory as a scientific hypothesis was given by Dal- ton, of Manchester, in 1803 in order to explain the combination of atoms in multiple proportion. The necessity of distinguishing be- tween the chemical atom and the chemical molecule was soon recog- nized, while the famous hypothesis of Avogadro that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal num- bers of molecules still further extended the usefulness of the theory. The whole superstructure of modern chemistry has been largely reared on the foundations of the atomic theory. The labors of the chemist have revealed to us the presence of more than 80 distinct types of elements, each of which has a characteristic atomic weight, and in most cases sufficiently distinct physical and chemical proper- ties to allow of its separation from any other element by the applica- tion of suitable methods. It has been generally assumed that all the atoms of one element are identical in shape and weight, and until a few years ago were supposed to be permanent and indestructible. The close study of the variation of chemical properties of the elements with atomic weight led Frankland and Mendelief to put forward the famous “periodic law,” in which it was shown that there was a periodic 1The William Ellery Hale Lecture, delivered at the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C., 1914. Reprinted by permission. 167 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. variation in the chemical properties of elements when arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. This empirical generalization has exercised a wide influence on the development of chemistry, and the periodic law has been considered by many to indicate that all the atoms are composed of some elementary substance or protyle. It is only within the last few years that our knowledge of atoms has reached a stage to offer a reasonable explanation of this remarkable periodicity. Time does not allow me to more than refer in passing to the im- portant contributions of Le Bel and van ’t Hoff to the structure of complex molecules and. the arrangements of the atoms in space, which has exercised such a wide and important influence on the de- velopment of organic chemistry. While the chemist was busy disentangling the elements, determin- ing their relative atomic weights and studying their possible combina- tions, the physicist had not been idle. The idea that a gas consisted of a large number of molecules in swift but irregular movement had been tentatively advanced at various times to explain some of the properties of gases. These conceptions were independently re- vived and developed in great detail by the genius of Clausius and Clerk Maxwell about the middle of the last century. On their the- ory, now known as the kinetic or dynamical theory of gases, the mole- cules of a gas are supposed to be in continuous agitation colliding with each other and with the walls of the containing vessel. Their velocity of agitation is supposed to increase with temperature, and the pressure is due to the impact of the molecules of the gas on the walls of the inclosure. This theory was found to explain in a simple and obvious way the fundamental properties of gases, and has proved of great importance in molecular theory. The idea that atoms must be in brisk and turbulent motion is strongly supported by the well- known property of the interdiffusion of gases and also of liquids, and in recent years has received practically a direct and concrete proof from the study of a very interesting phenomenon included under the name “ Brownian motion.” The English botanist, Brown, in 1827 discovered that small vegetable spores immersed in a liquid appeared to be in continuous motion when viewed with a high-power microscope. This motion of small particles in liquids was at first supposed to be a result of temperature disturbances, but at the close of the last century the Brownian movement was shown to be a funda- mental property of small particles in liquids. The whole question has been investigated in recent years with great ability and skill by Per- rin. He examined in detail the state of equilibrium and of motion of minute particles in suspension in liquids. The excursions due to the Brownian movements depend mainly on the size of the particles, although influenced to some extent by the nature of the liquid. Small o-— CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 169 spheres of the size required can be produced by a variety of methods. One of the simplest used by Perrin is to allow a solution of pure water to pour slowly out of a funnel under an alcoholic solution of gam- boge or mastic. An emulsion is formed where the layers meet which consists of a great number of minute spheres. When these particles are viewed in a strong light with a high-power microscope, they all exhibit the characteristic Brownian movement; i. e., the particles dart to and fro in irregular and tumultuous fashion and never ap- pear to be at rest for more than a moment. The motions of these small particles under a microscope irresistibly convey the impres- sion that they are hurled to and fro by the action of mysterious forces resident in the solution. Such a result is to be anticipated if the molecules of the liquid are themselves in rapid though invisible tumultuous motion of the kind outlined on the kinetic theory. The particle is very large compared with the molecule, and it is bombarded on all sides by great numbers of molecules. Occasionally the pressure due to the bombardment is for a moment greater on one side of the particle than on the other, and the particle is urged forward, until a new distribution of impacts hurls it in another direction. In fact, the movement of these particles has been found to conform exactly with that predicted by the molecular theory. It would take too long to discuss the remarkable conclusions that Perrin has reached from a study of the distribution and motion of small particles. The particle which may be an agglomeration of many millions of molecules behaves in many respects like the much smaller molecule. A great number of particles in a liquid do not distribute themselves uniformly under gravity, but the numbers de- crease with height according to the same law as the gases in our atmosphere. On the kinetic theory we thus have strong evidence for believing that the atoms of matter, whether in the solid, liquid, or gaseous form, are in continuous agitation and irregular motion. The ve- locity of agitation decreases with lowering of temperature, and at the lowest attainable temperature the motion has either ceased or become very small. It is well known that under suitable conditions the same type of matter can exist in three distinct forms—solid, liquid, and gas. If we take the ordinary air of the room, it can be turned into a clear liquid under certain conditions of temperature and pressure, and this liquid can be frozen solid by still further lowering of the temperature. The most refractory gas of all, helium, has only recently been shown to conform with the behavior of all other gases and to pass into a liquid at a temperature only a few degrees re- moved from absolute zero. The remarkable changes in appearance 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. and physical qualities of an element in passing from one state to another is a matter of common knowledge, but it is not for that reason very easy of explanation. These changes are believed to be connected with the average distance which separates one atom or molecule from the other and their rapidity of motion. In the gas or vapor form the molecules are, on an average, so far apart that their mutual attractions are relatively unimportant. With lowering of temperature, the distance and rapidity of motion of the molecules diminish until, under certain conditions, the attraction of the mole- cules for one another predominates, resulting in a much closer pack- ing and the appearance of the liquid form. The molecules, how- ever, still retain a certain freedom of motion, but this is diminished with lowering of the temperature until at a certain stage the mole- cules form a tighter grouping, corresponding to the solid state, where the freedom of motion of the individual molecules is much restricted. In order to account for the resistance of solids to com- pression or extension, it has been supposed that the force between molecules is attractive at large distances, but repulsive at small dis- tances. While we are able to offer a general explanation of the passage of an element from one state to another, a complete expla- nation of such phenomena will only be possible when we know the detailed structure of the atoms and the nature and magnitude of the forces between them. While the kinetic theory of gases has proved very successful in ex- plaining the fundamental properties of gases, its strength, and at the same time its weakness, lies in the fact that in most cases it is unnecessary for the explanation to know anything of the structure of the atom or molecule or of the forces between them. In some investigations, in order to explain some of the more recondite prop- erties of gases, assumptions have been made of definite laws of force between the molecules, but no very definite or certain results have so far been achieved in this direction. It should, however, be pointed out that the kinetic theory afforded us for the first time a satisfac- tory method of estimating approximately the dimensions of mole- cules and the actual number in a given weight of matter. As the recent development of science has provided us with more certain methods of estimation of these important quantities, we shall not enter further into the question at present. CRYSTALS. There is another very striking form that matter sometimes as- sumes which has always attracted much attention, and which has recently emerged into much prominence. It is well known that the majority of substances under suitable conditions form crystals of CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. gal definite geometrical form, which is characteristic of the particular atoms or groups of atoms. |The great variety of crystal forms that are known have all been classified as belonging to one or more of the 230 forms of point symmetry which are theoretically possible. While considerations of symmetry are a sufficient guide to the classi- fication of crystals, they offer no explanation of the definite archi- tecture of the crystal nor of the nature of the forces that cause the -atoms or molecules to arrange themselves in such definite geometric patterns. We are inevitably led to the conclusion that the atoms of the crystal are arranged according to a definite system, which is characteristic of the particular crystalline form, and the unit of structure is repeated indefinitely with continued growth of the crys- tal. In fact, if we had no other evidence, the crystalline form of matter would itself point to the necessity of an atomic structure of matter. While many attempts have been made to explain the grouping of the atoms in a crystal, there has been on the whole little success, with the exception possibly of Pope and Barlow’s theory that the atoms take up the positions of closest packing, the dimensions assigned to the atom depending on a quantity connected with its chemical valency. It is only within the last year that a new and powerful method of attack of this problem has been developed, largely through the ex- periments of Prof. Bragg and his son, W. L. Bragg. On account of the definite ordering of the atoms in a crystal, it acts like an almost perfect optical grating, only in three dimensions, where the grating space is exceedingly small—in most cases about one one-hundred-mil- lionth of a centimeter. Laue showed that when Réntgen rays passed through a crystal definite interference patterns were observed. This result was of great importance, as it showed that Réntgen rays must consist of very short transverse waves akin to those of light. Bragg showed that the reflection, or rather diffraction, of R6ntgen rays incident, on the face of a crystal afforded a very simple method of determining the wave length of the bright lines generally present in an X-ray spectrum. By a study of the position and intensity of the spectra in different orders thrown by the crystal it was possible to examine in detail the structure of the crystal, and to deduce the grating space, i. e., the distance between successive planes of atoms. The subject is so large and the discovery of this method so recent that so far only a few of the typical crystals have been examined, but in these cases we are able to obtain most positive evidence of the grouping of the atoms in the crystal. The results indicate that the atom and not the molecule is the unit of the crystal structure. Con- sider the structure of the simple cubic crystal of rock salt (sodium chloride). The structure of the crystal deduced by Bragg is shown in figure 1. The sodium atoms are marked by black spheres, the 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. chlorine atoms by white spheres. The simplicity of the crystal archi- tecture is obvious, for all the atoms are equidistant. The structure of the diamond is more complicated, but it is one of great interest, for all the atoms in these cases are of one kind, carbon. The structure found by Bragg in seen in plate 1, figure 2. The atoms are all equi- distant, but the general arrangement differs markedly from that of rock salt. It is seen that each carbon atom is linked with four neigh- bors in a perfectly symmetrical way, while the linking of six carbon atoms inaring is also obvious from the figure. The distance between the plates containing atoms is seen to alternate in the ratio 1:3. This variation of the grating space is brought out clearly from the study of the spectra, and is an essential feature of the structure of the diamond. The cubical arrangement is shown by turning the model so that the lines joining the atoms are vertical and horizontal (pl. 1, fig. 1). : Now that we have a method of determining the arrangement and distances apart of the atoms in a crystal, the next step will be to examine the intensity and type of forces which are brought into play to keep the atoms in equilibrium and relatively fixed in their places. It is to be expected that the atoms Fig. 1.—Arrangement of atoms in a rock salt (NaCl) erystal. White circles represent are able to move to and fro about dium atoms; black, chlorine. Me ate Seer egih freee ome their position of equilibrium, and this is indicated by the effect of lowering the temperature of the crystal, for the intensity of the diffraction spectra increases as the amplitude of motion of the atom diminishes. The sharpness of the diffraction spectra suggests that the atoms are not only arranged at definite distances from one another, but that each atom is orientated in a definite position with regard to its neighbor. While varieties of crystals are known of all degrees of hardness, the work of Lehmann has brought to ight the unexpected existence of crystalline arrangement in some liquids. These liquid crystals are best shown in certain complex organic substances at a tem- perature slightly above their melting point, and they are only observ- able in the liquid by the patterns and colors developed when polarized light passes through them. These crystals are mobile, like a drop of oil in a solution, and can be squeezed into a variety of patterns. Such results would indicate that the molecules of the liquid have a tendency to arrange themselves in ordered patterns, although it is difficult to understand how the freedom of relative motion that Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Rutherford. PLATE 1. 1. CUBICAL ARRANGEMENT OF CARBON ATOMS IN A DIAMOND. 2. ARRANGEMENT OF CARBON ATOMS IN A DIAMOND. 7 ips 7 y = , . , ern ven a Lo ‘ua * eee ere a ) \ \° Sn ie a0)? . te y al Th, A) =] e “o ' j vi ‘ CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 173 is supposed to characterize a liquid can contemporaneously exist with an ordered arrangement of some of the constituent molecules. LIGHT SPECTRA. We will now direct our attention to another type of phenomenon which ultimately promises to throw much light on the detailed struc- ture of the atom. When the hght from an incandescent vapor or gas is passed through a prism or reflected from a grating it is re- solved and gives a characteristic spectrum consisting of a number of bright lines. By suitable methods, the wave length of these radiations can be determined with great accuracy. Each of these lines represents a definite and characteristic mode of vibration of the atom, and from the exceeding complexity of the spectra of many of the heavy elements we are forced to conclude that an atom can vibrate in a great variety of ways. When the meaning of the dark lines in the solar spectrum was correctly interpreted we were enabled at one stride to extend our methods of observation to the sun and the farthest fixed stars. It was soon recognized that atoms of the same element always vibrated the same way under all conditions. It was found, for example, that hydrogen atoms in the earth vibrated in exactly the same way as the same atoms in a distant star. The im- portant bearing. of this result on the structure of atoms was pointed out by Clerk Maxwell, in his well-known address on Atoms and Molecules, before the British Association, at Bradford, in 1873, from which it is interesting to quote the following: In the heavens we discover by their light, and by their light alone, stars so distant from each other that no material thing can ever have passed from one to another; and yet this light, which is to us, the sole evidence of the existence of these distant worlds, tells us also that each of them is built up of molecules of the same kinds as those which we find on earth. A molecule of hydrogen, for example, whether in Sirius or in Arcturus, executes its vibrations in precisely the same time. Each molecule,* therefore, throughout the universe bears impressed upon it the stamp of a metric system as distinctly as does the meter of the archives at Paris, or the double royal cubit of the temple of Karnace. No theory of evolution can be formed to account for the similarity of molecules, for evolution necessarily implies continuous change, and the molecule is incapable of growth or decay, of generation. or destruction. None of the processes of nature, since the time when nature began, have produced the slightest difference in the properties of any molecule. We are therefore unable to ascribe either the existence of the molecules or the identity of their properties to any of the causes which we call natural. On the other hand, the exact equality of each molecule to all others of the same kind gives it, as Sir John Herschel has well said, the essential character of a manufactured article, and precludes the idea of its being eternal and self- existent. 1 Maxwell used the term “‘ molecule”? where we now use the term ‘“ atom.” 174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. While there is no doubt that an atom of an element in the earth or in a star vibrates in identical fashion under the same physical conditions, it is now known that the frequency of vibration of an element is not the exact constant that was at first supposed. It is altered to a slight extent by motion of the source, by change of pressure, and by the application of magnetic and electric fields. The apparent change of frequency of vibration with the motion of the source relative to the observer has proved an invaluable method for studying the motion of stars in the line of sight, while the displace- ment of the lines of hydrogen in the sun has, in the hands of Prof. Hale and his assistants proved of great power in throwing light on some of the physical conditions that exist in that distant body. It has been found that there is order and system in the great complex of modes of vibration of an atom, and that many of the lines can be arranged in definite series whose rates of vibration are connected by simple and definite laws. It is only within the last year or two that we have been able to form some idea of the origin of these spectra and the meaning of a spectral series. The fact that the lightest and presumably the simplest atom known, viz, hydrogen, gives a very complicated light spectrum was at first, and quite naturally, be- lieved to indicate that the hydrogen atom must be a very complex structure. We shall see later, however, that the hydrogen atom is believed to have an exceedingly simple structure, and that the com- plexity of the spectrum is to be ascribed rather to a complexity in the laws of radiation. We have seen that the study of the spectrum led Maxwell to con- clude not only that the atoms were identical in weight and form but that they were the only permanent and indestructible units in this changing world. The apparent identity of the spectrum under all conditions certainly strongly supported such a view at that time. It was believed that if some of the atoms were changing, it would be shown by a gradual alteration of their modes of vibration, i. e., of the spectrum. It was left to the beginning of this century to show the fallacy in this deduction, and to bring undoubted evidence that some elements at least are undergoing spontaneous transformation with the appearance of new types of matter giving a new and charac- teristic spectrum. This question will be discussed later in some detail. ELECTRONS. Before, however, considering the bearing of radioactive phenomena on the structure of the atom I must refer to a discovery which has exercised a most profound influence on the development of physics in general and on our ideas of the structure of atoms. Sir William Crookes long ago found that when an electric discharge was passed CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 175 through a vacuum tube at very low pressures a peculiar type of ra- diation appeared, known as the cathode rays. This radiation ap- peared to be projected from the cathode in straight lines and, unlike light, was deflected by a magnet. These rays excited strong phos- phorescence in many substances in which they fell and also produced marked heating effects. Crookes concluded that the cathode rays consisted of a stream of negatively charged particles moving at high speed. The general properties of this radiation appeared so re- markable that Crookes concluded that the material constituting the cathode stream corresponded to a “new or fourth state of matter.” After a controversy extending over 20 years the true nature of these rays was finally independently shown in 1897 by the experiments of Weichert and Sir J. J. Thomson. They proved, as Crookes had sur- mised, that the rays consisted of a stream of negatively charged particles traveling with enormous velocities from 10,000 to 100,000 miles a second, depending on the potential applied to the vacuum tube. In addition, it was found that the mass of the particle was ex- ceedingly small, about one eighteen-hundredth of the mass of the hydrogen atom, the lightest atom known to science. These results were soon confirmed and widely extended. These corpuscles, or elec- trons, as they are now termed, were found to be liberated from mat- ter not only in an electric discharge but by a variety of other agencies: For example, from a metal on which ultra-violet light falls and also in enormous numbers from an incandescent body. Radium and other radioactive substances were found to emit them spontaneously at much greater speeds than those observed in a vacuum tube. It thus appeared that the electrons must be a constituent of the atoms of mat- ter and could be released from the atom by a variety of agencies. This idea was much widened and strengthened by the investigations of Zeeman and Lorentz, who showed that the radiation of light must be mainly ascribed to the movements of electrons of the same small mass within the atom. It does not fall within the scope of my address to outline the very important consequences that followed in many directions from this fundamental discovery of the independent existence of the electron and its connection with matter. It was found by Kauf- mann that the mass of the electron was not a constant, but in- creased with its speed, and from this result it was deduced that the electron was an atom of disembodied or condensed electricity occupying an exceedingly small volume whose mass was entirely electrical in origin. UNIT OF ELECTRICITY. I should mention here one important consequence that has fol- lowed from these discoveries. From the laws which control the passage of electricity in conducting solutions, Faraday recognized 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. that there must be a close connection between the atom of matter and its electrical charge. Maxwell and Helmholtz suggested that the results were simply explained by supposing that electricity was atomic 1n nature. This conclusion is now definitely established, and the positive charge carried by the hydrogen atoms in the elec- trolysis of water is believed to be the fundamental unit of electrical charge. This charge is equal to and opposite to the charge carried by the electron. Any charge of electricity, however small or large, must be expressed by an integral multiple of this fundamental unit of electricity. The actual value of this unit charge has been meas- ured by a great variety of methods and concordant results. One of the most detailed and accurate investigations of this important constant has been made by Prof. Millikan, of the University of Chicago. OBJECTIONS TC ATOMIC THEORY, We have so far implicitly assumed that the great majority of scientific men now regard the atomic theory not only as a working hypothesis of great value but as affording a correct description of one stage of the subdivision of matter. While this is undoubtedly the case to-day, it is of interest to recall that less than 20 years ago there was a revolt by a limited number of scientific men against the domination of the atomic theory in chemistry. The followers of this school considered that the atomic theory should be re- garded as a mere hypothesis, which was of necessity unverifiable by direct experiment, and should, therefore, not be employed as a basis of explanation of chemistry. This point of view was much strengthened by the recognition of the power of thermodynamics in affording a quantitative explanation of the changes of energy in chemical reactions without the assumption of any definite theory of the constitution of matter. This tendency advanced so far that textbooks of chemistry were written in which the word atom or molecule was taboo, and chemistry was based instead on the law of combination in multiple proportion. At that time it did un- doubtedly appear that there was little if any hope of finding a concrete proof of the validity of the atomic hypothesis or of detect- ing by its effects a single atom of matter or a single electron, for it was known that the smallest fragment of matter visible under a high-power microscope must still contain many millions, or even billions, of atoms. The march of science has, however, been so rapid in this direction that we have been able in recent years to show in a definite and concrete way the independent existence of atoms and also of elec- trons in rapid motion. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 177 COUNTING ATOMS AND ELECTRONS. We shall, first of all, consider the method devised by Rutherford and Geiger for detecting and recording the effects of single alpha particles from radium. At this stage it is unnecessary to enter into details of the nature of the transformations occurring in radioactive matter. It suffices to say here that the atoms of a radioactive sub- stance are unstable and occasionally break up with explosive violence. In many cases the explosion is accompanied by the ejection of a charged body, called the alpha particle, with a velocity of about 10,000 miles a second. These alpha particles are known, from other investi- gations, to consist of charged atoms of the rare gas, helium. The presence of these rays is simply shown by the marked phosphorescence they set up in certain substances. I have here a fine glass tube, which was filled about a week ago in Manchester with purified emanation released from about one-fifth of a gram of pure radium. In the interval of its journey across the Atlantic the activity of the emana- tion has decayed to about one-quarter of its original value. The glass walls of the tube are made so thin (about one one-hundredth millimeter) that the alpha rays are able to escape freely into the surrounding air. They produce a small phosphorescence in the walls of the glass tube, which is just visible in the darkened room. On bringing near, however, a screen covered with zinc sulphide, a bril- liant phosphorescence is observed, which increases in intensity as we approach the tube. Similar effects are seen to be produced in this crystal of willemite, while the crystal of kunzite is seen to be trans- lucent and emit a ruddy light. This phosphorescence of zine sulphide and willemite is due mainly to the alpha rays, and from the present emanation tube about 5,000,000,000 of these particles are projected each second. In their passage through air or other gas the alpha particles pro- duce from the neutral molecules a large number of negatively charged particles called ions. The ionization due to the alpha par- ticles can be readily measured by electrical methods, and it can be shown that the effect to be expected from a single alpha particle is much too small to detect except by very refined methods. In order to overcome this difficulty Rutherford and Geiger employed a method of magnifying automatically several thousand times the elec- tric effect due to an alpha particle. The general arrangement of the original apparatus is seen in figure 2. A few of the alpha rays from a radioactive substance passed along an exhausted tube E through an opening D covered with thin mica into the detecting tube A B. The latter contained a central insulated electrode B connected with an electrometer, and the pres- 18618°—sm 1915——12 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. sure of the gas inside was adjusted to a few centimeters of mercury. The tube B was connected with the negative pole of a battery of about 1,500 volts, the other pole being earthed. The potential was adjusted so that a spark was on the point of passing between A and B. Under such conditions the ionization due to an alpha particle passing along the detecting vessel is magnified several thousand times by collision of the negative and positive ions with the neutral mole- cules. The entrance of an alpha particle into the detecting vessel is then signified by a sudden ballistic throw of the electrometer needle, and the number of particles entering the vessel in a given time can HABE LEAS EEE Se ——— 3 —____» ‘enanerene + lp 6 S oo ee a : nes" NY Firing Tube Detecting Vessel Fig. 2.—Apparatus for counting alpha particles. be counted by observing the throws. The amount of active matter and its distance from the opening were adjusted so that 3 to 5 alpha particles entered the opening per minute. The following table illus- trates the results obtained: Number Magnitude of successive throws, of throws. scale divisions. BirstyMIn iW bO i215 Sek ec oi eee eer eee oak Be eee AWAD 2 10s: Second minute... o#-'gs oboe! oc. - oecee ees FEE tee 3 | 10, 11, 8. Mir diminiterns ween se caveat eee eee ee oe ee 5 | 10,9, 18, 8, 12. Rourth miIngbe:t. hee eties toon ae ah keee = cnet se otaeee. 4 | 18*, 8, 12. Fifth minute!) aft hei morperyaor mitt 3 | 10, 6, 10. Siethiminni ter «hese «2 cceeoe ee cee Ee ees eee 4 | 9, 10, 12) 11. Seventh minutes eS caees aoe ae ae Oe a ae 2 | 10, 11. Pighthminiwter esse ow ec ete ee eee eee Sees 3 | 21,1358. Nunth minute... F202 e. Saey. Eee et eed . eee = Fs 3 | 8, 20%. RENE MING, oa cc cece eee he: Berber © ot eee eee 4 | 8,12, 14,6. A-vyeraze: per |miinate2asi6sti 3. Bas oe 3.5 Average throw (divisions).....-........---- Gro 5 ths eRe Saeed eee 10. It will be seen that the number of throws varies from minute to minute. This is to be expected, since the chance of an alpha particle entering the opening is governed by the ordinary laws of proba- bility. It will be seen that two throws, marked by asterisks, are much larger than the others. These were due to the passage of two CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 179 alpha particles through the opening within a short interval. This was readily seen from the motion of the spot of light reflected from the electrometer needle. As the needle was moving slowly near the end of its swing, caused by one alpha particle, a second impulse due to the entrance of another was communicated to it. By this method the number of alpha particles expelled from one gram of radium per second was determined. Of course only a minute fraction of the alpha particles was actually counted, but the total number was deduced on the assumption, verified by experi- ment, that the alpha particles on an average were expelled equally in all directions. In this way, 1 gram of radium in equilibrium was found to expel the enormous number of 1.3610" alpha particles each second. Another interesting result followed from these experiments. It has long been known that the alpha particles produce a marked phosphorescence in crystalline zine sulphide. When examined by a lens, the light is found not to be uniform, but exhibits a very beautiful scintillating effect. By counting the number of scintilla- tions due to the alpha particles it was found that each scintillation was produced by the impact of a single alpha particle. It is thus seen that two distinct methods, one electrical and the other optical, are available for detecting and counting single alpha particles, 1. e., single atoms of matter. This is only possible because the atoms are in swift motion and expend their great energy of motion in ionizing the gas or in producing luminosity in zinc sulphide. Still another simple method was devised later. Kinoshita first showed that a single alpha particle produced a detectable effect on a photographic plate which was observable under a microscope. A number of experiments have been made by Reinganum, Makower, and Kinoshita to examine the effect of single alpha particles on a photographic plate. If a fine needle point coated with a trace of radioactive matter rests on the surface of the film, the plate on development shows a number of distinct trails radiating from the active point. Each of these trails results from the action of a single alpha particle. A beautiful photograph of this kind (magnification about 300) obtained by Kinoshita is shown in plate 2, figure 1. It appears that each alpha particle makes a certain number of the grains, through which it passes, capable of development. The use of an ordinary electrometer is not very suitable for count- ing alpha particles by the electric method, since the time of swing of the electrometer needle is fairly long, and accurate counting can be made when only a few alpha particles enter the detecting vessel per minute. This difficulty can be got over by the use of a string electrometer in which the moving system consists of a fine silvered quartz fiber suspended between two charged parallel plates and 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. viewed with a high-power microscope. The entrance of an alpha particle is shown by a sudden movement of the fiber, and if the cur- rent is allowed to leak away through a suitable resistance, the fiber returns to the position of rest in a small fraction of a second. The movement of the fiber can be recorded photographically on a moving film, and it is possible in this way to count accurately the number of particles, even if several thousand enter the detecting vessel per minute. Examples of such photographic records, obtained by Rutherford and Geiger, are shown in plate 2, figure 2. The vertical movements of the fiber from the horizontal line are due to the entrance of alpha par- ticles, and it is seen how clearly the detailed movements of the fiber are registered. In some cases one alpha particle follows another so rapidly that the fiber has not time to come to rest in between, and this is shown by the sawlike appearance of some of the peaks in the photograph. It will be noticed also that while the heights of most E lecTROMETER, Fic. 3.—Geiger’s detector of individual alpha and beta particles, of the deflections are nearly the same, in a few cases the deflections are nearly twice as great as the normal. This is due to the nearly simultaneous entrance of two alpha particles into the vessel. Although the photographic film moved at a constant rate, it is seen that the throws due to the alpha particles are distributed very ir- regularly along it. A close examination of such records shows that variations of this kind are in accord with the ordinary laws of probability. During this year, Dr. Geiger has found a still more sensitive de- tector for counting alpha particles. The arrangement, which is very simple, is shown in figure 3. A fine sharply pointed needle ends about 1 centimeter from the opening O, where the alpha particles enter. If the outer brass tube be charged positively to about 1,000 volts, and the needle connected with a string electrometer, it is found that the entrance of an alpha particle produces a very great deflec- tion of the fiber. So sensitive is this method that Geiger has found that individual beta particles can easily be detected and counted by Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Rutherford. PLATE 2. 1. PHOTOGRAPHIC EFFECT DUE TO ALPHA PARTICLES FROM A CENTRAL POINT. 2. PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD ON STRING ELECTROMETER OF ENTRANCE OF ALPHA PARTICLES INTO THE DETECTING VESSEL. 3. RECORD WITH STRING ELECTROMETER; UPPER RECORD FOR BETA PARTICLES, LOWER FOR ALPHA PARTICLES. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 181 its aid. This is very remarkable when it is remembered that the ionization effect due to a beta particle is on the average not more than one one-hundredth of that due to an alpha particle. A photographic record of the entrance of beta particles into the detecting vessel is shown in plate 2, figure 3. The upper record is for beta particles and the lower for alpha particles. I am indebted to Dr. Geiger for this photograph. It is seen that the effect of a beta par- ticle is just as marked and as definite as for an alpha particle with the old form of detector. We are thus in a position not only to count single atoms of matter, but also to detect the presence of a single electron in swift motion, although the mass of the latter is exceed- ingly small compared with that of the lightest atom. I would now very briefly direct your attention to some results which to my mind not only completely prove the hypothesis of the atomic structure of matter, but allow us at once to calculate the number of atoms in a given weight of matter with the mini- mum amount of assumption. We have seen that by direct count- ing it has been found that 1.3610" alpha particles are ex- pelled per second from 1 gram of radium in equilibrium with its rapidly changing products. Now, it has been definitely shown by methods I need not discuss here that each alpha particle consists of a helium atom carrying two unit positive charges. Since the alpha particle, when it has lost its charge, becomes a neutral helium atom we should expect to find that helium would be produced by radium at a definite rate. This is found to be the case, and it is not difficult to determine by actual measurement the volume of helium formed by a known quantity of radium in a given time. It has been found that one gram of radium in equilibrium produces each year 156 cubic millimeters of helium at standard pressure and temperature. Now, the number of alpha particles expelled per year per gram is 4.2910!*, giving rise to 156 cubic millimeters of helium, each of these alpha particles is an atom of helium, and con- sequently the number of atoms of helium in 1 cubic centimeter of that gas at normal pressure and temperature is 2.7510". It appears to me that no more direct and convincing proof could be obtained of the atomic structure of matter or of the number of atoms forming a given weight or volume of helium, for the number of separate constituents are counted and the volume of the resulting gas is measured. The value so obtained is in good accord with measurements based on entirely different data of various kinds. It is somewhat remarkable that while the study of radioactive phenomena has clearly indicated that the atom is not always per- manent and indestructible, it has at the same time suppled the most convincing proof of the actual reality of atoms and has pro- 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. vided some of the most direct methods of determining the values of atomic magnitudes. TRACKS OF SWIFT ATOMS AND ELECTRONS. We have seen how it is possible to detect single alpha and beta particles and to count their number. We will next consider a most remarkable experimental method, not only for detecting such par- ticles but of following in detail the effects produced by them in their passage through a gas. C. T. R. Wilson showed many years ago that the positively and negatively charged ions produced in a gas by the passage of alpha and beta and X rays possessed a remark- able property. When air, for example, saturated with water vapor is suddenly expanded the air is rapidly cooled and the water tends to deposit on any nuclei present. C. T. R. Wilson showed that in dust-free air the ions produced by external radiation become nuclei for the condensation of water upon them when the cooling by expansion was sufficiently great. Under such conditions each ion becomes the center of a visible globule of water, and the number of drops formed is equal to the number of ions present. C. T. R. Wilson later perfected this method to show the trail of a single alpha or beta particle in passing through the gas; for each of the ions produced by the flying particle becomes a visible drop of water by the sudden expansion. By suitable arrangements the trails of the individual particle can be photographed, and the pic- tures obtained show with remarkable fidelity and detail the ionizing effects produced in the passage of alpha and beta particles or X rays through gases. Plate 3, figure 1, shows the tracks of the alpha particles shot out from a small fragment of radium. The number of ions produced per centimeter in the gas by the alpha particle is so great that the trail of drops shows as a continuous line. The alpha particles are seen to radiate in straight lines from the active point and have a definite range in air—a characteristic property discovered by Bragg many years ago. The next photograph (pl. 8, fig. 2) shows a mag- nified image of these trails. It is seen that the tracks are generally quite straight, but in a few cases there is a sudden bend near the end. The significance and causes of these sudden deviations in the recti- linear paths of the alpha particles will be discussed later. A radioactive substance like radium emits not only alpha particles but beta particles which are electrons in very swift motion. These beta particles are generally far more penetrating than the alpha rays, but produce a much smaller number of ions per centimeter of their path through a gas. In plate 4, figure 1, is seen the track of a swift beta particle crossing the expansion chamber. It will be observed that the path is not straight but tortuous, due to the marked Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Rutherford. PLATE 3. 1. TRACKS OF ALPHA PARTICLES FROM CENTRAL Points (C. T. R. WILSON’S METHOD). 2. MAGNIFIED TRACK OF ALPHA PARTICLES (WILSON). PLATE 4 Rutherford. Smithsonian Report, 1915. TRACKS OF BETA PARTICLES. ile BETA PARTICLES PRODUCED BY PASSAGE OF X RAYS THROUGH AIR De (WILSON). CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 183 scattering of the particle by collisions with the atoms of matter in its path. Although the trail is clearly defined, the density corre- sponding to the number of drops per centimeter is much smaller than for the alpha particle. In fact, by magnifying still further small portions of the track the individual ions, or rather the drop formed around each ion produced by the beta particle, are clearly visible. In this way it is obviously possible to count directly the number of ions produced in any length of the path. These beautiful photographs thus not only bring out clearly that alpha and beta particles are definite entities but show with great per- fection the actual path of the particles in traversing matter. The next photograph (pl. 4, fig. 2) shows the effect of passing a pencil of Roéntgen rays through the expansion chamber. It is believed that these rays do not ionize the gas directly, but indirectly, through the slow speed electrons which are liberated by some of the atoms acted on by the radiation. These electrons are not nearly so swift as some of those emitted by radium, for they are only able to traverse a few millimeters of air before being stopped. The photograph brings out clearly these effects and shows the tortuous path of a beta particle resulting from collisions with the atoms. Such scattering effects become more marked the slower the velocity of ejection of the beta particle. TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER. While the discovery of the independent existence of the electron as a constituent of the structure of atoms gave a great impetus to the study of atomic structure, it was soon found that the removal or addition of an electron from an atom did not appear to cause a permanent transformation of the atom, for no evidence has yet been obtained that the passage of an electric current through a gas or metal is accompanied by a permanent alteration of the atoms of matter through which the current passes, although there is little doubt the current is carried in part at least by the electrons liberated from the atoms. The first definite evidence of the transformation of matter was obtained from a study of the processes occurring in radioactive sub- stances. The writer and Mr. Soddy in 1903 put forward the theory that the radiations from active matter accompanied a veritable transformation of the atoms themselves. The correctness of this theory as an explanation of radioactive phenomena is now gen- erally accepted. As an illustration of these processes, consider the transformation of the radioactive element uranium. The series of substances which arise from the transformation of uranium are shown clearly in the diagram (fig. 4). The best known of these elements is radium, which will be taken as a typical example of a 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. radioactive substance. Radium differs from an ordinary element in its power of spontaneously expelling alpha particles with very great speed. This property is ascribed to an inherent instability which is not manifest in the atoms of ordinary elements. A small fraction of the radium atoms—about 1 in 100,000,000,000—break up each second with explosive violence, expelling a fragment of the atom (the alpha particle) with very great speed. The residue of the atom is lighter than before and becomes the atom of an entirely new substance, which is called the radium emanation. The atoms of the latter are far more unstable than those of radium, for half of them break up in 3.85 days, while half of the radium atoms break up in about 2,000 years. After the loss of an alpha particle an atom of the emanation changes into an atom of a new substance (radium A), which behaves as a solid. Radium A is very unstable, half of it breaking up in 3 minutes with the emission of an alpha particle, and gives rise to radium B. The latter differs from the substances already mentioned in the nature of its radiation, for it emits beta rays but no alpha rays. Notwith- standing this fact, it is transformed according to the same law as an alpha ray’s substance, and gives rise to an entirely distinct ele- ment, radium C. In the transformation of the latter, not only are swift alpha rays emitted but also beta rays of great speed. There is some evidence, however, that the substance called radium C is com- plex, and that the alpha and beta rays arise from two distinct sub- stances. The successive substances arising from radium C are radium D, radium E, and radium F. The two former, like radium B, emit only beta rays; the latter, known generally as polonium, emits only alpha rays. It is believed that the sequence of changes ends with the transformation of radium F, which is supposed to change into the well known nonradioactive element lead. According to the transformation theory, radium, like all other radioactive products, must be regarded as a changing element, but one whose rate of transformation is very slow compared with its successive products. Boltwood showed experimentally that radium is half transformed in about 2,000 years, and a quantity of radium would practically have disappeared as such in 100,000 years. In order to account for the continued existence of radium in the earth, it.is necessary to suppose that it is steadily produced from some other element. Boltwood showed that the parent substance is a radioactive element called ionium, which is itself derived from the transformation of uranium. A quantity of ionium, entirely freed from radium, will grow radium at a slow but constant rate. The primary element of the ionium-radium series is uranium, which we can calculate should be half transformed in 5,000,000,000 years—a CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 185 period probably long compared with the age of many of the min- erals in which uranium is found. The complete sequence of changes in the uranium-radium series is shown in the diagram (fig. 4). The nature of the radiation and the half period of transformation is added for each element. In addition to uranium, there are two other radioactive elements, thorium and actinium, which are transformed with the appearance of a number of new substances. The time at my disposal, however, is too short to discuss these changes in detail. Thorium is known to be a pri- mary element whose radioactive life is even longer than uranium, but actinium is believed to be a branch descendant from some point of the uranium series, and is thus to be regarded as a product of that element. In all, 34 of these radioactive substances have been A FF SS FS Url UrX,. UrX,. Ur 2. Ra. Eman” 5x10° years, 24° Odays. {-14mins. 10° years. ree 2000 years. S85 days. RoA RaB. RaC. ReaD. RoE. ( Pie Lead. 30 mina 268 mins. 19.5 mins. 165yeare. — Sdays. 136 days. Fig. 4.—Successive substances produced by the transformation of the uranium atom. discovered, and the position of each in the three main radioactive series has been determined. Each of these new substances is to be regarded as a distinct chemi- cal element in the ordinary sense, but differs from ordinary stable elements in the spontaneous emission of special radiations which accompanies the disintegration of the atoms. The radioactive sub- stances are thus transition elements which have a limited life and which carry within themselves the seeds of their own destruction. Not only are these transition elements distinguished by their types of radiation but also by their distinct physical and chemical proper- ties. The extraordinary differences in properties which sometimes exist between a product and its parent substance is well illustrated by the comparison of radium and its product, the emanation. Ra- dium is a solid element of atomic weight, 226, which has chemical properties allied to barium, but is capable of separation from it. The emanation is a heavy monatomic gas of atomic weight, 222, which, by its absence of chemical properties, is allied to the well-known group of rare gases—helium, argon, neon, xenon, and krypton. In some cases the elements show almost identical physical and chemical prop- 186 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. erties with those of known elements, although they differ from them in their atomic weight and radioactivity. For example, radium B appears to be identical in ordinary chemical and physical proper- ties with lead, although its atomic weight, 214, is quite distinct from lead, 207. The probable explanation of this, at first sight, remark- able identity will be discussed later. It is of interest to note that in the majority of cases a radioactive element breaks up in only one way, which is characteristic for all the atoms of that element and gives rise to only one new product. The work of Fajans and Marsden, however, has clearly shown that in the case of radium C and the corresponding products in the tho- rium and actinium series, the atoms break up in two distinct ways and give rise to two distinct radioactive elements. It has already been pointed out that actinium is, in reality, one of these side or branch products. It is supposed that uranium X breaks up in two distinct ways, the smaller fraction giving rise to actinium. The evidence, however, on this point is not yet complete. The radioactive elements are in some respects more interesting and important than stable elements, for, in addition to the ordinary physical and chemical properties, they possess the radioactive prop- erty which allows us to study the mode amd rate of transformation of their atoms. It may be asked what is the essential difference between radio- active changes and ordinary chemical changes. In the radioactive changes we are not dealing with the dissociation of molecules into atoms, but an actual disruption of the chemical atom. The disinte- gration of any given element appears to be a spontaneous and uncontrollable process which, unlike ordinary chemical changes, is quite unaffected by the most drastic changes in temperature or by any other known physical or chemical agency. The radioactive changes differ entirely from chemical changes not only in the peculiar character of the emitted radiations, but also in the enormous emission of energy. It can be simply shown that the energy emitted from a radioactive substance which expels alpha particles is several million times greater than the energy emitted from an equal weight of matter in any known chemical reaction. This emission of energy is mainly to be ascribed to the conversion of the energy of motion of the swift alpha and beta particles into heat, and is thus in a sense a secondary effect of the radiations. The enormous emission of energy is most simply illustrated by consider- ing the case of the radium emanation, together with its swiftly changing products radium A, radium B, and radium C. The heat- ing effect of a given volume or weight of this gas has been accu- rately determined. From the data it can be calculated that 1 pound weight of the emanation would emit heat energy initially at the CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 187 rate of 23,000 horsepower. The rate of emission decreases with the time, falling successively to half value after intervals of 3.85 days. During the life of the emanation the total energy emitted corre- sponds to an engine working at 128,000 horsepower for one day. Such a quantity of emanation would be an enormously concentrated source of power, for the total energy emitted is many million times greater than for an equal weight of the most powerful known ~ ~ explosive. The emission of energy from radioactive substances does not con- trovert the law of the conservation of energy, for the energy is derived from the atom itself where it exists in kinetic or potential form. We shall see later that the atom is believed to consist of a large number of positively and negatively charged particles which are collected in a very small volume and held together by intense electrical forces. Such an idea of atomic structure involves the necessity of a large store of energy resident in the individual atom. The great emission of energy from a radioactive substance like the emanation illustrates in a striking way the enormous reservoir of energy that must exist in the atoms themselves, for there is every reason to believe that an equivalent amount of energy is present in the atoms of the common heavy elements. This store of energy ordi- narily does not manifest itself and is not available for use. It is only when there is a drastic rearrangement of the atom resulting from, an atomic explosion that part of this store of energy is liberated. It must be borne in mind that the processes occurring in radio- active matter are spontaneous and uncontrollable. There is at present no evidence to indicate that we shall be able in any way to influence radioactive changes. We are at present only able to watch and investigate this remarkable phenomenon of nature, without any power of controlling it. In a recent book H. G. Wells has dis- cussed in an interesting way some of the future possibilities if this great reservoir of energy resident in the atoms were made available for the use of man. This will only be possible on a large scale if we are able in some way to alter the rate of radioactive change and to cause a substance like uranium or thorium to give out its energy in the course of a few hours or days instead of over a period of many thousands of millions of years. The possibility, however, of altering the rate of transformation of radioactive matter or of induc- ing similar effects in ordinary matter does not at present seem at all promising. STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM. We have seen that in recent years a number of methods have been devised for determining with precision the actual weight of any atom of matter. If it be assumed that in the solid state the atoms, 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. or molecules, of matter are in close contact, it is a simple matter to deduce the diameter of the atom. This varies slightly for different atoms, but on an average comes out to be about one one-hundred- millionth of a ‘centimeter. It is necessary, however, to be cautious in speaking of the diameter of the atom. The term “diameter of the sphere of action” of the atom is preferable, for it is not at all ’ certain that the actual atomic structure is nearly so extensive as the | region through which the atomic forces are appreciable. Even before the discovery of the electron the genera] idea had been suggested that the atom was an electrical structure composed of negatively and positively charged particles held in equilibrium by electrical forces. Such ideas had been proposed and developed by Larmor and Lorentz in order to explain the electrical and optical properties of the atom. The proof that the negative electron was an independent unit of the structure of the atom gave a great im- petus to the formation of more concrete ideas on atomic structure. There was one important difficulty, however, that arose at the outset. While negative electricity had been shown to exist in independent units of very small apparent mass, the corresponding unit of positive electricity was never found associated with a mass less than the atom of hydrogen. All attempts to show the existence of a positive elec- tron of small mass, which is a counterpart of the negative electron, have resulted in failure, and it seems doubtful whether such a posi- tive electron exists. The réle played by positive electricity in the atom was thus a matter of conjecture. In a paper called Aepinus Atomized the late Lord Kelvin considered an atom tc consist of a uniform sphere of positive electrification, throughout which nega- tive electricity was distributed in the form of discrete electrons. In order to make such an atom electrically neutral it is, of course, necessary that the positive charge should be equal and opposite to the charge carried by the electrons. This idea of the structure of the atom was taken up and developed with great mathematical skill by Sir J. J. Thomson. He investigated the constitution of atoms con- taining different numbers of electrons and showed that such model atoms possessed properties very similar to those shown by the actual atoms. The Thomson atom proved for many years very useful in giving a concrete idea of the possible structure of the atom and had the great advantage of being amenable to calculation. The rapid advance of science in the last decade has provided us with new and powerful methods of attack on this problem, and has allowed us to distinguish to some extent between various theories of atomic structure. One of these methods depends on the study of the deflection of swiftly moving bodies like alpha and beta particles in their passage through matter. It is found that these rays are always scattered in their passage through matter; i. e., a narrow pencil of oO 2 | CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 189 rays opens out into a diffuse or scattered beam. The alpha and beta particles move so swiftly that they are actually able to pass through the structure of the atom and are deflected by the intense forces with- in the atom. Geiger first drew attention to a very unexpected effect with alpha particles. When a pencil of alpha rays falls on a thin film of gold, for example, the great majority of the particles pass through with little absorption. A few, however, are found to be so scattered that they are turned back through an angle of more than a right angle. Taking into consideration the great energy of motion of the alpha particle, such a result is as surprising as it would be to a gunner if an occasional shot at a light target was deflected back toward the gun. It was found that these large deflections must result from an encounter with a single atom. The occasional sudden deflection of an alpha particle is well illustrated in one of the later photographs of the trail of an alpha particle obtained by Mr. C. T. R. Wilson, and shown in plate 5, figure 1. It is seen that the rectilinear path of the particle suffers two sharp bends, no doubt resulting in each case from a single close encounter with an atom. In the sharp bend near the end a slight spur is seen, indicating that the atom was set in such swift motion by the encounter with the alpha particle that it was able to ionize gas at a short distance. If the forces causing the deflection were electrical, it was at once evident that the electric field within the atom must be exceedingly intense. The distribution of positive electricity assumed in the Thomson atom was much too diffuse to produce the intense fields required. To overcome this difli- culty the writer inverted the role of positive electricity. Instead of being distributed through a sphere comparable in size with the sphere of action of the atom, the positive electricity is supposed to be con- centrated in a very minute volume or nucleus, and the greater part of the mass of the atom is supposed to be resident in this nucleus. The latter is supposed to be surrounded by a distribution of negative electrons extending over a distance comparable with the diameter of the atom as ordinarily understood. On this point of view the alpha particle is the minute nucleus of the helium atom, which has lost its two external electrons. In this type of atom the large deviations of the alpha particle take place when it passes through the intense elec- tric field close to the nucleus of the colliding atom. The nearer it passes to the nucleus, the greater the deflection of the particle. As- suming that the forces between the alpha particle and the nucleus of the colliding atom are mainly electrical and vary according to an in- verse square law, the alpha particle describes a hyperbolic orbit around the nucleus, and the relative number of alpha particles de- ~ flected through different angles can be simply calculated. It was thus possible to test this theory of atomic structure by ac- tual experiment. This was undertaken by Geiger and Marsden in 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. a very important but difficult investigation. They examined the relative number of alpha particles scattered through various angles by their passage through thin films of matter—e. g., aluminum, silver, and gold—by actually counting the alpha particles by means of the scintillations on a zine sulphide screen. The experimental results were found to be in very good accord with the theory, while Darwin, in addition, showed that any other law of force except the inverse square was incompatible with the observations. From these results it is a simple matter to show that the radius of the nucleus of the gold atom can not be greater than 3107? em.— an exceedingly small distance and only about one ten-thousandth part of the diameter of the atom. While the results thus indicated that the nucleus of a heavy atom was of minute dimensions, it was of interest to see whether a still lower limit could be obtained for lighter atoms. On this theory, the helium atom has a nucleus of two unit positive charges, and the lighter atom, hydrogen, should have a nucleus of only one unit. When an alpha particle passes through hydrogen gas there should be occasional very close encounters be- tween the particle and nucleus of the hydrogen atom. Since the mass of the hydrogen atom is only one-quarter of that of helium, it is to be anticipated that the former should be set in very swift mo- tion by a close collision with an alpha particle, and in special cases should be given a velocity 1.6 times greater than that of the colliding alpha particle, and should travel four times as far. Such swiftly moving hydrogen nuclei were actually observed by Marsden with the scintillation method when a pencil of alpha rays passed through hydrogen, and they were found to travel, as the theory predicted, about four times farther than the alpha particle itself. Since the energy gained by the hydrogen nucleus depends on the closeness of its approach to the alpha particle, it can be simply calculated that the centers of the nuclei must have passed within 10-** cm. of each other. This is an extraordinarily small distance, even smaller than the diameter of the electron itself. It is thus clear that the nuclei of hydrogen and of helium must be exceedingly minute. It should be borne in mind that such observations only give a maximum limit to the size of the nucleus, and there is no experimental evidence against the view that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom may not actually prove to be minute in volume compared even with the nega- tive electron. If this be the case, it appears probable that the hydro- gen nucleus is the positive electron and that its great mass, compared with the negative electron, is due to the greater concentration of its charge. According to modern theory the electrical mass of a charged _ particle varies inversely as its radius. The greater mass of the posi- tive than of the negative electron would thus be explained if its Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Rutherford. PLATE 5. 1. TRACK OF ALPHA PARTICLES SHOWING SHARP DEVIATIONS (WILSON). 2. X-Ray SPECTRA OF SUCCESSIVE ELEMENTS (MOSELEY). THE ADDITIONAL LINES IN SPEC- TRUM OF Co AND Ni ARE DUE TO IMPURITY. Brass SHOWS THE COMBINED SPECTRA OF COPPER AND ZINC. § CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 191 radius were only one eighteen-hundredth of that of the negative electron, viz, about 10-*° cm. There is no evidence to contradict this point of view, and its sim- plicity has much to commend it. In viewing the essential differences exhibited by positive and negative electricity in connection with matter and the obvious asymmetry of the distribution of the two electricities in the atom, one is driven to the conclusion that there is a fundamental distinction between positive and negative electricity. Since the unit of positive charge is identical in magnitude with the unit of negative charge, the only possible difference is the mass of the two units, and this on modern views is mainly dependent on the dimensions or degree of concentration of the electricity in these fundamental entities. If we take the view that the hydrogen nucleus is the positive elec- tron, it is to be anticipated that the nuclei of all atoms are built up of positive and negative electrons, the positive electricity being al- Ways 1n excess, so that the nucleus shows a resultant positive charge. The mass of the atom will depend mainly on the number of the massive positive electrons in the nucleus, although it will be affected to a slight extent by the number of the lighter negative electrons involved in the structure of the whole atom. The mass of the atom will no doubt be influenced also by the distribution of the positive and negative electrons in the nucleus, for these must be packed so closely together that their field must interact. As Lorentz has shown, the mass of a number of closely packed electrons is not necessarily the same as the sum of individual masses of the component electrons. Taking such factors into account, we should not necessarily expect the mass of all atoms to be nearly an integral multiple of the mass of the hydrogen atom, although it is known that in a number of cases such a relation appears to hold fairly closely. The appearance of a helium atom in such a fundamental process as the transformation of radioactive atoms indicates that helium is one of the units, possibly secondary, of which the nuclei of the heavy atoms are built up. In course of its successive transformations a uranium atom loses eight helium atoms, a thorium atom six, and an atom of actinium five. The probability that helium is one of the units of atomic structure not only in the case of radioactive atoms but for ordinary atoms is strengthened by the fact that the atomic weights of a number of elements differ by about four units. The fact that the helium nucleus survives the intense disturbance resulting in its violent ejection from a radioactive atom suggests that it is a very stable configuration. On the views discussed it is natural to suppose that the helium nucleus, of atomic weight about four, is made up of four positive electrons united with two negative electrons. No doubt it is difficult to understand why such a system 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. should hold together, but it must be remembered that we have no information as to the nature or magnitude of the forces existing at such minute distances as are involved in the structure of the nucleus. We have so far assumed without proof that while the nucleus of an atom carries a resultant positive charge, negative electrons are also present. The main evidence on this point comes from a study of the radioactive elements. A substance which breaks up with the emission of swift electrons (beta rays), but no alpha particles, suffers disintegration according to the same laws and gives rise to a new element in the same way as when an alpha particle is lost. It seems necessary to suppose from a number of lines of evidence that a transformation which is accompanied by the emission of primary beta particles must have its origin in the ejection of a negative elec- tron from the nucleus itself or from a point very close to the nucleus. There are no means at present of deciding definitely the relative number of positive and negative units composing the nucleus, except possibly from a consideration of the atomic weight of the atom in terms of hydrogen. It is, however, premature to discuss such ques- tions until more information is obtained as to the structure of the nucleus and the effect of concentration and distribution of the com- ponent electrical charges on its apparent mass. CHARGE CARRIED BY THE NUCLEUS. We are now in a position to consider a very important question, viz, the magnitude of the positive charge carried by the atomic nucleus. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the negative charge carried by the exterior distribution of electrons in the structure of the atom must be equal and opposite to the resultant positive charge carried by the nucleus. The electrical charge is most conveniently expressed in terms of the number of the fundamental units of charge in the nucleus. Since the charge carried by the electron is one unit, the charge on the nucleus of the atom may be expressed numerically by the number of electrons exterior to the nucleus. Several methods of attack on this problem have been suggested. Sir J. J. Thomson showed that the scattering of Rontgen rays in passing through the atoms of matter must depend on the number of electrons composing the atom. By assuming that each electron scattered is an independent unit, an expression for the scattering was found in terms of the number of electrons in the atom. By comparison of the theory with experiment, Barkla deduced that for many elements the number of electrons in an atom was approxi- mately proportional to its atomic weight and numerically equal to about one-half of the atomic weight in terms of hydrogen. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 193 The charge in the nucleus can also be directly determined from the experiments on scattering of alpha rays, to which attention has pre- viously been drawn. Geiger and Marsden found that the large- angle scattering of alpha rays in passing through different sub- stances was proportional per atom to the square of its atomic weight. This showed that the positive charge on the nucleus was approxi- mately proportional to the atomic weight at any rate for elements of atomic weight varying between aluminium and gold. By meas- uring the fraction of the total number of alpha particles which were deflected through a definite angle in passing through a known thick- ness of matter, the charge on the nucleus was deduced directly. The number of positive units of charge on the nucleus, which is equal to the number of external negative electrons, was found to be expressed by about one-half of the atomic weight in terms of hydrogen. The results obtained by two entirely distinct methods of attack are thus in good accord and give approximately the magnitude of this impor- tant atomic constant. It is obvious, however, that the deduction that the number of units of charge on the nucleus is half the atomic weight must be only a first approximation to the truth, even in the case of the heavier atoms. It has already been pointed out that the nucleus of the helium atom of atomic mass four must carry two unit charges, for it is difficult to believe that any of the exterior electrons of helium can remain attached after its violent expulsion from the atom and its subsequent passage through matter. If this be the case, the nucleus of the hydrogen atom of atomic mass one must carry one unit charge. Van den Broek and Bohr have suggested that the charge on the nucleus might be equal to the actual number of the element when all the known elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. ‘This is in excellent accord with the experiments of scattering, and removes a difficulty in regard to the lighter atoms. Taking this view, the nucleus charge is for hydro- gen 1, helium 2, lithium 3, carbon 6, oxygen 8, etc. The simplicity of this conception has much to commend it. During the last year a new and powerful method of attack on this fundamental problem has been developed by Moseley by the study of X-ray spectra. In 1912 Laue found that X rays showed obvious interference or diffraction effects in their passage through crystals, thus proving definitely that the X rays consist of very short waves analogous to those of light. W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg and Moseley and Darwin found that the reflection of the X rays from crystals provided a very simple method of measuring the wave length of the X rays when the spacing of the atoms in the crystal is known. If the X rays give a spectrum containing some bright lines, 18618°—smM 1915 13 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. the wave lengths of the latter can be simply determined. The work of Barkla has shown us that an X radiation, characteristic of each element, is excited under certain conditions when X rays fall upon it. The penetrating power of this characteristic radiation increases rapidly with the atomic weight of the radiator. In heavy elements, another type of characteristic radiation makes its appearance. These two types of characteristic radiation have been called by Barkla the K and L radiations, respectively. These radiations can be excited either by X rays of suitable penetrating power or by direct bom- bardment of the element by cathode rays in a vacuum tube. Moseley made a systematic examination of the X-ray spectra of a great majority of the elements. For this purpose the elements examined were bombarded by cathode rays, and the spectrum of the radia- tion examined by reflection from a suitable crystal. He found that the spectra of the K radiation from elements varying in atomic weight from aluminium to silver were all similar in type, consist- ing mainly of two strong lines.t. An example of the spectrum ob- tained for a number of successive elements is shown in plate 5, figure 2. It is seen that with increasing atomic weight the wave length of the corresponding lines diminishes, not irregularly but by definite and well-marked steps. Moseley found that for the K radiation the frequency of the radiation was proportional to (N-a)*, where N was a whole number which varied by unity in passing from one element to the next of higher atomic weight and a was a constant about unity. From silver to gold the spectra given by the L radiations of elements were compared. These spectra consist of about five lines, of which two are relatively very strong. It was found again that the spectra were similar in type and that the frequency of a given line diminished by definite steps in passing from one element to another. The fre- quency of the radiation in this case was proportional to (N-b)?’, where b was a constant and N a whole number. Moseley concluded that the value of N in these expressions was the atomic number, 1. e., the number of the element arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. Taking aluminium as the thirteenth element, he found that succeeding elements were expressed by the value of N 14, 15, 16, 17, etc., up to 77 for gold. There appears to be little doubt that the X-ray spectrum of an element arises from the vibrations of the rings of electrons deep in the atomic structure outside the nucleus. Quite apart from the very in- teresting question of the mode of origin of these very high frequency spectra, it is seen that the fundamental modes of vibration of the distribution of electrons are simply connected with the square of a number, which varies by unity in passing from one element to the next. 1J—n later work Rawlinson and Bragg have found that each of these lines is in reality a very close double. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 195 There appears to be no doubt that the atomic number represents the number of units of positive charge carried by the nucleus, which, on account of the atomic nature of electricity, can only vary by whole numbers and not by fractions. It is obvious that the study of X-ray spectra reveals at once whether any atomic number is missing, and also affords a remark- ably simple method of settling the number of elements possible in the rare earth group about which there has been so much difference of opinion. Moseley concluded that from aluminium to gold only three possible elements were missing which should have atomic num- bers 43, 61, 75, and only one element of number 61 appears to be missing in the rareearth group. The frequencies of the X-ray spectra of these missing elements can be calculated with certainty, and these data should prove an invaluable aid in a search for these missing elements. It has long been known that nickel and cobalt occupy an anomalous position in the periodic table when arranged according to atomic weights. This difficulty is now removed, for Moseley found that when arranged in order of nucleus charge both elements fall into the position to be expected from their chemical properties. NUCLEUS CHARGE AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. It is established by the work of Moseley that the elements can be defined by their nucleus charge, and that probably elements exist which have all the nucleus charges from 1 for hydrogen to 92 for lead. There is, however, another very important consequence that follows from this conception of the atom. Disregarding for a mo- ment the atomic weight which depends mainly on the structure of the nucleus, the main physical and chemical properties of. the atom are determined by the nucleus charge and not by the atomic mass. This must obviously be the case, for the number and distribution of elec- trons around the nucleus is determined by the electric forces between the electrons and the nucleus, and this is dependent on the magni- tude of the nucleus charge, which may be regarded as a point charge. Without entering into the difficult question of the actual distribu- tion of the exterior electrons in any atom, it is obvious that the number and position of the outlying electrons of the atomic struc- ture, which probably mainly influence the chemical and physical properties of the atom, are determined by the charge on the nucleus. No doubt if the electrons are in motion, their positions relative to the nucleus and possibly also their rates of vibration will be shghtly influenced by the mass of the nucleus as well as its charge, but the general evidence indicates that this effect must be very small. We thus see that there is in the structure of every atom a quantity which is more fundamental and important than its atomic weight, 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. viz, its nuclear charge. It is known that the variation of the atomic weights of the elements with atomic number, while showing certain well-marked relationships, shows no definite regularity. From the point of view of the nucleus theory, the atomic weight of an element, while in some cases approximately proportional to its atomic num- ber, is in reality a complicated function of the actual structure of the nucleus. The question why the atomic mass should not neces- sarily be proportional to the atomic number has already been dis- cussed on page 1938. While the main properties of an atom are con- trolled by its nuclear charge, the property of gravitation and also of radioactivity are to be ascribed mainly, if not entirely, to the nucleus. RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC SERIES. Since the nucleus charge of an atom determines the main physical and chemical properties of an atom, it is possible that elements may exist of equal nuclear charges but different atomic weights. For example, if it were possible to add a helium nucleus to the nucleus of another atom, it would increase the nuclear charge by two and the mass by about four; if instead of the helium nucleus two hydro- gen nuclei were added, the charge would be the same, but the mass of the resulting atom two units less than with helium. In such a case two atoms would be possible of identical nuclear charge but different atomic weights. In a similar way it may be possible for elements to exist of the same atomic mass but different nuclear charges. This would be brought about by the loss or gain of one or more negative electrons in the nucleus. The study of radioactive elements has in the last year thrown a flood of light not only on this problem but on the underlying mean- ing of the periodic law of the elements. Russell, Fajans, and Soddy independently put forward a remarkable and important generaliza- tion in regard to the change of chemical properties of the successive products of transformation of the primary radioactive elements. This generalization can be very simply expressed in terms of the usual arrangement of the elements in groups according to the periodic law. It is found that after a transformation in which alpha particles are expelled the resulting element has chemical properties which shifts its place two groups lower in the direction of diminish- ing mass. On the other hand, the element resulting from a beta ray transformation shifts one place in the opposite direction. For ex- ample, radium, which is in Group II, changes after loss of an alpha particle into the emanation into group O, which included all the inert gases of the helium-argon type. The emanation after loss of another particle becomes radium A, which belongs to Group VI, and this in turn becomes radium B belonging to Group IV. Since CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 197 radium B is transformed by the loss of a beta particle, the resulting element, radium C, takes up a position in Group V. By this simple’ rule it has been found possible to define the essential chemical prop- erties of all known radioactive elements. It was found that on this theory one element was missing in the general scheme. This element was discovered a few weeks later by Fajans and Géhring and found to have the general chemical properties predicted for it. This generalization is capable of a very simple explanation on the nucleus theory. The loss of an alpha particle of charge 2 lowers the nuclear charge of the resulting elements two units; the loss of a beta particle, which carries a unit negative charge, raises the nuclear charge by one unit. In other words, the atomic number of an element shifts two units lower after loss of an alpha particle and shifts one unit higher after loss of a beta particle. The atomic numbers of the elements in the uranium-radium series can be simply deduced from this rule if the atomic number of one element is known. We shall see later that the atomic number of radium B is 82 and identical with that of lead. The actual atomic numbers of the various elements are given in the circles representing the atoms in figure 4. It is seen that uranium, the heaviest known element, has an atomic number, 92, while the elements radium BP, radium D, and the end product, which is believed to be lead, have the same atomic number, viz, 82. The evidence of the correctness of this striking conclusion will now be discussed. As a result of a careful examination of the radioactive substances it has been found that in a number of cases elements which are of different atomic weights and exhibit different radioactive proper- ties yet show identical general physical and chemical behavior. For example, the ‘elements radium “B, radium D, and_ lead, of atomic weights 214, 210, and 207, respectively, are so closely allied in chemical and physical properties that all attempts to separate a mixture of any two of them have failed completely. This would be explained if the nuclear charges were identical for those elements, as the generalization, already referred to, indicates. Tf this be the case they should give identical spectra under similar conditions. Unfortunately, the elements radium B and radium D are in too small quantity to determine their ordinary light spectra, but we can compare the X-ray spectrum of lead with that given by radium B under the excitation of its own beta rays. Experiments of this kind were recently made by Dr. Andrade and the writer, and the two spectra were found to be identical within the limits of experi- mental error. It is to be anticipated that their light spectra would also prove to be identical, or nearly so, for, as previously pointed out, the effect of the mass of the nucleus on the spectrum is probably very small. 198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The fact that the atoms of these three elements are not identical as regards mass or radioactive properties shows that the structure of the nucleus is different in each case. There is another important deduction that should be mentioned. The end product of the uranium-radium series is an inactive element which has long been considered to be lead, but it has been difficult to verify this conclusion by direct experiment. We have seen that the end product has the same atomic number as lead, but should have an atomic weight about 206 instead of 207, as found for ordinary lead. In a similar way it has been concluded by Soddy and Fajans that the end product of thorium has the same atomic number as lead, but should have an atomic weight about 208.5. In order to test these remarkable conclusions experiments are now in progress by a number of investigators in different countries to examine whether the lead always found in radioactive minerals, and which presumably has partly, if not wholly, a radioactive origin, shows the same atomic weight as ordinary lead. Soddy has already found evidence that there is a distinct difference in the atomic weights in the direction predicted by the theory.? The question naturally arises whether some of the ordinary ele- ments may not prove to be a mixture of two or even more of these isotopes, as they have been termed. Unless the component isotopes are present in different proportion in different natural sources of the element, it will be difficult to settle this problem by ordinary chemi- cal methods. There is one element, however, besides lead, from which some interesting evidence has been obtained on this point. Sir J. J Thomson found by examining the deflection of the positively charged particles produced by an electric discharge through the rare gas neon that two elements were present of atomic weights about 20 (neon) and 22. Aston was able by diffusion experiments to separate partially the two components of neon and to show that they differed in density, but failed in attempts to separate them by fractional dis- tillation in charcoal cooled by liquid air. Such results are to be anticipated if neon is a mixture of two isotopes; 1. e., elements of identical nuclear charges but different atomic weights. It is obvious that this new point of view will result in a systematic examination of the elements to test for the possible presence of isotopes, and thus give an additional reason for the accurate deter- mination of atomic weights for elements obtained from widely dif- ferent sources. 1 Since the delivery of this lecture similar conclusions have been reached by the experi- ments of Richards and Lembert in Cambridge and Hénigschmid in Vienna. ‘There still, however, remains some doubt as to the actual difference in atomic weight of uranium lead, thorium lead, and ordinary lead. A very promising beginning has thus been made on the attack of this most important and fundamental problem. ae CONSTITUTION OF MATTER——RUTHERFORD. 199 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM. It is seen that the nucleus theory of the atom offers a simple ex- planation of many important facts which have been brought to light in recent years, and for this purpose it has not been necessary to make any special assumptions as to the actual structure of the nucleus, or of the way in which the external electrons are distributed. The investigation of the latter problem is beset with many diffi- culties; for an electron is attracted toward the nucleus, and even if it is in orbital motion, it must, on the electromagnetic theory, lose energy by radiation and ultimately fall into the nucleus. It appears likely that this difficulty is in reality due to our ignorance of the conditions under which an electron radiates energy. According to the views outlined in this lecture, the hydrogen atom has the sim- plest possible structure, for it consists of a nucleus of one unit charge and one negative electron. The question naturally arises how such a simple structure can give rise to the complex spectrum observed for hydrogen. This problem has been attacked in a series of remarkable papers by Bohr, who concludes that the complexity of the spectrum is not due to the complexity of the atomic structure but to the variety of modes in which an electron can emit radiation. Suppose, for example, that a hydrogen atom has lost its negative electron. Bohr supposes that an electron falling toward the posi- tively charged nucleus may occupy temporarily any one of a number of stationary positions fixed relatively to the nucleus. In falling from one stationary state to another, radiation is emitted of a definite frequency v which is connected with the difference of potential energy E of the electron in the two stationary states by E=h v where h is Planck’s fundamental constant. On this hypothesis, he has been able to account for the series spectra of hydrogen and to deduce directly from the theory the value of Balmer’s constant which plays such an important part in the spectra of all atoms. In a similar way, the helium atom is supposed to consist of a nucleus of two unit charges surrounded by two electrons. On this theory, the spectrum of helium is connected in a very simple way with that of hydrogen. Bohr also pointed out that the Pickering series of spectral lines observed in certain stars which were originally attributed to hydrogen must be ascribed to helium. This conclusion has since been strongly sup- ported by the direct experiments of Fowler and Evans. In a similar way, Bohr described the possible distribution of electrons in several of the lighter atoms and also discussed the structure of the hydrogen molecule, which is composed of two hydrogen nuclei and two elec- trons. The heat of combination deduced for the theoretical molecule is in fair accord with experiment. He found that two helium atoms 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. were unable to unite to form a molecule—in agreement with a well- known property of this gas. While there is room for much difference of opinion as to the in- terpretation of the rather revolutionary assumptions made by Bohr to explain the structure of the simple atoms and molecules, there can be no doubt of the great interest and importance of this first attempt to deduce the structure of the simple atoms and to explain the origin of their spectra. The agreement of the properties of such theoretical structures with the actual atoms is in several cases so remarkable that it is difficult to believe that the theory is not in some way an expression of the actual facts. While much work will be necessary before we can hope to understand the structure of any but the simplest atoms, a promising beginning has been made in the attack on this most difficult and fundamental of problems. There seems to be little doubt that the more marked physical and chemical properties of an atom are to be attributed to a few outlying electrons in the atomic structure. The position and number of these valency electrons, as they have been termed by Stark, are defined by the magnitude of the nucleus charge. It has previously been pointed out that the loss of an alpha particle from a radioactive atom changes the position of the element two groups lower in the periodic table, while the loss of a beta particle raises it one group higher. Consequently it follows that the loss or gain of a unit charge from the nucleus of an atom causes it to change its position from one group to the next. If, for example, we follow the chemical properties of successive elements when the nucleus charge increases by unity, we soon reach an element which belongs to the same group as the first, although of much higher atomic weight. We must consequently con- clude that the number and position of the outlying electrons in the structure of the atom passes through successive changes which are regularly repeated with increasing atomic weight. Quite apart from any detailed knowledge of the electronic distribution of atoms, the regular recurrence of elements of similar chemical properties with increasing atomic weight is to be anticipated on the general theory that an atom is an electrical structure. EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTS. It has long been thought probable that the elements are all built up of some fundamental substances, and Prout’s well-known hypothe- sis that all atoms are composed of hydrogen is one of the best-known examples of this idea. The evidence of radioactivity certainly in- dicates that the heavy radioactive elements are in part composed of helium, for an atom of the latter appears as a result of many of the radioactive transformations. No definite evidence, however, has been ee CONSTITUTION OF MATTER—RUTHERFORD. 201 obtained that hydrogen appears as a result of such transformations; but as previously pointed out on page 191, helium may prove to be an important secondary unit in the structure of heavy atoms. While we have thus undoubted evidence of the breaking up of heavy atoms, no indication has yet been observed that the radioactive processes are reversible under ordinary conditions. Many investigations have been made to test whether new elements appear in strong electric dis- charges in vacuum tubes. While some of the results obtained are difficult of interpretation, no reliable evidence has yet been adduced that one element can be transformed into another under such con- ditions. The question of the evolution of the elements has been attacked from another side. Sir Norman Lockyer and others have suggested that the elements composing the star are in a state of inorganic evolution. In the hottest stars the spectra of hydrogen and helium predominate, but with decreasing temperature the spectra becomes more complicated and the lines of heavier elements appear. On this view it is supposed that the light elements combine with decreasing temperature to form the heavier elements. There is no doubt that it will prove a very difficult task to bring about the transmutation of matter under ordinary terrestrial condi- tions. The enormous evolution of energy which accompanies the transformation of radioactive matter affords some indication of the great intensity of the forces that will be required to build up lighter into heavier atoms. On the point of view outlined in these lectures the building up of a new atom will require the addition to the atomic nucleus of either the nucleus of hydrogen or of helium, or a combination of these nuclei. On present data this is only possible if the hydrogen or helium atom is shot into the atom with such great speed that it passes close to the nucleus. In any case it presumes there are forces close to the nucleus which are equivalent to forces of attraction for positively charged masses. It is possible that the nucleus of an atom may be altered, either by direct col- lision of the nucleus with very swift electrons or atoms of helium, such as are ejected from radioactive matter. There is no doubt that under favorable conditions these particles must pass very close to the nucleus, and may either lead to a disruption of the nucleus or to a combination with it. Unfortunately, the chance of such a disruption or combination is so small under experimental conditions that the amount of new matter which is possible of formation within a reasonable time would be exceedingly small and so very difficult of detection by direct methods. Very penetrating X rays or gamma rays may for similar reasons prove to be possible agencies for chang- ing atoms. Although it is difficult to obtain direct evidence, I per- sonally am inclined to believe that all atoms are built up of positive 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. electrons (hydrogen nuclei) and negative electrons, and that atoms are purely electrical structures. There can be little doubt that conditions have existed in the past in which these electrons have combined to form the atoms of the elements, and it may be quite possible under the very intense elec- trical disturbances which may exist in hot stars that the process of combination and dissociation of atoms still continues. In these lectures I have tried to give an idea of some modern views of the structure of the atoms and of the great variety of new and powerful methods which have been applied to the attack of this problem in recent years. We have seen that a heavy atom is undoubtedly a complex electrical system consisting of positively and negatively charged particles in rapid motion. The general evidence indicates that each atom contains at its center a massive charged nucleus or core of very small dimensions surrounded by a cluster of electrons, probably in rapid motion, which extend for distances from the center very great compared with the diameter of the nucleus. Such a view affords a reasonable and simple ex- planation of many important facts obtained in recent years, but so far only a beginning has been made in the attack on the detailed structure of atoms—that fundamental problem which lies at the basis of physics and chemistry. SUBMARINE SIGNALING—THE PROTECTION OF SHIP- PING BY A WALL OF SOUND AND OTHER USES OF THE SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH OSCILLATOR.? By R. F. Brake. Compared with other forms of transportation, the amount of energy necessary to transport water-borne freight is very small, and its cost would be cheap indeed if it were not for the dangers of the sea. We have fogs and rocky coasts, shoals and icebergs, cur- rents and storms to guard against, and these add. immensely to the expense. Of this we have had a very recent instance, for, as the result of the loss of the Titanic, vessels carrying passengers are now constructed with a complete double bottom extending above the water line; in other words, instead of a single ship we must now have two complete ships, one entirely inclosed by the other. And the loss of the Empress of Ireland indicates that even this may not be adequate. Bit by bit the dangers which beset the early navigators have been overcome. The chart told him the best course to take from one point to another. The mariner’s compass enabled him to main- tain his course when the stars were blotted out by clouds. With sextant and chronometer he located his position, with log and soundings he guarded himself when a sight could not be obtained. More recently wireless telegraphy has enabled him to call assistance in time of danger. But with all this, many dangers remain. The more important of these are due to fog. The North Sea, the English Channel, and the Grand Banks, the New England coast, the western coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Alaska, and other points are all of them subject to fogs, sometimes lasting for weeks at a time, and it is therefore not surprising that thousands of lives are still lost at sea each year. And there is not only loss of life; the pecuniary loss is also very great. It is no unusual occurrence for a score of steamers to be tied up at one time, unable to enter harbor on account of fog or of the combination of fog and rough weather. 1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, October, 1914. 203 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. In such a case the loss to the steamship companies in interest and depreciation on ships and cargoes and in wages may easily amount to more than $50,000 per day, and this loss occurs not once but fre- quently during a year, and on many routes. In addition to this, the danger of collision in fog adds very con- siderably to the cost of insurance, and some of our worst disasters have occurred in this way. Aside from those dangers peculiar to fog there remains a number of others. A continuance of cloudy weather or abnormal ocean currents, or both, may throw the navigator out of his reckoning and place him on a rocky shore a score of miles away from the safe route he assumes himself to be following. Icebergs still remain a menace in spite of all the efforts which have been made to guard against them. From time to time statements have been made that apparatus has been devised which is capable of locating their presence, but in every instance in which such apparatus has been tested it has proved a failure. The history of systematic marine protection by means of light- houses and beacons does not go back very far. It is true that there were a few lighthouses, such as the Pharos of Alexandria, centuries ago, but even in quite recent years a European Government received a petition for compensation from the inhabitants of a seacoast district on the ground that the erection of a lighthouse had deprived them of one of their principal sources of income, to wit, luring vessels on near-by shoals by means of false lights. The systematic employment of sound signals for marine protection is of still more recent date and has never been carried out fully, in spite of the fact that many of our greatest scientists, for example, Tyndall and Rayleigh, have devoted special attention to this matter. One reason for this is that sound signals produced in air are very erratic in their range and intensity, so much so as to be on many occasions absolutely misleading. This is due to the fact that when a fog horn is blown the sound may be carried by the wind or may be reflected or refracted by layers of air of different densities, with the result that the sound may be audible many miles away, while there may be a zone of complete silence extending from a few hundred yards in front of the signal to a distance of 4 or 5 miles. As this phenomenon is by no means infrequent, the result has been to discredit more or less this type of signal, and it will be evident that the knowledge that a siren had been installed at a certain dan- gerous point might prove a source of danger instead of a protection. As already stated, many eminent men have worked upon this problem, but it was not until Arthur J. Mundy, of Boston, suggested the use of water instead of air as the medium for transmitting signals and proved its value by practical demonstration that any great SUBMARINE SIGNALING—BLAKE. 205 advance was made. Water has many advantages over air for this purpose. 1. In the first place, it is free from the dangerous zones of silence which occur when the signals are produced in air. 2. In the second place, the absorption of the sound is much less in water, and consequently the signal is not only absolutely reliable but is transmitted to a distance many times greater than when it is transmitted through air. 3. The sound is not carried away by the wind in stormy weather, as is the case with the siren. 4. It is not affected by atmospheric disturbances, as is the case of wireless. 5. It permits of the accurate determination of the direction from which the sound is proceeding, which is not the case with either the air siren or wireless telegraphy. ‘Some recent instances where ships have signaled by wireless that they were in distress but have had to remain without assistance for many hours, and in one instance for more than a day, because their location could not be determined by the vessels coming to their aid, will be familiar to everyone. All these advantages indicated clearly years ago the advisability of developing apparatus for signaling by means of sound waves transmitted through the water itself. But it is one thing to conceive the idea and another élite to develop a practical system; and it may be of interest to know that up to the present time the sum of a million dollars has been invested in developing submarine signaling, so far without monetary return. The first method which was employed for producing the sound was through the striking of a bell, and the method of receipt of the signals was by means of a microphone attached to the skin of the ship. Neither the original bell nor the original microphone attach- ment was satisfactory. It would be impossible in the space permitted to discuss even briefly the innumerable experiments made with different sizes of bell, with different materials for the bell, with different methods of producing the blow, the precautions en to eliminate electrolytic action, with different types of microphone, with different methods of mounting the microphone on the side of the ship, with the experiments made to minimize water and other noises. It will be sufficient to say that finally the work of Mundy, Wood, Fay, Williams, and others resulted in a completely practical system. The submarine bell in use on the lightships is actuated by com- pressed air stored in a reservoir. The actuating wheel has projections mounted on it so-that when the wheel revolves a number of strokes 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, follow each other, the different intervals being peculiar to the dif- ferent signal stations, so that the captain of a ship by counting the strokes of the bell can determine what lghtship is producing the sound. In order to receive the sound it has been found absolutely necessary to suspend the microphone in a tank of water, for this is the only method of cutting out the water noises and the noises due to ma- chinery, etc., on board the ship which otherwise drown out the sound of the bell. One of these small water tanks, containing a microphone of a spe- cial type, is attached to each side of the bow inside of the ship. From each tank wires are run to a device which is called the indi- cator box, so arranged that by throwing the handle to one side the starboard microphone is connected to the telephone, and by throw- ing the handle to the other side the port microphone is connected. Tt will be obvious that once the bell is picked up the captain has only to turn his vessel until the sound is heard with equal intensity on each side, to know that his ship is then pointing in the direction from which the sound is coming, and in this way he can take com- pass bearings of the lightship on which the bell is situated. The importance of this method will be at once perceived. No matter how stormy or how foggy the weather may be, it enables the captain of a ship, on making land, to obtain at once the compass bearings of the nearest lightship or lighthouse fitted with a bell. How many vessels and how many lives this device has saved even in the few years during which it has been in use it would be im- possible to tell. Less sensational than the wireless telegraph, it may be questioned whether its actual practical utility to the merchant marine has not been greater. Compressed air, or an electromagnetic mechanism, may swing the hammer, or the bell may be operated by the waves themselves. i]. ‘Cite eattil aridini: ta eG bats snndnt fieor ween. Wit: : i Chie. hate rooztb a Bivixs on ODES OTe a asa i “ahiite Sri wishes. add to [LA oftrtirains phe rieosy Vain iois tine OTS ooh, daot 6 ud ay ot i tod) taney ert) dative SHIMLA Shes cL! owl @ ovott jolden aid doide tw “OstRtiigR ans € Farin: roabagy Wollat & od habrairast o one ott Raed Soubedkiganiio: yD, aaetr ioilt Fctaigts vw da apy 00 “ti petal’ voadon creibeaiaial 93, lguotly b ilepary fy df Eovoystion oct qplain bord bow eolnngdy Gi, iu but a sFels fori oo slab oldsuastvkep Efi. i ebay ai Betegosni » ult [le yd doteeeot bie % ak eee . ae a ‘ ~“’ ars a - y ac ene Rt a iaaarenteeenenaeamemtets oe a me eres Star fem 18. or’ te’ be SABTD: gist “ maMSLIEGD cintvSana OTB Vag, SOR Rehm an (I a a mest >» ae a a e ‘i: -, 4 et tT pee aM on THE PLACE OF FORESTRY AMONG NATURAL SCIENCES.* By Henry S. GRAVES, Forester, U. S. Department of Agriculture. In an old forest magazine, Sylvan, is a story about Germany’s great poet, Karl von Schiller. Schiller, taking rest at Illmenau, Thuringen, met by chance a forester who was preparing a plan of management for the Illmenau Forest. A map of the forest was spread out, on which the cuttings for the next 220 years were pro- jected and noted with their year number. By its side lay the plan of an ideal coniferous forest which was to have materialized in the year 2050. Attentively and quietly the poet contemplated the telling means of forest organization, and especially the plans for far-distant years. He quickly realized, after a short explanation, the object'of the work, and gave vent to his astonishment: I had considered you foresters a very common people who did little else than cut down trees and kill game, but you are far from that. You work unknown, unrecompensed, free from the tyranny of egotism, and the fruit of your quiet work ripens for a late posterity. Hero and poet attain vain glory; IT would like to be a forester. An opinion not unlike that held by Schiller before meeting with the forester still commonly prevails in scientific circles in this country. It is quite generally believed that foresters are pure empiricists; something on the order of gardeners who plant trees, of range riders who fight forest fires, or lumbermen who cruise timber, carry on logging operations or manufacture lumber and other forest products; that for whatever little knowledge of a scientific character the forester may need in his work, he depends on experts in other branches of science; on the botanists for the tax- onomy of the trees; on physicists, chemists, and engineers for the proper understanding of the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of the wood; on the geologists and soil physicist for the knowledge of sites suitable for the growth of different kinds of trees; upon the plant pathologist for the diseases of trees; upon the entomologist for the insect enemies of the forest, and so on. 1 Paper delivered before the Washington Academy of Sciences on Dec. 3, 1914. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C., Vol. 5, No. 2, Jan. 19, 1915. 18618°—sm 1915——17 257 258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Such an impression is undoubtedly strengthened when the. ac- tivities of such an organization as the Forest Service are considered. The placing under management of about 165,000,000 acres of forest land has been an administrative problem of enormous magnitude. The administration of this vast public property involves many large industrial and economic questions, and affects intimately a number of varied and important interests; the lumber industry, the grazing industry, water-power development, navigation, municipal water supplies, agricultural settlement, mining development, and the rail- roads. In launching this great public enterprise, undertaken in the face of strong opposition, administrative activities appeared to overshadow research work. In this way doubtless many scientific men have gained the impression that forestry has little to do with science, which seeks for the causal relationship of things and for the establishment of laws and principles; that forestry is rather a patchwork of miscellaneous knowledge borrowed from other sciences and assembled without particular system to help the practical ad- ministrator of forest property. My endeavor in this paper will be to show that this impression is erroneous. While it is true that forestry as an art, as an applied science, utilizes results furnished by the natural and engineering sciences; while it is also true that the forester’s activities, particu- larly during the pioneer period of establishing forest practice, may be largely administrative in character, there is nevertheless a funda- mental forest science which has a distinctive place. As with all others, the science of forestry owes its distinctive character to its correlation, from a certain point of view, of parts of certain other sciences, such as mathematics, botany, entomology, civil engineering, and chemistry. But these are only auxiliary to the resultant sci- ence—forestry—which rests upon a knowledge of the life of the forest as such, and which, therefore, depends upon the discovery of laws governing the forest’s growth and development. It is in this field chiefly that foresters may claim some scientific achievement, some contribution to general science. Sciences do not develop out of curiosity; they appear first of all because there are practical problems that need to be solved, and only later become an aim in themselves. This has been equally true of the science of forestry. The object of forestry as an art is to produce timber of high technical quality. In pursuing this object the forester very early observed that tall, cylindrical timber, comparatively free of knots, is produced only in dense stands, in forests in which the trees exert an influence upon each other as well as upon the soil and cli- mate of the area occupied by them. He further discovered that the social environment produced by trees in a forest is an absolutely essential condition for the continuous natural existence of the forest FORESTRY—GRAVES. 259 itself. If the forester had not found forests in nature, he would have had to create forests artificially in order to accomplish his prac- tical purpose, since it is only through the control and regulation of the natural struggle for existence between trees in the forest that the forester is capable of managing it for the practical needs of man. Thus from the very nature of his dealings with the forest the forester was forced from the beginning to consider the forest not merely as an aggregation of individual trees but as communities of trees—tree societies—and first, from purely utilitarian reasons, developed a science upon which the practice of silviculture now rests. Forestry as a natural science, therefore, deals with the forest as a community in which the individual trees influence one another and also influence the character and life of the community itself. As a community the forest has individual character and form. It has a definite life history; it grows, develops, matures, and propagates itself. Its form, development, and final total product may be modi- fied by external influences. By abuse it may be greatly injured, and the forest as a living entity may even be destroyed. It responds equally to care and may be so molded by skillful treatment as to produce a high quality of product, and in greater amount and in a shorter time than if left to nature. The life history of this forest community varies according to the species composing it, the density of the stand, the manner in which the trees of different ages are grouped, the climatic and soil factors which affect the vigor and growth of the individual trees. The simplest form of a forest com- munity is that composed of trees of one species and all of the same age. When several species and trees of different ages occupy the same ground, the form is more complex, the crowns overlapping, and the roots occupying different layers of the soil. Thus, for instance, when the ground is occupied with a mixed stand of Douglas fir and hemlock, the former, requiring more light, occupies the upper story and because of its deeper root system extends to the lower-lying strata of the soil. The hemlock, on the other hand, which is capable of growing under shade, occupies the under story, and, having shal- low roots, utilizes largely the top soil. There are forest communities, such, for instance, as those typical of northwestern Idaho, where western larch, Douglas fir, western white pine, white fir, western red cedar, and hemlock all grow to- gether. Such a forest is evidently a very complex organism, the stability of which is based on a very nice adjustment between the different classes and groups occupying the same ground. Any change in one of these classes or groups must necessarily affect the other. If, for instance, in the Douglas fir-hemlock forest the Douglas fir is cut out, the remaining hemlock trees are likely to die out because their shallow roots are left exposed to the drying effect of the sun and wind. 260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. It is only by a thorough understanding of such mutual adjustments that the forester is capable of intelligently handling the forest. With the great number of species that are found in this country, with the great, variety in climatic and other physical factors which influence the form of the forest, it is self-evident that there are many forest communities, each with distinctive biological characteristics, which offer a wide field for scientific inquiry. Amid the great volume of administrative phases of the work in the Forest Service this main objective has never been lost sight of in handling the national forests. The Forest Service is now spending nearly $300,000 annually for research work; it maintains eight forest experiment stations and one thoroughly equipped forest-products laboratory, and is doing this work solely to study the fundamental laws governing the life of the forest and their effect upon the final product—wood. Forestry may be called tree sociology, and occupies among natural sciences the same position as sociology among humanistic sciences. Sociology may be based upon the physiological functions of man as a biological individual. A physician, however, is not a sociologist, and social phenomena can be understood and interpreted only in the light of sociological knowledge. So also: with forestry. Forestry depends upon the anatomy and physiology of plants, but it is not applied anatomy and physiology of plants. With foresters anatomy and physiology of plants is not the immediate end, but enters only as one of the essential parts, without which it is impossible to grasp the processes that take place in the forest. As the science of tree societies, forestry really is a part of the larger science dealing with plant associations, yet its development was entirely independent of botanical geography. When the need arose for the rational handling of timberlands no science of plant association was in existence. Foresters were compelled to study the biology of the forest by the best methods available; they used the general scientific methods of investigation and developed their own methods when the former proved inadequate. I am frank to admit that the present knowledge of plant associations in botany has not yet reached a point where foresters could leave wholly to botanists the working out of the basic facts about the life of the forest which are needed in the practice of forestry. When the general science of plant associations has reached a higher state of development the two may possibly merge, but not until then. In developing the science of tree associations the forester has been unquestionably favored by the fact that the forests, being the highest expression of social plant life, afford the best opportunity for observing it. The reason for the ability of forest trees to form most highly organized plant societies lies in their mode of growth, Each annual FORESTRY—GRAVES. 261 ring of growth, together with the new leaves that appear every year, is in reality new colonies of cells. Some of the cells die toward the end of the vegetative season; others continue to live for a number of years. When the conditions of life in a forest have changed for a certain tree, when, for instance, from a dominant tree it became a suppressed one, the new colonies of cells formed during that year, and which sustain the life of that tree, are naturally adapted to these new conditions. The same is true when a suppressed tree, through some accident to its neighbors, comes into full enjoyment of light. The last annual growth is at once capable of taking advantage of the new situation created in the forest. Therefore as long as a tree can form annual rings it possesses the elasticity and adaptability essential for trees living in dense stands. It is only when a tree is suppressed to a point when it can not form new growth that it dies and is eliminated from a stand. Because of the fact that the forest is the highest expression of social plant life, the foresters occupy the strategic position from which they command vistas accessible only with difficulty to other naturalists. In this lies the strength of forestry, its peculiar beauty, and the debt which natural science owes to it. It is a significant fact, although, of course, only of historic importance, that, according to Charles Darwin! himself, it was “an obscure writer on forest trees” who, in 1830, in Scotland—that is, 29 years before the Origin of Species was published—most expressly and clearly anticipated his views on natural selection in a book on Naval Timber and Arbori- culture. For the same reason it was foresters, who, long before the word “ecology” was coined, had assembled a vast amount of mate- rial on the life of the forest as a plant association—the basis of their silvicultural practice. Warming, Schimper, and other early writers on ecology borrowed most of their proofs and examples from the facts established by the foresters, and the forest literature of to-day is still practically the only one which contains striking examples of the application of ecology to the solution of practical problems. One discovery recently made at the Wind River Forest Experi- ment Station, in Oregon, comes particularly to my mind. In north- western Idaho, where the western white pine is at its optimum growth and is greatly in demand by the lumberman, our former method of cutting was to remove the main stand and leave seed trees for the restocking of the ground. In order to protect the seed trees from windfall they were left not singly but in blocks, each covering sev- eral acres. The trees left amounted often to from 10 to 15 per cent in volume of the total stand, and since they could not be utilized later they formed a fairly heavy investment for reforesting the cut- over land. A study of the effect of these blocks of seed trees upon 1 Origin of Species. 262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. natural reforestation has proved that they can not be depended upon, at least within a reasonable time, to restock naturally the cut-over land. The distance to which the seed is scattered from these seed trees is insignificant compared with the area to be reforested. Splen- did young growth, however, is found here and there on cut-over land, away from any seed trees, where the leaf litter is not completely burned. It is evident, therefore, that the seed from which this young growth originates must have come from a source other than the seed trees. The study of the leaf litter in a virgin stand showed that the latter contained on the average from one to two germinable seed per square foot. Some of the seed found was so discolored that it must have been in the litter for a long time. Thus, it was dis- covered that the seed of the western white pine retains its vitality for years while lying in the duff and litter beneath the mature stands, and then germinates when the ground is exposed to direct light by cutting. It was found similarly that in old Douglas fir burns, where the leaf litter was not completely destroyed, the young growth in- variably sprung up from seed that had escaped fire and had been lying dormant in the ground. Should a second fire go through the young stand before it reaches the bearing stage, the land may become a complete waste, at least for hundreds of years, although there may be seed trees left on the ground. This conclusively proves that the young growth comes from the seed stored in the ground before cutting took place and not from the seed scattered after cutting by the seed trees left. The wonderful capacity of the leaf litter and duff of the cool, dark forests of the Northwest to act ‘as a storage medium for the seed until favorable conditions for its germination occur is confined not only to the Douglas fir and western white pine but to the seed of other species which often grow together with them, such as noble fir, amabilis fir, western red cedar, and hemlock. The subsequent appearance of other species in a Douglas fir or western white pine stand depends apparently, to a large extent, upon the seed stored in the ground at a time when the original forest still existed. This discovery revolutionizes our conception of the succession of forest stands, since it shows that the future composition of the forest is determined by the seed stored in the leaf litter; and the appearance of seedlings first of one species and then of another results simply from the differences in the relative endurance of seed of the dif- ferent species that are lying in the ground. Besides being of sci- entific importance this discovery has also a great practical signifi- cance. It accentuates the disastrous consequence of a second fire in an old burn, because no more seed remains in the ground while the capacity of the few seed trees that may be on the burn is very limited in restocking the ground. This discovery enabled the Service to FORESTRY—GRAVES. 263 change materially the present methods of cutting in the white pine and Douglas fir forests, to the mutual advantage of the Government and of the logging operators. I shall give briefly a few other illustrations of the life of the forest which stamp it as a distinct plant society. The first social phenomenon in a stand of trees is the differentiation of individuals of the same age on the basis of differences in height, crown development, and growth, the result of the struggle for light and nourishment between the members of the stand. A forest at maturity contains scarcely 5 per cent of all the trees that have started life there. Yet the death of the 95 per cent is a necessary condition to the development of the others. The process of differen- tiation into dominant and suppressed trees takes place particularly in youth and gradually slows down toward maturity. Thus, in some natural pine forests, during the age between 20 to 80 years, over 4,000 trees on an acre die; whereas at the age between 80 to 100 years only 300 trees die. With some trees this natural dying out with age proceeds faster than with others. Thus in pine, birch, aspen, and all other species which demand a great deal of light, the death rate is enormous. With spruce, beech, fir, and species which are satisfied with less light, this process is less energetic. The growing demand for space with age by individual trees in a spruce forest may be expressed in the following frgures: Square feet. PNP OORT SN Oil LO eo 2) ERs PEPER Ge te Pp Peed 2 td Bala pp ed ae Ps epg 4 PAIRS ORVEHT SPO ls ECR. rele feel eee al RR ORR) eet Te oe eS ees Ee 34 EN TOUSVCORSLOR ASCH. Mem eel Ss Loren ae ely 2 2 ee OE eee ee ee ees 70 A ep OURV Gar SOA pect* 5. ON 1 ee hk Se a ae eee a 110 At 100) VearSsOt he Ose = ne ee eee re a Se ee a ee ee 150 If we take the space required by a pine at the age between 40 and 50 years as 100, then for spruce at the same age it will be 87, for beech 79, and for fir 63. This process of differentiation is uni- versal in forests everywhere. Another peculiarity that marks a tree community is the difference in seed production of trees which occupy different positions in the stand. Thus, if the trees in a forest are divided, into five classes according to their height and crown development, and if the seed production of the most dominant class is designated as 100, the seed production for trees of the second class will be 88, for the third class 33, for the fourth class only 0.5 per cent; while the trees of the fifth class will not produce a single seed, although the age of all these trees may be practically the same. The same struggle for existence, therefore, which produced the dominant and suppressed trees works toward a natural selection, since only those which have conquered in the struggle for existence and are endowed with the greatest in- dividual energy of growth, reproduce themselves. 264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ? In a forest there is altogether a different climate, a different soil, and a different ground cover than outside of it. A forest cover does not allow all the precipitation that falls over it to reach the ground. Part of the precipitation remains on the crowns and is later evap- orated back into the air. Another part, through openings in the cover, reaches the ground, while a third part runs down along the trunks to the base of the tree. Many and exact measurements have demonstrated that a forest cover intercepts from 15 to 80 per cent of precipitation, according to the species of trees, density of the stand, age of the forest, and other factors. Thus pine forests of the north intercept only about 20 per cent, spruce about 40 per cent, and fir nearly 60 per cent of the total precipitation that falls in the open. The amount that runs off along the trunks in some species is very small—less than 1 per cent. In others, for instance beech, it is 5 per cent. Thus if a certain locality receives 50 inches of rain, the ground under the forest will receive only 40, 30, or 20 inches. Thus 10, 20, and 30 inches will be withdrawn from the total circulation of mois- ture over the area occupied by the forest. The forest cover, besides preventing all of the precipitation from reaching the ground, simi- larly keeps out light, heat, and wind. Under a forest cover, therefore, there is altogether a different heat and light climate and a different relative humidity than in the open. The foliage that falls year after year upon the ground creates deep modification in the forest soil. The changes which the accumulation of leaf litter and the roots of the trees produce in the soil and sub- soil are so fundamental that it is often possible to determine cen- turies after a forest has been destroyed whether the ground was ever occupied by one. The effect which trees in a stand have upon each other is not con- fined merely to changes in their external form and growth; it extends also to their internal structure. The specific gravity of the wood, its composition, and the anatomical structure which determines its specific gravity differ in the same species, and on the same soil, and in the same climate, according to the position which the tree occu- pies in the stand: Thus in a 100-year-old stand of spruce and fir the specific gravity of wood is greatest in trees of the third crown class (intermediate trees). The ratio of the thick wall portion of the annual ring to the thin wall of the springwood is also different in trees of different crown classes. The difference in the size of the tracheids in trees of different crown classes may be so great that in one tracheid of a dominant tree there may be placed three tracheid cells of a suppressed tree. The amount of lignin per unit of weight is greater in dominant trees than in suppressed trees. Forest trees in a stand are thus influenced not only by the ex- ternal physical geographical environment, but also by the new social FORESTRY—GRAVES. 265 environment which they themselves create. For this reason forest trees assimilate, grow, and bear fruit differently and have a different external appearance and internal structure than trees not grown in a forest. Forestry, unlike horticulture or agriculture, deals with wild plants scarcely modified by cultivation. Trees are also long-lived plants; from the origin of a forest stand to its maturity there may pass more than a century. Foresters therefore operate over long periods of time. They must also deal with vast areas; the soil under the forest is as a rule unchanged by cultivation and most of the cul- tural operations applicable in arboriculture or agriculture are en- tirely impracticable in forestry. Forests, therefore, are largely the product of nature, the result of the free play of natural forces. Since the foresters had to deal with natural plants which grew under natural conditions, they early learned to study and use the natural forces affecting forest growth. In nature the least change in the topography, exposure or depth of soil, etc., means a change in the composition of the forest, in its density, in the character of the ground cover, and so on. As a result of his observations, the forester has developed definite laws of forest distribution. ‘The forests in the different regions of the country have been divided into natural types with corresponding types of climate and site. These natural forest types, which, by the way, were also developed long before the modern conception of plant formations came to light, have been laid at the foundation of nearly all of the practical work in the woods. , 210 BRUNE GOS : ae =x) 2 — ee se SO oe SS CEES at LEG SOB RIMS: YO ote I GST SZ Fi re se 2 ~ & : Ogee On aI Die ae <= Pe DP I FW OA REG. OD ital 3 Bo == a>: & 2a eo 2 Fic. 4.—Cross section of wood of Eysenhardtia polystachya. (See description, p. 287.) me a3 Sy geceee SB8ibe OF mz 2 Dio*e he ZS i 250000 a c=) Bae. no% =) Com) oF 0c a f y Oc to cP Serre ease erry fe ——" 5 fos So 6 Pe. IOQEIOR 25S2Io3 2 tr)» S 2 A hacer” ee 4 a : sas t “ fea \\e= K ) 5 b prey Fic. 5.—Radial section of wood of Lysenhardtia Fic. 6.—Tangential section of wood of Lysen- polystachya. hardtia polystachya. LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM—SAFFORD. 289 mounted in borax-glycerine (one part to ten) showed a greenish veil of fluorescence due to diffusion, while sections from which the fluorescent substance had been completely extracted with boiling water had lost every vestige of fluorescence, though the resin-like masses remained undissolved in the pitted trachee. This substance proved to be remarkably resistant. Dr. Mann had already found that it would not break up in alcohol or xylol. Mr. Clevenger’s experi- ments showed further that it was also insoluble under ordinary tem- peratures in chloral hydrate, benzol, petroleum ether, chloroform, 50 per cent potassium hydrate, 10 per cent sulphuric acid, 10 per cent hydrochloric acid, and carbon bisulphide. Tl. Parmierrnt Lignum Nrruriticum. Pterocarpus indicus. The early history of the Philippine lignum nephriticum is closely associated with the Jesuits, who concerned themselves wherever they went not only with their religious duties, but with scientific investigation in many fields. The first written account of it (1701) was that of the Rev. George Joseph Kamel, or Camellus, in honor of whom the well-known genus Camellia was named. Although from a botanical point of view his description was inadequate, yet he established its identity beyond a doubt by giving its vernacular names: narra, naga, and asana. The wood itself he describes as “from brownish to reddish, ttirning water, in which it is soaked to a sea-blue color,” and he calls attention to its medicinal virtues, especially as a remedy for renal calculus. ORIGIN OF CUPS. Another Jesuit, Father Delgado, speaks of the wood under the same common names and tells of cups made of it in southern Luzon, which he identifies with similar cups he had seen at Cadiz about the year 1700, when he was a child; and it was from the procurator of the Society of Jesus in Mexico that the Jesuit Kircher received the famous cup of lignum nephriticum, with which he performed his experiments already cited “on a certain wonderful wood, color- ing water all kinds of colors.” Delgado tells of two kinds of naga, or narra, one rose colored, which he calls the male wood, and the other, much paler in color or white, which he calls female wood. He tells of trees of both the red and white wood of enormous dimensions, yielding boards of such 1“ Lignum ex subfusco rufescens, aquam in qua maceratur colore, inficiens cymatili.”— Camellus, G. J. Deser. Fruct. & Arb. Luzonis ad Jac. Petiverium, Pharmac. Londinens. missae, anno 1701, in Raiius, Joan., Hist. Plant., vol. 3, append. p. 79. 1704. 18618°—sm 1915 19 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. great width that a single one “ sufficeth for making a door or a table.” After praising the wood for its usefulness for construction purposes and for its durability when exposed to moisture, he speaks of its reputed medicinal virtues, and adds: The city called Nueva Caceres by the Spaniards bears among the natives the name Naga, on account of the abundance of this tree throughout those prov- inces of Camarines and Albay, where they carve very curious cups out of it for drinking water. Those made of female naga are much the better, for this wood tingeth the water very quickly to a celestial color, more quickly than the male. These cups are much esteemed in Europe and are regarded as a gift well worthy of any prince. Out of one of these cups they made me drink when I was a child, in Cadiz, as a remedy for hydropsy and oppilation, and I think that it might have helped me had I not drunk too much.* This description of Delgado, written in 1754, but remaining unpub- lished until 1892, certainly connects the Philippine wooden cups with those of Kircher and Bauhin, which really were presented to an emperor and to a noble duke. Indeed, it is quite probable that the wood originally described by Monardes was of Philippine instead of Mexican origin; for it must be borne in mind that for a long time after the discovery of America the only trade route from the Philip- pines to Spain was by way of Mexico, and many products of the “Indies” attributed to New Spain (Mexico) were really of Philip- pine or East Indian origin. ‘The “ white” wood of which Kircher’s cup was made might well have been the pale narra or “ female” wood, which from long continued use yielded a very pale or even white infusion, and the variegated wood yielding red sawdust, described and figured by Bauhin, was without doubt the red or “male” narra of the Philippines. These two kinds of wood were believed by Padre Blanco to come from distinct species of Pterocarpus. He described the tree yielding the pale wood as a new species, Pterocarpus pallidus, while he errone- ously referred the red wood to the East Indian Pterocarpus san- talinus, which is the source of the well-known “red-sanders wood ” of commerce.” The vernacular names given by him for these trees are narra, naga, asana, daitanag, and apalit. Padre Blanco’s Pterocarpus pallidus has been identified with Peterocarpus indicus, a species previously described from the little island of Amboyna in the Malay Archipelago; and his so-called P. santalinus, quite distinct from the younger Linnaeus’s species of that name, has been named by Mr. E. D. Merrill Pterocarpus Blancoi; but, as Mr. Merrill has already suggested,’ it is so very close to the first species that it is perhaps not specifically distinct from it. 1 Delgado, J. J. Hist. gen. de las Islas del Poniente, Nlamadas Filipinas, p. 415. 1892. 2 Blanco, Manuel. Flora de Filipinas, 560, 561. 1837. ® Merrill, E, D. Philippine Journ. of Science, Botany, 5:100. 1910. LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM—SAFFORD. 291 Specimens of narra wood from the Province of Cagayan, Island of Luzon, were obtained by the writer from the newly installed wood collection in the United States National Museum. The sapwood, beautifully flesh tinted, with pale, red lines of growth, and with large, conspicuous pores, bears little resemblance to that of Kysen- hardtia but does resemble the palwm indianum figured by Johan Bauhin. Moreover, it is almost as soft as cedar and its grain is more or less twisted, while the dark-colored heartwood of Kysenhardtia is hard, like lignum-vitz, and its grain is close and straight. This wood had formed part of the Philippine collection at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, where it had been exhibited as a valuable timber and cabinet wood. No notes on the fluorescence of its in- fusion accompanied the specimens, nor any indication that the wood is used medicinally. On placing a few chips of the wood in or- dinary tap water the latter soon became tinged a yellow color, which deepened at length to orange, displaying a most beautiful fluores- cence hardly to be distinguished from that of Kysenhardtia wood. At the request of the writer a cup was turned from this wood by Mr. James B. Conner, of the United States Department of Agriculture; and water, when allowed to stand in this cup, showed the same color effects as those described by Bauhin. Like the water in his cups the infusion assumed in a short time “a wonderful blue and yellow color, and when held up against the light beautifully resem- bled the varying color of the opal, giving forth reflections, as in that gem, of fiery yellow, bright red, glowing purple, and sea green most wonderful to behold.” This infusion as seen in a glass flask, to- gether with the cup described above, is shown on plate 1 (opp. p. 271), reproduced from a water-color drawing by Mrs. R. E. Gamble. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. The genus Pterocarpus, belonging to the Leguminosz, bears little resemblance to Eysenhardtia, although, as in that genus, the fruit is an indehiscent one-seeded pod, and the leaves are pinnately com- pound with large leaflets alternate or opposite, but without stipels. The yellow, papilionaceous flowers are borne in panicled racemes and: the pedicels are jointed at the apex. The turbinate, or top- shaped, calyx curved before opening, bears 5 short teeth, 2 above and 3 below. The exserted petals are narrowed at the base into long, slender claws, and the broad standard and wings are crisped, or frilled, around the margin, while the keel is linear. The androecium is diadelphous, consisting of 1 free stamen and 9 stamens united into a sheath which is slit either above and below or only above. The 2-ovuled ovary borne on a short stalk and bearing an incurved style 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. develops into a large 1-seeded orbicular indehiscent pod surrounded by a broad, rigid membranous wing with the point on one side or turned toward the base. The tree yielding the Philippine lignum nephriticum may be described as follows: Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Sp. Pl. 3: 904. 1800; Prain, Indian Forestry 26, Append. 9: 7. 1900. Pierocarpus pallidus Blanco, Flora Filip. 560. 1837. A large forest tree with a trunk often provided wit broad but- tresses with drooping branches. Leaves 8 to 10 inches long, com- posed of 5 to 9 usually alternate leaflets; these 2 to 4 inches long and 14 to 2 inches wide, the terminal one usually the largest, ovate with rounded, rarely tapering base and rounded, abruptly and obtusely acuminate apex, the main nerves hardly more prominent than the secondary beneath. Inflorescence composed of lax panicles, little branched, all except the endmost one issuing from the axils of leaves, peduncle long, rachis and pedicels glabrescent; pedicels three-tenths of an inch long with two linear caducous bracteoles at the jointed apex. Flowers yellow, corolla papilionaceous, twice as long as the calyx, the standard and wings frilled on the margins. Pod orbicular broadly winged, borne on a stipe three-tenths of an inch long, the style on one side, some distance from the base, the margin of the wing between the stipe and the style convex. Plate 6 is reproduced from a photograph of a specimen of Ptevo- carpus indicus in the United States National Herbarium, together with a piece of the wood from which the cup shown in plate 1 was turned. This species, which is endemic in the Philippines and the Malay Archipelago, has been introduced as a shade tree in many localities in the tropics. According to Major Prain, it does not occur spon- taneously either in India or Burma, but it has been confused with the well-known padouk (Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz) which is endemic in the vicinity of Mandalay and in other parts of Burma. It is interesting to note that the wood of the Burman padouk varies in color very much like that of the Philippine narra, and it is impos- sible in the forest to distinguish a tree yielding red padouk from one yielding yellow or pale-colored wood. | The genus Pterocarpus, as Prain has pointed out, is an exceed- ingly important one. In addition to the narra and padouk already mentioned, it includes the trees that yield the gum kino of commerce (Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.), endemic in India and Ceylon; the red sanders (Péterocarpus santalinus L.), a much smaller tree of southern India, usually with 3-foliolate leaves; and the Andaman vermilion, or redwood (Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb.), which Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Safford. PLATE 6. LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM PHILIPPINENSE, PTEROCARPUS INDICUS WILLD. FROM THE ISLAND OF LUZON. LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM—SAFFORD. 298 by many botanists has hitherto been confused with Pterocarpus indi- cus, but which Prain has shown to be quite distinct. Specimens of padouk and of Andaman redwood were obtained from the wood col- lection of the United States National Museum. Only one variety of the former was secured, a beautiful red wood with distinct dark an- nular lines of growth. Of the Andaman wood there was an abun- dance of material of several varieties, deep scarlet (from which its American trade name, “ vermilion wood,” is derived); brownish, tending to flesh-color; and with mixed red and brownish streaks. Chips of the deep-red Andaman wood when soaked in ordinary tap water scarcely colored it at all, and showed no fluorescence in ordi- nary sunlight. Chips of both padouk and of pale-colored Andaman wood, on the other hand, yielded a distinctly fluorescent infusion. STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD. Microscopic sections of the wood of Pterocarpus indicus and P. dalbergioides were studied by Dr. Arno Viehoever, pharmacognosist of the Bureau of Chemistry, and his assistant, Mr. J. F. Clevenger. They found that the resistant resinlike bodies occurring in the large pitted trachee of Hysenhardtia polystachya were absent in both species of Pterocarpus. The color of the Pterocarpus wood is caused by certain colored bodies present in variable quantities in all parts of the wood. A study of distinct red masses, occurring chiefly in the medullary ray cells of the sapwood and heartwood (red and light colored streak) of Pterocarpus dalbergioides, shows a variation not only in the number of these masses but also in their solubility. Solubility tests were carried out with thin sections and observed under the micro- scope with the following reagents: Water, absolute alcohol, acetone, chloroform, ether, petroleum ether, concentrated hydrochloric acid, 50 per cent potassium hydroxide and ammonium, at room tempera- ture, giving the following results: In the sapwood the colored bodies, which are relatively scarce, were not dissolved in any of the reagents. In the light-colored streak the colored bodies were soluble in 50 per cent potassium hydroxide and ammonium. In the red wood the colored bodies, being abundant, were readily soluble in absolute alcohol, acetone, 50 per cent potassium hydroxide and ammonium. In Péerocarpus indicus yellowish brown bodies, found almost en- tirely in the medullary ray cells. occur somewhat diffused throughout the cells in minute granules and in somewhat larger masses near the end of the cells. These masses are less definitely outlined than the red bodies of Pterocarpus dalbergioides and were soluble in 294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. water, 50 per cent potassium hydroxide, and 5 per cent hydrochloric acid. To determine the fluorescing power in the wood of Pterocarpus indicus and P. dalbergioides, pieces of each of known weight were treated with hot absolute alcohol. On the addition of a few drops of alkali, fluorescence was shown in each extract. The process was continued until fluorescence could no longer be detected by means of the fluorescence lamp. After the alcohol extraction was com- pleted, the same samples were boiled in water until no further fluorescence could be observed. The results demonstrated the fact that stronger fluorescence was displayed by the aqueous extracts, indicating either that the fluorescing substances are more easily soluble in water than in aleohol or that probably some of the fluor- escing substances present are soluble only in water and not in alcohol. Tn all cases fluorescence was observed, by means of the fluorescence lamp, in dilutions less than one to one hundred thousand parts, except in the sapwood of Pterocarpus dalbergioides, which yielded only a weak fluorescence in the aqueous extract. In the heartwood of this species the bright red portions show only slightly stronger fluorescence than the sapwood, while the paler streaks show the strongest fluorescence of all. The Philippine narra, Pterocarpus indicus, shows a much stronger fluorescence than any part of the Andaman redwood, as the writer has already stated; but not so strong as the Mexican lignum nephriti- cum, H'ysenhardtia polystachya of equal dilution. Dry wood sections showed no fluoresage when observed in the fluorescence microscope. After mounting them in borax glycerine, a greenish veil of diffused light was observed. There was no evidence that the colored bodies showed a stronger fluorescence. In fact, the fluorescence could still be observed in sections where the colored bodies were almost entirely removed, as in the red heartwood, and where the color bodies are very scarce, as in the light sapwood. It is therefore believed that the red colored bodies are not the cause for the fluorescence. FRUITS OF PHILIPPINE PTEROCARPUS. Pterocarpus Blancoi is very closely related to P. indicus, as Mr. Merrill has already pointed out, differing from it chiefly in its larger pods and its relatively narrower leaflets. Pterocarpus echinatus Pers., which also occurs in the Philippines is distinguished by its prickly pods, and its leaflets are sometimes long-acuminate. It was mistaken by Vidal for Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir., an African LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM—SAFFORD. 295 species, sometimes called rosewood, or African rosewood, and after- wards described as new by Rolfe, who named it P. Vidalianus in Fia. 7.—Fruits of Philippine Pterocarpus. a, Pécrecarpus indicus; b, P. Blancoi; c, P. echtnatus. Natural size. Vidal’s honor. Major Prain was the first to recognize its true iden- tity. Figure 7 shows pods of the three Philippine species of Ptero- carpus. MEXICAN SPECIES OF PTEROCARPUS. Owing to the marked fluorescence of infusions of Philippine Pterocarpus woods, Méller assumed that the Mexican species must yield similar infusions, but he had no opportunity of verifying this assumption. Of the wood of the tropical American Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. (P. draco li.) very little is known. In Porto Rico it grows in swampy places to a height of 40 to 60 feet, with a trunk 14 to 18 inches in diameter. The wood is described as soft and of a dirty white color, used for fuel and sometimes for making fire screens, and is known locally as palo de pollo or “ chicken wood.” Pterocarpus pubescens (H. B. K.) Spr. (Amphymenium pubes- cens H. B. K., Pterocarpus amphymenium DC.), supposed by Moller to be the true lignum nephriticum Mexicanum, and P. orbieulatus DC. are likewise imperfectly known. Figure 1, page 279, shows a Humboldt and Bonpland’s type, now in the Paris Museum (collected "996 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. in the Cafiada de Zopilote, between Zumpanga and Mezcala, State of Guerrero) contrasted with a leaf of Hysenhardtia adenostylis Baill. from Guatemala. \ Pterocarpus acapulcensis Rose, shown on plate 7, is apparently much more closely related to the Philippine narra. Of Pterocarpus uphyllus Micheli the leaves have never been described. It is inter- esting to note that the common names of both these species suggest the red, bloodlike exudation which flows from wounds made in the trees. Pterocarpus acapulcensis is locally known as drago, or drag- on’s blood tree, and P. aphyllus (possibly identical with A. pubes- cens) is called llora-sangre, from the fact that the tree weeps tears of blood. This substance, which has been called “dragon’s blood,” must not be confused with the dragon’s blood of Sumatra and Bor- neo, which is derived from a climbing palm, Daemonorops draco (closely allied to the genus Calamus), nor with the dragon’s bloods of Socotra and the Canary Islands derived from yuccea-like trees of the genus Dracaena. Its affinity is rather with the substance called gum kino exuded by Pterocarpus marsupium of India and Ceylon; and the same may be said of the so-called dragon’s blood derived from Pterocarpus officinalis. One thing is certain: The red, gummy sub- stance which exudes from Pterocarpus trees, called sangre de drago by the Spanish colonists has nothing to do with the fiuorescent ex- tract obtained from the wood. Several plants, quite distinct botani- cally, are known in Mexico as sangre de drago, or sangregrado. In addition to species of the leguminous genus Pterocarpus may be men- tioned Jatropha spathulata and Croton draco, belonging to the Euph- orbiaceae. ‘l'o the latter the ancient Mexicans applied the name ezquahuitl (from the Nahuatl eztli, blood, and guahuitl, tree). It is quite possible that the name tlapalezpatli (blood-red-tincture medi- cine) may have.been applied to a species of Pterocarpus; but without a description of the tree or a figure, it is impossible to determine this definitely. f SUMMARY. Lignum nephriticum, celebrated throughout Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries for its diuretic properties, but chiefly re- markable for the fluorescent properties of its infusion, comes from two distinct sources: (1) From a Mexican shrub or small tree, Eysenhardtia polystachya, the wood of which was used by the Hon. Robert Boyle (1663) in his well-known experiments on the fluo- rescence of light; (2) from a large tree of the Philippine Islands, Pierocarpus indica (Pterocarpus pallida Blanco), the wood of which, described by Kircher (1646) and Johan Bauhin (1650), was at one time commonly made into cups by the natives of southern Luzon. It is possible that cups were also made from allied species of Ptero- Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Safford. PLATE 7. PTEROCARPUS ACAPULCENSIS ROSE, THE DRAGON’S BLOOD TREE OF ACAPULCO. a ae LIGNUM NEPHRITICUM—SAFFORD. 29'7 carpus growing in Mexico, but there is no record of cups of known Mexican origin. That which Kircher received from the procurator of the Jesuits in Mexico had in all probability been brought as a curiosity to Mexico from the Philippines, for at that time the only trade route from the Philippines to Spain was by way of Mexico. It is also quite probable that Monardes’s wood and the wood men- tioned by Hernandez as being carried on shipboard in the form of large logs was Philippine lignum nephriticum. The source of lignum nephriticum has remained uncertain for so long a time owing to the following causes: (1) Neither the Mexican nor the Philippine wood is known in its native country by the name hignum nephriticum; (2) from the beginning of its history the two woods bearing this name among pharmacologists were confused; (3) pharmaceutical material and cups were unaccompanied by botanical material; (4) botanical material in herbaria was lacking in wood and was usually unaccompanied by economic notes; (5) the original botanical descriptions of the species yielding lignum nephriticum were unaccompanied by references to the phenomenon of fluorescence ; (6) the source of the wood described by Monardes was sought in Mexico, but was in all probability of Philippine origin; (7) attempts were made to identify the Mexican plant described by Hernandez with the wood described by Monardes and the cups described by Kircher and Bauhin, which only led to confusion. The botanical identity of the Mexican lignum nephriticum was first indicated in 1854, by Dr. Leonardo Oliva, of the University of Guadalajara. It was established with certainty by the writer, January 6, 1915, through the exhibition of the wood and its fluores- cent infusion accompanied by botanical material from the mother plant. The identity of the Philippine lignum nephriticum was clearly . indicated, under its vernacular names, in 1701 by the Jesuit, George Joseph Rael: and the origin of the cups carved from the wood was revealed in 1754 by another Jesuit, Padre Juan J. Delgado; but the work of the latter remained in manuscript until 1892. Its botanical classification was first established in 1837 by Padre Blanco, in his Flora de Filipinas, under the name Pterecarpus pallidus, which i is now regarded as a synonym for Pterocarpus indicus. Closely allied to the tree, which yields Philippine lignum nephri- ticum are the padouk of Burma (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) and the Andaman redwood (Pterocarpus dalbergioides), both of which pro- duce red and pale colored varieties of wood. The padouk yields a fluorescent infusion very much like that of the Philippine narra. An infusion of the deep red variety of Andaman wood shows little 1 See Safford, W. E. ‘‘ Hysenhardtia polystachya, the source of the true lignum nephriti- cum mexicanum.” Jour. Wash. Acad. 5: 503-517. 1915. 298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, or no fluorescence, while that of the pale variety yields a distinct fluorescence. Authors have hitherto tried to trace ignum nephriticum to some one source. Dr. Otto Stapf, after a careful study of the history of the wood and experiments upon a specimen of “cuat!” from the Mexican collection in the Paris exposition, was convinced that the mother plant of lignum nephriticum is L'ysenhardtia amorphoides. Dr. Hans-Jacob Miller of Copenhagen after an equally exhaustive study was confident that the source of lignum nephriticum was not Kysenhardtia but a Mexican tree belonging to the genus Ptero- carpus. It was assumed by Dr. Stapf that both the reddish palum indianum of which Johan Bauhin’s historical cup was made and the “ white” wood yielding an infusion like pure colorless spring water of which Kircher’s cup. was made were identical with the dark-colored wood used by Robert Boyle in his study of fluorescence. The erroneous conclusion would necessarily follow that the logs which Hernandez described as “larger than very large trees” were those of Hysenhardtia, although it is quite certain that this genus includes only shrubs and small trees. On the other hand Moller endeavors to make Hernandez’s description of coatli, with its tiny leaflets suggesting the foliage of the chick-pea or Gommon rue, apply to the genus Pterocarpus, of which all the known species have large leaflets in no way comparable to those of the plants mentioned. In the present paper the two distinct sources of the woods called lignum nephriticum are for the first time definitely indicated, the fluorescence phenomena displayed by infusions of each described and illustrated, and the origin of the celebrated cups of Kircher and Bauhin traced to the country where they were made. 1 See Science, n. s. 48: 482, March 24, 1916, IMPRESSIONS OF THE VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS.* By Louis AGAssiz FUERTES.’ [With 16 plates. ] I. THE WRENS. Roughly speaking, wrens’ songs improve in direct ratio with the humidity and darkness of their haunts. This, at least, is the vivid impression one gets from a field acquaintance with the tropical genera, Heleodytes, Donacobius, Thryothorus, Henicorhina, and Pheugopedius. So far as I have been able to discover, all the cactus wrens except Heleodytes bicolor (which also differs in several other respects), are possessed of only a harsh, vigorous, and impertinent scold—a sort of angry, chattering noise, more or less closely imitated by pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth and forcing the air out of a small opening behind the back teeth. All the speckle-breasted cactus wrens species have this note, and, so far as I know, no other that approaches a song, much less a wren song. Our own south- western species simply repeats a lazy, cross rrr, rrrr, rrrr, while the Mexican bird, Heleodytes zonatus, seems to try to yell “ brak-a-co-ax,” rapidly repeated, but still in the unmistakable cactus wren burr. If song is of any value as a philogenetic character, Yeleodytes bicolor certainly deserves to be lifted out of the prying and ill-natured group it now graces, and set down somewhere near the big wren-thrashers of the genus Donacobius,’ for it shares with them a loud, liquid song which is not given by the male alone, but by both sexes at the same time. This countersinging by the female, so far as I am aware, is not generally known among birds, but it is certainly practiced by this species, as well as by all forms I know of Pheugopedius, Henicorhina, 1 Reprinted by permission from Bird-Lore, vol. 15, no. 6, vol. 16, nos. 1, 2, 8, 5, 6. 2 Tilustrated by the author. 3 Donacobius is a wren-like thrasher or thrasher-like wren which is usually placed in the family Mimids., 299 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, and Donacobius. In all these cases the birds sit close together, the male a little above the female, and his song is usually louder and more brilliant than hers. Meleodytes bicolor gurgles a loud, clear, oriole-like “ Keep your feet wet.” The female, 3 inches below and a little to one side, parallels this advice with an evenly timed “ What d’you care?” in perfect unison, usually, with the reiterated phrases of her mate. Donacobius does it somewhat differently, as the female only says “wank, wank, wank,’ while the male sits just above and sings almost exactly like a cardinal, or a boy whistling loudly to his dog, hui, hut, hut. If the male gives only three phrases, so with the female; if, however, the male repeats his whistle a dozen times, the female begins and ends in exact time with him. This curious habit I verified a number of times. Still more interesting is the fact that both sexes of Donacobius possess an inflatable sac of bright yellow skin on the sides of the throat, which, when the bird sings, puffs out to the size of a cherry, and is a very queer and conspicuous char- acter. When singing, they look down, hump up the shoulders, puff out the neck, and give their strange duet from the top of a marsh weed or dead bush, and then, wren-like, drop down into hiding. All the Pheugopedius wrens are gifted with the most astonish- ingly loud and clear whistles. A wondrous thrushy quality is theirs, with an unbelievable range in the form and forte of their songs. Both sexes sing, usually close together, and when one is hushed in the deep silence of the fern-filled forest of the humid mountains, tense for the tiniest pip of a manikin or the mouselike run of an ant-thrush, it is enough to raise one’s hair when right in one’s ear explodes a loud, astonishingly clear “bloong-wheee-rip- - wheeoo,” rapidly repeated, frequently seconded by a less showy “We'll whip you yet” of the female. Tt would be hard to describe a tangible difference between the songs of Pheugopedius and Henicorhina. Certainly there is no such dif- ference in volume or range as the tiny size of the latter would lead one to suppose, for the diminutive wood wrens are by no means always distinguishable by their songs from their larger cousins, and the variety and timbre of the notes of one genus is as endless as in the other. While no description or literal syllabification can do much to bring up an “audital image” of a bird song, my notes, written only for my own recollection, have these cryptic bits as the framework upon which I hook my remembrance of Henicorhina songs: “ Y’ought to see Jim, Y’ought to see Jim,” “ But Mary won’t let you” (repeat four times), “ Whip-wheéoo, correéoo.” Perhaps no songs heard in the Tropics are so characteristic or make such a strong impression on the mind and desire of a naturalist as these romantic and mysterious wren songs. ‘They assail the ear ssnqyvdpo1p sniqoonuUog? "DJIYSOINI] DULY LODUAEL "USHSVYH L—NAYM G3eddVO-NOVIG "NSYM GOO = “| ALVId *seHONjJ—'S16| ‘Hodey uriuosy}iWS Smithsonian Report, 1915,—Fuertes. JAMAICAN SOLITAIRE. Myadestes solitarius. PLATE 2, weet VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 301 while riding along the mountain trails, and are the unending goal of many a sweltering still hunt through the mosquito-full but otherwise Sabbath-still forest. For me, at least, a deep, humid mountain forest never ceases to have a hushing, even oppressive, effect. Awed and tense, I find myself a foreign and discordant note in the giant stillness. With this half-guilty feeling, and hushed by the stern ereen silence, hypnotized, as it were, into a sort of subjective identity with the Sunday-like vacuum of sound and keyed to a nervous ex- pectancy in tune with the heavy odorous stillness, the sudden singing of any of these brilliant-voiced wood wrens is sufficiently startling to make one recoil, lumpy-throated, and it is often more than a mere second or two before the readjustment into the normal frame of mind can be made. The wrens of the genus Thryophilus, which are closely allied to our Carolina wren, deserve a high place in the scale of singers. I think the Colombian species! are the most versatile and surprising singers in the entire family; and this is indeed high praise, for few, if any, birds of their size can surpass the wrens in volume and brilliancy of tone. II. TINAMOUS, PARTRIDGES, AND SOLITAIRES. In the Tropics, as in more familiar scenes, the bird songs of the fields are frank, pastoral, and prevalent. With us, the meadowlark, field sparrow, vesper, and song sparrows pipe often and openly, and from May to October their notes are almost constantly in the air. But the forest birds are more reluctant singers, and their rare notes are all mystery, romance, and reclusive shyness. The field sparrow will sit on a dock stalk and sing, looking you in the eyes; the veery will quietly fade away when your presence is discovered. So it is, even to a more marked degree, in the Tropics. In the open pastures and on the bushy slopes of the Andes one hears the shrill piping of the “four-wing” cuckoo (Diplopterus), the insistent kekking of the spurwing plover, the dry, phcebelike fret of the spinetails (Synallavis), the lisping insect songs of grassquits, and, from the bordering forest edge, the leisurely whistling of orioles. But enter the forest, and all is of another world. For a long time, perhaps, as you make your way through the heavy hush of its darkened ways, no sound strikes the ear but the drip of water from spongy moss clumps on broad leaves. You feel yourself to be the only animate thing in your universe. All at once, perhaps far off through the forest, perhaps close behind you, you hear the strangely moving whinny of a tinamou. I think no sound I have ever heard has more deeply reached into me and taken hold. Whether it is the 1Thryophilus rufalbus, T. leucotis, and T. albipectus bogotensis. 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. intensity of feeling that a deep, silent forest always imposes; the velvet smoothness of the wailing call; the dramatic crescendo and diminuendo that exactly parallels its minor cadence up and down a small scale; something, perhaps the combination of all these, makes one feel as if he had Rent caught with his soul naked in his hands, when, in the midst of his subdued and chastened revery, this spirit voice takes the words from his tongue and expresses so perfectly all the mystery, romance, and tragedy that the struggling, parasite- ridden forest diffuses through its damp shade. No vocal expression could more wonderfully convey this intangible, subduing, pervasive quality of silence; a paradox. perhaps, but not out of place with this bird of mystery. Only less appealing are those other chaste singers in the cloud forest, the solitaires. It is, indeed, a strange sensation, in uncanny harmony with the unexpected familiarity one always feels in a Tropic forest, when, thinking vaguely of thrush songs, the silver note of a solitaire crystalizes the thought. There are many kinds, and they have varied song types beyond most similarly unified genera. The most typical is simply a lovely hermit thrush song, giving that effect of a private hearing so graciously done by our own thrushes. For seme elusive reason, it seems as if these birds always sang as the shy perquisite of the favored few, and thus, perhaps, it is that their songs never become common. Our own Townsend’s solitaire has a very different melody, a blithe, grosbeak warble, frequently given in larklike flight, quite unlike any of the tropical species i ie heard. These are all of the chaste, contemplative type, given from a perch part way up in the forest, and in frequent accompaniment of splashing water in mossy and fern- fringed ravines. Jfyadestes ralloides, of the Andes, sings almost ex- actly like a hermit thrush, as does I/yadestes unicolor, of Mexico, while A/yadestes solitarius, of Jamaica, singing from the tree ferns up on Blue Mountain, reminded me strongly of the varied thrush heard in the dark, cold spruce flats of the Alaskan coast. What a transposition! A vibrant, steadily crescendo note, as true as a violin, fading to nothing. Then another in a new key. A rich, descending broken scale followed, after a pause; then an exceedingly high trill, swelling and dying. These singers were common at about 5,000 feet, and their choral chanting was an experience to be long remembered. Myadestes obscurus, of southern Mexico, has a song more spontaneous and overflowing than the other tropical species; I thought of a bob- olink when I first heard it. The song began high in the scale, and very loud; then through the rich progression of its bubbling cadences it gradually fell in pitch and lost volume till it died out, as with loss of breath. This is the “jilguero” of the natives, while VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—-FUERTES. 303 unicolor is known as “clarin.” Distinguished from these as “jilguero de la tierra” are the wrens of the genus Leucolehis, which have a way of singing at your very feet, hidden under the ferns and low growing soft plants of earth. Theirs too, are violin tones, and, though the songs are not rare, the singer is seldom seen, however patiently you search or wait for him in the mosquito-ridden air of his dripping haunts. It has always seemed a mystery to me how these little birds of the cloud forest keep dry. They are, indeed, the only dry thing you would encounter in a week’s hunt, for overhead all is oozing water, all the leaves are shiny wet, and underfoot is soaking, rotting vegetable mold or deep muddy ooze, that frequently lets you in over your boot tops. In the same forests that shelter the tinamou and solitaire dwell the evasive and ventriloquistic wood partridges (Odontophorus). These are richly garbed in velvety, rotten-wood colors, with all the minute mothlike pattern of whippoorwills. But wonderful as is their coat, it is their vocal performance that gives them real distinc- tion, for besides the familiar partridge clucking and pipping heard only at close range and therefore seldom, they possess a loud rollick- ing call that may be heard a mile or more across the forested course of a mountain river. Once, while I was pussy-footing along a little water trail in the hope of again seeing a golden-headed trogon, I was congealed for the moment by a load, explosive alarm at the end of a fallen and rotting bole that lay just before me. “ Kivelry, cavalry, kivelry, cavalry, pt’, pt’, pt’, t’ t’ t’ t,’ and up popped a brown velvet bird, called once more and dropped, already running, on the other side of the log. The call, at close range, had a roosterlike quality not noticeable in the distance, and J was surprised to see that the whole complicated and rapid performance was the work of one bird. Perhaps it is a sort of statute of limitations that makes us con- stantly compare new bird songs with familiar ones at home. Per- haps it is the paucity of our language that renders description almost futile. But occasionally a resemblance is so striking that no alterna- tive suggests itself. Sweltering in the heat and glare of the Andean foothills, veins throbbing with the exertion of the climbing hunt, exhaustion screaming for a let-up, and temper getting thin, some- thing turns over inside one when, of a sudden, comes the cheery, old- home “bobwhite” of the little crested Hupsychortyx quail. Ap- pearances would never suggest the close relationship, but this little fellow, 3,000 miles from home, says “ bobwhite ” without a trace of accent, striking a primitive chord that does queer things for the moment to the inner you, caught unawares. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. III. ORIOLES, FLYCATCHERS, FINCHES, AND THRUSHES. A comparative study of the notes and songs of the birds of the Tropics and their familiar northern representatives is certainly not less interesting than the study of their physical resemblances and differences. And here it may be suggested that resemblances, which are of greatest value as showing relationships, are even more elusive and hard to follow out than are more physical characters. Differ- ences are of negative importance; resemblances alone count in tracing racial affinities. In this respect the great family of tropical orioles hangs together as a unit and ties closely to its more familiar northern offshoots. From the tiny Mexican orchard oriole to the crow-sized oropendolas there is some subtle quirk of tone that makes them all recognizable to anyone having a single good acquaintance in the family. I think no birds in tropical America have given me more pure fun with their vocal performances than the big yellowtails, or orepen- dolas; Gymnostinops in southern Mexico, and the various species of Ostinops in Colombia. I can not now remember any striking differ- ences in their songs or calls, except that Gymmnostinops combines more gymnastics with his effort than mere Ostinops. But everywhere in tropical America the loud rasps, chucks, and gurglings of these great orioles are as characteristic as the steady flashing of black and gold in the burning sky as they wing overhead from bank to bank of the great rivers. They are all highly polygamous, and I have frequently seen them demonstrate a most watchful and efficient warden service in favor of the old males. After one shot you may stalk and stalk the big black Sultan, “ quisking” from the bare dead spike above the forest roof, only to be defeated time after time by the party of six or eight silent and watchful females perching around him at lower points. Silent— that is, until you get within about twice gunshot of their lord—when they suddenly squawk and yell, and the old boss “ yips” loudly and, with batting wings, leaves for foreign parts. The calls of the male, given from a high perch with a commanding view, may be variously described: A loud, vigorous “quisk”; an equally carrying but very liquid “churg,” ending inside an empty cask; a series of dry, ascending clicks or twig snaps, probably done with the enormously strong and hollowed bill. But his true song, to eall it so, defies description or imitation without all the “traps” of the triangle man in the orchestra. Imagine a performance lasting only about 2 seconds, commenced by breaking off a handful of willow sticks, then running into a rising series of “ choog-choog-choogs,” to end in loud, explosive “ keow,” easily audible at a quarter of a mile. This is only the vocal part of the performance, and is accompanied Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 3. TINAMOU,. Crypturus. ‘s MEXICAN OROPENDOLA—SINGING. Gymnostinops montezuma. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. ANDEAN WHITE-THROAT. Brachyspiza capensis. ae DERBY FLYCATCHER. Pitangus sulphuratus derbianus. PLATE 4. PSII SEL EEE EO BAHAMAN THRUSH. Mimocichla bahamensis. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 805 by a contortion of which the cowbird’s spring effort gives a mild idea. The bird first looks down, ruffles the nape feathers and elevates the tail, and then, clattering the bill and emitting the other sounds that he alone is capable of, falls forward, clapping his wings lustily over his back, until he is under his perch with his bill pointing directly up. Now he delivers his last explosive yell, wings and glorious tail all outspread to their utmost, and by means of his first foothold, not relinquished in his effort, and with wings folded, he draws himself back to his first position, where he sits ruffled for a minute or two. Then, depressing his feathers, he repeats his acro- batic song. The males are a full half larger than the females and have enormously developed legs and feet, apparently for this per- formance, recalling a raven’s foot; while the females have the usual slender, gracklelike feet of the family. One never need be bored when there is a colony of these striking and virile birds in the vicinity. Some of the typical orioles and troupials have exceedingly bril- liant, if monotonous, songs, and they are kept as pets in nearly every house in the towns or along the trails in Colombia. Jcterus meso- melas nearly drove us insane with his piercing song in the hotel in Cali, repeating it incessantly from his cage at our door. Fig. 1. All orioles are great singers of little tunes, usually going just enough off key to get on your nerves, and this is only one of hundreds of such little phrases. The hooded oriole group have a deliciously naive way of singing little “earless” tunes, like a small boy on his reluctant way to school, whistling himself along the road. This is the most companionable bird song I know and has frequently been real company to me when hunting alone along the banks of tropical rivers and in the foothills. It would be impossible here to take up more than a few of the striking types of this large family of brilliant singers, but.it would certainly be doing the whole group an injustice not to mention the wonderful silver and golden songs of one of the black offshoots of the family, Dives dives of Yucatan. This glossy beauty was very common at Chichen-Itza, and was a source of constant marvel from the variety, richness, and volume of its notes. I can not describe them, nor even remember them concretely, but I was at once reminded of the pastor bird I had once heard in the Philadelphia zoo. It had all the deep-throated richness of the best oriole songs, combined 18618°—sm 1915——20 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. with a sweetness more thrushlike and of infinite variation. Among all the varied and rich songs about the place—wrens, orioles, and thrushes—on my first morning afield in the continental tropics, Dives made the one deep and lasting impression above all others, in the classic and thrilling surroundings of the ruined Maya city. While orioles are always within hearing, I think that doubtless the most. pervasive and ever-present sounds in the Tropics come from the even larger family of flycatchers. From the blue, lonesome, plaintive little “phew” of Myiarchus 1. platyrhynchus and the equally despondent sighs of some of the Hlainias, to the executive “vips” of the big-billed and derby flycatchers, these characteristic sounds are ever in the ear. So far as I know only one flycatcher can really be proclaimed as a singer with a real song different from his ordinary calls and scolds. ‘This one exception is no less distin- guished by his coat from the rest of the rather somber-colored family. The gorgeous little vermilion flycatcher has a simple but very sweet song; lispy and thin, but delivered with great devotion. Darting like a flame up into the flood of sunlight, he reaches a point about a hundred feet from earth, and then, with scarlet crest spread out like a hussar’s hood and head thrown back, he floats lightly down on trembling wings, lisping in ecstacy his poor sweet little song, “Cirivi cirivi cirivi.” It is hardly noticeable even among the little finch twitters along the roadside, but for a flycatcher it is remark- able; and surely no gifted thrush or lark ever went to his matins more devoutly. It is a strange contrast to the usual flycatcher utterances, which are loud, raspy, egotistic, and highly commandeering. Our kingbird is a fair example of the family, with the greatcrest as a good amplifier of the impression. It is the forest flycatchers, like the wood pewee and some of the Hlainias, that have the lost-soul, hollow-hearted plaints; the sun-loving kinds are very kings of earth in their noisy self-confidence. The finches and sparrows in general do not add much to the tropi- cal mélange of bird music. They are, frequently birds of great beauty, and all have some blithe little song, “finchy,” and character- istic of each species. However, to a sparrow falls the distinction of being the most widely distributed singer we encountered in South America. It is safe to say that anywhere in the Andes above 2,000 feet, from the Pacific to the Orinoco slope, the little Andean white- throat, Brachyspiza, will cheer the traveler with his brief and pleas- ant piping. “It is sweet cheer, here,” gives the phrase and accent. It is more like an abbreviated fox-sparrow song than anything I can recall. I shall always feel a personal debt to its cheery optimism, as it sang daily in the court of the hotel in Bogota in the clammy chill of the damp days 9,000 feet above sea, while I was fighting through the fever contracted in the lowlands. He gave my scram- —————————————— lO VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 807 bled and fevered brains the one tangible hold I had with the won- derful world outside, and it recalled nearly all of our associations in South America. Some of the roadside finches and grassquits have curious and ex- plosive little buzzy sounds. Volatinia, a raven-black mite living along the hedge-rows, has an amusing song-habit. Sitting on the top of a grass or weedstalk he suddenly rises in bee-like flight about a yard into the air; at the apex of his little spring he turns a rapid somersault, with a volatile “ bzt,” and drops back to his perch. . The whole effort takes perhaps a second. Most of the tanagers, which grade insensibly into the finches, are not much when it comes to singing. However, the larger Saltators have clear, whistled songs that are highly characteristic. They are leisurely soprano songs, usually heard from thickets of soft growth on the mountain sides. One song heard in the Eastern Andes that I ascribed to S. atripennis, though I could never quite satisfactorily prove the singer, was as loud, pure, and wide-ranged a song as I have heard. Though quite complicated it was always identically the same in form and range. Two long descending slurs, one ascending, a long descending trill, then a descending run in couplets (like a canyon wren), a rising slur, and a final short trill on a high note. In many songs, heard in several localities, this scheme was closely followed. The mountain forests of the Tropics furnish an endless and enchanting field for this kind of study, which our hasty survey and limited time unavoidably rendered all too superficial and frag- mentary. We found, as a rule, that the gemlike tanagers of Calospiza, Chlorochrysa, etc., were nearly devoid of song. Their drifting flocks, sifting along through the tree ferns and higher levels of the forest, were much like a flock of migrating warblers, always’ made up of several species, and their little lisping sounds were further reminders of our northern tree gleaners. The cotingas, as a rule, were silent, though some of the more flycatcher-like, such as Tytyra, have loud, buzzy calls, and the big ones, like Pyroderus and Querula, have deep, pervasive vocal sounds hard to describe, but fairly easy to imitate. The tiny and gorgeous manikins all make loud, staccato “pips,” out of all proportion to their diminutive size. . The thrushes, however, are quite as satisfactory singers in the Tropics as they are in New England. The robin group, Planesticus, is large and varied from Mexico south, and we had many chances to study and compare them in song and actions. P. gigas, of the Andes of Colombia, considerably bigger than a blue jay, and solid dusky but for his corn-colored bill, feet, and eyelids, had a dis- 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. appointingly weak and squealy song. Members of the ¢ristis group, however, are to me the finest singers of the whole genus, trilling, piping, and warbling with the greatest abandon and purity of tone. They are shy singers, and rarely to be heard except after long silence in one spot. P. jamaicensis, heard with a divine accompani- ment of solitaires, lost nothing of its beauty by the comparison. The related genus J/elanotis, the “blue mockers,” are accomplished and brilliant singers, with much of the well-known quality of all mockingbirds. But they rank very high, as do the members of the interesting Antillean group, A/imocichla. I shall never forget a concert I once heard on New Province, in the Bahamas. We were out in the “coppet,” or woods, collecting, in the afternoon. About 4 o’clock a drenching thunderstorm broke, and for an hour we were subjected to as thorough a wetting as could be desired, and most of our efforts went toward keeping our specimens from getting soaked. After a time, however, it stopped almost as suddenly as it had begun, and through the breaking sky the level rays of a declining sun reddened the straight columns of the pines and glistened from the wet and shining foliage of the broad-leaved trees. Suddenly, and so robin-like that I was for a moment quite moved, there com- menced a chorus of delicious and brilliant singing that I have no similar recollection of. It was from the “blue thrasher,”’ d/imo- cichla plumbea, and for a few breathless moments we were carried into an enchanted realm that it is still a joy to remember. The music was no less scintillating than its clean and glistening setting. It is perhaps too bad, and a sign of limitation that we should hesi- tate to admit, that the songs that please us most are apt to be those - that perfect or glorify songs we already know at home. It may even not be true, but I think, nevertheless, that no bird songs have ever given me a more welcome turn of heart than some of these tropical thrushes, which carry farther the lovely qualities of intona- tion so richly present in our hermit thrush’s song. The group known as Catharus, true thrushes, haunt the moist, ferny mountain forests, and from, the quiet fragrance of these silent places come the exquisite silvery bell tones of their songs. They sing from the ground or very near it, and never have I heard them lift their voices high. But their tone is more pure, their delivery more perfect, and their chaste cadences more prismatic and rich than those of any other thrush I know, and I should find it hard to pick the slightest rift within the lute. It is upon these tender, ineffably sweet flutings that I base my concept of a perfect bird song. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—-FUERTES. 309 IV.—ANT-THRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES, AND WOODHEWERS. To northern perceptions and training the ghostly, long-legged forest ground-runners, generally known as ant-thrushes, make an immediate and lasting appeal. The many species of Grallaria, For- micarius, and Chameza, finding their most congenial surroundings among the tree ferns and moss-filled undergrowth of the wooded slopes, at once impress the student with their presence, but leave him, after however long an acquaintance, with little more knowledge of their lives and doings than he had on first hearing their invitation to the game of hide and seek they so skillfully and persistently play. They are all strictly terrestrial and, on the rare occasions when they fly, they keep so close to the ground that their dangling feet almost touch. Indeed, I suspect that they fly only upon some special stimulus, ordinarily going about on foot. The commonest and most generally distributed species in Colombia is Grallaria ruficapilla. It is about as big as a robin, but is almost round, stubby tailed, big eyed, and comically long legged. But while it was really a common bird, and its whistled compra pan was almost constantly in our ears in all three ranges of the Andes, not over six or seven were taken. Certainly nine out of every ten efforts to see the author ended blindly, even though they responded immediately to a whistled imitation of their notes. But so silent is their approach, and so densely are their ground haunts veiled by ferns, large fallen leaves, earth plants, and other visual obstructions, that they may call almost from between your feet with impunity, while with pound- ing heart and eager eyes you fail to penetrate the veil of intervening leafage. I have usually found that, while all these ground-running birds answer eagerly to a call, they are very easily satisfied on seeing its author, and usually the response, now almost under foot, suddenly fails, and the little feathered mouse that gave it swiftly and silently trots away after one quick look at the huge imposter. I think we all had certainly scores of these little ground ghosts within 15 to 20 feet, and not one-tenth of them gave us so much as a fleeting glance at them. Grallaria’s note can always be closely imitated by a whistle. The call of the common compra pan, whose name is the Spanish literation of his call, has a very “quaily” quality when heard near at hand. Three drawled notes—A, F, G, the first and second three tones apart, and the last between. We came to recognize this as an exact marker of the lower line of the second life zone, beginning at about 4,500 feet. This species goes up almost to the upper limit of trees, and adheres closely to the cloud forest. I never heard any variation in the song except, when the bird is near the limit of its curiosity, the 310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. last note sometimes drops off in a throaty slur, instead of rising a tone: A, F, E. On the west slope of the Eastern Andes we found another species, G. hypoleuca, whose song, though readily recognizable as a Grallaria, was radically different in form. One longish note on B; a rest; then about five ascending notes a scant semitone apart, and four to the second. This bore a striking resemblance to the first half of Chameza brevicauda’s song heard on the eastern slope of the Eastern Andes at Buena Vista, and is almost identical with that of Grallaria rufula from the highest timbered ridges of this chain, except that here the pause is omitted and the song is higher, beginning on E. Little Grallaria modesta, from the eastern foot of the Andes at Villavicencio, has a most characteristic little song, all on E. It has seven sharply staccato notes, forming a perfect crescendo to the fourth, then diminishing to piano again at the end. The middle note is strongly accented. This little hermit lives in the sweltering weed thickets along the sun-baked beds of the lowland streams. I shall never forget an hour in a burr thicket, with nettle accompani- ment, at a temperature of perhaps 115°, trying to find the elusive author of that queer little song. At least five times I had him within close range, but never could I see more than a ghost of a movement or the sudden wiggle of a fern rubbed against in his approach. Nearly discouraged, with hair, eyebrows, and clothes matted thick with little burrs, almost exhausted with the heat, I at last hit upon a very effective scheme. Deliberately clearing out a space of 10 or 15 feet and a tapering lane through which I could watch the opening, by gently approaching the sound I drove it to a point well beyond my clearing and retreated to my station. Waiting here a few min- utes in silence, I repeated the call, in full loudness, until I got a response. Then, as the bird approached, I did the call more softly, to appear farther away and allay his wariness. My unfair subter- fuge worked, and the little long-legged piper entered my trap unsus- pecting, and I was able to identify it. We had not encountered this species before, and never saw it again after leaving the torrid low- lands about Villavicencio. I was never able to identify the song of the big slaty-blue breasted G. ruficeps in the uppermost forest zone above Bogota. These were all the species of the genus that I per- sonally encountered. On the wooded slopes above Villavicencio we found another bird conspicuous in song, but spiritlike in actions. We at first thought it was a Grallaria, but it proved to be a closely allied bird, Chameza brevicauda, very similar, but with shorter legs and more delicate bill. Jt had a curious song of about seven gradually ascending “ toots,” followed by four or five queer little falling yelps, “ oot, oot, oot, oot, Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 5. COMPRA PAN. Grallaria ruficapilla. PLATE 6. Fuertes. Smithsonian Report, 1915. THE ‘‘NOON-WHISTLE.” Chamexza turdina. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—-FUERTES. 311 oot, oot, oot—elp, elp’, elp’, ulp’, ulp’.” It was common, and, because the forest was much opener and almost like our woods, it was much easier to find and see. But, even so, many more were heard than we were ever able to discern, and we never got over a feeling of victory when we succeeded in seeing the singer. The color gradation was so perfectly adjusted to the lighting in the woods that only a motion was visible, and that scarcely. In the dark, fog-steeped forest along the culm of the Central Andes a closely related species, darker in color, gave me one of the great song sensations of my life. I heard a sharp, loud, “ wip-wip-wip,” and ascribed it to one of the wood quail. I hunted it, unsuccessfully, until I was discouraged and exhausted. Also I became dully aware of a distant and long protracted whistle, which I vaguely attributed to a steam whistle in some neighboring village. So does our common sense become dulled when we are confronted by unfamiliar surround- ings. On my tired way back to camp I realized that there were neither mills, steam, nor villages in these mountains, which are un- broken virgin forest for a hundred miles or more either way. Per- haps I had heard a cicada. I could scarcely credit a bird with such a prolonged sound as this. The next day I went back to solve the thing. When, after two hours of steep ascent, I had reached the 8,000 foot level, I heard again my mysterious whistle. Listening carefully, and imitating it as well as I could, I was able to discern that the sound became definitely more loud and distinct. No insect, this. Soon I could analyze it quite closely, and found it to be a very gradually rising crescendo, beginning about on C, and a full though slightly throbbing or tremolo whistle. I was astonished at its duration, for I could detect no time at which a breath could be taken. Timing three successive songs, I found them to endure 47, 57, and 53 seconds! This was more than twice the length of any continuous song I have ever heard, the win- ter wren being second, with 28 seconds. But in this broken song there are surely many opportunities to catch the thimblefull of breath a wren can hold, while the Chamwza song was one long, unbroken, and constantly increasing sound. Eventually my singer came so near that I was afraid of scaring it away by the imperfection of my imitation, which required a full breath out, an in-breath to full lung capacity, and then the last bit of breath I could expel to accomplish even a 40-second song. So I sat silent, tense, and eager, hoping almost against hope that the mystery bird would reveal himself. Suddenly, almost at my heels, a song be- gan. Very soft and throaty at first, gradually rising and filling, the steady throbbing crescendo proceeded until I was so thrilled that I was afraid I couldn’t stand it any longer. I dared not move, as I 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. was in plain sight, on the edge of a scar in the earth from a recently uprooted tree. Finally, though, the tension was relaxed; the song ceased. Where would it be next time? In front of me? Or would the singer see me and depart for good, still a mystery? Even as I was thinking these things a ghostly-silent little shadow sped dangling past me and came to a halt about 30 feet away, half lost in the dark fog, on the far side of the raw little clearing. In awful anxiety lest he become swallowed up in the mist and lost to me, and with a great effort not to lose the dim impression of the faintly seen bird, I moved slightly for a better view. My long watch was futile, for my spirit bird disappeared. I sat awhile and mourned, with a great deal of invective in my heart. But soon realizing that this was futile, I de- cided to practice the song I had learned. Imagine my surprise, after the first attempt, to hear, close by, the loud wip-wip of yesterday and to see it followed almost immediately by another ghost bird, which had the grace to alight or stop running (I couldn’t be positive which) within range and in sight. This proved to be (@. turdina. Although we often heard the curious protracted song later, when we went to the top of the range, we never again caught sight of this little-known bird, and this specimen remains unique in the whole South American collection. The several species of true ant-thrush, Yormicarius, all have char- acteristic notes, combined with the same skulking, rail-like habits of the foregoing. The recently described Colombian form of 7. ruf- pectus has two sharp whistles, the last a semitone above the first. This, in our experience, was never varied. J’. analis connectens, from the lower forest zone of the eastern foot above Villavicencio, had a song the exact reverse of that of Grallaria hypoleuca; a loud note on G, followed, after a rest, by a close descending scale of three or four semitones. Formicarius, like Grallaria, has a sort of clucking qual- ity when heard near at hand. Few brush birds have more distinctive notes than the ant-shrikes of Thamnophilus and their relatives. The commonest one we en- countered, 7’. multistriatus, has the characteristic dry, woody, de- scending scale common to many species. It strongly suggests in quality the spring “rucking” of a nuthatch. It might be written ruk, ruk, ruk, uk, uk, k, k, k beginning lazily and gathering speed as it descends. All these birds put much effort into their calls and sing with head up and tail down. The latter moves noticeably at each note and, as with the trogons, we came to look for the vibrating tail when hunting them. The many species have different notes, but most are readily recog- nizable as 7hamnophilus when any one of them becomes thoroughly familiar. Until one has had real experience with tropical birds, it is Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PEATE 7. ANT THRUSH. Formicarius rufipectus carrikert. PLATE 8. Fuertes. Smithsonian Report, 1915. ANT SHRIKE. Thamnophilus multistriatus. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—-FUERTES. 313 hard to work up much of an interest in the great mass of dull-colored brown and gray birds that form such a large proportion of the whole. In a case of South American birds the eye alights on the brilliant tanagers, callistes, trogons, cotingas, and hummingbirds, and ignores all the myriad flycatchers, ant-thrushes, furnarian birds, and other dullish and negative-colored things. But in the field the sense of sound enters and combines with the very interesting habits of the more obscure species. I can hardly subscribe to the popular idea that tropical birds are as a rule bright-colored and devoid of song after listening with an appreciative ear to the morning chorus in a Mexican or South American forest. One of the most extensive and typical families is that of the Den- drocolaptide, or woodhewers. They are, in actions, overgrown brown creepers. There are many genera and almost endless species. As a family it is nearly as extensive and varied as the family of finches, though all have a single general type of coloring that is hardly de- parted from. The great, flicker-sized Dendrocolaptes, the tiny A enops, and all between, are mainly wood-brown varying from rusty to olive, and streaked or not, but never boldly marked. They are also fairly unanimous in their songs, though of course there is considerable variation. Most that I have heard have a harsh, raspy note of alarm or displeasure, and many species sing a loud, ringing song that strongly recalls our canyon wren—“ tee, twee, tui, tui, tooi, tooi,” a descending series of whistles, which, pure and piercing in the lesser species, becomes coarse and “ woodpeckery ” in the larger. There are really no fine singers in this group, although several make pleasant sounds in the spicy-scented slashings, and all are interesting. They are rather silent birds, as a rule, and, as the family contains many rare and curious types, which are elusive and tricky, they are a never- ending source of interest and curiosity. The woodpeckers may be dismissed in a sentence. Their calls and notes are all perfectly typical of the group as we know it in this coun- try, and I recall no species that deviate noticeably from the well- known types of cries and calls by which we recognize our own species. V.—TOUCANS, CUCKOOS, TROGONS, MOTMOTS, AND THEIR ALLIES. The principal sensation one gets in the tropical forests is the mystery of the unknown voices. Many of these remain forever mysteries unless one stays long and seeks diligently. JI am very sure that many sounds I now tentatively attribute to certain birds really belong to others, though several are among the striking sounds. The toucans are all noisy birds, and for the most part they are all very boldly marked with strongly contrasting colors, all but the small green members of the genus Aulacorhamphus being brightly 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. dashed with black, yellow, red, white, or blue, with bills as bizarre as they are huge. Andigena is commonly called the “siete color” (seven color) from his Joseph’s coat of black, blue, red, yellow, chest- nut, green, and white. Pteroglossus, as an entire group, is garbed in the most strikingly contrasting patterns of black, yellow, red, and green, with bills of enormous relative size and painted like a barber’s pole. Rhamphastos, containing the biggest of all toucans, with beaks like elongated lobster-claws, of all imaginable and many un- imaginable designs in black and yellow, white, red, blue, green, or orange are themselves principally black, trimmed with a yellow or white throat and breast, and lesser patches of red and white or yellow at the base of the tail. One would naturally suppose that with these flashy colors and their noisy habits and large size, toucans would be among the easiest. of birds to find; but this is far from the case. I think we all found them to be as hard to locate, after their calls had given us their general whereabouts, as any of the birds we en- countered. The little green snarlers of the genus Aulacorhamphus, whose harsh voice seemed to me to sound like the slow tearing of a yard of oilcloth, were in many places quite common; but only those whose movements disclosed them ever fell into our hands, for it was about hopeless to discover them when they were sitting quiet among the leafage. The blue-breasted group, Andigena, we encountered only once or twice. The only one I saw I got from the steep trail in the Central Andes, and it was to the rattling accompaniment of horns of some 50 pack oxen we were passing on the narrow road. The excitement the shot caused among the startled beasts gave me other things to think of at the moment, and I do not now remember whether my “siete color” had a voice or not. When I finally re- trieved him he was some 40 yards or more down the steep and tangled mountain side. In this connection it may not be out of place to offer one suggestion in explanation of the great difficulty of locat- ing these large and apparently gaudily colored birds in the tropical woods and in retrieving them when shot. To our northern eyes, used only to green leaves seldom larger than our hand, the extravagant wealth of size, form, and color in tropical vegetation offers quite as much wonderment and occupation as do the birds themselves; and here we have a diversion of the attention, however unconscious it may be, that certainly has its effect. Added to this, there are actual variations in the accustomed color of the foliage that repeat with greatest suggestiveness any red, yellow, blue, green, orange, or other color that may be present on a bird. No toucan’s throat is yellower than the light shining through a thin leaf, and when leaf forms are further complicated, like those of the Dendrophilum creepers, by having great holes that let through Fuertes. Smithsonian Report, 1915. WOoOODHEWER. Picolaptes lacrymiger. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 10. ‘ enlessus \ », sD \ s evtaa-Color at, A COA e And 1g e no.) . ‘ Dias te cles, - (Rlaw bhasTes.) TOUCANS. Sketched from nature, VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. old patches of the dark background or the blue sky, no black-patched toucan in the foreground looks more velvety than do these leaf interstices. As for the bizarre bills, they only serve to make it harder, for they bear no resemblance to bill or bird and simply merge their briliancy with that of the whole picture they sit in. I don’t know how many times I have searched and searched and scruti- nized, to find the author of some raucous carping, only to see one of the large toucans burst away from a perch in plain sight, where he had been all the time. This has happened to me so frequently that I am sure other students must have had the same experience. Perched on a dead stub above the sky line, toucans, ike everything else, are conspicuous in the extreme; sitting quietly within the shade of the forest cover, however varied their patchwork coat, they melt tantalizingly into their setting. The big black toucans of Rhamphastos are generally called by the natives Dios te de or Dios te ve—meaning God will give to you, or God sees you. This is not a confession of faith on the part of the simple native, but a free and lilting transcription of the bird’s call. It gives the rhythm and general shape of the sound fairly well. I could analyze it a little more closely by calling it a loud, hoarse whistle, with the words Tios-to-to or Tios, to, to, to. It has something of the queer quality of a yellow-billed cuckoo’s song, only, of course, it is much larger and louder. J. tocard is the “ Dios te de,” but the name fairly well fits and is generally applied to the whole group of heavy billed toucans. The only other group we encountered was Pteroglossus, the ara- carl toucans. These are small toucans, all joints and angles, much given to going around in noisy troops like jays. Skillful and jerky acrobats, they are the very extreme of bow-legged angularity. Curious as Jays, they jerk and perk their way up into the branches of some dead tree, their great clumsy beaks and thin pointed tails complementing each other at odd angles. Toucans are all great tail jerkers, and the aracaris the most switchy of all. Their harsh mob- bing cries recall some similar sounds made by jays, but are even louder and much more prolonged. Both are a great nuisance to the hunter, as they follow endlessly, their curious prying screeches and squawks effectually chasing out all the birds requiring more finesse in their approach. I should call their most characteristic noise a rattling, throaty squawk. In any case it will not take a green hunter long to identify these birds, as they are restless and their motion will soon catch the eye. I strongly suspect all the toucans of the habit and ability to slip noiselessly and rapidly away in case their curiosity is satisfied or their fear aroused. They are capable of making long leaps from branch to branch with their wings 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. closed, like jays and cuckoos, only more so. What with their looks, their noises, and their actions no group of birds has more amusing and interesting new sensations to offer than the toucans. The family of cuckoos has some very interesting developments in the American Tropics. The little four-wing (Diplopterus), heard in the sunny river bottoms and lower brushy slopes—such places as a brown thrasher would affect—has perhaps the most insistent voice in his habitat. The commonest is an ascending couplet of notes a semitone apart—E, F. This is a sharp, piercing whistle that gets to be as much a part of the shimmering landscape as a hyla’s notes do of a northern meadow bog in March. Indeed, the four wing’s fuller song, which is a long, piercing note followed, after a short pause, by an ascending series of shorter notes, awoke a strangely familiar chord which I afterwards attached to the very similar pond toad call at home. The name four wing arises from the curious overdevelop- ment of the false wing or thumb plumes, which in this queer little bird form a sharply defined and separately distensible fan of black which the bird displays with a curious ducking motion. The larger brown cuckoos of the genus Piaya, which the natives rather aptly call “squirrel birds” from their color and the slippery way they glide through the branches, I have never heard call but once, though they are fairly common throughout most of tropical America. This one sat in a bare cecropia tree, and did a loud rough kek, kek, kek, repeated 20 times or more, and I at first took it for a big woodpecker. It is the little black, witchlike ani that is really the common cuckoo of the open savannas, and abounds over the cattle ranges and around the villages. There are a great many common native names for these conspicuous little black whiners, the commonest being “ gar- rapatero,” or tick eater. This name is: almost universal, though in Cuba and Porto Rico it bears, from its obsequious manner and its great thin curved beak, the apt title of judio—or Jew. ‘They are al- most always in molt, and look shoddy and worn, and their peevishly whined “ooo-eek” gets to be a mildly annoying accompaniment to the day’s work. . The barbets and puff birds (Capito and Bucco) fall naturally into this group, though they did not give us much to work on as to their notes. Bucco was usually found perching quietly on some twig half- way up in the trees along the roadside or pasture edges. All I re- member of him is that he had a buzzing sort of scold, and could bite a piece out of my finger when caught in the hand. The little spotted barbet, however (C’. auratus), at Buena Vista, on the eastern foot of the Andes, had a curious little toot that was the despair of all of us till Mr. Chapman associated it with Capito. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PUFF BIRD. Bucco rujicollis. PLATE ANI. Crotophaga ani. Wil Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes PLATE 12. TROGONS. Trogon collaris and Pharomacrus antisianus. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 317 Hoot-oot . . . hoot-oot in perfect time—hoot-oot (blank), hoot-oot (blank), almost indefinitely. It was a pervasive sound, about as loud as and very like the individual toots of a screech owl, and was given to the invariable accompaniment of the twitching tail, and with the neck humped up and the bill directed downward. Every student in the Tropics hopes he may soon meet with trogons, at once the most beautiful and the most mysterious of all the varied tropical birds. Nothing could exceed the richness of their contrasting blood-red under parts, white and black tails, and resplendent emer- ald-green heads and backs. The large Pharomacrus trogons, of which the famed quetzal is a type, with their delicate yet richly gorgeous and pendulous mantle of feathers, are, for sheer beauty, among nature’s truly great triumphs, and can not fail to force deep appreciation from the most calloused or mercenary collector. P. antisianus has a loud, rolling call, which I put in my notes as “ whee 00, corre 0,” done in a round, velvety whistle. When, after quite a long time spent in imitating the unknown note, in the soggy tree-fern forest at the ridge of the coast Andes, this magnificent ruby and emerald creature came swinging toward me in deeply undulating waves and perched alertly in full sight not far away, I found it hard to breathe so great was my excitement and joy. We never found it « common bird and only three were seen in all our travel in Colombia. A close congener of antisianus, the golden-headed trogon, fails in elegance before this distinguished beauty, though a marvel, never- theless. Its notes are more commonplace, too, being merely booming hoots, not very loud but quite pervasive. The little banded trogons, with pink breasts, as well as the yellow-breasted ones, have very characteristic calls, so like each other that I never learned to distin- guish the various species. They all sit quietly on some slender perch _or vine stem, and do their rolling call ruk, ruk, uk, uk, uk, k, k, k, k, all on the same note. Here again the tail seems to be indispensable to the performance, and jerks sharply forward under the perch with each syllable. More than once this motion became the index to the authorship of the strangely pervasive and ventriloquistic sound. One other group of birds has this quiet fashion of softly hooting from some low perch in the thicker and more watered parts of the forest. The curious racket-tailed motmots have what I call the most velvety of all bird notes. It is usually a single short “ oot,” pitched about five tones below where one can whistle. This note is very gentle, though fairly loud, and I think that some persons who do not hear low vibrations very well would often fail to notice it at a short distance. Most of the natives have sound names for motmots, and ’ the Maya Indians of Yucatan call the brilliant little Ywmomota “ toh,” and, as an appreciation of this interest, he has come to nest and 318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. roost familiarly in the age-long deserted ruins of their former glory. Indeed, these mysterious, gentle, shy, little birds came to me, at least, to be the living symbol of this great lost magnificence; for the present-day Mayas know naught of the art and history of their great forefathers, whose temples and beautiful buildings are now in utter oblivion and disuse, except as the shelters and dwellings of little “toh,” the motmot, and his soft hoot is the only sound that ever issues from their carved portals. VI—PARROTS, GUANS, AND PIGEONS; THE VOICES OF A TROPICAL MARSH. When one meets with wild parrots for the first time he gets, un- diluted, the pure breath of the Tropics. And when, after an ac- quaintance with the parrakeets and parrotlets, the larger and more thrilling kinds appear the sensations are even richer. About Cal, and indeed most of the other South American towns and villages, the little green and sky-blue parrotlets fill the place house sparrows occupy with us, nesting in the bamboo ridgepoles of the houses and adopting a familiar attitude toward man and his works. The na- tive children almost universally tame them, and in the patio of the Cali Hotel, 17 of them lived in perfect familiarity among the roses and flowering vines. Their chirping and twittering reminded me of nothing more than the noises made by sparrows, though the fact that they were indigenous, coupled with their confiding friendliness and beautiful colors, removed the prejudice that the reminder might otherwise have engendered. Wild parrots make the same raucous noises that tame ones do, and a feeding flock, unsuspicious of man’s proximity, is constantly in low, chuckling conversation. But many and many a time I have heard them up the trail and, cautiously approaching, have become aware that I was observed, when all sound and motion ceased while I was still some distance from their feeding tree. With all their scarlet and saffron trimmings, the Amazona parrots, in my ex- perience, take an easy palm over all others in the gentle art of ceasing to be where you know they are. I think we all had the experience of searching till our eyes ached where we knew parrots were working without being able to discern a single bird, even in the comparatively open leafage along the trails. Suddenly, with- out the shghtest warning, as the entire flock took simultaneous alarm, the innocent air would be rent with the hellish screeching of 200 fiendish birds and gorgeous with the flashing scarlet and blue and gold of noisy wings as these capricious and thrilling birds — would leave for another part of the forest. The tree would literally explode parrots, Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 13. MoTmotT. Momotus lessoni. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. Con. Utes « Maecaws ee Eta MACAWS, PARROTS, AND PARRAKEETS. PLATE 14. VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 319 After some experience with them we came to distinguish the three Mexican Amazonas by their cries when they were too far away to tell by sight. A. oratrix, the “double yellow head” of fanciers, cried quite plainly “ cut it out, cut it out,” while A. viridi- ginalis called “poll poll parrot, poll poll parrot,” and A. autum- nalis, from southern Vera Cruz, had a sufficiently distinct screech to immediately stamp it as something new, although I made no transcription of its yell. Conures all make regular parrot noises, though shriller and “lighter ” than those of the larger kinds. But the “real noise” in parrotdom is the great, gorgeous and ear-sphtting macaw. Along the lower Magdalena River the red-and-blue and the blue-and-yel- low macaws were both quite common, and it is hard to say whether their greatest attack was on our eyes or our ears. Their heavy, rasping yell was clearly audible above the churning racket of the engines, even when the birds were some distance away in the forest. We were frequently apprised of their flights, high, high over the valley as they passed from one great Andean chain to another, perhaps 3,000 feet above us, by the penetrating, though distance- mellowed, cries that filtered down to us from the scarcely discernible line. When heard near at hand there is a heavy, hammering quality in a macaw’s scream that makes it the most deafening noise that I have ever heard from a bird, while their fiery beauty affords the greatest sensation a naturalist gets in their country. Not only are their exposed surfaces brilliant, but their wing and tail linings are as gorgeous. I shall never forget a flock of blue-and-yellow macaws we passed one evening just before sunset as we were descending the Magdalena. We were between them and the low sun. They were near, and about level with our eyes, relieving against the vel- vety green of the forest wall directly where our shadows fell. The astonishing glory of their turquoise upper surfaces, alternating as they flew with intense cadmium yellow as the sun got under their wings, kindled a flashing riot of color that made us gasp. So far as I know, parrots all pair for life, and every large flock we saw, whether of macaws, parrots, or parrakeets, was made up of pairs, each bird of which bore the same relation to the other all through the flock. They looked as if made with a paired stencil, or seen through a double-refracting glass. Invariably, if one bird was lost out of a passing flock, another would soon drop out, circle, and come back to see what had happened to its mate. If, rarely, there were unpaired birds in a flock, they were usually apart from the main body, and conspicuously “ out of it.” In flight parrots present a singular resemblance to ducks, particularly from ahead or behind. Flying “across the quarter,” their heavy blunt heads are, of course, unmistakable. 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. We were kept constantly interested in the varied voices of the doves and pigeons. The gentle little ground doves, hardly bigger than sparrows, give a single, soft, questioning “coo,” invariably with a rising inflection. I could distinguish no material variation in their calls in Florida, Yucatan, or South America, and even the rufous species presented no differences appreciable to my ear. The ground pigeons of the genus Geotrygon all have gentle, velvety voices which, heard in the damp gloom of the cloud forest, impart something of the mystery and romance of the tinamou’s tremulous plaint. They have the same uncanny way of gliding silently into view and melt- ing away, and when, rarely, they fall into our hands, their subdued but rich beauty compels an admiration that does not dim with repetition. But not all pigeons have these soft owllike voices. Columba spe- ciosa has a harsh, raw-voiced single “ toot,” audible at a considerable distance. C’. bogotens’s, in the eastern Andes, in addition to the regular pigeon clucks and cooing, has a loud, rough call, with a strong roll or “ burr” in it, suggesting a “ Klaxon ” automobile horn. The white-winged doves of Melopelia are among the noisiest of the pigeons. Indeed, a flock calling from a feeding tree, with their loud rollicking “ Hoo-too-coo-ro000, hoo-too-coo0-roooo,” reiterated inter- minably, recalls a group of victory-crazed undergraduates “ rooting ” for their football team. I found that I could quite closely imitate this and several other pigeon calls by whistling through my hands. I heard only one of the big guans of the genus Craw. What I took to be the fine black curassow, at Buena Vista, sat one evening for half an hour before sunset in the dense top of a great forest tree and gave his exciting cry at intervals of half a minute until the sun was well down and the hurrying dusk began to deepen. I cautiously crept nearer and nearer and finally gazed up from directly below. Here I searched until my neck ached, but though the cries came regularly and I constantly changed my position, the bird was so well hidden that I never saw him, and at last I left him there, to hurry out of the deepening gloom of the forest before it should get fully dark. As it was, I had to “foot feel” my way for the last part of the trail, as night caught me before I reached the clearing. This call is hard to describe. It was not at all “ gobbly,” like a turkey’s voice, but was a loud siren call, which the natives interpret by their name for the bird “ Aburria,” with the r’s strongly thrilled. It rolls up a full octave, sustains a second, and rolls down again. I think it would carry across the shadowed valleys in the still sunset forests for a mile at least, and is fully as loud as any answer a strong-lunged boy could yell back. The little guans of the genus Ortalis, the Chachalacas, have also a fine sensation saved up for the eager naturalist who has not heard VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—-FUERTES. 321 them before. The male, with his elongated and convoluted wind- pipe, has the louder and rougher ery, which, by virtue of the longer instrument to trumpet through, is an exact octave lower than that of his normally equipped mate. O. vetula, from Mexico, says quite plainly “ Cha-cha-lac’-ca. Cha-cha-lac’-ca,” or,as the Mexicans more phonetically spell it, “ Guacharra’ca.” It has a very human quality of voice and sounds nearly as loud at a quarter of a mile as it does at a hundred yards. The Colombian species heard in the Magdalena Val- ley seemed to my ear to screech “Aqua-dock.” The various members of a calling flock keep time, roughly, according to sex. They are apt to call from up on the mountain sides or in ravines, when the rebounding echoes complicate and augment the chorus immensely. Another noteworthy voice is the rolling cry of Aramides, the big rusty-colored wood-rail. As dusk was falling around me on a forested mountain side, while working my way out to the trail, I was suddenly congealed by a loud, rolling cry, hastily repeated three or four times. It sounded in front of me, behind me, over me, and under me. I began to think it was all around me. A loud hoot, then a rising, rolling trill—‘ Oot- roo-ee-e-e-e- oot- roo-ee-e-e-.” I found I could do it by “ pigeon tooting” through my hands, so that the bird came quite near and thrilled me deeply. But it was too dark, and I knew not where to look for it. After a few responses it slipped away, still a mystery; but when I reached camp and imi- tated it for Mr. Cherrie he at once recognized it as Aramides; and this diagnosis is his, not mine, for I never had another opportunity to identify it. Among the lasting impressions that I have brought out of the Tropics certainly one of the most vivid is of the great, sultry, odor- ous, and soundful marshes of the Magdalena and Cauca Valleys. These treacherous reaches have a fascination and exert a call upon the novice naturalist that is indeed likely to get him into trouble. Everything that charms the senses in a northern water field is here multiplied. Plant life is riot, insects accordingly swarm, and many species of birds avail themselves of the easy food they furnish. The allurements of a fragrant, shimmering sheet of placid water, with beds of floating plants made gay with the delicately lovely Jacanas, fighting their innocent battles and displaying their lemon butterfly wings; the dignified spurwinged plover that trot on the margins or fly in noisy flocks, like Dutch lapwings, low over the surrounding pasture lands; perhaps a bare snag far out in the deep marsh, all in glowing blossom with roseate spoonbills and snowy herons; the loud clatter of the giant kingfisher and the dry rasping of his tiny “Texas” cousin; statuesque screamers posing on an exposed bar; the squealing whistles of the tree ducks dabbling and sunning 18618°—sm 1915 a1 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. themselves at the edge of the hyacinth beds—all these and a hun- dred other charms lure him deeper and deeper into the marsh or into the lush reeds and papyrus beds that form some of their mar- gins. I shall not soon forget an hour spent in retrieving an ever- glade kite in the great marsh at Calamar. Here the one pervasive sound was the constant, irritating hum of the myriads of ravenous mosquitoes. Things were not helped by the discovery that I was soon on a false bottom, made only of the suspended roots of the vegetation that rose 10 feet above me, so that I went through and had to go the rest of the way on my knees, up to my armpits in tepid water. As I had a gun and a glass to keep dry, this was no joke, and I think that was the most miserable hour I ever went through. At the end I was absolutely spent and could only crawl out and lie down—easy meat for the mosquitoes—for another hour. But it had its recompenses. Into the willow-like shrubbery over me came the beautiful little yellow-headed blackbird of the Tropics and sang his orchard-oriole song. Nearby great-tailed grackles squealed, piped, and pointed their bills aloft in their nuptial atti- tudinizing. The red-breasted meadowlark, Leistes, also came to close quarters, though it did not sing, and I watched the lovely and delicate little black and white marsh flycatchers almost at arm’s length. There is a creature in the South American forests which, though not a bird, ranks easily first as a maker of weird noises. I have read many descriptions of his performance, but was not in the least prepared for the reality when I actually heard it, nor did I even recognize it. This is the roaring of the so-called howling monkey. To my mind howling is a sort of eerie, rising and falling noise, far different from the deep-voiced, businesslike, bellowing roar that is the predominant feature of this little animal’s performance. It is at least a hundred times more thunderous and terrible than would seem possible from a creature somewhat larger than a big tomcat. T had heard them in the distance a number of times, but it was at ~ Rio Frio, on the Cauca River, where our little sternwheeler was taking wood, that I first got close to them in “action.” As I left the boat for a short walk in the virgin bottom-forest I heard howlers a little distance in. I knew they were small animals (our biggest male weighed 17 pounds) and could do me no harm. Yet he12 I confess to a greater triumph of mind over matter than I have elsewhere ever been called on to effect in order to overcome the fierce desire to be somewhere else. In spite of the intellectual certainty that it was perfectly safe, it took all my nerve that first time to move up under the tree whence came that courage-killing, menacing bellow. There were only four of them—an old male, a female, and two half-grown Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 15. ee ee SRE st aagacee Boucier’s Forest DOVE. Geotrygon bourcierit. Smithsonian Report. 1915.—Fuertes. PLATE 16. CRESTED CurRASssow. Crax sp.? VOICES OF TROPICAL BIRDS—FUERTES. 323 young; probably a family. Yet the terrible noise that issued prin- cipally from the bearded and swollen throat of the old male seemed really to make the atmosphere quake. As I stood below he would rush down toward me, bellowing outrageously, and I thought it took some fortitude at first to stand by till he retreated again. The noise, as I analyzed it at the time, was a deep, throaty, bass roar, with something of the quality of grunting pigs, or the barking bellow of a bull alligator, or an ostrich. Accompanying this major sound was a weird, crooning sort of wail, probably the contribution of the female or young, or both. The noise was fully as loud as the full- throated roaring of lions, and that it has marvelous carrying power was frequently attested when we heard it from the far side of some of the great Andean valleys as we wound our tortuous way across the Central Cordillera. This is, of course, in no sense a bird voice, yet it is by far the most striking sound in the American tropics, and I should feel that I had done the subject slight justice if I did not at least try to make it recognizable to those who may read these papers and some day hear for themselves this astonishing sound. In bringing to a close this series of impressions it must not be thought that they cover the field of tropical-bird music. They form, indeed, the merest nucleus on which to build. ri girs T to urtidtensog % THE ESKIMO CURLEW AND ITS DISAPPEARANCE! By Myron H. SweEnk. [With 1 plate. ] Tt is now the consensus of opinion of all informed ornithologists that the Eskimo curlew (Vwmenius borealis) is at the verge of ex- tinction, and by many the belief is entertained that the few scattcred birds which may still exist will never enable the species to recoup its numbers, but that it is even now practically a bird of the past. And, judging from all analogous cases, it must be confessed that this hopeless belief would seem to be justified, and the history of the Eskimo curlew, like that of the passenger pigeon, may simply be another of those ornithological tragedies enacted during the last half of the nineteenth century, when because of a wholly unreasonable and uncontrolled slaughter of our North American bird life several species passed from an abundance manifested by flocks of enormous size to a state of practical or complete annihilation. In this deadly work the people of Nebraska, as well as those of our neighboring States, to our lasting discredit played a conspicuous and all too effec- tive part each spring, while in the fall the equally profligate gunners of New England and the Atlantic States poured leaden death into southbound flocks of these unfortunate birds whenever an oppor- tunity presented itself. Nothing was known concerning this interesting bird until after the middle of the eighteenth century. It was originally described by Forster? in 1772 as Scolopax borealis, from a specimen taken at Albany Fort, Hudson Bay. Pennant* in 1785 and Hearne‘ in 1795 both erroneously referred to the larger congener of this bird, the Hudsonian curlew (Vumenius hudsonicus) as the “ Eskimaux 1 Reprinted by permission, after revision by the author, from the Proceedings of the Nebraska Ornithologists’ Union, vol. 6, pt. 2, Feb. 27, 1915. 2Forster, J. R. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, 62, pp. 411 and 431, 1772. *Pennant, T. Arctic Zoology, 2, 1785. . *Hearne, 8. A journey from Prince of Wales’ Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1795, 325 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. curlew,” though the latter author recognized two species of curlew as abundant about Hudson Bay from 1769 to 1772, the smaller of which was undoubtedly the present species. In 1790 Latham? formally described the Hudsonian curlew and referred the Eskimo curlew to the same genus, but confusion between the two species continued up to the earlier years of the nineteenth century, and the bird described by Wilson? in 1813 as the “ Esquimaux curlew” was in reality the Hudsonian, the species rightfully entitled to the name he used being unknown to him. The Hudsonian curlew is a large bird, about 17 inches long, with a bill about 4 inches long, a whitish stripe in the middle of the top of the head and the long flight feathers of the wing barred with buffy; the Eskimo curlew is 2 to 5 inches shorter, with a bill only slightly over 2 inches long, the crown un- striped and the flight feathers of the wing unbarred. In the spring migration this curlew passed through the interior of the United States, in the Mississippi Valley, rarely if ever occur- ring on the Atlantic Ocean or its coasts. It first appeared in the United States in Texas and Louisiana during early to middle March. In central Texas Brown* noted it at Boerne, Kendall County, March 9, 1880, as a rather common migrant, while in north- ern Texas at Gainesville, Cooke County, it arrived on the average March 17, according to Ragsdale, while its earliest date was March 7, 1884.4 In the adjacent county, Wise, it was noted as late as April 2, 1884, while at Caddo, Okla., a short distance across the Red River from Gainesville, in 1884 it was noted March 25 and was abundant on April 2.2. In Louisiana, where it was a common migrant,® the last records are for March 17 and 23, 1889,7 while for Arkansas the last record is from Fayetteville, March 31, 1883, on the authority of Prof. F. L. Harvey.® The quadrangle of States to the north—Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Nebraska—saw the passing through of these curlews during the last few days in March and during April. By the last of March the vanguard of the birds had reached central Missouri (St. Louis, Mar. 25, 1884, and southern Nebraska (Waco, Mar. 31, 1911)° Curlews were on the St. Louis market April 6, 1885,° a flock of a hundred birds was seen in Vernon County, southwestern Missouri, April 16, 1894, and a flock of 10 was noted in the neighboring county of Jasper as late as May 2, 1902.1° In central Kansas, according 1 Latham, J. Index Ornithologicus, 2, p. 712, 1790. 2 Wilson, A. American Ornithology, 7, 1813. % Brown, N.C. Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, 7, p. 42, 1882. 4 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 35, Bureau of Biological Survey, pp. 74-76, 1910. 5 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 2, Division of Hconomie Ornithology, p. 98, 1888. 6 Beyer,’G, H., Allison, A., and Kopman, H. H. Auk, 25, p. 179, 1908. 7 Forbush, H, H. Game birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-432, 1912, 8 Howell, A. H. Bull. 38, Bureau of Biological Survey, p. 32, 1911. ®Hiche, A. Proc, N..0.U., vy, p. 31, 1912. 10 Widmann, O. Trans. Acad. Science, St. Louis, p. 75, 1907. THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENKE. 827 to the observations of Kellogg, they reached Emporia April 14, 1884, and April 18, 1885.1? In Iowa, the last recorded specimen was taken at Burlington in the extreme southeastern part of the State, April 5, 1893, by Paul Bartsch. The bulk of the birds reached southern Nebraska about April 2 to 25 and remained until the 15th to 25th of May; in northern Nebraska they were apparently most numerous in early May. The van reached Heron Lake, Jackson County, in southwestern Minnesota, April 3, 1884, and the next year (1885) were noted at this place on April 24.2. In southeastern South Dakota, the bulk arrived at Vermilion, Clay County, May 3, 1884,? while Coues reported them present in large flocks between Fort Randall and Yankton during the second week in May, 1873.* By latter May the curlews had reached their breeding range in the far north, on the Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, within the shadow of the Arctic Circle or even within the circle itself. They reached Fort Resolution, near the south shore of Great Slave Lake, May 26, 1860, Kennicott mentioning in his journal the taking of a specimen there on that date. At Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, near the arctic coast, they were noted May 27, 1865, by MacFarlane.‘ In this latter locality the birds bred abundantly, MacFarlane col- lecting some 30 sets of eggs on the Barren Grounds east of Fort Anderson on June 13, 1863, June 16, 1864, and June 16, 1865.7 Pre- viously Richardson had found “one of these curlews hatching on three eggs on the shore of Point Lake,’ Mackenzie, on June 13, 1822.8 He also found these birds at Fort Franklin, on the west shore of Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie, late in May, 1849, but this was probably too early for nests.° The breeding range probably ex- tended from Alaska to Labrador, as these curlews penetrated even as far to the northwest as Point Barrow, at the apex of the north Alaska coast, where, though “rare and irregular,” it was first seen by Mur- dock May 20, 1882, and last seen July 6 of that year, thus probably being present through the breeding season.t° Also, eastwardly it was recorded by Kumlien as passing in small flocks northward in June, 1878, at Cumberland Bay, and a specimen was taken.! It was 1 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 35, Bureau of Biological Survey, pp. 74-76, 1910. 2 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 2, Division of Economic Ornithology, p. 98, 1888. sAnderson, R. M. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sciences, 11, p. 227, 1907. *Coues, E. Birds of the Northwest, pp. 510-512, 1874. 5 Biography of Robert Kennicott; Committee, Chicago Acad. Sciences, in; Trans. Chi cago Acad. Sciences, 1, p. 172, 1869. ® Preble, North American Fauna, No. 27, p. 332, 1908. ™McFarlane, R. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 14, p. 429, 1891. 8 Swainson, W., and Richardson, J. Fauna Boreali-Americana. London, 2, p. 378, 1831. ®*Richardson, J. Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat-Voyage through Rupert’s Land and the Arctic Sea, in search of the Discovery Ships under command of Sir John Franklin, London, 2, p. 108, 1851. 10 Murdock, J. Auk, 2, p. 63 and p. 201, 1885. u Kumlien, L. Bull. 15, U. 8S. Nat. Mus., p. 88, 1879. 328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. not known, however, to have actually nested either west or east of the Mackenzie Barren Grounds. The nest of the Eskimo curlew was a mere hole in the ground on the open plain lined with a few decayed leaves with a thin sprink- ling of dried grass in the center. The eggs were laid by the third week in June. As the setting bird would glide off before the nest was closely approached it was a very difficult thing to find. After leaving the nest the female usually soon ascended into the air in a straight line. The eggs, usually four in number, were oblong oval, shghtly pear shaped, varying in size from 1.90 by 1.40 to 2.12 by 1.33, and also exceedingly variable in color, a pale green or greenish gray to clay colored or olivaceous drab heavily marked on the larger end with shades of sepia to umber brown. The young began hatch- ing about July 12, leaving the nest as soon as hatched and hiding away in the grass if alarmed.” Late in July and early in August the curlews had completed their domestic duties, and began congregating in flocks preparatory for their long southward migration. Their first movement was from the Barren Grounds southeastward to the eastern shores of Labrador, where they massed in immense swarms. July 29, 1833, while Audu- bon was near the harbor of Bras d’Or, Labrador, he found these cur- lews coming in from the north in such dense flocks as to remind him of the flights of the passenger pigeon. In 1838 Tucker recorded these birds as exceedingly abundant, occurring in vast flocks on the Labrador coast.* In 1860 Dr. Packard noted a flock which was per- haps a mile long and nearly as broad, and the sum total of their dis- tant notes resembled the wind whistling through the rigging of a ship, or at times sounding like the jingling of many sleigh bells.® Dr. Coues in the same year noted their arrival at Indian Tickle Har- bor, Labrador, August 16, 1860.6 Norton recorded their arrival at Houlton Harbor, Labrador, August 20, 1891.6 Here they found an abundance of food and gorged themselves until they became ex- tremely fat. During latter August the bulle of the curlews crossed the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and from there struck out to sea, heading toward their South American winter home. The records at Cartwright, Labrador, cover the period from July 28 to October 24.7 1Coues, E. Birds of the Northwest, p. 510-512, 1874. 2 Baird, 8. F,, Brewer, T., and Ridgway, R. Water Birds of North America, 1, p. 318, 1884. ® Audubon, J. J. Birds of America, 6, p. 45, 1843; Orn. Biog., 3, p. 69, and 5, p. 590, 1835. 4Tucker, E. W. Five months in Labrador and Newfoundland in 1838, p. 110, 1839. 5 Porbush, E. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-432, 1912. ® Cooke, W. W. Bull. 35, Bureau of Biological Survey, pp. 74-76, 1910. 7Townsend, C. W., and Allen, G. M. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 33, pp. 356-357, 1906-7. . & Ss aul THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENK. 329 During this long flight, if the weather was fair and fine, little was seen of the curlews from the time they left the Newfoundland and Nova Scotia shores until they reached the Lesser Antilles, nearly 2,000 miles away. A few flocks would land for a few days on the Bermuda Islands, according to Jardine,’ and if southerly storms pre- vailed great numbers of them would land, but usually the bulk passed on, and, flying both day and night, probably without landing, did not land until the Lesser Antilles had been reached. Passing through these islands, they continued along the eastern portion of Brazil to Argentina, their winter home.t. Barrows reports them arriving at Conception del Uruguay, in large flocks, September 9, 1880, and re- maining until the middle of October. At Bahia Blanca they were seen every day until late in February, but after March they had disap- peared.? Most of the birds arrived in Argentina about the middle of September and wintered in the campos region of that country, mostly south of Buenos Aires.t. They occurred south of the Chabut Valley, Patagonia, according to Durnford, and according to Abbott a specimen was taken on the Falkland Islands.t_ On the west coast they were rare, but occurred in Chile south to Chiloe.t But if easterly storms occurred, the birds would be driven out of their line of flight, and great flocks would occur on the coast of New England, and, less commonly, the shores of the middle and southern States; or, if westerly storms prevailed, they might be driven far out to sea or even across the Atlantic, as there are several records of the occurrence of the species on the British Isles in the fall. On Sep- tember 6, 1885, one was recorded from Cairn Moncarn, near Stone- haven, Kincardineshire,? two others were also taken on unknown dates on the Alde at Aldeburgh, and at Woodbridge, both in Suf- folk; * a fourth was purchased in Dublin, in the flesh, October 21, 1870;° another individual at Slains, Aberdeenshire, September 28, 1878;° and a sixth bird, a male, at Forest of Birse, Kincardineshire, September 21, 1880.7. On May 26, 1906, an Eskimo curlew came on shipboard about halfway between Ireland and Newfoundland (lat. 49° 06’ N., long. 27° 28’ W.) in a fatigued condition.® | On the Pacific coast south of Alaska this bird was always very rare. A lone specimen was shot over decoys at San Diego, Cal., Sep- tember, 1883, and was the only one seen.? Mr. P. I. Hoagland, who is well acquainted with this bird in Nebraska, states that a number 1 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 35, Bureau of Biological Survey, pp. 74-76, 1910. 2 Barrows, W. B. Auk, 1, p. 316, 1884. 3 Longmuir, Naturalist, p. 265, 1855, and Yarrell, British Birds, 2, p. 620. * Hele, Notes about Aldeburgh, p. 177, and Harting, Handbook of British Birds, p. 145. 5 Blake, Knox, Zoologist, p. 2408, 1870. ®Sim, Scottish Naturalist, p. 36, 1879. 7 Harvie-Brown, Zoologist, p. 485, 1880. § Barbour, R. Auk, 23, p. 459, 1906. ® Holterhoff, G. Auk, 1, p. 393, 1884. 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of years ago he saw a flock of about a dozen birds at Coronado Beach, near Lia Juana, Cal., and that he shot a few birds from this bunch. In Labrador the Eskimo curlews were abundant until about 1876, according to observations reported to Townsend and Allen,’ but there was a great and sudden falling off in numbers about 1886. Other observers place the sudden decline in 1891? or 1892.° Bigelow states that after 1892 the birds appeared no more in numbers, and while in Labrador in September, 1900, he heard of only about a dozen being seen on the coast, and of these he personally saw five.* According to Dr. W. T. Grenfell the birds became scarce in the eighties in Labrador, and in 1892 he saw only two flocks of any size. In 1906 he heard of a few dozen being killed but did not see one.* During the years 1908-1911 the birds were not noted in Labrador,? but in August and September, 1912, eight Eskimo curlews were seen on the beach at West Bay, north of Cartwright, Labrador, and seven of these were shot, while the skins of five were saved and sent to Cambridge, Mass., by Dr. Grenfell, where they were seen and identified by Mr. William Brewster.* During the period of abundance in Labrador these birds were con- tinually and heavily slaughtered. One hunter states that the fisher- men killed them by thousands, and he had personally shot a hundred before breakfast.1. Another hunter, quoted by Carroll,? said that he did not remember having secured less than 30 or 40 brace in a two-hours’ shoot, and in a day’s shooting by 25 or 30 men as many as 2,000 birds would be killed for the Hudson Bay Co.’s store at Cart- wright. Concerning the shooting in Labrador, Coues® says: The most successful method of obtaining them is to take such a position as they will probably fly over in passing from one feeding ground to another. They may then be shot with ease, as they rarely fly high at such times. The pertinacity with which they. cling to certain feeding grounds, even when much molested, I saw strikingly illustrated on one occasion. The tide was rising and about to flood a muddy flat of perhaps an acre in extent, where their favorite snails were in great quantities. Although six or eight gunners were stationed upon the spot and kept up a continual round of firing upon the poor birds, they continued to fly distractedly about over our heads, notwithstanding the numbers that every moment fell. They seemed in terror lest they should lose their ac- customed fare of snails that day. On another occasion, when the birds had been so harrassed for several hours as to deprive them of all opportunity of feeding, great numbers of them retired to a very small island, or rather a large pile of rocks, a few hundred yards from the shore, covered with seaweed and, of course, with snails. Flock after flock alighted on it till it was completely 1 Townsend, C. W., and Allen, G. M. Proce. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., 33, pp. 856-857, 1906-7. . 2 Forbush, EB. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-432, 1912. 3 Bigelow, H. B. Auk, 19, p. 29, 1902. 4Townsend, C. W. Auk, 30, p. 10, 1913. 5 Carroll, W. J. Forest and Stream, 74, p. 872 (1910). ®Coues, E. Proc, Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sciences, p. 236, 1861. — —" THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENK. aol: eovered with the birds, which there, in perfect safety, obtained their morning meal. f In Newfoundland and on the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for many years after the middle of the nineteenth century, the Eskimo curlews arrived in August and September in millions that darkened the sky.t As late as 1890 a “cloud” of these birds was seen on the Magdalen Islands, perhaps the last large flocking of these birds that was seen anywhere in the east.?_ In 1900 one was killed on an island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in 1901 one was killed on Prince Edward Island, in 1902 it is believed one was taken on Sable Island, and in 1906 a male was killed, September 6, on the Magdalen Islands. In Nova Scotia, since 1888, there is but one record of this bird, a specimen in the Halifax market, September 11, 1897.* The fishermen of Newfoundland, as well as those of Labrador, made a practice of salting down these birds in barrels. At night when the birds were roosting in large masses on the high beach a man armed with a lantern to dazzle and confuse the birds could approach them in the darkness and kill them in enormous numbers by striking them down with a stick. In New England, and especially in Massachusetts, the Eskimo curlew was known as the “dough bird” or “doe bird,” and the existing accounts would indicate that these birds occurred on Cape Cod, Nantucket, and other points on the coast in tremendous numbers in August and September during northeast storms in the early part of the nineteenth century. During these storms the birds sometimes landed in a state of great exhaustion, and they could be chased and easily knocked down with clubs when they attempted to fly. These immense flights continued to appear on the Massachusetts coast up to the middle of the nineteenth century or even later. In the thirties and forties these birds alighted on Nantucket in such numbers that the shot supply of the island would become exhausted and the slaughter would have to stop until more could be secured from the mainland.? By 1858 Sumner‘ wrote for the vicinity of Boston: * None are now to be seen where once they were so abundant, and even the market offers but few at 50 cents apiece.” In other less frequented parts of the coast, however, the bird continued common for 25 years or more. Up to 1861 there were some birds each year on the Massachusetts coast, but there were none in 1862.5 A great flight occurred there August 29, 1863. A few days later, on Septem- 1 Hapgood, W. Forest and Stream series No. 1, Shore Birds, pp. 17 and 22—23, 1885. 2Sanford, L. C., Bishop, L. B., and Van Dyke, T. 8. The Water-fowl Family, pp. 445-— 446, 1903. ? Forbush, E. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-482, 1912. '4Sumner, W. H. History of East Boston, p. 53, 1858. 5 Mackay, G. H. Auk, 9, pp. 16—21, 1892; 10, p. 79, 1893; 11, pp. 75-76, 1894; 14, p. 214, 1897; 15, pp. 52-53, 1898; and 16, p. 180, 1899, 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ber 3, 1863, on Cape Cod, several gunners killed 281 Eskimo curlew and golden plover in one day. A few birds occurred on the Massachusetts coast in 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1870, but none in 1864, 1865, and 1871.2 In 1872 there were two flights, and the birds were killed in such numbers that two market gunners sold $300 worth and boys offered the birds for sale at 6 cents apiece. There were some birds in 1873, 1875, and 1876, but none in 1874, while in 1877 there was a flight and in 1878 a smaller flight.2 In 1879 there were no birds, but the next three years there were some; in 1882 two hunters on Nantucket shot 87 Eskimo curlew in one morning, while at about the same time another hunter on Marthas Vineyard killed about 70 of them.? In 1883 there was a large flight August 26,? while on August 30 of that year the last great flight of Eskimo curlew and golden plover occurred on Cape Cod.* There were a few birds in 1884, 1885, 1886, and 1887, a number in 1888 and 1889, again a few birds in 1890, 1891, and 1892, while in 1893 a single bird was shot? and another seen.® One bird was seen in the Boston market in 1894? two were killed at Chatham in 1895,° none were seen in 1896, eight in 1897, and two in 1898.2, At Chatham Beach one was killed in 1897, four in 1899, and the last one on September 13, 1900.2 In 1898 one was seen at Dennis, in 1900 one was killed at Eastham? and in 1901 birds were killed at Ipswich® and on Prince Edward Island. In October, 1902, two were obtained in the Boston market and one of them came from Massachusetts.* In 1908 two were shot at Newburyport, Mas- sachusetts, August 27, and one of them was saved.® In New York State the Eskimo curlew was seen or taken on Long Island every year except 1888 from 1885 to 1891; the last record for that State being about 1896.7 In early days there were flights of many thousands of these birds on Long Island, where they were known as “ Futes,” at long intervals during heavy easterly storms, but not in recent years.§ In 12 years this bird was met with only four times by N. T. Lawrence, viz, September 12, 1875, September 10, 1876, and September 26, 1884, two on the latter date.2 In Maine a female was shot at Pine Point September 23, 1901, and two were shot at Hog Island, Hancock County, in September, 1909—one on the 2d and one on the 14th—both specimens being preserved.'°? 1 Hapgood, W. Forest and Stream series No. 1, Shore Birds, pp. 17 and 22-23, 1885. *Mackay, G. H. Auk, 9, pp. 16—21, 1892; 10, p. 79, 1893; 11, pp. 75-76, 18943; 14, 214, 1897; 15, pp. 52-53, 1898; and 16, p. 180, 1899. ’ Forbush, E. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-432, 1912. 4Job, H. K. Wild Wings, pp. 207-208, 1905. 5 Townsend, C. W. Birds of Essex County. 6 Mayer, J. E. Auk, 26, p. 77, 1909. 7BHaton, E. HW. Birds of New York, 1, p. 342, 1910. §’Braislin, W. C. Proc. Linnaean Soc. New York, p. 64, 1907. ® Lawrence, N. T. Auk, 2, p. 273, 1885. 10 Knight, O. W. Auk, 27, p. 79, 1910. = THE ESKIMO CURLEW—-SWENKE. 333 As to the destruction in Massachusetts, Forbush? says: The decrease of the dough-birds in Massachusetts during the last century may be explained in part by the continual persecution they suffered here. The arrival of these birds was the signal for every gunner and market hunter on the coast to get to work. The birds were rarely given any rest. Nearly all that remained on our shores were shot, and only those that kept moving had any chance for their lives. As a consequence of this continual persecution the birds probably learned to avoid the New England coast, and most of those that were driven to land by storms left the moment the weather was favorable for a con- tinuance of their flight. Often they came in at night and went in the morning. In Texas the Eskimo curlew came in immense flocks on the prairies from 1856 to 1875, after which year the large flocks disappeared.* Small flocks were seen in 1886 and 1890.1. The last records of the species for Texas were 1902 and 1905, one and three individuals re- spectively.t| The species were first definitely recorded for Kansas from Russell County in 1874.2 In that State these curlews were abundant as late as 1878, but in 1879 their numbers were much re- duced and the birds decreased rapidly.t_ There were still a few in the Kansas markets in the early nineties. The last record is for 1902.+ Eastwardly in the interior the birds were always uncommon and disappeared early. The last Michigan record is in 1883. The last Ohio record is in 1878.1. The last Wisconsin records are April 27, 1899, and September 10, 1912, the latter specimen a male taken at Fox Lake, Dodge County, Wis. The last Indiana record is, with some doubt, April 19, 1890.° We have no definite records of the Eskimo curlew in Nebraska during the territorial days, aside from the recollections of the few survivors among our earliest settlers of enormous flights of “ prairie pigeons” which passed through the territory each spring. As to the abundance of these birds in Nebraska during the early years of its statehood the observations of Prof. Lawrence Bruner, who distinctly remembers the flights which occurred in the vicinity of Omaha dur- ing the years 1866-1868, when he was a boy 10 or 12 years old, are indicative. The birds would arrive about the time the later willows began to bloom (latter April), being present in force for a week or 10 days only, for by the time all of the wild plum blossoms had fallen (middle May) the birds were gone. Usually the heaviest flights occurred coincident with the beginning of corn-planting time, and enormous flocks of these birds would settle on the newly plowed 4 1 Forbush, E. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-432, 1912. *Benson, F. 8S. Forest and Stream, 2, p. 341, 1874. * Barrows, W. B. Birds of Michigan. *Schoenbeck, A. J. Birds of Oconto County, pp. 1-51, 1902. 5 Snyder, W. E. Auk, 30, pp. 269-270, 1913. Butler, A. W, Auk, 23, p. 274, 1906. 334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. fields and on the dry burnt-off prairies; where they searched indus- triously for insects. These flocks reminded the settlers of the flights of passenger pigeons and the curlews were given the name of “ prairie pigeons.” They contained thousands of individuals and would often form dense masses of birds extending for a quarter to a half mile in length and a hundred yards or more in width. When the flock would alight the birds would cover 40 or 50 acres of ground. During such flights the slaughter of these poor birds was appalling and almost unbelievable. Hunters would drive out from Omaha and shoot the birds without mercy until they had hterally slaughtered a wagonload of them, the wagons being actually filled, and often with the sideboards on at that. Sometimes when the flight was unusually heavy and the hunters were well supplied with ammunition their wagons were too quickly and easily filled, so whole loads of the birds would be dumped on the prairie, their bodies forming piles as large as a couple of tons of coal, where they would be allowed to rot while the hunters proceeded to refill their wagons with fresh victims, and thus further gratify their lust of killing. The compact flocks and tameness of the birds made this slaughter possible, and at each shot usually dozens of the birds would fall. In one specific instance a single shot from an old muzzle-loading shotgun into a flock of these curlews, as they veered by the hunter, brought down 28 birds at once, while for the next half mile every now and then a fatally wounded bird would drop to - the ground dead. So dense were the flocks when the birds were turning in their flight that one could scarcely throw a brick or missile into it without striking a bird. The decade 1870-1880 witnessed the beginning of the diminution of these great flocks of Eskimo curlew. In addition to the numerous gunners who shot these birds for local consumption or simply for the love of killing, there developed a class of professional market hunters, who made it a business to follow the “ flight birds” as they made their annual journey across the State each spring. Mr. Mont Wheeler, living near Norfolk, pursued this business during the lat- ter seventies, and his observations, transmitted to me by Mr. L. Ses- sions of that place, describe graphically the status of the bird at this period, and also the typical methods of the market hunter in securing these birds. The chief feeding grounds of these curlews at the time Mr. Wheeler came to Nebraska (1877) was in York, Fillmore, and Hamilton Counties, and their heaviest lines of northward migration across the State were between the ninety-seventh and ninety-eighth meridians. The birds were much less numerous north of the Platte River than on the South Platte feeding grounds, although they were noted there, but not in large flocks. One spring, about 1879, while working on the THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENK. 335 Marshall Field ranch in Madison County, following a heavy south wind, birds which seemed to have been driven past their feeding grounds by the wind were seen flying southwardly, very close to the ground, apparently going back to this South Platte feeding ground. The birds used to come in about the 18th to the 25th of April, all arriving between these dates, and would remain until about the 15th to the 25th of May. Early in the season, when they first arrived, they would frequent the burnt-over prairies, where they would occur in flocks of from a dozen to 300 or 400. As the season advanced the different smaller flocks would bunch up until as many as a thousand birds had assembled, but this assemblage was obviously made up of many small flocks, In later years, when these prairies commenced to be extensively broken up and farmed, the curlews used to feed a great deal in the open wheat fields, and toward the last they were found very frequently in tame meadows. In hunting these curlew the field glass was used by the hunters to follow their flights. The fields where they were prone to gather were patroled many times during the day, and carefully scanned with the glass to discover the flocks on the ground. When the birds came in they would be up quite high, perhaps from 200 or 300 yards to a quarter of a mile, and in preparing to alight they would turn and wheel, tow- ering in the air while they whistled softly, would hover a while, and then all drop and come down, flying along over the ground for a short distance before alighting. The birds would always alight all at once and very close together, and if the day were warm they would sit down very close together on the ground, forming bunches, when they could be readily discovered with the field glass and approached close enough to get a shot. There was no difficulty in getting quite close to the sitting birds, perhaps within 25 or 35 yards, and when at about this distance the hunters would wait for them to arise on their feet, which was the signal for the first volley of shots. The startled birds would rise and circle about the field a few times, affording ample opportunity for further murderous discharge of the guns, and sometimes would re- alight on the same field, when the attack would be repeated. Mr. Wheeler has killed as many as 37 birds with a pump gun at one rise. They weighed just about 1 pound each when they were fat. Some- times the bunch would be seen with the glass alighting in a field 2 or 3 miles away, when the hunters would at once drive to that field with a horse and buggy as rapidly as they could, relocate the birds, get out, and resume the fusillade and slaughter. On rainy days the birds would fly restlessly from one field to another, moving about in this way most of the day, and seeming unusually plentiful because of be- ing so much in the air. 336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Other observers in the North Platte country corroborate the obser- vations of Mr. Wheeler as to the comparative infrequency of this bird north of the Platte River during these flights of the seventies, as compared with the enormous flocks found in the South Platte region. Removing from Omaha to West Point in 1869, Prof. Bruner recalls that though he noted the birds each spring the flocks were usually much smaller than the enormous flights seen at Omaha, usually con- sisting of 50 to 100 birds, though occasionally of considerable size. Year by year the birds decreased in numbers, until by 1878, in which year Prof. Bruner entered the services of the Government, they were seen only in small flocks or individually here and there. During these eight or nine years he mounted several of these curlews, three or four for the university museum (all of which have since disappeared), a pair for the Omaha Deaf and Dumb Institute, and a pair for the Union Pacific Railroad Co. Mr. L. Sessions moved to Madison County in May, 1871, and his acquaintance with the Eskimo curlew began at that time. The birds were then very abundant and could be found moving about over the burnt prairie or an occasional plowed field, in search of food. The flocks were not large, about 30 or 40 birds in a flock, on the average, and the banding together of numerous flocks such as occurred in the South Platte feeding grounds was not observed in Madison County, which furnished no special attraction as to feeding grounds. During these days food was somewhat scarce in Nebraska, and many of the settlers were led to look forward to this spring flight of the curlews as a helpful source of food supply. Mr. Sessions possesses a specimen of this curlew which was secured in these early days, for he has not seen a living bird for many years now, nor has he had any sent him to be mounted. Mr. W. A. Elwood, who as a boy hunter in the seventies shot quite a number of these birds in Antelope County, states that they were numerous in flocks of 30 or 40 birds, appearing about the first week in May and remaining only a very short time, just long enough to feed. He has not seen the bird for the past 20 years or more. Mr. A. J. Leach, of Oakdale, remembers these birds passing northward in the spring during the seventies while he was plowing for corn, probably from the middle to the last of April. These flocks consisted of from 20 to 40 birds, and they used to alight on the plowed ground and stubble lands to feed. He also has not seen an Eskimo curlew for a quarter of a century past. Mr. Sanders, a guide and old hunter, of Clarks, who lived at Silver Creek up to the early nineties, told Mr. P. I. Hoagland that in the early days the birds were very abun- dant there, as much so as the passenger pigeon in the East, and that hundreds would be shot in a single day. THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENK. 337 In the eighties the Eskimo curlew began decreasing rapidly. Ap- parently many of the birds moved their line of migration to the westward. Gunners reported flights passing through Grand Island, Kearney, and North Platte after they had practically disappeared from eastern Nebraska, but no specimens are extant to verify these reports. April 2, 1884, the species was reported from Alda, Ne- braska.1. Rev. J. M. Bates informs me that Warden D. A. Piercy, of All Saints’ Church, at Kennedy, Cherry County, states that during the first years of his residence there, 1885-1887, the Eskimo curlew was as common as its congener, the long-billed curlew. In 1889 Rev. Bates saw a mounted specimen of this bird in a store near Wood Lake, Cherry County, which had been taken near that place. In 1889 Mr. Charles E. Holmes, now of Providence, Rhode Island, reported the Eskimo curlew as common locally in the hills about 40 miles south of Ainsworth, Brown County, though they were de- creasing and many were killed by cowboys.’ By the nineties the Eskimo curlew was so reduced in numbers that hunters rarely met with it, and there are no records of specimens taken during the next 20 years, though it was repeatedly reported as seen by competent observers. In 1896 Mr. I. S. Trostler reported the Eskimo curlew as still a “common” migrant at Omaha, giving its dates as April 1 to 20 in the spring and October 1 to 15 in the fall. On April 12, 1896, Mr. J. S. Hunter saw a pair of Eskimo curlews near Stevens Creek, several miles east of Lincoln. It might also be mentioned here that about 1897 Mr. P. I. Hoagland saw a flock of these birds near Laramie, Wyoming, so late in the spring that he wondered if the birds could be expecting to nest there. About the middle of April, 1900, Mr. Paul I. Hoagland and his father, of Omaha, were hunting near Clarks, Nebraska, when a large flock containing 70 or 75 birds flew across the road and disappeared over the hill. Mr. Hoagland, sr., recognized the birds as the Eskimo curlew, and both men started toward the place where the birds were last seen. They saw a newly plowed field and made toward it and found the entire flock on the freshly plowed land busily engaged in picking up grubs and insects turned up by the plow. The birds were entirely unsuspicious and permitted the hunters to approach as close as desired. The flock was flushed, and each hunter made four shots, obtaining in all about 34 of the birds. None of them was saved as a specimen. This was written up by Mr. Sandy Griswold in the Omaha World-Herald at the time, but he called the birds “ golden plover,” which they are not. Mr. C. W. Tinker, a hardware merchant, of Waco, who used to 1 Cooke, W. W. Bull. 2, Division of Economic Ornithology, p. 98, 1888. 2 Forbush, E. H. Game Birds, Wildfowl and Shorebirds, pp. 416-452, 1912, 18618°—sac 1915-22 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. hunt these birds with Mr. Wheeler in the seventies, saw his last Eskimo curlews in 1904 or 1905 on the old York County feeding grounds. Mr. Wheeler himself saw a flock of nine of these curlews in the spring of 1909 or 1910 near Norfolk, Madison County. He was very close to them, and positively identified the birds. The last records of collected birds for Nebraska were made in the spring of 1911 and of 1915. On March 22,1911, while Mr. Fred Geiger was shooting ducks near Waco, York County, two of these birds came flying by within gun range, and both were shot by him. The birds were identified by an old-time hunter, and were then brought to Lincoln and mounted by Mr. August Eiche, in whose collection they are at present. Both birds were females, with well-developed ovaries. On April 20, 1911, while hunting at Clarks, within a mile of the field where the large flock had been seen 11 years before, Mr. Hoag- land saw a flock of 8 Eskimo curlews. With little difficulty the entire flock were killed except one bird, which made its escape. The birds were brought to Omaha, and Mr. Hoagland, remembering that in spite of almost continual hunting during the open season he had not seen the bird since the large flock 11 years before, or even heard of its being seen, took one of the birds to Mr. Allabaugh, a taxi- dermist of Omaha, for mounting. Mr. Fred Goodrich, also of © Omaha, saw the birds, and when he noted that Mr. Hoagland was about to have one of them mounted said he would lke one mounted also. Two birds were put aside for this purpose. Later, on consider- ing the matter, Mr. Hoagland decided to save all of the birds and gave orders to that effect, but they had already been picked by the cook. Both birds were mounted by Mr. Allabaugh April 24, 1911, and one is now in the possession of Mr. Fred Goodrich, of Omaha, the other in the N. O. U. collection, a gift of Mr. Hoagland, through the writer. In April 1913, Mr. Mont Wheeler, of Norfolk, and Mr. Paul Hoag- - land, of Omaha, were hunting snipe near Norfolk when a flock of six or seven of these birds, flying northwest, passed over their heads. When the birds passed over they were not over a hundred yards high, and the hunters observed them until they disappeared from view. Both Mr. Wheeler and Mr. Hoagland are positive that the birds were the Eskimo curlew, and, considering the extended first-hand experi- ence that both of these men have had with the species, there can hardly be any question of correct identifications. Although no Eskimo cur- lews were noted in 1914, a single bird was killed about 10 miles due south of Norfolk, Nebraska, on the morning of April 17, 1915. The bird was alone when taken. It came into the possession of Mr. Hoagland, who had it mounted by Allabaugh, a taxidermist of Omaha, in whose shop I saw it in May. The taxidermist stated that Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Swenk. PLATE 1. ONE OF 7 ESKIMO CURLEWS SHOT FROM A FLOCK OF 8 AT CLARKS, MERRICK County, Nesr., APRIL 20, 1911, BY Mr. P. I. HOAGLAND, OF OMAHA. Specimen in N. O. U. collection. THE ESKIMO CURLEW—SWENK, 339 the bird was a male and that it had been hit with a single shot only, so it has made a handsome specimen, which Mr. Hoagland will retain in his possession. About the same day that this specimen was killed, a brother of Mr. Mont Wheeler, of Norfolk, reported seeing five Eskimo curlews at about the same spot. These birds were not disturbed, but their occurrence was reported to Mr. Hoagland and, through him, to me. Even in these latter captures and observations, when the birds were nearing extinction from incessant persecutions, they were very unsuspicious and apparently fearless. They flew away leisurely in close, compact flocks, so that they could scarcely be missed when shot at, and a single discharge would bring down many of the birds. The occurrence of eight and the killing of seven of these birds near Cartwright, Labrador, in August and September, 1912, and the collecting of a male specimen on September 10 of that same autumn while flying alone over decoys along the shore of Fox Lake, Dodge County, Wisconsin, have already been mentioned. A speci- men was observed on the Bermuda Islands, according to Kennedy, on January 20, 1913.1. On September 5, 1913, a specimen was col- lected at East Orleans, Massachusetts, it being alone when taken.? These recent records for the Eskimo curlew would indicate that it is probably not yet wholly extinct. In the spring flight these curlews arrived at the ‘same time as the golden plover, though they did not always frequent the same Jocali- ties. The Eskimo curlew was always uncommon in the fall migra- tion in Nebraska. Most of the observers who have furnished me data on this bird (Messrs. Bruner, Wheeler, Hoagland) have never seen it at that season, but Mr. Elwood thinks he remembers having seen the birds some time in October, and Mr. A. J. Leach thinks he remembers their passing through southwardly about October 1. Aughey* records a specimen sent him from Bellevue for identifi- cation in October, 1874, and states that he had observed the species in northeastern Nebraska in that month. The Eskimo curlew had several notes. During flight they uttered a fluttering “tr-tr-tr” note, which was given by many individuals at once, and described by Coues as a “low conversational chatter” and by Mackay as “a soft, melodious whistle, ‘bee, bee.’” Mr. W. A. Elwood describes this note as “a short, low whistle” continually repeated by many of the birds simultaneously while in flight. Mr. A. J. Leach recalls the notes as resembling quite closely the note of the bluebird when in flight, only perhaps shorter and more of a twittering whistle, and, as it was given by a large number, perhaps 1 Kennedy, J. N. Ibis, ser. 10, 2, 1914. 2Lamb, C. R. Auk, 30, p. 581, 1913. - 2 Aughey, 8S. 1st Rept. U. S. Entomological Comm., Appendix, p. 55, 1878. 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. all, of the flock as they took wing and while flying, it was difficult to catch the individual note. This note was constantly uttered while the birds were flying and was often audible before the birds could be seen. Before alighting, as they descended and sailed, they gave a soft whistle, somewhat like the note of the upland plover, according to Prof. Bruner, while as they walked over the ground when feeding they uttered a chirruping whistle, as if calling to each other. The Eskimo curlew was a bird of such food habits that it is a distinct loss to our agriculture that it should have disappeared. During the invasion of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper (Jfela- noplus spretus) it did splendid work in the destruction of grasshop- pers and their eggs. Mr. Wheeler states that in the latter seventies these birds would congregate on pieces of land which had not been plowed and where the grasshopper eggs were laid, reach down into the soil with their long bills, and drag out the egg capsules, which they would then devour with their contents of eggs or young “hop- pers until the land had been cleared of the pests. A specimen exam- ined by Aughey in 1874 had 31 grasshoppers in its stomach, together with a large number of small berries of some kind.t_ The bird in its migrations often alighted on plowed ground to feed on the white grubs and cutworms turned up by the plow, or in meadow lands, probably feeding on ants in the latter situation. Richardson records finding them feeding on large ants at Fort Franklin in late May, 1849.2. The curlews were rarely seen near water, but were upland birds almost exclusively during the spring migration over the Great Plains region. h The flesh of the Eskimo curlew is said by all who have eaten it to have been exceedingly well flavored, and, according to Mr. Hoag- land, the equal if not the superior of any of our large shore birds. Although the Eskimo curlew is reduced to the point of extinction, it is probably not yet absolutely extinct; and if the pitiful remnant of the species could be absolutely protected there is still a chance that it might be enabled to recover and be saved. A campaign of edu- cation as to the present desperate status of this bird by all ornitholo- gists and true sportsmen, together with absolute legal protection under high penalties everywhere, and a complete cessation of killing these birds, even for specimens, might actually accomplish this result. The recently enacted Federal law giving the control of migratory birds to the General Government should be a large help in such a campaign. 1Aughey, S. 1st Rept. U. S. Entomological Comm., Appendix, p. 55, 1878, 2Blake, Knox, Zoologist, p. 2408, 1870, CONSTRUCTION OF INSECT NESTS.* By Prof. Dr. Y. SsOsTEpDT, Royal Museum of Natural History, Stockholm. [With 8 plates. ] Among both the higher and lower animals are found types which can build protective shelters for themselves and for their young by widely varying methods, in some cases with a high degree of art, in others in the simplest manner. In the insect world this art takes the most widely diversified forms, but we can give here only a. few examples selected from among thousands. x The nesting material is of various origins; it may be taken from the vegetable kingdom or from the mineral kingdom, such as earth, clay, etc., or the entire nest may be composed of a secretion of the insect, as is the case with the cells of bees, which are made entirely of wax. With the European social bees all the cells, whether intended to contain young larve or only the pollen, are of the same shape, the cells of the bumblebee being simply larger. In North America other bees are found which make their cells in such a way that remark- able results are obtained with the least possible work. These bees (Meliponas) have no stings. As with many other wild bees, they make their nests in the hollow trunks of trees, where they store up wax and honey in great quantities. The cells intended for the larvee, placed in the middle of these masses of wax, are hexagonal and of nearly the same shape as those of the common bees, but differ from the latter, which are constructed back to back in; two rows with horizontal openings, in being made in a single row with the openings always directed toward the top. All around these hexagonal cells there are large cells of very different shape with large openings, intended exclusively to receive the pollen. The 1 Translated by permission from the Revue générale des Sciences, Feb, 15, 1915. 341 342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Meliponas and the Trigonas have achieved great economy in con- struction; instead of using for all purposes the hexagonal cells, made with great labor and with mathematical precision, they re- serve these for the larve only, constructing simpler cells for provi- sions. The nests of Meliponas built in hollow trees are sometimes over a meter long. If the hollow of the tree is too large, they limit it at one end or the other by making a wall, but instead of using the wax for this purpose, since this is made only with great labor, they utilize earth agglutinated with a liquid which they secrete. This same mixture is used to reduce the size of the entrance to a simple little hole, allowing the passage of only one bee at a time, and at night this opening is closed. These precautions are justified by the absence of a sting, which renders them defenseless. The cells of the larvee, in the middle of the nest, always opposite each entrance, are specially protected by lamelle of fine wax, and, as we have just said, are surrounded by provision cells shaped lke pots. Where the Meliponas can not find hollow trees they build by the aid of the mixture just mentioned—earth and the special secretion (pro- polis)—a true nest, with irregular branching galleries, which has some resemblance to a white ant’s nest. A peculiar habit is found among the Xylocopas, a species related to the Meliponas. These creatures, the largest of the big bees, are found in the warmer portions of Africa, Asia, and America. They make their nests in old trunks of trees and in dead wood which they bore with their strong jaws. In the gallery made in this way, the female brings together a mass of honey and pollen intended for larval food. On this mass an egg is laid, and then the chamber is closed by a wooden partition which becomes the bottom of the next chamber. In this way she builds a column consisting of a series of superposed cells. After about three weeks the larva becomes full grown and transforms into a pupa in the interior of a cocoon. The larva in the lowest cell, the oldest, is from that fact the first to be ready to issue as an adult bee. But how can it get out? Must it wait until the younger larve has transformed, or does it eat its way out through the upper cells at the risk of killing all of its brothers and sisters? Here the insect shows a very special adaptation, as though it appreciated the danger to which such a passage would ex- pose the other larve, and adopts another road. With its strong mandibles it opens a passage at right angles to the floor, and the others follow by the same road, each one eating through the partition of its own cell, and thus the whole colony finds itself liberated through the industry of the first one. Even more than the bees, the social wasps astonish us by their artistically constructed nests, and it is rare to find insects with such bellicose habits devoting themselves so conscientiously and peacefully Lehn ae” Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Sjéstedt. PLATE 1. 1. Nest OF HYPSOIDES FROM MADAGASCAR (STOCKHOLM MUSEUM). Natural size, 17 cm. 2. NEST OF CHARTERGUS CHARTARIUS (STOCKHOLM MUSEUM). Natural size, 38 em. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Sjéstedt. PLATE 2, Nest OF ANAPHE INFRACTA FROM CAMEROUN (STOCKHOLM MUSEUM). Natural size, 17 em. INSECT NESTS—SJOSTEDT. 343 to work. We find among them simple combs with openings di- rected downward, which are not made of wax but of vegetable ma- terial finely pulverized and macerated by the secretions of the in- sect’s mouth. If we examine different wasps’ nests carefully, we ‘note that some are elastic and resistant, while others are tender and fragile, depending upon the material used by the insect. In the sec- ond case, the substance consists of long wood fibers, and in the other, of a different kind of vegetation. The fragile paper of the nests of certain species is taken from the bark of various trees and has the appearance of ribbons. The simplest form of nest is made by the Belonogaster wasps. These large, somber, silent-flying wasps are found in the hot regions of Africa. Their nests generally are made simply of cells fastened together on top of a twig, without any envelope, although some spe- cies are not contented with such rudimentary nests and have added to them different methods of protection. We may cite the Charter- gus chartarius, a species found in tropical America. Its nests (pl. 1, fig. 2) are sometimes as much as half a meter long, and are composed of a great number of stories connecting by a central opening. 40 ,bonintie od of brio old to sonadtogmi adi to bag subosorg, oan a alvoatti edd dogidesi te aluesn odd give sia amoitss tiodt sedioda 7 5 ; me ; Qalooanst to-oldsqdont Sarde 3 # iedisuinadel ‘ont’ athe aero lige ‘gto aliwatehe oil’ wea. | Hea stow 6 wbortion vised. ai Boiridado. odsotetdgue aindobiok Skiba oldchriinoy « tansl du eeindge tinttes diiw Jui Yawk saad Arirotle St etioisibuop guibarotnia SH nd aco OP y ae sb oink sbeitinagy aseund old 4 ‘tistiohtedd scivs bone ; Sake Ehbetis ered were ayf Live Hash fir” aaier? hal digolédoyay Bak deo ldsouth ct 1snidis ode "eee! ewototlo ret eiitito eat oe rei io S sige sroliaeiseds ome oF ae tse shea SPEECH 1S data unavail LODS over 100.00 © Sources. ELBING trom 50030809 Smithoorian Report, 1915-—Deminian. PLATE 3, from available sources. Seale 1;2.250,000 or Inch 30% miles _) German OS Russian hj — — — political boundaries : > administrative boundaries | 1.4 a —y crm " : AN SURG a rt ae @ @ + wesw: ay | ! 4 at l S| iy LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 497 Great Russians. Traces of Finnish intermixture can still be de- tected among them, in spite of the process of Slavicization which they have undergone. The Poles of Galicia, on the other hand, like the Ruthenians and Little Russians, reveal crossing of autochthon- ous populations with Asiatic and Mongoloid invaders of Europe.* The southeastern extremity of the language attains the sources of the Moravka, an affluent of the Ostrawica. In this district the line of demarcation between Ruthenians and Poles passes through Tarnograd and along the San Valley. Its southern extension skirts the foothills through Rymanow, Dukla, Zmigrad, Gorlica, and Gribow.2. Thence to Jablunka it merges with the political boundary. In its western section the physical boundary coincides for all practical purposes with the ethnographic line of division. The Polish-speaking Gorales mountaineers have never aspired to cross the divide of the Beskid Mountains. The result is that the gentler slopes of the southern side are peopled altogether by Slovaks, while habit and custom have prevented the Podhalians or Polish shepherds inhabiting the high valley of the Tatra from leading their flocks to the southern grazing slopes which form part of the Hungarian domain.* Changes in the aspect of the land resulting from human activity provide an easily observable boundary between the territory in- -habited by Poles and that occupied by Ruthenians. The first, proceeding from the Vistula lowland, are now scattered over a territory in which deforestation and large areas of tilled soil be- speak prolonged human occupancy of the land. The latter, coming from the Pontic steppes, reached the Carpathian slopes much later than their western neighbors. Consequently, only 20 per cent of the surface of the western Carpathians is now available as prairie and pasture land, whereas the percentage of grazing land in the eastern 1 Southern Poland was overrun by Mongolians during their third invasion of Hurope. ~ The Asiatics were attacked near Szydlow on March 18, 1241, by an army of Polish noble- men recruited from Sandomir and Cracow. The defeat of the Christians enabled the in- vaders to plunder the latter city, besides opening the way for incursions farther north in the course ef which they penetrated into Silesia by way of Ratibor and marched toward Breslau. Near Liegnitz an army of 30,000 Europeans was defeated again on Apr. 9 of the same year. These disasters were followed by a westerly spread of the Tatar scourge. Traces of its passage can still be detected among Poles. 2'The Poles constitute the majority in the population of many cities in eastern or Rus- sian Galicia. In Niederle’s list Bobrka, Muszyna, Sanok, Lisko, Sambor, Peremysl, Rawa- ruska, Belz, Zolkiew, Grodek, Ceshanow, Stryj, Kalusz, Stanislawoff, Kalomya, Tarnopol, Husiatyn, Buczacz, Sokal, and 'Trembowla are credited with over 50 per cent Poles in their population. On the other hand, the predominance of German in the cities of Biala, Sezerzec, Dolina, Bolechow, Nadworna, Kossew, Kuty, Zablotow, and Brody is attributed by the same authority to the Jewish element present. L. Niederle, La Race Slave, Alcan, Paris, 1911. A digest in English of his conclusions will be found in Ann. Rep, Smiths. Inst., 1910, Washington, 1911, pp. 599-612. 3H, Reclus. Géogr, Univ., vol. 3, Europe Centrale. Hachette, Paris, 1878, p. 396. 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. section of the mountain chain is twice as high.t_ The area of plowed land in the western region covers between 40 and 50 per cent of the surface. In the east it barely varies between 5 and 10 per cent. Again, the Polish section is practically clear of the forests which cover in contrast from 50 to 60 per cent of the eastern Carpathians. Similar differences can be noted in the valleys up to an altitude of about 2,300 feet. Within them the proportion of plowed land con- stitutes 88 per cent of the surface in the Polish section. In the Ruthenian areas they do not exceed 15 per cent. On the southwestern border the line attains the Oder in the vicinity cf Bohumin. Here a number of localities in the Teschen country are claimed alike by ‘Bohemians and Poles. The increasing use of Polish and German, however, tends to invalidate the claims of Bohemians.’ A transition zone between Bohemian and Polish exists here and is characterized by a local dialect of mixed language. The western linguistic boundary of Poland extends through the German Provinces of Silesia and Posen. Here a gradual replace- ment of the language by German since the sixteenth century is no- ticeable. At that time the Oder constituted the dividing line. As late.as 1790 the population of Breslau was largely Polish. To-day over 75 per cent of the inhabitants of the city and of neighboring towns and villages are Germans. The district north and south con- stitutes in fact an area of linguistic reclamation. The westernmost extension of Polish occurs in Posen at the base of the provincial projection into Brandenburg. Around Bomst the percentage of Polish inhabitants is as high as 75 per cent. The line extends north- ward through Bentschen to Birnbaum, after which it assumes a northeasterly direction. In spite of this western extension, however, the area of Polish speech within German boundaries is broken in numerous places by German enclaves of varying size.* In western Prussia the Poles form linguistic islands in the German mass and attain Baltic shores, where they occupy the entire western coast of the Gulf of Danzig. From Oliva and Danzig the line extends to Dirschau (Tezew) and crosses the Vistula about 6 miles below this city. It then strikes east to Altmark, whence it turns southward toward Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) and Graudenz (Grud- ziadz). Proceeding due east from here the boundary passes through Kylau, Osterode, the southern territory of the Masurian lakes and 1. Romer, Esquisse Climatique de l’Ancienne Pologne. Bul. de la Soc. Vaud. des Se. Nat., 5e Sér., vol. 46, June, 1910, p. 251. 2 J. Zemmrich, Deutsche und Slayen in den ésterreichischen Sudetenliindern, Deut. Erde, 2, 1903, pp. 1-4. ; 3p, Langhans, Nationalitiiten-Karte der Provinz Schlesien, 1: 500,000. Sonderkarte No. 1 in Deut. Erde, 1906; id., Nationalitiiten-Karte der Provinz Ostpreussen, 1 : 500,000. Sonderkarte No. 1 in Deut. Erde, 1907. LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 429 on into Russian territory until Suwalki is reached. The eastern frontier begins at this point and is prolonged southward, according to Slav authorities, through Augustow, Bielostock, Surash, Bielsk, Sarnaki, and Krasnostaw.* The struggle for predominance between Poles and Germans along Poland’s western boundary is fully nine centuries old. In the sixth century Slavonic tribes had become widely distributed between the Oder and Elbe in the course of westerly expansions which correspond to south and west migrations of Teutonic peoples. The beginning of the present millennium witnessed the inception of a slow and powerful Germanic drive directed toward the east. Repeated Ger- man aggressions brought about the earliest union of all Polish tribes into one nation at the beginning of the eleventh century. It proved, however, of little avail before the fighting prowess of the knights of the Teutonic Order who, by the first half of the thirteenth century, had succeeded in adding all Wend territory to Teutonic dominions. This early and northern phase of the “ Drang nach Osten” brought the Germans to the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Their advance was rendered possible in part by the presence of Tatar hordes menacing southern Poland. Teutonic progress was also facilitated by the condition of defenselessness which character- izes an open plain. Between the Oder and the Vistula the slightly undulating lowland is continuous and devoid of barriers to com- munication which the interposition of uplifted or uninhabitable stretches of territory might have provided. Polish history has been affected both favorably and adversely by this lack of natural bulwarks. The one-time extension of Polish sovereignty to the coasts of the Baltic and Black Seas or to within 50 miles of Berlin and the central plateau of Russia was a result of easy travel in a plain. This advantage was more than offset by the evident facility with which alien races were able to swarm back into the vast, featureless expanse forming Polish territory. The very dismemberment of the country is in part the result of the inability of the Poles to resort to the protection of a natural fortress, where a stand against oppressing foes might have been made. Poland’s easterly expansion, with its prolonged and finally dis- astrous conflict with Russia, began after the battle of Grunwald in 1410. Although the Poles then inflicted a decisive defeat on the German knights, the western Provinces they had lost could not be regained. In this eastern field the basin of the Dnieper merged without abrupt transition into that of the Vistula, just as the basin i Niederle, loc. cit., p. 73, but ef. H. Praesent, Russisch Polen, ete. Petermanns Mitt., vol. 60. Dec., 1914, p. 257. 2A, C. Haddon, The Wanderings of Peoples, University Press, Cambridge, 1912, p. 48. 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of the Oder on the west had formed the western continuation of the Baltic plain. Four centuries of struggle with Russia ensued, until the Muscovite Empire absorbed the greatest portion of Poland. The German element is slowly spreading eastward throughout the eastern provinces of Prussia which once formed part of the Kingdom of Poland. The emigration of Poles to central and west- ern Germany partly accounts for the German gain. From the larger cities of eastern Germany, and more especially from Posen, Brom- berg, Gnesen, and Danzig, steady flows of emigrants continually wend their way toward the industrial centers of the west, where they find higher wages and generally improved economic conditions. The German Government favors this expatriation of its Slav sub- jects. None of the vexations to which the Poles are subjected by Government officials in their native plains are tolerated in the Rhine Provinces of the Empire. The result is that notable colonies of Poles have sprung up in the vicinity of industrial centers like Diisseldorf or Arnsberg, in the Minster district and the Rhine Provinces. From a racial standpoint these Poles are practically indistinguishable from the Nordic type of Teuton. Their presence in Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia is no menace to German unity. They are so easily assimilated that the second generation, speaking German alone, forgets its antecedents and becomes submerged in the mass of the native population. Slav settlements are particularly numerous and dense along the Rhine-Herne Canal between Duisburg and Dortmund.t' The heavy preponderance of Poles in certain ad- ministrative divisions of eastern Germany has, nevertheless, been unimpaired by the Polish emigration. Their percentage in the “ cir- cles” (Kreise) of Odolanow, Koscian, Ostrzeszow, Posen, Pszczynsk, Olesia, and Skwierzyn still exceeds 80 per cent of the total popula- tion. In the province of Posen the German-speaking inhabitants still are in the minority. The Poles scattered in the eastern section of Germany constitute the largest foreign-speaking element in the Empire’s population. Their number is estimated at 3,450,000 by Niederle. German census returns for 1900 give 3,086,489. It must be noted here that the per- centage of Jews in German Poland is high, particularly in the urban areas, and that the practice of census takers is to classify them with the German or Polish population according to their vernacular. In Russia the last available census (1897) figures reveal the existence of 1,267,194 Jews? disseminated in the Polish provinces. This rep- resents 13.48 per cent of the population of Russian Poland. Here, 1K. Closterhalfen, Die Polen in Niederrheinisch-westfilisch Industriebezirk 1905. 1:200,000. Pl. 16 in Deut. Erde, vol. 10, 1911. 2N. Troinitsky, Premier Recensement général de la population de l’Empire de la Russie 1897. Vols. 1 and 2, Petrograd, 1905. LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 431 as elsewhere, they are rarely engaged in agricultural pursuits, but show tendency to invade prosperous towns and cities. In addition to drastic educational measures compelling study of their language, the Germans have resorted to wholesale buying of Polish estates in the sections of the kingdom of Poland which fell to the lot of Prussia when the country was partitioned. A coloniza- tion law (Ansiedelungsgesetz), decreed on April 26, 1886, placed large funds at the disposal of the German government for the pur- chase of land owned by Poles and the establishment of colonies of German settlers.2. The measure was artificial and proved valueless against economic conditions prevailing in the regions affected. A decrease in the percentage of the Polish population of the estates acquired by purchase was rarely brought about. The new settlers could rarely compete with the natives. The most tangible result consisted of a mere substitution of German for Polish ownership. The mass of laborers and dependents on most of the large estates remained Poles, as they had been prior to the transaction. The breach between Poles and Germans was widened in part by the change of masters. Nevertheless, although returns corresponding to the sum of effort and money expended were not obtained, the meas- ure has contributed to the advance of Teutonism in northeastern Kurope.* From the east, pressure corresponding to Teutonic battering, although exerted with less intensity, is applied by Russian endeavor to create national homogeneity. Of all the different members of the widespread Slavic race the Poles and Russians are the most closely related by speech. But the affinity ends here. The formid- able barrier of religious differences hampers fusion of the two nation- alities. Caught between the Slavic hammer of Russian orthodoxy and the anvil of Teutonic reformation, the Poles have remained staunch Catholics. Creed in this case has played a considerable part in the preservation of national spirit. The problem of delimiting Polish national boundaries is compli- cated on the east and west by the absence of prominent surface 1The Jews cluster especially in the eastern governments of Warsaw, Loniza, and Siedlce where their percentage varies between 15.6 and 16.4. This ratio is lower in the southern and western administrative divisions. In Kalisz it reaches only 7.2 per cent and is reduced to 6.3 per cent in Petrokow. In the cities the Jews constitute on an average slightly over a third of the population, although here again they are more numerous in the east. Cf. D. Aitoff, Peuples et Langues de la Russie. Ann. de Géogr., 15, Mai, 1909, pp. 9-25. 2A law passed in 1908 authorizes the state to acquire land in the administrative circles in which German interests require development of colonization. B. Auerbach, La Ger- manisation de la Pologne Prussienne: La loi d’expropriation, Rev. Polit. & Parlem., 57, July, 1908, pp. 109-125. *P. Langhans, Nationalitiitenkarte der Provinz Schlesien 1:500,000. Deut. Er., 1906, Sonderkarte 1; P. Langhans, Nationalitiitenkarte der Provinz Ostpreussen 1: 500,000, Deut. Er., 1907, Sonderkarte 1; Die Provinzen Posen und Westpreussen unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Ansiedlungsgiiter und Ansiedlung, Staatsdomiinen und Staatsforsten nach dem Stande von 1 Januar, 1911, Deut, Erde, 10, Taf, 1, 1911. 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. features. The lines of linguistic parting can not be emphasized and : are apt to be unstable. This circumstance detracts from their politi- cal value. 10. THE AREAS OF BOHEMIAN AND SLOVAKIAN SPEECH. The Bohemians, who with the Moravians constitute Slavdom’s European vanguard, occupy the mountain-girt plateau of Bohemia in the very heart of Europe. Here the steady advance of Teutons has prevented expansion of these Slavs along the valleys providing them with lines of easy communication with the rest of the continent. Bohemians and Moravians thus found themselves bottled up inside the mountainous rim of their land by the Germans of Germany and of Austria. The German ring surrounding Bohemia is composed of sections representing various types of the Teutonic family. The south- western element represents the Bavarian settlers from which it is descended. Farmers and woodsmen were introduced into the Béhmerwald as an inevitable phase of the exploitation of the moun- tainous area by religious communities of the 13th century. The end of the Thirty Years’ War was marked by a new influx of Germans needed to repopulate the sorely devastated Bohemian districts. The Bavarian element, however, never reached the foot of the eastern slopes. Modern Bohemian resistance to its spread toward the pla- teau persists unflinchingly. The Erzgebirge uplift is a German ethnographic conquest. For centuries its mineral wealth has attracted artisans from Franconia, Thuringia and Saxony. The mountain slopes resound to-day to the sound of the dialects of these ancient countries. The Saxon element prevails particularly among the inhabitants of the Elbe valley. Farther east, descendants of natives of Lusatia and Silesia still use the vernacular of their ancestors in the upland formed by the Iser and Riesen ranges. The valleys of these mountains yield a steady stream of German-speaking inhabitants who wend their way toward the industrial towns of the southern plain. The German workingman’s competition with his Bohemian fellow-laborer is keen, however, in this district and has not been marked by notable ad- vance of the Teutonic idiom. Linguistically the Bohemians and Moravians form a unit hemmed in by Germans on all sides except the east, where they abut against their Slovak kinsmen. Community of national aspirations is gen- erally ascribed to these three Slavic groups, in which the Bohemian is the leading element. The union has been fostered by the lack of a literary language among Moravians with the consequent adoption LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 433 of Bohemian forms of style in writing. The numerical inferiority of the Slovaks! found strength in this alliance. The Bohemian linguistic area presents homogeneity of composition which is seldom encountered in other parts of Austria-Hungary. Intermingling of Slav and Teuton elements has been slight in this advanced strip of Slavdom. Overlap of German occurs in banded stretches generally parallel to the political divide. It is particu- larly noticeable in the eastern angle formed by the junction of the Bohmerwald and Erzgebirge, where it almost attains the town of ‘Pilsen.2 Beyond in a northerly direction the volcanic area charac- terized by thermal springs les within the German line. Reichen- berg, the strenuous center of Teutonism, maintains easterly and westerly prongs of German in the Iser-Riesen uplifts and the Elbe valley, respectively. The German of Silesia spreads into Moravia along the Zwittau-Olmiitz-Neu Titschen line. A short stretch of the southern linguistic area coicides with the political frontier in the neighborhood of Taus, but the balance of the southern Béhmerwald overlooking Bohemian levels is German in speech from its crests to the zone in which widening of the valleys becomes established. The disappearance of this mountainous chain in southern Moravia coincides with a southerly extension of Bo- hemian in the valley of the March. Contact with Slovak dialects begins in the Beskid area. Celts, Teutons, and Slavs have occupied in turn the Bohemian lozenge. The appellation of Czechs first appears in the 6th century. National consolidation begins with the country’s conversion to Christianity three hundred years later and is maintained with vary- ing fortunes until 1620. Bohemian political freedom suffered anni- hilation in that year on the battlefield of the White Mountain. After this defeat the land and its inhabitants lapsed into a state of historical lethargy. Half a century ago Bohemian was almost ex- tinct. Fortunately, the high cultural attainment of some modern Bohemians succeeded in rousing their countrymen to a sense of national feeling. In particular, the fire of Bohemian patriotism has been kept alive by literary activity. Successful attempts on the part of Hungarians to assimilate the Slovaks have caused these mountaineers to turn to their Bohemian kinsmen for assistance in the preservation of race and tradition. Merging of national aspirations has been facilitated by close lin- guisite affinity. A Bohemian-Slovak body consisting of 8,410,998 individuals* thus came into being within the Dual Monarchy in 1 Official Austrian figures estimate the number of Slovaks at slightly over 2,000,000. Slavic authorities generally give higher figures. 2J. Zemmich, Deutsche und Slawen in den dsterreichischen Siidetenlandern, Deut. Erde, 2, 1903, pp. 1-4. ® Census returns for 1910. New Inter. Hncyc., Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1914, 18618°—sm 1915——28 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. order to maintain resistance against German and Hungarian en- croachments. The Slovaks are mountain dwellers who have but slightly fra- | ternized with Bohemians and Moravians, notwithstanding close racial and linguistic affinity. The course of centuries failed to change their customs or the mode of life led in the western Carpathians. The Hungarian plain unfolded itself below their rocky habitation without tempting them to forsake the seclusion of their native valleys. Their language holds its own as far east as the Laborec Valley. Junction with Polish is effected in the Tatra. 11. THE AREA OF HUNGARIAN SPEECH. The presence in Europe of Hungarians, a race bearing strong linguistic and physical affinity to Turki tribesmen, is perhaps best explained by the prolific harvests yielded by the broad valleys of the Danube and Theiss. Huns, Avars, Hunagars, and Magyars, one and all Asiatics, wandering into Europe successively, were enticed into abandonment of nomadism by the fertility of the boundless Alféld. Western influences took solid root among these descend- ants of eastern ancestors after their conversion to Catholicism and the adoption of the Latin alphabet. So strongly did they become permeated by the spirit of occidental civilization that the menace of absorption by the Turks, their own kinsmen, was rendered abor- tive whenever the Sultan’s hordes made successful advances to- ward Vienna. At the same time fusion with the Germans was prevented by the oriental origin of the race. The foundation of a separate European nation was thus laid in the Hungarian plains. The linguistic boundary between Hungarian and German is found in the eastern extremity of the Austrian Alps.*. The south- ern side of the Danube Valley between Pressburg and Raab is Ger- man. Magyar spreads, however, to the north to meet the Slovak area. The line then crosses the upper valleys of the Raab and attains the Drave, which forms the linguistic boundary between Croatian and Hungarian. East of the Theiss contact with the Rumanian of Transylvania begins in the vicinity of Arad on the Maros River and extends northward in an irregular line, hugging the western outlines of the Transylvania Alps, and attaining the sources of the Theiss. In the northeastern valley of this river Hungarian and Ruthenian language areas become contiguous. The area of Magyar speech thus defined lacks homogeneity in its western section lying west of the Danube, where important enclaves of Germans are solidly entrenched. The central portion of the iP, Hunfalvy, Die Ungarn oder Magyaren, pp. 104-120, Prochaska, Vienna, 1881. Smiths | AUSTRIA-HUNGARY | | AND PARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE ’ SHOWING ¥ LANGUAGES Scale :1:5,550,000 or 1 inch=87'*2miles. nee, “eee ore . Smitheosian Report, 1915—Deminian, | ~vell wa as AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 4 Legend (Oltalian Polish } \ EN Ge? --a0seng AND PARTS OF SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE | @Rumanian GirechsMoraven DSS ps =: —— SHOWING | (lserman Slovakian 0 ‘ ra 2% LANGUAGES (Hungarian GD Slovene ‘ r 4 | ’ Siena | or Linch 87" miles. ri v © le + is F . ¢ bd “s ‘ fm tay LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 435 monotonous expanse unfolding itself between the Danube and the Theiss, on the other hand, is characterized by uniformity of the Hungarian population it supports. Enclaves exist again all along the eastern border of this area. A minor group of Hungarians have settled on the eastern edge of the Transylvania Mountains. They live surrounded by Ruman- ians on all sides except on the west, where a lone outpost of Saxons brings Teutonic customs and speech to the east. The name of Szekler, meaning frontier guardsmen, applied to this body of Magyars, is indicative of their origin. Their presence on the heights overlooking the Rumanian plain bespeaks the solicitude of Hun- garian sovereigns to control a site on which the natural bulwark dominating their plains had been raised. These Magyars represent at present the landed gentry of Transylvania. This Hungarian colony was in full development at the end of the thirteenth century. Its soldiers distinguished themselves during the period of war with the Turks. Prestige acquired on the battle-field strengthened the separate and semi-independent existence of the community. The region occupied by these Hungarians is situated along the easternmost border of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The towns of Schissburg and Maros Vasarhely he on its western border. But the area of Rumanian speech situated between the land of the Szekler and the main Hungarian district is studded with numerous colonies of Magyars, thereby rendering delimitation of a linguistic boundary in the region almost impossible. The Saxon colony adjoining the Szekler area on the west is also a relic of medieval strategic necessities. In spite of the name by which this German settlement is designated, its original members appear to have been recruited from different sections of western European regions occupied by Teutons.t. Colonization had already been started when King Gesa II of Hungary gave it a fresh im- pulse in the middle of the twelfth century by inducing peasants of the middle Rhine and Moselle Valleys to forsake servitude in their native villages in return for land ownership in Transylvania.” To promote the efficiency of the soldier colonists as frontier guards- men an unusual degree of political latitude was accorded them. In time their deputies sat in the Hungarian diet on terms of equality with representatives of the nobility. The exigencies of prolonged warfare with the Tatar populations attempting to force entrance into the Hungarian plains determined selection of strategical sites 1. Teutsch, Die Art der Ansiedelung der Siebenbiirger Sachsen, Fors. z. deut. Land u. Volksk., vol. 9, pp. 1-22, 1896. Cf. also O. Wittstock, Volkstiimliches der Siebenbtirger Sachsen in the same volume. 2 Luxemburg and the regions comprised between Treves, Diisseldorf, and Aix-la-Chapelle furnished many German colonists, 436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. as nuclei of original settlements. These facts are responsible for the survival of the Teutonic groups in the midst of Rumanians and Hungarians. To-day the so-called Saxon area does not constitute a single group, but consists of separate agglomerations clustered in the vicinity of the passes and defiles which their ancestors were called upon to defend. The upper valley of the Oltu and its mountain aftluents in the rectangle enclosed between the towns of Hermann- stadt, Fogaras, Mediasch, and Schissburg contain at present the bulk of this Austrian colony of German ancestry. 12. THE AREA OF RUMANIAN SPEECH. The Germans and Hungarians who founded settlements on the Transylvanian plateau were unable to impose their language on the inhabitants of the mountainous region. Rumanian, representing the easternmost expansion of Latin speech, is in use to-day on the great- est portion of this highland,’ as well as in the fertile valleys and plains surrounding it between the Dniester and the Danube. A por- tion of Hungary and the Russian Province of Bessarabia is therefore included in this linguistic unit outside of the Kingdom of Rumania.” Beyond the limits of this continuous area the only important colony of Rumanians is found around Metsovo in Greece, where, in the re- cesses of the Pindus Mountains and surrounded ‘by the Greeks, Albanians, and Bulgarians of the plains, almost half a million Rumanians* have managed to maintain the predominant Latin char- acter of their language.* The survival of Latin in an eastern land and in a form which presents closer analogies with the language of the Roman period than with any of its western derivatives had its origin in the Roman con- quest of Dacia in the first decade of the second century. Occupation of the land by important bodies of legionaries and a host of civil administrators, their intermarriage with the natives, the advantages conferred by Roman citizenship, all combined to force Latin into current use. When in 275 Aurelian recalled Roman troops from the eastern Provinces of the Empire, the vernacular of Rome had taken such solid root in Dacia that its extirpation had become an im- possibility. iN. Mazere, Harta etnografica a Transilyanei 1: 340,000, Inst. Geogr. al Armatei, Iasi, 1909. 2G. Weigand, Linguistischer Atlas des Dacorumiinischen Sprachgebietes, Barth, Leipzig, a Ae ae number is given at 750,000 by G. Murgocé and P. Papahagi in “ Turcia cu privire speciala asupra Macedoniei,’ Bucarest, 1911. Greek computations, in contrast, rarely exceed the 100,000 figure. d The total number of Rumanians in the Balkan peninsula is estimated at about 10,- 300,000 individuals, distributed as follows: Rumania, 5,489,296, or 92.5 per cent of the population ; Russia, 1,121,669, of which 920,919 are in Bessarabia; Austria-Hungary, 3,224,147, of which 2,949,032 are in Transylvania; Greece, 373,520; Serbia, 90,000. —— LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 437 This abandonment of the region by the Romans is invoked for political reasons by the Magyar rulers of Transylvania in order to deny the autochthonous character of Rumanian natives of this Hun- garian Province. Rumanian historians, however, have been able to demonstrate the untenability of this assumption.’ Clues offered by geography also tend to validate Rumanian claims. From the valley of the Dniester to the basin of the Theiss the steppes of southern Russia spread in unvarying uniformity, save where the tableland of the Transylvanian Alps breaks their conti- nuity. The entire region was the Dacia colonized by the Romans.” Unity of life in this home of Rumanian nationality has been un- affected by the sharp physical diversity afforded by the enclosure of mountain and plain within the same linguistic boundary. The thoroughness with which Rumanians have adapted themselves to the pecularities of their land is evinced by the combination of the twin occupations of herder and husbandman followed by Moldavians and Wallachians. Cattle and flocks are led every summer to the rich grazing lands of the elevated Transylvanian valleys. In winter man and beast seek the pastures of the Danubian steppes and prairies. Rumanians thus maintain mountain and plain residences, which they occupy alternately in the year.* These seasonal migrations account for the intimacy between highlanders and lowlanders, be- sides affording adequate explanation of the peopling of the region by a single nationality.* There was a time, however, when Rumanian nationality became entirely confined to the mountain zone. The invasions which fol- lowed the retirement of the Romans had driven Rumanians to the shelter of the Transylvanian ranges. Perched on this natural for- tress, they beheld the irruption of Slavs and Tatars in the broad valleys which they had once held in undisputed sway. Only after the flow of southeastern migrations had abated did they venture to reoccupy the plains and resume their agricultural pursuits and seasonal wanderings. The outstanding facts in these historical vicissitudes is that the mountain saved the Latin character of Rumanian speech. Had the Romanized: Dacians been unable to find refuge in the Transyl- vanian Alps there is no doubt that they would have succumbed to Slavic or Tatar absorption. As it is, the life of Rumanians is 1A. D. Xenopol, Histoire des Roumains, Leroux, Paris, 1896. 2W. R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas. Holt, New York, 1911, pp. 34, 35, 39. 8’ Typical examples of seasonal migration are found in Switzerland, where conditions prevailing in the higher and lower valleys of the Alps have induced the inhabitants to shift their residence with the seasons, 4A similar nomadism is observable among the Rumanians of the Pindus Mountains; vy. The Nomads of the Balkans: An account of life and customs among the Vlachs of Nofthern Pindus. By A, J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Methuen, London, 1914. 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, strongly impregnated with eastern influences. Oddly enough, its Christianity was derived from Byzantium instead of from Rome, and were it not for a veritable renaissance of Latinism about 1860 its affinity with the Slavic world would have been far stronger in the present century. 138. THE AREA OF SLOVENE SPEECH. Of the two groups of southern Slavs subjected to Austro-Hun- garian rule the Slovenes are numerically inferior.t Settled on the caleareous plateaus of Carniola, they cluster around Laibach and attain the area of German speech, on the north, along the Drave between Marburg and Klagenfurt.2, Eastward they march with Hungarians and the Serbo-Croat group of southern Slavs. Their southern linguistic boundary also coincides with the latter’s. Around Gottschee, however, a zone of German intervenes between Slovene and Croatian dialects. Practically the entire eastern coast of the Gulf of Triest lies in the area of Slovene speech. The group there- by acquires the advantage of direct access to the sea, a fact of no mean importance among the causes that contribute to its survival to the present day in spite of being surrounded by Germans, Hun- garians, Croats, and Italians. The Slovenes may be considered as laggards of the Slavic migra- tions that followed Avar invasions. They would probably have occupied the fertile plains of the Hungarian “ Mesopotamia” had they not been driven to their elevated home by the pressure of Magyar and Turkish advances. Confinement in the upland pre- vented fusion with the successive occupants of the eastern plains which unfolded themselves below their mountain habitations. Ra- cial distinctiveness characterized by language no less than by highly developed attachment to tradition resulted from this state of seclusion. ep 14. THE AREA OF SERBIAN SPEECH. South of the Hungarian and Slovene linguistic zones the Austro- Hungarian domain comprises a portion of the area of Serbian speech. The language predominates from the Adriatic coast to the Drave and Morava Rivers, as well as up to the section of the Danube comprised between its points of confluence with these two rivers.’ Serbian, in fact, extends slightly east of the Morava Valley toward the Balkan slopes lying north of the Timok River, where 11,252,940, Census of 1910. 2 P, Samassa, Deutsche und Windische in Stidésterreich. Deut. Hrde, 2, 1903, pp. 39-41, which cf, with Niederle’s delimitation in La Race Slave, pp. 139-140. 3 Scattered Serbian settlements are also found between the Danube and Theiss Valleys.as far north as Maria-Theresiopel, and farther south at Zambor and Neusatz. Serbian is the language of the entire district of the confluence of the Theiss and Danube. LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 439 Rumanian prevails as the language of the upland.t To the south contact with Albanian is obtained. The area of Serbian speech thus delimited includes the inde- pendent kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia. Within the territory of the Dual Monarchy it is spoken in the provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia. The language is, therefore, essentially that of the region of uplift which connects the Alps and the Balkans or which intervenes between the Hungarian plain and the Adriatic. Union between the inhabitants of this linguistic area is some- what hampered by the division of Serbians into three religious groups. The westernmost Serbs, who are also known as Croats, adhere to the Roman Catholic faith in common with all their kins- men, the western Slavs. Followers of this group are rarely met east of the 19th meridian. A Mohammedan body consisting of descend- ants of Serbs who had embraced Islam after the Turkish conquest radiates around Sarajevo as a center. The bulk of Serbians belong, however, to the Greek orthodox church. Cultural analogies be- tween the Mohammedan and orthodox groups are numerous. Both use the Russian alphabet, whereas the Croats have adopted Latin letters in their written language. The Serbian group made its appearance in the Balkan Peninsula at the time of the general westerly advance of Slavs in the fifth and sixth centuries. A northwestern contingent, wandering along the river valleys leading to the eastern Alpine foreland, settled in the regions now known as Croatia and Slavonia. Here ‘the sea and inland watercourses provided natural communication with western Europe. Evolution of this northwestern body of Serbians into the Croatians of our day was facilitated by the infiltration of western ideas. But the great body of Serbians occupying the mountainous area immediately to the south had their foreign intercourse neces- sarily confined to eastern avenues of communication. They there- fore became permeated with an eastern civilization in which By- zantine strains can be easily detected. In spite of these cultural divergences, the linguistic differentiation of the Croat from Serbian element has been slight. To-day the political aspirations of this compact mass of Serbians are centered around the independent kingdom of Serbia, which is regarded as the nucleus around which a greater Serbia comprising all the Serbian-speaking inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula will grow. This Serbo-Croatian element is see to comprise at least 10,300,000 individuals.” 1 Serbian authorities usually extend the zone of their vernacular to points farther east. Cf., J. Cvijié, Die Ethnographische Abgrenzung der Vélker auf der Balkanhalbinsel. edternannis Mitt., 59, I, March, 1913, pp. 113-118. 2J. Erdeljauovi¢é. Broj Srba i Khrvyata, Davidovié, Belgrad, 1911. 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. By its situation, the Serbian linguistic area and the rugged land over which it spreads afford a political and physical link whereby connection between problems pertaining respectively to western Europe and the Balkan peninsula is established. The process of nation-forging undertaken by Serbian-speaking inhabitants of south- eastern Europe induces a southerly gravitation of Croatians and Bosnians. In opposition to this tendency, artificial forces are ex- erted at Vienna in order to prevent detachment of the Serbian element in the Dual Monarchy. 15. THE CASE OF MACEDONIAN. Within the Balkan Peninsula linguistic groupings now conform to a large extent with the political divisions which ended the wars of 1912-13. Greater distance in time will undoubtedly afford an increasingly satisfactory perspective of the results which followed this attempt to totally eliminate the Turk from’ mastery over this portion of the European continent. Racial sifting followed close on territorial readjustments. Turks from all parts of the former Turkish Provinces transferred their lands to Christian residents and emigrated to Asia Minor. Special arrangements for this exodus were provided by the Turkish government. Greeks settled in the newly acquired Bulgarian and Serbian domain similarly sought new homes within the boundaries of the Hellenic kingdom. A heavy flow of Bulgarian emigrants is at present directed to Bulgaria from Bulgarian-speaking territory allotted to Serbia.t Pressing need of further boundary revision on the basis of lan- guage is still felt in the Balkan peninsula. Resumption of hos- tilities in this part of Europe was due principally to the ‘moot case of the nationality of the Slavs of Macedonia. Serbs and Bul- gars claim them alike as their own. In reality the Macedonians constitute a transition people between the two. ‘The land they occupy is surrounded by a mountainous bulwark which assumes crescentic shape as it spreads along the Balkan ranges, and the mountains of Albania and the Pindus. For centuries this Mace- donian plain has constituted the cockpit of a struggle waged for linguistic supremacy on the part of Bulgarians and Serbs. The land had formed part of the domain of each of the two countries in the heyday of their national life. To this fact the present duality of claim must be ascribed in part. The language of the Macedonians is likewise transitional between Serbian and Bulgarian. Its affinity with the latter, however, is 1 Such migrations generally follow boundary revisions. The crossing of Alsatians into French territory from the year 1870 on has been mentioned in its place above. A large number of Danes likewise abandoned their home in Schleswig-Holstein in 1865 and wan- dered into Denmark. LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 441 greater. It is, in fact, sufficiently pronounced to have generally led to its inclusion with Bulgarian. Travelers in the land of the Mace- donian Slavs know that a knowledge of Bulgarian will obviate difii- culties due to ignorance of the country’s vernaculars. Serbian, how- ever, is not as readily intelligible to the natives. These relations have not illogically weighted the consensus of authority on the Bulgarian side. The result is that compilers of linguistic or ethnographic maps have generally abstained from dif- ferentiating the Macedonian from the Bulgarian area.t. The im- possibility for Bulgarians to regard the terms of the treaty of Bucarest as final are, therefore, obvious. Extension of the Rumanian boundary to the Turtukai-Black Sea line was also an encroachment on soil where Bulgarian was the predominant language.” In its westernmost area the delimitation of a Bulgarian linguis- tic boundary is greatly.hampered by the relatively large Serbian- speaking element on the north and a corresponding mass of Greeks on the south. Reliable statistics are still unavailable. The region in which determination of Bulgarian or Serbian linguistic pre- dominance assumes its most complicated phase is found in the quadrangle constituted by Pirot-Nish-Vranja-Prisrend. Here the language of the Slavic natives departs equally from the Bulgarian and Serbian, between which it varies. This region, however, lies north of Macedonia proper. At the same time, there appears to be little room to doubt that the area of Bulgarian speech extends to the zone of the eastern Albanian dialects and that it attains the Gulf of Salonica. But the seafaring population of the Mgean coast is largely Greek except in the sections within Bulgarian bound- aries which are now destitute of Greek fishermen. The advance of Teutonic and Bulgarian forces in Serbia and Albania during the winter of 1915-16 has resulted in a westerly spread of the territory occupied by Bulgarians. Decision on the permanence of this occupation will rest with the peace congress to convene at the end of the present European war. 16. THE AREA OF ALBANIAN SPEECH. Outside of Macedonia, a Balkan zone, in which political and lin- guistic boundaries fail to coincide, existed until recently in southern Albania. The frontier of this principality with Greece had been extended into a region in which Greek was undoubtedly spoken by 1p. M. Brancoff, La Macédoine et sa population Chrétienne, Plon, Paris, 1905. The Serbian viewpoint is resumed by J. Cvijié in ‘‘ Ethnographie de la Macédoine,”’ Ann. de Géogr., 15, 1906, pp. 115-132, and 249-266. 2Tt is estimated that 1,198,000 Bulgarians are still under foreign rule in the Balkans as a result of the treaty of Bucarest. Of these 286,000 live in Rumania, 315,000 in Greece, and 597,000 in Serbia. Cf. R. A. Tsanoff, Jour. of Race Develop., January, 1915, p. 251. 449 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. the majority of the inhabitants.1_ The Hellenic government, taking advantage of disturbances in Albania and the European war of 1914, despatched troops in the territory claimed by its citizens. As a result of this invasion the Albanian area of Greek speech is at this writing under Greek military occupation.? The inhabitants of Albania are utterly devoid of national feel- ing. The formation of this independent state was a political move undertaken by Austrian statesmen to prevent expansion of Serbia to the Adriatic. Within the boundaries determined by the ambassa- dorial conference held in London in 1918, strife and dissensions pre- vail to-day as intensely as during the Turkish régime. Natives of the northern sections of the country speak Serbian dialects and are inclined to favor union with Serbia or Montenegro rather than inde- pendence. Malissori tribesmen fought side by side with Monte- negrin troops in the fall of 1912, while the Albanians of Ipek gave assistance to Turkish regulars. The inhabitants of the valley of the upper Morava sent supplies to Serbian troops against which the chieftains of central Albania led their men. The purest type of Albanian found in the vicinity of Elbassan, Koritza, and Avlona® is practically submerged in a sea of Greeks. Under these circum- stances partition of the country between Greece and Serbia might not be incompatible with native aspirations. Departure from lin- guistic differentiation in this case would probably be attended by political stability which could not be provided in any other manner. 17. CONCLUSIONS. Certain inferences engage attention in this study of linguistic areas. Inspection of the map of Europe prepared for this article suggests strikingly that zones of linguistic contact were inevitably destined by their very location to become meeting places for men speaking different languages. They correspond to the areas of circulation defined by Ratzel.t| The confusion of languages on their site is in almost every instance the result of human intercourse determined by economic advantages. In Belgium after the Norman conquest the burghers of Flanders were able to draw on English markets for the wool which they converted into the cloth that gave their country fame in the fairs of Picardy and Champagne.’ We have here a typical example of Ratzel’s “ Stapellindern” or “transit regions.” In a cross direc- 1R. Hiiber, Carte Statistique des Cultes Chrétiens. 1: 600,000. Baader & Gross, Cairo, 1910. 2L. Biichner, Die neue griechisch-albanische Grenze in Nordepirus. Petermanns Mitt. 61, 1915, February, p. 68. 3G. Gravier, L’Albanie et ses limites. Rev. de Paris, Jan. 1, 1913, pp. 200-224. 4, Ratzel, Politische Geographie, 2d ed. Oldenbourg, Munich, 1903. Cf. chap. 16, “Der Verkehr als Raumbewiiltiger,” pp. 447-534. 5R. Blanchard, La Flandre, Colin, Paris, 1906. SHOWING LANGUAGES having political significance. ‘based on sheet N212 ¢ (Sept 1911) Debes'Handatlas and other sources Seale :1:9000,000 or t inch -142 miles S&S () Lettish aLatrmantan GQ Narkish « Tatar ————- political boundariee vw. en linguistic boundaries Ge at. | DAL “Ode Atte ape se tira), UTarets| ‘ ryt | i te HOt bpd Adee r) a “gt ane a TIN AT eid 8 8 -s a * er Lh a el} =e ! oe. 3" LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 443 tion the traffic of the Rhine ran at the end of the twelfth century from Cologne to Bruges along the divide between French and Flemish. Lorraine, inviting access from east and west, is known to historians as a Gallo-Germanic market place of considerable im- portance.t In our own time the river trade between Holland and Germany along the Rhine has caused expansion of Dutch into Ger- man territory as far as Wesel and Crefeld. The intruding language yields, however, to German everywhere.” Prevalence of French in parts of Switzerland is generally ascribed to travel through certain - Alpine passes.* The penetration of German in the Trentino has already been explained. In Austria the entire valley of the Danube has provided continental trade with one of its most important ave- nues. I have called attention in a former article to the Balkan peninsula as an intercontinental highway.* In a word, language always followed in the wake of trade, and Babel-like confusion pre- vailed along channels wherein men and their marketable commodi- ties flowed. The history of Europe during the nineteenth century shows clearly that modern reconstruction of nationalities is based on language. Practically all the wars of this period are the outcome of three great constructive movements which led to the unification of Germany and of Italy, as well as to the disentanglement of Balkan nationalities. These were outward and visible signs of the progress of democratic ideals. The congress of Vienna failed to provide Europe with politi- cal stability, because popular claims were ignored during the delib- erations. At present, inhabitants of linguistic areas under alien rule are clamoring for the right to govern themselves. The carrying out of plebiscites under international supervision can be relied upon to satisfy their aspirations and serve as a guide to frontier rearrange- ments. All told, the growing coincidence of linguistic and political bound- aries must be regarded as a normal development. It is a-form of order evolved out of the chaos characterizing the origin of human institutions. The delimitation of international frontiers is as neces- sary as the determination of administrative boundaries or city lines. Human organization requires it and there is no reason why it should not be undertaken with a fair sense of the wishes and the feelings of all affected. 1J. Vidal de la Blache, Mtude sur la Vallée Lorraine de la Meuse, Colin, Paris, 1908, pp. 165-180. : 2 Cf. inset on pp. 65-64, Andree’s Handatlas, 6th ed., 1915. 3 J. Brunhes, La Géogr. Humaine, Alcan, Paris, 1912, pp. 598-599. 4The Balkan Peninsula, Bull, Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 45, no. 8, 1913. ii ae a peer dud to sis See fe wer oitit Shae ee sugriod abtvib adj ‘ynofe aogier poe - oF avroral 3 Seat: Dae tans mort eAnIoe BANAL Snkeriwnl fui sideiabianws PO sonld dodiaar strane otta®- a ae = bis Disliol nsewied obeid s97i1 od} amit mvo to at us 19) ofat, dotetl Yo. ohm As beets and otidih oxld eh! ‘{CROTISE, voeiadel anibivini oft blatavD bay lees Wen int ea Tip Levi, r ‘pi doget'h toaslevenL, *oradineiys agnriat) os ‘svewou ri bev winties Uguoids fovand 04 bediiniey yilavenoay si hneliesieae 2 toot ie — 9 eal onidoorT od} wt mantra) To coneiensg DAT “aaa og . 2 sditantl oft to volley otis ot winterrAé al honislaxs oad vefusa hy etn Jashogial ont att te yoo thew shad betaseitinio byierotg. a =) nadieel. odd 09 slottta asar0t «ni ao niiothe Haller ovede Dey 7 Bae § eacirgitel rower al =e gee {inastinoeial we sh oie if b. r, * ony moien tires dacs (odo foeaa bert to odeyw oil in hawollot a wf, ‘: sthonwuon sldatetisn tight? ban som ietodw 2 ‘gata yoals Beli Sawoll aii 7 wanuueast so. headed a carat 1S woiten TACOS T mivhaat 7 das1y ovid) to smosico edt orn Horaq aidd to view ode Pe viheothow: t fy) Sat qtartsiat) to gol totic add of bel dotiby atasaretout ori ig yaad! ‘eaotion nntlnel Yo inaualydetaesih ond Od en Lew 29 pe sii nwomoel. to. eeorgerg off to. aanie olderd bos brewed wrowgeniTe ; 2 Hilo ditto aqoiet ohio. iq 04 holiot ennai ¥ Lo esragos a 4 sdiish old nariwh boroagt sree emiale: seliqaey saranda, iilid ate | blirs nafs taban ancia oltelurgnit ‘to etanlidadai ; shuseeng $A. “ato ru tio wiberiny att zovloeamuld atiroy of igfais! arly jot netiontal y if oF Rogar bation ad aes Gor ruse le (nuoijarrmini sshoiw soe dni be sGnavtear toiiuort of shir, & an avesa Bias, aooiterina nied x t: 3 “hanbd Leaitting-boa buaterad 46 eftiincdae eat Fy iia pao or iets 2 at 22 Unemoleveh tation « ‘ea baba ges, al daBae , mt > maid: to Rhytro’ ath: ‘guixivetgrtats eomda att toto, huang sali a nea oo, aeal elie facoilementi to: iro idusttonilopy ath eieond vali “@éail ydio to asia dhadod: ovttwesiaiinte: te, noitinteniphs OULS es \ Plvodea dt vier poser ott et ayaa ban je aes hops ath ro ayiiiest off bre eatlaiw elt "dst tisk at + -— * ; a ee = ee. d hy i n — oe iu iy j Poh i, Lote a : ; axa be eae i a wan PANG MG STOR aired reat i. ny a sont ah: bit oR mael, EXCAVATIONS AT TELL EL-AMARNA, EGYPT, IN 1913-1914.1 By Lupwig BorcHanrpt. [With 13 plates. ] Following the discoveries of last year, which were mainly at the houses of the chief sculptor Thutmes and his workmen (pl. 1, P 47, 1-3), it was natural this year to investigate the adjoining estates, so far as they had not been previously excavated. The excavation was therefore started westward from the Thutmes’ house and following the northern edge of the Wadi extended to the main street which connects the modern villages Hagg Qandil and Et-Till (see pl. 1). This street, corresponding to the main thoroughfare of the old city, was reached at house N 47, 1. There were also laid bare the groups of houses Q 48, 1-3 and O 48, 14-15 among the hills rising from the Wadi. Behind the first row of estates, west of “the street of the high priest” and north of the Wadi, the premises lying westward were disposed of as also a block of smaller estates, Q 46, 18-23, to the north of “the Christmas house” (Weihnachtshaus”), Q 46,1. On the east side of this part of “the street of the high priest,” between it and the eastern city line, several estates were cleared up, and the work was considerably advanced northward. The area of the city so far excavated was thus about the form of a T, the upper or horizontal bar running from south-southwest to north-northeast—from M 51 to Q 45— and the perpendicular bar extending from west-northwest to east- southeast—from N 47-48 to Q 48-49. The lower bar at the present state of the work appears split into two strips of houses separated by the Wadi, though it is certain that in ancient times the entire ground was fully built up. Strange as it may appear, the ancient Egyptians in building up an area did not take the precaution to leave the lower levels free of structures. They apparently disregarded rains in distant parts of the desert which caused torrents to rush into the Nile Valley carry- 1 Abstract translated from Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin, No. 55, December, 1914, pp. 1—45. 445 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ing everything before them, although the experience of millenniums should have taught them better. The difference of level which thus © far could be established between the floor of house Q 48, 3 and~ that of N 47, 6 amounts to 4.50 meters which is quite a marked difference considering that these houses are only about 480 meters” apart. ‘The same mistake was made in the palace of Amenophis ~ III, south of Medinet Habu, and elsewhere. The ancient Egyptian ~ architects were, however, not alone in committing this error, for their modern colleagues and even Europeans building in Egypt do ~ no better. As a result of this thoughtlessness and carelessness of transient engineers, parts of the railway dams, even in the recent decades, have often been swept away by floods, and in 1895 an en- © tire corner of the place of Heluan in Cairo was carried off. | The appearance of the excavations in the Wadi differs from that in the rest of the city area. Elsewhere the house ruins appear as 7 flat, desert hills where the still remaining upper rows of masonry are brought to light with the first stroke of the pick. In the Wadi a layer of sand or pebble, 0.5 to 1 meter deep, must first be removed before the upper parts of the walls, 1.5 meter or more in height, ap- pear. The débris between the walls is here also more compact, due ~ to alluviation and not merely to the rubbish from the upper build- — ings. As the Wadis, which now form a break in the city area, must once © have been fully built up, the extensive interruption of the ruin field in the neighborhood of the modern cemetery of Et-Till must be con- ~ sidered as only incidental, and those parts of the ruins formerly termed northern settlements must once have been directly connected with the present main part of the city. We thus obtain a city area of about 7 kilometers from north to ~ south with a greatest width of only 1.5 Inlometers. This elongated © form of the city, probably in part conditioned by its location along the river, is accounted for chiefly through its origin, which is even — now clearly perceptible. The city was built on a long street which ran parallel to the course of the river or, since the river limited its development on the west side, more toward the east on the main street. — This main street, which probably already existed as a country road when the city was founded, originally connected the palace and temple quarters near modern Et-Till with the similarly important quarter at the modern village Hagg Qandil. This main thoroughfare still exists as a connecting road between these villages, and appears on the plan (pl. 1) between the premises M 47, 2-6 and M 47,1. The first plan of the city was probably limited to the building up of both sides of the main street and later other broad streets were laid out, running parallel to the main thoroughfare, but bending toward it from the Smithso ” aF Tell el-Amarna Plan of the localities excavated up to 1914, Scale 1:4000. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 447 north and south, and probably leading from certain important cen- ters to the main street. The first of these broad parallel streets which thus far can be traced, may be seen on the plan in front of house L 50, 1, between the houses N 48, 15 and O 48, 8, in front of the house OQ 48, 18, and between O 47, 2-4 and P 47,19. The next, apparently the most extreme parallel street, is the one termed Oberpriester-Strasse (street of the high priest) and has been fully described in Mitteilun- gen der Deutschen Orient Gesellschaft, No. 52, page 7. The necessary connections between these main arteries of the city were narrow cross streets varying from 1.50 meter (!) to 10 meters in width. They are clearly visible, as shown on the plan between the premises extending from Q 46 to P 48, but good examples of them are also recognizable south of the Wadi at the end of the “high priests’ street.” These cross streets do not always run in a straight line, but some are of a rectangular outline, as the one between Q 46, 2 and Q 47, 9. So much concerning the streets within the city the system of which is gradually becoming more distinct. But likewise as regards the long-known street outside of the city area, to which the mapping of the region has added a large number, some views may now be given which may correct former statements on this subject. In the first place, a sharp distinction must be drawn between earlier streets of the time of Amenophis IV and later ones. One of the older streets was no doubt the one which led far into the desert to the ala- -baster quarry of the Old Kingdom, having a length of 17.5 kilo- meters, and in some places presenting for its time creditable “ art structures,” such as ramps and fortified side slopes. Two other roads on the eastern plateau lead still farther into the desert and to the stone quarry located 24 kilometers from the Nile in an air line. This is an alabaster quarry. Its original circular entrance shaft led through a sandstone elevation rising from the surface of the desert (pl. 2, fig. 1, top, on left side), but at present the entrance is some- what more accessible because of a break in the covering, as shown in the central portion of the figure. In the interior there opens, first, an irregular space, from which passages lead down to other rooms, and from these to still lower levels. In some of the rooms late Roman potsherds were found, bearing witness to the age of the work- ing of the quarry, which is also attested by the rude relief in the wall of the uppermost room on the left side, near the present entrance (pl. 2, fig. 2). This relief represents a priest sacrificing a gazelle before a row of five gods—Re, Atum, Thot, (?), and Har-si-ese. As the age of the quarry furnishes the date of the two roads which lead up to it, they must be disregarded in the reconstruction of the road- net at the time of Amenophis IY. There remain, therefore, for this 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, | period only the so-called “round roads” which above, upon the mountain, connect the tombs and the frontier stele, and their con- © necting roads which lead through the plain from north to south, as also the roads from the tombs to the various points of the city. The “round,” or encircling, roads possibly served for the military guard of the city territory. As regards the object of the other roads, the most plausible assumption for the present is that they connected the working places, unfinished tombs, and frontier stele with one an- other and with the factories in the city. In this year’s campaign only a few large estates, but very many small premises were cleared, especially such as already had been investigated and rummaged by our English and native predecessors during the excavation of the city, so that little was learned as to the general arrangement of buildings on large areas. But one assump- tion which was formerly questioned was definitely proved. What was formerly, though with some doubt, designated as a front garden on the street, is now proved to exist at house O 48, 14 (pl. 3, fig. 1) in the form of tree holes regularly arranged with a rectangular border of bricks. The general arrangement seems to be that the house garden proper was inclosed within high walls and thus hidden from public view, but in front of the high wall there was another garden surrounded by low fences, so that passers-by could enjoy the trees and bushes. This consideration for the public, however, is not a characteristic of the oriental, who timidly conceals his possessions behind high walls. But the customs of the ancient Egyptians, espe- cially those practiced in the home and the family, must not be meas- ured by the customs of modern Mohammedan Orientals. One remarkable habit which was this year firmly established, though it was in former years often observed, but not clearly recog- nized, shows how conservative Egypt is. .On the estate of a wealthy man (house P 47,17) the main entrance on the street and the entrances to the dwelling were walled up. The walling-up was executed when the wooden doors were still in their frames. Later the white ants, which at Tell el-Amarna devour anything made of wood or similar substances, destroyed the wooden doors behind the masonry. The owners who departed from this estate, probably on their return to Thebes, secured their property, which they perhaps expected to use again, by walling it up against housebreakers. This custom had already been practiced in the Old Kingdom, as in the mortuary temple of King Sahu-re‘, near Abusir, and is still employed in Egypt. Thus several years ago the German consul general, after all the pack- ing cases of his predecessor had been lost, had the storeroom which held his own properties walled up on the advice of natives who were familiar with the conditions of the country, and with the desired result, for the boxes were all there when he departed, though some- Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 2. 1 | 1. ENTRANCE TO THE ALABASTER QUARRY OF LATER TIMES. ——s 2. BAS-RELIEF IN THE ALABASTER QUARRY OF LATER TIMES. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 3. 2. ALTAR OF BRICKS IN House P 47, 22. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 449 what musty. There are instances, however, in Thebes where the officially walled-up tombs served merely as a cover for the pillagers of reliefs to perform their work of destruction. Every method for security leads to devising a corresponding method for breaking in. The largest and best preserved house excavated this year, and which, because of its excellent condition, permitted the reproduction in a colored drawing of one of the main rooms, the deep hall, was that of General Ra‘-mose and his housekeeper. ’Jnet (House P 47, 9), where the incomplete tombs, already known for some time, lie in the row of the so-called southern tombs in the eastern mountain of Tell el-Amarna. The house is of special interest because its owner is known, and the more so since it supplies some information about his personal history. Under the father of the king he had been active in the high administrative position of “superintendent of the house of King Amenophis III.” His name at that time was Ptah- mose, but under the young king he became “General of the king of both lands,” and after he had moved with his master to Tell el- Amarna he changed the name to Ra‘-mose (pl. 4). With the con- stantly browing emphasis of the sun-cult, names in which other than solar deities played a part became unfashionable in good society. This custom of altering names, which has its foundation in the persecution of those gods who were not affiliated with the sun-cult, and therefore must have originated at the time of the highest de- velopment of the Aten cult, is important in the chronology of this remarkable religious movement. The house of this “General” is quite close to the confines of the city, which was not founded before the fourth year of Amenophis IV, and was therefore probably built a considerable time after the court had moved to Tell el-Amarna. The name was changed when the house was nearly finished, perhaps even considerably later. Hence the opposition to the names of the nonsolar divinities, as we see it in the above alteration of the name Ptah-mose, regarded as characterizing the period of Amenophis IV, may be considered the last acute stage of the “reformation” of that king, which took place in the last decades of his reign. The intro- duction of the Aten cult was therefore not an abrupt, sudden phe- nomenon, but a gradual development, beginning probably far earlier than the time of Amenophis IV. In fact, there is in the British Museum a statue belonging to the time of the father of the king, bearing a regiment’s name, “the god Aten sheds his rays upon King Amenophis III.” Thus the so-called new god of Amenophis IV must already have been highly respected under Amenophis ITI, else a regiment would hardly have been named for him. Thus, after all, Amenophis IV, both as the ruler of a gigantic empire and as the founder of a religion, was only an heir, and, as the results in both spheres has shown, not a fortunate heir. 18618°—sm 1915——29 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. But to return to the house of General Ra‘-mose. The first thing noticed was that all the doors, not only that of the main entrance but even those of the inner rooms, were framed in ashlar. This was later often observed in other, even plainer, houses, though they had no inscriptions as on the doorframes of Ra‘-mose’s house. These stone frames of interior doors are of some importance in connection with the colored reproduction of an inner room to be described below. The Ra‘-mose house also furnished new data concerning the “ quad- rangular” room hitherto regarded as the master’s room, but now as that of the lady of the house. Its presumed function as the master’s room was derived from the fact that it overlooked the courtyard and the storerooms. This would presuppose that it had a window from which one might look out. But Egyptian windows in the lower rooms, with the exception of the “audience windows” in the — palace, are arranged for lighting the inner rooms, being placed high ~ up, almost at the ceiling. So that this reason for considering it the “room of the master” fails. On the other hand, there are two rea- sons favoring its designation as the “room of the lady” in the case of the house of Ra‘-mose. In the first place this is the only known instance where the name of the mistress of the house appears on the frame of a false door, in exactly the same manner that her husband’s name is preserved architecturally pendant from a real door. But as all the doorframes of the house have not been preserved, it can not be asserted that the name of the wife occurred only on this one frame and that therefore the “ quadrangular” room must be con- sidered as that of the wife. But there is another and stronger reason. An annex to the “ quadrangular” room, accessible through a short corridor, is evidently a wardrobe room. On two sides of this wardrobe or dressing room are wooden benches, about 70 centimeters high, resting on brick bases, and wide enough so that on and under them the clothing and ornaments of the lady could have been placed. This may seem a bold assumption, but not if it is recalled that in the female apartments .of the palaces of Amenophis III, south of Medinet Habu, each bedroom of his numerous chief wives had a wardrobe chamber fitted up with like wooden benches, though of correspondingly greater dimensions. The wardrobe chamber near the “ quadrangular ” room therefore decidedly favors the assumption that it was the “room of the wife.” However, it will be the safest plan to defer a positive statement as to such use of the “ quad- rangular” room until women’s apparel and children’s playthings have been found in such a room. The painting on the walls of the “ deep hall,” the dining room of General Ra‘-mose, is well preserved and offered a very interesting study which was gladly taken up, though with the consciousness that it can not at present be definitely interpreted, so that what has been accomplished must necessarily be considered as only a first attempt Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 4. DOORPOST IN THE HOUSE OF GENERAL RA‘-MOSE. alvid "3SOW-,VY IWHAN35D JO 61 ‘Zp d 3SNOH NI « TIVH d33q,, SHL SO 3dIS LSA *}pueyoiog Sl6L ‘uoday uejuosyyiws EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 451 to reconstruct in a drawing the interior decoration of an Egyptian living room. The “deep hall” or the dining room of the General Ra‘-mose house was 7 by 7 meters in size, with entrances from the northwest through two vaulted doors in the center, and on the eastern side of these a single door counterbalanced by a false single door on the western side (pl. 5, right half). In this way there was produced that sym- metry which is an absolute requisite in Egyptian architecture. Double doors with an additional single door between two rooms was | at that time customary. The two side walls exhibit the same archi- _ tectural arrangement: in the center are double niches with single doors or niches on either side of these as might be needed. The back wall, however, has only the two side doors, without the central vaulted doors or niches; in their stead there is on the floor the usual low eleva- tion thought to be the place for the seats of the master of the house and his wife. Corresponding to this at the center of the west wall, there is the usual platform made of limestone, with raised sides (pl. 5, left half), perhaps the seating place during meals, since it is provided with receptacles for waste water, the washing of the hands before meals playing an important part in ancient Egypt. In this dining room there are also traces of four pairs of columns which stood in two rows (pl. 5, the two holes in the brick plaster of the front), and the limestone base of one of these columns may still be seen. The arrangement of the windows can be determined from the position of the staircase, which renders an opening for a window in the middle of the wall impossible, for there was space only for the door lintel, the fragments of which were found on the floor. It may seem strange that the doors were so low, but in Egyptian houses they were made just a man’s height. So much about the ground plan of the room and its architectural construction. The painting on the walls, made directly on the Nile-mud plaster, is everywhere nearly as high as the remains of the walls themselves, reaching in some parts 1.30 meters above the floor. On the floor of the room were found fragments of the painting fallen from the up- per parts of the walls, including parts of richly painted door head- pieces, chamfers, tore, etc. Such were the data from which to re- produce a colored drawing of the room. The result is quite satisfac- tory, but as here represented in black and white (pl. 13) the light and shade effects of the colors could not fully be preserved, though the general impresssion is accurately rendered. The color tone of the wall is greenish-brown, like Nile mud. The doors have black- bordered white frames and white chamfers. The idea underlying this color combination must have originally been to represent lime- stone doors set in brick masonry. But in the present case this idea 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. was forgotten in the choice of colors, showing that we have here not something original but a mixing of various older motifs. The door frames are not of stone color, but that of red-brown wood, superposed by bright yellow hieroglyphic lines. They should repre- sent an inlaid decoration in two wood colors. But glaring as the yellow tone of the hieroglyphics is in itself, it has an excellent effect in mass upon the dark-red brown. The folding doors are yellow, while the wider doors, which naturally would consist. of several ver- tical boards in red brown, are’yellow and red brown, each board separate. The papyrus stalk between the two halves of the double = niche is likewise painted in natural colors, green with yellow basal | leaves. Naturalism prevails also in the color scheme of the door head- piece of the tombs of Tell el-Amarna and the temple of Abydos, which is painted in the yellow and red-brown wood colors. The painting of the chamfer of the door headpiece is remarkable. Per- haps originally a frieze of uraei (sacred asps) was intended or er- roneously laid on, while in the painting coarsely executed rosettes in different colors were employed. The yellow tone of the window grating is due to the fact that these structures date back to the period of original wood construction. Of the painted garlands which ran as a frieze around the walls, and which in the New Empire were al- ways rendered in the correct forms and colors of the flowers, enough fragments were found to permit an accurate reconstruction. But now we come to the rather doubtful elements of the construc- tion, the columns and architraves. Besides the white bases only the red-brown color of the shafts of the columns, traces of which can be discerned upon the bases, is assured. The form of the columns as palms was selected after old representations of the dining room in the palace of Amenophis IV, and consequently a green color was as- sumed for them. The abaci and architraves, as carried out in the reconstruction, may have been yellow, remains having been found of wooden architraves in another excavation. These are the data for the attempted reconstruction which, in many cases, have shown that this dining room was quite a comfortable place and that the color scheme, even to our taste, was not coarse or glaring but produced rather a pleasing and harmonious effect. Life in such rooms must have been quite pleasant, although they were not very well lighted as evidenced by the frequent finds of lamps and lamp stands. In exploring the environments of the atelier of the sculptor Thutmes some pieces which had been carried away from his work- shop fell into our hands, notwithstanding that a considerable num- ber of the finds of this year were from house ruins which had been already exploited by natives and, perhaps, also by our scientific predecessors at Tell el-Amarna. This year’s experience has thus Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 6. 1. MODELED HEAD OF A BABOON, FOUND IN HOUSE Q 48, 1. Resin composition. Natural size. 2. MODELED HEAD OF A BABOON, FOUND IN House O 47, 5. Limestone. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 7. AMENOPHIS IV WITH HIS WIFE. Relief model of resin. Frontside. About one-half natural size. Found in house P47, 25. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 453 shown that in making museum collections it is worth while to ex- amine methodically places already rummaged, aside from the purely scientific results which such work always yields. In house Q 48, 1, about 100 meters from the atelier of Thutmes, toward the southeast, there was found an exceedingly well executed model of the head of a baboon (pl. 6, fig. 1). In the same house there also came to hght beautiful ivory carvings, which later on will be dis- cussed. It need not be assumed that the baboon’s head came from the workshop of Thutmes, for some artisan probably lived there in house Q 48, 1 who could make such a good model of the baboon, especially since, together with the baboon’s head, there was found a small saucer containing remains of the material from which the model was made. The most remarkable feature of the baboon mask is its material, a brown and now hardened stuff at first designated as “resembling wax.” This, then, wasthe material for modeling, and not clay, and from this first model a copy was made in stone. By chance we also found the head of a baboon made in limestone (pl. 6, fig. 2). It came from the house O 47, 5, about 100 meters from the atelier of Thutmes, toward the west. Judging by the location of this find, it may have come not from the atelier of Thutmes but from some other not yet discovered center of sculptural works. It need not be as- sumed that the limestone baboon was worked after that in “ wax,” though many details suggest it. The task of molding the head of a baboon, the sacred animal of Thot, the god of wisdom, must often have presented itself to the sculptors of Tell el-Amarna, since the center of the cult of this god, to whom the sun cult of Amenophis IV was not at all opposed, was at Eshmunejn, close to Tell el-Amarna. Although the authorship of these two models must be left unde- termined, yet that of the next and most important model (pls. 7 and 8) may safely be assigned to Thutmes. This one was found in house P 47, 25, about 125 meterg north of Thutmes’s atelier, in a region which is still within the circle of this atelier. Looking first at the back or reverse of this find (pl. 8), it shows nothing more than the accurate impression of a board which was roughly planed with an adze. The board itself, like all woodwork at Tell el-Amarna, had been devoured by white ants, but the impression reproduces all the details, even the grain marks. The material of which the model is made must therefore once have been so soft and flexible that it could with great sharpness adapt itself to the smallest differences in the surface of the original. At present it has the same glass- hard consistency and the identical brown color of the “ wax-like” model of the baboon head (pl. 6, fig. 1). Prof. Schmidt, of Cairo, who made a preliminary examination of a small particle of the stuff, recognized it as a kind of gum resin, probably Oliban (frankin- cense) or bdellium, with an earthy (Nile-mud) admixture. 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This stuff must, therefore, have been poured upon the board while liquid and presumably warm, and then the sculptor modeled into its surface, perhaps with a heated metal instrument, the charming reliefs represented in plate 7. The sculpture represents the king and the queen. He has embraced her with his left arm and loosely lays his hand upon her shoulder; she turns with her face to him and, with her right hand busying itself at his bosom, she nestles on his broad neck ornament. Costume, type, and treatment of the bodies leave no doubt as to the date of this art work. Even if the location where it was found were unknown, every connoisseur would unhesitatingly attribute it to the time of Amenophis IV, and, on account of the unartificial, dashing execution, with the same cer- tainty would pronounce it the first sketch of a relief. This will suffice for the present. There are obviously connected with this find many other questions which are to be discussed later, such as the real composition of the “resin mass,” the origin of the several ingredients, their workableness when combined, the instruments with which they were worked, their suitability for casts in gypsum, etc. It was intimated above that in the square of houses O 47 we seem to have come across a new center of sculptural finds, for in this region there came to light many unfinished granite pieces to be laid into reliefs, representing wigs, a very beautiful torso of the statuette of a queen, though the wooden head of the queen is unfortunately totally decayed, the baboon’s head mentioned above (pl. 6, fig. 1), ete. Only two of these finds will here be specially considered. There is first of all a small limestone mask (pl. 9, fig. 1) doubtless copied from a life-size gypsum mask, many examples of which have been found in the modeling chamber of Thutmes. The wrinkles on the forehead, at the base of the nose and around the nose wings and the mouth are here, and in a non-Egyptian fashion well indicated, though in a more schematic manner than on the large masks. Only 50 meters from the above there was found another study (pl. 9, fig. 2), a portrait of Amenophis IV, which in its almost incredible delicacy can confidently be placed by the side of the best reliefs of this king. The artist succeeded best in reproducing the eyes, cheeks, and front of the neck. As the main concern was the portrait, the accessories of the royal costume, such as the headcloth, the frontlet, and the asp (uraeus), are treated in a secondary manner and even to some extent merely indicated. So much concerning the finds of models in this region which, as stated, is in the environs of a new center of sculptural works, not before carefully explored, though it may have been rummaged by our predecessors. The last find to be mentioned came from an entirely different district, from house Q 48, 1, which is also remarkable for the frequent occur- PLATE 8. Borchardt. Smithsonian Report, 1915. 25 About one-half natural size. IMPRESSION FROM THE MOLDBOARD FOUND IN House P 47, Back side. Relief model of resin. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 9. 1. REDUCED Mask MODEL, FOUND IN House O 47, 9. Limestone. Natural size. 2. AMENOPHIS IV, RELIEF STUDY, FOUND IN House O 47, 13. Limestone. -About one-half natural size. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 455 rence of art finds. The baboon made of gum resin, mentioned above (pl. 6, fig. 1), comes from this house, but the other objects found there are of ivory and as far as they are dated are older than Amenophis IV. Among these is the cover of a box from the time of Amenophis III (1411-1375 B. C.), and the exquisite carving (pl. 10), to be presently discussed, belongs to the time of Thutmosis (Thotmes) IV (1420-1411 B. C.). These dates lead to the assumption that these objects had been collected by some craftsman who inhabited house Q 48, 1, to serve him as copies of patterns. The art work in question consists of the outer shell of part of an elephant’s tusk, about 12 cen- timeters long, bisected lengthwise and carved in pierced work. Its surface thus forms the half mantle of an obtuse cone, and it is therefore nearly impossible to reproduce it by photography and _ Fig. 1—cuf with repre- by drawing except through unrolling. The work, SE a anaye eet which was made still more difficult because of the ofa relieffrom the mortuary brittleness of the original, was executed by the ‘mp2 1 Newserte’ at skillful hand of Mr. A. Bollacher. sixth natural size. The carving shows King Amenophis IV striking with the raised sickle sword a Libyan who fell on his knees before him and whom he grasps by the hair. In addition, the King also grasps a bow and arrows, as customary in this ancient type of representing “a king striking down a captive.” This incredible deftness of the hand, which the Egyptian kings displayed at this ceremony, at least on pictorial representations, is already shown in an instance of the Vth dynasty, from the mortuary temple of King Sahu-re‘. Behind the king, over whose head the sun disk is to be noticed, the uraeus serpent rises upon papyrus stalks, the heraldic plant of Upper Egypt. The scene plays before a statue of the god Montu of Thebes, who presents to the king the sickle sword and holds the rib of a palm, the symbol of everlasting duration. In front of the god is inscribed what he is saying to the king: “I hold the sickle sword for you, oh beautiful god! With it thou shalt slay the chiefs of all foreign lands.” There is nothing of particular interest either in the composition or the contents of the carving. But the workmanship is finer, particularly the neat execution of the costume of the king and the exquisitely modeled faces of the prostrated Libyan, and still more so of the king. What purpose did this art work serve, or to what object was it at- tached? The answer to these questions is furnished by an earlier find from our excavations. In the mortuary temple of Ne-user-re‘ was found a fragment of a relief (fig. 1) representing the left arm of a king shooting with the bow. The wrist is protected with a cuff against the rebound of the bowstring, and upon the cuff appears in minia- 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ture the scene of our ivory carving, “the king striking down a cap- tive.” In its form the ivory carving, which is to be imagined as backed with some stuff, corresponds exactly to the half shell of such a cuff in natural size. It would comfortably cover the half of an Egyptian slender wrist. But this neat, fragile carving could hardly have stood a practical use. It could only have been put upon a statue of life size; that is, one which according to the inscription of Thutmosis (Thotmes) IV represented the king shooting with the bow. It is not surprising that an object with the name of Thutmosis IV was found in the city of Amenophis IV. It may not even be as- sumed that it was brought from Thebes or elsewhere. It has been long known that the city “ Horizon of the sun cult” already existed before Amenophis IV, perhaps, even probably, under another name, as was then the case as to personal names, such as Amenophis changed to “Ich-n-aten and Ptah-mose to Ra‘-mose. On account of the great find of tablets made in 1887 in the “ house of the royal letter writer” in the royal archives in the palace quar- ter, not far from the village Et-Till, the surroundings of this house had been again and again searched throughout by varicus investi- gators with the result of adding merely a few unimportant pieces to the original find of upward of 350 tablets, but since the early 90s of the last century hope and further search were given up. So that on December 15, 1913, when Mr. Dubois, the Government’s superintendent of buildings and of the excavations, announced the discovery of a clay tablet in house O 47, 2 it seemed scarcely credible (pl. 11; pl. 12, fig. 1). A portion of another tablet was found on December 19 in house N 47, 3 (pl. 12, fig. 2). Both these pieces were found in premises which already had been thoroughly excavated, the first near the wall of a courtyard, where it became fastened on the upper edge about 30 centimeters below the surface. Though the surface humidity was slight, yet it caused much flaking of the left margin of the obverse and the correspond- ing part of the reverse side of the tablet. The second piece lay considerably deeper in the débris, and therefore escaped this damage. The surroundings of both places where the finds were made were diligently dug up in search for other pieces, but without success. In the division of the finds these two valuable documents fell to the share of the Egyptian Service of Antiquities, and its courtesy in lending them for examination and study is here gratefully acknowl- edged. Dr. Otto Schroeder of the division of western Asia in the Berlin Museum prepared a provisional translation and explanation of these tablets. The smaller one (pl. 12, fig. 2) is of light-brown clay with darkish spots, probably due to contact with chemical salts. It is 6.1 centimeters high by 3.6 centimeters wide, its greatest thickness 2.65 centimeters. It is inscribed on the obverse only and contains a ‘OZIS TRINIVN ‘odVJANS POAIRO poT[OIUN oy} WOT epvUl SUIMBIC, "1 “Sb © 3SNOH NI ANNOY ‘ONIANVD AOA] ‘ypaeyoiog—'g 16] ‘Hodey ue!UosY}WUS “OL 3LV1d "g ‘Zb O 3SNOH NI GNNOY ‘L379VL AVIO ‘aspo ISNT *OZIS [BINJBN ‘asIoAqQ “LL 31V1d *}Pseyoiog— 1 6| ‘Woday ueiuosy}iws ‘OZ1S [BINIBN *¢ ‘2b N 3SNOH NI GNNOY ‘OZIS [RINIBN ‘oSaAOX ‘AUVEVTIAS V SO LNAWOVY ‘CS ‘tg ‘Lb O 3SNOH NI GNNOY ‘LITGVL AVIO "1 “OL 3LV1d ‘ypueyoiog—'s|6| ‘Wodey ueiuosy}WwS ‘eg: T ‘ayeog = “WOTONI{suOddI PoIOTOO AT[BUOTSTAOId B IOIFV “ASOW-,VY IWYAN3S5D JO 3SNOH AHL NI « TIVH daaq,, SHL tht ELA ara | *‘ypreyoiog—'g |6| ‘Hodey uejuosy}IWUS EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 457 portion of an Assyrian syllabary. Syllabary is the designation of tabular arrangements in different columns of cuneiform characters, their names and values. Usually they consist of three columns. In the middle column are placed the cuneiform signs which are to be explained; the column to the left gives the pronunciation and syl- labic value of the character, while the column to the right contains the names of the signs. The present fragment is either the writing exercise of a dragoman who was intrusted with the cuneiform cor- respondence to western Asia, which the large script would suggest, or a reading exercise provided for such a dragoman in western Asia. Of much more interest and value is the larger fragment (pl. 11; pl. 12, fig. 1). It is made of a fine light-red clay, with a height and width of 10 centimeters and a thickness not exceeding 2.4 centi- meters. It is closely inscribed on both sides with the so-called “Hittite” stroke of the cuneiform script, the several paragraphs being separated by lines. As far as made out, it is the first part of a serial literary work, bearing the title “ King of the Battle” (Sar tamhari), which treated of a military campaign in western Asia, of which the present fragments delineate the causes and the begin- ning. Unfortunately, the name of the author or scribe, with which Assyrian tablets are usually signed, is here wanting. In its place is some wiped-out Egyptian red ink and the impression of a finger besmeared with red ink, which might suggest that the Egyptian name of the author or scribe in Egyptian script was intended to be placed there. The first question which pressed for answer was, Did these pieces come from the well-known archives, or are they the harbingers of the existence of deposits of cuneiform tablets apart from the public archives in Tell el-Amarna? The contents of the two tablets do not hinder their having come from the archives, for syllabaries had be- fore that been found in the archives by Professor M. Flinders Petrie and the existence of literary texts in the archives may likewise be as- serted. There was found there, belonging to the library of Ameno- phis III, a faience label of a wooden case of a papyrus which con- tained, obviously in Egyptian script, the tale of the “ Sycamore and the Date Palm.” But the great distance of the location of the find from that of the “house of the royal letter-writer,” about 1} kilo- meters, would indicate that it did not come from the archives. We should have to assume either that in ancient times pieces from the archives had been scattered over the field of ruins, or that the peas- ants of Et-Till, who discovered the archives in 1887, have in an in- credible manner thrown some of the pieces around. But whatever may have been the origin of the two new tablets, it is certain that there is hope of still further finds of tablets in Tell el-Amarna, where search had been completely abandoned. 7 fat a i Nae P j ry eich | | H y bi, ehh sey) * . $ i: TGR 7 4 t< | rt 1 : ’ ; ‘ 7 : ; . na : J Vi fi ; iit f :. if! 4 ‘ba- i a Py { ; : SRL Aas OE te Gi , ri 14h SB ; rege | See baa 3 oi wid To OMiOk M7 (OU TOROS 6 ; ; | 4 . arin = Bere 3 8 ap yi “at Ay WO OE, odd to nigin 10 Oh byfrd a bait - old iti ae Tita ti tential VACCINES. By L. Roger,’ Professor on the Faculty of Medicine, University of Paris, Member of the Academy of Medicine. The majority of infectious diseases do not occur a second time; the first attack confers immunity. About a thousand years before the Christian era this fact was known to the Chinese, among whom smallpox made terrible ravages at that time. But all who survived a first attack could live without inconvenience in infected places, so that there was a considerable economic advantage in encouraging the development of the disease during youth. In case the individual died the loss to society was small; in case of survival, the value of that individual immune to a second attack was considerably in- creased. Such were the reasons given by the Chinese for practising variolation, or inoculation with the disease. It is remarkable that such an idea should spring up and develop at a time when diseases were more often attributed to divine wrath than to contagion, and that it should lead to a prophylactic method which was not taken up again until the end of the eighteenth century. Variolation was practised by inserting under the skin or in the nostrils of subjects scabs taken from convalescents. This infection through inoculation is much milder than infection contracted spon- taneously. This result is easily explained: The pathogenic agent is introduced into regions unfavorable for its development and with a subject in good health, not predisposed to infection, while under ordinary conditions of spontaneous infection it is more often the case that resistance has been lowered through the agency of pre- disposing or adjuvant causes. However, variolation is not always harmless; the organism inocu- lated may be in such a condition of predisposition that infection spreads and takes a serious course, resulting sometimes in death. And even if the inoculated subject resists it, the few pustules which develop are capable of spreading the disease and constitute a danger 1Translated by permission from La Nature, Jan. 830, 1915. 2'The frequency of infections in time of war creating special interest in a study of their prophylaxis, it has seemed to me useful to publish a brief general summary of the whole subject. 459 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. for the persons in the vicinity. More than once they have been the starting point of epidemics. In spite of these limitations, variolation rendered great services. It was introduced little by little into Persia, then into Turkey. In 1721 the wife of the English ambassador at Constantinople, Lady Montague, who witnessed the results obtained by this procedure, made it known on her return to London. The new method spread rapidly and was very happily modified by two Scotch farmers, the Suttey brothers, who invented the subepidermic inoculations. Variolation has to-day only a historic interest. It has retreated before another procedure which was introduced into science at the end of the eighteenth century. It had been known for a long time that in certain regions in England, and notably in the county of Gloucestershire, that persons who have the direct care of cattle often have on their fingers small pustules contracted by contact with ani- mals attacked by cowpox, and that this eruption gave them immunity against smallpox. In 1768 Sutton and Fewster drew attention to these facts, and it was then that Jenner conceived the idea of prac- ticing systematically, in the interest of prophylaxis, the inoculation of cowpox. In 1798 the results of these researches were made known. It was established that the virus coming from the cow is inocuable in man; that it may be transmitted from man to man, keep- ing its fundamental characteristics, for when reinoculated in the cow it produced again the characteristic eruption. Finally, inoculation with the virus taken from a cow or from a man previously inoculated, confers immunity against smallpox. ‘The objection was raised that the resistance was not perfect; that several inoculated subjects later contracted the disease. But it came in a mild form and turned off shortly before the period of suppuration, taking a special form, which has given it the name of chickenpox. The discovery of Jenner brought up an interesting problem which has not yet been solved. Can the disease of the cow, or vaccine (vacca, cow), be considered as a special infection, or should it be regarded as a variolous infection modified by a long series of pas- sages through the Bovide? The majority of French scholars agree in keeping the two separate. In Germany and Switzerland re- searches have been carried on tending to establish the fact that the variolous virus can be transformed into vaccinal virus. Whatever solution may be finally adopted, it can be stated that inoculation with vaccine was the first instance of a prophylactic inoculation which was efficacious and harmless. Whether vaccine is a special virus or a modified variolous virus, it produces in man a local erup- tion which becomes general only in exceptional cases, and in these cases only in a very mild form. VACCINES—ROGER. 461 ‘For preventive inoculations the liquid (vaccinal lymph) collected from the pustules of a child or from one of the Bovidex is used. The animal vaccine is in general use to-day. Young calves are pre- viously inoculated by numerous scarifications on the flanks, and used for the culture of vaccine. It is to be hoped that the attempts now being made will permit the cultivation of vaccinal virus in artificial media so that the passage through animals will not be necessary. According to their etymology the words “ vaccine” and “ vaccina- tion” ought to apply only to the diseases of the cow and to its inoculation. But, diverted from their original meaning, they desig- nate to-day a whole series of viruses used for prophylactic purposes. Thus, for instance, the terms anthrax vaccine and antianthrax vacci- nations are used. Anthrax vaccine is used only in veterinary medi- cine, but its study is valuable because the method has been the start- ing point of numerous discoveries. To Toussaint, professor at the veterinary school of Toulouse, belongs the credit for having first tried antianthrax vaccination. He © subjected anthrax blood to a temperature of about 55° for 10 minutes, thinking in this way to kill the bacilli contained in it. Several animals died on being inoculated with the blood thus prepared, but those which survived became refractory. Toussaint believed that he was vaccinating with the soluble products deposited in the blood by the anthrax bacilli. As a matter of fact he was using weakened microbes. This was shown by Pasteur, who in submitting anthrax cultures to the action of heat, succeeded in producing vaccines which could be accurately graduated. The most important of the Pasteur vaccinations consists in culti- vating the anthrax bacilli at 42°. The microbe develops but does not give off spores, and its virulence diminishes more and more. If, after a certain length of time at 42°, the microbe is placed in a new medium and raised to a eugenesic temperature of 37° or 38°, it develops, gives off spores, but maintains the degree of weakness which it had previously reached. There are two Pasteur vaccines— one called the first vaccine, comes from a bacillus which is kept at 42° for from 15 to 20 days; it is so weakened that it no longer has the power to kill animals except those new born. The second vaccine, which has remained for from 10 to 12 days at 42°, can still kill the adults. In practice these two viruses, weakened but living, are inoculated successively, and in this way sheep and cattle are rendered immune with no attendant risk. The economic importance of this method is readily seen, and man, who contracts anthrax only by contact with animals, is indirectly protected. 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Since antianthrax vaccinations are a protection against possible contamination, it will be asked if a similar method would not be effective during incubation—that is, between the time when the virus is introduced into the organism and the time when the symp- toms appear. It was also Pasteur who brought up and solved this problem. Tt was already known that it was possible to confer immunity against rabies. A professor at the veterinary school of Lyon, Gal- tier, had shown that the saliva of a mad dog injected in the veins of a sheep or goat did not provoke symptoms, but conferred a power- ful resistance against a later inoculation of the virus. The discovery was important but was devoid of practical interest, as the method was uncertain and dangerous. Taking up the study of this question, Pasteur, in collaboration with Chamberland, Roux, and Thuillier, recognized that inoculations performed under the cerebral duramater with the emulsion of a fragment of bulb taken from a dog which had died from rabies were certain to transmit the disease. Using a rabbit, if the inoculations are made in series, the virulence increases—that is, the time of incu- bation diminishes: it becomes only 6 or 7 days after a hundred passages, and from this time it no longer varies; from then on the virus is fixed. If the spinal marrow of a rabbit which has succumbed to an inocu- lation of the fixed virus is suspended in a sterilized flask containing a substance free from water, such as fragments of potassium, it was learned that under the influence of drying the virulence diminishes, and at the end of 14 days the organism becomes accustomed to supporting viruses more and more active. As the incubation of the disease—that is, the time which elapses between the bite and the first symptoms—lasts a very long time, and as the process of render- ing immune is relatively rapid, the refractory state is successfully reached before the appearance of symptoms. The treatment varies according to the location, the extent, the depth, and the number of bites. It lasts from 15 to 22 days anid consists essentially in injecting at different intervals fragments of marrow, beginning with those dried for 14 days and gradually progressing to those dried only 3 days. | It is useless to dwell on the results obtained. Pasteur’s method is causing the gradual disappearance of rabies, and the time can be predicted when this terrible infection will join smallpox and anthrax in the group of historic diseases. Against smallpox, anthrax, and rabies immunity is secured by means of living virus. It is known to-day that all the effects pro- duced by microbes are due to substances which they contain or which they secrete. Experience shows that it is possible to obtain ~ VACCINES—ROGER. 463 immunity by introducing into the organism either sterilized cul- tures, liquids of the culture free from microbes, or extracts of the bacteria. Each of these different methods has to its credit a certain number of experimental successes and admits of practical application. The prophylaxis of typhoid fever has attracted special attention and incited numerous researches. After the first attempts of Chan- temesse and Widal, it was established through the work of Wright that cultures sterilized by heating can be used. It is only necessary to take care not to exceed a temperature between 53° and 56°. Even within these limits heating has the drawback of weakening the ability to render immune. It has also been proposed to sterilize the cultures by the antiseptics phenol, chloroform, ether, and iodine. And for some time there have been used in practice the autolysats of microbes. It is known that the protoplasm of bacteria, as all living protoplasm, contains digestive ferments. Left to themselves under unfavorable conditions the cells are digested—that is, liquefied by the ferments which they contain. This autodigestion is given the name autolysis. On this principle is based the vaccine of M. Vin- cent. But as among the higher plants innumerable varieties of a single species are known (it will be recalled what the horticulturists have obtained in growing roses or chrysanthemums), so in each microbe species we should distinguish the varieties or races which close study permits us to differentiate. That is why, in the prepara- tion of vaccines, bacilli from different sources have been used. The polyvalent vaccine of Val de Grace is prepared with 10 different specimens. They are sprinkled on a liquid solidified by agar-agar, and after 48 hours in the incubator the cultures are taken out and their surface scraped. The bacilli thus collected are put in salt water to be macerated. The liquid is agitated at different intervals, then at the end of 36 to 40 hours it is submitted to clectric centrif- ugalization to be clarified, and finally it is sterilized with ether. Four injections with this vaccine must be made at intervals of eight hours to confer absolute immunity against typhoid fever. The different antityphoid vaccines give excellent results. The trials made in the Army have demonstrated their efficacy and their harmlessness. The only effects observed during the time following their application are a slight discomfort and a small rise of tem- perature. But these manifestations are light and passing. So it is. with good reason that compulsory antityphoid vaccination has been decreed for the whole French Army. This measure is the more important since in time of war the rate of sickness and death from typhoid fever is extremely high. Even with the precautions taken there is a large number of cases, but these occur only among those not vaccinated or insufficiently vaccinated. However, even among shose who have received the necessary inoculations, infections simi- 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. lar to typhoid fever, but milder, occur quite often. These are para- typhoid fevers. They are due to the paratyphoid bacilli, of which two principal varieties are described, designated by the letters A and B. These two types are related to each other and also on the one hand to the typhoid bacillus, on the other to a microbe very wide- spread, the colon bacillus, by a series of intermediary forms. The antityphoid vaccines are powerless against these microbes, and a study is now being undertaken to find means of preparing either a single active vaccine for the whole group or a special paratyphoid vaccine. It has been thought that, instead of injecting the vaccine under the skin, it would be simpler to introduce it by the digestive tract. This new method is too recent to permit of a final judgment. What- ever its lot may be in the future, it would be hazardous to use it at present; during a war is not the time to begin such an experi- ment. Prudence demands that we use only methods of procedure whose efficacy is indisputable. The less the condition of the microbe in use is altered, the stronger and more lasting is the immunity obtained by vaccines. For this reason the heating of cultures has been gradually diminished. At- tempts have been made to replace the heating process by antiseptic substances; and, finally, the systematic use of living cultures has been proposed. M. Nicolle advises introducing into the veins living microbes freed from all soluble matter by a prolonged washing. It has been made certain that this method is innocuous and that the bacteria injected remain in the organism and are there destroyed. This discovery is important because it might have been feared that a person vacci- nated, like one having the disease, would throw off living elements and become a source. of contamination. This method of procedure admits of numerous applications; it is successful in giving immunity against cholera, dysentery, and whooping cough, as well as against typhoid fever. If we seem to be especially occupied with this last infection it is because its frequency and its seriousness hold first place, especially in our lands. In countries with a warm climate vaccines are fre- quently used against cholera and against the plague. The study of anticholera vaccine, begun by Ferran and Gamaléia, has been continued by Haffkine. The living microbe is generally used. On the contrary, Haffkine uses against the plague, cultures sterilized by heating to 70°. The immunity created by the passage of an infection or by the introduction of a vaccine is chiefly characterized by cellular modifi- cations which lead to humoral modifications. A vaccine does not act VACCINES—ROGER. 465 like an antiseptic or an antidote. The organism itself, under the influence of the vaccine, secretes certain substances, or, better, modi- fies the condition of the blood, and this liquid is given new properties. Immunity results not from a simple impregnation by useful products, but from a reaction against harmful products. For this active im- munity to be established, a certain amount of time must be allowed after the time of vaccination. When it is necessary to act quickly— for instance, when a foreigner arrives in a country swept by cholera or the plague—instead of a bacterial vaccination, it is preferable to use serum from an animal rendered immune. The two methods must not be confounded. Serotherapy, or serovaccination, consists in treating or rendering a person immune by means of a blood serum of an animal previously vaccinated. The animal has received the microbe-bearing product and has reacted from it; he has acquired active immunity. The serum of his blood acts almost like an anti- septic or a specific antidote. From the time that it impregnates a new organism it protects it from infection and the organism does not need to react; it takes no part in the action. Thus, it is said, as opposed to the preceding case, that a serum produces a passive im- munity. Passive immunity develops rapidly but is not lasting. The two methods of procedure may be combined—the serum in alcohol may be injected, followed by the vaccine, or, better, an injection of a mixture of the serum and vaccine may be made. Starting from these results M. Besredka has proposed a new method—vaccination by sensitized virus. The microbes placed in contact with the serum from a vaccinated animal are impregnated with this serum and lose their means of defense. They can no longer resist the phagocytes—that is, the cells capable of absorbing and de- stroying them. At present they are called sensitized. But an excess of serum is more harmful than useful. So it is necessary to take care, before injecting the microbes impregnated with the serum, to wash them carefully in salt water. This is a new method which has already been applied to a large number of diseases. Metchnikoff and Besredka recommend it as efficacious against typhoid fever, and after experiments made by them on chimpanzees they conclude that it is superior to all other methods of procedure. The bacterial vaccines serve, as we have said, in rendering normal organisms immune from danger of infection. It has been asked why they would not be useful in fighting an existing infection. As a result there has arisen a new method given the name of vaccino- therapy, or, better, bacteriotherapy. The first trial is due to Koch, who proposed to combat tuberculosis by injecting into subjects a special product, tuberculin, which is only 18618°—sm 1915 30 466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. an extract of the cultures and the protoplasm of tuberculosis bacilli. The results have been widely varying—often bad, sometimes favor- able. It may be that at first too strong doses were used. In any case the product has not the effect of vaccination and its therapeutic use is not free from danger. The work of Wright especially has attracted attention to bac- teriotherapy. The Wright vaccines are used against typhoid fever, melitococcus, infections of streptococcus, and of staphylococcus. A certain quantity of microbes killed by heating is injected into the subject. When it is possible a specimen taken from the sick person himself is used, autovaccines producing appreciably better results. By thus introducing bacterial products into a diseased organism the cellular reactions are stimulated. Thus, by the indirect process of favoring the development of an active immunity, the means of re- sistance against infection are augmented. This brief summary shows the important results obtained by prac- tical medicine from experimental researches. Prophylaxis and thera- peutics have been completely revised by the vaccines and serums. But it is important not to confound these two terms, and to distin- guish clearly the methods which they designate. The word “ vac- cine” should be reserved for products of bacterial origin—that is, for living microbes, weakened or modified—for bacterial autolysats, and for soluble matter secreted by the bacteria. Serum, on the con- trary, is a product of animal origin coming from an individual pre- viously rendered immune. Vaccine arouses in the organism defensive reactions; it creates an active immunity. Serum impregnates the organism and establishes a passive immunity. Active immunity requires several days to develop, but lasts a long time. Passive immunity is immediate, but quickly disappears. Vac- cine is especially a-prophylactic means, used more often to prevent than to combat infection. Serum is at the same time a therapeutic and a prophylactic medium. Thanks to serotherapy, mortality from infections and especially from diphtheria has greatly diminished; owing to vaccination, sick- ness has declined. Smallpox, rabies, and anthrax have almost passed out of existence, and the time can be predicted when other infections, especially typhoid fever, will in their turn disappear. PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES: By J. B. BEADLE, U.S. Reclamation Service. [With 13 plates. ] The reclamation of arid lands by the Federal Government has moved steadily forward since the passage of the Newlands Act in 1902, in spite of the numerous and intricate problems arising, many of which could not be foreseen prior to the enactment of the funda- mental law governing the operations of the Reclamation Service. The Service has added some notable structures to the engineering monuments of the country. It has built the highest dam in the world on the Boise River, Idaho, and the one storing the greatest quantity of irrigation water on the Rio Grande, New Mexico. Its reservoirs are capable of holding 6,500,000 acre-feet, or two thousand billion gallons of water. It has excavated 130,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock, placing 12,000,000 yards in dams and forming conduits ag- gregating 10,000 miles in length, including 25 miles of tunnels and 85 miles of flumes. Its canals placed end-on would circle the United States. Its structures of all kinds, large and small, dams, bridges, canal drops, checks, and the like total over 70,000 in number. The works so far constructed make water available for 1,500,000 acres, and the projects under way when completed will provide for nearly as much more. For this greater area the principal works have in large measure already been built, such as storage reservoirs, di- version dams, and main canals, leaving to be added the necessary extensions to the distribution systems. As incidental to the construction of large irrigation works the Service has engaged in a wide variety of engineering effort, includ- ing the construction and operation of roads, telephone systems, power plants, transmission lines, and even railroads. On one project Port- land cement was manufactured and on several others the material known as “sand cement” has been produced and used to advantage. But as varied and intricate as are the engineering problems in- volved in Government reclamation work, of even greater difficulty 1 This article is in continuation of papers printed in the Smithsonian Reports for 1901, pp. 407 to 423; 1903, pp. 827 to 841; 1904, pp. 373 to 881; 1907, pp. 331 to 345; 1910, pp. 169 to 198. 467 468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. are the succeeding problems of settlement and utilization of the works. These later problems, involving the human element, less susceptible of mathematical statement, require correspondingly more judgment, as well as patience and tact. . REsery River | PROJECT NAMES SHOWN THUS: A BELLE FOURCHE ~ Fig. 1.—Principal reclamation projects. The physical management and operation of an extensive reservoir and canal system, in which the quantity of flow is regulated at all points and all times according to design, is in itself an intricate problem, akin to railroad management, but in addition this already involves dealing with 25,000 individuals who are dependent on the Government systems for the most vital requisite in their daily occu- pation of irrigation farming and who are depended upon in turn RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 469 to repay to the United States the large investment made in building the works. ‘Thus, in a sense, the Reclamation Service stands midway between the water users and the Nation, owing a duty to each and responsible for the protection of interests that may sometimes ap- pear antagonistic, making the service a natural target for criticism from one quarter or another. However, a broad view of the rela- tions between the Government and the irrigators will usually show their interests to coincide, since the Government has made large investments in reclamation works, the return of which to the Na- tional Treasury is directly dependent upon the success of the settlers. Among those entering public lands are many with no experience in irrigation and often little or none at farming of any kind. Even with water brought to the edge of his farm, the pioneer irrigator has much hard work not common to farming in older humid settle- ments. The land must be cleared, ditched, and carefully graded to receive the irrigation water, which must be manipulated with skill to prevent loss and damage. Capital is necessary to prepare the land, erect buildings, equip and stock the farm. Many of the prob- lems attending a new agricultural community brought quickly into being relating to crop selection, disease prevention, transportation, and marketing of crops, call for cooperative effort and must be worked out for each project. In many of these matters the Reclamation Service can act only by suggestion, being limited rather narrowly in the powers given by law. RECLAMATION LAW. What may be regarded as the “ organic act” governing the opera- tions of the Reclamation Service became law in June, 1902, and is commonly called the reclamation act. This remains the principal legislation, but has been amended and supplemented from time to time in important details, particularly by what is called the reclama- tion extension act of August 13, 1914. The broad features of the existing law provide for the following: 1. A reclamation fund composed of the receipts from the disposal of public lands in the arid States under the provisions of the various land laws. The fund now approximates a hundred million dollars. 2. The construction of irrigation systems to water public and private lands. 3. Practically free entry to the public lands under the irrigation projects, limiting any one citizen to a farm of such size as is capable of supporting a family. ; 4. Subdivision of the private lands by sale in small tracts, limiting the area to which water will be furnished one individual to 160 acres. 5. Repayment in easy terms, extending over a long period, of the cost of building the works by the holders of the lands benefited, the money going back into the reclamation fund for use on other projects. 470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. One feature of the law that has been criticised is the absence of any test or qualification for settlers on the reclamation projects. Any citizen who has not exhausted his homestead right may take up a farm unit. Many come in who are unfitted for the arduous task of developing the raw land or who lack the necessary capital to develop their farms and tide them over the nonproductive period at the start. The result may be disastrous to the individual and postpones until his successor is established the payments to the United States for building the works. Another point of weakness relates to the private lands within the Government projects. There is naturally a tendency to hold these for high prices, such that large owners may realize great profits or “unearned increment” due to the Government construction. The reclamation act sought to force subdivision of large holdings by limiting to 160 acres the area for which any person could acquire a water right. This did not prevent the owners from holding the excess at high prices, and the reclamation extension act seeks to meet the situation by providing that to be included in a project the excess areas must be sold at a price fixed by the Secretary of the Interior. The efficacy of this provision has yet to be demonstrated. The principal change in the law made by the extension act, how- ever, was to provide easier payments and extend the time in which the irrigators are required to refund the project costs. The act of 1902 provided for repayment in 10 annual installments. The exten- sion act spreads the payments over 20 years. In the case of a new entry or application only an initial payment of 5 per cent is required in the first five years. This gives the settler a liberal period in which to put his farm on a producing basis, during which he may apply his capital to that end unhampered by the necessity of meeting payments on the water-right charges. A liberal extension was un- doubtedly needed in a great many cases and the first effect of this recent legislation has been to create a better feeling between the water users and the Government with the increased hope of success in establishing permanent homes. Another important feature of the extension act, in line with the policy of the fullest possible cooperation between the water users and Reclamation Service, is the provision that after the construction cost is once fixed by public notice it may not be increased through additional construction except after approval by the water users, expressed through individual vote or contract. COMPLETED WORK. The Reclamation Service has completed 23 projects or units to the point where the systems are operated and water supplied the farmers for crop production. RECLAMATION OF ARI) LANDS—BEADLE. 4°71] In this connection it is well to note the difficulty of fixing an exact time when a large reclamation project is physically completed. Irri- gation may start with the completion of the first portion of the canal and laterals, but the construction of the rest of the system may extend over a number of years and yet keep well in advance of settlement and development of the irrigable lands. A better knowledge of the dependency of the water supply gained during these years by further measurement and study may warrant additions to the canal system and the area covered. Or the development of the new community may sufficiently advance land values to justify further expense to increase or conserve the water supply, as by building added storage works or lining the canals with concrete to prevent seepage losses, in either case permitting additional land to be served. Thus the project as a whole becomes a growing thing, and is not to be compared to a single definite piece of construction, such as a dam or office building, but is similar to-a city or railroad system that in a sense may be regarded as never complete. Nor is the matter of completion made definite by reference to the plan before construction, for we commonly find that during the early history of a large project, while it is being investigated for con- struction, the conception of what the project finally will be suffers radical changes with the surveys of canal lines and irrigable areas and the accumulation of information regarding the water supply, soil quality, and other factors. The Government projects now operated are listed in Table 2, which shows that the Reclamation Service delivered irrigation water to 760,000 acres during 1914, but that the systems were constructed well in advance of this, as noted above, being capable of serving 1,240,000 acres. In subsequent pages the principal projects are briefly de- scribed with an outline of the work done since former reports. The following tabulation gives some idea of the quantity and diversity of construction work done by the Service on these projects: TaBLe I.—Brief swnmary of construction results. [To June 30, 1915.] : . Number or Item. Unit. quantity. CONSTRUCTIONS. DD SEN Se eae eR ee Se es ohn atin Boa on sane e eeu step erebiee ce 100 Ce ec Re antes Sn See ae ee ere Io 9, 683 ATSITI TIES See ee ee er eta KS ne Osa es saat coe nan See sae eee 25 Dikes or levees 91 Trrigation and drain pipe 300 ee ee ee i ana concrete ae aso ee rhstaes 784 Railroads 82 Rel pati Or ObinAS sek ae nes tee See Neh fe dae fon aoknda a ee seam eae ine <1ralaeies doshas 2, 554 Abaclalsrareetiaien | liha(e@ma sete ete 2a ken on aay RIOR Hn Lan Pr nS SS ABMS oo sis oe doé-scceee 429 (SENaTT] CUTE Eres eee b= ee ot en Sasa scl doe.- me Sapo ekSoray leoesesccdae: 64, 847 TBYHIGS {SSeS eh eset pen cs Se — ae i es ree pel A a Se See) 4, 622 RTOS Pee ee ee eee ee ws ae ce een ee Rae noc ine epee Cee Sele satte | hetractareretaiameitern 5,714 Sia di rrss eee cho See to ee oR Eee APL ae RR tee ie clbice cu se naostace 1,068 472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. TasLe 1.—Brief summary of construction resulis—Continued. Ti Number or Item. Unit. quantity, MATERIALS HANDLED. Bae aes SEES BOs CRE Es LHe eect ee Oe aon te as Bee aOR Bere Ar ae NEE Cubic yards... .} 115,599, 284 Taaursiel Ep a2 coro teers adety: + See PeSe eras 355 Uys fraptee Shee e ee Beas est ORS ee , 085, 948 110°C) "a esata Seance wy eae! vee nye aa ee es BO. Soncuts 6, 964, 136 Motalten ss cce votes cen acess ota be cece eda ae ee eee eee tee | ere dolenenee 130, 149, 368 bhp Peak: in dams: Sn rg SIGUE Oe Ran no it) Ce beri bessrinnich er creieeee t Gocmner ashi A gse dors 3-12-29 1,993;1502 eae etree oe renee Meine Seca None CTS ye ie ti ae Sine a (een mr SST Rockhill ANC CribLbess-& - 22+ = sasb ee once = See eae ee = PE eee eee ee dozea-srs- 978, 474 Motals .Fits.6- sa-45pl-Se Piss fiat Bes See ese ae a. eae ae ee eee nee ees 12, 202, sas 12:3) 042] Oe OREO MEE Se 5S SBC eaer Shab SoS USA TEAR OL Back oe ceataAsnoeS seoneeson Cubic yards .- 1: 023) 398 RAVAN ES rtoes ds ButeNeee - Sees Seb eb lee oe AS A res Bh ee Square yards.. 615, 583 (Gora cin 2] i pespainet apie et ees Ry) a iin ee ORO ora De ea WE NS Johns SER EES e. Cubic yards. . 2, 674, 977 Comientis < f4sou8 <3 isd, depen: G25 shaadi 2 sae eee oe eee ee Barrels. ....-)- 2,501, 382 | CROPS. The irrigated lands are already producing an annual crop worth upward of $16,000,000, which should be steadily increased by more intensive farming as well as by the development of additional laud. In 1914 the farmers on the Government projects harvested irrigated crops from over 700,000 acres. The 60,000 acres listed as irrigated, but not cropped, represent mainly young frwit trees and newly seeded alfalfa. Alfalfa dominates all crop statistics from the irrigated areas (pl. 2, fig. 1). It occupies nearly half the cropped acreage and yields over one-third the total crop value. Its many virtues readily explain this popularity. Once established, or a “stand” secured, it is a hardy plant and continues almost indefinitely to furnish good annual yields without reseeding. It gives several yields or cuttings each year. It is a legume with the peculiar power of drawing from the atmosphere the nitrogen in which the soils of the arid region are often deficient, and leaves behind more than it found of this most valuable of plant requirements. It is the deepest of subsoilers, penetrating with its many roots to a remarkable depth for the other essential elements of plant growth and improving the physical condition of the soil. It furnishes a hay of superior quality for conditioning and fattening stock, so effective in fact that its medicinal value is now being utilized for humans. A wide variety of other crops are grown on the Government proj- ects—hays, cereals, fruit, sugar beets, and cotton, as well as garden products. Barley is the leading cereal, largely replacing corn in importance in comparison with middle western farming. titania i itt ava ‘snl, bist wid) rn ity Ait -% Lidassiirt « Vidserib to: ¥ ‘itideniand cs Aipakt To elieieye Birk BST] ik ergsts ae hae. age ae id¥o oft sth For bs iatkqic 10% 8 Ys amen Pe i) ‘ : > avg(ttyrs (3 tive “yt ipa aS ys “oldieaod. wt St 4ee TOT HU wore aN a3 xjotiee oot todd olds movie onds.* . Yi ee 4 t4 fag ntaules Dita yrokdalsas 10 Hk: i Inez ath, “ish vMileh sidar. Btidinsed. 948 i0 apni niga o1bRi Dig com iat attigh eongaltlatal to Sia lode Selt- on fi 7 Srobrsa Ftd 7 Sy MPips afoariny “eal Aja Ge tial Lipsy f sh Sot visas ay digairesls.t ~ “yet iaiagtio (edt ‘eailhe eet le ebaer of bat et sf sd1v't98 ans tL Vito ohat 40. aan ~ al ' F 5 <"y woe Hayter dios 3G ib: Py 10. Ly; MBO int! anti wyatt fh nore eile gh Hiv fi nite? 3a oes 3 OG ite} alcanisiet “Dire tpi Ait js "ek 4 Oe Diao eg PTs pei “i ten ase reba po Rtn t } : a i a . t Ti i s ~ . i te x if a Bz vr 7 bal i i} . rs t Civhehzs t bes vay : * } a ee ae ae : ‘rs oo iw 7 Tak wh : ini ALE TOL “CIM Spee i . j [ora sk dy nt eet SIR DAVID GILL (1843-1914) 3 By A. S. Epprneron. By the death of Sir David Gill astronomy has lost one of its ablest and: best-known leaders. By his widespread activity, his close asso- ciation with all the great enterprises of observational astronomy, and by the energy and enthusiasm of his character, he had come to hold an almost unique position in astronomical councils; and the with- drawal of his great motive power leaves a universal sense of loss. By his individual achievements and by his leadership he has exerted an incalculable influence on the progress of all that pertains to pre- cision of observation. It will be our task in this notice to give an outline of his work as an astronomer, but to understand his immense influence it is necessary also to realize the personal character of the man. Those who came in contact with him felt the charm of his per- sonality. In some indefinable way he could inspire others with his en- thusiasm and determination. Enjoying a life crowded with activity, surrounded by an unusually wide circle of friends, he was ever ready and eager to encourage the humblest beginner. It was no perfunc- tory interest that he displayed. He was quick to discern any signs of promise, and no less outspoken in his criticism; but, whether he praised or condemned, few could leave him without the truest admira- tion and affection for his simple-hearted character. David Gill was born at Aberdeen on the 12th of June, 1843, His family had long been associated with that city, where his father had an old-established and successful business in clocks and watches of all kinds. In due course he entered the Marischal College and Uni- versity, Aberdeen. At that time J. Clerk Maxwell was a professor there, and his teaching had a great influence on the young student. Judged by ordinary standards, Maxwell was not a successful lec- turer; but there were some students who could catch a part of his meaning as he “thought aloud” at the blackboard and feel the im- pression of his personality in after-lecture conversation, and these found him an inspiring teacher. Gill was among these, and he be- came imbued with a zeal for experimental science which soon mani- fested itself in his setting up a small laboratory in his father’s house. 1Reprinted by permission from Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, Feb., 1915. 511 512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Up to the age of 20 Gill’s scientific interests appear to have had no particular inclination to astronomy, but in 1863 he became desirous of securing an accurate time service at Aberdeen. Encouraged by a visit to Prof. Piazzi Smyth at Edinburgh Observatory, he suc- ceeded in interesting Prof. David Thomson in his efforts. There was at that time an old observatory at King’s College, Aberdeen. Together the two men unearthed and set up in adjustment a portable transit instrument which had long been disused, the sidereal clock was overhauled and fitted with contact springs for the electrical con- trol of other clocks, and the observations for time determination now became the chief occupation of Gill’s leisure evenings. Tt was not long before he began to seek for an instrument which would give him a wider scope for astronomical work. He met with a second-hand silver-on-glass mirror of 12 inches aperture and 10 feet focal length. The task of mounting this equatorially gave him the first opportunity of displaying that skill in instrumental de- signing for which he afterwards became so famous; and the whole mounting was made from his working drawings. He made the driv- ing clock with his own hands. Among the chief results obtained with this telescope were some excellent photographs of the moon. At that time Lord Lindsay (son of the Earl of Crawford) was planning to erect an observatory at Dum Echt, 13 miles from Aberdeen. Having seen these photo- graphs, he visited Gill in order to see his instruments and methods of work. The acquaintance thus formed led to Gill’s receiving early in 1872 an invitation to take charge of the Dun Echt Observatory that was about to be erected. At this time Gill was actively at work all day, his father having retired, leaving the business in his hands; it was only his evenings that could be devoted to scientific pursuits. He had married in 1870, and was living in Aberdeen near his little observatory. To accept Lord Crawford’s offer meant the giving up of a flourishing business and a heavy pecuniary sacrifice; but by now astronomy was claiming hiny irresistibly, and he made the choice without hesitation. The business that he now relinquished had never been congenial to him; but the time he had devoted to the clockmaker’s art had not been wasted, for it is reasonable to believe that his natural mechanical genius was in no small measure fostered by this early training. Gill’s direction of the Dun Echt Observatory lasted from 1872 to 1876. It was his task to design and install the fine equipment that was rapidly acquired—for him a foretaste of the similar work he was afterwards to carry out at the Cape. But this period of his life is chiefly remembered not for observations made at Dun Echt but for an expedition to the island of Mauritius on the occasion of the transit of Venus, 1874. It was in preparation for the work at ee i i SIR DAVID GILL—-EDDINGTON. 513 Mauritius that he first began to use the heliometer, an instrument with which his most celebrated researches were afterwards made. The 4-inch heliometer of the Dun Echt Observatory (afterwards pur- chased for the Cape) was made under Gill’s superintendence by Rep- sold; and whilst it was in the course of construction he took the op- portunity to visit Hamburg for the meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft in 1873. Besides attending this congress, Gill visited several of the continental observatories, and in this way made the acquaintance of the leading European astronomers, and also obtained an insight into the organization of the large observatories. The Mauritius expedition introduced him to two of the great prob- lems, which more especially he made his life’s work—the determina- tion of the solar parallax and the problems of geodetic measure- ments. Deferring, for the present, consideration of the scientific results of this expedition and of another expedition to Ascension Island in 1877, we pass on to the next great step in his career. Early in 1879 David Gill was appointed by the admiralty to be Her Majesty’s astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, in succession to Mr. E. J. Stone. Before sailing for the Cape he made another tour of the European observatories, visiting Paris, Leiden, Groningen, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Helsingfors, and Poulkovo. Perhaps the most important fruit of these visits was his acquaintance with Dr. Auwers and Dr. Elkin, which led to much valuable cooperation be- tween them. On the 29th of May, 1879, he arrived at Cape Town and took up his duties at the observatory. The only instruments which he found in use were the Airy transit circle, a 7-inch equatorial, and a photo- heliograph. The observatory, founded in 1820, had fulfilled a useful duty by the regular work of meridian observation, the early Cape Catalogues being a most valuable source for the positions of the southern stars. Its history had also been marked by one conspicuous achievement—Henderson’s detection of the parallax of « Centauri, the first proof that the parallax of a fixed star could amount to a measurable quantity. Whilst the instruments and observations might be open to many criticisms, the work was, for that period, fairly effi- cient. But the standard of precision was being raised, and Gill’s standard was the highest of his time. To his mechanical insight the faulty design and unsatisfactory repair of the old instruments was apparent, and he would not rest until the defects were remedied. He was no believer in the Airy type of transit circle, incapable of re- versal, but it was many years before he could obtain an instrument according to his ideals. Meanwhile it was necessary to make the best of the existing telescope. The object glass was deteriorated, the micrometer screws were worn, and the whole instrument was in need 18618°—sm 1915——33 514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of a thorough overhaul. He at once set to work upon it with his usual energy, and so transformed it that for differential work it left little to be desired. The Airy transit circle performed useful service until 1901, when it was replaced by the new reversible transit circle. It is still used at times for special researches. The 7-inch equatorial was likewise submitted to a thorough overhaul. The only immediate addition to the equipment was the 4-inch heliometer, which was secured by Gill by private purchase. With this provision he was content to spend the first few years of his directorship, until he should be in a stronger position to press his claims on the treasury. The principal additions made during the subsequent years that he spent at the Cape were the 6-inch Dallmeyer lens used for the photographic Durchmusterung, acquired in 1884; the 7-inch heliometer in 1887, the astrographic refractor erected in 1890, the Victoria telescope (a 24-inch photographic refractor with guiding telescope and spectroscopic equipment) in 1898, and the reversible transit circle in 1901. He was thus for his first researches limited to instruments of very moderate size and cost, and the suc- cess with which he afterwards obtained an adequate provision for the observatory was due both to the confidence inspired by his bril- liant early work and to his pertinacity in pressing the needs of astronomy. Tf from his many and varied services to astronomy we were asked to pick out the one in which he arrived at the most striking and complete success, there is little doubt that the answer would be his determination of the solar parallax. At the time when Gill, by accepting the charge of the Dun Echt Observatory, definitely em- barked on an astronomical career a celestial event of the first magni- tude was approaching—the transit of Venus of 1874. Great expecta- tions were entertained that this would afford an improved determina- tion of the solar parallax, a fundamental constant which was at that time involved in unsatisfactory uncertainty. Preparations were made by the leading observatories and astronomical societies on an unprecedentedly lavish scale, and expeditions were dispatched to different parts of the world. Lord Lindsay was cooperating in the work, and the Dun Echt expedition took up a station at Mauritius. Gill had already formed the opinion (which he afterwards conspicu- ously advocated) that there were other and better methods of find- ing the sun’s parallax involving far less expense. He believed that the observations of the transit were of such a nature that the results would be inaccurate and capable of more than one interpretation, for too much depended on the arbitrary judgment of those who had to discuss the observations. He determined, therefore, to use the opportunity of the expedition to make trial of another method, namely, morning and evening observations of the minor planet el illite, SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 515 Juno, which was then favorably situated. He considered that a single observer could by heliometer observations of a minor planet obtain results comparable in accuracy with those derived from all the transit of Venus observations together. Unfortunately, the heliometer was delayed in arrival at Mauritius, and the first half of the opposition of Juno was lost. Observations in the latter half were secured on 12 evenings and 11 mornings, but the parallax factor was then small. The result, 8’’.77+-0’’.041, though disappointing owing to the causes mentioned, gave a clear indication of the value of the method, and this pioneer effort served its purpose as a pre- liminary to a more ambitious attempt. From that time onwards Gill had a strong conviction of the value of the heliometer for work of the highest refinement, and he acquired his remarkable skill in using it. The transit of Venus was observed by the party, but Gill appears to have formed so low an opinion of the trustworthiness of the measures that he took little interest in their subsequent use. In 1877 an exceptionally favorable approach of Mars to the earth offered a good opportunity for a renewed attack on the problem of the solar parallax. Gill, who had resigned his position at Dun Kceht, began to prepare for an expedition to Ascension Island for this purpose. He fully expected that Mars would, owing to its large disk, prove to be a less satisfactory subject for heliometer observa- tion than a minor planet, which is practically indistinguishable in appearance from the comparison stars; but the parallax factor was so much more favorable than for any minor planet then known that the opportunity was not to be missed. His anticipations proved correct. The value of the solar parallax now found showed a great improvement on any previous determination. The result, 877.78, with a probable error of +0’’.012, marks a new stage of advance. But Gill by this work became more than ever convinced that the definitive determination of the constant must rest on minor planets. For his third and final attempt, in 1888-9, the minor planets Iris, Victoria, and Sappho were chosen. Instead of measuring the diurnal parallax, he proceeded this time by the combination of ob- servations made at widely separated stations. This involved a great scheme of cooperation in which many observatories and individuals took some part. The actual heliometer measures of the planets were made mainly by Gill and Finlay at the Cape, by Elkin and Hall at Yale, and by Peter at Leipzig. Of the many other cooperators Dr. Auwers in particular took a large and important share in the work. Accurate places of the comparison stars were needed, and meridian observations of these were made at a large number of places. In the case of Victoria this was supplemented by a heliometer triangu- lation in order to avoid the various systematic errors that affect meridian observations. The whole discussion, which forms two 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. large volumes (vi and vii) of the Cape Annals, is a remarkable record of a thorough and laborious undertaking. It was particularly the kind of investigation to bring out the characteristic qualities of Gill’s genius. To plan the work required that perfect understand- ing of instruments and observations in which he was unrivaled; and to carry it through in its completeness required a dogged persistence which overcame all obstacles, an enthusiasm which shirked nothing, and a power of leadership which inspired all his helpers. There have been other great and successful cooperative schemes since then, but we miss in them the unity of execution which the immense driv- ing force of Gill’s leadership supplied. ; The final result gave for the solar parallax 8’’.804+.0’’.0046, and in due course this value was adopted (as 8’’.80) in the Ephemerides. In so far as a single investigation can be held to settle so important a constant, the solar parallax was now known with all the accuracy required for the calculations in which it plays a part. Subsequent researches have all tended to confirm Gill’s value; the discordant results found by other methods are disappearing, whilst the supe- riority of the minor planet method has become more and more mani- fest. In the Eros campaign of 1900-1901 the Cape Observatory took no share, owing to the northern declination of the planet, but Gill followed the investigation with keen interest and took part in the arrangement of the work. The results from Eros, whilst diminish- ing the range of uncertainty, so far as accidental errors are con- cerned, have not appreciably altered the value. Shortly before leav- ing the Cape, Gill initiated a determination of the same constant by means of spectroscopic observations, the line-of-sight velocity of the earth relative to a star being measured at opposite seasons, so that the earth’s orbital velocity is found. These observations are now yielding excellent results. We have seen that his measurements during the observations of Juno at Mauritius convinced Gill of the value of the heliometer as an instrument of research. In his hands it was capable of re- markable accuracy. The instrument is peculiarly difficult to use, and the number of those who observe with it has always been few. At the time when the 4-inch instrument was constructed for him the heliometer was usually regarded in England as an exercise for the textbook or the examination question. Even now that its pos- sibilities have been demonstrated it has not been taken up widely. At the present day it is natural to prefer photographic methods, which give equal or perhaps slightly superior accuracy, whilst mak- ing far less demands on the observer. Perhaps, too, the prospect for future progress and development is more obvious in the case of photographic than of heliometer observations. Certainly Gill’s success with the heliometer never blinded him to the advantages SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 517 of the long-focus refractor, and he fully shared the modern tendency to depend more and more on photography. But there is one ad- vantage of the heliometer over the photographic refractor, both for solar and stellar parallaxes, on which Gill strongly insisted— the heliometer measures are independent of the color of the object under observation. He maintained, and confirmed by experimental observations, that the skilled observer in making coincidences of the images matches the colors and not the most intense points of the minute spectrum caused by atmospheric dispersion. This is a refinement obviously impossible in photography, and, for example, it is well known that the doubtful effect of atmospheric dispersion leaves a little uncertainty in the solar parallax deduced from the photographic observations of Eros. So early as 1872 Gill had begun to plan a series of determina- tions of stellar parallax with a micrometer attached to his reflector— an investigation which was interrupted by his removal to Dun Echt. On his appointment to the Cape he began to apply his 4- inch heliometer to this work. In this he was joined by Elkin, as a volunteer observer, and they set to work on a program of 9 stars, including Sirius, Canopus, « and 8 Centauri, with some stars of exceptionally large proper motion. The most important outcome of this work was the parallax of # Centauri, 0’’.75, with a probable error of only a hundredth of a second of are. The desirability of a larger instrument with some alterations of design soon became apparent, and in 1887 a 7-inch heliometer was constructed at a cost of £2,200. With this, Gill and Finlay, and afterwards De Sitter, measured 17 stars, including 12 of the brightest in the southern sky, in most cases with a probable error as low as +077.01. These results were of great interest, establishing the remoteness and intense luminosity of some of the brightest stars, such as Canopus and Rigel.: Whenever they have been put to the test Gill’s values have always been confirmed. Spurious parallaxes are a great bane in stellar investigation, and, at least until recently, | few observers have escaped an occasional bad error; but Gill’s parallaxes can always be relied on. His general accuracy has been equaled, perhaps a little surpassed, by some modern photographic determinations; but when we compare the sizes of the instruments— the 40-inch telescope at Yerkes or the 26-inch at Greenwich with his 7-inch heliometer—we must marvel at the precision he could obtain. The following table (given by him) will show the com- parative accuracy of his work. Ht gives the probable error of the measured position of a parallax star: Cambridge refractor (19.3 feet focus), 4 exposures_______________--- =£0’’. 048 Yerkes refractor (63 feet focus), 3 exposures__—-________________-- ==0) = 026 Heliometer, one complete observation, i. e., TG) POImMtings 2. = eee +0 . 0386 518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Another application of the heliometer was made in his deter- mination of the elements of Jupiter’s satellites and of the mass of Jupiter. The longitudes of the satellites can be found very accurately from the usual observations of eclipses, but the lati- tudes are more difficult to derive. Heliometer measures had been made before by Bessel and others, but in all cases the satellite had been referred to the limb or center of the disk. Guill’s method was to measure the distances and position angles of the satellites rela- tive to one another; for, as he had found in his observations of Mars, the best results are only possible when the objects to be meas- ured have no sensible disks. The observations were carried out in 1891. On each night the measures were reduced to a constant scale by referring them to the distance between two standard stars. The absolute distance between the standards was determined by a lengthy comparison with the distances of stars employed in the Victoria triangulation, whose definitive coordinates had been found with an accuracy quite exceptional. These observations were the beginning of a very thorough investigation of the whole problem; but the further observations and the discussion of the results were placed by Gill in the hands of younger men, who could give a more undivided attention to the problem. The nature of the investiga- tion required a repetition of the observations at a subsequent date. This was made by the late Bryan Cookson at the Cape in 1901-2. Photographic observations were made concurrently in 1891 and 1902, and again in 1903-4. The whole material thus collected formed an exceedingly valuable source for improving the accuracy of our knowledge of Jupiter’s system. The detailed discussion was taken up by De Sitter at Gill’s suggestion; he reduced Gill’s own observations during a visit to the Cape (1897-99), and worked out the elements and masses derivable from the whole work. It is evident that Gill attached the greatest importance to this work, and, though the later stages were in the charge of other workers, he followed its progress to the minutest detail. His stimulating influence carried it to a successful conclusion, if conclusion it can be called, for in his summary of the work in the History of the Cape Observatory he urges the need for an extended program of future work, and appeals to astronomers to carry it out. His last scientific effort, on the day the fatal illness began, was to write an introduction to De Sitter’s discussion. Gill’s detection of the existence of magnitude equation in observa- tions of right ascension with the meridian circle was an incidental result of his heliometer observations at Ascension. This definitive dis- covery of a systematic personality, by which faint stars are regularly observed too late relatively to bright stars, has been of fundamental importance in meridian work. He took great interest in the problem SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 519 of eliminating this peculiarly difficult source of error by screens and other methods, and it was a source of great satisfaction to him that the traveling-wire micrometer seems to have successfully accom- plished this object. Reference has already been made to Gill’s early photographs of the moon. These were, of course, not by any means the first lunar photographs, but in 1882 Gill made a notable advance in celestial photography by successfully photographing the great comet of that year. Several pictures of this comet had already been obtained, with fixed camera, and the knowledge thus obtained that the light was sufliciently intense encouraged Gill to attempt to obtain images of greater scientific value by guiding the camera in the modern way. He was assisted by Mr. Allis, a local photographer, from whom he borrowed a doublet of 24 inches aperture and 11 inches focal length. He mounted this doublet on the 6-inch equatorial, which he used as guiding telescope. Excellent representations of the comet were ob- tained with exposures of from 30 minutes upwards; but, a fact of still greater importance, it was found that, notwithstanding the in- significant size of the apparatus, a great many stars were shown whose images were well defined over a large field. This suggested the practicability of using similar but more powerful instruments for mapping the sky and for other astronomical purposes to which photography is now applied. We now know how this result has revolutionized the methods of observational work. Gill led the way in turning the new possibilities to a practical account. The immediate outcome was the Cape Photo- graphic Durchmusterung, started in 1885. The survey covers the region of the sky from the South Pole to Dec. — 18°, and is complete so far as photographic magnitude 9™-2 (on the C.P.D. scale). A rapid rectilinear Dallmeyer lens of 6 inches aperture and 54 inches focal length was used for the photography. The work was completed in 1890. Very soon after the start Prof. Kapteyn’s offer was received to devote himself for some years to the arduous labor of the meas- urement and reduction of the plates, a work for which the Cape Ob- servatory was unable to provide. This is a further instance of Gill’s success in attracting for his helpers the men best capable of carrying out the work desired. The association of Gill and Kapteyn, which began now, has proved a most powerful influence in the advance of stellar investigation, and, to quote Gill’s own words, “probably the most valuable result of the C.P.D. to science is the fact that it first directed Kapteyn’s mind to the study of the problems of cosmical astronomy and thus led him to the brilliant researches and dis- coveries with which his name is now and ever will be associated.” We can only mention briefly the other photographic work with which Gill was associated. When the history of the inception of the 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. International Astrographic Chart and Catalogue comes to be writ- ten it will probably be found that much was due to Gill’s initiative. It may be difficult to trace whence the first suggestion arose, but at least we know that he was in its councils from the very beginning and gave his whole-hearted support to the great enterprise. His measuring machine for photographic plates, designed by him and constructed by Repsold, has been very generally copied in its main features. Another work of great value which owes much to his coun- sel and assistance is the chart of the sky made by the late J. Franklin- Adams. Mr. Franklin-Adams, an enthusiastic amateur, who had only recently applied himself to astronomy, came to the Cape at an early stage of the work to photograph the Southern Hemisphere. It needs little imagination to realize how Gill, by his experienced ad- vice and his insistence on a high standard of quality, helped to make of this the valuable work that it became. In 1897 the necessary expenditure for a new reversible transit circle at the Cape was at length sanctioned. Since his first appointment Gill had lost no opportunity of urging the need for an instrument which should be free from the defects which were obvious in the old design. For the determination of fundamental right ascensions and declinations the chief requirements are an extreme stability of the instrument, means of eliminating or determining the flexures of the various parts, and of guarding against the effects of temperature changes both in the instrument and in the surrounding air. The problem of equalizing the distribution of temperature was most care- fully thought out. The piers were made hollow, covered externally with nonconducting material, and filled with water. The telescope tube was surrounded by a double envelope of copper to minimize the effects of local heating, and the graduated circles were similarly pro- tected by copper disks. Of special interest was Gill’s method of ob- taining fixed meridian marks for maintaining the azimuth of the transit circle. Four deep pits, reaching down to the unweathered rock, were constructed underneath the long-focus collimating lenses and the marks respectively, and a simple method was devised by which the apparatus above ground could be readily set in a definite position with respect to the vertical collimating lines of object glasses fixed in the rock below. So perfect is the stability of these marks that it has been found possible to measure the movement of the North Pole over the earth’s surface by the apparent change of azimuth. It is certain that the device will be widely imitated in future. On his appointment as H. M. astronomer, in 1879, Gill began to consider the question of a geodetic survey of South Africa. His previous experience of such work had been obtained on the occasion of his visit to Mauritius. In connection with the Transit of Venus expeditions of 1874, numerous longitude determinations were made SIR DAVID GILIL—-EDDINGTON,. 521 by the various parties of observers; and, indeed, these geodetic re- sults proved to be the most important outcome of the whole work. Gill’s share was a chain of telegraphic longitudes connecting Berlin with Malta, Alexandria, Suez, and Aden. Before returning home he proceeded to Egypt, in response to an invitation from Gen. Stone, chief of the military staff of the Khedive, in order to measure a base line for the proposed survey of the country. This work made slow progress at first, as Gill had no trained assistance on which he could rely; but in the end, with the help of Prof. Watson, he carried it through satisfactorily. No permanent outcome of this work has survived, for the defining marks of the base line were afterwards destroyed by Arabs. It would serve little purpose here to enter into the details of the work which Gill succeeded in accomplishing in South Africa. Be- sides the more practical uses of an accurate survey, Gill kept ever in view the object of the ultimate measurement of the great arc of the meridian of 105° from the North Cape to Cape Agulhas—the long- est measurable are of the meridian in the world. Colonial and for- eign Governments, the Chartered Company, and the scientific socie- ties were all in turn pressed and persuaded. Difficulties of funds, of personnel, of war, interposed obstacles; but there was no resisting Gill. His indomitable persistence always won in the end. Worried ministers would ultimately come to terms with their genial perse- cutor. Still active in this great cause after retirement from the Cape, he had the satisfaction of getting the last link of the South African chain filled in. The great measured are along the meridian of 30° E. now extends from Cape Agulhas to within a short distance of Lake Tanganyika, near the boundary of British territory, a length of 24°, at which point it awaits the other chain of triangula- tion that will some day be pushed down from Egypt. We have now passed jn review the most important of Gill’s scien- tific investigations. To these may be added some miscellaneous contributions, of which we can not here give any detail. A triangu- lation by heliometer of the southern circumpolar stars was made under his direction in 1897-1900, but he was not very satisfied with ‘the consistency of the observations. A series of meridian observa- tions of the lunar crater Mésting A, organized by him jointly with Sir William Christie at Greenwich, led to a good determination of the lunar parallax and figure of the earth. The arrangements for a catalogue of zodiacal stars were placed in his hands by the Inter- national Astrographic Congress. In October, 1906, Sir David Gill left the Cape. Owing to ill health he had anticipated by rather more than a year the date of compulsory retirement. But there were no signs of failing vigor when he returned to England; on the contrary, he plunged into a 022 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. strenuous life of scientific activity in London. He became presi- dent and afterwards foreign secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, president of the British Association at Leicester, and on the councils of the Royal and Royal Geographical Societies as prési- dent d@honneur of the committee of the astrographic chart, and in numerous other duties he was a center of energy and initiative. For several years he worked at his History and Description of the Cape Observatory, published in 1913. Amid our sorrow at his death, when still in the full vigor of scientific activity, there is cause for thankfulness that he was spared to complete and to see the reception of this retrospect of the work to which he had devoted his life. To this record of strenuous work in the cause of science must be added some allusion to the other side of his life. There was an ideal background to his public life in the quiet home, always characteris- tically Scotch wherever he lived. In Lady Gill he found a sympa- thizer in all his sacrifices and devotion to astronomy. She did not become an astronomer, but she shared all his desires, and it was ever her care to aid him to fulfill his great calling. She was of Scotch birth, like himself, and their home was bright with an indescribable spirit of open-heartedness which seemed to come from his loved Highlands. In December, 19138, he was seized with double pneumonia, and from the first the gravity of the illness was realized. His magnificent constitution carried him bravely through a long fight with the dis- ease, but heart failure supervened, and on the morning of January 24 he died peacefully. There is no need to enumerate the honors conferred on him by the British, French, and German Governments, and by numerous acad- emies and universities. Official recognition was generously be- stowed; even richer was the tribute of admiration and affection of his world-wide circle of friends. WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL, 1847-19141 By J. N. LANGLEY. Walter Holbrook Gaskell was born on November 1, 1847, at Naples, where his parents were passing the winter for the sake of his father’s health. His father, John Dakin Gaskell, was a barrister, a member of the Middle Temple, who followed his profession for a few years and then retired to private hfe. His mother was Anne Gaskell, second cousin of his father. Gaskell as a boy lived with his father at High- gate and attended Sir Roger Cholmeley’s school at that place. At school he worked chiefly at mathematics, but had considerable interest in natural history, and appears to have made more than the usual schoolboy collections connected with that subject. He came up to Cambridge in October, 1865, when he was not quite 18, as a member of Trinity College. In his third year he was elected to a foundation scholarship, and proceeded to the B. A. degree in 1869, being twenty-sixth wrangler in the mathematical tripos. After taking his degree he studied for a medical career, and in the course of his preliminary scientific work he attended the lectures on elementary biology and physiology given by Michael Foster, who came to Cam- bridge as prelector in physiology at Trinity College in 1870. Foster led a considerable number of his early pupils to a scientific career. He first aroused an interest in scientific problems and then, some- times gradually, sometimes suddenly, suggested that there was no better course in life than that of trying to solve them. Gaskell, as far as my recollection serves, was influenced in the latter way. In 1872 he went to University College Hospital, London, for clinical work. On his return to Cambridge, Foster, in the course of a conver- sation with him, suggested he should drop his medical career for the time and try his hand at research in physiology. Gaskell, I believe, adopted on the spot this suggestion, and instead of proceeding to the M. B. degree went to Leipzig to work under Ludwig (1874). At this time Ludwig’s laboratory was much the most important school of physiological research in Germany or elsewhere. It at- tracted students from all parts of the world. All the work was planned by Ludwig, who had an almost unerring sense of the lines sy VSG fet fea as ES ae eA? Si ei ee eee 1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B, vol. 88, no. 606, April 1, 1915. 523 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of work which would yield profitable results. To this the success of the school was mainly due. Its popularity was increased by the method of procedure adopted by Ludwig. This has been described by Sir T. Lauder Brunton, who was with Ludwig in 1869-70. The experiments were carried out by Ludwig with the pupil as assistant; Ludwig wrote the paper and then published it, occasionally as a con- joint work, but more usually in the name of his pupil. As I have heard from Gaskell, the method was the same in his time. The work given him was a continuation of that on the innervation of skeletal muscle already begun in the laboratory. This led him by a series of steps, which were perfectly logical but impossible to foresee, from point to point of scientific inquiry up to his theory of the origin of vertebrates. Soon after his return to England in 1875, Gaskell married Miss Catherine Sharpe Parker, a daughter of Mr. R. A. Parker, of the firm of Messrs. Sharpe, Parker & Co., solicitors, by whom he had one son, Dr. J. F. Gaskell, and four daughters, two of whom survive him. He settled in Grantchester, about a mile and a half from Cambridge, and in the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory he carried further the investigation on the innervation of the blood vessels of striated . muscle. He found (1877), amongst other facts, that stimulation of the nerve supplying the mylohyoid muscle of the frog caused con- siderable and constant dilatation of the blood vessels, although con- traction of the muscle itself was prevented by curare. This was the most decisive instance known at the time of such action in a purely muscular structure. It did not, however, settle the question of the occurrence of vaso-dilator fibers in the nerves of skeletal muscle, the discussion of which was carried on by Heidenhain and others. From the behavior of the arteries under nervous stimulation he passed to the investigation of the behavior of the small arteries and of the heart with varying reaction of the blood, and, finding that a small addition of alkali increased the tone of both, and that a small addition of acid decreased it, he suggested that, besides the nervous control of the circulation, there was also a chemical control in each organ and tissue by the products set free in activity, so that, for ex- ample, the contraction of the muscle by setting free acid led to an in- creased fiow of blood through it. The suggestion was not entirely new, but it was wider in range than any of its kind previously made and rested on more solid facts. This work directed his attention to the heart, and for the next four or five years he devoted his time to the questions of the innervation of the heart, and the cause of the heart beat. With these questions others were busily engaged, notably Engelmann and Heidenhain. In the early seventies it was universally held that the beat of the heart was due to the nerve cells present in it, and that it was initiated WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL—-LANGLEY. 595 by the nerve cells of the sinus venosus. There were very varied views as to the method of working of the nervous mechanism, especially as to the parts played by the nerve cells of the septum of the auricle, and the nerve cells of the base of the ventricle. As it became more widely recognized that parts of the heart which had no discernible nerve cells could contract rhythmically, it was felt that the nervous theory did not account for the whole of the phenomena. Moreover, some of the pharmacological results could not be satisfactorily ex- plained on the theory as then put forward. But no one had any more satisfactory explanation to offer. The question of the action of the nerve cells in the heart was part of the general question of the functions of the peripheral ganglia. In 1869, Engelmann argued that the peristaltic contraction of the ureters did not depend on nerve cells and that the contraction was conducted from one muscle cell to the next without the intervention of nerve fibers. In 1875 he advocated a similar view as regards the passage of contraction from one part of the ventricle of the frog’s heart to the rest, and he thought this was probably also the case in the auricle. But in one important point he kept to the old theory and considered that the passage of contraction from auricle to ventricle was brought about by nerve cells and nerve fibers. Gaskell (1881) at first adopted the current theory with some modifications in detail, but in 1883 he abandoned it, and argued that the contraction of the heart was of muscular origin; it started in the sinus and spread as a peris- taltic wave to the other chambers, the delay in the passage of the contraction wave from one chamber of the heart to the next being due to a slow conduction in the modified muscular tissue which he found at the junction of the sinus venosus with the auricle, and at the junction of the auricle with the ventricle. In the course of his work Gaskell made a large number of original observations on the be- havior of the several parts of the heart and of the cardiac muscle. The term “block” Gaskell adopted from Romanes’s account of the passage of contraction waves in Meduse; the phenomena had been partly worked out in the frog’s ventricle by Engelmann, but they were much more completely elucidated by Gaskell’s work on the heart of the frog and the tortoise. It was known that the contraction of the ventricle might only occur at every second, third, or fourth beat of the auricle. Gaskell obtained this effect experimentally by vary- ing the degree of block between the two chambers. After the lapse of years the invention of the string galvanometer brought the obser- vation of heart block in man into the region of clinical medicine. The different effects produced on the heart of the frog by stimu- lating the vagus nerve were investigated simultaneously by Gaskell and by Heidenhain. Gaskell observed that stimulation of the vagus 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. sometimes caused an increase in the strength of the beats in addition to the quickening which had been already described by Schmiedeberg and others, and which had been attributed to special accelerator nerve fibers. Heidenhain found that by stimulating the medulla oblongata at different points, acceleration and augmentation, or slowing and weakening, of the heart beat could be obtained. Gaskell traced in the crocodile and frog the origin of the accelerator fibers to the sym- pathetic system, and this was followed up by a more complete anatomical investigation by Gaskell and Gadow. The innervation of the heart of lower vertebrates was thus brought into line with that of the mammal. In addition, he gave a more complete account than had been given by Heidenhain of the cause of the independence of the slowing and the weakening of the heart beat caused by pure vagus fibers, and of the quickening and the increase of strength caused by sympathetic fibers. A little later Gaskell showed that an electrical change can be produced in quiescent heart muscle on stimu- lation of the cardiac nerves, and that the change is different accord- ing as the vagus or the accelerator nerve is stimulated. Gaskell’s work in this field was of the first importance. His papers are a storehouse of observations of a fundamental nature. He elab- orated his theories and gave an admirable account of the whole sub- ject in an article on “The Contraction of Cardiac Muscle” in Schifer’s “Textbook of Physiology,” published in 1900.. It may be mentioned that the rhythm of the heart was the subject of his Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1881, and that on the work mentioned above he was elected a fellow of the society in the follow- ing year. In the course of his dissection of the accelerator nerve in mam- mals, Gaskell was struck by the overwhelming preponderance of non- medullated nerve fibers in it, although the nerves centrally of ganglia from which the accelerator fibers arose were mainly medullated, and this determined him to investigate the relation of the sympathetic system to the spinal cord. At this time the question of the relation of the sympathetic and other peripheral gangha to the cerebro- spinal system was in a state of profound confusion, and general agreement had been reached on a few points only. A great number of facts had been described, and they covered a wide area of de- seriptive anatomy in different classes of vertebrates, of histology of nerve fibers and nerve cells, and of physiology. Few observers cov- ered more than a small portion of the ground. Results were coming quickly and the ground was tilled rather hastily. The practical dis- appearance of the theory that the “ vegetative” nervous system was independent of the “animal” nervous system had led to the periph- eral ganglia being less considered as a whole than they had been at an earlier time, and to special explanations being put forward for WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL—LANGLREY, 527 the working of the several parts. Thus, those writers who tried to give an impartial summary of the state of knowledge found them- selves reduced to stating a number of more or less contradictory facts and irreconcilable theories. Gaskell did not approach the subject from the point of view of what had already been done or said. He approached it from the point of view suggested by his observations on the accelerator nerves in the mammal. This method had the disadvantage that it led him to leave uninvestigated some of the chief difficulties which were felt at the time, but it had the advantage that it enabled him to come to a rapid decision on certain important points. Gaskell con- fined his attention to the efferent “visceral” fibers. His most im- portant conclusions were, that all efferent visceral fibers, whether in cranial or in spinal nerves, were small medullated fibers, and that they left the cerebrospinal system in three groups—the cervico- cranial, the thoracic, and the sacral—the thoracic portion being what was ordinarily called the sympathetic. These conclusions reestab- lished the connection of small medullated fibers with the whole of the “ organic” system described by Bidder and Volkmann in 1842, gave an explanation of Reissner’s statement in 1862 that the anterior roots of the thoracic nerves contained bundles of small medullated fibers, while those of the cervical and lumbar nerves contained only a few such fibers scattered amongst the larger ones, supported the view which had been held by some anatomists that the white rami com- municantes constituted the sole connection between the spinal cord and the sympathetic, and brought all the involuntary nerves of what- ever origin into one system of gaglionated nerves as had been recently advocated by Dastre and Morat. In these conclusions there was one weak spot. Whilst it was definitely shown that the outflow of visceral fibers from the central nervous system to the sympathetic was enor- mously greater in the regions in which there were only white rami, it was not shown that no fibers passed out by the gray rami. Gaskell’s observation of the rarity of small medullated fibers in the gray rami was not in accord with earlier observations, and he did in fact under- estimate their number. Further, physiologists of repute had de- scribed vasomotor, pupil or heart effects as being caused by stimula- tion of the cervical nerves, which had gray rami only. It might then be said that the few small medullated fibers present in the centrally running branch of the gray rami represented the few scattered small medullated fibers of the anterior roots of the corresponding spinal nerves. Thus the difference between the thoracic and other regions of the spinal cord might be one of degree only. So far, however, as subsequent investigation has gone, Gaskell’s conclusion was correct, and the gray rami receive no efferent fibers from the spinal cord. 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Gaskell’s work clarified the air. It gave anatomists and physiolo- gists a clearer view of the general arrangement of the efferent nerves governing unstriated muscle and glands, and it directed the attention of physiologists to points which they had singularly neg- lected. It is to be noticed also that Gaskell’s earlier theory that the heart beat is not due to the activity of local nerve cells has an intimate bearing on the much-discussed question of the automatic and reflex action of peripheral ganglia. In the paper setting forth the conclusions given above, Gaskell dis- cussed a number of other problems of the sympathetic system. His theories were based on facts known at the time, but the experiments to test their wider application were few. Some are still under discussion; some are superseded. The most far-reaching of these theories was on the nature of the difference between motor and inhibitory nerve fibers. In 1881 he had advocated the view that the vagus is the trophic nerve of the heart. Lowit, in 1882, had suggested, on the lines of Hering’s theory of assimilatory and dis- similatory processes in the body, that the cardiac inhibitory fibers favor assimilation, and that the accelerator fibers favor dissimi- lation. Gaskell, developing his trophic theory, took a more definite and a wider view and urged that all inhibitory fibers are anabolic, and all motor fibers are katabolic. Gaskell’s microscopical and anatomical observations led him to questions of morphology. He argued that in a typical spinal seg- ment a lateral root was to be distinguished in addition to the ven- tral and dorsal roots. The lateral root consisted of two parts, one arose from the lateral mesoblast plates of Van Wijhe and supplied the respiratory muscles of Ch. Bell’s system, the other formed the ganglionated nerves of the visceral system. On this basis he dis- cussed the homologies of the cranial and spinal nerves, and returned to this subject in a paper published a few years later. For his work on the nervous system he was awarded the Marshall Hall prize of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in 1888, and was elected a fellow of the society. In 1890 the Nizam of Hyderabad suppled funds to a commis- sion for the investigation of the cause of death under chloroform— the second which he had supported. The commission reported that death was due to an action of the respiratory center, and that if the respiration was carefully attended to it was unnecessary to pay any attention to the pulse. These conclusions were directly opposed to common belief based both on experimental and clinical ebservation. One of the members of the commission asked Gaskell to criticize their report. Gaskell arranged with Dr. Shore to make a joint experimental inquiry. Gaskell and Shore, employing vari- ous methods, notably that of cross circulation from one animal to WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL—LANGLEY, 529 another, brought forward evidence which was generally regarded as conclusive that chloroform had a direct weakening action on the heart. Their paper, published in 1893, checked a tendency to regard the respiration as the only factor to be considered in ad- ministering chloroform. It was a useful piece of work, but it gave Gaskell the only enemy he ever made. This investigation was a sidetrack from the main line of the work which Gaskell had been pursuing for some years. His mor- phological studies on the homologies of the cranial and spinal nerves had led him to consider the problem of the origin of the nervous system in vertebrates, and this again led him to a theory of the origin of vertebrates to which he gave nearly all his time in later years. Dr. Gadow has been kind enough to write the following account of this part of Gaskell’s researches: Gaskell’s physiological research has always been to a considerable extent on the morphological side, and this combination of the sister sciences culminated in his inquiry into the origin of vertebrates. He was drawn to this at present hopelessly difficult problem neither by accident nor design but by the complete failure of various morphological friends to account for certain structures the understanding of which was necessary for his research. He therefore deter- mined to find out for himself, and thus it has come to pass that a man between 30 and 40 years of age, M. D. of Cambridge and a physiologist of renown, de- voted about 25 years of his life to essentially morphological studies, more than—in the nature of things—applies to some of his rather bitter scientific opponents. Moreover, entering the new field quite unbiased, his critical mind enabled him, when studying, for instance, the best comprehensive textbooks on embryology, to discover the weak sides of that discipline. It was not a question of picking out what suited him; on the contrary there was hardly a point—be it the homologies of the germinal layers, the occurrence of some obscure feature like Reissner’s fiber, or some Silurian fossil, which he did not take often infinite pains to examine into. Frequently he enlisted friendly help, as.in the case of the digestive properties of the Lamprey’s skin. This is not the place to discuss the strong and weak points of his hypothesis that vertebrates are descended from some Crustacean-like ancestor—i. e., from some vaguely reconstructable stock of which the paleozoic Trilobites, King crabs, and Scorpions are the only known representatives on the invertebrate side, and he bridged the gulf between them and the vertebrates by the Silurian Ostracoderms, of whose internal organization the larve of the Lampreys, be- fore their marvellous changes into the present adult forms, seemed to afford a clue. The gulf was great indeed, but his planned bridges were not more hazily sketched than those which pretend to connect the vertebrates either separately or conjointly with Amphioxus, Tunicates, Balanoglossus, ete., with worms and even with Echinoderms. Especially the various worm theories he considered as no solution of the problem, since they would carry the connection so far back as to merge almost into the beginning of the Metazoa, amounting to no recognizable origin. He on the contrary believed that “each higher group of animals has arisen in succession from the highest race developed up to that time. Further, as the leading motif of the whole course of this solution he dis- cerned the orderly sequence in the development of the central nervous system, 18618°—sm 1915——34 530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. in which no break of continuity can possibly have occurred. The brain and nerves afford the fundamental homologies; the organs which they innervate may fall into line in a surprising way, but they are not the essential comparisons— e. g., a new gut may be formed, as in the transforming Ammocetes. ‘ The secret of evolutionary success is the development of a superior brain.” The immediate starting point of Gaskell’s investigations on the origin of vertebrates was the recognition of the close similarity in structure and function of the different parts of the vertebrate brain with those of Arthropods. The segmental character of the vertebrate central nervous system, so clear to the physiologist, and long before insisted upon by most anatomists, had lost weight for the morphologists, clearly because the C. N. 8S. appears embryonically as a single unsegmented tube. Here then was the next question forced upon Gaskell’s attention. Can not the two opposing views be reconciled by the suggestion that the vertebrate C. N. S. consists of two parts, closely entangled, viz, a seg- mental nervous system on the same plan as that of the Arthropods, which is outside and has surrounded an epithelial tubular structure? This idea explained at once the remarkable nonnervous epithelial parts of the tube, which become so conspicuous aS we descend the vertebrate phylum, and every part of this tube bears the same resemblance to various parts of the C. N. S. as the dorsal stomach and intestine of an Arthropod. As a crowning of his conception the pineal eyes fit into the right place of the scheme; and the resemblances become greater and more numerous on the one hand in Am- moceetes, as was to be expected in the lowest available vertebrate, and on the cther in Limulus, the King crab. In short, there was now a provisional work- ing hypothesis, obtained by a direct logical process from the consideration of the vertebrate nervous system. After this working explanation of the tubular nature of the C. N. 8. the next step was the inquiry into the nature of the cranial neryes and therefore the double segmentation of the vertebrate body in the head region. Now he was in the midst of the most complex and abstruse problem of morphology, involving every organic system. The resemblances between Arthropods and vertebrates— with Limulus and Ammoccetes as the champions—are, indeed, numerous and in many cases perplexingly close. Of course, the more Gaskell became absorbed by - his research, the more resemblances he saw, many of which are in all probability mere coincidences, or even erroneous. With great intuition and ingenuity he connected them, and in some of the most important cases his argumentation as to their being homologous structures has remained intact. He knew that if but a few are true homologies, his case would be proven, according to all the ac- cepted canons of the theory of descent, and all the rest could be waved aside as incidental convergences, due to correlations, the possible laws of which we are now only just beginning to speculate about. Hence he felt it necessary to defend, so to speak, his whole extended line; not that the yielding of some point would mean a disastrous breach but because of the lack of criterion to know which of his many points might prove one of his best assets, viz, an absolute homologue. On the other hand he felt justified in assuming as most unlikely that repre- sentatives of two fundamentally different phyla should have produced so very many close resemblances, so close in function, structure, and relative position as to make it impossible to show them up as heterogeneous. He was also fully aware of it that our time-honored conception of homologies versus analogies and their application to phylogeny are under reconsideration. It is a blow to the comparative anatomist and to the constructor of pedigrees, but all the more interesting since it shows that it is life, function, adaptation, and inheritance, WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL—LANGLEY., 531 which shape the material, and this being Gaskell’s standpoint of view he skill- fully worked with the tools of the morphologist as a physiologist. Be his genial hypothesis, elaborate enough for a theory, right or wrong, he has discovered and elucidated many a feature both in vertebrates and invertebrates which without bis tireless work would remain still neglected and unexplained. His book, “The Origin of Vertebrates,” published in 1908, has made little im- pression. Partly, it is to a great extent a reprint of numerous previous papers and series of assays, partly because, instead of pleading, he did not present his views and the long chain of argumentation in an easy manner. Lastly the idea of our, descent from “some Crustacean-like ancestors” was so subversive of all the other rival hypotheses (one of which if assumed to be right implies that all the others are wrong) that the unbiassed reader expects at least a clearly summarizing explanation why Gaskell considered the older hypotheses not only insufficient but wrong. He did not choose this line. He had too noble a character, the respecting admiration of his many friends, ever ready to defend his own, willing to give in to sound argument, but rot to be suppressed. ‘“ By their fruits you shall know them.” In reviewing Gaskell’s work one can not fail to be struck with the carefulness and accuracy of his observations. But the bent of his mind lay in the direction of generalization. A fact once definitely ascertained was never viewed by him as an isolated phenomenon, it was used as a basis for formulating some general rule. If he sometimes generalized too hastily, it was but the defect of his virtue. The value of his work was widely recognized. He was awarded a royal medal of the Royal Society in 1889, and at various times was the recipient of honors both at home and abroad. One or two further events of his life and some personal character- istics remain to be mentioned. In 1878 he proceeded to the degree of M. D. by thesis, but he did not at any time practice medicine. Two or three years after this he began a lifelong part in the advanced teaching of physiology in the university. His subjects were those on which he had himself worked, viz, the heart, the nervous mechanism of respiration, the sympathetic system, and, at a later date, the origin of vertebrates. In 1883 he was appointed university lecturer. His style was incisive, and he spoke on controversial points with a half- ‘suppressed enthusiasm which was eminently infectious. ‘In 1888 he left Grantchester and took up his residence in Cam- bridge. In the following year he was elected a fellow of Trinity Hall, and was appointed prelector in natural science in the college. Living in a town was not to his liking, and in 1893 he built a house (The Up- lands) on a hilltop in Great Shelford, opposite that on which perched Michael Foster’s house. Here he remained for the rest of his life. Gaskell attended but little the congresses of scientific associations, though he did not altogether shun them. He was president of Sec- tion I of the British Association in 1896 at Liverpool, and attended 532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. the meetings of the association in Canada in 1897, and in South Africa in 1905, and took the opportunity of seeing a good deal of these countries. He was present also at one or two of the earlier triennial meetings of the International Congress of Physiologists. He did not take much interest in the ordinary business of the university, but he served on the university council (1907-1910), and if any broad question came before the senate he was fairly certain to be found on the Placet side. When there was real need of his services he did not grudge them. He served on the Royal Commis- sion on Vivisection, which was appointed in 1906, and the final re- port of which was not issued until 1912; and he was a member of the Mosely Commission on Education in America. As an undergraduate he rowed in the May races, played cricket and racquets, and frequented the bathing sheds. Later on he en- joyed an occasional set of lawn tennis, but, in general, active exer- cise did not greatly attract him. In recreation, as, indeed, in work, he took throughout life a somewhat leisurely course. He liked both work and play, but not to the stage of exhaustion. For some years he spent part of the long vacation yachting and fishing with his brother. His hobby was gardening. He converted a large part of his 15 acres of sloping hillside at Shelford into a charming terraced garden, the early summer display of which was the occasion of an annual reception to Cambridge residents. He was always glad to receive physiologists visiting Cambridge, and his bluff, hearty greet- ing left no doubt of their welcome. In the evening he liked a game of whist or bridge, and after college feasts he was among the first to settle down to a rubber. In the year preceding his death he was a little troubled about his health, but his customary course of life was hardly affected. He was writing a small volume on the “Involuntary Nervous System,” and on September 3 revised the last sheets. 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S 106 Arid lands, progress in reclamation of, in the western United States (Beadle)... 467 Permmniauabl alloy. 0692 fess Se Sa oe oe Ss sob uae ae ae en oe teen 20, 35 Briain Secretly Of the ination. <- 2205-02. Jsas sqee- Fs oA eas re ae Sie aioe eee 240 mrmeiceland danse fo okt st cpl ee ee emai cin anima mcluls Aisiecemae 107 said, Se Bee S a) ie SE eee sec emee + see sane tee ee 95 [571 Seige gl 2 eh Ee Re SE aa Se a sera a. Sen CN eras See Ls I xii 534 INDEX. Page. Baker, Wrank:. 22s... dik... Senet dei e eae eee ee xii, 18, 107 report on National Zoolesieal Park: 1. 5-2 se ee ce Balloon pyrheliomebny. ea. =o o2e metab eee oer Pr rl 86 Ballou, Howard: Mico. oo cee 2 acces ais a sine ee ee 54 Barham, W255 2222222 ee re ee eeepc oe etn esa 59 Bartlett, Paul Wayland... 2 2.2.22. 2 2 BE SR ee be oeret eee 118 ° Bartech; Paula 4ixess ioc: acacte eeeeoz ce aa eee See eee ae eee xii Basel er: Bh Se oo cas oh oie SOR sat bec oe = oe nea at ie xi, 6 Bateson, William (Heredity) 4... ..2¢3i20 pee eee ee ey eee 359 aC Vos Ae neo as atone begets 6 <3 cies see tee Oe REESE cic aut oe 106 Beadle, J. B. (Progress in reclamation of arid lands in the western United Blabes)e..pacisice. fee. Sie 22S. Bache oooh tree ee A 467 Bears; studies of Amerieatt.i cy. to0-.32 32g sed eee e aera ee = ee a 13 Becquerel, Paull sac ceo- fSpephin ciyein ph AS te ea ese ee eee 108 Beede, A. McG wc eon dian 5 tiadcie «op code ae eet ae ere ci eee mel 58 Bell, Alexander Graham (Regent)........-.------ xi, 2, 15, 18, 20, 30, 93, 115, 116, 122 Belle Fourche reclamation project, South Dakota........-.-.-.-.-.+-+------- 486 Benedict; James". (26.2. SLL Sic he Pe ee eee xii Benjamin, Marcus. ..... ae ee ne ee ae ee ce ree re amiabe i Pre hs xii, 108 Boagivlests.c 4 scckecnd G6 we ae reid passe aren ee ee 2:3, LOL Berry lid ward: Wc... 2 cee he ee ee ne ee ee 106 Biologteatl work tn China. os oe ees apa ino ean ee al ae A 126 Bird studies in Atbngiss.. Sale evs te estae oe See St Se ep 8 Birds, tropical, impressions of the voices of (Fuertes)............-.----------- 299 Binclowelder ligt. :: .cevrerekes eR. ae ee ee ego eae 106 TUNER UR tS oS om is pic ms a cae ea a ee ee a ee ees a 85 Bloke. Ry -K: (Submarine signaling )\ 22 2. he 5 eee 203 Bilpen MUeene. . vs 5.5. ot See were as cae Set eee ei a ee 106 Board. of Regents of the Institution, proceedings of.......-.....------------- 116 Bogs? Brangs>< 232.502. c485.08 Co ee ee oe eee xii, 48, 56 Baers: Waldemar: .os (oo 5ese.5'o. 5320 52 esate cape oe ee ee 48 Bohemian and Slovakian speech, the area of-......-.-...-.--------------85- 432 Boma reclamation: project, ldahos: 22052222254. 28 see eee = ee ee 478 pond, A’ Russell 2. os eos ro. oot acoso cere = cae oh eee eee 106 Borchardt, Ludwig (Excavations at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, in 1913-14)....... 445 Borneo'and:Celebes expeditions... 2. Jt 2. ..cess$s.2 eee ee 7,125 Bose Jagadis Chinder. 02.928 + dua toe ok ae ae 107 Boden, 1577 | ge GRID AOR ee Regen es Pee eMe aE A Pela) ae Jk 107 Botanical explorations in.South. America... 3. ).220,.952- sane see = eee 9 Beitish Columbia, reological work inm- 22.0 sc. ist. a ea eee ae eee 126 Brockett, Paul, assistant librarian of the Institution.......-.--..---:--------- xi report on Smithsonian Library. 222 2 =.55.-4-25 carne ee 91 Brown, S.C) on 2 Pas de oe heieie Seta eae ea ee o> Ce a xii mana AG: Sou ea Sh a oe Nene ae eee ss a Mine 5a See 107 Buckingham SM. 25. <..daceaes Soe bcam abe ees a a ee ee 15, 120 Buckland, James. >... 96 5. hoc Serene See ea ne eee 106 Bureau of American Ethnology ..<....22.-42-. 4-5. eo ses see Stee 22 library... 2. 22),....5222+, 42 nes 3aSOE eee 58 publications. 2. ..¢5 5. 52..42- esse ene eee 17, 55, 109 TOPOl 2 ac LSS ee es eee 40-59 — Burleson, Albert Sidney, Postmaster General (member of the Institution). . -- xi Bushnell, Di; Ur. cd. <-0 so. 262 enc meee cep cae one pale eee eee eee 54 GC (LUSSIER NE PE eee Ae IE Gees “10h . poh TEE Rs rane aa ee en a a ae kaa ie a are kh ys 243 Carlsbad reclamation project, New Mexico. ..........22.---nc2.eceeeeeeeeee 483 Bernere lonistiivon.o Washington... <2. x. <> -ocess.5se-s8k Sie Se 9 ae 2S SELES EES a Se aa i eS BRS EE NE PD | : 97 Sper man lOMmem expediilons.~ ©... 20. ).s2+ les c-dc.lce. ooe ae 7 irerremine iter VOL Elo oe eee en cE ee ae ge oe ne 31 Chief Justice of the United States (member of the Institution). .............. xi mn MeA WOLK Ne = 22 oa: oS Oost 222s te Peace ea ee 126 - Choate, Charles F., jr. (Regent)............... PE ea A et ee . XL, 2, 116 Clark, Ao Howard, editor of the Institution. --... ~~... --¢.5.2cceeanteee xp a 18 report on the publications of the Institution............... 104 Spa EST 2 UR eh ag ae eigenen ders Semis se aS Det 97, 105, 109 emer l CEE es ree SO ae ee re a A 30 LLL 6 laos RAS See EE a Pe PRR eee Reem eer er gee ce beter xii 1, Bigegingd 510 pS ONS 3 BA a A eel Pe Saya AES eee eae eee See 106 apa eine ean ae eo tor eis erin Sa ae eaten. Bon' Soe Oe te deco dees Gee 107 emer ee TP Re re on S NT e e e Ae ee e s 33 Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution)..........-.....-....-- xi REBPNOliy MeaURECE (ICPCNL). 2 Siete axe Diese eae tee ag See xi, 2, 115, 116, 125 Constitution of matter, the, and the evolution of the elements (Rutherford).... 167 Mmisttyciion OL insect nests (SiGstedt). <2 22 as. A425 aaceces ese. bsiees sees 341 Gontributions to Knowledge; Smithsonian: ..-.2.:-:--.2-...-2--+--.sessies8 16 GLEE Ye st Hes Fs epee eo ee ea Pe See ee 7 | VEATJUS Wines D558 Ae ee OE ees eee ee ea eee sooner ie rt > 106 | OP EpLLL/ TADS CES al i cag a pacer ee 12, 13, 106, 117, 122, 124 Bertie Vie ot ete ae are Nae Magee oer See cee) Ae we a a Etna eee xii, 106 PTLD Sle" ip aera eae aE BY AR Slat ea Ny ie ae Set es te a = 12, 127 5 STE las leg Cae” ee Ory rns he) ake oy okie meres 5 ie xii LOPES Giant le SE Se = DAE ne See ene ie ae oy me See yaNen foe Jer Sete 170 iia, Henderson expedition in. 7. osc 222-2 2= <5 cade enn dF pee ans ae 8 Curlew, the Eskimo, and its disappearance (Swenk)....--------------------- 325 Reames WET OTIN ANE! Soc. 2) aoe oe nc Slam inionig.« o> oni os oe eee 56 Gughman, Joseph Aubustine....-.2--.52----+---+ 54. 582e0 inee cee aes 109 D. CNL E\ REET oi § (oe ee cle emer Comoeescecrerceer ss. Or.) xii, 97, 98, 108, 109 Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution).-.....-.. xi Danish-German linguistic boundary, the.......--------------++-++-+-++-++++++- 419 Daughters of the American Revolution publications. .-..---------+--++------ 17, 110 Way, Arthur D2. . 4.2225. - 20222 one tse Senin as die 3S +35 - i omnes ee ene pS sane eee 107 de Morgan, Jacques... .. 2... 2.000222 0222 er ern nnn tate Ol BS eae 106 Neredtiatle, ©. -lyock. fesse obese. lneqaann ot hide he ine Se sara ee ee ns ieee xii Densmore, Miss Frances. --...--+.------- 0202 0e 22 cee eres cece teeceee ene ees 53 Meyatre. Pemries -.. 22222252 gens o-oo. Sees Case e seca nse ieee ee 106 Tyrekson, He N : 2: =2--2- Pe deenes Seve E S20 32 SWS ie Fete ee ee 106 Gemedones Me seen etescnrs eked Aas tak Saat ee eee oss ee ee ee 107 Dominian, Leon (Linguistic areasin Europe: Their boundaries and political sig- PAICATICOW = o> fac o> soo oats am anc te Seas waninn eins see ne 409 Dorsey, Harry W., chief clerk of the Institution .......-.----------+-+-+++++++ xi Dunbar, John -B...-:=-222--2-- 2-2 S9PS32S22E a RE SE Jooetresseess 55 Wan, Ps Pe ite so sor viet ta openness sense sae 2 Geer erin: 55 du Pont. Ti, Colemanesie0sens5 22222222578 O S892 REO 2 irs SESE 13, 122 536 - INDEX. a Page. Earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy, the (Mancini)..................-.. 215 Hast, Far, expeditions tothe: 222/05 .. -aos cece -oeeeee nee eee ee Z Eastman, Charles R. (Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus)......-----.--- 349 Echinoderms; fossil; in western: New York.22-1i22 > [Sco een eee see sence 6 Hddington; A. S.(Sir David Gull), ieee seca es eee see ee 511 Hdwards)Charles Ty7.-25 20S Aae eS ee See Geo nin at eee Ce ee 106 Egypt, excavations at Tell el-Amarna, in 1913-14 (Borchardt).-.........-.-.- 445 Eiectrical-precipitation,-cleariny of 02: Dy. eee se eeece ence eee 123 Blectricity, unitofss 2. Sa 2o oS. oars ee el ee ee 175 Electrons: 22% 20) see Stele en eie Dae gees oa ee aes ene 174 counting atoms and: "7S a oe oe ee ee ees = ere 177 distribution ot aa Che Atom... <2 oe eee Ne oe ee ee ae 199 tracks of atomis wnt 2. 2s See eee ee 182 Elements, the evolution of the, and the constitution of matter (Rutherford)... 167 Bilis, Carleton. 2 5.2). ~~ 5 oe heh on So nee ee eee i ire 106 Energy,:solar, the utilizationiof (Ackermann) 2220 eee ee eee 141 Hpby; Ch? t oe oc hie Saw as Soe cbs Se a om oe ett ero es ee ne ee 106 Eskimo Curlew, the, and its disappearance (Swenk)...............---------- 325 Establishment, the Smithsonian: “To <2 20 + 2. ane ee ee ee ee eee z Rehnolucy; Bureau of Ameticaus<* io a ee ee ieee aah ctie wetiees 3 22 DEAT. 3-25 oe aes oe Sake aa ree eee 58 publications S222. 20-. 2, ee eee eee 17, 55, 109 SY 0X0) Roe Ee UN eve iS ay Ia eis ete ta stein SRS A ee ee 40-59 Europe, linguistic areas in: Their boundaries and political significance (POTENT AD) oo ee are a a pani = eter eae eae See ae 409 1A Vo ts: ab ita Da Re RH Coe oars EAST Cay aim NS Se a, 106 Evan. William T’.* 2022 2. co Saba ees Soc bh eee a ees ee 35 Eve, A. Bote ns ene Sidon lage 2 Sees aisle Sinisa we eaicee ite ea a ge ee 107 Evidences of primitive life (Walcott). . ater Neha ened remem Meh Swe Foss. 235 Evolution of the elements, the, and the constitution of matter (Rutherford)... 167 Excavations at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, in 1913-14 (Borchardt). .....-...----- 445 Executive committee of the Board of Regents of the institution, report of-- --- - lil Expeditions, Siarthypnian. 222000 372 sore - cde se eee eee Bates ap 125 Borneo and Celebes: Guise pe ha a ee 7 Cuban oo es shapes Os ci 22a dds Gok acer, Sie ee Meee en 8 faland: of Timor: ¢ ..<2 12055 tara qsoc ds 2 su ee oe 12 the Far East): of) 0.12 ere 2 BSR aS ABs Rae te EAC 2 ae 7 Bxplorations.and: researches... 2 =. +... .52.- 2: 207 ccs SUI A Pe 4 in South America, batadnically 4: 20'UJ0U ps) ee ee Ses 9 F. Pairbanks, Charles; W..(egent) + ..25-4ses5e0- ss ree aa eee xi, 2,116 Bersusen, John ©) 2)... Sales Se Ses epee ose creat eee 108 Hers. Scott. (Mesent) i. <....2455-56-55555 B aialhsayancm am acs ae ae eee oem xi, 2 ew kes, a. Walter. 3 oso cescaeeus oes eee = sk ese eens xii, 22, 40, 58, 105 inances:of the Institution: 23 3 /52.-s oe Use eee ee ee 2, ANT Fimmish speech, ‘the atéa:of... 245%. 45554554 nees ate eee 425 Fog, clearing of, by electrical precipitation 2.0.2). 4:26.25 s2b-d pew ieb eee =e 12, 123 Word, James: s2....3e 2.0.85 ag Saauoe seats poe ee ae ee 107 Foreign depositories of U. 8. Governmental documents. ......------------+- 66 Forestry, the place of, among natural sciences (Graves)... ..---------------- 257 Hope) bacteria: 2/0 5 ok sank, tee | ca pat ees Hh 240 echinoderms in: western New York. 22-45-22 522-2 eee eee eee 6 INDEX. 537 BemrreenaniceirKMOW i 2522.02 uo Fi) Reeve hese oo ee vertebrate, in Montana. SEIN 15 by A auis eae ee 7 MMMM VOUT cans Fo. 52 Sy eo Aes do scree See ee eee 1.) 22,50 ’ le pee ie tere fysbe ees 8 he) AT le lo abis Wea xii, 85, 105 Frachtenberg, Bod 65 os. teaise hE te bie on one? neha saber xii, 48 Pranco-German linguistic boundary.....2 2/2222.22022) ee ee 413 Le EL DEES Ui eS a a Pe RP ee OP 19, 35, 124 eM ALON] GG ors 8 2-2 as. 2e ss ats Sx ea Sole ee 19, 124 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz (Impressions of the voices of tropical birds) <<. 700s 299 G. TGS Uh to ae ee ee i ORIN IRR RRM Mt ieee oar 2 J 55 Garrison, Lindley Miller, Secretary of War (member of the institution)........ a, Peaerh WW alcor Holbrook (Lanciey).......2.-..02202 2.2.22. 523 Pe emeremcrcteiet Sons ye eee en ae ee eee xii Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains..........:.................. 5 Seen te SPEC CONMMOI nice. Soc Seen he eee he ee 126 German speech, the area of...---...2.2.22..... Sais 7 Mae tives Sant eee ee 418 oly Lie ip SATUS SESSA ee il I a ag ce es Mana a aoe he 2 xii eal, De Lancey...::-..-..- ES ee ees ere ein es SA ee Reema: ts 5 5 5s xii, 57 Oop LEAS 2S i ai inh ieee elo rte fil, ai ie aed tien Se eibraasie tise 97 Gill, Sir David (Eddington)............... Se ee ante OS eae es oo eee 511 Burs neodere Nicholas, tribute t0-1.......2ca-22-. + ssl. neck ee eee 26 ememicrioms NAMES gan Pore ee eo. ee ee oie iia fen a eeiceaeees 7,30, 109 Goetze, Frederick A.......- EPROM See cede ese ee Ree Sy Cone ee gfe Sa be (CS OCI “Es, 0s Blas sae ie aaa a apa, te aus Seage ea a ceca RE ee ec eee AED a xii Government documents, international exchange of...................-.-.--- 24 Governmental documents, United States, foreign depositories of............... 66 0 ESSE ESE (2 ig ig AAI 5 6S lac a ea Aer a A) Nn 106 Grand Valley reclamation project, Colorado... -.5)5-<. 62-22-2222 est eee 477 Graves, Henry S. (The place of forestry among natural sciences)............ 257 hes SFTED. 0) oe ara aia UO A ao een ehh AS ES MON Sic rg EE et 107 Gray, Andrew. ..... Behn ena oe a ge Lae ee eA oe Ta et oe ee 107 Gray, George (Regent). . Grease ode setos caug eae ees daar xi, 2, 115, 116, 117, 125 Peers Mawar bras Cotte eee oe eae ae eek one ote ns see see 98 Gregory, Thomas Watt, Attorney General (member of the institution)......... xi GnNe ll wibconardsC ver sca ae ee ee res ies a aie ec paren ere mere xi oe on International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.. 101 TL TERMS OS G7 OO 6 uss te Se end ga eR deh apogee) Aah mY A xii, 55, 109 He Peer SIMCONOEQUONE) mee cc. a pm nt.os2 sae moe en 3 be reais iete ten ie eee 2 REPRRIOTG MET Sat cee ee ce eres ies 22, eC tn, 2 ite etre ae omit Sere 43, 55, 109 ates GyCorpein ie. cee hn eae ane aa ere as ip oe i A rin ioral ee eae 106 eamititon. aimed (PeqQUeel)- .0-~- Sa. ao<.o6 sgoevin sw Poona oe 2 fbeemeerati Wires Be El on Se bes ante octane ovate Sie ee ee ee ee 12, 125, 127 Peieyrra risen CRUSE STNG oy Se ee ana pe cea re a a 13, 125 EteieteerenT OHM Pe oo leo oe Senco eile oe a Seti i oe re xii, 47, 55, 59 pee gen ee is cen e Saou ain oe eae ae Se eee weal Ona ni 97 Henderson, John B., jr. (Regent). AeA ere epee oh xi, 2, 15, 20, 32, 34, 116, 119, 122 Henderson expedition i BID OU Das aetna seek eae ree eS eee 8 538 INDEX. Page Hetherington, Clark ‘Wi... . 2-02. . stateless ates: Sees | eee eons 108 Howitt, oN. Bac 2 tins, 25244. J ee ee ee ee ee eee xi, 43, 54, 56 ie ye;GeorgerG: eis os tes nob sl ea eee aac nena eee eee ee 30 Hill, J. H., property clerk of the Institution BP ee Pa os Rte) eRe | ee: a 2 xi Eppacnnpus, olden time knowledge of (Hastman).....-..--.---£ a.) -ssadss 349 History; American, additions to collection of... - —- ssJaehed-steteeeel Aaeeee es 31 Hodges Ba Wiss. os on. aoe ee ek eee ca seenee ee eee eee aoe xii, 18 Feportveli<. 2,5. gees. 3 DO eee eee reas LW ets eee 40 Hodgkins fund... 240i pikt oe ey te ainda y-cdes Eeoteeriaie f: cise ee A oes - ogy Hodpkins, Thomas:G,.(beqtest) .).ostc.2,o- 22 eee eee ee eee 233 Higiermesss Mion: oc oe <5 toca ssi Oe SEN re 106 Hollis, Henry Mrench(Repent i135. os eee ee eee xi, 2,116, 125 Holmes” Wilbianin aes 49 oS oie ene a eae ae ee EN RET ORNS Xi, 22, 50 Hooker. BlonsHrs:, ome 205 22.6.2 4 a So ae ee Be ee ae ee eee 13, 122 Hopper; Litthery2.2 425522 - (288. A055 SC EE See me 108 VOUS AWE: ait) Sac oi ee hate ae ee ee a eee EN ei: xii Houston, David Franklin, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) . Dit Howards Ty) Os ssoiss.0 2 oS ons Cate eee nes meee ac eee Dee ae ee xl Hrdlicka, Neo Raa ee ae ard Oh ea EN os Meee Oe ene Os kan: x1i; 10, 106 iumphraysy Dns 22.25 LOO ag oe ce oe Deeds ee Seen ee eee 120 Hungarian eee thewereaofre. 5 oo... at Boe eee ee eee oe 434 Hansaker. Jo 2. icc cd Ree ioe otc oe on Beer ee eee ee 120 Huntley reclamation project, ‘Montana. ..0.0-0. 2 oe ae ose ee er ee 480 iB LEO Ey 1h S01) 1c! Cp neenRey ae ees ae Megane eR RU ae Fo Op arr A) A BAAR SRS A 1 9 23558 inEset nests, construction. of (SjGstedt a. 2 ee ee ee 341 Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution).-.............--------- xi International Catalogue of Scientific Literature............---...----+-----+- 24, 101 Bixchang eas. 1/5 whee Ss ca Sig a a ke ee eo 24, 60 Interparliamentary exchange of official journals.........../----.-----------+- 68 Tialo-Germam linguistic boundary; the. 25.22.7206 seo eeeseke nee eee 422 Tialo-Slavic linguistic‘ boundary, thes: aa: s-4 hae es Se ee 424 Ji Janmarin, Gustayisns o-563 25.0 tac acidic oe eee e Bee eee 106 Jennings, Hennoem< ot 22 55.05.ced3 oilian octane te cee eee eee 13, 123 Jewett, Frank B. (Some recent developments in telephony and telegraphy).. 489 Jahneon “Puncam esse sk os ee ew eects ae Sas ee 107 Tolyy En o> << les Sek oh ce aan oh re ie ce 107 ones, 1b. Riess See ches So ee eee 107 andds, Neil Mic: duc corse 8 2 ae sa ea te Ree 51, 52, 53 K. Kanokort Kose Mie oa ID eee 106 Koller: Henty Ge ics7osrt coves sz Soe ee 5 ee 107 Relig, Mis. OR oe ee eo ee See eee ae pee ene gee 59 Klamath reclamation project, Oregon and California...........-....---------- 485 Knowles; We Ait ce Sa Ree Ss Se ee ee xii Horen, Capt, Goes Wen c=: 5 oye clowns oe Se eno a ee 7, 128 IKPOCD ERAN Dates egot nc) ore ee ee Bee ie ne Ue Seem hd Cea evel aie pam 2, ates aca SF td 54, 55 Kunz; Georve 832 2. 02055 Ss ee ee eee 13, 123 a INDEX. 539 L. Page. Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution).....................-.---.-- xi 1) DMSO STE 0 A sea i i ae eae a MM om or GN 118 Pee oncuG, Hraneig7 eck uss ck Me es tig htt Sea eee xii, 44 1 LL LI aS ee ea ee AF a Lied 5 Oa ae REO. SCCM hel Dost en 55 Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution). . xi Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. ......................-. cc etree 14, 117, 120 Haneiey acroplane, flighisiof: 2.2.5 .22.0 nc oe cc cc ene Be Eee ACRE 121 Baneley, 2. N-( Walter Holbrook Gaskell). /:20de. 70 2p Ve 523 Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution)............... xi eaEenice wb cujamiilic BD 22.65.05) Say oe a ees. ms My 13, 123 MER PE as 3 lo oS Sa NSS Rae Mb og SR So I So oe xii, 58 Mechuresin the National. Museum... << .<.222.cneessescs Te ™.. 36 Menrrart a rodericic. 1). gous SOI. 8 LOLs 2 TNO PUR Sg Oo are xii Hbetignta CUOREMSOTINDN Ss 2080S SEINE SS ees Sk op SI Yt ee 18, 91 iierprinntzye, evidences of. (Walcott) ..<-:22e2v0cceeeeree OE). wt 235 PeOAMNSPOCMAs tsk 2 tedden See Ss See oes Se ee 173 iienum nephriticum (Safford )........22.. 4.24220. a2 540202222: 2d SontyioeS f 271 Linguistic areas in Europe: Their boundaries and political significance UTR TINAAY OS Sorc bw oo 3 geen tt ERS os Ro x 409 ritle, Arthur Deo: 205 22 2c. oo. SSS Re eA 6s ae RE 13, 122 Medco. Henry Osbot (Regent): -2 2 22.o2cc.~ 225 eeniee s LE A cece wckewe xi, 2, 125 Lower Yellowstone reclamation project, Montana, and North Dakota........ 481 LL GTC APN AEE Pe ee es ee ee ee ek Cee re eA bk eee ee ce 108 yon, J. Crawford: .2-22.~. ©. SS AR Veo t ORNS AE ges Nt be 3 fae See 20, 29 M. McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution). x01 Li@ TE aV6 (Gyo) tal cpl ED nt eee es ee NE I Rae ho Sy hea Mie i I ede ONE SE ENS, ote 105 © Seren taESed NEVES TINLEY: CHRONO etter OS ROE TIE Te ome carats a are 2 ae 440 Remecrvio. Wennet hk. 9s es 9 ee a eee ee ie ee eh Pe eel eee 105 TSG! 106 PL & il a te ag Pt i Sr net par eh Ae einen he Ge 107 Pes ItRvAStORy OL OSs 2 Pee ec wc cee et ee io ee ree ae ee 10 Mancini, Ernesto (The earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy) ..........-- 215 Li ie cigs I XG) eae tea RI A a SESS oh eee AS pee gS Ae Fat rears 126 Mcnemrsccre Ml: no oN ae aes tee oak fe ee aes eee 108 Marine we evolution of Carly... 222.52-55.ss2s.- 22 22st eee een ee =e 247 Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the In- PAV EGOR oe oe one ede So tom ab eens dpe cameewa ete mene eee xi, 2,116 Marsica, Central Italy, the earthquake in the (Mancini)........-..-..------- 215 2 eee Aan Ee Sse by ‘eesg abbey lt Is.eehet worn aiee 30 Matter, the constitution of, and the evolution of the elements (Rutherford).... 167 EPANSIOFMALION OL... -cskcce. . -- nnid oe HI is ee ee ee ale 183 SOREN IW gee ce eg ea el oes Sate see eee eer Rees xii, 97, 105 Maynard, George C........2.-.----. 22-2 222222) eee een eee ences e et ae ee xii, 97 Morriane.C. Har. 2226 5 Sass a 2a es a et ae ee 13, 125 NOMerrE TU xGys sek oS Sass SE ESD eterno en an ie xii, 18 Michelson, Truman. -22.-2-22-22--- 32.2. = 2 fo oe ae eae oe ee xii, 46 Milk River reclamation project, Montana...-....-----------------++-++-++-+-+-- 480 Mellie, Promton G2 /22-2- seh ee ee- = -h-ee e e oo ae 108 MiaMer Gerrit Sires eae ssoee eee ee eg ee eee xii Minidoka reclamation project, Idaho. ..-.-.--------------+-++-+-+-+++5+0+t: 479 Mooney, Jalles:2: 2... 22-222 2-0 2 eo te eer oe seeeeeeeceee xi, 42, 58 540 INDEX. Page. Mibore; Clarence Bis... assoc: so ects peters Se eae ee 30 Moorehead, Warren 152222 22 2 oscars ett me sre ee ee ne 54 Mosony!, Eemilios..-. 2.0025 0-2 225. se > ogee pe ao Re 30 Murie;, James Ri? 222 -2----3---- = = Bone ASS re Ae See en A BS 54 Music, Indign. i000 oo 7 Soi oe sec eee ee ae neta te 23 N. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.............-.--.--.-.--.----- 14 National. Gallery of Artsi3 u=sjee}-ad e-em ete Be ee = eee 20, 35 National Museum, thew. 22 55.2242. o44 sees siete assert ee 20 collectiona.s. 2252.42: 4. Bop eaa eee ee 29 Library ...2- 2 226235 sia sous pee Gen eee 94 meetings, congresses, and special exhibitions..........-...- 36 publications: . oot. .c. joes ose eae 2 eee 17, 108 T@POVGs6<.- 5522. ee ses oe 3 eee ae ee ee 28-39 VISIONS. 2352 cc. s6-- done aes beer eee. See ee 39 National ‘Zoological Park. : 0.12.4 2.222 1.25225 cco nee s sae mol ee 25 animals,inthe.eollegtion 22 - qsaue Eh 224. eee Soe 74 ih 9: ee Re eR Aten (Aertel Uh a Ne Be YS 72 improvements. «055. 2022-0) ee a eee 78 TIDTARY .2 s = 22 2s sae 2 ope Hos aa CR Pee eee 100 NCQGSb. << aiesd ads: Hoadeys tebe ete eee 81 183] 0) Gee ee PES OTE Oe ese GSS ioe tras 52k Sev: 72 Natural Nistory of man. «32.2.5, 554-05-532).. Shen pe a ee ae 10 Nawalle (Md OuarG = secu. seen. Sadhu a Soe eh sane Eee ee 4 PEPOnICn PONHOEAMON cet. 5122-500 s = SEL byl h Lees oie 12/122 esearc ben emploratonsiand. Asso os ech naan esta av canes wk ee Ee ee 4 Pere Mane sEr eerie) Stes ne SS Ss wate oad ae OA «ee ee 5 ieheess Walliams Jones: (bequest) =< 2 sckeo.e ees eo wots Se 2,3 pe ret arin COW 2 Fog tetne aso tnsins vedo edn Sales aoe sek Se eee 97 OWENS OO DET bec pine cg eowa crew qa os seen Seas. - ah BODOPE Et eee xii, 8, 97 Rio Grande reclamation project, New Mexico and Texas... ......-----.....- 483 inaneris: finest. Wi (Resent) <2. 2... .- 2. -Peeeedeee ses Bee xi 2,15, 116, 122 Propanson. Login. 223555 enon sets asia} OSS oe STE: His eA CL ees 108 froekhill: William Woodvillesns. i. < 03% cn Ses ais SRS i Sas se en Se 27 Rocky Mountains, geological explorations in the. .........-...--.----------- 5 Roger, L. (Vaccines). - - . - - Bal heat Si wi teapot te ante ane SEES Se: eee 459 Wie DN SS 5 5 xen cloiaremnwifataers otras tsig PEALE Ree SUPE RE BE 9, 97 eR A NW LOR Bean proto nai ear nm tee ea ai ard Hi Il 2 ee ere 56 famanian speech, the area.ot. ....-.-.<---=--10-2-48+-2cee4-= 50-5 eh tae ee 436 Rutherford, Ernest (The constitution of matter and the evolution of the ele- CUVEIE GS) is cm eR Ie eee RS ime Pg ee Cure ic crn 167 542 INDEX. S Page. Safford, W. E..(Lignum nephriticum) . -: .5: 2.242222. 42.222 2-ds2 6b eee 271 Salt*River reclamation project, Arizona... <2 2722 5225.-42 SgaGetk Hae Teed 475 Sanford) George H...(bequest). .....- =. Ree A SE See eee ee 108 Sehuchert, Charles: (.2 <2. gs.2-2545 2245 5¢ g8 an pee ae ee 107, 109 Schiick, 'V-:... .- +--+... [ed selan se. SBS Ae ee) Bele Tees Ee ae 10 Seidmore, Miss Eliza WR... .--~..>-.5+ 22a < 2h Oe) Reames ei eee 31 Scott, Hrmest Kilburn -.2.: -.- 24 5s.iciao=5a0- e500 oa s 22 ee ae 106 Seudder, N.P....-.<- .teee aioe ae ae ee ee er eee Dera xii Secretary of the Institution.............. xi, xii, 1, 5, 15, 16, 97, 105, 116, 122, 125, 126 Secretary’s statement to the Regentg/7).\n. abwaren sintoa yeeoes Ab ue ee 118 Serbian speech, the area of. ..-. 2. 5... .-5-s2c0e-2----s eee i Jose begs 438 Slepherd, Fo. S.2c.2ag2'o- Shetek ee oie eae erent, ee eee 106 Sherman, Althea R,... 2+. .+¢0n.2 28 eee aR eee wae Si eee eee 106 Shoemaker, Co W age ciace wn tenes ae ieee ee eee Led eters xii report on International Exchanges... --.-......--.----------- 60 Shoshone reclamation project, Wyoming... 52. Do. ecs eae ee ee 488 Bhuteldt, Robert: W ..25.4¢ saa ween 5 oe coe ree ee a Sk 97 Siberia and Africa, anthropological researches in................-----+5-<+-- 10 Siberia, western, expedition t0in..<<-....< <4. -c-% +--+ <-n eet OSeee SHOE 127 Signaling: submarine (Blake)-...:....-..5.--2+--=..284aenalot. hae sodasier 203 Sjéstedt, Y. (Construction of insect nests)... .---- Seal) sunereton th - Cede aey * 341 Slevene speech, the area, Ofs. soe... 4-5 552555425554 on. APIS ooo eee 438 Smillie: TW eet Seas aoe al Rog aet a xii Srilj leo Varies lo GA UCKI) i.)02 Gorm ers a sees aa ee 2 Solar energy, the utilization of (Ackermann), ........~..-+...-.---.3-ab- 00 ft 141 Solar radiatiqny\. gi saSeeang. doteie Led ad Farm wags aelt ortodaral fees de 23, 86-90, 126 South America; botanical explorations in sscasc2) jdorieheeis rae). cee: BE 9 Siwerbiy; Arthur is see race i sn wy ae oe ee ee 7, 32, 126 Spectra, Tights. 2 22 Sage a an inna ed ans sas ee eee 178 Springer, Frank... 222: ss---id-leeet-ed! Jo-pumthess te nd: fait a ieee 6, 12, 127 Standley. Pauli. .\5- saaeeaee 4 pag a ee Ser o ag ee e 109 Stars ‘and nebulee- pc. sac eee cca 5sncc4s aac Sacco eee hoe Peres 136 State, Secretary of (member of the Institution)... -...............252-.-.--- xi Stejneger, Leonhard «2... .5 bs cascnse+ess-ocess- sn ees 5 oun AOU ee eee xli, 18 eitevensom, Mins, MiG ice Ae 6. a ee a ea ea 45, 56, 58, 59 Stewart, Lowis Bi. 2 cco Secs 5s oka oa oe el wee ee ee 107 srone: (Charles: Av. 32 eaceaseate sass ~ 95.960 chis 3 Se ee ee 13, 122 Stoneppwulliam: J. (Revent)|- ae. oe Ss ot oe ae ee xi, 2, 15, 116, 122 Storrow, James J.......<... [9u%9-0 fei adres we Sse eeerelnee obi 13, 122 Stratigraphic studies in central Tennessee. .....--------/0:-2-------2220--5- 6 Strawberry Valley reclamation project, Utah... -.......-.-..---.--2+-+-+--s+ 486 Sirone. hy. Moo. aci.e eee ak corey ate earns eo rr enisyy. Ah 108 Structure of:the atom -::,2)....22..:...\.c.. eee esetueigas: Leon oa Sasa 187 Submarine signaling (Blake) s ois. cc2eciesd.nenccin ages aonee.. 4 SOee ee poe 203 Suw River reclamation project, .Momtama, 12.07 <<) wiseva ee tty tees sige alee we 481 rc LILA SUITELS TACO) Oh A 00: lea RRS 2) MMe a ne a AN ee SS 134 Swanton; John RS. << 52. ..5.<5< 5 Sac ae vee ous 2s ee Ree ee xii, 43, 55, 109 Swenk, Myron H. (The Eskimo curlew and its disappearance)..-..-.------- 325 INDEX. 543 EF: Page. Telephony and telegraphy, some recent developments in (Jewett). ......... 489 Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, excavations at, in 1913-14 (Borchardt).............. 445 Geliuride “Association: .::..2:...:2tR0s? bos anos. soon) noliamalson 128 Tennessee, stratigraphic studies in central.................................. 6 | LUISE TE Con A ee elation Ge 108 (Atleiia) 22522 5252) 25552 Site ee Ss en antes eine aap 219 | US Gnaa 0 1 ips eae cae eben er ee seer ren ere eee | 106 gamer, Island of, expedition: < / 2.5.2_ 42222-22227: 21 SOREN aT ies 12, 127 ieee ae td Ce akbe tS = 2 73222: OR Oe se ee 33 Beaiiuemation of matter” <: 21.1221 - Sk irt< scenes Ry 183 Treasury, secretary of (member of the TSU GWLON ee ees ee he ty eae xe Tropical birds, impressions of the voices of CRHERIER ee mee ae ree eee 299 Truckee-Carson reclamation project, Nevada....................-.......... 482 GN I eget a eee tye Ita CLEC lo Lal EI eee SNS ga 118 Ds. LL DS) OS SE eee emerenntaer gies Pent snes Re GIR Seni mooy) Ne 6 Umatilla reclamation project, Oregon... ... 2.22.22. 2-2 e cece eee e eee cece ee. 484 Uncompahgre Valley reclamation project, Colorado....................-..... 478 Utilization of solar energy, the (Ackermann). .......................2.-.--- 141 Vi. Pi aIeE eC EOD GI ao Ae. oc Soe a s eet a, SRS Sees ee ae 459 Serr nans sh Wawdand <2. o5 ft od og tae ye eee ce ae 7 (SLED, EVES BCC 22 SRR ese io ane Sa ened ese Bees 18, 94 matieataefortisin Montana. - 62222. o oe cick Lc cee sisal a ee 7 Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution)............- xi Voices of tropical birds, impressions of the (Fuertes)..............--.-------- 299 W. Walcott, Charles D., Secretary of the Institution.......................----- x xii, 1, 5, 15, 16, 97, 105, 116, 122, 125, 126 (Evidences of primitive life)...............2.-2--.-.-2-- 235 te obi. Mra Charles D3. .220o fe sa Sots ees coe eee ees eee 5, 18, 94 Walker; J.. Bernard.........-.<: SOs oe scaaen ae eee ee ee eee 106 — War, Secretary of (member of the Institution)... ..25.2.2.22.2....22 12. 4.32 2ae xi IGM y CPO aR el: ee oS oases Peron Satie tos Poe pare Sate oe me oR 105 Senin aterew sD. Chegent): <2 a c2.cccces Jets eae sae =e eee ae xi, 2, 116 ct pe PEN os kets oes oon a 2 hee dro oi Sis Saeed ci ee ee xii White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the EDS TUE! 0) 6) 6 SRL ee ee ean cook re Re et etches NE x, LEG Prmniarie Merry saatense sen. Sea... 22a CSE ee se ee ee eee 34 Wilson, Edmund B. (Some aspects of progress in modern zoology)........-..-- 395 Wilson, William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution)... - xi Wilson, Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the Institution) . xi remlgeke “HMerbene ws: facee Cot 8 oars a8 « Soo eee ee See ee eee ee 29 Damen ce lemra olny. 86i143 2-952! Sie ies ag se ioe ene cleo eee eee 501 TT Ss F000 eR SSO. eee eM Perea Ro eis 490 UV IGHIO ETN ee ete te a as Sy te gree etc al ee ag ce ee 109 SCLC IN 2 1 010 a ce Pe ee AR et SRS age RSA orchat ey Ree eee 20, 31, 119 Perera MAL Beye eo at eo af esi ORR 22 he ai oe aS oes Cate 34 Perebstay. Orvillost 5); san. ty nse tenn caiy ser Gat