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Poore Fund:: .--...22.22 20. 02. rails ani aN Ser bresrCollecttonlans <2 onss) seme: oe. cL here «Seu eee Seek eee 2 uN OMI eML ERE CSE Cte vars es, 2 Mrerto ee hee NNO) MISS LSet ine dats eu a: Breda of Aumont cam! RGANOlR V2 Sos. s) oe de cls gh ss bent eae ook eo 2 SEE SMErO THN SICAL) DSERV ALONG ee tea, ais sg te ola sbnie. aos aya sPierae aes Sas. els sie = HetrcemaniomaletnChanresencs 0 sakes attend oe oe aE oS eRe biaracals International Catalogue of Scientific Literature...............----.-..------- iivenal MogtariCal Patkeee ee.) - a ee Saffron finch (Sycalis flaveola) _______ Yellow hammer (Hmberiza citrinella)__ Common canary (Serinus canarius) —__ Linnet (Linota cannabina)___________ Cowbird (Molothrus ater)_-__-_______ Glossy starling (Lamprotornis cauda- CUS) eno eS oe eg Soe ee da WADATAIR OH R rar = bo toe European rayen (Corvus corar)___--~ | American raven (Corvus corar sinua- 10 5 15 1 WEN REE Ee PR a Ww Ot me bP to = 00 H et HB OD 1 Or OO 76 Rocky Mountain jay (Perisoreus cana- densisicapitalisy) 222 eae eee White-throated jay (Garrulus leucotis) — Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)________ American magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) — Red-billed magpie (Urocissa occipitalis) — Yellow tyrant (Pitangus sulphuratus PURPENNis) LLB wIeE SATs Te AY SO Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)_______ Concave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros OiCOTNIS) 2, Wa Oe ees Reddish motmot (Momotus subrufes- Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua ga- LETT CH) ST i AE ers White cockatoo (Cacatua alba) _-__-_ Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua lead- CCALOT EY EAST ie Bir 2 ALE BEA Ae Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatua gymno- Yellow and blue macaw (Ara ararauna) — Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara Red and blue macaw (Ara cllorop- tera) Great green macaw (Ara militaris) ___ Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) — Orange-winged amazon (Amazona ama- zonica) Festive amazon (Amazona festiva) —__ Porto Rican amazon (Amazona vit- tata) Yellow-shouldered amazon ochroptera) Yellow-fronted amazon (Amazona och- rocephala) Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona auri- palliata) Yellow-headed amazon (Amazona le- vaillanti) Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona @stiva) - Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Banded parrakeet (Pal@ornis fasci- ata) Love bird (Agapornis pullaria)_~___~ Shell parrakeet (Melopsittacus undula- tus) Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)_— Arctic horned owl (Bubo virginianus subarcticus) Barred owl (Stri# varia) _—.__----__— Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius)———~ Bald eagle (Haliwetus lewcocephalus) — Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwetus leuco- cephalus alascanus) ~~ _-_---__--_-_— Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaéios) ~~~ Harpy eagle (Thrasaétus harpyia) —---~ Crowned hawk eagle (Spizaétus coro- natus) Rough-legged hawk (Archibuteo lago- Dus... soncti-jonannis)——— === ee Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi)—-~ Venezuelan shawk 2222202 pou pe (Amazona = ra me bo bh eB bo ee eeeeeeeeeeSeSSeSeSSeeSSeSeSSeEeeeeeSSSSSFSFSSSSSFesFsseFeFeEeEeEeEeEeEeeEEEEeEee ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) _—-_ South American condor (Sarcorham- PIVUS OTYDNUS) ae ess an eee California condor (Gymnogyps califor- NiONUS) Foo SO ee a eee Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)________ Cinereous vulture (Vultur monachus) — Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnop- TETUS) Pes SE NE ae ee Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)____ Black vulture (Catharista urubi)_--__ King vulture (Gypagus papa) —---___ Snow pigeon (Columba leuconota)_—___ Red-billed pigeon (Columba flaviros- tris) White-crowned pigeon (Columba leuco- CODRGNW) ee ee <_— Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) — Mourning deve (Zenaidura macroura) — Peaceful dove (Geopelia tranquilla) ___ Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) ________ Collared turtle dove (Turtur risorius) — Cape masked dove (Gna capensis) ___~ Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) Wonga-wonga picata) Nicobar pigeon (Calenas nicobarica) — Red-billed curassow (Craw carunculata) — Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo sil- vestris)e fea US Ae Ae ee Peafowl (Pawo cristata) === =e Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron chin- Quis) 22n Cee bo ee pigeon Huropean quail (Coturnix communis) — Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) ——~---~ Curacoa crested quail (Hupsychortyz Cristatws) ke See Sa eee ees Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata)_—_~ Valley quail (Lophortyx californica wallicola) 22-22 ee eee Gambel’s quail (Lophortyxr gambeli) _- Massena quail (Cyrtonyx% montezume@) — American coot (Fulica americana) —--- Great bustard (Otis tarda) —---~--~- Common cariama (Cariama cristata) —— Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) — Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) — Whooping crane (Grus americana) ——~ Sand-hill crane (Grus mexicana) ~~~ Australian crane (Grus australasiana) — European crane (Grus cinerea) -—---- Indian white crane (Grus leucogera- NUS) LOLs die Ne LS See a eee Ruff (Machetes pugnar)——---=-=-___— Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorar nycticora® nevis) 42. se Snowy egret (lgretta candidissima) ~~ Great white heron (Herodias egretia) — Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ~~~ Great black-crowned heron (Ardea co- Ot): Loni usi Rien 2 eee ee Boatbill (Cancroma cochlearia) ~~---~ Black stork (Ciconia nigra) —------=- eet BPHORNDAREORPHwO He ee Nr wo PNpH REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Marabou stork (Leptoptilus dubius) ~~~ 1 | Fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bi- Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) _——-_-~ 2 COLON) 2 ae ae Re eee: oes ie 2 Sacred ibis (Ibis ethiopica) —_--_-____ 3 | Wandering tree duck (Dendrocygna ar- White ibis (Guara atba) __.------=--- 13 Cudta)yi si 1 a RE ee ee 6 Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja)_------ 2 | Ruddy sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea) — if! European flamingo (Phenicopterus ro- Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)_------~ 19 CALS) ) cetera nea ns, Se Le ES 2 | Hast Indian black duck (Anas sp.) —--- 6 Whistling swan (Olor columbianus)_—~ 6 | Black duck (Anas rubripes) -__-_----_ 2 Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus)._________ 6 | European widgeon (Mareca penelope) _— 2 Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancory- Chilean widgeon (Mareca sibilatrix) __ 2, TOOTS) ae seen ee Ee Oe ee 2 9| Pintail (Daefilaacuia)=—————=—-_..—— 2 Black swan (Chenopis atrata)---_--_- 3 | Blue-winged teal (Querquedula discors)_ 5 Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gam- Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana pepo- RCFE SES)) ene pene seers ees Bee ay 1 SOC) 2S Se SS fe eae wee 2 Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) —~-_ 2 | Red-headed duck (Marila americana) __ 9 White muscovy duck (Cairina mos- American white pelican (Pelecanus Oia) ti. SAS ee SS ee ee al Cruchnnornyncnos)aoee=- == ee 9 Wood duck (Aix sponsa) —-_.-..-_-__— 13 | European white pelican (Pelecanus Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galericu- ON OCT OUOLUES eee ees Fe [A THAD \ 2 et aa ES: eG a a SNS) 10 | Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus)_-_~ 2 Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis nove-hel- Brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) — 5D STR IUO ATEN 2 SON OO Be Is ci a are 2 | Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspi- Lesser snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) — 3 Gillatys) 3322 ee eee 2 Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraz au- ERATED UGS) yet ae i te) al PULLS OTL OILS) ee eee 15 Ross’s goose (Chen rossi) _----__-___ 2 | Water turkey (Anhinga anhinga) —---- 3 American white-frented goose (Anser Great black-backed gull (Larus mari- aloijrons cambew) 222 == ee 5 V1, S)) ae a ee ee ee 1 Barred-head goose (Anser indicus) —-_.. 2 | American herring gull (Larus argenta- Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) ___-~ 2 tus smithsonianus) ==. -- === 3 Canada goose (Branta canadensis)_-_.__ 12 | Laughing gull (Larus atricilla)_-_--___ 2 Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis South African ostrich (Struthio austra- TELCO TELUS eee ee ents es eee 3 Gis) nesct SS el i Se 6 Cackling goose (Branta canadensis mi- Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdo- EI) pe es See a A 2 DRONES) 22222 Se eee ee if: Upland goose (Chloéphaga magella- Common cassowary (Casuarius galea- MACUL) eee BE eS i ee St eS 27 1 TUS ie ht BS ee ft White-faced tree duck (Dendrocygna Common rhea (Rhea americana) -----~ 2 ORGY ITH 0 1) CS SiR ND ce AP NB Be 2' Emu (Dromeus nove hollandie) —_---_- 2 REPTILES. Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)__ 22 | Black snake (Zamenis constrictor)_-_- 1 Painted box tortoise (Cistudo ornata)_— 2 | Coach-whip snake (Zamenis flagellum) — af} Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- Water snake (Natrigz sipedon) _—_______ 3 / OTH TL pens ws Ba SS Ue 8 io es Cee Beeb ab 2 |} Common garter snake (Hutenia sirta- Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo vi- US) Met te ae a Nl Le 3 BEEING) ee ep Se Ne pr Aa as Bg a he 1 | Texas water snake (Hutenia provima)— 2 Horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum)— 1 | Pine snake (Pituwophis melanoleucus) — 5 Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — 2 | King snake (Ophibolus getulus)__-___ 2 Regal python (Python reticulatus) —-- 8 | Water mocassin (Ancistrodon piscivo- Common boa (Boa constrictor) _______ 5 FUS) Soo Soe oe ee 6 Cook’s tree boa (Corallus cookii)----~ 1 | Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz)_— 1 Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)__-_--__ 1 | Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus ada- Velvet snake (Hpicrates cenchris)----~ 2 WANT CUS)) 2 a ee a ee 5 Spreading adder (Heterodon platyrhi- (vid) Var Ss eaeet 2 Sa eis Agee sae eee eee es 1 STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. EROS CIN Ce tee Se BS 5 RS A he awe 0 be diay) a Ee et te A) 60 Rea Se Oeste Be ee at oo kt a oS 225 Born and hatched in the National Zoological Park______________________ 88 RECEIVE Canl M gO CM AM SCS aa cern eee men ene fa LS cet eee nes Re ee ee 82- Menosited in=National’Zoologicalye ark = 22 ae Se ae ee 43 DYER be SC SE Ne 5 I a Re a Re a ej Se eo ee 498 78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, SUMMARY. Animals on hand” sully sy Gi saree 2) es ee ee ee ee 1, 362 Accessions Curing Ene yas ss 2 a Ea Se es ee 498 1, 860 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, etc.) ________________ 463 On shang. Jumesa Os TOM yaks secs Te 2 ee ee 1, 397 Class. Species. nei PMSA TTA TANS ge Ros ars Ba ie aA tS Re AE ihe hae a nO On 151 629 TB Ro Septet RE bei dl MOR a eet Sata) Gia a BE ES SPR pa eth ca el OY Sint 185 696 Rep tiles: 222 Sc Pesce Gees Sa ce ee eh ecb soK JH Les rae ein eeicen ee 22 72 TE GMS ooo tote pa, 2a alex tee eres SPS eso ategehe ie eas Sha ea eV Lc oe aera re 358 1,397 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined by count and estimate, was 794,530, a daily average of 2,176. This was the largest year’s attendance in the history of the park. The greatest number in any one month was 153,452 in April, 1915, an average per day of 5,115. Sixty-two schools, classes, ete., visited the park, with a total of 3,485 individuals. IMPROVEMENTS. A cage for pumas was built near the lion house. The cage is 22 by 28 feet, 10 feet high, and attached to it is a well-built shelter house, which provides four compartments for the animals and ample space for the keeper in caring for them. In order to provide for keeping a band of rhesus monkeys out of doors throughout the year, a small shelter house with thick wooden walls was built and connected with it a yard 25 feet square. Twenty- five monkeys were placed there in October; all came through the winter in good shape except one, which was taken out as it appeared to suffer from the cold. A new machine lathe was added to the shop equipment, replacing one of inferior type which had been in use since the early years of the park. SSO] Se 83 ‘APPENDIX 5. REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Sir: I have the honor to present the following report on the operations of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1915: EQUIPMENT. The equipment of the observatory is as follows: (a) At Washington there is an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet, containing five small frame buildings used for observing and computing purposes, three movable frame shelters covering several out-of-door pieces of apparatus, and also one small brick building containing a storage battery and electrical distribution apparatus. (0) At Mount Wilson, Cal., upon a leased plat of ground 100 feet square, in horizontal projection, are located a one-story cement ob- serving structure, designed especially for solar-constant measure- ments, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for observer’s quarters. Upon the observing shelter at Mount Wilson there is a tower 40 feet high above the 12-foot piers which had been prepared in the original construction of the building. This tower is being equipped with a tower telescope for use when observing (with the spectro- bolometer) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk. This has been made possible by an appropriation by Congress of $2,000 for this purpose. During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or ~ constructed at the observatory shop. The value of these additions to the instrumental equipment, not counting the tower equipment above mentioned, is estimated at about $500. WORK OF THE OBSERVATORY. AT WASHINGTON. Observations were made for the testing of pyrheliometers. As in former years several silver-disk pyrheliometers were prepared and sent abroad by the Institution after standardization at the Astro- physical Observatory. 84 oe a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 Several automatic recording pyrheliometers were raised to great heights in sounding balloon experiments at Omaha early in July, 1914. ‘These instruments were all recovered, and the one which made the most successful flight was received back entirely uninjured. A great many experiments were made with it at Washington to inves-’ tigate certain peculiarities of its record, and to more thoroughly standardize its pyrheliometric and barometric elements. These ex- periments consumed much time of the director and Mr. Aldrich. The results reached from these balloon pyrheliometer records will be summarized below. Further experiments were made with sky-radiation apparatus. As in former years the major portion of the time of Mr. Fowle and Miss Graves, and a considerable part of \that of Mr. Aldrich and Mr. Carrington, has been used in measuring and reducing the Mount Wilson bolographic data. This work is heavier than for- merly, as it now includes the tower-telescope observations on the dis- tribution of brightness along the sun’s diameter. These are now made at seven different wave lengths of the spectrum on each day that solar-constant measurements are secured. Owing to the de- mands of the Mount Wilson work, Mr. Fowle has devoted but little time to his research on the transmission of long-wave rays in air containing water vapor. The instrument maker, Mr. Kramer, was occupied mainly on the construction of sky-radiation apparatus, and on many improvements for the Mount Wilson tower telescope. AT MOUNT WILSON. Observations by Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich were continued at Mount Wilson from July to about November 1, 1914, and were begun again about June 1,1915. Asin former years measurements of solar radiation were made on every favorable day, with the purpose of following the course of the solar variation. On each day of observa- tion the distribution of brightness along the diameter of the solar image of the tower telescope was also observed at seven different wave lengths. AT OMAHA. As stated in last year’s report, Mr. Aldrich, in cooperation with Dr. Blair and other representatives of the United States Weather Bureau, made sounding-balloon experiments at Omaha early in July, 1914. Three flights with automatic recording pyrheliometers were made on July 1, 9, and 11, respectively. The first was made at night, with electric lamps for recording, as a test of certain antici- pated sources of error. In the second flight the instrument was 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. much damaged when landing and remained a great while undis- covered, so that the record was quite spoiled. Apparently, too, the clockwork had stopped before reaching a very great elevation. _The third flight was highly successful. ‘ RESULTS OF BALLOON PYRHELIOMETRY. A complete account of the balloon pyrheliometers, the circum- stances of the flights, and the results obtained has been published in a paper by Messrs. Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich, entitled, “ New Evi- dence on the Intensity of Solar Radiation Outside the Atmosphere ” (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 65, No. 4, 1915). The following is a summary of the principal results: In the flight of July 11, 1915, the balloons reached an elevation of approximately 25,000 meters, or 81,000 feet. The pressure of the air remaining above the instrument was approximately 8 centimeters, or 1.25 inches of mercury, about one twenty-fifth of the barometric pressure at sea level. Seven readable measurements of solar radia- tion were recorded at various levels. Of these the three near highest elevation were the best. Their mean gives a value of 1.84 calories per square centimeter per minute, as the intensity of solar radiation at mean solar distance, at noon on July 11, at the altitude of about 22,000 meters, or 72,000 feet. It appears reasonable to add about 2 per cent for the quantity of solar radiation absorbed and scattered by the air above the instrument. This gives 1.88 calories as a value of the solar radiation outside the atmosphere, on this day, according to the balloon pyrheliometry. Unfortunately no solar-radiation measurements were secured on Mount Wilson on July 11, but the result falls well within the range of values for the solar constant of radiation which have been obtained by the bolometric method at various stations, and compares well with the mean of these values, 1.93 calories. UNIFORMITY OF ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION AT MOUNT WILSON. In solar-constant measurements on Mount Wilson the atmospheric transmission for vertical rays is determined in the following man- ner for numerous spectrum wave lengths: Spectrobolographic observations are made at different zenith dis- tances of the sun, usually between 75° and 30°. Between these limits the length of the path of the rays within the atmosphere is proportional to the secant of the zenith distance. Knowing the length of path and the intensity of the transmitted rays, the co- efficient of transmission for any ray is readily computed. In this determination it is assumed that the atmosphere remains unchanged in transparency during the whole period of observation. Several REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 critics have objected against the Mount Wilson measurements that a progressive decrease of transparency occurs during the morning hours, and especially during the period ordinarily used in our ob- servations, so that our estimates of atmospheric transmission are in their view too high, and our solar-constant values too low in con- sequence. Jt has been suggested by one critic that the period during which the zenith distance of the sun changes from 85° to 75° would be more suitable for the work. To test this matter, observations were begun at sunrise on Septem- ber 20 and 21, 1914, and continued until 10 o’clock, the usual clos- ing time. These days were exceptionally clear and very dry, and seemed well suited to give excellent solar-constant values. The conditions of experiment, discussion of observations, and results are given in full in the paper by Abbot, Fowle, and Aldrich above cited. The principal results are these: No considerable difference in trans- mission coefficients appeared whether these were based on the whole morning’s observations, on the range of air masses usually employed, or on the range recommended by the critic above mentioned. Six solar-constant values were derived for the two days, based on these three different treatments of the data. All six values fall between 1.90 and 1.95 calories per square centimeter per minute, in good agreement with values obtained as usual on other days. The ex- periments confirm the view that the atmospheric transparency above Mount Wilson is sufficiently uniform for the purposes of solar- constant investigations. LONG-PERIOD VARIATION OF THE SUN. In the year 1913 the solar activity, as judged by the prevalence of sun spots, was less than at any time for about a century. The mean of all solar-constant values obtained at Mount Wilson from July to October, 1913, inclusive, was 1.885 calories per square centimeter per minute. This value falls 2.5 per cent below the mean value for the years 1905 to 1912, which was 1.933 calories. Beginning September 9, 1913, observations of the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the solar disk were secured on about 45 days of September, October, and November. These showed that the increase (or contrast) of brightness of the center of the sun’s disk over that which prevails near the edge was less than that which was found from Washington observations of the years 1905 to 1907. In the year 1914 the solar activity became distinctly greater than in 1918. The number of spots, to be sure, was not great, but other phenomena joined in showing that the period of maximum sun spots was about to come. The mean of all solar-constant values obtained at Mount Wilson from June to October, inclusive, was 1.950 calories. e 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This value is 3.5 per cent above that of 1913 and 1 per cent above the mean for former years. Indications are that the value for 1915 will also fall very high. The contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk was greater in 1914 than in 1913, and, in fact, almost as great as was found from Washington work of 1905 to 1907. These facts confirm the result derived from earlier observations, namely, the solar emission of radiation varies along with the solar activity as revealed by sun spots and other phenomena. Higher values of solar radiation prevail at times of greater solar activity, as expressed by sun spots. The connection does not, however, appear to be a strictly numerical one between solar radiation and sun spot numbers. In the return of solar activity presaged in 1914 the solar radiation rose almost to its maximum value before the number of sun spots had greatly increased. Associated with these changes, greater contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk prevails when the solar activity is greater. SHORT-PERIOD VARIATION OF THE SUN. In the year 1913, as in former years, considerable fluctuations of the solar-constant values occurred from day to day. The values found ranged over nearly 10 per cent between the extreme limits 1.81 and 1.99 calories, but seldom more than 38 per cent in any 10-day interval. The periods of fluctuation were irregular, as heretofore. Associated with these fluctuations, though perhaps not strictly con- nected numerically, the contrast of brightness between center and edges of the solar disk also varied. Curiously enough, however, the correlation between solar-constant values and contrast values proves to be of opposite sign for these short irregular fluctuations to that which attends the long-period changes which are associated with the general solar activity. In other words, in the progress of the sun spot cycle high solar-constant values and increased contrast between center and edges of the solar disk are associated together with numer- ous sun spots, but for the short irregular period fluctuations of solar radiation, higher solar-constant values are associated with diminished contrast of brightness along the diameter of the solar disk. The year 1914 was singularly free from large fluctuations of solar radiation. The extreme range of solar-constant values was only 4 per cent be- tween limits 1.91 and 1.99 calories. Accordingly the year was not very favorable for testing the relation just described. Nevertheless, the results tend to confirm rather than disprove the conclusion reached that for short, irregular fluctuations of the solar radiation high values are associated with less contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the sun. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 The somewhat paradoxical conclusions above stated seem capable of explanation as follows: Associated with the great increase of solar activity attending the maximum of the sun spot cycle, increased convection is continually bringing fresh hot material to the sun’s surface, so that the effective solar temperature is then higher, and greater emission of radiation prevails. At such a time the contrast, which would be zero if the solar temperature were zero, is naturally also increased. As for the quick, irregular fluctuations, it must be supposed that the sun’s outer envelope hinders somewhat the passage of radiation from within outward. This hindrance is greater at the edges of the sun’s disk, where the path of the rays in the line of sight is oblique, than it is at the center of the sun’s disk. Suppose now that the obstructive property of these layers varies from day to day. When their transparency is increased the solar radiation must increase; but as the effect will be most conspicuous at the edge of the solar disk, where the path of the rays is longest, the contrast of brightness between center and limb must thereby decrease. Two kinds of causes may, therefore, contribute to the sun’s vari- ability. The one, a change of effective temperature attending the general march of solar activity, may cause the variability of long period. The other, a change of. opacity of the outer solar layers, may cause the variability of short irregular period. SUMMARY. Successful records of the intensity of solar radiation up to 25,000 meters were secured by means of automatic recording pyrhelio- meters attached to sounding balloons. The mean of the three highest values reduced to mean solar distance is 1.84 calories per square centimeter per minute. Making 2 per cent allowance for scattering and absorption in the air above (which gave a barometric pressure only about one twenty-fifth of that at sea level), the value 1.88 calories is obtained as the probable intensity of solar radiation out- side the atmosphere at mean solar distance on this day. This value falls near the mean of numerous values obtained by spectrobolo- metric observations on Mount Wilson. Experiments begun at sunrise and continued until 10 o’clock on September 20 and 21, 1914, indicate great constancy of transparency of the atmosphere above Mount Wilson, and yield solar-constant values independent of the altitude of the sun. These results con- firm the substantial accuracy of the Mount Wilson observations of the solar constant of radiation. The radiation of the sun was 2.5 per cent below the mean, accord- ing to the average of observations extending from July to October, 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 1913, inclusive, and 1 per cent above the mean from similar studies extending from June to October, 1914, inclusive. A high average value for 1915 is indicated. The contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk was less in 1913 than in 1905 to 1907, but was restored to the earlier condition in 1914. Short-period fluctuations of solar radiation were large in 1913, but small in 1914. Associated with these quick, irregular fluctua- tions are found variations of contrast of brightness between the center and edges of the solar disk. Curiously enough, while greater contrast is associated with greater solar radiation and with numerous sun spots in the general march of the sun’s activity, lesser contrast is associated with greater solar radiation in the march of the quick, irregular fluctuations of the sun’s emission. This paradox points to two causes of solar variation—the long- period changes may probably be caused by changes of the sun’s effective temperature attending the march of solar activity; the quick fluctuations may be ascribed to changes of the transparency of the outer solar envelopes. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Apgor, Director Astrophysical Observatory. Dr. C. D. Waxcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 6, REPORT ON THE LIBRARY. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report upon the operations of the library of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915: In common with other libraries of the world, the Smithsonian library has had to confront a serious situation during the last year. This was the difficulty experienced in the securing of current parts and the completing of sets of the publications of learned institutions and scientific societies that have been received from Kuropean sources for many years. Some of these series have ceased publication, others have been published with fewer pages and in smaller editions, while still others have been issued but not forwarded, all due largely to the military service required of the contributors and publishers at this time at the front and the risk involved in transportation. Not- withstanding these conditions, the efforts to keep the library ex- changes alive have been continued with marked success. ACCESSIONS. During the fiscal year a total of 26,928 packages of publications were received, of which 25,097 came through the mails and 1,831 through the International Exchange Service. The correspondence necessary in connection with these receipts numbered about 1,400 letters, requesting publications and acknowledging them, and 5,148 acknowledgments on the regular form. The publications for the Smithsonian library were entered, acces- sioned, and forwarded to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress each day as received, numbering in all 24,718 publications, as follows: 3,043 volumes, 1,179 parts of volumes, 1,763 pamphlets, 17,410 periodicals, 594 charts, and 724 parts of serials to complete sets. The numbers in the accession record run from 517,777 to 521,616. There were catalogued during the year 3,451 publications, of which 1,000 were charts. Four thousand one hundred and twenty-two volumes were recatalogued from the old records and entered in the new catalogue. The cards typewritten and filed in the catalogue numbered 4,038. 91 992 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The sending to the Library of Congress of public documents pre- sented to the Smithsonian Institution, without stamping and record- ing, has been continued, and 4,675 were forwarded in this way. The accessions for the office library, which includes the Astro- physical Observatory and the National Zoological Park, numbered 561 publications, distributed as follows: 3851 volumes, 35 parts of volumes, and 40 pamphlets, for the office library; 72 volumes, 11 parts of volumes and 25 pamphlets for the Astrophysical Observa- tory, and 21 volumes and 6 pamphlets for the National Zoological Park. Complete sets of inaugural dissertations and technological publica- tions from 12 universities and technical high schools were received from the following places: Baltimore, Basel, Copenhagen, Delft, Ithaca, Lund, Paris, Philadelphia, Toulouse, and Ziirich. EXCHANGES. The sendings from Europe have been restricted compared with those of former years, but there has been no cessation in the efforts to secure new exchanges and missing parts in the series, and many have been received. The new series added to the library numbered 48, and all of the 887 want cards for the series searched in the Library of Congress were considered and some action taken on each at the Smithsonian Institution, with the result that 82 sets of publications of learned institutions and scientific societies in the Smithsonian division were entirely or partially completed by the supplying of 460 parts; in the same way 254 parts of 48 sets were supplied to the periodical division, and for the part of the deposit in the general classification 10 parts of 4 sets. Among the more important of these series secured for the Smith- sonian library may be cited the following: Australia: Sydney, New South Wales.—Royal Anthropological Society of Australasia. Science of Man. Belgium : Brussels.—Académie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin, Classe des lettres. Association des industriels de Belgique pour l'étude et la propagation des engins et mésures propres 4 préserver les ouvriers des accidents du travail. Rapport. St. Nicholas.—Cercle archéologique du pays de Waes. Annales. England: London.—Agricultural Economist and Horticultural Review. Royal Geographical Society. Geographical Journal. Birmingham.—Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. Report. France: Nice.—Association Procincials des architectes francais. Bulletin. Paris.—Société Francaise de Physique. Résumé des communications. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93 Germany: Berlin.—Berliner Missionsgesellschaft. Berliner Missions-Berichte. - Deutscher Fischerei-Verein. Zeitschrift fuer Fischerei. Darmstadt.—Historischer Verein fuer das Grossherzogthum Hessen. Quartalblitter. Dresden.—K. Oeffentliche Bibliothek. Papyrus-Fragment aus der Kgl. Oeff. Bibliothek zu Dresden. Munich.—K. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, Denkschriften Gelehrte Anzeiger Sitzungsberichte. India: Caleutta.—Medical and Sanitary Departments of India. Scientific Memoirs by the Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments. Italy : Florence.—Societa Botanica Italiana. Bullettino. Siam: Bangkok.—Siam Society. Journal. The exchange of publications with historical societies in this coun- try and abroad has been continued, resulting in many additions both in the form of new exchanges and the supplying of missing parts. READING ROOM. In the reading room the current foreign and domestic scientific periodicals have been in constant use by the staff and the members of the scientific bureaus of the governmental establishments in Wash- ington, and there are now 294 titles on the shelves. Three thousand five hundred and three publications from the reading and reference rooms were circulated during the year. Of these 3,161 were single numbers of periodicals, and 342 were bound volumes. THE AERONAUTICAL LIBRARY. One of the important collections of reference works at the In- stitution is that relating to aeronautics, and is, in all probability, the most complete series on this subject in the United States. The collection had its origin with Secretary Langley when he was carry- ing on his aeronautical experiments, at which time he was able to secure many early works that can not now be purchased. One of the chief contributors during the year was Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, a Regent of the Institution, whose gift consists of his working library on the subject, numbering 46 volumes, and another series of 153 volumes of newspaper clippings relating to the im- portant period when the Wright brothers were making their initial flights. The additions to the collection during the year, including those from Dr. Bell, were 256. 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ART ROOM. Mrs. Charles D. Walcott has added to the collection of works on — art an exceptionally valuable loan, consisting of nine magnificent volumes on Japanese art, fully illustrated in color. Mrs. Walcott has also deposited the architectural publications, numbering 394 volumes, and parts of serial publications which formed the library of her brother, George Vaux, an architect of prominence in the city of Philadelphia. EMPLOYEES’ LIBRARY. The employees’ library has also received a contribution from Mrs. Walcott by the deposit of a collection of popular works, numbering 145 volumes. NEW STEEL STACKS. The work on the new steel stacks for the books belonging to the libraries of the Government bureaus under the Smithsonian Institu- tion has been continued, and at the close of the year this work is nearly completed. With the passage of the appropriation bills in August, 1914, the additional sum of $10,000 became available, and immediately an order was issued for the erection of as much of the second half of the stacks in the west end of the main hall as the money available would permit. Those in the east end were completed in August, and the moving of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology to its new quarters was accomplished within a very short time. The old wooden galleries in the west end were then removed, and this part of the hall was turned over to the contractors for the erection of stacks. Congress having appropriated an additional sum of $6,500 during the last session, the steel stacks were practically finished at the close of the year. The libraries of the Government bureaus under the Institution have heretofore been cared for in the bureau offices and wherever there was space for shelving. Proper classification and arrangement were im- possible, owing to lack of space, and much time was lost in looking for references. The new stacks have a capacity of 100,000 volumes, and make it possible for the first time to bring all publications relating to one subject together, so that each is available for consultation. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. It seems desirable, after a period of a third of a century, to briefly review the growth and progress that have been made in the Museum library. The formation of a working library in the National Museum in 1881 was largely due to the increased activity in investi- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95 gations and the need of reference works for the curators in their study of the collections which were moved from the Smithsonian Building to the separate building erected for the Museum. A nucleus was begun in the northwest corner of the Museum build- ing with a collection of publications for the most part made up of standard zoological and industrial works and bound pamplets, com- posing the library of Spencer Fullerton Baird, second Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, which he had presented to the Museum. The Library has grown steadily until it now occupies not only the old rooms, but additional larger quarters in the new building as well as space for the special libraries in the various sections. Within a year after the first books had been brought together there were 5,450 volumes and 4,750 pamphlets; in all, 10,200 publications. Now, in the thirty-fifth year of its existence, there are 45,818 bound volumes, 76,295 pamphlets, forming a collection of 122,113 titles, from which the duplicates have been removed. The system of arrangement has been modified to some extent, but the plan upon which the Museum library was organized has been continued, in that the general library has retained all books treating of more than one subject, such as periodicals, proceedings of socit- ties, dictionaries, and encyclopedias, together with such monographs as are not constantly needed in the sectional libraries; and the sec- tional libraries have had assigned to them only those publications which relate to the work of, the department or division. Secheelass See See a ee ee ee oe ee 560 MouthesUnited States sNational Museum] == === eee 4, 922 TMotaliz ees) sos ee ee eee ea ee 12, 785 Respectfully submitted. Pavuut BrocKert, Assistant Librarian. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 7. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the oper- ations of the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915: This international cooperative enterprise has since 1901 published annual classified index catalogues of the current scientific literature of the world. The following-named branches of science are repre- sented each year by a separate volume: Mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, anthropology, physiology, and bacteriology. All of the first 10 annual issues of 17 volumes each have been pub- lished, together with 15 volumes of the eleventh issue, 9 volumes of the twelfth issue, and 2 volumes of the thirteenth issue; a total of 196 regular volumes in addition to several special volumes of schedules, list of journals, ete. The 15 volumes of the eleventh issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, geography, paleontology, general biology, botany, zoology, anatomy, and anthropology. The nine volumes of the twelfth issue published are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, paleontology, general biology, and zoology. The two volumes of the thirteenth issue published are mathematics and zoology. During the year there were 26,413 classified references to American scientific literature prepared by this bureau, as follows: Literature of— TKO (VG Ne A Se ieee ae Fat tas Fe 10 AQ TIRE Peer atet 6ST va Ped ES _ RE 19 DQ Sie tite Ver ITE IE Oe Nee 192 1909) see DOE) (PE Sy oF ees In 195 AQT OAL Se AUS ATE SEIT eI eee 348 TOM ee Pies TSO) BLT Soe tc) ee 1, 358 tN OT a ee ee FN i = a} oll POMS anaes aera ee ete ee, ee 8, 394 AS ic Sypeeecctn os 5h srl la ae ROR liae oop 12, 386 Totalss 2 ae ee ee ee ee ee 26, 413 101 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The object of the catalogue is not only to publish references by authors to current scientific literature, but also to supply practically a digest of the subject contents of each paper by means of minutely classified subject catalogues. The elaborate classification schedules used render it possible to refer to all subjects treated in each paper indexed. It is the duty of this Bureau of the International Catalogue to analyze and classify the contents of all scientific papers published in the United States. An idea of the extent of the work may be gained from the fact that between 25,000 and 30,000 citations are sent each year to the London central bureau for publication, the subjects classified covering all branches of science. In this day of specialization it is not possible for one or two individuals to have a thorough knowledge of all the sciences, and as economy of adminis- tration would not warrant the employment of, say, a dozen special- ists, it was the practice for a number of years to refer some of the more technical papers to specialists for classification. These special- ists, being employees of the various scientific branches of the Goy- ernment in Washington, have, while not engaged in their official duties, aided*the catalogue by furnishing the classification data required. Payments averaged approximately $600 per year, divided among five or six individuals. It may be said that while the specialists were willing to aid in this important international under- taking for a comparatively nominal compensation, the catalogue was benefited to a very great extent, for each citation furnished was the equivalent of a specialist’s decision as to the value and application of the scientific subject of each paper classified. This method of compensating employees of other scientific bureaus of the Govern- ment was decided on in 1905 after a conference between the disburs- ing agent of the Smithsonian Institution and the then Comptroller of the Treasury. The present Comptroller of the Treasury does not agree on this subject with the former comptroller, and in a letter dated February 4, 1914, referring to a number of similar payments stated: I am of the opinion that the payments in question come within the prohibi- tion of sections 1764 and 1765, Revised Statutes, and were not authorized by law. In view of the fact that this office, in letters dated October 24, 1905, and February 15, 1906, sanctioned the payments to employees of other bureaus and departments, which seems to have been construed to sanction the payment for both classes, no disallowance will be made in the present settlement, but payments made subsequent to the date of this decision will not be allowed. This decision has greatly embarrassed the work of the bureau, and it is hoped that Congress will so change the wording of future appro- priations for the maintenance of the bureau as to authorize payments of this character being made. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103 The general organization of the International Catalogue of Scien- tific Literature consists of a central bureau in London whose duty it is to assemble, edit, and publish classified references to current scientific literature supplied by the various regional bureaus repre- senting the cooperating countries. The following named countries have established regional bureaus, supported in most cases by direct Government grants: Argentine Republic, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, India and Ceylon, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New South Wales, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Queensland, Russia, South Africa, South Australia, Spain, Straits “Settlements, Sweden, Switzerland, United States of America, Victoria and Tas- mania, and Western Australia. The present war in Europe has seriously interfered not only with the finances but with the general work of the catalogue. Before hostilities began the receipts and expenditures of the London cen- tral bureau just balanced. These receipts are derived from the sale of the catalogue to the various subscribers throughout the world and are used entirely to defray the cost of printing and publishing. Subscriptions aggregating almost $6,000 a year, due from five of the countries engaged in hostilities, have been either delayed or stopped by the war. The Royal Society of London, realizing that it would be impossible for the central bureau to continue publishing the catalogue in the face of this deficit, has very generously made a grant of a sum almost sufficient to cover the deficit caused by the first year of the war. It may be said that the Royal Society has not only stood sponsor for the catalogue since its inception, but it was through the good offices of this society that the enterprise was begun. It is greatly to be hoped that this action of the Royal Society will stimulate similar institutions in the United States to aid in making up the annual deficit until a readjustment of the affairs of the bureaus affected can be made after peace has been declared. Very respectfully, yours, Lronarp C. GUNNELL, Assistant in Charge. Dr. Cuarues D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8. * REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year ending June 30, 1915: The Institution proper published during the year 14 papers in the series of “Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,” two annual re- ports, pamphlet copies of 68 papers from the general appendices of these reports, and 8 special publications. The Bureau of American Ethnology published 2 bulletins and 3 miscellaneous publications, and the United States National Museum issued 1 annual report, 1 volume of the Proceedings, and 41 separate papers forming parts of this and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and 1 volume pertaining to the National Herbarium. The total number of copies of publications distributed by the In- stitution proper during the year was 77,710. This number includes 620 volumes and separate memoirs of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 30,058 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 30,909 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian annual reports, 10,185 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 5,424 special publications, 86 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 121 reports of the Harri- man Alaska Expedition, 245 reports of the American Historical Association, 5 publications of the United States National Museum, and 108 publications not of the Smithsonian or its branches. There were distributed by the National Museum 54,300 copies of its several series of publications, making a total of 182,010 publications dis- tributed by the Institution and its branches during the year. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. QUARTO, No publications of this series were issued during the year. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. OCTAVO. Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume 57, the title-page and table of contents was published; of volume 62, 1 paper; of volume 63, 104 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105 4 papers and title-page and table of contents; of volume 64, 1 paper; and of volume 65, 8 papers; in all, 14 papers, as follows: Volume 57. Title-page and table of contents. July 31, 1914. (Publ. 2270.) Volume 62. No. 8. Report on European aeronautical lavoratories. By A. F. Zahm. July 27, 1914. 23 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2278.) Volume 63. No. 6G. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Sixth revised edition. By F. E. Fowle. November 10, 1914. xxxvi+355 pp. (Publ. 2269.) No. 8. Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1913. November 27, 1914. 88 pp. (Publ. 2275.) No.9. The olfactory sense of insects. By N. E. McIndoo. November 21, 1914. 63 pp. (Publ. 2315.) No. 10. Archeology of the lower Mimbres Valley, N. Mex. By J. Walter Fewkes. December 18, 1914. 53 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2316.) Title-page and table of contents. January 30, 1915. v pp. (Publ. 2320.) Volume 64. No. 2. Cambrian geology and paleontology. III. Pre-Cambrian Algonkian algal flora. By Charles D. Walcott. July 22, 1914. Pp. 77-156, pls. 4-23. (Publis 2274.) Volume 65. No.1. The present distribution of the Onychophora, a group of terrestrial in- vertebrates. By Austin H. Clark. January 4, 1915. 25 pp. (Publ. 2319.) . The development of the lungs of the alligator. By A. M. Reese. March 3, 1915. 11 pp.,9 pls. (Publ. 2356.) No.3. A study of the radiation of the atmosphere. By Anders K. Angstrém. Hodgkins fund. 159 pp. (Publ. 2854.) In press. No. 4. New evidence on the intensity of the solar radiation outside the atmos- phere. By C. G. Abbot, F. E. Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich. Hodgkins fund. June 19, 1915. 55 pp. (Publ. 2361.) No. 5. The microspectroscope in mineralogy. By Edgar T. Wherry. April 7, 1915. 16 pp. (Publ. 2362.) No. 6. Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1914. June 30, 1915. 95 pp. 1 pl. (Publ. 2363.) ; No. 7. Two new sedges from the southwestern United States. By Kenneth K. Mackenzie. April 9, 1915. 3 pp. (Publ. 2364.) No. 8. Report upon a collection of ferns from western South America. By Wil- liam R. Maxon. May 8, 1915. 12 pp. (Publ. 2366.) A, 9 bo SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. Report for 1913. The Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1913 was received from the Public Printer in completed form in December, 1914. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution show- ing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1918. xi+804 pp., 169 pls. (Publ. 2277.) 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen- dix of the annual report for 1918, were issued in pamphlet form: The earth and sun as magnets, by George E. Hale. 14 pp., 8 pls. (Publ. 2278. The Eton of the planets upon the sun, by P. Puiseux. 16 pp. (Publ. 2279. Recent progress in astrophysics, by C. G. Abbot. 20 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2 The earth’s magnetism, by L. A. Bauer. 18 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2281.) Modern ideas on the end of the world, by Gustav Jaumann. 9 pp. (Publ. 2282.) Recent developments in electromagnetism, by Eugene Bloch. 19 pp. (Publ. 2283.) Wireless transmission of energy, by Elihu Thomson. 18 pp. (Publ. 2284.) Oil films on water and on mercury, by Henri Devaux. 13 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 2285.) Water and voleanie activity, by Arthur L. Day and BE. 8. Shepherd. 381 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2286.) Ripple marks, by Ch. Epry. 11 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2287.) Notes on the geological history of the walnuts and hickories, by Edward W. Berry. 13 pp. (Publ. 2288.) The formation of leaf mold, by Frederick VY. Coville. 11 pp. (Publ. 2289.) The development of orchid cultivation and its bearing upon evolutionary theories, by J. Costantin. 14 pp. (Publ. 2290.) The manufacture of nitrates from the atmosphere, by Ernest Kilburn Scott. 26 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2291.) The geologic history of China and its influence upon the Chinese people, by Eliot Blackwelder. 12 pp., 9 pls. (Publ. 2292.) The problems of heredity, by E. Apert. 17 pp. (Publ. 2293.) Habits of fiddler-crabs, by A. S. Pearse. 14 pp. (Publ. 2294.) The abalones of California, by Charles L. Edwards. 10 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2295.) f The value of birds to man, by James Buckland. 20 pp. (Publ. 2296.) Experiments in feeding hummingbirds during seven summers, by Althea R, Sherman. 10 pp. (Publ. 2297.) What the American Bird Banding Association has accomplished during 1912, by Howard H. Cleaves. 11 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2298.) The whale fisheries of the world, by Charles Rabot. 9 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2299.) The most ancient skeletal remains of man, by AleS Hrdlicka. 62 pp., 41 pls. (Publ. 2300.) ; The redistribution of mankind, by H. N. Dickson. 17 pp. (Publ. 2501.) The earliest forms of human habitation, and their relation to the general’ development of civilization, by M. Hoernes. 8 pp. (Publ. 2302.) Feudalism in Persia; its origin, development, and present condition, by Jacques de Morgan. 28 pp. (Publ. 2303.) Shintoism and its significance, by K. Kanokogi. 9 pp. (Publ. 2304.) The Minoan and Mycenaean element in Hellenic life, by A. J. Evans. 21 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2305.) Flameless combustion, by Carleton Ellis. 14 pp.,1 pl. (Publ. 2306.) Problems in smoke, fume, and dust abatement, by F. G. Cottrell. 33 pp., 37 pls. (Publ. 2307.) Twenty years’ progress in marine construction, by Alexander Gracie. 21 pp. (Publ. 2308.) Creating a subterranean river and supplying a metropolis with mountain water, by J. Bernard Walker and A. Russell Bond. 14 pp., 11 pls. (Publ. 2309.) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. rOZ The application of the physiology of color vision in modern art, by Henry G. Keller and J. J. R. Macleod. 17 pp. (Publ. 2310.) Fundamentals of housing reform, by James Ford. 14 pp. . (Publ. 2311.) The economic and social rdle of fashion, by Pierre Clerget. 11 pp. (Publ. 2312.) The work of J. van’t Hoff, by G. Bruni. 238 pp. (Publ. 2313.) Report for 191}. The report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution, as well as the report of the Secretary, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, both forming part of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents to Congress, were published in pamphlet form in December, 1914, as follows: Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1914. 17 pp. (Publ. 2318.) Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1914. iii, 117 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2317.) Small editions of the following papers, forming the general appen- dix of the report, were issued in June, and the complete volume was received from the printer shortly after the close of the fiscal year: The radiation of the sun. By C. G. Abbot. 16 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2322. Modern theories of the sun. By Jean Bosler. 8 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2823.) The form and constitution of the earth. By Louis B. Stewart. 14 pp. (Publ. 2324.) Some remarks on logarithms apropos to their tercentenary. By M. d’Ocdgne. DD: 2) pss | (Publ 2325.) Modern views on the constitution of the atom. By A. S. Eve. 9 pp. (Publ. 2326. ) Gyrostats and gyrostatic action. By Andrew Gray. 16 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 22.) Stability of aeroplanes. By Orville Wright. 8S pp. (Publ. 2328., The first man-carrying aeroplane capable of sustained free flight—Langley’s success as a pioneer in aviation. By A. F. Zahm. 6pp.,8 pls. (Publ. 2329.) Some aspects of industrial chemistry. By-.L. H. Baekeland. 25 pp. (Publ. 2330.) Explosives. By Edward P. O’Hern. 27 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 2331.) Climates of geologic time. By Charles Schuchert. 35 pp. (Publ. 2332.) Pleochroic haloes. By J. Joly. 15 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2333.) The geology of the bottom of the seas. By L. de Launay. 24 pp. (Publ. 2334.) Recent oceanographic researches. By Ch. Gravier. 10 pp. (Publ. 2335.) The Klondike and Yukon goldfield in 1918. By H. M. Cadell. 20 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 2336.) The history of the discovery of sexuality in plants. By Duncan S. Johnson. 24 pp. (Publ. 2337.) Problems and progress in plant pathology. By L. R. Jones. 13 pp. (Publ. 2338. ) Plant autographs and their revelations. By Jagadis Chunder Bose. 23 pp. (Publ. 2339.) The National Zoological Park and its inhabitants. By Frank Baker. 34 pp., 41 pls. (Publ. 2340.) 108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. On the habits and behavior of the herring gull. By R. M. Strong. 31 pp., 10 pls. (Publ. 2341.) Notes on some effeets of extreme drought in Waterberg, South Africa. By Hugéne N. Marais. 12 pp. (Publ. 2342.) Homeotie regeneration of the antennze in a Phasmid or walking-stick. By H. O. Schmit-Jensen. 14 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2343.) Latent life: Its nature and its relations to certain theories of contemporary biology. By Paul Becquerel. 15 pp. (Publ. 2344.) The early inhabitants of western Asia. By Felix V. Luschan. 25 pp., 12 pls. (Publ. 2345.) Excavations at Abydos. By Edouard Naville. 7 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2346.) An examination of Chinese bronzes. By John C. Ferguson. 6 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 2347.) The role of depopulation, deforestation, and malaria in the decadence of certain nations. By Felix Regnault. 5 pp. (Publ. 2348.) The story of the chin. By Louis Robinson. 11 pp., 12 pls. (Publ. 2349.) Recent developments in the art of illumination. By Preston S. Millar. 18 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2350.) The loom and spindle: Past, present, and future. By Luther Hooper. 49 pp., 1 pissy (Publ 23512) The demonstration play school of 1913. By Clark W. Hetherington. 29 pp. (Publ. 2352.) ‘Sketch of the life of Eduard Suess (1831-1914). By Pierre Termier. 10 pp. (Publ. 23853.) SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS. The following special publications were issued ‘in octavo form: Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and June 30, 1914. Published August 8, 1914. 2 pp. (Publ. 2274.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and September 380, 1914. October 7, 1914. 2 pp. (Publ. 23814.) ; Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and December 31, 1914. January 23, 1915. 3 pp. (Publ. 2355.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and March 31, 1915. April 17,1915. 1p. (Publ. 2865.) Biographical sketch of James Smithson. October 380, 1914. 17 pp., 4 pls. (Publ. 2276.) Opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, Opinion 66. March 8, 1915. Pp. 171-176. (Publ. 2359.) An index to the Museum Boltenianum. By William H. Dall. March 29, 1915. 64 pp. (Publ. 2360.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report to Congress; (0) the Proceedings of the United States Na- tional Museum; and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Marcus Benjamin. During the year the Museum published an annuaf report, one volume of the Proceedings and 41 separate papers forming parts of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109 this and other volumes, 6 bulletins, and one volume of Contributions from the National Herbarium. The issues of the proceedings were as follows: Volume 47, papers 2052 to 2063, and the complete volume; volume 48, papers 2064 to 2091; volume 49, paper 2093; Annual Report of the United States National Museum for 1914. The bulletins were as follows: Bulletin 71, A monograph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean, Part V, Rotaliidae. By Joseph Augustine Cushman. Bulletin 82, A monograph of the existing Crinoids, Vol. 1, The Comatulids, Part 1. By Austin Hobart Clark, Bulletin 88, Revision of Paleozoic Stelleroidea, with special reference to North American Asteroidea. By Charles Schuchert. Bulletin 89, Osteology of the Armored Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genus Stegosaurus. By Charles Whit- ney Gilmore. Bulletin 90, A monograph of the molluscan fauna of the Orthaulax Pugnax Zone of the Oligocene of Tampa, Florida. By William Healey Dall. Special Bulletin, American hydroids, Part III, The Campanularidae and the Bonneviellidae. By Charles Cleveland Nutting. In the series of Contributions from the National Herbarium there appeared volume 19, Flora of New Mexico, by E. O. Wooten and Paul C. Standley. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau are discussed in Appendix 2 of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work of the bureau has been continued by Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor, who has been assisted from time to time by Mrs. Frances 8S. Nichols. Two bulletins and three miscellaneous publications were issued dur- ing the year, as follows: Bulletin 46. Byington’s Choctaw Dictionary. Hdited by John R. Swanton and Henry 8S. Halbert. : Bulletin 58. List of publications of the bureau. No. 10. Circular of information regarding Indian popular names. No. 11. Map of linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico. No. 12. List of Indian words denoting ‘‘ man,” prepared in placard form for use in the Smithsonian exhibit at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. Four annual reports and five bulletins were in press at the close of the year. PUBLICATIONS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. The annual report for 1912 was published in August, 1914. In September, 1914, the manuscript of the 1913 report was sent to the printer, but it was not completed at the close of the year. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Na- tional Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year ending October 11, 1914, was communicated to Congress March 3, 1915. THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. To this committee have been referred the manuscripts proposed for publication by the various branches of the Institution, as well as those offered for printing in the Smithsonian series. The committee also considered forms of routine, blanks, and various matters pertaining to printing and publication. Eighteen meetings were held and 109 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. Howarp Cuarx, 2'ditor. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi- cal Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Lit- erature for the year ending June 30, 1915, together with balances of previous appropriations: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 19165. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it has been derived are as follows: DEPOSITED IN THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES. 1S (SUISSE OnE tS har el otsfoy ole oy ee ee eae $515, 169. 00 Besiduary lesacy of, Smithson, 186%_——_-_.—_ = 26, 210. 63 Depositeirom ssavingslor Income, J6Oj22= = 83S 108, 620. 37 Bequest OF James sHamilton, WSih22 222 es $1, 000. 00 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895_________ 1, 000. 00 —_—_—_—<— 2, 000. 00 Benuestosimeon Habel. 18802 2522s Sees Se ee eee 500. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881___________________ 51, 500. 00 CiiiGieehhomasiG.s HOCKING. LS Ollie. Sar a Se eee 200, 000. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894___________ 8, 000. 00 Depositmrom savings of income) 1903222) 2 ee eae 25, 000. 00 Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907__--_---__-______ 7, 918. 69 DEPOSItssroMusavines| OL income) [913s ee ae 636. 94: Part of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1913__--___.-_________ 251. 95 Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan- GOTMASVICTY)) odo coy mee eens eee ee = ese es ST ee 9, 692. 42 Bequest of Addisgn T. Reid; 1914 _—__-_ acetants tas sae 4, 795. 91 Deposit of savings from income of Avery bequest, 1914___________ 204. 09 Balance of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1915 -______________ 248. 05 Deposit of savings from income of Rhees bequest, 1915_-________ 28. 39 111 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Deposit of savings from income of Avery fund, 1915__-___-________ $1, 862. 60 Deposit of savings from income of Reid fund, 1915__.__-_________ 426. 04 Deposit of first payment Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, 1915_ 24, 534. 92 Total amount of fund in the United States Treasury_______ 987, 600. 00 OTHER RESOURCES. Registered and guaranteed bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par value) _—~_________ 42, 000. 00 Woy 2 0l y Oey ag oye ns) On Ags DUO eee Sees eee eer ee ere ee He Re 1, 029, 600. 00 Also three small pieces of real estate located in the District of Columbia and bequeathed by Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, D. C. That part of the fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States bears interest at 6 per cent per annum, under the provisions of the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, organizing the Institution, and the act approved March 12, 1894. The rate of interest on the West Shore Railroad bonds is 4 per cent per annum. The real estate received from Robert Stanton Avery is exempt from taxation and yields only a nominal revenue from rentals. Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1914, to June 80, 1915. RECEIPTS. @ashvon) deposit and invsate Julyed) doit Sees see $30, 560. 18 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury, due July 1. 1914. andi Jan. 110i jee ee $57, 630. 00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1914, “and: Jani, plies we ee See eee ee 1, 680. 00 Repayments, rentals, publications, ete____-____-_-----___ 14, 922. 93 Contributions from various sources for specific pur- USCS 22 eee ee ee eee Soe enon ee eee 12, 000. 00 Hucy and Georse Ww. we oore: funds 2 ss eee 24, 534. 92 George ks Santord sundae oes anes ee ee ee 1, 020. 00 Wailhiamigdiones 2Rhees: fun S222 eee 248. 05 —————— 112, 035. 90 142, 596. 03 DISBURSEMENTS. Buildings, care-and repairs 2225-22222 oe ee eee 5, 468. 44 Hurniture and.fixtures 2. o22= Ree Re ee ed eee es EE 1, 290. 04 General expenses: Salaries= so a Re EEE 18, 514. 26 Meetingsoitiies Aypeuied ti See SP IeS je ee Bee oh 148. 00 Stahlonery-=-a=_-==-<> Sab sete See ee eee 770. 91 Postage, telegraph, and telephone_______._________ 793. T4 WreIGhE . cece I, A RE 93. 05 incidentals; -fuel,-and) lights=_ 223022 Soe ieee 1, 264. 47 Garage ode et ee Baer ae TEE: 1, 827. 36 ——————-_ 28, 411. 79 — — ES a REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. eS JAY OVEN ee, Ne eo a ee ees nee See ae $2, 554. 13 Publications and their distribution: Miscellaneous Collections=s2==2——-2—2—— = = $5, 447. 87 BEST) CO Tas Se ee le ne ee ee Me ee ee ee caer 493. 42 DCC DUD CATIONS eae eee ee 553. 21 120 ODI eiray cVestSi0 0) Ops) si meter ee i ae pe 181. 86 NSH Ces) ise Se a ee ee eS 6, 892. 72 —————— 13, 569. 08 Explorations, researches, and collections__--------_--_- ee G6 358805. Hodgkins specific fund, researches, and publications_______________ 2, 153. 21 Invern ahOnaleyXChamsese se Fe eR ee ey EE ee 5, 022. 74 RES bree O feANTS [ee alee a Se a a Se ee 19. 53 Aivamnceesifor neldwexpenses, (etG 2 =i se 5 es 2 ees 12, 464. 60 Meposiced. to credit; of permanent fund] 2s ee 27, 100. 00 waney Aecrodynamical Waboratoryo- = ee ot hy 418. 58 100, 430. 17 Balance, June 30, 1915, deposited with the Treasurer Giathemunited: states. See hats tke ves eee $41, 965. 86 @ashwon Mando te er 2 Veet abate he phos te Taree 200. 00 —————_._ 42, 165. 86 142, 596. 03 By authority your executive committee again employed Mr. Wil- liam L. Yaeger (now Capital Audit Co., William L. Yaeger, presi- dent), a public accountant of this city, to audit the receipts and dis- bursements of the Smithsonian Institution during the period covered by this report. The following certificate of examination supports the foregoing statement and is hereby approved: Capiran AupIT CoMPANY, METROPOLITAN BANK BUILDING, Washington, D. C., August 6, 1915. Baecutive Committee, Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution. Sirs: We have examined the accounts and vouchers.of the Smithsonian In- stitution for the fiscal year ending June 80, 1915, and certify the following to be a correct statement: PERG tied ete COUN Sp ee ats ee i ee A ee $112, 035. 90 RCO AEE Co CODES| THD USS) 0012) 0 do ee ee ee ee Sees eer Ee 082d 100, 480. 17 Excess of receipts over disbursements____________________ 11, 605. 73 /o\ SHA COTDIAER AE 0) 0701-7) fb D Layee Ue el 01 Sl ca Nm SCUBA 30, 560. 13 1 B35 Fevave es Coy aia) aksware he itovew GOs Ca ee Ss ee a ea 42, 165. 86 Balance shown by Treasury statement of June 30, 1915__________ 46, 423. 25 MESSHOUESEAG IT Oy CHC CHG Eee Mea a pe 4, 457. 39 41, 965. 86 Wash. Om hander = bss es a el Ee 200. 00 Balam Cem Neyo Ost lO cy eee eee eee ree 42, 165. 86 The vouchers representing payments from the Smithsonian income during the year, each of which bears the approval of the secretary, or, in his absence, of 18618°—sm 1915——8 i14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. the acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution, have been examined in connec- tion with the books of the Institution and agree with them. CapiraL AupiT Co., By WitiiAmM L. YAEGER, President. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise are deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Institution, and all payments are made by checks signed by the secretary. The expenditures made by the disbursing agent of the Institution and audited by the Auditor for the State and Other Departments are reported in detail to Congress and will be found in the printed document. Your committee also presents the following summary of appro- priations for the fiscal year 1915 intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations at ihe beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on June 30, 1915: Available | Balance 1, 1914. 1915 Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the institution: imntermational Hxchanees: LON 3 vce cai siaininiciniiajtelciaisie(am =ininil=(e)einipieie) -'aelninin[niaia tela $0. 02 1 $0. 02 iT aaeine doe erie es ie eo Ae ee eo oe cco soso cE tSNOSESSspSOe 1, 622. 22 OL International Exchanges, LOT Sees Seale tee esiceee Ge eee is ctoeialsetin late lals/~:atntacele 32, 000. 00 3, 453. 79 deen eriiteryard Dyn ev aVo) Voyen at Rea eee A ee a neocon sao odtc sass eee asepeode 1, 250. 74 1 400. 74 American Ethnology, LOU cesses ce atte ea aie eater telat oln/ ain iwieleeicim = ela 2, 676. 68 185. 30 iMmerican BD thnolopy Oloecsecee ene eae eee aaa emaeeta= Ses ceceebSsoncncb0e 42, 000. 00 3, 854. 52 Astrophysical Observatory, QUIROS Eee Sasa aoe seen ee See see ieee ate 142, 42 141.04 Astrophysical Observatory, 1914.......-.------0--------- 22222-2222 teen eee ee 779. 87 62. 36 IAStropiysical ODSeRVatOGy;, 10 lowe. melee om alalelelatas a= oie ale aint =a 13, 000. 00 1, 263. 57 Bookstacks, Government bureau libraries, 1914............------------:---.: 18, 559. 77 33. 61 Bookstacks, Government bureau libraries, LOLS ES cee wesw c home ep aes eaeayas 10, 000. 00 35. 36 Tower telescope On Mount; Wilson, Vols Suscs ae ee os 2, 000. 00 1, 284.17 Repairs to Smithsonian Building, 1915...............-.--------------------- 16, 000. 00 452. 13 AteRMALOn Al CALalOpUealGlsuee meme cecal eeeecioe eis etic seen le meat cee eee 291. 73 1291.73 International Catalogue, 1914 720. 69 21. 50 International Catalogue, 1915 7, 500. 00 864. 45 National Museum— Murnitureand fixtures Oloissce oases seein tee cieenae eee 42. 58 142.58 Furniture and fixtures, VOU sinc slojsis sete em Seem sll son as Sean aes ere ae 10, 369. 30 56. 85 HMUTMIGUTe AN tx UULeSs LO lO eae emictee ieee etal eteteistattere teats J aeeee terse 25, 000. 00 1, 048. 83 Heatme and lighting 191s eee 8 Peeecn s sse cee ee ees a eee eee ene 151.81 1151. 81 Heating and lighting, 1014 oan on ocean ee ce ene = ts = eae 5,902. 35 242. 62 iHeatineand lehtine Ol ots ceeeniseee cer en eae ee Ree eee ae arene 46, 000. 00 4,473.33 Preservation of collections, Ts aaa enen HE ea DAN e MES 2 Cy i eN 3,659.15 | 11,485.78 Preservation of collections, DG eee 98 he Sem nese me ae ieee richie 2 7, 652. 72 744. 09 Preservation of collections, LOND epee seas eae So eenet ie -pameracece tac 300, 000. 00 8,774. 88 Books, 1913... Se ee tee oe lot are sensors ce eens hace cicatem 10. 67 13.67 Books, A) a Se ene BOON SUC onde aS SASS Mea gREcn ace SES Orer croc 1,091.35 25. 83 Books, 1G Eee CERT -1s SoA S 2 ac oo sa Sed reerpee So LUE SS er aos olar asec 2,000. 00 1,389. 73 Postage, IAS) Eilat he S56 500: 00) eee mee anlar Building repairs, 1913. 1.14 11.14 Building repairs, 1914... -| 1,298.78 5. 03 Building repairs, 1915. ...-. -| 10,000. 00 487.15 National Zoological Park, 1913 j 9.18 1.18 National Zoological Park, 1914.- : r National Zoological Park, 1915.........--- RGseee “| 100, 000. 00 6, 261. 07 Bridge over Rock Creek, National Aoolopies Parks 22 - cee staat = 2 a 018. 67 1,830. 90 1 Carried to credit of surplus fund. ee REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 115 Statement of estimated income from the Smithsonian fund and from other sources, accrued and prospective, available during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916. PAANCOr UNG: SOS cl ON Hk es el ee ease ee te ee $42, 165. 86 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury Mies Ulys 1.1010, ane Jals ply PUG. oe ee $58, 000. 00 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, aS ESy, eos US (eH ole ben OS 9 care ey Se Cc nS SO 1, 689. 00 Exchange repayments, sale of publications, refund of ad- TEINS SC a a es Ee 11, 901. 83 WEpOsits for Specific} purposes 22 wa er = prler e e e 12, 000. 00 ———._ 83, 581. 83 Total available for year ending June 30, 1916_.____________ 125, 747. 69 Respectfully submitted. Gro. Gray, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Maurice Conno.ty, Executive Committee. Wasuineton, D. C. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1915. ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 10, 1914. Present: The Hon. Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor, in the chair; the Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Senator William J. Stone; Senator Henry F. Hollis; Representative Maurice Connolly; Representative Ernest W. Roberts; Dr. Andrew D. White; Dr. A. Graham Bell; the Hon. George Gray; Mr. John B. Henderson, jr.; the Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks; and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott. DEATH OF SENATOR BACON. The secretary announced the death of Senator Bacon, who had been a Regent of the Institution since 1905, and chairman of the executive committee for the last three years. Senator Stone submitted the following tribute to his memory: Augustus Octavius Bacon, doctor of laws, United States Senator from Georgia, and Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, died February 14, 1914, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. His associates on the Board of Regents, assembled in annual meeting, do here record their personal sorrow in the loss of a distinguished citizen, lawyer, and statesman; one whose sound advice will be greatly missed by the Regents in their deliberations on the affairs of the Institution, in whose development and in whose plans for the advancement of science and the general welfare of mankind he at all times exhibited the deepest interest. He was a most worthy exemplar of a gentleman, a scholar, a legislator, and a councilor. On motion, the tribute was unanimously adopted, ordered to be spread upon the records of the board, and a copy directed to be sent to the family of Senator Bacon. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS. Senator Henry F. Hollis, of New Hampshire, was appointed by the Vice President on March 10, 1914, to succeed the late Senator Bacon. Mr, Charles F. Choate, jr., was reappointed for six years by joint resolution of Congress, approved March 20, 1914. 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 117 CHAIRMAN OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The Hon. George Gray was elected chairman of the executive committee to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Senator Bacon. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. Judge Gray, as chairman of the executive committee, submitted the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. The annual report of the executive committee, showing the finan- cial condition of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, was adopted. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE. Hodgkins fund.—There has been no change in the status of this fund since the last report of the committee. The sum of $5,000 was allotted from the income of the fund, in accordance with the formal action of the board at the meeting of May 1, 1913, for the purpose of continuing the work of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory during the past year. Two thousand dollars was allotted to Mr. F. G. Cottrell for experiments in the clearing of fog by electrical precipitation. Avery bequest.—This bequest has remained unchanged during the past year. Three parcels of land are still to be sold. The Poore bequest.—A recent report states that this property is being closed up as rapidly as possible, and it is expected that within a short time it will be turned over to the Institution. The whole estate is now valued at approximately $35,000 to $40,000, but under the terms of the will the income is to be added to the principal until the latter has reached: the sum of $250,000, the income of which will then become available for the Institution’s purposes. On motion, the report was accepted. THE SECRETARY’S ANNUAL REPORT. The secretary presented his report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, and stated that since the last annual meeting of the Regents there had been printed a total of 90 publications, aggregating about 6,000 pages of text and 650 plates. Of this aggregate 23 volumes and pamphlets (1,626 pages and 289 plates) pertain to the institu- tion proper; 55 volumes and pamphlets (4,170 pages and 352 plates) 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. were issued by the National Museum; and 2 volumes and pamphlets (115 pages and 11 plates) by the Bureau of American Ethnology. In addition there are now in page proof 5 annual reports (about 2,000 pages) and 3 pamphlets and 1 special publication (about 1,000 pages); these will probably be ready for distribution within a few months. The total number of copies of all publications distributed during the year was about 169,000. There were also transmitted through the institution to Congress two annual reports of the Amer- ican Historical Association and the Annual Report of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Among the Museum publications is the sixth volume of the De- scriptive Catalogue of the Birds of North and Middle America, a work in which there has thus far been technically described more than 2,500 species and subspecies of American birds. A second edition of the Hodgkins fund prize essay by Dr. Hins- dale on atmospheric air in relation to tuberculosis was published to meet the general demand for this work. The institution also published through the generosity of Mrs. E. H. Harriman two elaborate volumes by Prof. Verrill, on the Starfishes of the Pacific Coast. On motion the report was accepted. THE SECRETARY’S STATEMENT. The secretary made personal statements as follows: Death of the assistant secretary, Dr. F. W. True—Dr. True died on the 25th of June, 1914, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. He entered the service of the Institution as the youngest member of the scientific corps brought together by Profs. George Brown Goode and Spencer F. Baird during the primitive stages of the National Museum, his first work being in connection with investigations by the U. S. Fish Commission. Later he had been placed in charge of the mammal collections in the Museum, and upon its reorganization into three principal departments became head curator of biology. For a number of years he had served as executive curator of the Museum and at times had been designated acting secretary of the Institution. June 1, 1911, he had been appointed an assistant secre- tary, his special duties being in connection with the library and International Exchanges. The secretary added a tribute to Dr. True’s ability and loyalty. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Statue of Lafayette—The Museum was honored during the past summer by receiving as a gift from the sculptor, Mr. Paul Wayland Bartlett, a copy of his equestrian statue of the Marquis de Lafayette PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 119 erected in 1900 in the Court of Honor of the Louvre, Paris, France. The statue in Paris is of heroic size and in bronze, and was presented to France by the school children of the United States. The copy given to the Museum is the original plaster model, of natural size, in excellent condition, and has been installed in the rotunda of the new building. Collection of pianos—Since the beginning of the present fiscal year the Museum has received a remarkable donation consisting of an historical collection of pianos, the gift of Mr. Hugo Worch, of Washington, by whom they had been assembled. Mr. Worch is a student of the piano, on which he is preparing an extensive memoir, which is now approaching completion, hence he has sought a place where his collection could be permanently preserved. ‘The series consists of over 200 examples, covering the entire period from the invention of the piano, shown in the various changes in construction and the great variety of form and decoration of the case. The col- lection is very beautiful, instructive, and has involved a very large expenditure on the part of Mr. Worch. It is being installed in the first gallery of the rotunda in the new building, which it will entirely fill. The Museum was already in possession of one of the best col- lections of musical instruments in any of the museums of the country and the addition of such an important special series will probably give it a very high standing. Gift of Mr. John B,. Henderson, jr—During a number of years the Museum has been placed under deep obligations to Mr. John B. Henderson, jr., a Regent of the Institution, for valuable collections of marine animals secured in the course of his own explorations, in a number of which members of the Museum staff have participated as guests of Mr. Henderson. Very recently Mr. Henderson has made a most exceptional donation to the Museum, consisting of over 30,000 specimens of land, fresh-water, and marine mollusks, assembled dur- ing a long period of years and representing in a broad sense the donor’s special lines of study. Notable among its contents are specially fine series from Japan coliected by Hirase, and from the Philippines by Quadras; the old and valuable collection of J. H. Redfield in its entirety; and a complete set of the fluviatile and land shells of the Southern States. This is unquestionably one of the most valuable additions to the division of mollusks of the Museum since the bequest of Dr. Isaac Lea. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology has been devoting special attention to the study of certain tribes of Indians on the verge of extinction. To this end successful efforts have been made in record- ing the languages, beliefs, and customs of some of the tribes of 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Oregon, Oklahoma, and Texas. In some cases these remnant groups are represented by only one.or two survivors who speak their native language, hence the very last opportunity of gaining authentic in- formation regarding them has been embraced. In other directions also the bureau’s activities are being vigorously pursued and several volumes will soon be published. ADDITIONAL LAND FOR NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, Since the statement at the last meeting of the board much delay has been encountered in the steps taken to acquire the land on Con- necticut Avenue, for which Congress appropriated $107,200 by the act of June 23, 1913, but it is now understood that the jury of con- demnation has completed its work and will shortly present its find- ings to the court. As previously stated, the land in question has a frontage on Connecticut Avenue of 1,750 feet and covers about 10 acres, and when acquired will bring the park area to 180 acres. THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY. The first year’s work of the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory, reopened by authorization of the Board of Regents in May, 1913, was to organize an advisory committee, arrange a comprehensive program of operations, devise ways and means of carrying on investigations and publishing reports, conduct such active experiments as were pos- sible with the means immediately available, and secure and arrange in the library all available aeronautical literature. The reports of the committee thus far published have appeared as individual papers in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The first of these recounts the organization of the advisory commit- tee and the resources of the Langley Laboratory. The first technical publication sets forth the results of experiments made at the model tank at the Washington Navy Yard. Another report describes the organization and equipment of the leading aeronautical laboratories of England, France, and Germany. Some of the reports of the com- mittee are as yet confidential or incomplete, such as Hammond’s re- port on wireless communications to and from air craft. The members of the various committees of the Langley Laboratory have been active in aerodynamics and allied subjects. Naval Con- structor Hunsaker has completed the installation and equipment of the aerotechnical laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology and has sent the Smithsonian the results of the first researches for publication. Mr. Buckingham has completed and published a masterly paper on the mathematical principle governing the relations of experimental models of all sorts to those of full-scale machines. Dr. Humphreys has published a long paper on the physics of the PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. ca: atmosphere. Dr. Zahm has helped to design for the United States Army a 200-horsepower biplane and has published a mathematical method of analyzing the stresses sustained by such an aeroplane during flight. The library has been furnished with the chief aeronautic periodi- cals and the best books thus far published. The recent additions number 120 publications, of which 71 were purchased and the others received in exchange. The publications were chosen from a list specially prepared by Dr. Zahm and Naval Constructor Hunsaker while visiting the leading aeronautical libraries of Europe. The rehabilitation and successful launching of the Langley aero- plane, constructed over a decade ago, was accomplished last May. The machine was shipped from the Langley Laboratory to the Cur- tiss Aeroplane Factory to have the planes recanvassed and hydro- aeroplane floats attached before launching on Lake Keuka May 28. With Mr. Curtiss as pilot the machine planed easily over the water, rose on level wing, and flew in steady poise 150 feet. Subsequent short flights were made in order to secure photographs of the craft in the air. Then Mr. Curtiss was authorized, in order to prolong the flights without overtaxing the bearings of the Langley propulsion plant, to install in its place a standard Curtiss motor and propeller. On October 1, hovering within 30 feet of the water and without material loss of speed, the great craft made in quick succession flights of the following duration and length at an average speed of 50 feet per second: Twenty seconds, 1,000 feet; 20 seconds, 1,000 feet; 65 seconds, 3,250 feet; 20 seconds, 1,000 feet; 40 seconds, 2,000 feet; 45 seconds, 2,250 feet. The total weight of the aeroplane with its hydro floats and the pilot was 1,520 pounds. The tests thus far made have shown that former Secretary Lang- ley had succeeded in building the first aeroplane capable of sus- tained free flight with a man. It is hoped that further trials will disclose more fully the advantages of the Langley type of machine. It may be recalled that this aeroplane was begun in 1898 for the War Department, and in the interest of the national defense. The numerous and comprehensive aerotechnical investigations planned for the Langley Laboratory can be successfully carried out only when increased funds are available. Properly equipped and endowed, the laboratory would serve as a national aeronautical in- stitute suitable for conducting the aerotechnical investigations and tests required by the Government and the aeronautical industries of this country. The secretary further spoke of the personnel of the advisory com- mittee, and said that its operations were very much hampered by the recent decision of the Comptroller of the Treasury that it was illegal for the members already in the Government service to act as an ad- 122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. visory committee to the laboratory. All of the gentlemen selected have expressed their interest and willingness to serve, but in view of the decision referred to were able to do nothing except in a most informal manner. The secretary expressed the opinion that a com- mittee of the Regents should be appointed to take up matters in this connection.* Dr. Bell said that he was much gratified at the secretary’s state- ments in regard to the successful flights of the Langley aeroplane. He was familiar with its history and had been present at the flights of the models, and now that the large machine, with the addition of floats weighing upward of 400 pounds, had actually flown, he felt that the Institution, and the board also, should be congratulated at the verification of Langley’s work. He thought that the Langley type of machine was a correct one, and he hoped that this would be further proved by the additional flights contemplated. He thought that the important work of the laboratory should be facili- tated in every way, and he hoped that the committee recommended by the secretary would be appointed. Dr. Bell then submitted the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That a committee be appointed by the chancellor, to consist of four members of the board and the secretary, to consider questions relative to the Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. The chancellor appointed the following as the committee: Dr. Bell, Senator Stone, Representative Roberts, Mr. Henderson, and the secretary. RESEARCH CORPORATION. Tt will be recalled that when Dr. F. G. Cottrell presented his pre- cipitation patents to the Smithsouian Institution, the Board of Re- gents decided that it was not practicable for the institution to under- take the commercial development of the patents, but there was no objection to the secretary becoming a member of a distinct organiza- tion that would undertake their development. This independent organization was formed under the laws of the State of New York as the Research Corporation, as reported to the Board of Regents at the meetings in 1912 and 1918. The secretary became one of the directors of the corporation and a member of the executive committee. The board includes a number of prominent men of wide business experience, such as James J. Storrow, of Lee, Higginson & Co., bankers, Boston; Charles A. Stone, of Stone & Webster, Boston; Arthur D. Little, of the Little Chemical Co., Boston; T. Coleman Du Pont, of Wilmington, Del.; Elon H. Hooker, 1 By act of Congress approved Mar, 3, 1915, the President was authorized to appoint an advisory committee for acronautics. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 123 president, Hooker Electrochemical Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.; Ben- jamin B. Lawrence, mining engineer, of New York; George F. Kunz, of Tiffany & Co., New York; Frederick A. Goetze, dean, engineering department, Columbia University, New York; William Barclay Par- sons, engineer, of New York; Hennen Jennings, mining engineer, of Washington. The development of a patent on a commercial basis is a very difil- cult proposition, and it was only through the active cooperation of Dr. Goetze, chairman of the executive committee, and other gentle- men on the board, in connection with the engineers of the corpora- tion, that success has been attained. On a capital of $10,100, subscribed by the directors, and the fees received for engineer services, work was carried on for 18 months. In July last there was but $1,200 in the treasury and many monthly expenses to be met. This was the low-water mark, as payments then began to come in in the form of royalties and payments for the per- manent use of the patent, so that on December 1 there was $65,000 in the treasury besides $100,000 in approved notes. At a recent meeting of the board of directors it was decided that no grants for general research would be made until after the invested funds of the corporation were $100,000 with cash in bank for ex- penses. In addition to the Cottrell patents, the corporation is now consid- ering the acceptance of certain rights in connection with a patent for a reinforced concrete railroad tie that is quite promising. There are also several other patents that have been brought to the attention of the engineers, but owing to the necessity of concentrating all effort upon the commercial development of the Cottrell patents, it was not deemed best to undertake other investigations. Now that the finan- cial conditions are improved, some money and energy will be ex- pended in looking up the concrete tie and other promising patents. Owing to the wide experience of the members of the board and their standing in the business community, it has been possible to do work in connection with the Research Corporation that would have re- quired the expenditure of large sums if undertaken by an ordinary business organization or private individual. CLEARING OF FOG BY ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATION. Science has established the fact that all dust and fog particles in the open atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation. It is apparent, therefore, that a source of very high direct voltage with facilities for control and application, may be of inestimable value in certain quarters and seasons for clearing fog from a street, from along a passenger railway, from around the land- 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ing stages of a ferry, or possibly about and in advance of a ship under headway at sea. Sometime ago Mr. Cottrell, who has been referred to in connec- tion with the work of the Research Corporation, expressed to the secretary his desire to take up the investigation of the possibility of clearing away fog by the precipitation method mentioned, and he was asked to communicate again later when his ideas and plans were more fully developed. He has recently written from San Francisco to say that the idea is now arousing interest in various quarters; for instance, the Uni- versity of California is actively engaged in the investigation, while the United States Lighthouse Service has placed its boats and facili- ties at his disposal when needed, while assurances have been received from certain transportation companies that as soon as definite effects in the open were shown they would assist in the further development of the work. Mr. Cottrell stated that funds were urgently needed to enable the university people to carry through what he termed the academic part of the program. They had already accomplished a great deal with their own funds and the apparatus and supplies contributed by the electric companies, but certain essential equipment was needed that could not be obtained through these channels. Chief among these was a transformer of at least 250,000 volts, which would cost about $1,500; and $500 additional was desired for smaller items of special equipment. The importance of this work was apparent, and as it came within the scope of researches outlined in the Hodgkins fund, an allotment of $2,000 was made. In acknowledging this action, Mr. Cottrell stated that the San Francisco section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers had appointed a committee to cooperate in this great work. Reports will be submitted from time to time on the progress of the investi- gation. THE FREER COLLECTION. The original gift of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich., made in 1906, comprised about 2,326 paintings and other objects of art. The additions since that date, recorded in five supplementary inven- tories, the last submitted in February. 1914, increase the total extent of this wonderful collection to 4,/U1 pieces, of which 983 are paint- ings, engravings, lithographs, etc., by American artists; and 3,718 are oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, stone and wood carvings, lacquered objects, glass, etc. In the eight years which have inter- vened since the acceptance of Mr. Freer’s offer the collection has, PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 125 therefore, been doubled in extent, and its value has been increased far beyond all earlier expectations. The secretary added that Mr. Freer was considering the matter of erecting the building to house his gift, and that the question of a site was now an important one, and he suggested that a committee be appointed to take the matter up. Dr. White offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That four members of the board and the secretary be appointed by the chancellor as a committee on the securing of a site for the Freer Art Gallery. The chancellor appointed the following as the committee: Senator Lodge, Senator Hollis, Judge Gray, Representative Connolly, and Secretary Walcott. WORK UNDER THE HARRIMAN TRUST FUND. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate under the special fund established by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, has continued his studies of the big bears of America and has practically completed the research work. In addition to the technical studies, the literature of early explora- tion and hunting in the western and northern parts of the continent has been searched for records concerning the former ranges and habits of the grizzlies and big brown bears, and it was now possible to determine the relations of most of the species and to arrange them in definite groups. Of the true grizzlies there appear to be about 38 species and subspecies, representing a dozen groups; of the big brown bears, about 10 species, representing five groups. REPAIRS, SMITHSONIAN BUILDING. The appropriation of $16,000 for the repairs to the exterior of the Smithsonian Building became available on August 1,1914. These repairs are now practically completed, well within the limits of the appropriation, the balance remaining being set aside for exterior painting and some further minor repairs which will be undertaken in the spring. EXPEDITIONS. Borneo expedition—F¥or over two years an expedition has been engaged in Borneo through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, a collaborator of the National Museum, who had at the time of the last meeting contributed $8,000 for this purpose. Dr. Abbott has since added $3,000 to this sum for the completion of the work in Borneo and the further work of collecting in Celebes, the fauna of which is practically unrepresented here. Mr. H. C. Raven, who has been 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. - conducting this expedition, left Borneo in June, 1914, crossing with his native boat and crew to Celebes. In addition to the gifts already mentioned, Dr. Abbott has sup- plied Mr. Raven directly with ammunition and supplies and with funds aggregating between $500 and $1,000. Much valuable material has been received from Borneo and the work in Celebes is expected to prove of great interest. Biological work in north China.—At the last meeting mention was made of the work being carried on in north China by Mr. A. de C. Sowerby through the liberality of a gentleman who desired to re- main unknown. There has been no change in this condition. Mr. Sowerby has already sent numerous valuable specimens to the Mu- seum and other collections are understood to be nearly ready for shipment. British Columbia and Montana.—The Secretary continued the work of exploration among the fossil beds of British Columbia inaugu- rated some years ago, and extended the work to Montana. A week was spent in measuring and recording the flow of two glaciers near Glacier, British Columbia, before beginning the meas- urement of sections and the collecting of fossil remains in the very ancient pre-Paleozoic rocks of central Montana. In Montana a camp was established in July and field work con- tinued until a heavy snow storm closed the season early in October. A number of great sections of bedded rocks were studied and meas- ured. Large collections were made from the limestones, that in- clude the oldest and most simple forms of life yet recorded in the early history of the earth. They are mainly algal deposits that may be compared with those now being made in fresh-water lakes and streams by the beautiful blue-green algae. At the secretary’s request, Dr. Albert Mann, the distinguished microscopist, began a search for microscopic organisms in thin, translucent sections of the algal deposits. He has discovered the remains of two types of bacteria in great abundance. ‘These, in connection with the microscopic cells of the algae, furnish positive proof of the organic origin of the limestones in a period that hereto- fore had furnished no evidence of such life. Solar radiation—Observations have been continued on Mount Wilson, Cal., for the purpose of observing the variability of the sun, and of confirming the newly discovered relationship between the variation of the total heat of the sun and the variation of the distribution of its light over the solar surface. Computations of the results are now in progress, and it is hoped very soon to make a satisfactory confirmation of this discovery. Mr. Aldrich, in cooperation with the United States Weather Bureau, sent up several sounding balloons with apparatus attached PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 127 for measuring the heat of the sun at high altitudes. In spite of unlooked-for difficulties, an excellent ascension was made to an alti- tude above 15 miles and very fine records were obtained, the pre- liminary reduction of which indicate that they will confirm the value of the solar constant of radiation which has resulted from years of observation at the Astrophysical Observatory. Additional flights were made up to altitudes of 20 miles, but no records were obtained at that height owing to the freezing of the mercury in the thermometers. By invitation of the Australian Government and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory, attended the meetings of the British association in Australia and submitted to the Australian Government a recommendation for the establishment in that country of a solar observatory particularly devoted to the measurement of the radiation of the sun. Owing to the breaking out of the war in Europe, the Australian Government was unable to promise definitely the early establishment of such an observatory, but expressed great interest in the project. Island of Timor expedition.—The island of Timor in the East Indies has been a rich collecting ground for scientific study, though little or nothing has been done by the paleontologist. An expedition for this sole purpose would be a very expensive undertaking, but an opportunity presented itself for acquiring many of these collections through the courtesy and interest of Mr. W. E. Crane, of Pittsburgh, a retired engineer and an enthusiastic collector, who had planned to visit the East Indies and to aid in making collections on the island of Timor for the National Museum. The expense of the enterprise was estimated to be $2,000, one-half of which was con- tributed by Mr. Crane, while Mrs. E. H. Harriman and Mr. Frank Springer gave $500 each. Unfortunately, about the time Mr. Crane was to start, the war broke out in Europe and the expedition had to be abandoned for the present. Western Siberian expedition—During the spring of 1914 the secretary received information that an expedition was being fitted out for western Siberia to take in the Kolyma River region, for the purpose of making collections in general ethnology and natural history. The locality was represented as particularly rich in such material, and after consultation with those qualified to advise, the secretary decided that it would be well that the Institution par- ticipate in the results of the expedition. There being no funds of the Institution that could be allotted for this purpose, however, steps were taken to secure the means by pri- vate subscription, and it is with pleasure that the secretary an- 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. nounces that a sum sufficient for the purpose, $3,500, was contributed by the Telluride Association of Provo, Utah, and Ithaca, N. Y. The expedition is under the direction of Mr. John Koren, an ex- plorer of experience. He is accompanied by Mr. Copley Amory, jr., who made collections for the Institution in 1912 along the Alaskan- Canadian boundary, and by Mr. Benno Alexander, of Tolt, Wash., who is the special representative of the Institution. The chief object of the expedition, so far as the Institution is con- cerned, is to secure remains of the Siberian mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the mastodon; it is also desired to secure skulls, tusks; hair, skin, flesh, and anything to indicate the contents of the stomach and the nature of the food. Other much desired remains are those of the bison, musk ox, camel, and bear. In addition to the above, collections will be made of geological, mineralogical, and paleontological material likely to be of interest to the Museum. The expedition sailed from Seattle on June 26, 1914, and touched at Nome on August 1, since which date no word has been received from the party. It-is expected that they will return to Seattle by the end of September, 1915. GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1915. 18618°—sm 1915——9 ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the Generat Appenpix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom- inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1915. 130 REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY FOR THE YEAR 1913.1 By P. PuIsEux, Member of the Institute, Astronomer at the Observatory of Paris. STUDY OF PLANETS AND COMETS. The increasing knowledge of the phenomena of the globe that carries us puts us in a position to interpret more surely what we observe in the celestial bodies. The astronomer, who gives to the mariner and the geodecist the means for determining their time and precise position, hopes some day to receive some recompense for these services. He is examining now the facts which come from the scien- tific stations established at diverse latitudes. One of the least ex- pected among these facts is a small annual variation in geographic latitude. This variation had not been predicted by dynamical theory. It takes place as though the center of gravity of our globe were displaced alternately about 3 meters toward the North, and then toward the South Pole. Several explanations come to mind, but have to be abandoned under closer analysis. For instance, the melting of the ice, taking place alternately each six months in the region of the two poles, acts in the right direction, but in order to correspond with the magnitude of the observed change, would have to affect masses of ice very improbable in size. The most-favored opinion, developed by the recent studies of Kimura, Ross, and Biske, assumes that the isobars (lines of equal pressure) of the air vary with the sea- son, oscillating about a mean configuration. There would result, for a series of stations at the same latitude, a variation in the same man- ner of the atmospheric refraction, and an annual, purely apparent oscillation would be mixed with the one of 430 days, the reality of which we have no reason for doubting. The movements of the magnetic needle show bizarre caprices which would seem to escape all prediction. However, in a long series of means, each magnetic element is seen to be affected by four super- posed fluctuations the periods of which are the day, the year, the synodic rotation of the sun, and the sun-spot-cycle period. From this we conclude that the sun acts upon the earth’s magnetism, not only through the unequal heating to which it subjects our globe, but also through a direct action, doubtless the restricted emission of electrified 1 Translated, by permission, from: the Reyue générale des Sciences, vol. 25, p. 746, 1914. 131 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. particles. According to the calculations of Chapman, the moon also possesses this power in much less degree but nevertheless surely. ‘To it are due several oscillations the most marked of which has a period of half a lunar day. We are not yet in the position for studying the distribution of magnetism on the moon. But in lunar topography we are making progress. The valuable collection of plates collected at the Observa- tory of Paris furnished the basis to Le Morvan of a new 48-plate atlas of our satellite. One half of this work had appeared in 1913. This chart, less expensive and more manageable than the great atlas of this observatory, is well conceived, admirably executed, and will be of great. value to observers. The planetoid Eros, which so held the attention of astronomers in 1900, had at that time surprised them by its rapid variations in brightness. Now we find that its orbit is contracting more than we would have predicted. There will result far more favorable condi- tions for a new determination of the solar parallax. In 1931 the dis- tance of this planetoid from the earth will be decreased to almost one- half of the smallest value reached in 1900. The system of planets which revolve about the sun, and the two systems of moons which keep company with Jupiter and Saturn, re- spectively, have always attracted calculators in a search for numerical analogues. The well-known law of Bode serves as the point of de- parture for such calculations, and its aspect is changed slightly, according as weight is attached to the exactness of the verifications, the absence of discontinuities, or the small number of parameters. Miss Blagg has made a marked advance over her predecessors, includ- ing the three series of distances in one formula, analogous to one which connects the reciprocals of the wave-lengths in the spectra of simple bodies. The existence of this relation between such apparently different systems makes us feel that we are dealing with some mysteri- ous physical law imposed in the formation of the planets as well as of the satellites. Such grouping could not be the effect of fortui- tous and successive aggregations, as the theory of capture would have. It rather forces us to require in each system a unity of origin, retaining the general idea of the cosmogony of Laplace. None of the laws derived from that of Bode would have foretold the existence of the distant and retrograde moons which both Jupiter and Saturn possess. In studying these two exceptional cases, which have been considered by certain authors as irreconcilable with the ideas of Laplace, Jackson found that these anomalous moons could be considered as the remains of a nebulous ring, the component parts of which possessed confused movements, and sufficiently vast to have expanded beyond the sphere of effective attraction of the planets. Certain distances from the planets and certain angular velocities are REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 133 more favorable to stability and are just such as correspond to the distances and velocities of the retrograde satellites. An analogous conclusion is drawn by Eddington from the statistics of the elements of the comets. The positions of their aphelia, as a rule, group about two directions which seem to depend in no way upon the general movement of the solar system. These directions rather reveal the direction of the elongation of the one or two primi- tive rings at the expense of which the comets were formed. The short-period comets form an exception possibly because they are endowed with a shorter longevity. They are to be considered as revolving in their actual orbits through the intervention of the greater planets. Thus the comet Neujmin (1918c), discovered the 6th of September, 1913, was the third member of the cometary family of Saturn. It was remarkable for its almost constant stellar aspect. The Westphal comet (1852, IV), refound September 26, 1913, by Delavan, underwent in October a considerable and unex- plained decrease in brightness. In comparison with the planets and the stars the comets are doubt- less ephemeral. What becomes of the matter—tenuous, to be sure, but in time abundant—which is left in their wake? Fessenkoff con- siders that it must expand in the region of the ecliptic in the form of a vast flattened, lens-shaped mass centered about the sun and de- creasing in density with increasing distance from the sun. All the well-known traits of the zodiacal light could thus be explained. Fessenkoff believes that certain unsymmetrical and changeable fea- tures which have been noted are due to insufficient allowance for the effects of atmospheric absorption. The total mass of the zodiacal matter is certainly very small compared with that of the principal planets, indeed compared with that of the comets and meteors. We may suppose that certain meteors are efficacious for troubling the surface of the sun because they are subject to closer approaches to it. Turner was led to adopt the idea, formerly held by J. Herschel, while trying to represent the variable frequency of sun spots by a series of periodical terms. For a course of years certain constant values may be adopted for the coefficients of these terms, and then these values have to be altered. The epochs of all these perturba- tions, according to Turner, fall close to the time of the perihelion passage of the Leonides. It is true the distance of the Leonides from the sun, even at perihelion passage, is somewhat great and necessitates recourse to a secondary stream derived through the inter- vention of some planet. This theory finds a certain degree of con- firmation in the Chinese Annals, which record ancient increases in the number of sun spots at epochs when the Leonides swarm must have passed close to Saturn. 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. STUDY OF THE SUN. Is the periodic increase in the number of sun spots definitely con- nected with the flux of heat which we receive from the sun? The question has been answered in various senses, and it must still be con- sidered as under litigation. The discordance of the statistics, when they are not coordinated in point of time, may result from a general variation in the transparency of the earth’s atmosphere. For in- stance, the greater or less diffusion of volcanic dust suffices to explain this discordance. And it seems quite certain that the eruption of Mount Katmai (Alaska) in 1912, as well as that of Krakatoa in 1883, have had effects of this nature. At any rate the passage of this atmospheric disturbance does not occur simultaneously in widely separated countries and the parallelism of the solar-constant values found by the methods of Dr. Abbot in California and in Algeria, Africa, prove that very perceptible variations can be imputed to the sun. These variations up to the present appear rather irregular than periodic. Fabry and Buisson have found that the solar spectrum is cut off at the violet end by an absorption band due to ozone. The presence of a layer of ozone, formed in the upper part of our atmosphere by the action of the ultra-violet hght of the sun, is not improbable. It would in that region somewhat alter the laws of absorption and (slightly) alter the value of the solar constant. The micrometric examination of the numerous plates ian at the Observatory of Zo-Sé (China) under the direction of P. Cheva- lier, shows that the sun underwent, from 1905 to 1909, a measurable and somewhat variable elongation along the polar diameter. It is not the first time that such a change has been suspected, but it is as- serted now, it seems to us, with an imposing train of evidence. The mean photographic diameter surpasses by 0.6’’ that which is gener- ally admitted on the authority of Auwers. An indication pointing in the same direction, results from the discussion by Simonin of the plates of the eclipse of April 17, 1912. The documents resulting from the last solar eclipse still furnish material for interesting publications. Father Cortie gives the de- scription of several limited bundles of rays, each one issuing from a spotted region of the sun and showing marked effects upon terrestrial magnetism. In the American photographs of the flash spectrum taken at Daroca in 1905, Mitchell found the whole counterpart of the Fraunhofer spectrum. The only differences occur in the relative in- tensities of the lines. Neither Mitchell nor Evershed are disposed to consider the presence of radium as established in the sun’s chromo- sphere. The powerful spectroscopes continue to give numerous results rela- tive to the velocities which rule at the various levels in the sun. But REVIEW OF ASTRONOMY—PUISEUX. 135 their interpretation is complicated and the results change according as we consider some special spectrum line or the diverse parts of the same line. For Evershed the dominant fact is the general expanding out of the metallic vapors as they leave the border of each spot. St. John finds that the centripetal tendency again becomes predominant above a certain elevation. The analogies which have been attempted between sun spots and cyclones or the whirlpools in water currents give little satisfaction. The ascending movements which the spectroscope records toward the center of the disk of the sun are not as rapid as the horizontal movements, but it is not a rare occurrence for them to be accelerated as if the weight was opposed effectively by a repulsive force. These vertical velocities, in every case, are sufficiently great to make us consider very hazardous the attempt of Schulz to revive the former theory of Kirchhoff concerning the general constitution of the sun. According to that theory the sun is liquid up to the level of the spots und the latter are floating scum. Every difficulty is removed by that theory relative to the existence of a continuous spectrum but not relative to temperature and velocities. Fowler prefers to admit the existence in the sun of some unknown physical agent capable of maintaining certain refractory elements in a pulverulent state at temperatures above 6,000° C., the temperature above which pyrhelio- metric measures show that the sun must be. We must resign our- selves for a long while yet perhaps to see Nature use in the stars far more powerful sources than those at our disposal in the laboratory. Deslandres and d’Azambuja continue to devote themselves to the isolation of the light of the central parts of the strongest lines of the solar spectrum and its use in their solar photographs, and that choice is justified by the striking originality of the photographs ob- tained. The astronomers at Meudon, despite the doubts raised by A. Buss, maintain an essential distinction between “ filaments” and “alignements.” The latter, fainter but more prolonged, are char- acteristic of the upper layers. They appear as far as the greatest latitudes and are not dependent upon the Schwabe cycle. The existence of the Zeeman phenomenon at the border of the spots, shown by Hale, as we know, has furnished him with a means of measuring the local magnetic fields. We see no other probable origin for these magnetic fields except the motion of electrified par- ticles, but one would suppose that electricity would be conducted with great difficulty in as rare a medium as that which surrounds the sun. This objection has been very much weakened, although not nullified, by the recent experiments of Harker, who found that a rarified gas becomes an effective conductor for electricity in the neighborhood of a body at a very high temperature. 136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. STARS AND NEBULZ. The observatory at Greenwich has undertaken the task during re- cent years of the redetermination of the precise positions of all the bright stars of the corona borealis, stars already included by Car- rington in a catalogue which is now half a century old. It has thus become possible to study and classify a great number of proper mo- tions. The discussion made by Dyson gives a result favorable to the views held by Schwarzschild that the existence of a single pref- erential direction for stellar motions is probable. In measure as we consider a direction differing from this, the number of stars having this different direction diminishes regularly. From the re- lation between the brightness of a star and its apparent motion, it may be deduced that the distribution of stars in space is neither uniform nor fortuitous. The greatest frequency is found in the constellation of Gemini at a distance which is small compared with the dimensions of the Milky Way. When we depart from this central region the frequency of the stars diminishes without limit, so that we may speak of the stars visible in meridian instruments as a limited system of definite structure. Analogous conclusions were derived by Eddington from the study of the catalogue of Boss, in which are collected the most accurate data concerning the bright stars in all parts of the sky. It is espe- cially in high galactic latitudes that the density is found to decrease most markedly. We must therefore regard the stars connected with the Milky Way—that is, the great majority of the visible stars—as forming a globular cluster with a very marked flattening. At each point of such a cluster the Newtonian attraction must pro- duce a field of force. = =: = a fa Ses OT UP] 2S ATES Oe RAE Oe hl ae hae ‘wihaead of pebieinan: chile bokas Wee oii ive) ald or of itn at Centar Gra tnt: alt) cade DoakoeR ae ati eu vented cee Fevupcgy inks baniirte) jae pant abr eidirl), ‘sobeenta ied if ii apsrteo oye u ee ae beneyrod i: ah te enh pds ee 19): meas Sak hey e Eeultey fel oral ghd cf 4 , Sonothen, duty ko gitar nih teeta a sii i ts hehe 7 oti binvot, vente reat Yb inoritave dantenos. sil} nia parser: obes Tt dpb disicletnimddecko cio warkineeseclobs Wittdaradt tl saa yuk Os ‘pobigation WAY Te) BLE (olan pis thd (TOURER ItPQe> Pres eae 2 oe pa) PEt pat uidicueidt awe QE dagqse yur arrh ove Mh Quah yortgatits oo Bev EV ei t'%; ‘tee 4 Lads ie a be j + EN Vict Thay CDR A LSS teen Pay Ane ca , i ¢ Vi ? i Se a if ; 13) > i : i 7 > a '. ; \ ‘ f f i ’ ie i , a ; af A : p ite ne Pena i if f bo u ; ‘ ¢ , i i ~ ue he ORS trop F it bey 4% AON a eo. os cr ht a a 4 ‘ae angi sth we THE UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY. By A. S. E. ACKERMANN, B. Sc. (Engineering), A. C. G. I., M. Cons. E., A. M. Inst. C. E. [With 6 plates. ] As it has been justly said that the play of Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark is somewhat dull, perhaps it will be well to devote a few words to the principal actor in all schemes for the utilization of solar energy, viz, the sun. He is no longer regarded as a monster fire, burning in the manner of fires in our grates. Great as is his mass, it would be comparatively rapidly consumed if such combustion were taking place. Another reason why this old idea was given up is that the temperature of the sun has been determined by several experimenters, and all agree that it is about 6,000° C. This is far too high to permit of the formation of most chemical compounds, and for the production of heat by combustion it is necessary for such com- pounds to be formed. Briefly, such a temperature decomposes nearly all compounds into their elements and prevents their reuniting and the consequent production of heat. Seientists are by no means certain how the sun’s heat is produced, but one theory is that it is due to radioactivity; and another, due to Helmholtz, that the energy to keep up the radiation could be sup- plied by a relatively microscopic contraction of the sun’s volume, though even this theory is not a complete success, as it implies that the age of the sun is 17,000,000 years. Great as is this lapse of time, geology indicates that our earth is considerably older; but as the earth can not very well be older than the sun, we must conclude that the sun is older than 17,000,000 years. As to what the structure of the sun is there is also doubt; but the inner portion is spoken of as the nucleus and the outer portion as the atmosphere, and as the outer layers of the atmosphere get relatively cooled they sink to a lower level, and their place is taken by hotter layers. Thus there is a continual circulation of the sun’s atmosphere. The specific gravity of the sun is only about a quarter of that of the earth, whose specific gravity is 5.538. A cubic foot of water weighs 1 Reprinted, by permission, from the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, London, April 30, 1915, 141 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 624 pounds, and hence an average cubic foot of the sun weighs 864 pounds, while an average cubic foot of the earth weighs 345 pounds. For comparison it may be mentioned that a cubic foot of granite weighs 165 pounds. The density of the sun being so small, it is concluded that it can still go on contracting, and hence that it is probably getting hotter instead of cooler, as is popularly supposed. If this be so, it is a hopeful feature for future workers in the field of solar energy. The diameter of the sun is 863,600 miles, or about one hundred times the diameter of the earth, and an earthly pound weight at its surface would weigh 274 pounds. The glowing surface which the sun presents to us, even considering him as a flat disk, has the enor- mous area of 585,750,000,000 square miles, each square foot of which emits the enormous amount of about 12,500 horsepower, and the radiant energy received at the outer surface of the earth’s atmosphere is equivalent to 7,300 horsepower per acre. Of this about 70 per cent (say, 5,000 horsepower per acre) is transmitted to the land sur- face of the earth at noon on a clear day, and less in the morning and evening, owing to the greater thickness of atmosphere through which the radiation has to pass. The quantity of solar heat per unit area which arrives in unit time at the outer surface of our atmosphere is called the solar constant, and its value, as determined in 1913 by C. G. Abbot, of the Smith- sonian Institution, after making 696 experiments in different parts of the globe, is 1.93 calories per square centimeter per minute (equal to 7.12 B. t. u. per square foct per minute). Its value given by various experimenters between 1881 and 1909 was considerably higher, and this makes it all the more remarkable that John Ericsson, the engineer and inventor, who spent some £20,000 on experiments with solar energy, when writing in 1876 a record of his life’s work, gave the value of the solar constant as 7.11 B. t. u. per square foot per minute and said, “In view of the completeness of the means adopted in measuring the energy developed and the ample time which has been devoted to the determination of the maximum intensity, it is not probable that future labors will change the result of our determina- tion,” and, as shown above, his confidence was justified. Perhaps the most remarkable things about solar radiation are that it passes through the 93,000,000 miles (1,000,000 is 2,740 a day for a year) of space between the sun and the earth, the temperature of which is nearly absolute zero (i. e., it is about —263° C.), and that only three-fifths of it produces any impression on the eye. It is not till the radiant energy impinges on some material body that it is con- verted into heat. The best body for causing such conversion is a dead- black one. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 143 The absorption of solar energy by the atmosphere is about 20 per cent greater in summer than in winter. This may be due to there being a larger total quantity of water vapor in the atmosphere in summer than in winter. It has long been known that the greater the humidity of the atmosphere the greater the amount of heat stopped SUN POWER PLANT AT MEAD/, ECYPT, 1913 Curves showing effect of humidity on steam fuoduclion ny i=} figure X 1025 gives the heat cation DUK Uo ths total reight of steam produced per hour by the whole absor bor 8 VALUE FIGURE FOR THE STEAM. NOTE: The value Ps Ac ae HUMIDITY PER CENT Fig. 1. by it; but the author believes that his experiments in Egypt in 1913, with the Shuman-Boys sun-power plant, were the first which de- termined the quantitative effect of humidity, especially on so large a scale. The curves on figure 1 record the results, from which it is seen that when the humidity decreased 20 per cent the quantity of 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. steam increased about 30 per cent, thus showing the great importance of humidity in connection with this subject. The great possibilities of this field of work, and the obvious fact that there is a limit to our supphes of coal and oil, have naturally attracted many workers, of whom the following is a chronological list. Some of them, however, have not been engaged in the practical utilization of solar energy, but in determining the solar constant and atmospheric absorption which tell us the theoretical quantity of heat available for power purposes. Date of | Date of | Date of Name. birth. death. Arsh Sol Solomon de. Caux (Erance)~.- 2-2... 2.t once eee == = 4: pen eee OSE. Ck 1576 1626 1615 HB. de'Saussure: (Sweden). 400. 8 ce ce eee oe bee eee 1740 1799 1766 Sir Johnstierscheli (Hing and) ee see ce oe eee sce ns ee eee ee 1792 1871 1836 GCG. SSM. Pouilleb:(hrance) 422-2 --cs2s sn odes Son eed aoee nape eine me 1791 1868 1838 Gat Al thans (Germany )icciee nan seer ee ace ese eee eee eee (?) (?) 1853 GanliGuntner CAUStha) ace. -2 ae eoe= = Perea eee ae SEPT E Ae acest (?) (?) 1854 PAqreustiMoOmehot (RTANCG) ae= er pessee ab oe ee la aes ee ea eee (?) (?) 1860 John Eriesson; (United StatesiotvAumenica)) = =< 522). ose see ape eerie 1803 1889 1864 @2H. Pope (United’Statesot America) t=. 22 -- a> --- 2 aeeeemn a. ae (?) (?) 1875 WilliamrAdams (Hneland))2 See ecc: aoe ena) eee tee ea ae a (?) (?) 1876 INO ISt (Oe aC) Loe Geer sb onecses 53 SoeRorensenos soasoonSSeeceescesce (?) (?) 1878 SoP. Langley (Umited States'of America)=. 27-22 52- anaes =p eee 1834 1906 1881 Tig Sa brige lines (Gdn bw) ane oats one soeee ee rae: Heer o = Sos Be Ae aee ees (?) (?) 1883 Chas couis7Abelonellier Ultram Ge) sot mee ectee ee = i eae ee ie ee (?) 1913 c. 1884 ASG: Eneas (United States of America)o. 222" 2-2. -- 4-0 -----2----5--=-- (Giyid hy eeeinee ce 1900 FIM Willl siosaaas. 2. ede ee ae See De phan Pieret 94 na ee) hie hl aee eae 1902 @xG= Abbot (United States(of America) 22. = sere ee ee ee IS 726 ils eee 1905 Frank Shuman (United States of America) .---.....-.----------- ene 18624 adtcseseecer 1906 Ch? Héry; (Erance)s-2----e22--- 5 et ie ol | OE 2 A ae eres oe sem Set 3 1865;0 bose eeere 1906 Ga Millochaui@Brance) as .p sss. - ese 2 eee ne es ee TSC He. SAE eS 1906 Now, although the theoretical power value of the heat reaching the surface of the earth is no less than 5,000 horsepower per acre, 1t must not be thought that anything like this amount can be converted into mechanical power any more than can all the heat, of coal be converted into its theoretical equivalent of mechanical power. For example, the heat value of good coal is about 14,500 B. t. u. per pound, equal to 12,760 horsepower hours per ton, but in fact the best result, even under test conditions, ever obtained from a ton of coal by means of a boiler and steam engine is only about 1,470 brake horsepower hours, or 11.5 per cent of the heat value, while in the case of a gas engine the corresponding figure is 25.5 per cent, and of a Diesel oil engine 31 per cent. The chief loss is in converting the steam into mechanical energy, and most of the loss is inevitable for thermodynamic reasons. With this fact in mind, you will not be so surprised to learn that the best overall thermal efficiency obtained from the Shuman-Boys plant in Egypt was only 4.32 per cent, the chief reasons for this being so much less than 11.5 per cent being that the steam pressure was so low, and UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 145 that the best efliciency of the sun-heat absorber was only 40.1 per cent, compared with 75 per cent for the best coal-fired boiler. But it has taken boilermakers many years to attain this efliciency, so that 40.1 per cent is not a bad result when the number of sun boilers that have been made is taken into account. Thermal efficiencies of engines are materially affected by the heat fall of the steam, just as the efficiencies of water turbines are affected by the height of the waterfall. The larger the fall in either case the better the efficiency. It is interesting to realize from the foregoing figures that the value of 24 acres of bright sunshine for an hour is 1 ton of coal. This fact is more readily realized in Egypt in the summer. With this we may compare what Mr. J. C. Hawkshaw said in his presidential address to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1902, viz, that the wood fuel produced by an acre of land in Europe is equivalent to at least 1 ton of coal a year. With so much heat generated at the surface of the earth it might be thought that the temperature of the earth would rise. So it would do were it not for the fact that the earth radiates into space as much heat as it receives, though some of it may be stored on earth for a time in the form of vegetable growth (including coal) or water raised to high levels. Coal has been called “ bottled sunshine,” but the cork of the bottle must be a leaky one, for Abbot says (The Sun, p. 860): “ it appears from such investigations as have been made that plants may store up as chemical energy in round numbers 1 or 2 per cent of the energy of solar radiation which shines upon their leaves.” With regard to the earth’s own heat, it has been estimated that the continuous supply coming from the interior to the surface is equivalent to 1,280 horse- power per square mile, or only 2 horsepower per acre. Having now considered the nature of the source and the quantity of heat available, we will give a brief description of the plants which have been constructed by various experimenters for the purpose of utilizing solar heat. They are given in chronological order as regards their solar work so far as the author has been able to discover the facts. At one stage the author thought he had discovered the earliest worker at the subject when he came across a record of Sir John Her- schel’s experiments in 1836, but further research disclosed that Buf- fon, the celebrated French naturalist, was at work in 1747, and on April 10 of that year he succeeded in setting fire to a plank of tarred wood, at a distance of 150 feet, by solar rays reflected from a combina- tion of flat mirrors. He did this to show the possibility of the legend that Archimedes set fire to the fleet of Marcellus at Syracuse in 212 B. C, 18618°-—sm 1915——10 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Other early workers were Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk, who died in 1294; Solomon de Caux (1576-1626), a French engineer, who, in 1615, invented and described the first machine for raising water by solar heat and the expansion of air; Ducarla; and H. B. de Saussure, the Swiss geologist, physicist, and naturalist, who made (in 1787) the second ascent of Mont Blanc. To de Saussure the credit is due for inventing the “ hot box” (1. e., an insulated air-tight wooden box, black inside, and covered with two layers of plain glass with an air space between them), which has since been such a favorite with other workers. It was he, too, who found that a cover of two sheets of glass gave the best results. Next in the field was Sir John Herschel, F. R. S., who in 1887 took the temperature of the surface soil near Cape Town, and for dry earth recorded temperatures varying from 120° F. to 162° F., the latter having been obtained on December 1, 1837, at 0.36 p. m., in a sand heap sheltered from the wind in a small garden inclosure, the soil being moist 3 inches or 4 inches below the surface. He also experimented with a “small mahogany box, blackened inside, covered with windowglass fitted to size, but without putty, and simply exposed perpendicularly to the sun’s rays.” In this box he recorded a temperature of 152° F., but “ when sand was heaped around the box to cut off the contact of cold air, the temperature rose on December 3, 1887, to 177° F. And when the same box, with its inclosed thermometer, was established under an external frame of wood well sanded up at the sides, and protected by a sheet of win- dowglass (in addition to that of the box within), the temperatures attained on December 3, 1837, were— Time (p.m.). Pernt Sehe AUS SOL eB a tats 207 MSO eae Ser ee 217.5 be Cones Se 218 and that with a steady breeze sweeping over the spot of exposure. Again, on December 5, under a similar form of exposure, tempera- tures were observed : Mime (p.m. |a soe or HabEvoe att. ean pmol te nea 230 TID ast os stent 239 Toil 248 Jib ae fs el 240. 5 As those temperatures far surpass that of boiling water, some amusing experi- ments were made by exposing eggs, fruit, meat, and in the same manner (Dec, UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—-ACKERMANN. 147 21, 1887, et seq.), all of which, after a moderate length of exposure, were found perfectly cooked, the eggs being rendered hard and powdery to the center; and on one occasion a very respectable stew of meat and vegetables was prepared, and eaten with no small relish by the entertained bystanders. Sir John then described his method of determining the solar con- stant by means of a tinned iron vessel 3? inches diameter, and 2.4 inches high filled with inked water, upon which he allowed the nearly vertical rays of the sun to play through a 3.024-inch-diameter hole for 10 minutes and noted the rise in temperature, of course allowing for cooling losses. The mean of six experiments, made between De- cember 23, 1836, and January 9, 1837, inclusive, gave a rise of 0.38° F. per minute, the quantity of water being 4,638 grains. Allowing for the obliquity of the sun’s rays, the mean area of the normal cross-sec- tion of the beam of sunlight was 7.01 square inches. From these par- ticulars we are able to calculate that Herschel’s value of the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface was 1.38 calories per square- centimeter-minute, while if we assume the coefficient of atmospheric transmission to have been 0.70, his value of the solar constant was 1.98, agreeing well with 1.93, the value now accepted as correct. From these experiments he deduced that a cylindrical rod of ice, 45.3 miles in diameter, and of indefinite length, continually darted into the sun with the velocity of ight (186,000 miles per second), would barely suffice to employ the whole radiant heat for its fusion, without at all reducing the temperature of the sun. For comparison with Herschel’s sand temperatures recorded above, the author gives the following similar readings, which he obtained at Meadi, Egypt: Reading Wi of ther- | Reading fat Het. ind, mometer) ofther- | with |. Shade: | Humid- ‘ under |mometer ig : = Date. Time. tans meioe blacked | tempera-| ity per lamp- anahane bulb ture. cent. Velocity in | Direc- Dineiand weed y Fyne on miles per hour.| tion. : sand. sand. 1913 Sone Id ee 0 De | Tliyed 4. a hee tce 4530) psy. |swisos ous: 110) |p reek 93 37 Fair breeze. i ee D3 ie Tals see eee oe 120) Paste e ee 90 Biol eect ete Bae ieee ees AY biytrieiien ee ae eae 120 ali = sects ge, 2 924 1 45 ind. ia 2 pa ae ii Chenapeti 923 || : aoa CN 0 aih Sa | PS ee a a! 128) pases ee 97 34 | Slight wind. ‘19k 2.2 UP Ag 016,016 es A 1A Sl eatin Me = 94 33 Slight breeze. 2, ee YA ae 11.45 a. m. 107 Lh | Saeeee 894 40 2h Th Ns YS 0) ip gaan Mite, inesehe 122 132 144 894 12 noon... 127 138 145 914 33 2.9 h3i pare 127 125 128 94 } NW. 4p.m.... 120 115 123 94 i aby 5yp: ise or 105 103 105 91 ; TAT aD ag 11.10 a. m- WG lieeectrat cs 143 99 12 noon... ZZ eae eee 144 102 2.45 p. m.. 126) | Seow cers, 3 TET ol aaeeaenet e 19) Ne 4.22 p.m... L5H Roe set ee L2G Mbt ee tas 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Almost contemporaneous with the work ef Herschel was that of M. C. 8S. M. Pouillet, a record of which, on the determination of the solar constant, appears in Comptes Rendus, Vol 7, 1838, pages 24-65. His value of the solar constant was 1.763 calories per square-centi- meter-minute. Carl Giintner was at work experimenting with reflectors in Lai- bach in 1854, and in 1873 he exhibited one at the Vienna Exposition. Giintner wrote in the Scientific American Supplement of May 26, 1906, pages 25, 409-412: This reflector possessed, however, the disadvantages common to all sheet-metal reflectors—that to maintain the surface in proper condition when exposed to all sorts of weather requires careful and costly attention. Being convinced, however, that the exploitation of solar heat will come more and more into vogue, even in spite of the disadvantageous periodicity of this source of warmth, I have taken the trouble to put aside the evil mentioned above and overcome it by an entirely new method of reflector construction. * * * This plane reflector consists of a large number of long, narrow mirrors placed at suitable distances from one another, and which, when upon level ground, lie parallel with each other horizontally, extending either from north and south or from east to west. > Each one of these mirrors revolves about a horizontal axis, and by means of a simple parallelogram motion may be made to follow the sun in such a manner that all the sun’s rays falling upon the plane mirrors may be reflected on the surface of a tube or boiler, the long axis of which les also in the plane of the mirror axis * * *, By a simple movement of a hand lever, all the mirrors may be simultaneously turned through an are of 180°, which means that all the mirrors may thus be made to look toward the ground and be in this way pro- tected from the destructive action of sudden falls of hail. He claimed that the reflector could be made at a cost of 8s. 6d. per square yard of reflecting surface, and that it required “ but 200 square feet of surface to generate steam sufficient for 1 horsepower.” He proposed to construct the reflectors of thin corrugated steel plates, faced with lead and then coated with tin. Hence it is necessary to discover the value of e (the amount of useful heat dispensed per unit of surface per minute) which affords the unit of heat that ean be made available for effective service from a square foot of catching sur- face per minute. Being deprived of the experience of any former experimenter in this direction, I myself made appropriate trials with reflectors * * *. The two opposite sides, each 3 feet long, of a wood right-angular frame, having a width of 1 foot and a length of 3 feet, were hollowed out to correspond with a previously de- signed parabolic template, and upon the parabolic curve thus established two sheets of white tin were nailed. Four supports, which were fastened to the sides of the frame, carried a 34-inch tube erected in such a manner that its axis coincided with the burning axis of the reflector * * *. The catching surface presented a superficial area equal to 8 square feet * * *. The boiler was not lagged with glass or anything. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 149 He then gives a table of four tests of one hour each, varying from 9a.m.to4 p.m., and goes on to say: From these experiments it has been deduced that the amount of heat given off per square foot per minute is about equal to 1.8 (major) calories (equal to 1.4 minor calories per square-centimeter-minute). For our zone [probably Laibach, Austria], then, the mean value of e may be set down as 1.3. The work of August Mouchot in connection with the utilization of solar energy was certainly of great importance. It is recorded in his book entitled “ia Chaleur solaire et les Applications industrielles,” second edition, 1879; but, as with other workers in this field, he gives extremely meager information as to results of experiments. Mouchot started his solar work in 1860 and tock out his first patent, No. 48,622, on March 4, 1861. In the first edition of his above-named work (p. 281) he stated that theoretically, on an average, 86 square feet of reflecting surface are required for 1 horsepower. Then, to allow for losses, he doubled the area, thus making it 172 square feet. It is to be noted that he referred to reflecting surface and not the area of radiation collected, which would almost certainly be a smaller quantity. On page 195 he described one of his boilers as having a capacity of 34 pints. It consisted of two cylindrical concentric copper vessels with domed tops and the water space between them. The vertical height of the outer vessel was 16 inches. The boiler was covered by a bell glass and placed at the focus of a reflector. The water boiled in one hour from an initial temperature of 50° F. In August, 1866, Emperor Napoleon LIT of France saw Mouchot’s first solar engine at work in Paris, and in 1872 Mouchot (with the monetary assistance of the French Government) constructed another sun boiler. This was described by M. lL. Simonin in the Revue Des Deux Mondes of May 1, 1876, as follows: The traveler who visits the library of Tours sees in the courtyard in front a strange-looking apparatus. Imagine an immense truncated cone, a mammoth lamp shade, with its concavity directed skyward. This apparatus is of copper, coated on the inside with very thin silver leaf. On the small base of the trun- cated cone rests a copper cylinder, blackened on the outside, its vertical axis being identical with that of the cone. This cylinder, surrounded as it were by a great collar, terminates above in a hemispherical cap, so that it looks like an enormous thimble, and is covered with a bell glass of the same shape. This curious apparatus is nothing else but a solar receiver—or, in other words, a boiler—in which water is made to boil by the heat rays of the sun. -This steam generator is designed to raise water to the boiling point and beyond by means of the solar rays, which are thrown upon the cylinder by the silvered inner surface of the conical reflector. The boiler receives water up to two- thirds of its capacity through a feed pipe. A glass tube and a steam gauge communicating with the inside of the generator, and attached to the outside of the reflector, indicate both the level of the water and the pressure of the steam. Finally, there is a safety valve to let off the steam when the pressure is greater 150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. than desired. Thus, the engine offers all desirable safety and may be provided with all the accessories of a steam boiler. The reflector, which is the main portion of the generator, has a diameter of 2.60 meters at its large and 1 meter at its small base, and is 80 centimeters in height, giving 4 square meters of reflecting surface or of insolation. The in- terior walls are lined with burnished silver, because that metal is the best reflector of the heat rays; still, brass with a light coating of silver would also serve the purpose. The inclination of the walis of the apparatus to its axis measures 45°. Even the ancients were aware that this is the best form for this kind of metallic mirrors with linear focus, inasmuch as the incident rays par- allel to the axis are reflected perpendicularly to the same and thus give a focus of maximum intensity. The boiler is of copper, which of all the common metals is the best conductor of heat; it is blackened on the outside, because black possesses the property of absorbing all the heat rays, just as white reflects them; and it is inclosed in a glass envelope, glass being the most diathermanous of all bodies; that is to say, the most permeable by the rays of luminous heat. Glass further possesses the property of resisting the exit of these same rays after they have been trans- formed into dark rays on the blackened surface of the boiler. The boiler proper of the Tours solar engine consists of two concentric bells of copper, the larger one, which alone is visible, having the same height as the mirror, i. e., 80 centimeters, and the smaller or inner one 50 centimeters. Their respective diameters are 28 and 22 centimeters. The thickness of the metal is only 8 millimeters. The feed water lies between the two envelopes, forming an annular envelope 8 centimeters in thickness. Thus the volume of liquid is 20 liters, and the steam chamber has a capacity of 10 liters. The inner envelope is empty. Into it pass the steam pipe and the feed pipe of the boiler. To the steam pipe are attached the gauge and the safety valve. The bell glass covering the boiler is 85 centimeters high, 40 centimeters in diameter, and 5 millimeters in thickness. There is everywhere a space of 5 centimeters between its walls and those of the boiler, and this space is filled with a layer of very hot air. Mechanism was provided whereby the reflector was adjusted by hand to follow the movement of the sun. On May 8, 1875, u fine day, 20 liters of water, at 20° C., introduced into the boiler at 8.30 a. m., produced steam in 40 minutes at 2 atmospheres (380 pounds) of pressure to the square inch, i. e., a temperature of 121°, or 21° above boiling water. The steam was then raised rapidly to a pressure of 5 atmospheres (75 pounds to the square inch), and if this limit was not exceeded it was because the sides of the boiler were only 3 millimeters thick, and the total effort sup- ported by these sides was then 40,000 kilograms. It would have been dangerous to have proceeded further, as the whole apparatus might have been blown to pieces. Toward the middle of the same day, with 15 liters of water in the boiler, the steam at 100°—that is to say, at a pressure of 1 atmosphere—rose in less than a quarter of an hour to a pressure of 5 atmospheres, equal to a temperature of 153°. Finally, on July 22, toward 1 p. m., an exceptionally hot day, the appa- ratus vaporized 5 liters of water per hour, which is equal to a consumption of 140 liters of steam per minute, and one-half horsepower. For these experiments the inventor used an engine which made 80 strokes per minute under a con- tinued pressure of 1 atmosphere. Later on it was changed for a rotative engine—that is to say, an engine with a revolving cylinder—which worked udmirably, putting in motion a pump to raise water, until the pump, which was too weak, was broken. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 151 In 1878 Mouchot used a boiler made of many tubes placed side by side (pl. 1) and having a capacity of 100 liters (70 for water and 30 for steam). Mouchot seems to have been the only inventor of a solar plant, with the exception of Shuman, who has had his apparatus tested by inde- pendent engineers. The following refers to Mouchot’s plant. In Comptes Rendus, Vol. 94, 1882, pages 943-945, M. A. Crova reports that— The minister of public works appointed two commissions, one at Constantine and the other at Montpellier, to make experiments with two identical mirrors of 5.22 square meters in section normal to the sun’s rays and to evaluate their practical utility. The commission of Montpellier was composed of MM. Duponchel, engineer in chief of Ponts et Chaussées, as president; Col. Fulcrand, R. E.; Guibal, and myself. The experiments (at Montpellier) lasted from January 1 to December 31, 1881, and were made from hour to hour every day during which the sun was bright and the observations possible. The solar rays concentrated at the focal line of the mirror were received on a black boiler placed at the axis and which was inclosed by a glass shade. The number of major calories utilized, divided by those incident, received in one hour upon 1 square meter of surface normal to the rays, gives the efficiency of the apparatus. Here are the principal results obtained during 176 days which gave 930 ob- servations, during which 2,725 liters of water were distilled. Moyenne générale des valeurs mesurées pendant Vannée 1881 et rapportées a 14, et & 1h, = akc Maximum Calories. ators Date. WhaleuUMTecueldirecteMeNnt sce ohne ee mek ler lye Akay oe ea acini 616.1 945 25 Avril. Chalenmiutilisée par apparels. asec see a= op agen es tee esse 258.8 547.5 15 Juin OVenno des Tenn GMIGMtS. eee oe ne ee eee enon ete see asia - 491 .854 | 14 Juin.” The author has purposely not translated the last five lines for fear of making a mistake. He is unable to interpret the results; but as they represent an important and independent investigation lasting a year, they are given in the hope that some of his audience may be able to throw some light on the matter. Next came that versatile engineer and successful inventor, John Ericsson, a Swede by birth and an American by adoption. He made an immense number of experiments, extending over 20 years, with costly apparatus, to determine the solar constant, and later on made apparatus for the practical utilization of solar radiation. All these experiments were made at his own expense, and he tells us they cost him £20,000; and having done all this work, the conclusion he arrived at was: The fact is, however, that although the heat is obtained for nothing, so ex- tensive, costly, and complex is the concentration apparatus that solar steam is 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. many times more costly than steam preduced by burning coal. (Letter dated Sept. 21, 1878, to R. B. Forbes.) We have already referred to his remarkably accurate determination of the solar constant; but he was not so happy in deducing the tem- perature of the sun, which he made to be 723,000° C., the present accepted result being only 6,000° C. He tried hot-air engines, as well as steam engines, for utilizing solar energy, and claimed that the steam engine which he constructed in New York for this purpose in 1870 was the first one driven by the direct agency of solar radiation. The diameter of its cylinder was 44 inches. He afterwards modified his solar hot-air engine so that it might be used as a small pumping engine, using gas as its heat supply. The profits upon this chip from his workshop are already estimated at several times the amount of the £20,000 expended by Ericsson upon the solar investiga- tions leading up to this invention. (Vol. II, p. 275 of his ‘“ Life,” by W. C. Church.) Mouchot claimed, apparently correctly, that his engine was the first, and Ericsson admits that, ‘Some time previous to 1870, Mouchot made a small model engine, a mere toy, actuated by steam generated on the plan of accumula- lation by glass bells * * *, Ericsson gives full details of all his apparatus for determining the solar constant in the record of his life’s work, entitled, “‘ Contribu- tions to the Centennial Exhibition,” New York, 1876; but unfortu- nately he did not describe in detail therein the solar boilers, explain- ing that “experienced professional men will appreciate the motive, viz, that of preventing enterprising persons from procuring patents for modifications.” He does, however, give us the following amount of information: On grounds already fully explained, minute plans of my new system of ren- dering sun power available for mechanical purposes will not be presented in this work. The occasion, however, demands that I should present an outline of the concentration apparatus before referred to. It consists of a series of polished parabolic troughs, in combination with a system of metallic tubes charged with water under pressure, exposed to the influence of converging solar rays, the augmented molecular action produced by the concentration being transferred to a central receiver, from which the accumulated energy is ¢om- municated to a single motor. Thus the mechanical power developed by concentrated solar heat is imparted to the solar steam engine without the intervention of a multitude of boilers, glass bells, gauges, feeders, ete. Moreover, the concentration apparatus, unlike the instrument of Mouchot, requires no parallactiec motion, nor does its manage- ment call for any knowledge of the sun’s declination from day to day. Its position is regulated by simply turning a handle until a certain index coincides with a certain bright line produced by the reflection of the sun’s rays. His boilers seem to have been exceedingly efficient, for he claims that “the mechanism which I have adopted for concentrating the sun’s radiant heat abstracts, on an average, during nine hours a day, for all latitudes between the Equator and 45°, fully 3.5 units of heat per UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—-ACKERMANN. 153 minute for each square foot of area presented perpendicularly to the sun’s rays.” Three and five-tenths B. t. u. per square-foot-minute =0.95 calories per square-centimeter-minute. The mean transmis- sion of solar radiation by the atmosphere over a zenith distance from 45° EB. to 45° W. is 67.5 per cent when the sky is clear. Thus 0.675 X1.93=1.31 calories per square-centimeter-minute are available at the earth’s surface. Hence the efliciency of Ericsson’s boiler was 9 95100=72.5 per cent, which is remarkably high. In 1872 Ericsson built his hot-air solar engine, which had a reflector the shape of which was approximately a portion of a sphere and which concentrated the solar radiation onto one end of the cylinder. The power of both these engines was evidently very small. On July 9, 1875, Ericsson wrote that he had up to that time constructed and started seven sun motors. Kricsson wrote in Nature of January 3, 1884, an illustrated article describing another of his sun motors which he erected in New York in 1883, in spite of his opinion as to the cost of solar steam (previ- ously quoted) expressed in 1878 (pl. 1). His description was as fol- lows: The leading feature of the sun motor is that of concentrating the radiant heat by means of a rectangular trough having a curved bottom lined on the inside with polished plates so arranged that they reflect the sun’s rays toward a cylindrical heater placed longitudinally above the trough. This heater, it is searcely necessary to state, contains the acting medium, steam or air, employed to transfer the solar energy to the motor, the transfer being effected by means of eylinders provided with pistons and valves resembling those of motive engines of the ordinary type. Practical engineers, as well as scientists, have demon- strated that solar energy can not be rendered available for producing motive power, in consequence of the feebleness of solar radiation. The great cost of large reflectors and the difficulty of producing accurate curvature on a large seale, besides the great amount of labor called for in preventing the polished surface from becoming tarnished, are objections which have been supposed to render direct solar energy practically useless for producing mechanical power. The device under consideration overcomes the stated objections by very simple means, as will be seen by the following description: The bottom of the rectangular trough consists of straight wooden staves, supported by iron ribs of parabolic curvature secured to the sides of the trough. On these staves the reflecting plates, consisting of flat window glass silvered on the under side, are fastened. It will be readily understood that the method thus adopted for eoncentrating the radiant heat does not call for a structure of great accuracy, provided the wooden staves are Secured to the iron ribs in such a position that the silvered plates attached to the same reflect the solar rays toward the heater. Referring to the illustration, it will be seen that the trough, 11 feet long and 16 feet broad, including a parallel opening in the bottom, 12 inches wide, is sustained by a light truss attached to each end, the heater being supported by vertical plates secured to the truss. The heater is 64 inches in diameter, 11 feet long, exposing 180 X9.8=1,274 superficial inches to the action of the reflected solar rays. The reflecting plates, each 3 inches wide and 26 inches long, inter- cept a sunbeam of 180*180=23,400 square inches section. The trough is sup- ported by a central pivot, round which it revolves. The change of inclination 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. is effected by means of a horizontal axle, concealed by the trough, the entire mass being so accurately balanced that a pull of 5 pounds applied at the extrem- ity enables a person to change the inclination or cause the whole to revolve. A single revolution of the motive engine develops more power than needed to turn the trough, and regulates its inclination so as to face the sun during a day’s operation. The motor shown by the illustration is a steam engine, the working cylinder being 6 inches in diameter, with 8-inch stroke. The piston rod, passing through the bottom of the cylinder, operates a force pump of 5 inches diameter. By means of an ordinary crosshead secured to the piston rod below the steam cylinder, and by ordinary connecting rods motion is imparted to a crank shaft and fly wheel, applied at the top of the engine frame, the object of this arrange- ment being that of showing the capability of the engine to work either pumps or mills. It should be noticed that the flexible steam pipe employed to convey the steam to the engine, as well as to the steam chamber attached to the upper end of the heater, have been excluded in the illustration. The average speed of the engine during the trials last summer was 120 turns per minute, the absolute pressure on the working piston being 35 pounds per square inch. The steam was worked expansively in the ratio of 1 to 8, with a nearly perfect vacuum kept up in the condenser inclosed in the pedestal which supports the engine frame. In view of the foregoing, experts need not be told that the sun motor can be earried out on a sufficient scale to benefit very materially the sun-burnt regions of our planet. From the particulars given it is easily calculated that the “ con- centration ” of this absorber was 9. The Rey. C. H. Pope has produced a useful little book entitled “Solar Heat,” the second edition of which was published in 1906. In it he tells us he started his experiments (which do not appear to have included the conversion of solar radiation into mechanical energy) in 1875. He used a modification of Mouchot’s truncated cone reflector formed of many plane mirrors, the plan adopted about the same time by Adams. Pope has fallen into the same error re the connection between temperature and concentration of radiation as did Adams, for he says (p. 17): That the degree and amount of heat at the focus will be proportionate to the area of the opening of the lens or mirror, and that thus the only limit to the temperature which may be reached is the size to which such lenses and mirrors may be constructed and revolved. And. (p. 93): These rays may, therefore, be gathered together and made to unite, as if they became one denser, stronger, hotter ray, so that the temperature of the con- densed rays will be raised in proportion to the number of rays blended, and we can thus cause the heat to increase to any degree our apparatus can be enlarged. W. Adams, deputy registrar, High Court, Bombay, seems to be the sole Englishman who has worked on the practical side of the prob- lem of the utilization of solar energy. His work was done in India, .and is recorded in his interesting book, Solar Heat (Bombay, Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 1. MoucHot’s MULTIPLE TUBE SUN-HEAT ABSORBER OF 1878. ERICSSON’S SUN-POWER PLANT OF 1883. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 2. PIFRE’S SUN-POWER PLANT OF 1878 DRIVING A PRINTING PRESS. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 155 1878). He started on the work in 1876, and his experiments led him to conclude, as did Buffon, that silvered-glass mirrors were superior to polished-metal ones. This is no doubt true for ordinary use, though for laboratory experiments the polished-metal ones give better results, as there is then no absorption by the glass (pl. 2). In two particulars Adams was much at fault—(1) in believing that the solar rays which reach the earth are not practically parallel, and this in spite of the opposite opinions of the many physicists whom he quotes, and (2) in believing that the temperature attained at the focus of a lens or mirror is directly proportional to the con- centration of the rays. As a consequence, he stated that if a lens 85 feet 4 inches in diameter concentrated the radiation onto a circle one- ° half inch in diameter the temperature would be 73,400,320° F. This is equal to 40,780,000° C., while the temperature of the sun itself is only 6,000° C., and no amount of such concentration could produce a temperature in excess of this. This error on the part of Adams and Pope seems to be due to a confusion of “temperature” with “ quan- tity of heat.” His experiments were all made with plane or flat glass mirrors, the use of which he strongly advocated in preference to curved metal ones, which Mouchot used. Sometimes he used groups of 18 mirrors, each 17 by 103 inches, and sometimes of 32, each 9 by 6 inches. The latter he arranged in a concave wooden frame in 4 tiers of 8 in each tier. Such a group of 32 formed 1 unit, of which he had 16, all focused onto one boiler. When placed together the 16 units formed a portion of the surface of a hollow sphere 40 feet in diameter. One of his boilers was of copper one-sixteenth inch thick, 16 inches diam- eter, 2 feet 7 inches high, and held 9 gallons of water, which boiled in 30 minutes and evaporated 32 gallons in an hour. His next boiler was also of copper one-fourth inch thick, and of the same design and external dimensions as Mouchot’s, but with a water space between the inner and outer shells of 3 inches instead of 3 centimeters, and containing 12 gallons of water as compared with Mouchot’s 44 gallons. The 12 gallons of water were boiled and the pressure raised to 10 pounds to the square inch in the half hour from 7.30 a.m. to 8 a. m., and by 8.30 a. m. the pressure was 70 pounds to the square inch, when the safety valve opened, whereupon he goes on to say: A gentleman present kept the valve down by placing his foot on it, till the steam, escaping from several leaks in the joints of the fittings made the position untenable. The weight on the safety valve was then supplemented by a brick suspended from the lever by a piece of string, when suddenly the packing and red lead at the top of the dome under the socket of the steam pipe (which had been fixed by my butler, who professed to have formerly been a fitter) gave way, and, with a terrific noise, the whole volume of steam rushed out of the 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. opening. On turning off the solar rays and examining the boiler it was found to be dry. All the water had either been evaporated or blown out. When this boiler had been properly fitted up by professional fitters, a steam pump was hired, said to be of 23 horsepower, and it was connected with the steam pipe. At 7.30 a. m. fire was opened on the boiler from the whole battery of 16 mirrors at a range of 20 feet, the boiler containing 12 gallons. At 7.45, i. e., a quarter of an hour there was a pressure of about 2 pounds and at 8.30 a, m. 55 pounds. The steam was then turned into the cylinder of the pump, and the pump was kept working at a uniform pressure of about 30 pounds to the square inch. This pump, the first steam engine ever worked in India by solar heat, was kept coing daily for a fortnight in the compound of my bungalow at Middle Colaba, in Bombay, and the public was invited, by a notification in the daily papers, to - witness the experiments. Adams also made a solar cooker, the reflector of which was formed of eight sheets of plane glass arranged so as to form a hollow truncated octagonal pyramid 2 feet 4 inches in diameter at the larger end. The food was placed in a cylindrical copper vessel, at the axis, covered with an octagonal glass shade. With this he and others cooked many meals, both stews and roasts, and he records that both he and Mouchot found (p. 98) that animal fat— When exposed to the direct or reflected rays of the sun was converted into butyrie acid, a substance having such an offensive odor and taste as to render the roast unpalatable. Mouchot then discovered that a sheet of red, pink, or yellow transparent glass interposed between the roast and the reflector had the effect of preventing this fermentation, as those colors have the curious property of absorbing, neutralizing, or eliminating the rays by which it is caused. Adams also states (p. 36) that— When the sacred fire that burned in the Temple of Vesta? became extinct, the ancient Romans used to rekindle it by placing a piece of dry wood in the linear focus of the conical reflector * * * To bring fire from heaven, by supernatural aid and a metal reflector was, no doubt, one of the most ancient miracles of priestcraft.” He suggested many uses for solar heat, among others (p. 96), “ for the cremation of deceased Hindus and others.” Taking into account the facts that he did not expend much money on his experiments, and that he did the whole of his solar work in 18 months, it will be admitted his was a most creditable piece of work, especially as he was neither an engineer nor a physicist. To make this amply clear, he says: I have neither the capital, the time, nor the practical knowledge required to conduct any business in which steam machinery is used. I know now that the “ vovernors ” of a steam engine are the two iron globes which revolve about it, and not, as I had supposed, the two men who lubricate the machine and feed the boiler with coals. This is nearly the extent of my knowledge of steam machinery. 1 Vesta, the Goddess of the Hearth. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. HO In coneluding this brief account of Adams’s work you will be pleased to learn that he was awarded the gold medal of the Sassoon Institute of Bombay for his essay on The Utilization of Solar Heat, which he submitted in March, 1878. In Comptes Rendus, Volume 91, 1880, pages 388-389, M. Abel Pifre claims an efficiency of 80 per cent for his apparatus when he says he obtained a rate of absorption of 1.21 calories per square-centimeter- minute. If such a rate were obtained we now know it would mean an efficiency of 89.7 per cent, which is improbable. Pifre used a para- bolie reflector (instead of a truncated cone), and reduced the surface of the boiler, thus increasing the concentration. The capacity of his boiler was 11 gallons, and he collected 100 square feet of solar radia- tion so the diameter of his reflector was about 11 feet 4 inches. He used a rotary pump, and raised 99 liters of water 3 meters in 14 minutes, which is equivalent to 0.065 horsepower. He ran a printing press with his sun-power plant, and claimed that if he had collected 216 square feet of radiation he could have produced 1 horsepower, which is quite likely (pl. 2). Next in order we have Langley’s work, which consisted of many ex- periments to determine the value of the solar constant, the value of which he gave as 3 calories per square-centimeter-minute. Langley experimented with de Saussure’s “ hot box,” and was the leader of the expedition to Mount Whitney, where some of his best work wasdone. He gave a preliminary account of this trip in Nature of August 3, 1882, pages 314-317, and a full record of it under the title “ Researches on solar heat” in the United States of America War Department, Papers of the Signal Service, 15, 1884. He also referred to it in the New Astronomy (1900). In Nature (p. 315), he said: As we still slowly ascended and the surface temperature of the soil fell to the freezing point, the solar radiation became intenser, and many of the party pre- sented an appearance as of Severe burns from an actual fire, while near the sum- mit the temperature in a copper vessel, over which were laid two sheets of plain window glass, rose above the boiling point, and it was certain that we could boil water by the direct solar rays in such a vessel among snow fields. In Volume 73 of the Proceedings, Inst. C. E., 1883, page 284, is described a plant designed by J. Harding, M. Inst. C. E., for dis- tilling water by solar radiation. This plant was erected at Salinas, Chile, 4,300 feet above sea level, and had 51,200 square feet of glass arranged in sections 4 feet wide, and in the form of a very flat A, forming the roof of a shallow water trough. The sun evaporated the water, and the resulting vapor con- densed on the glass, for the temperature in the box was far higher than that of the atmosphere, and hence of the glass. The pure water trickled down the sloping glass and dripped from its lower edge into 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. a small channel on the top of each side of the box. These channels delivered into larger ones, and thus the distilled water was collected. The plant yielded 5,000 gallons of pure water per day in summer, i. e., 1 pound of water per square foot of glass. Allowing for interest on capital, cost of repairs, etc., the cost of the pure water is said to have been. less than one-half penny per gallon. The chief item of expense was the breakage of glass by whirlwinds. Distillation started at 10 a.m. and continued to 10 p.m. The maximum temperature of the water in the troughs was 150° F. The total cost of the plant, includ- ing pumps, windmills, and tanks, was $50,000, or 1s. 6d. per square foot of glass. It is not clear when the solar energy problem first engaged the atten- tion of C. L. A. Tellier, a French refrigerating engineer, but in 1889 he published his book, “Elévation des Eaux par la Chaleur Atmos- phérique,” in which he gave many drawings and details, and a very full description of his plant. He may have been the first to use the lamellar boiler, but the United States patent No. 230323, of July 20, 1880, of MM. Molera and Cebrian, shows that they proposed this form of boiler. The dimensions of each section of Tellier’s boiler were 3.5 by 1.12 meters. They were made of thin plates of iron, so riveted together as to give them a quilted formation. They were filled with ammonium hydrate, which, he says, when heated by the sun produced gaseous ammonia at a pressure of “several atmospheres.” The ammonia gas was used in a small vertical engine, and was then liquefied in a condenser and used again. The boilers were fixed in a sloping position so as to “ face the sun,” and two somewhat fanciful illustrations show them used as roofs of verandas. The boilers were insulated on their lower or shade sides to prevent loss of heat, and were placed in shallow boxes with only one layer of glass to form the cover. He experimented with different colored glass, and found, as might be expected, that colorless glass gave the best results. He also gave complete details of his invention as apphed to the manu- facture of ice. With so much detail it is disappointing that the au- thor could not find the results of a single experiment with the plant. In fact, he is not sure whether Tellier ever constructed one. In his work La Conquéte Pacifique de VAfrique Occidentale (1890), Tellier discussed social and economical questions, and showed how improvements might be made by rendering the deserts of Africa productive by means of his sun-power plants. A. G. Eneas, in the United States, used the popular truncated, cone-shaped reflector, collecting about 700 square feet of solar radia- tion. The weight of the reflector was 8,300 pounds. The boiler was formed of two concentric steel tubes, the two together being incased in two glass tubes with an air space between them and another air space between the inner glass one and the outer steel tube. UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 159 The water circulated up between the inner and outer steel tubes and down the inner tube. The boiler was placed at the axis of the cone. Its length was 13 feet 6 inches, its water capacity 834 pounds (13.4 cubic feet), and steam space 8 cubic feet. Hence the diameter of the outer tube appears to have been 1 foot 2 inches and the concen- tration of radiation 13.4; i. e., 13.4 square feet of sunshine were con- centrated on each square foot of the external surface of the boiler. C. G. Abbot (The Sun, p. 369) states that Eneas gave him the following particulars: February 14, 1901—Pasadena, Cal., 11.80 a. m.—0.30 p. m.; 642 square feet sunshine. Temperature of air, 61° F. Steam pressure, 145-151 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 123 pounds. October 8, 1903.—Mesa, Ariz., “about midday”; 700 square feet sunshine. Temperature of air 7 4° F. Average steam pressure, 141 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 133 pounds. October 9, 1904.—Willcox, Ariz., 11 a. m.—12 a. m.; 700 square feet sunshine. Steam pressure, 148-156 pounds per square inch. Steam condensed, 144.5 pounds. The temperature of the feed water is not given, but, assuming it to be the same as the temperature of the air, we can deduce the rate of absorption per square foot of radiation and the thermal efficiency of the absorber. This being done, we obtain the following table: Rate of Mean absorption Weight of | pressure of Der alee pectial : steam steam in oot 0 efficienc Place and date. Period. produced | pounds per} radiation of the 7 in pounds. | square inch] collected, | absorber. ofabsorber.| B.t.u. per hour. Per cent. Pasadena, Feb. 14, 1901...... 11.30 a. m. to 0.30 p. m-.. 123 163 223 74.6 Mesa, Octy3; 1903! sone ses2-0- “ About midday’”’....... 133 156 219 SS CRS} Willcox, Oct. 9, 1904........-. Wat tone i= esas 144.5 167 238 79.6 1 For a maximum transmission of radiation through the atmosphere of 70 per cent. Eneas refers to his “nine different types of large reflectors,” and found that he obtained better results when he concentrated the re- flected rays “on two parts of the boiler instead of its entire length, as in the Pasadena machine.” The unexposed portions of the boiler then appear to have been lagged. Eneas said, “TI find 3.71 B. t. u. per square foot per minute as the greatest amount of heat obtainable during the trial runs.” This gives a maximum efliciency of 74.5 per cent, which agrees with the result given for his Pasadena plant in the foregoing table. Eneas also stated that “the interposition of a single thin glass plate in a beam of sunlight diminishes the intensity about 15 per cent. This decrease is owing principally to reflection.” On page 466 of 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Preston’s Treatise on Heat, it is stated that “mirror glass 2.6 milli- meters thick transmitted 39 per cent of the radiation that fell on it from a Locatelli lamp, while rock salt transmitted 92 per cent.” The diathermancy of each substance varies with the nature of the source of heat, so the result just given is not comparable with that given by Eneas. Abbot found the following percentages of heat were transmitted through sheets of glass, each from 1.5 to 2 millimeters thick. In one set of experiments the glass was normal to the rays and the other at 45°. Percentage transmis- sion. Number of sheets | of glass. | Raysnor-| Rays at mal to 45° to glass. glass. 1 86.5 85 2 74.5 71.8 3 63.5 60 4 53.3 49 The sun-power plant known as the Pasadena! one was described and illustrated in the August, 1901, issue of Cassier’s Magazine by Prof. R. H. Thurston, LL. D., D. E., and on page 103 of the Railway and Engineering Review of February 23, 1901. It is stated to have been designed by, and erected at the expense of, “a party of Boston inventors whose names have not been made public.” It consisted of a truncated cone reflector, 33 feet 6 inches in diameter at the larger end and 15 feet diameter at the smaller, with a boiler 13 feet 6 inches long, having a capacity of 100 gallons (U.S. A.) plus 8 cubic feet of steam space (pl. 3). The article in the Railway and Engineering Review states: “According to newspaper accounts, the all-day average work per- formed by the engine is 1,400 gallons (U. 5S. A.) of water lifted 12 feet per minute, which is at the rate of 4 horsepower.” It is more nearly 44 horsepower; thus, this plant required 150 square feet of radiation per horsepower, and the concentration appears to have been 13.4. The Pasadena plant is said to have cost £1,000, and Willsie, writing of it in 1909, says it was “the largest and strongest of the mirror type of solar motor ever built.” H. E. Willsie and John Boyle, jr., started their work in America in 1902. The method they adopted was to-let the solar radiation pass through glass and heat water, which in turn was used to vaporize 1 There appear to have been several plants erected at Pasadena by different experi- menters. Probably Eneas designed the plant above described. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Ackermann. PLATE 3. THE PASADENA SUN-HEAT ABSORBER OF 1901. “LL6OL ‘ANOOVL ‘YaaHosay NVWNHS SHL SO LSSAA SHL WOYS MA3lA IWY3N35) “bp ALV1d "UURLUAYDY—'G 16] ‘Hoday ueiuosy}iWws UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 161 some volatile fluid such as ammonium hydrate, ether, or sulphur dioxide, the vapor being used to drive an engine. Willsie thinks he was the first to propose this two-fluid method for the utilization of solar energy, and, so far as the author knows, his claim is correct. Their first sun-heat absorber was built at Olney, TlL., and consisted of: A shallow wooden tank tightly covered with a double layer of window glass. The sides and bottom were insulated by inclosed air spaces filled with hay. The tank was lined with tar paper, well pitched, to hold water to the depth of 3 inches. Although the weather was cold and raw, even for October, with occa- sional clouds, the thermometer in the water showed temperatures higher than were needed to operate a sulphur dioxide engine. The next solar heater was built at Hardyville, Ariz. Sand was used for insulation. Three tests for the amount of heat gave these average results in December : Heat units absorbed per Test No. square foot per hour. 1 120 2 122 3 148 An estimate showed that 50 per cent of the heat reaching the glass was absorbed into the water. In 1903 some further heater tests were made, patent applications filed, and to carry on experiments on a more extensive scale the Willsie Sun Power Co. was incorporated. In the spring of 1904 a complete sun-power plant was built at St. Louis. In this installation a 6 horsepower engine was operated by ammonia. 'The heater consisted of a shallow wooden basin coated with asphalt and divided by strips into troughs. It was covered by two layers of window glass and insulated at the sides and bottom by double air spaces. Hach trough of the heater formed a compartment. The troughs were inclined so that a thin layer of water flowed from one trough to the next. In this heater was collected and absorbed into the water from the sun’s rays 211,500 heat units per hour at noon, or 3877 heat units per hour per square foot of glass exposed to the sun. As, according to accepted solar observations, about 440* heat units per hour reached a square foot of glass, this heater was showing the surprising efficiency of 85 per cent, and collecting nearly twice as much solar heat per square foot per hour as did the apparatus of Ericsson. Of the lost heat I estimated that 40 heat units were reflected and absorbed by the glass and that 23 heat units were radiated. On cloudy days the water could be heated by burning fuel. A de- scription of this plant appeared in a St. Louis paper and in a New York paper, but, so far as I know, it has not been mentioned in any technical publication. It was then decided to build a sun-power plant on the desert, and some land about a mile from The Needles, Cal., was purchased for a site. 1No; only 299. Note: 0.70X1.93=1.352 calories per square-centimeter-minute=299 B. t. u. per square-foot-hour, 18618°—sm 1915 iat} 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This Needles plant used sulphur dioxide, and its results decided them to build a larger plant, which Willsie speaks of as their third sun-power plant, and describes as follows: A 20-horsepower slide-valve engine was connected to an open-air water-drip condenser and to a fire-tube boiler 22 inches by 19 feet having fifty-two 1-inch tubes. The solar-heated liquid flowed through the tubes giving up its heat to the sulphur dioxide within the boiler. Boiler pressures of over 200 pounds were easily obtained. The engine operated a centrifugal pump, lifting water from a well 43 feet deep (sic), and also a compressor, in addition to two circulating pumps. Their fourth plant was a rebuilding of the third, and they tried the expedient of covering the heat-absorbing water with a layer of oil, but the results were not so good as when a heat-absorbing liquid (water, or oil, or a solution of chloride of calcium) was rapidly circulated in a thin layer. The sun-heat absorber for this plant was in two sections, one covered with one layer of glass and one with two layers, and both on a slope, the liquid running from the first to the second, and its temperature in the two sections being 150° F. and 180° F., respectively. The liquid at 180° F. was distributed over a “heat exchanger” consisting of horizontal pipes about 38 inches in diameter, arranged in a vertical plane, something like an air con- denser. The pipes contained sulphur dioxide, and the heat-absorbing liquid lost about 100° F. in its descent. The cooled liquid was returned to the two sections of the absorber to be reheated. The heat exchanger was inclosed in a glass-covered shed. Willsie says: The engine used in this experiment was a vertical automatic cut-off, which at times, with a boiler pressure of 215 pounds, probably developed 15 horse- power. The two-heater sections exposed an area of about 1,000 square feet to the sun, but as the heat was taken from storage and not directly from the heater, it is not fair to assume the above proportion of heater surface to horse- power developed. The condenser consisted of 6 stacks of horizontal pipes, 12 pipes to the stack. The cooling water, pumped from a well 48 feet deep, had a temperature of 75° F. Only enough water was allowed to drip over the pipes to keep them wet, and so great was the evaporation in the dry desert breeze that the cooling water left the lower pipes at 64°. By using the cooling water over and over, the condenser gave very satisfactory results. A shade of arrow weed, a straight willowlike shrub abundant along the Colorado River, kept the sunshine from the condenser pipes and permitted a good air circulation. Willsie estimated the cost of his sun-power plant, complete with engine, at £33 12s. per horsepower. With regard to Willsie’s results, it is to be noted that 377 B. t. u. per 317X100 60 070 X7.12 know that a maximum of only about 299 B.t.u. per square foot per hour penetrate the atmosphere. The author agrees with the 50 per cent efficiency given a little earlier by Willsie. hour means an efficiency of =126 per cent, for we now UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 168 Frank Shuman, of America, started on the problem in 1906, and in 1907 he had a plant running which developed about 34 horsepower; 1,200 square feet of sunshine fell onto a fixed, horizontal water box with a glass top. In the water there were rows of parallel horizontal black pipes containing ether, and exposing 900 square feet of surface to the solar radiation. The water also became heated and conveyed heat to the under sides of the pipes. The ether boiled, and its “steam” drove a small vertical, simple, single-cylinder engine. The exhaust ether vapor passed into an air surface condenser, and the liquid ether from this was pumped back into the tubes of the “ boiler ” already described. This plant, Shuman says, ran well even when snow was lying on the ground. This at first seems very remarkable, but though in the winter the number of solar rays falling on a given horizontal area is smaller than in summer, the permeability of the atmosphere is about 20 per cent greater in winter than in summer, which counteracts the other effect; but of course the loss of heat by conduction from the boiler is greater in winter than in summer. In 1910 Shuman constructed an experimental] unit of an absorber measuring 6 by 9 feet. This unit combined the lamellar boiler of Tellier and the “ hot box” of de Saussure, for it consisted of a shallow black box with double glass top, with 1 inch of air space between the two layers of glass, another air space of an inch between the lower glass and the boiler, which was 6 feet long (up the slant), 2 feet 6 inches wide, and + inch thick over all. The box was so sloped that at noon the rays of the sun were perpendicular to the glass. The box was not moved to follow the sun, but it was adjusted about every three weeks, so that the condition just named was complied with. The remarkable thing about the absorber was that there was no concentra- tion of any kind of the sunshine by mirrors, lenses, or other means, and yet the author on one occasion recorded a temperature of 250° F. in the box. The best run of an hour’s duration produced steam at atmospheric pressure at the rate of 74 pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine falling on the box. The author’s tests of a Shuman 100 horsepower low-pressure engine at Erith showed the steam consump- tion to be 22 pounds at atmospheric pressure per brake-horsepower- hour. Hence, with an absorber of the type just described, it would be necessary to collect solar radiation to the extent of 300 square feet per brake horsepower, which is a much larger area than any named by other workers. The maximum thermal efficiency of this absorber was 24.1 per cent. In 1911, with the aid of some English capitalists, Shuman con- structed his third absorber at Tacony (a suburb of Philadelphia), which was almost identical with the one just described, except that it had two plane mirrors, one at the upper edge of the “hot box” and 164 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. one at the lower, so arranged that 6 square feet of sunshine were con- centrated onto 3 square feet of “ hot box ”; 1.e., the concentration was 2to1. Its position was adjusted about every three weeks. This time the total quantity of solar radiation collected was many times as large as the largest collected by any previous worker, for the total area was 10,296 square feet. In the best run of one hour this plant pro- duced 816 pounds of steam at atmospheric pressure. This is at the rate of 9 pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine, and therefore equiva- lent to an allowance of 245 square feet of sunshine per brake horse- power. The maximum thermal efficiency of this absorber was 29.5 per cent (pl. 4). Toward the end of 1911 the Sun Power Co. (Eastern Hemisphere), (Ltd.), requested their consulting engineers (Messrs A. 5. IK. Acker- mann and C. T. Walrond) to select and invite some distinguished physicist to join them in a consultative capacity. Hence Prof. C. V. Boys, F. R. S., became associated with the work, and he suggested a vital change in the design of the absorber, viz, that the boilers should be placed on edge in a channel-shaped reflector of parabolic cross section, so that solar radiation was received on both their surfaces, instead of one being worse than idle, as it was when the boilers were placed side on to the sun. The design immediately received the hearty approval of the consulting engineers and Shuman, and at the time we all thought the arrangement was novel, but the author has since found and recorded herein that Ericsson used a very similar reflector and boiler. An absorber of this design was constructed and erected at Meadi on the Nile, 7 miles south of Cairo, in 1912, but the boiler was constructed of thin zine and failed before the official tests could be made. This boiler was replaced by a cast-iron one in 1913, and the author (accom- panied by his old pupil, G. W. Hilditch, A. M. Inst. C. E., as his chief assistant, now Lieut. Hilditch of the Divisional Engineers, Royal Naval Division) spent two most interesting months with the plant in July and August, 1913. He went out in time to tune up the Shuman engine (a 100-horsepower one) taken out from Tacony, and make all the necessary preparations for the trials, of which there were over 35. In addition to the alteration of the shape of the reflectors, another very important change was made. Their axes were placed north and south, and they were automatically heeled over from an eastern aspect in the morning to a western one in the evening, so as to follow the sun. Thus the same number of solar rays were caught all day long, and the small decrease in steam production in the morning and even- ing was almost entirely due to the greater thickness of atmosphere through which the rays had to pass. The total area of sunshine col- lected was 13,269 square feet (pls. 5 and 6). ‘OL6L ‘lava ‘Yaayossy SAOG-NVYWNHS SHL SO HLNOS SHL WOUS MZIA IWYSN35 VAAL ni aes "G ALV1d *UURWUaYSY—'G1 6] ‘HOdey uRlUOsY}ILUS "HLYON SHL WOU ‘YSayOSSYY SHL 4O NOILOSS 3NO ‘EL6] ‘lavaiN ‘YaauOsay SAOG-NVWNHS a ee ‘9 ALV1d ‘UUBWUaYOY—'GL6| ‘Hodey ueluosyyIWS UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY—ACKERMANN. 165 The boilers were placed at the focus of the reflectors and were covered with a single layer of glass inclosing an air space around the boilers. Each channel-shaped reflector and its boiler was 205 feet long, and there were five such sections placed side by side. The con- centration was 44 to 1. The maximum quantity of steam produced was 12 pounds per 100 square feet of sunshine, equivalent to 183 square feet per brake horsepower, and the maximum thermal efficiency was 40.1 per cent. The best hour’s run gave 1,442 pounds of steam at atmospheric pressure, hence, allowing the 22 pounds of steam per brake-horsepower-hour, the maximum output for an hour was 55.5 - brake horsepower—a result about 10 times as large as anything pre- viously attained, and equal to 63 brake horsepower per acre of land occupied by the plant. Typical examples of seasonal migration are found in Switzerland, where conditions prevailing in the higher and lower valleys of the Alps have induced the inhabitants to shift their residence with the seasons, A similar nomadism is observable among the Rumanians of the Pindus Mountains; v. The Nomads of the Balkans: An account of life and customs among thé Vlachs of Northern Pindus, By A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, Methuen, London, 1914, 438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. strongly impregnated with eastern influences. Oddly enough, its Christianity was derived from Byzantium instead of from Rome, and were it not for a veritable renaissance of Latinism about 1860 its affinity with the Slavic world would have been far stronger in the present century. 13. THE AREA OF SLOVENE SPEECH. Of the two groups of southern Slavs subjected to Austro-Hun- garian rule the Slovenes are numerically inferior.t Settled on the calcareous plateaus of Carniola, they cluster around Laibach and attain the area of German speech, on the north, along the Drave between Marburg and Klagenfurt.2 Eastward they march with Hungarians and the Serbo-Croat group of southern Slavs. Their southern linguistic boundary also coincides with the latter’s. Around Gottschee, however, a zone of German intervenes between Slovene and Croatian dialects. Practically the entire eastern coast of the Gulf of Triest lies in the area of Slovene speech. The group there- by acquires the advantage of direct access to the sea, a fact of no mean importance among the causes that contribute to its survival to the present day in spite of being surrounded by Germans, Hun- garians, Croats, and Italians. The Slovenes may be considered as laggards of the Slavic migra- tions that followed Avar invasions. They would probably have occupied the fertile plains of the Hungarian “ Mesopotamia” had they not been driven to their elevated home by the pressure of Magyar and Turkish advances. Confinement in the upland pre- vented fusion with the successive occupants of the eastern plains which unfolded themselves below their mountain habitations. Ra- cial distinctiveness characterized by language no less than by highly developed attachment to tradition resulted from this state of seclusion. 14. THE AREA OF SERBIAN SPEECH. South of the Hungarian and Slovene linguistic zones the Austro- Hungarian domain comprises a portion of the area of Serbian speech. The language predominates from the Adriatic coast to the Drave and Morava Rivers, as well as up to the section of the Danube comprised between its points of confluence with these two rivers.* Serbian, in fact, extends slightly east of the Morava Valley toward the Balkan slopes lying north of the Timok River, where 11,252,940, Census of 1910. 2P. Samassa, Deutsche und Windische in Siidésterreich. Deut. Erde, 2, 1903, pp. 39-41, which cf. with Niederle’s delimitation in La Race Slave, pp. 139-140. 8 Scattered Serbian settlements are also found between the Danube and Theiss Valleys as far north as Maria-Theresiopel, and farther south at Zambor and Neusatz. Serbian is the language of the entire district of the confiuence of the Theiss and Danube. LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 439 Rumanian prevails as the language of the upland.t’ To the south contact with Albanian is obtained. The area of Serbian speech thus delimited includes the inde- pendent kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia. Within the territory of the Dual Monarchy it is spoken in the provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia. The language is, therefore, essentially that of the region of uplift which connects the Alps and the Balkans or which intervenes between the Hungarian plain and the Adriatic. Union between the inhabitants of this linguistic area is some- what hampered by the division of Serbians into three religious groups. The westernmost Serbs, who are also known as Croats, adhere to the Roman Catholic faith in common with all their kins- men, the western Slavs. Followers of this group are rarely met east of the 19th meridian. A Mohammedan body consisting of descend- ants of Serbs who had embraced Islam after the Turkish conquest radiates around Sarajevo as a center. The bulk of Serbians belong, however, to the Greek orthodox church. Cultural analogies be- tween the Mohammedan and orthodox groups are numerous. Both use the Russian alphabet, whereas the Croats have adopted Latin letters in their written language. The Serbian group made its appearance in the Balkan Peninsula at the time of the general westerly advance of Slavs in the fifth and sixth centuries. A northwestern contingent, wandering along the river valleys leading to the eastern Alpine foreland, settled in the regions now known as Croatia and Slavonia. Here the sea and inland watercourses provided natural communication with+ western Europe. Evolution of this northwestern body of Serbians into the Croatians of our day was facilitated by the infiltration of western ideas. But the great body of Serbians occupying the mountainous area immediately to the south had their foreign intercourse neces- sarily confined to eastern avenues of communication. They there- fore became permeated with an eastern civilization in which By- zantine strains can be easily detected. In spite of these cultural divergences, the linguistic differentiation of the Croat from Serbian element has been slight. To-day the political aspirations of this compact mass of Serbians are centered around the independent kingdom of Serbia, which is regarded as the nucleus around which a greater Serbia comprising all the Serbian-speaking inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula will grow. This Serbo-Croatian element is estimated to comprise at least 10,300,000 individuals.? 1 Serbian authorities usually extend the zone of their vernacular to points farther east. Cf., J. Cvijié, Die Ethnographische Abgrenzung der Volker auf der Balkanhalbinsel. Petermanns Mitt., 59, I, March, 1913, pp. 113-118. 2J. Erdeljauovié. Broj Srba i Khrvata, Davidovié, Belgrad, 1911. 440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. By its situation, the Serbian linguistic area and the rugged land over which it spreads afford a political and physical link whereby connection between problems pertaining respectively to western Europe and the Balkan peninsula is established. The process of nation-forging undertaken by Serbian-speaking inhabitants of south- eastern Europe induces a southerly gravitation of Croatians and Bosnians. In opposition to this tendency, artificial forces are ex- erted at Vienna in order to prevent detachment of the Serbian element in the Dual Monarchy. 15. THE CASE OF MACEDONIAN. Within the Balkan Peninsula linguistic groupings now conform to a large extent with the political divisions which ended the wars of 1912-13. Greater distance in time will undoubtedly afford an increasingly satisfactory perspective of the results which followed this attempt to totally eliminate the Turk from mastery over this portion of the European continent. Racial sifting followed close on territorial readjustments. Turks from all parts of the former Turkish Provinces transferred their lands to Christian residents and emigrated to Asia Minor. Special arrangements for this exodus were provided by the Turkish government. Greeks settled in the newly acquired Bulgarian and Serbian domain similarly sought new homes within the boundaries of the Hellenic kingdom. A heavy flow of Bulgarian emigrants is at present directed to Bulgaria from Bulgarian-speaking territory allotted to Serbia." Pressing need of further boundary revision on the basis of lan- cuage is still felt in the Balkan peninsula. Resumption of hos- tilities in this part of Europe was due principally to the moot case of the nationality of the Slavs of Macedonia. Serbs and Bul- gars claim them alike as their own. In reality the Macedonians constitute a transition people between the two. The land they occupy is surrounded by a mountainous bulwark which assumes crescentic shape as it spreads along the Balkan ranges, and the mountains of Albania and the Pindus. For centuries this Mace- donian plain has constituted the cockpit of a struggle waged for linguistic supremacy on the part of Bulgarians and Serbs. The land had formed part of the domain of each of the two countries in the heyday of their national life. To this fact the present duality of claim must be ascribed in part. The language of the Macedonians is likewise transitional between Serbian and Bulgarian. Its affinity with the latter, however, is 1 Such migrations generally follow boundary revisions. The crossing of Alsatians into French territory from the year 1870 on has been mentioned in its place above. A large number of Danes likewise abandoned their home in Schleswig-Holstein in 1865 and wan- dered into Denmark, LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 441 greater. It is, in fact, sufficiently pronounced to have generally led to its inclusion with Bulgarian. Travelers in the land of the Mace- donian Slavs know that a knowledge of Bulgarian will obviate difli- culties due to ignorance of the country’s vernaculars. Serbian, how- ever, is not as readily intelligible to the natives. These relations have not illogically weighted the consensus of authority on the Bulgarian side. The result is that compilers of linguistic or ethnographic maps have generally abstained from dif- ferentiating the Macedonian from the Bulgarian area.t| The im- possibility for Bulgarians to regard the terms of the treaty of Bucarest as final are, therefore, obvious. Extension of the Rumanian boundary to the Turtukai-Black Sea line was also an encroachment on soil where Bulgarian was the predominant language.? In its westernmost area the delimitation of a Bulgarian linguis- tic boundary is greatly hampered by the relatively large Serbian- speaking element on the north and a corresponding mass of Greeks on the south. Reliable statistics are still unavailable. The region in which determination of Bulgarian or Serbian linguistic pre- dominance assumes its most complicated phase is found in the quadrangle constituted by Pirot-Nish-Vranja-Prisrend. Here the language of the Slavic natives departs equally from the Bulgarian and Serbian, between which it varies. This region, however, lies north of Macedonia proper. At the same time, there appears to be little room to doubt that the area of Bulgarian speech extends to the zone of the eastern Albanian dialects and that it attains the Gulf of Salonica. But the seafaring population of the Agean coast is largely Greek except in the sections within Bulgarian bound- aries which are now destitute of Greek fishermen. The advance of Teutonic and Bulgarian forces in Serbia and Albania during the winter of 1915-16 has resulted in a westerly spread of the territory occupied by Bulgarians. Decision on the permanence of this occupation will rest with the peace congress to convene at the end of the present European war. 16. THE AREA OF ALBANIAN SPEECH. Outside of Macedonia, a Balkan zone, in which political and lin- guistic boundaries fail to coincide, existed until recently in southern Albania. The frontier of this principality with Greece had been extended into a region in which Greek was undoubtedly spoken by 1D. M. Brancoff, La Macédoine et sa population Chrétienne, Plon, Paris, 1905, The Serbian viewpoint is resumed by J. Cvijié in ‘‘ Ethnographie de la Macédoine,’”’ Ann. de Géogr., 15, 1906, pp. 115-132, and 249-266. 2Tf is estimated that 1,198,000 Bulgarians are still under foreign rule in the Balkans as a result of the treaty of Bucarest. Of these 286,000 live in Rumania, 315,000 in Greece, and 597,000 in Serbia, Cf. R. A. Tsanoff, Jour. of Race Develop., January, 1915, p. 251. 449 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. the majority of the inhabitants.t. The Hellenic government, taking advantage of disturbances in Albania and the European war of 1914, despatched troops in the territory claimed by its citizens. As a result of this invasion the Albanian area of Greek speech is at this writing under Greek military occupation.? The inhabitants of Albania are utterly devoid of national feel- ing. The formation of this independent state was a political move undertaken by Austrian statesmen to prevent expansion of Serbia to the Adriatic. Within the boundaries determined by the ambassa- dorial conference held in London in 1913, strife and dissensions pre- vail to-day as intensely as during the Turkish régime. Natives of the northern sections of the country speak Serbian dialects and are inclined to favor union with Serbia or Montenegro rather than inde- pendence. Malissori tribesmen fought side by side with Monte- negrin troops in the fall of 1912, while the Albanians of Ipek gave assistance to Turkish regulars. The inhabitants of the valley of the upper Morava sent supplies to Serbian troops against which the chieftains of central Albania led their men. The purest type of Albanian found in the vicinity of Elbassan, Koritza, and Avlona®* is practically submerged in a sea of Greeks. Under these circum- stances partition of the country between Greece and Serbia might not be incompatible with native aspirations. Departure from lin- guistic differentiation in this case would probably be attended by political stability which could not be provided in any other manner. 17. CONCLUSIONS. Certain inferences engage attention in this study of linguistic areas. Tnspection of the map of Europe prepared for this article suggests strikingly that- zones of linguistic contact were inevitably destined by their very location to become meeting places for men speaking different languages. They correspond to the areas of circulation defined by Ratzel.t| The confusion of languages on their site is in almost every instance the result of human intercourse determined by economic advantages. In Belgium after the Norman conquest the burghers of Flanders were able to draw on Enriglish markets for the wool which they converted into the cloth that gave their country fame in the fairs of Picardy and Champagne.> We have here a typical example of Ratzel’s “ Stapelliindern” or “transit regions.” In a cross direc- 1R. Hiiber, Carte Statistique des Cultes Chrétiens. 1:600,000. Baader & Gross, Cairo, 1910. 21. Biichner, Die neue griechisch-albanische Grenze in Nordepirus. Petermanns Mitt. 61, 1915, February, p. 68. 3G. Gravier, L’Albanie et ses limites. Rev. de Paris, Jan. 1, 1913, pp. 200—224. 4H. Ratzel, Politische Geographie, 2d ed. Oldenbourg, Munich, 1903. Cf. chap. 16, “Der Verkehr als Raumbewiiltiger,”’ pp. 447-534. 5R. Blanchard, La Flandre, Colin, Paris, 1906. PLATE 5. Oe Nd Prat AE - Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Dominian, PART or EUROPE SHOWING LANGUAGES having political significance. based on sheet N°12 c(Sept1911) Debes'Handatlas and other sources. | Scale :1:9,000,000 or 1inch=142 miles. (LJ French English Cxech «Moravian (__] Makan [ Dutch (9p) Stovakian [J Rumanian [Flemish (J Stovene ( Atbarian [__) German Serbo-Croatian (__] Greek Russian t-hutheniak Bulgarian (__] Swedish [DS Potish (_] Finnish (_) Mormegian (Wend (J Hungarian (Danish [Dy Lettish eLithuanian{Q) Turkish « Vatar --~—-political boundaries linguistic boundaries KUROPE in 1815. political boundaries} Scale: 1:45.000,000 FEDERATION BAVABRI~ 8 one! A LINGUISTIC AREAS IN EUROPE—DOMINIAN. 443 tion the traffic of the Rhine ran at the end of the twelfth century from Cologne to Bruges along the divide between French and Flemish. Lorraine, inviting access from east and west, is known to historians as a Gallo-Germanic market place of considerable im- portance. In our own time the river trade between Holland and Germany along the Rhine has caused expansion of Dutch into Ger- man territory as far as Wesel and Crefeld. The intruding language yields, however, to German everywhere.? Prevalence of French in parts of Switzerland is generally ascribed to travel through certain Alpine passes.* The penetration of German in the Trentino has already been explained. In Austria the entire valley of the Danube has provided continental trade with one of its most important ave- nues. I have called attention in a former article to the Balkan peninsula as an intercontinental highway. In a word, language always followed in the wake of trade, and Babel-like confusion pre- vailed along channels wherein men and their marketable commodi- ties flowed. The history of Europe during the nineteenth century shows clearly that modern reconstruction of nationalities is based on language. Practically all the wars of this period are the outcome of three great constructive movements which led to the unification of Germany and of Italy, as well as to the disentanglement of Balkan nationalities. These were outward and visible signs of the progress of democratic ideals. The congress of Vienna failed to provide Europe with politi- cal stability, because popular claims were ignored during the delib- erations. At present, inhabitants of linguistic areas under alien rule are clamoring for the right to govern themselves. The carrying out of plebiscites under international supervision can be relied upon to satisfy their aspirations and serve as a guide to frontier rearrange- ments. All told, the growing coincidence of linguistic and political bound- aries must be regarded as a normal development. It is a form of order evolved out of the chaos characterizing the origin of human institutions. The delimitation of international frontiers is as neces- sary as the determination of administrative boundaries or city lines. Human organization requires it and there is no reason why it should not be undertaken with a fair sense of the wishes and the feelings of all affected. 1J, Vidal de la Blache, Mtude sur la Vallée Lorraine de la Meuse, Colin, Paris, 1908, pp. 165-180. 2 Cf. inset on pp. 63-64, Andree’s Handatlas, 6th ed., 1915. 3 J. Brunhes, La Géogr. Humaine, Alcan, Paris, 1912, pp. 598-599. 4The Balkan Peninsula, Bull, Amer. Geogr. Soc., vol. 45, no, 8, 1913. b 43 : ee a ie a? 1" Meets are ivy f errr, cw HLT SAGAN tt BoA i os, : tans aie ~ wi. ¥ « + aoe 3 } Voie SEEETS LY EL. a Es . - " r bat} : p ,Tohy i sha y I i } ry > ae are. : 1 4 Y 4] ‘ * t j “4 gp xy v - } ‘ r i ’ ® i . i f ‘ t ; wat ee i i . 2 ' ae ‘ ; ( it. SERS i) OH ’ PME LA (sea \ a tvnl Tealveont batiivernqys i ? Tih. ‘ } re Ce Ae i i { be ; ‘ f Pe pu j Pan 7 * ma i! ne Oe es ee ud , 5 f ’ : wo " ret ‘ YE j ye “ . + r p yay fy bf 7 a 4 5 i” ; i 3 {3 i i : . . gy! ’ h ‘a 4 ovr f ' f i ) iW ¢ f - i 1 es } |e | NALS : i t ALLY . : 4 ' thf cis y i} f p ¢ i} i Se" ( hy f bad hb ' , \ ¢ ity fy 1 “ESTER 4 vee , i . ‘ 5 stF. A Samer eers! oe 7 ‘ “1 a = F P " 5 2 ‘ 4 ¢ % 7 v} | ) i , ( Ne eT tT } iY wu okt MF a 5 a * \ i or - a ‘ { ; ) ; by LACEY TTT ; j ‘ i es 2 a P buite ayy f I | s is Sian DA ca) pe fa ‘ * “14 : ~ yeep Ore. | eperit 4 ah foniae ‘Qirwore old. ) woe oe { 7}, a Par dd . as we Re ae ae ¢ sf oor ao , eis eee hg ATP TOT } 6 Se fs | rads 7H Pare gi a EXCAVATIONS AT TELL EL-AMARNA, EGYPT, IN 1913-1914.1 By Lupwica BorcHarprt. [With 13 plates. ] Following the discoveries of last year, which were mainly at the houses of the chief sculptor Thutmes and his workmen (pl. 1, P 47, 1-3), it was natural this year to investigate the adjoining estates, so far as they had not been previously excavated. The excavation was therefore started westward from the Thutmes’ house and following the northern edge of the Wadi extended to the main street which connects the modern villages Hagg Qandil and Et-Till (see pl. 1). This street, corresponding to the main thoroughfare of the old city, was reached at house N 47, 1. There were also laid bare the groups of houses Q 48, 1-3 and O 48, 14-15 among the hills rising from the Wadi. Behind the first row of estates, west of “the street of the high priest” and north of the Wadi, the premises lying westward were disposed of as also a block of smaller estates, Q 46, 18-23, to the north of “the Christmas house” (Weihnachtshaus”), Q 46, 1. On the east side of this part of “the street of the high priest,’ between it and the eastern city line, several estates were cleared up, and the work was considerably advanced northward. The area of the city so far* excavated was thus about the form of a T, the upper or horizontal bar running from south-southwest to north-northeast—from M 51 to Q 45— and the perpendicular bar extending from west-northwest to east- southeast—from N 47-48 to Q 48-49. The lower bar at the present state of the work appears split into two strips of houses separated by the Wadi, though it is certain that in ancient times the entire ground was fully built up. Strange as it may appear, the ancient Egyptians in building up an area did not take the precaution to leave the lower levels free of structures. They apparently disregarded rains in distant parts of the desert which caused torrents to rush into the Nile Valley carry- 1 Abstract translated from Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin, No. 55, December, 1914, pp. 1-45. 445 446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ing everything before them, although the experience of millenniums should have taught them better. The difference of level which thus far could be established between the floor of house Q 48, 3 and that of N 47, 6 amounts to 4.50 meters which is quite a marked difference considering that these houses are only about 480 meters apart. ‘lhe same mistake was made in the palace of Amenophis IIT, south of Medinet Habu, and elsewhere. The ancient Egyptian architects were, however, not alone in committing this error, for their modern colleagues and even Europeans building in Egypt do no better. As a result of this thoughtlessness and carelessness of transient engineers, parts of the railway dams, even in the recent decades, have often been swept away by floods, and in 1895 an en- tire corner of the place of Heluan in Cairo was carried off. The appearance of the excavations in the Wadi differs from that in the rest of the city area. Elsewhere the house ruins appear as flat, desert hills where the still remaining upper rows of masonry are brought to light with the first stroke of the pick. In the Wadi a layer of sand or pebble, 0.5 to 1 meter deep, must first be removed before the upper parts of the walls, 1.5 meter or more in height, ap- pear. The débris between the walls is here also more compact, due to alluviation and not merely to the rubbish from the upper build- ings. As the Wadis, which now form a break in the city area, must once have been fully built up, the extensive interruption of the ruin field in the neighborhood of the modern cemetery of Et-Till must be con- sidered as only incidental, and those parts of the ruins formerly termed northern settlements must once have been directly connected with the present main part of the city. We thus obtain a city area of about 7 kilometers from north to south with a greatest width of only 1.5 kilometers. This elongated form of the city, probably in part conditioned by its location along the river, is accounted for chiefly through its origin, which is even now clearly perceptible. The city was built on a long street which ran parallel to the course of the river or, since the river limited its development on the west side, more toward the east on the main street. This main street, which probably already existed as a country road when the city was founded, originally connected the palace and temple quarters near modern Et-Till with the similarly important quarter at the modern village Hagg Qandil. This main thoroughfare still exists as a connecting road between these villages, and appears on the plan (pl. 1) between the premises M 47, 2-6 and M 47,1. The first plan of the city was probably limited to the building up of both sides of the main street and later other broad streets were laid out, running parallel to the main thoroughfare, but bending toward it from the Smithso Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt, Tell el-Amarna * Plan of the localities excavated up to 1914. Scale 1:4000. cic apel ntiereca-thrah ahora ian eaten, SNe EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 447 north and south, and probably leading from certain important cen- ters to the main street. The first of these broad parallel streets which thus far can be traced, may be seen on the plan in front of house L 50, 1, between the houses N 48, 15 and O 48, 8, in front of the house O 48, 13, and between O 47, 2-4 and P 47,19. The next, apparently the most extreme parallel street, is the one termed Oberpriester-Strasse (street of the high priest) and has been fully described in Mitteilun- gen der Deutschen Orient Gesellschaft, No. 52, page 7. The necessary connections between these main arteries of the city were narrow cross streets varying from 1.50 meter (!) to 10 meters in width. They are clearly visible, as shown on the plan between the premises extending from Q 46 to P 48, but good examples of them are also recognizable south of the Wadi at the end of the “high priests’ street.” These cross streets do not always run in a straight line, but some are of a rectangular outline, as the one between Q 46, 2 and Q 47, 9. So much concerning the streets within the city the system of which is gradually becoming more distinct. But likewise as regards the long-known street outside of the city area, to which the mapping of the region has added a large number, some views may now be given which may correct former statements on this subject. In the first place, a sharp distinction must be drawn between earlier streets of the time of Amenophis IV- and later ones. One of the older streets was no doubt the one which led far into the desert to the ala- baster quarry of the Old Kingdom, having a length of 17.5 kilo- meters, and in some places presenting for its time creditable “ art structures,” such as ramps and fortified side slopes. Two other roads on the eastern plateau lead still farther into the desert and to the stone quarry located 24 kilometers from the Nile in an air line. This is an alabaster quarry. Its original circular entrance shaft led through a sandstone elevation rising from the surface of the desert (pl. 2, fig. 1, top, on left side), but at present the entrance is some- what more accessible because of a break in the covering, as shown in the central portion of the figure. In the interior there opens, first, an irregular space, from which passages lead down to other rooms, and from these to still lower levels. In some of the rooms late Roman potsherds were found, bearing witness to the age of the work- ing of the quarry, which is also attested by the rude relief in the wall of the uppermost room on the left side, near the present entrance (pl. 2, fig. 2). This relief represents a priest sacrificing a gazelle before a row of five gods—Re, Atum, Thot, (?), and Har-si-ese. As the age of the quarry furnishes the date of the two roads which lead up to it, they must be disregarded in the reconstruction of the road- net at the time of Amenophis IV. There remain, therefore, for this 448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. period only the so-called “round roads” which above, upon the mountain, connect the tombs and the frontier stele, and their con- necting roads which lead through the plain from north to south, as also the roads from the tombs to the various points of the city. The “round,” or encircling, roads possibly served for the military guard of the city territory. As regards the object of the other roads, the most plausible assumption for the present is that they connected the working places, unfinished tombs, and frontier stele with one an- other and with the factories in the city. In this year’s campaign only a few large estates, but very many small premises were cleared, especially such as already had been investigated and rummaged by our English and native predecessors during the excavation of the city, so that little was learned as to the general arrangement of buildings on large areas. But one assump- tion which was formerly questioned was definitely proved. What was formerly, though with some doubt, designated as a front garden on the street, is now proved to exist at house O 48, 14 (pl. 3, fig. 1) in the form of tree holes regularly arranged with a rectangular border of bricks. The general arrangement seems to be that the house garden proper was inclosed within high walls and thus hidden from public view, but in front of the high wall there was another garden surrounded by low fences, so that passers-by could enjoy the trees and bushes. This consideration for the public, however, is not a characteristic of the oriental, who timidly conceals his possessions behind high walls. But the customs of the ancient Egyptians, espe- cially those practiced in the home and the family, must not be meas- ured by the customs of modern Mohammedan Orientals. One remarkable habit which was this year firmly established, though it was in former years often observed, but not clearly recog- nized, shows how conservative Egypt is. On the estate of a wealthy man (house P 47,17) the main entrance on the street and the entrances to the dwelling were walled up. The walling-up was executed when the wooden doors were still in their frames. Later the white ants, which at Tell el-Amarna devour anything made of wood or similar substances, destroyed the wooden doors behind the masonry. The owners who departed from this estate, probably on their return to Thebes, secured their property, which they perhaps expected to use again, by walling it up against housebreakers. This custom had already been practiced in the Old Kingdom, as in the mortuary temple of King Sahu-re‘, near Abusir, and is still employed in Egypt. Thus several years ago the German consul general, after all the pack- ing cases of his predecessor had been lost, had the storeroom which held his own properties walled up on the advice of natives who were familiar with the conditions of the country, and with the desired result, for the boxes were all there when he departed, though some- Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 2. 1. ENTRANCE TO THE ALABASTER QUARRY OF LATER TIMES. 2. BAS-RELIEF IN THE ALABASTER QUARRY OF LATER TIMES. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 3. 2. ALTAR OF BRICKS IN House P 47, 22. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 449 what musty. There are instances, however, in Thebes where the officially walled-up tombs served merely as a cover for the pillagers of reliefs to perform their work of destruction. Every method for security leads to devising a corresponding method for breaking in. The largest and best preserved house excavated this year, and which, because of its excellent condition, permitted the reproduction in a colored drawing of one of the main rooms, the deep hall, was that of General Ra‘-mose and his housekeeper ’Jnet (House P 47, 9), where the incomplete tombs, already known for some time, lie in the row of the so-called southern tombs in the eastern mountain of Tell el-Amarna. ‘The house is of special interest because its owner is known, and the more so since it supplies some information about his personal history. Under the father of the king he had been active in the high administrative position of “superintendent of the house of King Amenophis III.” His name at that time was Ptah- mose, but under the young king he became “ General of the king of both lands,” and after he had moved with his master to Tell el- Amarna he changed the name to Ra‘-mose (pl. 4). With the con- stantly growing emphasis of the sun-cult, names in which other than solar deities played a part became unfashionable in good society. This custom of altering names, which has its foundation in the persecution of those gods who were not affiliated with the sun-cult, and therefore must have originated at the time of the highest de- velopment of the Aten cult, is important in the chronology of this remarkable religious movement. The house of this “General” is quite close to the confines of the city, which was not founded before the fourth year of Amenophis IV, and was therefore probably built a considerable time after the court had moved to Tell el-Amarna. The name was changed when the house was nearly finished, perhaps even considerably later. Hence the opposition to the names of the nonsolar divinities, as we see it in the above alteration of the name Ptah-mose, regarded as characterizing the period of Amenophis TV, may be considered the last acute stage of the “reformation” of that king, which took place in the last decades of his reign. The intro- duction of the Aten cult was therefore not an abrupt, sudden phe- nomenon, but a gradual development, beginning probably far earlier than the time of Amenophis IV. In fact, there is in the British Museum a statue belonging to the time of the father of the king, bearing a regiment’s name, “the god Aten sheds his rays upon King Amenophis III.” Thus the so-called new god. of Amenophis IV must already have been highly respected under Amenophis ITI, else a regiment would hardly have been named for him. Thus, after all, Amenophis IV, both as the ruler of a gigantic empire and as the founder of a religion, was only an heir, and, as the results in both spheres has shown, not a fortunate heir. 18618°—sm 1915 29 450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. But to return to the house of General Ra‘-mose. The first thing noticed was that all the doors, not only that of the main entrance but even those of the inner rooms, were framed in ashlar. This was later often observed in other, even plainer, houses, though they had no inscriptions as on the doorframes of Ra‘-mose’s house. These stone frames of interior doors are of some importance in connection with the colored reproduction of an inner room to be described below. The Ra‘-mose house also furnished new data concerning the “ quad- rangular” room hitherto regarded as the master’s room, but now as that of the lady of the house. Its presumed function as the master’s room was derived from the fact that it overlooked the courtyard and the storerooms. This would presuppose that it had a window from which one might look out. But Egyptian windows in the lower rooms, with the exception of the “ audience windows” in the palace, are arranged for lighting the inner rooms, being placed high up, almost at the ceiling. So that this reason for considering it the “room of the master” fails. On the other hand, there are two rea- sons favoring its designation as the “room of the lady” in the case of the house of Ra‘-mose. In the first place this is the only known instance where the name of the mistress of the house appears on the frame of a false door, in exactly the same manner that her husband’s name is preserved architecturally pendant from a real door. But as all the doorframes of the house have not been preserved, it can not be asserted that the name of the wife occurred only on this one frame and that therefore the “quadrangular” room must be con- sidered as that of the wife. But there is another and stronger reason. An annex to the “ quadrangular” room, accessible through a short corridor, is evidently a wardrobe room. On two sides of this wardrobe or dressing room are wooden benches, about 70 centimeters high, resting on brick bases, and wide enough so that on and under them the clothing and ornaments of the lady could have been placed. This may seem a bold assumption, but not if it is recalled that in the female apartments of the palaces of Amenophis III, south of Medinet Habu, each bedroom of his numerous chief wives had a wardrobe chamber fitted up with like wooden benches, though of correspondingly greater dimensions. The wardrobe chamber near the “ quadrangular ” room therefore decidedly favors the assumption that it was the “room of the wife.” However, it will be the safest plan to defer a positive statement as to such use of the “ quad- rangular” room until women’s apparel and children’s playthings have been found in such a room. The painting on the walls of the “deep hall,” the dining room of General Ra‘-mose, is well preserved and offered a very interesting study which was gladly taken up, though with the consciousness that it can not at present be definitely interpreted, so that what has been accomplished must necessarily be considered as only a first attempt Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 4. DOORPOST IN THE HOUSE OF GENERAL RA‘-MOSE. "3SOW-,WY TWHSN3D JO 61 ‘Zp d 3SNOH NI « TIVH d33d,, 3HL JO 30IS LS3AA *G 3LV1d *ypreyosog—'g|6| ‘Wodey uejuosy}IWS EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 451 to reconstruct in a drawing the interior decoration of an Egyptian living room. The“ deep hall” or the dining room of the General Ra‘-mose house was 7 by 7 meters in size, with entrances from the northwest through two vaulted doors in the center, and on the eastern side of these a single door counterbalanced by a false single door on the western side (pl. 5, right half). In this way there was produced that sym- metry which is an absolute requisite in Egyptian architecture. Double doors with an additional single door between two rooms was at that time customary. The two side walls exhibit the same archi- tectural arrangement: in the center are double niches with single doors or niches on either side of these as might be needed. The back wall, however, has only the two side doors, without the central vaulted doors or niches; in their stead there is on the floor the usual low eleva- tion thought to be the place for the seats of the master of the house and his wife. Corresponding to this at the center of the west wall, there is the usual platform made of limestone, with raised sides (pl. 5, left half), perhaps the seating place during meals, since it is provided with receptacles for waste water, the washing of the hands before meals playing an important part in ancient Egypt. In this dining room there are also traces of four pairs of columns which stood in two rows (pl. 5, the two holes in the brick plaster of the front), and the limestone base of one of these columns may still be seen. The arrangement of the windows can be determined from the position of the staircase, which renders an opening for a window in the middle of the wall impossible, for there was space only for the door lintel, the fragments of which were found on the floor. It may seem strange that the doors were so low, but in Egyptian houses they were made just a man’s height. So much about the ground plan of the room and its architectural construction. The painting on the walls, made directly on the Nile-mud plaster, is everywhere nearly as high as the remains of the walls themselves, reaching in some parts 1.30 meters above the floor. On the floor of the room were found fragments of the painting fallen from the up- per parts of the walls, including parts of richly painted door head- pieces, chamfers, tore, etc. Such were the data from which to re- produce a colored drawing of the room. The result is quite satisfac- tory, but as here represented in black and white (pl. 18) the light and shade effects of the colors could not fully be preserved, though’ the general impresssion is accurately rendered. The color tone of the wall is greenish-brown, like Nile mud. The doors have black- bordered white frames and white chamfers. The idea underlying this color combination must have originally been to represent lime- stone doors set in brick masonry. But in the present case this idea 452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. was forgotten in the choice of colors, showing that we have here not something original but a mixing of various older motifs. The door frames are not of stone color, but that of red-browns wood, superposed by bright yellow hieroglyphic lines. They should repre- sent an inlaid decoration in two wood colors. But glaring as the yellow tone of the hieroglyphics is in itself, it has an excellent effect in mass upon the dark-red brown. The folding doors are yellow, while the wider doors, which naturally would consist of several ver- tical boards'in red brown, are yellow and red brown, each board separate. The papyrus stalk between the two halves of the double niche is likewise painted in natural colors, green with yellow basal leaves. Naturalism prevails also in the color scheme of the door head- piece of the tombs of Tell el-Amarna and the temple of Abydos, which is painted in the yellow and red-brown wood colors. The painting of the chamfer of the door headpiece is remarkable. Per- haps originally a frieze of uraei (sacred asps) was intended or er- roneously laid on, while in the painting coarsely executed rosettes in different colors were employed. The yellow tone of the window grating is due to the fact that these structures date back to the period of original wood construction. Of the painted garlands which ran as a frieze around the walls, and which in the New Empire were al- ways rendered in the correct forms and colors of the flowers, enough fragments were found to permit an accurate reconstruction. But now we come to the rather doubtful elements of the construc- tion, the columns and architraves. Besides the white bases only the red-brown color of the shafts of the columns, traces of which can be discerned upon the bases, is assured. The form of the columns as palms was selected after old representations of the dining room in the palace of Amenophis IV, and consequently a green color was as- sumed for them. The abaci and architraves, as carried out in the reconstruction, may have been yellow, remains having been found of wooden architraves in another excavation. These are the data for the attempted reconstruction which, in many cases, have shown that this dining room was quite a comfortable place and that the color scheme, even to our taste, was not coarse or glaring but produced rather a pleasing and harmonious effect. Life in such rooms must have been quite pleasant, although they were not very well lighted as evidenced by the frequent finds of lamps and lamp stands. In exploring the environments of the atelier of the sculptor Thutmes some pieces which had been carried away from his work- shop fell into our hands, notwithstanding that a considerable num- ber of the finds of this year were from house ruins which had been already exploited by natives and, perhaps, also by our scientific predecessors at Tell el-Amarna. This year’s experience has thus Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 6. 1. MODELED HEAD OF A BABOON, FOUND IN HOUSE Q 48, 1. Resin composition. Natural size. 2. MODELED HEAD OF A BABOON, FOUND IN House O 47, 5. Limestone. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. RATE. AMENOPHIS IV WITH His WIFE. Relief model of resin. Frontside. About one-half natural size. Found in house P47, 25. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 453 shown that in making museum collections it is worth while to ex- amine methodically places already rummaged, aside from the purely scientific results which such work always yields. In house Q 48, 1, about 100 meters from the atelier of Thutmes, toward the southeast, there was found an exceedingly well executed model of the head of a baboon (pl. 6, fig. 1). In the same house there also came to light beautiful ivory carvings, which later on will be dis- cussed. It need not be assumed that the baboon’s head came from the workshop of Thutmes, for some artisan probably lived there in house Q 48, 1 who could make such a good model of the baboon, especially since, together with the baboon’s head, there was found a small saucer containing remains of the material from which the model was made. The most remarkable feature of the baboon mask is its material, a brown and now hardened stuff at first designated as “resembling wax.” This, then, was the material for modeling, and not clay, and from this first model a copy was made in stone. By chance we also found the head of a baboon made in limestone (pl. 6, fig. 2). It came from the house O 47, 5, about 100 meters from the atelier of Thutmes, toward the west. Judging by the location of this find, it may have come not from the atelier of Thutmes but from some other not yet discovered center of sculptural works. It need not be as- sumed that the limestone baboon was worked after that in “ wax,” though many details suggest it. The task of molding the head of a baboon, the sacred animal of Thot, the god of wisdom, must often have presented itself to the sculptors of Tell el-Amarna, since the center of the cult of this god, to whom the sun cult of Amenophis IV was not at all opposed, was at Eshmunejn, close to Tell el-Amarna. Although the authorship of these two models must be left unde- termined, yet that of the next and most important model (pls. 7 and 8) may safely be assigned to Thutmes. This one was found in house P 47, 25, about 125 meterd north of Thutmes’s atelier, in a region which is still within the circle of this atelier. Looking first at the back or reverse of this find (pl. 8), it shows nothing more than the accurate impression of a board which was roughly planed with an adze. The board itself, like all woodwork at Tell el-Amarna, had been devoured by white ants, but the impression reproduces all the details, even the grain marks. The material of which the model is made must therefore once have been so soft and flexible that it could with great sharpness adapt itself to the smallest differences in the surface of the original. At present it has the same glass- hard consistency and the identical brown color of the “wax-like” model of the baboon head (pl. 6, fig. 1). Prof. Schmidt, of Cairo, who made a preliminary examination of a small particle of the stuff, recognized it as a kind of gum resin, probably Oliban (frankin- cense) or bdellium, with an earthy (Nile-mud) admixture. 454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. This stuff must, therefore, have been poured upon the board while liquid and presumably warm, and then the sculptor modeled into its surface, perhaps with a heated metal instrument, the charming reliefs represented in plate 7. The sculpture represents the king and the queen. He has embraced her with his left arm and loosely lays his hand upon her shoulder; she turns with her face to him and, with her right hand busying itself at his bosom, she nestles on his broad neck ornament. Costume, type, and treatment of the bodies leave no doubt as to the date of this art work. Even if the location where it was found were unknown, every connoisseur would unhesitatingly attribute it to the time of Amenophis IV, and, on account of the unartificial, dashing execution, with the same cer- tainty would pronounce it the first sketch of a relief. This will suffice for the present. There are obviously connected with this find many other questions which are to be discussed later, such as the real composition of the “resin mass,” the origin of the several ingredients, their workableness when combined, the instruments with which they were worked, their suitability for casts in gypsum, etc. Tt was intimated above that in the square of houses O 47 we seem to have come across a new center of sculptural finds, for in this region there came to light many unfinished granite pieces to be laid into reliefs, representing wigs, a very beautiful torso of the statuette of a queen, though the wooden head of the queen is unfortunately totally decayed, the baboon’s head mentioned above (pl. 6, fig. 1), ete. Only two of these finds will here be specially considered. There is first of all a small limestone mask (pl. 9, fig. 1) doubtless copied from a life-size gypsum mask, many examples of which have been found in the modeling chamber of Thutmes. The wrinkles on the forehead, at the base of the nose and around the nose wings and the mouth are here, and in a non-Egyptian fashion well indicated, though in a more schemati¢ manner than on the large masks. Only 50 meters from the above there was found another study (pl. 9, fig. 2), a portrait of Amenophis IV, which in its almost incredible delicacy can confidently be placed by the side of the best reliefs of this king. The artist succeeded best in reproducing the eyes, cheeks, and front of the neck. As the main concern was the portrait, the accessories of the royal costume, such as the headcloth, the frontlet, and the asp (uraeus), are treated in a secondary manner and even to some extent merely indicated. - So much concerning the finds of models in this region which, as stated, is in the environs of a new center of sculptural works, not before carefully explored, though it may have been rummaged by our predecessors. The last find to be mentioned came from an entirely different district, from house Q 48, 1, which is also remarkable for the frequent occur- PLATE 8. Borchardt. Smithsonian Report, 1915 Sr romeeccnae iPr syne eats ~~ ee IMPRESSION FROM THE MOLDBOARD FOUND IN House P 47, 25. About one-half natural size. side, Back Relief model of resin. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Borchardt. PLATE 9. 1. REDUCED MASK MODEL, FOUND IN House O 47, 9. Limestone. Natural size. 2. AMENOPHIS IV. RELIEF STUDY, FOUND IN House O 47, 13. Limestone. About one-half natural size. EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT. 455 rence of art finds. The baboon made of gum resin, mentioned above (pl. 6, fig. 1), comes from this house, but the other objects found there are of ivory and as far as they are dated are older than Amenophis IV. Among these is the cover of a box from the time of Amenophis IIT (1411-1375 B. C.), and the exquisite carving (pl. 10), to be presently discussed, belongs to the time of Thutmosis (Thotmes) IV (1420-1411 B. C.). These dates lead to the assumption that these objects had been collected by some craftsman who inhabited house Q 48, 1, to serve him as copies of patterns. The art work in question consists of the outer shell of part of an elephant’s tusk, about 12 cen- timeters long, bisected lengthwise and carved in pierced work. Its surface thus forms the half mantle of an obtuse cone, and it is therefore nearly impossible to reproduce it by photography and Fig. 1—cuff with repre- by drawing except through unrolling. The work, ee, See which was made still more difficult because of the ofa relief from the mortuary brittleness of the original, was executed by the "mbie O° Netserter at skillful hand of Mr. A. Bollacher. sixth natural size. The carving shows King Amenophis IV striking with the raised sickle sword a Libyan who fell on his knees before him and whom he grasps by the hair. In addition, the King also grasps a bow and arrows, as customary in this ancient type of representing “a king striking down a captive.” This incredible deftness of the hand, which the Egyptian kings displayed at this ceremony, at least on pictorial representations, is already shown in an instance of the Vth dynasty, from the mortuary temple of King Sahu-re’. Behind the king, over whose head the sun disk is to be noticed, the uraeus serpent rises upon papyrus stalks, the heraldic plant of Upper Egypt. The scene plays before a statue of the god Montu of Thebes, who presents to the king the sickle sword and holds the rib of a palm, the symbol of everlasting duration. In front of the god is inscribed what he is saying to the king: “T hold the sickle sword for you, oh beautiful god! With it thou shalt slay the chiefs of all foreign lands.” There is nothing of particular interest either in the composition or the contents of the carving. But the workmanship is finer, particularly the neat execution of the costume of the king and the exquisitely modeled faces of the prostrated Libyan, and still more so of the king. What purpose did this art work serve, or to what object was it at- tached? ‘The answer to these questions is furnished by an earlier find from our excavations. In the mortuary temple of Ne-user-re‘ was found a fragment of a relief (fig. 1) representing the left arm of a king shooting with the bow. The wrist is protected with a cuff against the rebound of the bowstring, and upon the cuff appears in minia- 456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. ture the scene of our ivory carving, “the king striking down a cap- tive.” In its form the ivory carving, which is to be imagined as backed with some stuff, corresponds exactly to the half shell of such a cuff in natural size. It would comfortably cover the half of an Egyptian slender wrist. But this neat, fragile carving could hardly have stood a practical use. It could only have been put upon a statue of life size; that is, one which according to the inscription of Thutmosis (Thotmes) IV represented the king shooting with the bow. It is not surprising that an object with the name of Thutmosis IV was found in the city of Amenophis IV. It may not even be as- sumed that it was brought from Thebes or elsewhere. It has been long known that the city “ Horizon of the sun cult” already existed before Amenophis LV, perhaps, even probably, under another name, as was then the case as to personal names, such as Amenophis changed to “Ich-n-aten and Ptah-mose to Ra‘-mose. On account of the great find of tablets made in 1887 in the “ house of the royal letter writer ” in the royal archives in the palace quar- ter, not far from the village Et-Till, the surroundings of this house had been again and again searched throughout by various investi- gators with the result of adding merely a few unimportant pieces to the original find of upward of 350 tablets, but since the early 90s of the last century hope and further search were given up. So that on December 15, 1918, when Mr. Dubois, the Government’s superintendent of buildings and of the excavations, announced the discovery of a clay tablet in house O 47, 2 it seemed scarcely credible (pl. 11; pl. 12, fig. 1). A portion of another tablet was found on December 19 in house N 47, 8 (pl. 12, fig. 2). Both these pieces were found in premises which already had been thoroughly excavated, the first near the wall of a courtyard, where it became fastened on the upper edge about 30 centimeters below the surface. Though the surface humidity was slight, yet it caused much flaking of the left margin of the obverse and the correspond- ing part of the reverse side of the tablet. The second piece lay considerably deeper in the débris, and therefore escaped this damage. The surroundings of both places where the finds were made were diligently dug up in search for other pieces, but without success. In the division of the finds these two valuable documents fell to the share of the Egyptian Service of Antiquities, and its courtesy in lending them for examination and study is here gratefully acknowl- edged. Dr. Otto Schroeder of the division of western Asia in the Berlin Museum prepared a provisional translation and explanation of these tablets. The smaller one (pl. 12, fig. 2) is of light-brown clay with darkish spots, probably due to contact with chemical salts. It is 6.1 centimeters high by 3.6 centimeters wide, its greatest thickness 2.65 centimeters. It is inscribed on the obverse only and contains a ‘oZ{S [BINJVN ‘“9OVJINS POAIVO pol[OIUN oy} WoIy opeM SuUIMVIC. "L “8h © 3SNOH NI GNNOY ‘ONIAUVD AOA] “OL 3LW1d ‘Ppreyniog—'G| 6] ‘Hodey ueluosyziws *g ‘Lb O 3SNOH NI ANNOY ‘La1avL AVIO ‘aspo WSN "OZIS [BINIVN ‘OSIOAqO “bb aivid *}pseyoiog—'g 1 6| ‘Woday uriuosyjiws *OZIS [BINIVN *¢ ‘2 N 3SNOH NI GNnNOY ‘OZ1S [BINIVN "OSIOADY, ‘AYVEVITAS V SO LNSWOVYE4 'S ‘t ‘Lb O 3SNOH NI GNNOY ‘LINSVL AVIO *| ee, “ol 3LV1d "}ypreyoiog—'g161 ‘Wodey ueiuosyyiws ‘eg: ‘oTROg ‘WOTIONIJsMODEI porOOO AT[BUOTSTAOId B 104TV "3SOW-,VY IVYSN35 4O 3SNOH SHL NI « TIVH daaq,, SHL Liha ems Mil ae 2 ee ee SR RR OWE NON MR AB wid pe wt ) "€| 3LV1d ‘ypreyoiog—'g 161 ‘Wodey ueluosYy}IWS EXCAVATIONS IN EGYPT—BORCHARDT, 457 portion of an Assyrian syllabary. Syllabary is the designation of tabular arrangements in different columns of cuneiform characters, their names and values. Usually they consist of three columns. In the middle column are placed the cuneiform signs which are to be explained; the column to the left gives the pronunciation and syl- labic value of the character, while the column to the right contains the names of the signs. The present fragment is either the writing exercise of a dragoman who was intrusted with the cuneiform cor- respondence to western Asia, which the large script would suggest, or a reading exercise provided for such a dragoman in western Asia. Of much more interest and value is the larger fragment (pl. 11; pl. 12, fig. 1). It is made of a fine light-red clay, with a height and width of 10 centimeters and a thickness not exceeding 2.4 centi- meters. It is closely inscribed on both sides with the so-called “ Hittite” stroke of the cuneiform script, the several paragraphs being separated by lines. As far as made out, it is the first part of a serial literary work, bearing the title “King of the Battle” (Sar tamhari), which treated of a military campaign in western Asia, of which the present. fragments delineate the causes and the begin- ning. Unfortunately, the name of the author or scribe, with which Assyrian tablets are usually signed, is here wanting. In its place is some wiped-out Egyptian red ink and the impression of a finger besmeared with red ink, which might suggest that the Egyptian name of the author or scribe in Egyptian script was intended to be placed there. The first question which pressed for answer was, Did these pieces come from the well-known archives, or are they the harbingers of the existence of deposits of cuneiform tablets apart from the public archives in Tell el-Amarna? The contents of the two tablets do not hinder their having come from the archives, for syllabaries had be- fore that been found in the archives by Professor M. Flinders Petrie and the existence of literary texts in the archives may likewise be as- serted. There was found there, belonging to the library of Ameno- phis III, a faience label of a wooden case of a papyrus which con- tained, obviously in Egyptian script, the tale of the “Sycamore and the Date Palm.” But the great distance of the location of the find from that of the “house of the royal letter-writer,”’ about 14 kilo- meters, would indicate that it did not come from the archives. We should have to assume either that in ancient times pieces from the archives had been scattered over the field of ruins, or that the peas- ants of Et-Till, who discovered the archives in 1887, have in an in- credible manner thrown some of the pieces around. But whatever may have been the origin of the two new tablets, it is certain that there is hope of still further finds of tablets in Teli el-Amarna, where search had been completely abandoned. Ley i ¢ oan morris. VACCINES. By L. Rocer,” Professor on the Faculty of Medicine, University of Paris, Member of the Academy of Medicine. The majority of infectious diseases do not occur a second time; the first attack confers immunity. About a thousand years before the Christian era this fact was known to the Chinese, among whom smallpox made terrible ravages at that time. But all who survived a first attack could live without inconvenience in infected places, so that there was a considerable economic advantage in encouraging the development of the disease during youth. In case the individual died the loss to society was small; in case of survival, the value of that individual immune to a second attack was considerably in- creased. Such were the reasons given by the Chinese for practising variolation, or inoculation with the disease. It is remarkable that such an idea should spring up and develop at a time when diseases were more often attributed to divine wrath than to contagion, and that it should lead to a prophylactic method which was not taken up again until the end of the eighteenth century. Variolation was practised by inserting under the skin or in the nostrils of subjects scabs taken from convalescents. This infection through inoculation is much milder than infection contracted spon- taneously. This result is easily explained: The pathogenic agent is introduced into regions unfavorable for its development and with a subject in good health, not predisposed to infection, while under ordinary conditions of spontaneous infection it is more often the case that resistance has been lowered through the agency of pre- disposing or adjuvant causes. However, variolation is not always harmless; the organism inocu- lated may be in such a condition of Headicppation that infection spreads and takes a serious course, resulting sometimes in death. And even if the inoculated subject resists it, the few pustules which develop are capable of spreading the disease and constitute a danger 1Translated by permission from La Nature, Jan. 30, 1915. * The frequency of infections in time of war creating special interest in a study of their prophylaxis, it has seemed to me useful to publish a brief general summary of the whole subject. 459 460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. for the persons in the vicinity. More than once they have been the starting point of epidemics. In spite of these limitations, variolation rendered great services. It was introduced little by little into Persia, then into Turkey. In 1721 the wife of the English ambassador at Constantinople, Lady Montague, who witnessed the results obtained by this procedure, made it known on her return to London. The new method spread rapidly and was very happily modified by two Scotch farmers, the Suttey brothers, who invented the subepidermic inoculations. Variolation has to-day only a historic interest. It has retreated before another procedure which was introduced into science at the end of the eighteenth century. It had been known for a long time that in certain regions in England, and notably in the county of Gloucestershire, that persons who have the direct care of cattle often have on their fingers small pustules contracted by contact with ani- mals attacked by cowpox, and that this eruption gave them immunity against smallpox. In 1768 Sutton and Fewster drew attention to these facts, and it was then that Jenner conceived the idea of prac- ticing systematically, in the interest of prophylaxis, the inoculation of cowpox. In 1798 the results of these researches were made known. It was established that the virus coming from the cow is inocuable in man; that it may be transmitted from man to man, keep- ing its fundamental characteristics, for when reinoculated in the cow it produced again the characteristic eruption. Finally, inoculation with the virus taken from a cow or from a man previously inoculated, confers immunity against smallpox. ‘The objection was raised that the resistance was not perfect; that several inoculated subjects later contracted the disease. But it came in a mild form and turned off shortly before the period of suppuration, taking a special form, which has given it the name of chickenpox. The discovery of Jenner brought up an interesting problem which has not yet been solved. Can the disease of the cow, or vaccine (vacca, cow), be considered as a special infection, or should it be regarded as a variolous infection modified by a long series of pas- sages through the Bovide? The majority of French scholars agree in keeping the two separate. In Germany and Switzerland re- searches have been carried on tending to establish the fact that the variolous virus can be transformed into vaccinal virus. Whatever solution may be finally adopted, it can be stated that inoculation with vaccine was the first instance of a prophylactic inoculation which was efficacious and harmless. Whether vaccine is a special virus or a modified variolous virus, it produces in man a local erup- tion which becomes general only in exceptional cases, and in these cases only in a very mild form. VACCINES—ROGER. 461 For preventive inoculations the liquid (vaccinal lymph) collected from the pustules of a child or from one of the Bovidex is used. The animal vaccine is in general use to-day. Young calves are pre- viously inoculated by numerous scarifications on the flanks, and used for the culture of vaccine. It is to be hoped that the attempts now being made will permit the cultivation of vaccinal virus in artificial media so that the passage through animals will not be necessary. According to their etymology the words “vaccine” and “ vaccina- tion” ought to apply only to the diseases of the cow and to its inoculation. But, diverted from their original meaning, they desig- nate to-day a whole series of viruses used for prophylactic purposes. Thus, for instance, the terms anthrax vaccine and antianthrax vacci- nations are used. Anthrax vaccine is used only in veterinary medi- cine, but its study is valuable because the method has been the start- ing point of numerous discoveries. To Toussaint, professor at the veterinary school of Toulouse, belongs the credit for having first tried antianthrax vaccination. He subjected anthrax blood to a temperature of about 55° for 10 minutes, thinking in this way to kill the bacilli contained in it. Several animals died on being inoculated with the blood thus prepared, but those which survived became refractory. Toussaint believed that he was vaccinating with the soluble products deposited in the blood by the anthrax bacili. As a matter of fact he was using weakened microbes. ‘This was shown by Pasteur, who in submitting anthrax cultures to the action of heat, succeeded in producing vaccines which could be accurately graduated. The most important of the Pasteur vaccinations consists in culti- vating the anthrax bacilli at 42°. The microbe develops but does not give off spores, and its virulence diminishes more and more. If, after a certain length of time at 42°, the microbe is placed in a new medium and raised to a eugenesic temperature of 37° or 38°, it develops, gives off spores, but maintains the degree of weakness which it had previously reached. There are two Pasteur vaccines— one called the first vaccine, comes from a bacillus which is kept at 42° for from 15 to 20 days; it is so weakened that it no longer has the power to kill animals except those new born. The second vaccine, which has remained for from 10 to 12 days at 42°, can still kill the adults. In practice these two viruses, weakened but living, are inoculated successively, and in this way sheep and cattle are rendered immune with no attendant risk. The economic importance of this method is readily seen, and man, who contracts anthrax only by contact with animals, is indirectly protected. \ 462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Since antianthrax vaccinations are a protection against possible contamination, it will be asked if a similar method would not be effective during incubation—that is, between the time when the virus is introduced into the organism and the time when the symp- toms appear. It was also Pasteur who brought up and solved this problem. It was already known that it was possible to confer immunity against rabies. A professor at the veterinary school of Lyon, Gal- tier, had shown that the saliva of a mad dog injected in the veins of a sheep or goat did not provoke symptoms, but conferred a power- ful resistance against a later inoculation of the virus. The discovery was important but was devoid of practical interest, as the method was uncertain and dangerous. Taking up the study of this question, Pasteur, in collaboration with Chamberland, Roux, and Thuillier, recognized that inoculations performed under the cerebral duramater with the emulsion of a fragment of bulb taken from a dog which had died from rabies were certain to transmit the disease. Using a rabbit, if the inoculations are made in series, the virulence increases—that is, the time of incu- bation diminishes: it becomes only 6 or 7 days after a hundred passages, and from this time it no longer varies; from then on the virus is fixed. If the spinal marrow of a rabbit which has succumbed to an inocu- lation of the fixed virus is suspended in a sterilized flask containing a substance free from water, such as fragments of potassium, it was learned that under the influence of drying the virulence diminishes, and at the end of 14 days the organism becomes accustomed. to supporting viruses more and more active. As the incubation of the disease—that is, the time which elapses between the bite and the first symptoms—lasts a very long time, and as the process of render- ing immune is relatively rapid, the refractory state is successfully reached before the appearance of symptoms. The treatment varies according to the location, the extent, the depth, and the number of bites. It lasts from 15 to 22 days and consists essentially in injecting at different intervals fragments of marrow, beginning with those dried for 14 days and gradually progressing to those dried only 3 days. ' It is useless to dwell on the results obtained. Pasteur’s method is causing the gradual disappearance of rabies, and the time can be predicted when this terrible infection will join smallpox and anthrax in the group of historic diseases. Against smallpox, anthrax, and rabies immunity is secured by means of living virus. It is known to-day that all the effects pro- duced by microbes are due to substances which they contain or which they secrete. Experience shows that it is possible to obtain VACCINES—ROGER. 463 immunity by introducing into the organism either sterilized cul- tures, liquids of the culture free from microbes, or extracts of the bacteria. Each of these different methods has to its credit a certain number of experimental successes and admits of practical application. The prophylaxis of typhoid fever has attracted special attention and incited numerous researches. After the first attempts of Chan- temesse and Widal, it was established through the work of Wright that cultures sterilized by heating can be used. It is only necessary to take care not to exceed a temperature between 53° and 56°. Even within these limits heating has the drawback of weakening the ability to render immune. It has also been proposed to sterilize the cultures by the antiseptics phenol, chloroform, ether, and iodine. And for some time there have been used in practice the autolysats of microbes. It is known that the protoplasm of bacteria, as all living protoplasm, contains digestive ferments. Left to themselves under unfavorable conditions the cells are digested—that is, liquefied by the ferments which they contain. This autodigestion is given the name autolysis. On this principle is based the vaccine of M. Vin- cent. But as among the higher plants innumerable varieties of a single species are known (it will be recalled what the horticulturists have obtained in growing roses or chrysanthemums), so in each microbe species we should distinguish the varieties or races which close study permits us to differentiate. That is why, in the prepara- tion of vaccines, bacilli from different sources have been used. The polyvalent vaccine of Val de Grace is prepared with 10 different specimens. They are sprinkled on a liquid solidified by agar-agar, and after 48 hours in the incubator the cultures are taken out and their surface scraped. The bacilli thus collected are put in salt water to be macerated. The liquid is agitated at different intervals, then at the end of 36 to 40 hours it is submitted to clectric centrif- ugalization to be clarified, and finally it is sterilized with ether. Four injections with this vaccine must be made at intervals of eight hours to confer absolute immunity against typhoid fever. The different antityphoid vaccines give excellent results. The trials made in the Army have demonstrated their efficacy and their harmlessness. The only effects observed during the time following their application are a slight discomfort and a small rise of tem- perature. But these manifestations are light and passing. So it is with good reason that compulsory antityphoid vaccination has been decreed for the whole French Army. This measure is the more important since in time of war the rate of sickness and death from typhoid fever is extremely high. Even with the precautions taken there is a large number of cases, but these occur only among those not vaccinated or insufficiently vaccinated. However, even among shose who have received the necessary inoculations, infections simi- 464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. lar to typhoid fever, but milder, occur quite often. These are para- typhoid fevers. They are due to the paratyphoid bacilli, of which two principal varieties are described, designated by the letters A and B. These two types are related to each other and also on the one hand to the typhoid bacillus, on the other to a microbe very wide- spread, the colon bacillus, by a series of intermediary forms. The antityphoid vaccines are powerless against these microbes, and a study is now being undertaken to find means of preparing either a single active vaccine for the whole group or a special paratyphoid vaccine. It has been thought that, instead of injecting the vaccine under the skin, it would be simpler to introduce it by the digestive tract. This new method is too recent to permit of a final judgment. What- ever its lot may be in the future, it would be hazardous to use it at present; during a war is not the time to begin such an experi- ment. Prudence demands that we use only methods of procedure whose efficacy is indisputable. The less the condition of the microbe in use is altered, the stronger and more lasting is the immunity obtained by vaccines. For this reason the heating of cultures has been gradually diminished. At- tempts have been made to replace the heating process by antiseptic substances; and, finally, the systematic use of living cultures has been proposed. M. Nicolle advises introducing into the veins living microbes freed from all soluble matter by a prolonged washing. It has been made certain that this method is innocuous and that the bacteria injected remain in the organism and are there destroyed. This discovery is important because it might have been feared that a person vacci- nated, like one having the disease, would throw off living elements and become a source of contamination. This method of procedure admits of numerous applications; it is successful in giving immunity against cholera, dysentery, and whooping cough, as well as against typhoid fever. If we seem to be especially occupied with this last infection it is because its frequency and its seriousness hold first place, especially in our lands. In countries with a warm climate vaccines are fre- quently used against cholera and against the plague. The study of anticholera vaccine, begun by Ferran and Gamaléia, has been continued by Haffkine. The living microbe is generally used. On the contrary, Haffkine uses against the plague, cultures sterilized by heating to 70°. The immunity created by the passage of an infection or by the introduction of a vaccine is chiefly characterized by cellular modifi- cations which lead to humoral modifications. A vaccine does not act VACCINES—ROGER. 465 like an antiseptic or an antidote. The organism itself, under the influence of the vaccine, secretes certain substances, or, better, modi- fies the condition of the blood, and this liquid is given new properties. Immunity results not from a simple impregnation by useful products, but from a reaction against harmful products. For this active im- munity to be established, a certain amount of time must be allowed after the time of vaccination. When it is necessary to act quickly— for instance, when a foreigner arrives in a country swept by cholera or the plague—instead of a bacterial vaccination, it is preferable to use serum from an animal rendered immune. The two methods must not be confounded. Serotherapy, or serovaccination, consists in treating or rendering a person immune by means of a blood serum of an animal previously vaccinated. The animal has received the microbe-bearing product and has reacted from it; he has acquired active immunity. The serum of his blood acts almost like an anti- septic or a specific antidote. From the time that it impregnates a new organism it protects it from infection and the organism does not need to react; it takes no part in the action. Thus, it is said, as opposed to the preceding case, that a serum produces a passive im- munity. Passive immunity develops rapidly but is not lasting. The two methods of procedure may be combined—the serum in alcohol may be injected, followed by the vaccine, or, better, an injection of a mixture of the serum and vaccine may be made. Starting from these results M. Besredka has proposed a new method—vaccination by. sensitized virus. The microbes placed in contact with the serum from a vaccinated animal are impregnated with this serum and lose their means of defense. They can no longer resist the phagocytes—that is, the cells capable of absorbing and de- stroying them. At present they are called sensitized. But an excess of serum is more harmful than useful. So it is necessary to take care, before injecting the microbes impregnated with the serum, to wash them carefully in salt water. This is a new method which has already been applied to a large number of diseases. Metchnikoff and Besredka recommend it as efficacious against typhoid fever, and after experiments made by them on chimpanzees they conclude that it is superior to all other methods of procedure. The bacterial vaccines serve, as we have said, in rendering normal organisms immune from danger of infection. It has been asked why they would not be useful in fighting an existing infection. As a result there has arisen a new method given the name of vaccino- therapy, or, better, bacteriotherapy. The first trial is due to Koch, who proposed to combat tuberculosis by injecting into subjects a special product, tuberculin, which is only 18618°—sm 1915——30 466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, an extract of the cultures and the protoplasm of tuberculosis bacilli. The results have been widely varying—often bad, sometimes favor- able. It may be that at first too strong doses were used. In any case the product has not the effect of vaccination and its therapeutic use is not free from danger. The work of Wright especially has attracted attention to bac- teriotherapy. The Wright vaccines are used against typhoid fever, melitococcus, infections of streptococcus, and of staphylococcus. A certain quantity of microbes killed by heating is injected into the subject. When it 1s possible a specimen taken from the sick person himself is used, autovaccines producing appreciably better results. By thus introducing bacterial products into a diseased organism the cellular reactions are stimulated. Thus, by the indirect process of favoring the development of an active immunity, the means of re- sistance against infection are augmented. This brief summary shows the important results obtained by prac- tical medicine from experimental researches. Prophylaxis and thera- peutics have been completely revised by the vaccines and serums. But it is important not to confound these two terms, and to distin- guish clearly the methods which they designate. The word “ vac- cine” should be reserved for products of bacterial origin—that is, for living microbes, weakened or modified—for bacterial autolysats, and for soluble matter secreted by the bacteria. Serum, on the con- trary, is a product of animal origin coming from an individual pre- viously rendered immune. Vaccine arouses in the organism defensive reactions; it creates an active immunity. Serum impregnates the organism and establishes a passive immunity. Active immunity requires several days to develop, but lasts a long time. Passive immunity is immediate, but quickly disappears. Vac- cine is especially a prophylactic means, used more often to prevent than to combat infection. Serum is at the same time a therapeutic and a prophylactic medium. Thanks to serotherapy, mortality from infections and especially from diphtheria has greatly diminished; owing to vaccination, sick- ness has declined. Smallpox, rabies, and anthrax have almost passed out of existence, and the time can be predicted when other infections, especially typhoid fever, will in their turn disappear. PROGRESS IN RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES. By J. B. BEADLE, U. S. Reclamation Service. [With 13 plates. ] The reclamation of arid lands by the Federal Government has moved steadily forward since the passage of the Newlands Act in 1902, in spite of the numerous and intricate problems arising, many of which could not be foreseen prior to the enactment of the funda- mental law governing the operations of the Reclamation Service. The Service has added some notable structures to the engineering monuments of the country. It has built the highest dam in the world on the Boise River, Idaho, and the one storing the greatest quantity of irrigation water on the Rio Grande, New Mexico. Its reservoirs are capable of holding 6,500,000 acre-feet, or two thousand billion gallons of water. It has excavated 130,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock, placing 12,000,000 yards in dams and forming conduits ag- gregating 10,000 miles in length, including 25 miles of tunnels and 85 miles of flumes. Its canals placed end-on would circle the United “States. Its structures of all kinds, large and small, dams, bridges, canal drops, checks, and the like total over 70,000 in number. The works so far constructed make water available for 1,500,000 acres, and the projects under way when completed will provide for nearly as much more. For this greater area the principal works have in large measure already been built, such as storage reservoirs, di- version dams, and miain canals, leaving to be added the necessary extensions to the distribution systems. As incidental to the construction of large irrigation works the Service has engaged in a wide variety of engineering effort, includ- ing the construction and operation of roads, telephone systems, power plants, transmission lines, and even railroads. On one project Port-~ land cement was manufactured and on several others the material known as “sand cement” has been produced and used to advantage. But as varied and intricate as are the engineering problems in- volved in Government reclamation work, of even greater difficulty 1 This article is in continuation of papers printed in the Smithsonian Reports for 1901, pp. 407 to 423; 1903, pp. 827 to 841; 1904, pp. 373 to 381; 1907, pp. 331 to 345; 1910, pp 169 to 198. 467 468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. are the succeeding problems of settlement and utilization of the works. These later problems, involving the human element, less susceptible of mathematical statement, require correspondingly more judgment, as well as patience and tact. [Pm Poem 0 ee ons emem 60 mem one tome cor, t P| L 1 ¢ Mis: ry SOURI R PUMPING Noe G4 ee NS hROSsevery. i -yert Ree RESERVoipg } a is os VO; Boia REO RSSALT Rives!” | Marto} PROJECT NAMES SHOWN THUS: 4 BELLE FOURCHE a Fra. 1.—Principal reclamation projects. The physical management and operation of an extensive reservoir and canal system, in which the quantity of flow is regulated at all points and all times according to design, is in itself an intricate problem, akin to railroad management, but in addition this already involves dealing with 25,000 individuals who are dependent on the Government systems for the most vital requisite in their daily occu- pation of irrigation farming and who are depended upon in turn RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 469 to repay to the United States the large investment made in building the works. Thus, in a sense, the Reclamation Service stands midway between the water users and the Nation, owing a duty to each and responsible for the protection of interests that may sometimes ap- pear antagonistic, making the service a natural target for criticism from one quarter or another. However, a broad view of the rela- tions between the Government and the irrigators will usually show their interests to coincide, since the Government has made large investments in reclamation works, the return of which to the Na- tional Treasury is directly dependent upon the success of the settlers. Among those entering public lands are many with no experience in irrigation and often little or none at farming of any kind. Even with water brought to the edge of his farm, the pioneer irrigator has much hard work not common to farming in older humid settle- ments. The land must be cleared, ditched, and carefully graded to receive the irrigation water, which must be manipulated with skill to prevent loss and damage. Capital is necessary to prepare the land, erect buildings, equip and stock the farm. Many of the prob- lems attending a new agricultural community brought quickly into being relating to crop selection, disease prevention, transportation, and marketing of crops, call for cooperative effort and must be worked out for each project. In many of these matters the Reclamation Service can act only by suggestion, being limited rather narrowly in the powers given by law. RECLAMATION LAW. What may be regarded as the “ organic act” governing the opera- tions of the Reclamation Service became law in June, 1902, and is commonly called the reclamation act. This remains the principal legislation, but has been amended and supplemented from time to time in important details, particularly by what is called the reclama- tion extension act of August 13, 1914. The broad features of the existing law provide for the following: 1. A reclamation fund composed of the receipts from the disposal of publie lands in the arid States under the provisions of the various land laws. The fund now approximates a hundred million dollars. 2. The construction of irrigation systems to water public and private lands. 38. Practically free entry to the public lands under the irrigation projects, limiting any one citizen to a farm of such size as is capable of supporting a tamily. 4. Subdivision of the private lands by sale in small tracts, limiting the area to which water will be furnished one individual to 160 acres. 5. Repayment in easy terms, extending over a long period, of the cost of building the works by the holders of the lands benefited, the money going back into the reclamation fund for use on other projects. ATO ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. One feature of the law that has been criticised is the absence of any test or qualification for settlers on the reclamation projects. Any citizen who has not exhausted his homestead right may take up a farm unit. Many come in who are unfitted for the arduous task of developing the raw land or who lack the necessary capital to develop their farms and tide them over the nonproductive period at the start. The result may be disastrous to the individual and postpones until his successor is established the payments to the United States for building the works. Another point of weakness relates to the private lands within the Government projects. ‘There is naturally a tendency to hold these for high prices, such that large owners may realize great profits or “unearned increment” due to the Government construction. The reclamation. act sought to force subdivision of large holdings by limiting to 160 acres the area for which any person could acquire a water right. This did not prevent the owners from holding the excess at high prices, and the reclamation extension act seeks to meet the situation by providing that to be included in a project the excess areas must be sold at a price fixed by the Secretary of the Interior. The efficacy of this provision has yet to be demonstrated. The principal change in the law made by the extension act, how- ever, was to provide easier payments and extend the time in which the irrigators are required to refund the project costs. The act of 1902 provided for repayment in 10 annual installments. The exten- sion act spreads the payments over 20 years. In the case of a new entry or application only an initial payment of 5 per cent is required in the first five years. This gives the settler a liberal period in which to put his farm on a producing basis, during which he may apply his capital to that end unhampered by the necessity of meeting payments on the water-right charges. A liberal extension was un- doubtedly needed in a great many cases and the first effect of this recent legislation has been to create a better feeling between the water users and the Government with the increased hope of success in establishing permanent homes. Another important feature of the extension act, in line with the policy of the fullest possible cooperation between the water users and Reclamation Service, is the provision that after the construction cost is once fixed by public notice it may not be increased through additional construction except after approval by the water users, expressed through individual vote or contract. COMPLETED WORK. The Reclamation Service has completed 23 projects or units to the point where the systems are operated and water supplied the farmers for crop production. RECLAMATION OF ARII) LANDS—BEADLE. . 471 In this connection it is well to note the difficulty of fixing an exact time when a large reclamation project is physically completed. Irri- gation may start with the completion of the first portion of the canal - and laterals, but the construction of the rest of the system may, extend over a number of years and yet keep well in advance of settlement and development of the irrigable lands. A better knowledge of the dependency of the water supply gained during these years by further measurement and study may warrant additions to the canal system and the area covered. Or the development of the new community may sufficiently advance land values to justify further expense to increase or conserve the water supply, as by building added storage works or lining the canals with concrete to prevent seepage losses, in either case permitting additional land to be served. Thus the project as a whole becomes a growing thing, and is not to be compared to a single definite piece of construction, such as a dam or office building, but is similar to a city or railroad system that in a sense may be regarded as never complete. Nor is the matter of completion made definite by reference to the plan before construction, for we commonly find that during the early history of a large project, while it is being investigated for con- struction, the conception of what the project finally will be suffers radical changes with the surveys of canal lines and irrigable areas and the accumulation of information regarding the water supply, soil quality, and other factors. The Government projects now operated are listed in Table 2, which shows that the Reclamation Service delivered irrigation water to 760,000 acres during 1914, but that the systems were constructed well in advance of this, as noted above, being capable of serving 1,240,000 acres. In subsequent pages the principal projects are briefly de- scribed with an outline of the work done since former reports. The following tabulation gives some idea of the quantity and diversity of construction work done by the Service on these projects: TABLE I.—Brief summary of construction results. [To June 30, 1915.] 4 Number or Item. Unit. quantity. CONSTRUCTIONS. Daimsee sie sace tee one ae ae eee ae oa Sioa a moe eae Sas wedeidene Sassen ccdae Seameanoaeneeee 100 Cane See ea en eee aie ene ee ea Sosa ee Ree eee sn Sees Miles. 22 ees 9, 683 TRUTITIGIS Ce hee oe eee eee eee ee ee MIE eRe See ease elle be Once 2 os 25 DUK GSIOT LC V.GOS «eee see ee oe arco rae colle so Sewer nd etnies See sees doze 91 Iprigationsand drain pipettecs ces e sete: oe soot soe ane eee bce bees teu eee chose dolseseee 300 EST CLT OS gots a a ee oer etn a a Say anise eee Sal nee GO.sste.e- 86 GCanalilining (concrete) stem esate eee cee eee el Beaded Sad cetines keel oaer dont eee3: 140 ORG See ae Sen So ee aes enn teen tee ee ot YN MS ee Some wma bmaemen| omen GOs ae 784 IR SRT OAdS s. oh e siesee ae eee rae see ta PaaS. aS aa ee ban oe aed ole domass: 82 Telephonelbines = es seeee eee Mets ete Noes eee SS capac cs odes cerca nelecae Ome es 2, 554 “RranSmiss iO LiNGS Aes ee eee rate errata sel etek ot A gl eee Mee (Co) Ss ane 429 CAnaiSGruChunese scene eet eee ae eet Sn es oe arate cen d wince » a DEE eee [Sen eoeeoaee anes 64, 847 LES Breese ae Ss eRe ee Se ce areca ois oie albiareanig wie SO RU RS Renews DeeE Ee 4,622 CUT VG US ae | orice eee eee tee ee eC Senne SUI EL Senha had Mri patra Rep ae 5,714 472 ., ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. TaBLeE 1.—Brief summary of construction results—Continued. : Number or Item. | Unit. quantity. MATERIALS HANDLED. Excavation: EiU ee cabrs sad aoaacnese le co stniceeuepasors he cver rites atte Aas e Cubic yards...| 115, 599, 284 UMGUPA TOG 5. aie raie iors store's ois SS isi ayere) eral cin ese preteen Ogee eee aE Serie ere ee doe cmeser 7, 585, 948 Rockies :t so:¢ 2.5ie epee ees saee be biggest ep tel ae ae see | ele doz, -wasee 6, 964, 136 Motaliec: creeds. Mash eect hs dy By ae bcc inen ead. hein ee Jee PA El. Lage do: tees 130, 149, 368 Volume placed in dams: | IMSSORITY: « oiaa.m/sininie a1o sieve aie mia eis aqme c(i rage ste tees araistaitiees iay=r sites aie eiieisjetoete oe ee | Sees dO ceseceee 1, 992, 502 acbhe creel BOO HE A SIIrGao SPO SG OnUboS scans 25 57 SUNOEP pnoadbescecene cls Seac GO SReSe 9, 231, 109 ROcKAland ChID josie. sce ns Bs cettem a thenine Op age mae eee ees ees ieee Sees GO scseeeee 978, 474 a AROS) Beeiseeseond sc Bese Sec saec sas dads ote shores snes Sodus des seceee sel oenssdoceotose 12, 202, 085 IR Oia to ako ac ere 32a eseno sec boson Tears cer beanmes ce oc gasoeb ees fess oS o8 Cubic yards ..| 1,023,398 PRYING Sara pcic cece eae oe ie oO oeleiaia geteicis [ae meee SACS e Beet eee eee Square yards.. 615, 583 COnGrete 22.25 ast ceepoc:chesse yaa: steht eed - Sees Eppa ee ee eee Cubic yards...} 2,674,977 £63) 07 (sally ees aie eRe ene Rana iets Ae kK mie Nee a Se rt a 85 Barrels... ..... 2,501, 382 CROPS. The irrigated lands are already producing an annual crop worth upward of $16,000,000, which should be steadily increased by more intensive farming as well as by the development of additional laud. In 1914 the farmers on the Government projects harvested irrigated crops from over 700,000 acres. The 60,000 acres listed as irrigated, but not cropped, represent mainly young fruit trees and newly seeded alfalfa. Alfalfa dominates all crop statistics from the irrigated areas (pl. 2, fig. 1). It occupies nearly half the cropped acreage and yields over one-third the total crop value. Its many virtues readily explain this popularity. Once established, or a “stand” secured, it is a hardy plant and continues almost indefinitely to furnish good annual yields without reseeding. It gives several yields or cuttings each year. It is a legume with the peculiar power of drawing from the atmosphere the nitrogen in which the soils of the arid region are often deficient, and leaves behind more than it found of this most valuable of plant requirements. It is the deepest of subsoilers, penetrating with its many roots to a remarkable depth for the other essential elements of plant growth and improving the physical condition of the soil. It furnishes a hay of superior quality for conditioning and fattening stock, so effective in fact that its medicinal value is now being utilized for humans. A wide variety of other crops are grown on the Government proj- ects—hays, cereals, fruit, sugar beets, and cotton, as well as garden products. Barley is the leading cereal, largely replacing corn in importance in comparison with middle western farming. A con- siderable area is devoted to grains little seen in the humid States Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 1. +e Fett agen 1. ARIZONA DESERT BEFORE RECLAMATION. 2. ARIZONA DESERT RECLAIMED. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 2. 1. AN ALFALFA LANDSCAPE, SHOSHONE PROJECT, WYOMING. 2. YOUNG ORCHARD UNDER IRRIGATION, YAKIMA PROJECT, WASHINGTON. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 473 and belonging to the sorghum-corn family, including Kafir corn and milo maize. Beet-sugar factories have been established on a number of the projects, contracting with the farmers for a profitable crop on a large acreage. Cotton has furnished an industry of im- portance on the southern projects, but this has been set back by the adverse market condition following the outbreak of war in Europe. Fruit growing is naturally slow to become general, owing to the capital required and postponement of returns; but the industry is making steady progress and has become of major importance on the projects peculiarly suited to it. The Sunnyside Unit in Washington is the home of the famous Yakima Valley apples, and in 1914 pro- duced over a million dollars worth of fruit (pl. 2, fig. 2). Tasie 2.—Irrigation and crop results on Government reclamation projects, 1914.7 Value of crops. Irrigable | Irrigated | Cropped State. Project. acreage. | acreage. | acreage. Per Total. acre cropped. Ari7Qnaens es cee Se NaltjRivete-ss.-er erica. a5 - 187,112 | 2173,030 | 169,719 | $4,039,079 $23. 80 Arizona-California.2) "Yuma-=2 22) 222 2 eS. 60, 000 25, 207 22, 568 709, 409 31.43 California.........- Orlandi gas se ee 14, 300 7, 354 6, 540 176, 331 26.99 Colorado ee. YF): Uncompahgre Valley......-.- §2, 338 33, 873 33, 091 870, 381 26.30 WaBHOE Ss S882 8c. Boise ge. eee ee tka n 207 000s) anette ine We ao oe. Oh aera eS le ae HaTMNTOpOrced sees jes sce cc osse = 64, 767 58,064 | 1,033,447 17.80 Farms not reported 3. ..-|.......-...-- 18, 823 16, 868 300, 140 17.80 Mmidokasy.. ees 23228: VDT OOS ea Fee ieee Sale ee Ss Be ee ee Gravabyiuniteteeecs se. lee c eee sccas 45, 730 39, 138 661, 796 16.91 Sou ph Side) pumping i223 eto: 35, 788 33, 512 558, 059 16.65 unit. Monitanasin.til.>. TS pbb Cis Babe oot oauecmaase 28, 808 17, 068 17,068 454, 583 26.63 IMilkstIVerise cs sone sees ces 8 13, 440 2,201 2, 163 34,618 16.00 SiinuRiver.. Sete tee 2 Stk 16, 346 6, 613 6, 561 106, 594 16.25 Montens-N or-t h | Lower Yellowstone. ........ 36, 250 5, 743 5, 621 96, 707 17.20 akota. Nebraska-Wyoming| North Platte...............- 91, 504 60, 532 59, 536 890, 202 14.95 Nevada: tie.....254 Truckee-Carson........----- 52, 039 39, 516 39, 285 441,018 411.23 New Mexico....... Carlsbadire sist vc 2 tas 20, 261 12, 690 10, 731 237, 663 22.15 DO. eee ee Od On aa atne: ed LUE IE. 1, 224 1, 224 1,172 21, 458 18.31 New Mexico-Texas.} Rio Grande...........-.---- 40, 000 28, 442 27,302 | 1,160,720 42.51 North Dakota...... North Dakota Pumping...-. 12, 239 1,056 1,045 36, 440 34.87 @reconees es: Uimatillase ec arbes: 17,000 5, 102 3,013 88, 614 29.41 Oregon-California..| Klamath..................-. 38, 000 24, 440 24, 440 347, 344 14.22 South Dakota...... Bella Hourchess. 2222s. eee 68, 852 37,454 36, 709 461, 188 12.56 Washington........ Okanogan.......... pies. ee 10,099 7, 740 3, 180 104, 575 32. 88 Yakima: Sunnyside unit.......... 81, 807 64, 052 49,273 | 2,858, 845 58. 02 Tietoniinits ss. ses 34, 000 20, 600 15, 920 472, 480 29.60 Wyoming.......... Shoshones-/3/22 5. Sass 41, 166 22, 226 20, 905 313, 826 15.01 otal .4\...- 7A eeee 61,240,875 | 761,271 | 703,424 | 16,475,517 23.50 1 Data are for calendar year (irrigation season) except on Salt River project, Arizona, data are for corres- ponding agricultural year, October, 1913, to September, 1914. _ Figures are for reclamation projects only, excluding three Indian projects in Montana, partially completed and under construction by the Reclama- tion Service for the Indian Service. 2 Government project only, exclusive of towns and Tempe Canal lands. 8 Except irrigated acreage, estimated from figures for reported farms. 4 eee excluding 19,000 acres native pasture land, at $1.21 per acre, and 4,908 acres otherwise notin full production. 5 Area Reclamation Service was prepared to supply water during season of 1914. 474. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE. When work in the nature of supplemental construction, already referred to, becomes desirable, it is usually for the purpose of drain- ing the irrigated tracts of excess water. One of the important things to which attention must be given after an irrigation system is completed and put in operation is the protection of the irrigated lands from becoming seeped and water- logged, destroying their productivity. In the use of the irrigation water, there is more or less loss due to the application of a larger quantity than can be retained by the soil and given up to the plants. The amount of water which sinks below the zone of plant growth and is wasted in this manner depends upon the perfection with which the land is graded and ditched and the care and skill used by the irrigator in handling the water. Until the processes have been sufficiently perfected to distribute the exact quantity of water required for the growing crop, some underground wastes are to be expected from this cause. Where, as is ordinarily the case, earthen canals are used for carrying or distributing the water, there is more or less loss by seepage from these channels. This loss, together with the underground waste from irrigation, tends to fill the soil and raise the water plane or height of free water. When this is raised above certain limits the irrigability of the land is destroyed, since plants can not thrive in a soil the inter- stices of which are filled with water. To protect lands from becoming thus seeped and water-logged, it is essential that the position of the ground waters be known in order to prevent their rise to or near the surface, rendering the lands unfit for cultivation. Occasional observations must be made at various points to determine the elevation of the ground water and whether or not it is rising. This is done through the medium of wells. When a rise in the water plane is noted and there is danger of it coming too near the surface, action must be taken to prevent it. The means employed to lower and control the ground-water aim at the prevention of losses from canals, the reduction of the amount of water applied to the soil in irrigation, or the construction of drains for carrying out excess waters. Drainage works have become necessary on a number of the Gov- ernment projects, and a total of 500 miles of drains have been built to relieve or protect about 100,000 acres. The types of drain used include both covered tile lines (pl. 3, fig. 1) and open ditches (pl. 3, fig. 2). The latter largely predominate, as they have been found through experience to give very satisfactory service, while the effi- ciency of the tile lines may be seriously impaired by accumulations of sand or by moving out of line. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 3. 1. LAYING TILE DRAIN, HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA. 2. DRAGLINE EXCAVATING OPEN DRAIN DITCH, BOISE PROJECT, IDAHO. PLATE 4. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. Hit : sie elie tLe ROOSEVELT DAM, WITH FULL RESERVOIR AND WATER PASSING OVER SPILLWAYS. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE, 475 SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA. In Arizona the flow of Salt River has been utilized to irrigate nearly 200,000 acres of fertile land surrounding the State capital. Storage is provided about 80 miles above Phoenix by the famous Roosevelt Dam, a rubble masonry arch in the river canyon 280 feet in maximum height and 1,125 feet along the crest. This gives a reservoir capacity of 1,367,300 acre-feet, or over 400,000,000,000 gal- lons. A notable event in the history of the project occurred in April, 1915, when, four years after completion of the dam, the reservoir was filled and for the first time water passed over the spillways (pl. 4). The structure stood the test perfectly, and, excepting some erosion of the spillway channels, the excess flood water was discharged with- out harmful effect, leaving sufficient storage to insure the project water supply for several years. Stream flow records for 25 years indicate that, with the erratic run-off of Salt River, the reservoir may be expected to fill by floods at irregular periods, but that an occasional series of years of lean run-off will empty it again, causing a temporary shortage of water, followed by another period of heavy run-off and a full reservoir. The study of the discharge of the streams of our arid region shows a tendency to these cycles of rela- tively wet and dry periods, but with records of 30 or even 50 years it is quite impossible to formulate any law as to their recurrence or predict the time when strict economy in the use of water will next be necessary. Some broad-minded men regard these occasional years of scarcity as a benefit. A plentiful supply of irrigation water tends to encourage overuse and careless handling, resulting in waste and rise of ground water, often ruining the lower farm lands by seepage and resultant concentration of alkali. The periodic year of scarcity may therefore be a blessing in disguise, forcing better prac- tice in the use of water and demonstrating the truth that beyond a certain moderate use a greater supply means an actual reduction in the crop value. From Roosevelt the stored water is passed 60 miles down the river channel to Granite Reef, where the diversion dam turns it into canal systems north and south of the stream. Over 700 miles of main canals and laterals have been excavated to distribute the water to the farmers. The opportunities for hydroelectric development cre- ated by the construction of the irrigation works have been utilized by building power plants at the base of Roosevelt Dam and at sev- eral points in the canal system where necessary drops afford good heads. Transmission lines have been built, delivering power to the several towns on the project, including the city of Phoenix, where it is used for lighting and manufacturing, and to near-by mining industries, to which the surplus is sold. The receipts from power sales are credited to the project, working a reduction in the total 476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. amount eventually to be repaid by the irrigators for the construction and operation of the project works. Except for a few minor details the project is regarded as complete, and in 1915 about 190,000 acres were actually irrigated. Crops worth from four to five million dollars are annually harvested from the irrigated lands, the cultivation of which is practically continu- ous, permitting the sowing and harvesting of two different crops in the same field within the year. A wide variety of products are grown. Alfalfa occupies about one-half the producing acreage, yield- ing as many as five or six cuttings annually. For this the farmer may secure an average price of $6 per ton, but it is better practice for him to feed the hay and market his output in the more concen- trated and profitable form of live-stock products. In 1914 cotton growing had reached extensive proportions on the project, the crop from 11,500 acres bringing a return of $715,000, but the drop in price attributed to the European war has led to the substitution of other crops. Of the grains, barley, wheat, and the sorghum corns are the largest producers. .The warm climate lends itself to the growth of citrus as well as deciduous fruits and producing trees have been es- tablished on a considerable acreage, which is expected to increase materially in future years with a gradual development toward in- tensive agriculture. YUMA PROJECT, ARIZONA AND CALIFORNIA. Above Yuma, Arizona, has been constructed the Laguna Dam, a low overflow structure of the Indian weir type, 4,780 feet between abut- ments and 260 feet up and down stream, with a maximum height of 40 feet. This turns the water into canals on both sides of the river for irrigation in Arizona and California. The main canal heads on the California side, and after covering lands on that side crosses the river by means of an inverted siphon. This structure, completed in 1912, consists of two circular concrete shafts connected by a circular concrete-lined tunnel 14 feet inside diameter and 930 feet long. The siphon delivers water to the canal system covering the largest portion of the project in the Yuma Valley, Arizona. On account of the low elevation of the irrigable lands and their consequent liability to overflow from the Colorado River it is necessary to provide an ex- tensive system of river-front protection. The principal work during recent years has been on this feature and the extension of the canal system, which is now competent to water 70,000 acres. This will be extended to cover about 90,000 acres, and an additional 40,000 acres on the Yuma Mesa may be reached by pumping. About 30,000 acres have been irrigated and the annual crop yield is approaching a million dollars. As at Salt River alfalfa is the RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 477 principal crop and a large acreage is here permitted to ripen for seed, which in 1914 brought the farmers $160,000 from 5,500 acres. Cotton has also proven very profitable on this project and with the aid of the Department of Agriculture varieties particularly suited to the locality have been imported or evolved. The cotton industry, now temporarily suspended by the abnormal market conditions, is bound to revive when these return to normal. Other profitable crops in- clude the cereals, sorghum corns, cane, vegetables, and truck. Fruit, especially of the citrus varieties, will undoubtedly increase in im- portance with development of the project, particularly on the mesa lands yet to be reached by the canal system. ORLAND PROJECT, CALIFORNIA. Near Orland, California, has been completed a relatively small project, or what may be regarded as a separate unit of a large Sacra- mento Valley project. The East Park Dam on Little Stony Creek forms a reservoir storing the water of that stream and of Stony Creek, the latter brought to the reservoir through a feed canal. By means of two diversion dams near Orland the water is taken out of the stream channel into canal systems supplying an area of 20,000 acres favored by exceptional soil, location, transportation facilities, and climate. The project has been enlarged since former statements by improv- ing the water supply and extending the distribution system to cover an additional 6,000 acres. A diversion dam has been built in Stony Creek near the headwaters and a feed canal excavated to convey the water thus developed to East Park Reservoir. Near Orland separate diversion works have been built for north and south side canals. In accordance with the plans for the present the system is now practically complete and ready to serve the entire 20,000 acres. In 1914, 7,300 acres were watered, producing crops worth $176,000. High priced products are grown on this project, including almonds, olives, oranges, grapes, and other citrus and deciduous fruits, nuts. and garden truck, as well as hay and forage crops. GRAND VALLEY PROJECT, COLORADO. The plan for this project was briefly outlined in the Smithsonian report for 1910, since which construction has been undertaken and about 60 per cent of the work completed. The diversion dam has been built in Grand River about 8 miles northeast of Palisade. The presence of a railroad along the river bank and the great expense involved in moving this to a higher level led to a somewhat novel construction. It was necessary to control the stage of the stream closely and on the approach of floods be able to release quickly the back water caused by the dam. For this pur- pose a roller crest structure was built, one of the few and the longest A78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. that has been. constructed in this country (pl. 5, fig. 1). The per- manent crest of concrete is erected at a relatively low level and above this at.60 and 70 feet intervals rise concrete piers containing the operating mechanism for the structural steel rollers. The latter extend between the piers and may be lowered to form a water-tight junction with the concrete crest, diverting water into the project canal, or may be quickly raised to pass flood water over the weir. From the diversion dam the main canal follows what is locally known as the “high line,” and piercing several hills by tunnels, proceeds in a general westerly direction, passing north of Grand Junction, Fruita, and Mack, and supplying about 48,000 acres of land above the older private canals of the valley. An additional 10,000 acres may be watered by pumping with power developed at drops in the canal. The land is particularly suitable for fruit grow- ing and capable of producing crops of high value. There remain for construction part of the main canal and dis- tribution system, the power and pumping works, and possibly some drainage works. Irrigation will begin on this project in 1916. UNCOMPAHGRE VALLEY PROJECT, COLORADO. Here the Reclamation Service has built the Gunnison Tunnel to bring water from the Gunnison River to the valley of the Un- compahgre to supplement the meager flow of the latter stream. A number of canal systems heading in the Uncompahgre will distribute the water to about 140,000 acres. Irrigation has been practiced here for many years and the principal private canals have been purchased or absorbed in the Government system to permit change or enlarge- ment in a comprehensive development of the possibilities for irriga- tion in the valley. Work is in progress on the canal system and this now reaches 65,000 acres, of which 40,000 are being irrigated. The crop production has steadily grown, approximating a million dollars in value in 1915. Deciduous fruits are successful on the irrigated lands and good yields are obtained from alfalfa, potatoes, wheat, and oats (pl. 13). BOISE PROJECT, IDAHO. One of the largest projects nearly completed is the Boise in Idaho. This is about equal in area to the Salt River and involves the storage and diversion of the waters of Boise River. The reservoir is formed by the Arrowrock Dam (pl. 5, fig. 2; pl. 6, figs. 1 and 2), the highest in the world, a rubble concrete arch rising 350 feet above the lowest point of the base and measuring 1,075 feet along the crest. The inac- cessibility of this site and the large amount of material to be hauled in for the construction made it economical to build a 17-mile railroad Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 5. 1. DIVERSION DAM, WITH ROLLER CRESTS IN GRAND RIVER, COLO. 2. ARROWROCK DAM, BOISE RIVER, IDAHO. SPILLWAY CHANNEL ON THE LEFT. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 6. 1. PLAcina VALVES IN ARROWROCK DAM. 2. NEAR VIEW OF ARROWROCK DAM, THE HIGHEST IN THE WORLD. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 479 (pl. 7, fig. 2) connecting the site with the nearest railroad at Barber- ton. This short railroad, built, owned, and operated by the United States, does a small commercial business in addition to the carriage of freight for building the dam, and the road shows a profit when due credit is allowed for the material carried for the Government con- struction. This credit represents a substantial saving over what it would have cost to haul the necessary material overland. About 12 miles below Arrowrock and 8 miles above Boise is the diversion dam of the project (pl. 7, fig. 1), turning the water into the canal system, which includes a main canal carrying the water to the Deer Flat Reservoir, another storage basin formed by several large earth embankments, closing a natural depression some distance from the river. As on the Salt River project power is developed in connection with the Boise, but in smaller amount. A hydroelectric plant was built at the diversion dam and the power here developed was transmitted to Arrowrock, where it was used to build the larger structure. In addition to the Arrowrock Dam the principal work since the re- port of 1910 has been the completion of the distribution system, com- prising 1,000 miles of canal and 12,000 structures, together with drainage works. The project embraces two old irrigation districts, which have contracted for supplemental water supply from Arrow- rock Reservoir and for drainage work done by the Reclamation Service for the benefit of considerable areas of the district lands that have been rendered temporarily unfit for cultivation by seepage and alkali. Nearly 100,000 acres of the Boise project are now in crops and the annual production already exceeds a million dollars. Alfalfa, clover, cereals, and potatoes are the leading products. MINIDOKA PROJECT, IDAHO. In Snake River Valley a project has been built, involving storage in Jackson Lake, Wyoming (pl. 8, figs. 1 and 2), and a distribution system near Minidoka, Idaho. The Minidoka Dam diverts water to north and south side canals and furnishes a head of 46 feet, which is used to drive a 7,000 kilowatt power plant erected at the dam. The power is utilized to lift irrigation water to additional land not ac- cessible by gravity flow and the excess energy is sold for the benefit of the project. The power is produced at a cost averaging slightly over one mill per kilowatt-hour, including all operating expense and plant depreciation. This low cost makes it possible to sell the energy for varied and novel uses, such as operating washing machines, flat-irons, and other utensils of the small home. Considerable is used for heat- ing. One of the project towns has recently erected a schoolhouse 480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. that is pointed out as a building without a chimney or a gas pipe, electricity being used for heating, lighting, and operating all the de- vices necessary in a modern high school that includes physical and chemical laboratories. The Minidoka Project is practically complete as now planned, and it is possible to water 120,000 acres, of which 82,000 are under irriga- tion, including 35,000 acres supplied by pumping. Forage crops, grain, potatoes, and sugar beets are the principal products. HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA. This is one of the few projects that requires no storage works, be- ing located on the Yellowstone River at a point where the natural run-off from a large drainage area provides a sufficient water supply. The main canal and lateral system now cover 30,000 acres, which may be increased by small extensions. The most novel construction feature is a hydraulic pumping plant on the main canal where the bulk of the water, dropping through turbines, operates centrifugal pumps that lift part of the supply to a high-line canal, the whole op- eration being automatic and requiring almost no attention from the operating force. The project is one of the most successful in operation and about 20,000 acres are now in crop, yielding products averaging in value over $25 per acre. Sugar beets have become the most important crop (pl. 9, fig. 1). A company has erected and operates a beet-sugar factory, contracting with the farmers for a certain acreage to be planted with seed supplied by the company, which pays for the beets according to their sugar content. Over 4,000 acres are now utilized in this way, returning to the farmer nearly $60 per acre. Alfalfa, erain, and garden truck are the other important products. MILK RIVER PROJECT, MONTANA. Ever since the passage of the reclamation act the effort has been made to develop along broad lines the irrigation possibilities of the Milk River drainage. The situation is much complicated and delays have been caused by the fact that the river is an international stream, rising in the United States, entering Canada, and returning to this country. Thus between the storage sites and irrigable lands in the United States the river passes through lands that may be watered in Canada, leading to conflicting interests in the limited water supply. After years of negotiation a treaty with Great Britain was finally proclaimed in 1910 for the distribution of the water, but its in- terpretation in detail is still subject to adjustment, which is now in the hands of a joint commission representing the two Governments. Meanwhile the Reclamation Service has built certain features of the American project, permitting irrigation of a portion of the lands. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 7. 1. DIVERSION DAM IN BOISE RIVER, POWER PLANT AND HEAD OF MAIN CANAL. 2. BOISE AND ARROWROCK RAILROAD, BUILT TO CARRY FREIGHT TO ARROWROCK DAM. DIVERSION DAM AND POWER PLANT IN DISTANCE. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 8. 1. DAM AT JACKSON LAKE, Wyo., MINIDOKA PROJECT. 2, NEAR VIEW OF JACKSON LAKE DAM. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 481 A canal 25 miles in length has been excavated to supplement the flow of Milk River from that of St. Mary River, thus diverting water through the divide separating the Hudson Bay drainage from that of the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico. Work is now under way on a storage dam at Sherburne Lakes and additional storage may be provided by a dam at the outlet of Lower St. Mary Lake. Three to four hundred miles below in Milk River Valley, distributing systems are planned, heading at three diversion dams near the towns of Chinook, Dodson, and Vandalia, with supplemental storage in a reservoir fed by one of the main canals. The Dodson and Vandalia dams have been built and distributaries for 40,000 acres. Grain and hay are the staple crops. The rainfall is sufficient to permit dry- farming, but the yield is doubled or trebled with irrigation. Ulti- mately 200,000 acres or more may be watered. SUN RIVER PROJECT, MONTANA. Near Fort Shaw the Reclamation Service has built and operated for several years a unit covering 16,000 acres, and work is now under way on larger features of a project that may eventually comprise 175,000 acres. A diversion dam (pl. 9, fig. 2) has been recently built in the Sun River near Elizabeth and a distribution system for lands north of the river is under construction. A storage reservoir will be built on the north fork of the Sun. The irrigable lands are within 50 miles of Great Falls, which supplies a market for the farm products. Grain, hay, and vege- tables are the principal crops. LOWER YELLOWSTONE PROJECT, MONTANA AND NORTH DAKOTA. About 18 miles below Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Dam diverts water into a canal that covers a strip of land west of the river in Montana and North Dakota. About 35,000 acres can now be supphed. The cold climate and short growing season limit the crops mainly to hay and grain, which give enhanced yields under irrigation, but the rainfall is sufficient to encourage dry farming and renders it difficult to secure uniform support for irrigation among the settlers. No construction work has been done on this project in recent years. NORTH PLATTE PROJECT, NEBRASKA AND WYOMING. This is another interstate project, utilizing the flow of the North Platte River to irrigate lands in Wyoming and Nebraska. Storage is provided near the headwaters by the Pathfinder Dam, a masonry 18618°—su 1915——31 482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. arch 218 feet high and 432 feet along the crest. Near Whalen, Wyo., a diversion dam supplies the Interstate Canal, a notable irri- gation condwit with a capacity of 1,400 cubic feet per second at its head. The canal is over 100 miles long and serves 130,000 acres in the two States. It takes several days for water entering the headgates to reach the end of the ditch, and several small reservoirs have been constructed along the canal to provide temporary storage and better regulation of the flow. These reservoirs, the lower part ef the canal, and related distributaries have been built since the former reports in this series. Other construction has included drain- age works, and work is now starting on a large unit on the opposite side of the river. Here the Fort Laramie Canal will take out from the river at the Whalen Dam. It will exceed the Interstate Canal in length and furnish water to an area of 100,000 acres. In addition to supplying the Government project of 230,000 acres, the Pathfinder Reservoir provides sufficient stored water to supple- ment the supply of a number of private canals along the river to which rights have been sold under the provision of the Warren Act of February 21, 1911, the receipts entering the reclamation fund. The area actually irrigated by the North Platte project is now increasing about 5,000 acres each year, and the annual crop value reached $1,000,000 in 1915, when 70,000 acres were harvested. Alfalfa and grain are extensively grown and used to fatten stock for mar- ket. Hog raising has become an important and profitable industry; during the last six months of 1914 shipments to market averaged over 20 carloads, representing monthly receipts of $30,000 from this industry alone. TRUCKEH-CARSON PROJECT, NEVADA. On this project the Lahontan Dam has been recently built, being completed in 1915 (pl. 10, fig. 1). The structure is a large earth embankment, with rock and gravel paving, 124 feet in maximum height and 1,400 feet long. The most interesting feature of the structure is the provision for passing excess flood water without injury to the dam directly or by erosion of the relatively soft mate- rial composing the river channel and canyon walls. For this pur- pose concrete spillway channels leading from each end of the dam are built in steps, dropping the water to a concreted stilling pool below the structure (pl. 10, fig. 2). The reservoir impounds the flow of Carson River and also receives the water brought from the Truckee through the Truckee Canal, built some years before. Prior to building the reservoir a hydroelectric plant was erected to utilize the drop from Truckee Canal to Carson River and the power thus developed was used in the construction of the dam. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 9. 1. HARVESTING SUGAR BEETS, HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA. 2. DIVERSION DAM IN SUN RIVER, MONT. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 10. 1. LAHONTAN DAM, TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT, NEVADA. 2. STEPPED SPILLWAY CHANNELS AND POOL AT BASE OF LAHONTAN DAM, NEVADA. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS——BEADLE. 483 Other recent work includes smaller structures,.drains, and ex- tension of the distribution system, which serves lands near the town of Fallon. About 65,000 acres are now under ditch and the area may be considerably increased. With additional storage and canal systems 200,000 acres may ultimately be reclaimed. The locality is extremely arid, with an annual rainfall of about 4 inches, insufficient for any crop growth. Under irrigation the soil gives good yields of alfalfa, grain, and vegetables. CARLSBAD PROJECT, NEW MEXICO. Near Carlsbad, New Mexico, two dams have been built across the Pecos River, forming storage basins, and from the lower one of these a canal system has been excavated to supply 25,000 acres of land surrounding Carlsbad. The project was completed in 1912, since which about 13,000 acres have been irrigated, producing good yields of alfalfa, cotton, grain, truck, and fruit. RIO GRANDE PROJECT, NEW MEXICO AND TEXAS, This is an interstate and international project, using the waters of the Rio Grande to irrigate land in New Mexico and Texas and supplying Mexico at the international boundary a quantity of water fixed by treaty. The largest irrigation reservoir in the world is formed by the recently completed Elephant Butte Dam (pl. 11, fig. 1), spanning the river canyon near Engle, N. Mex. This structure is of rubble concrete, 300 feet from the bottom of the foundation to the crest, which extends 1,250 feet between abutments. This gives a reservoir capacity exceeding 2,500,000 acre-feet, or 800,000,000,000 gallons. One of the problems connected with storage on the Rio Grande is due to the great amount of silt carried by the stream, and this large reservoir capacity is expected to care for years of silt accumulations, which are further provided for by numerous openings through the dam for sluicing (pl. 11, fig. 2). From the reservoir the water passes down the river channel to the irrigable lands, which are located in a series of narrow valleys along the stream in New Mexico and Texas. The development of each valley involves a diversion dam, main canals on either side of the river, and the necessary distributaries and structures. A number of private canals watering small areas will be embraced in the general development. In the Mesilla Valley the Leasburg Dam and main canal have thus been built to connect with several community canals covering about 484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. 35,000 acres. An additional diversion is now under construction in this valley controlling 60,000 acres. In El] Paso Valley the old Franklin Canal has been purchased and enlarged. This passes through the city of El Paso, where it has been concrete lined to give increased capacity. About 29,000 acres will eventually be watered. Other tracts to be reached lie in Rincon and Palomas Valleys. In all, the project contemplates the irrigation of about 155,000 acres in the United States. The soils are very fertile and the market facili- ties unusually good. Alfalfa yields 3 to 6 tons per acre and the price averages above $10 per ton, reaching at times as high as $15 or $20. Vegetables, truck, and fruit are very successful, and the 27,000 acres harvested in 1914 under the Government works yielded crops worth well over a million dollars. UMATILLA PROJECT, OREGON. Former reports have described the portion of the Umatilla project lying east of the Umatilla River, supplying 25,000 acres by means of a canal system heading in Cold Springs Reservoir, which is filled by a feed canal from the Umatilla. Recently an extension to the project has been under construction west of the river, adding about 11,000 acres to the irrigable area. The work includes the Three Mile Falls Diversion Dam, a main canal heading at the dam, and a system of laterals carrying water to each farm. On the older part of the project about 5,000 acres are now in crop. The conditions are favorable for the growth of fruit, which is gradually becoming the principal product. Good yields are also . obtained from alfalfa, grain, vegetables, and truck crops. One of the difficulties encountered in the operation of the Umatilla project is due to the fact that portions of the irrigable land are very sandy, causing the irrigation water to escape rapidly to a depth where it is not available to the plant roots. To sustain crop growth on such land it is necessary to irrigate it frequently and the “ duty” or quantity of water required per acre is excessive. In some cases the duty may be as low as 15 or even 20 acre-feet per acre, i. e., during the irrigation season the total application to the field is equivalent to a depth of 15 or 20 feet. The average duty on the Uma- tilla project is now about 7 acre-feet, and for all the reclamation projects the average is between 2 and 3 acre-feet per acre. The great importance of this subject is realized when it is remem- bered that usually the available water supply and not the available land limits the extent of a project and largely determines the cost per acre. Also the cost of operating the works and guarding against Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. RATEGu ile 1. ELEPHANT BUTTE DAM IN THE RIO GRANDE, NEW MEX. CONGRESSIONAL PARTY ON TOUR OF INSPECTION, JUNE, 1915. 2. INSTALLING SLUICE GATES, ELEPHANT BuTTE Dam, NEW MExico. Smithsonian Report, 1915.—Beadle. PLATE 12. 1. CLEAR CREEK DAM, TIETON UNIT OF YAKIMA PROJECT, WASHINGTON. 2. CONCONULLY DAM, OKANOGAN PROJECT, WASHINGTON. RECLAMATION OF ARID LANDS—BEADLE. 485 breaks in the canals is increased as the quantity of water to be carried is made larger and the annual charge for operation and maintenance against each irrigator is in proportion to the amount of water delivered to him. The permanent cure for excessive use imposed by sandy land lies in the addition of vegetable matter to the soil. With the growth of each crop the condition improves through the addition of humus. Another influence for a better duty, applicable to all soils, is the use of relatively large irrigation heads; that is, supplying the fields by using a large stream of water for a short time rather than allow- ing a small head to run to the fields during a longer period. To im- prove the duty by this means requires proper ditching and grading as well as skill in handling the water. By these means the average duty on the Umatilla project was improved more than an acre-foot per acre in 1914 over the previous year, and it is believed that with the gradual addition of humus to the sandy portions of the area the problem will be satisfactorily solved. The farmers on the sandy tracts require every encourage- ment in establishing normal conditions and provision has been made for a relatively low charge per acre-foot for such lands for a period of years during which opportunity may be had to put the soil in proper condition. KLAMATH PROJECT, OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. In the Klamath country of southern Oregon and northern Cali- fornia a plan has been partially carried out for utilizing the run-off of Klamath Lakes and Lost River to water areas that may eventually total 200,000 acres. As described in former statements certain units of the project have been constructed, making water now available for 40,000 acres, of which 25,000 are being irrigated. In its entirety the project is an intricate one, involving a number of unusual fea- tures, of which perhaps the most novel is the dewatering and subse- quent canalization of the Tule Lake bed. For this purpose its supply from Lost River is cut off by building a dam at Clear Lake, the head of Lost River, forming a large shallow basin in which evaporation practically equals the inflow, and largely diverting into Klamath River the run-off that reaches Lost River below Clear Lake. By evap- oration the bed of Tule Lake is gradually uncovering and irrigation of the exposed land has begun along the edge of the lake. Construc- tion work in recent years includes the Lost River diversion dam and channel to Klamath River, enlargements and extensions of canal ‘systems and drains for the lands already watered. The Klamath area receives an average annual rainfall of 14 inches, permitting some crop production by dry farming, but the 486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915, yields are doubled with irrigation. Forage crops predominate, but potatoes are successfully grown and small areas of fruit trees have yielded well. BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT, SOUTH DAKOTA. Near the town of Belle Fourche, S. Dakota, the river of the same name has been utilized to irrigate lands east of the town. a mi TA eae Ph aaaek Ne { bytes a meer 1" } rey Oa MM et? : Y i 7 he AE aul SRY Tee meerth ty ‘ ne: i ‘fl “ it ox os iii fosats 5 Wie Oi SIR DAVID GILL (1848-1914) 1 By A. 8S. Epprneron. By the death of Sir David Gill astronomy has lost one of its ablest and best-known leaders. By his widespread activity, his close asso- ciation with all the great enterprises of observational astronomy, and by the energy and enthusiasm of his character, he had come to hold an almost unique position in astronomical councils; and the with- drawal of his great motive power leaves a universal sense of loss. By his individual achievements and by his leadership he has exerted an incalculable influence on the progress of all that pertains to pre- cision of observation. It will be our task in this notice to give an outline of his work as an astronomer, but to understand his immense influence it is necessary also to realize the personal character of the man. Those who came in contact with him felt the charm of his per- sonality. Insome indefinable way he could inspire others with his en- thusiasm and determination. Enjoying a life crowded with activity, surrounded by an unusually wide circle of friends, he was ever ready and eager to encourage the humblest beginner. It was no perfunc- tory interest that he displayed. He was quick to discern any signs of promise, and no less outspoken in his criticism; but, whether he praised or condemned, few could leave him without the truest admira- tion and affection for his simple-hearted character. David Gill was born at Aberdeen on the 12th of June, 1848. His family had long been associated with that city, where his father had an old-established and successful business in clocks and watches of all kinds. In due course he entered the Marischal College and Uni- versity, Aberdeen. At that time J. Clerk Maxwell was a professor there, and his teaching had a great influence on the young student. Judged by ordinary standards, Maxwell was not a successful lec- turer; but there were some students who could catch a part of his meaning as he “thought aloud” at the blackboard and feel the im- pression of his personality in after-lecture conversation, and these found him an inspiring teacher. Gill was among these, and he be- came imbued with a zeal for experimental science which soon mani- fested itself in his setting up a small laboratory in his father’s house. 1Reprinted by permission from Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, Feb., 1915. 511 512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Up to the age of 20 Gill’s scientific interests appear to have had no particular inclination to astronomy, but in 1863 he became desirous of securing an accurate time service at Aberdeen. Encouraged by a visit to Prof. Piazzi Smyth at Edinburgh Observatory, he suc- ceeded in interesting Prof. David Thomson in his efforts. There was at that time an old observatory at King’s College, Aberdeen. Together the two men unearthed and set up in adjustment a portable transit instrument which had long been disused, the sidereal clock was overhauled and fitted with contact springs for the electrical con- trol of other clocks, and the observations for time determination now became the chief occupation of Gill’s leisure evenings. Tt was not long before he began to seek for an instrument which would give him a wider scope for astronomical work. He met with a second-hand silver-on-glass mirror of 12 inches aperture and 10 feet focal length. The task of mounting this equatorially gave him the first opportunity of displaying that skill in instrumental de- signing for which he afterwards became so famous; and the whole mounting was made from his working drawings. He made the driv- ing clock with his own hands. Among the chief results obtained with this telescope were some excellent photographs of the moon. At that time Lord Lindsay (son of the Earl of Crawford) was planning to erect an observatory at Dum Echt, 13 miles from Aberdeen, Having seen these photo- graphs, he visited Gill in order to see his instruments and methods of work. The acquaintance thus formed led to Gill’s receiving early in 1872 an invitation to take charge of the Dun Echt Observatory that was about to be erected. At this time Gill was actively at work all day, his father having retired, leaving the business in his hands; it was only his evenings that could be devoted to scientific pursuits. He had married in 1870, and was living in Aberdeen near his little.observatory. To accept Lord Crawford’s offer meant the giving up of a flourishing business and a heavy pecuniary sacrifice; but by now astronomy was claiming hiny irresistibly, and he made the choice without hesitation. The business that he now relinquished had never been congenial to him; but the time he had devoted to the clockmaker’s art had not been wasted, for it is reasonable to believe that his natural mechanical genius was in no small measure fostered by this early training. Gill’s direction of the Dun Echt Observatory lasted from 1872 to 1876. It was his task to design and install the fine equipment that was rapidly acquired—for him a foretaste of the similar work he was afterwards to carry out at the Cape. But this period of his life is chiefly remembered not for observations made at Dun Echt but for an expedition to the island of Mauritius on the occasion of the transit of Venus, 1874. It was in preparation for the work at ee SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. ks Mauritius that he first began to use the heliometer, an instrument with which his most celebrated researches were afterwards made. The 4-inch heliometer of the Dun Echt Observatory (afterwards pur- chased for the Cape) was made under Gill’s superintendence by Rep- sold; and whilst it was in the course of construction he took the op- portunity to visit Hamburg for the meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft in 1873. Besides attending this congress, Gill visited several of the continental observatories, and in this way made the acquaintance of the leading European astronomers, and also obtained an insight into the organization of the large observatories. The Mauritius expedition introduced him to two of the great prob- lems, which more especially he made his life’s work—the determina- tion of the solar parallax and the problems of geodetic measure- ments. Deferring, for the present, consideration of the scientific results of this expedition and of another expedition to Ascension Island in 1877, we pass on to the next great step in his career. Early in 1879 David Gill was appointed by the admiralty to be Her Majesty’s astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, in succession to Mr. E. J. Stone. Before sailing for the Cape he made another tour of the European observatories, visiting Paris, Leiden, Groningen, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Helsingfors, and Poulkovo. Perhaps the most important fruit of these visits was his acquaintance with Dr. Auwers and Dr. Elkin, which led to much valuable cooperation be- tween them. On the 29th of May, 1879, he arrived at Cape Town and took up his duties at the observatory. The only instruments which he found in use were the Airy transit circle, a 7-inch equatorial, and a photo- heliograph. The observatory, founded in 1820, had fulfilled a useful duty by the regular work of meridian observation, the early Cape Catalogues being a most valuable source for the positions of the southern stars. Its history had also been marked by one conspicuous achievement—Henderson’s detection of the parallax of « Centauri, the first proof that the parallax of a fixed star could amount to a measurable quantity. Whilst the instruments and observations might be open to many criticisms, the work was, for that period, fairly efh- cient. But the standard of precision was being raised, and Gill’s standard was the highest of his time. To his mechanical insight the faulty design and unsatisfactory repair of the old instruments was apparent, and he would not rest until the defects were remedied. He was no believer in the Airy type of transit circle, incapable of re- versal, but it was many years before he could obtain an instrument according to his ideals. Meanwhile it was necessary to make the best of the existing telescope. The object glass was deteriorated, the micrometer screws were worn, and the whole instrument was in need 18618°—sm 1915——33 514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of a thorough overhaul. He at once set to work upon it with his usual energy, and so transformed it that for differential work it left little to be desired. The Airy transit circle performed useful service until 1901, when it was replaced by the new reversible transit circle. It is still used at times for special researches. The 7-inch equatorial was likewise submitted to a thorough overhaul. The only immediate addition to the equipment was the 4-inch heliometer, which was secured by Gill by private purchase. With this provision he was content to spend the first few years of his directorship, until he should be in a stronger position to press his claims on the treasury. The principal additions made during the subsequent years that he spent at the Cape were the 6-inch Dallmeyer lens used for the photographic Durchmusterung, acquired in 1884; the 7-inch heliometer in 1887, the astrographic refractor erected in 1890, the Victoria telescope (a 24-inch photographic refractor with guiding telescope and spectroscopic equipment) in 1898, and the reversible transit circle in 1901. He was thus for his first researches limited to instruments of very moderate size and cost, and the suc- cess with which he afterwards obtained an adequate provision for the observatory was due both to the confidence inspired by his bril- liant early work and to his pertinacity in pressing the needs of astronomy. If from his many and varied services to astronomy we were asked to pick out the one in which he arrived at the most striking and complete success, there is little doubt that the answer would be his determination of the solar parallax. At the time when Gill, by accepting the charge of the Dun Echt Observatory, definitely em- barked on an astronomical career a celestial event of the first magni- tude was approaching—the transit of Venus of 1874. Great expecta- tions were entertained that this would afford an improved determina- tion of the solar parallax, a fundamental constant which was at that time involved in unsatisfactory uncertainty. Preparations were made by the leading observatories and astronomical societies on an unprecedentedly lavish scale, and expeditions were dispatched to different parts of the world. Lord Lindsay was cooperating in the work, and the Dun Echt expedition took up a station at Mauritius. Gill had already formed the opinion (which he afterwards conspicu- ously advocated) that there were other and better methods of find- ing the sun’s parallax involving far less expense. He believed that the observations of the transit were of such a nature that the results would be inaccurate and capable of more than one interpretation, for too much depended on the arbitrary judgment of those who had to discuss the observations. He determined, therefore, to use the opportunity of the expedition to make trial of another method, namely, morning and evening observations of the minor planet SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 515 Juno, which was then favorably situated. He considered that a single observer could by heliometer observations of a minor planet obtain results comparable in accuracy with those derived from all the transit of Venus observations together. Unfortunately, the heliometer was delayed in arrival at Mauritius, and the first’ half of the opposition of Juno was lost. Observations in the latter half were secured on 12 evenings and 11 mornings, but the parallax factor was then small. The result, 8’’.77+0’’.041, though disappointing owing to the causes mentioned, gave a clear indication of the value of the method, and this pioneer effort served its purpose as a pre- liminary to a more ambitious attempt. From that time onwards Gill had a strong conviction of the value of the heliometer for work of the highest refinement, and he acquired his remarkable skill in using it. The transit of Venus was observed by the party, but Gill appears to have formed so low an opinion of the trustworthiness of the measures that he took little interest in their subsequent use. In 1877 an exceptionally favorable approach of Mars to the earth offered a good opportunity for ‘a renewed attack on the problem of the solar parallax. Guill, who had resigned his position at Dun Echt, began to prepare for an expedition to Ascension Island for this purpose. He fully expected that Mars would, owing to its large disk, prove to be a less satisfactory subject for heliometer observa- tion than a minor planet, which is practically indistinguishable in appearance from the comparison stars; but the parallax factor was so much more favorable than for any minor planet then known that the opportunity was not to be missed. His anticipations proved correct. The value of the solar parallax now found showed a great improvement on any previous determination. The result, 8’’.78, with a probable error of +0’’.012, marks a new stage of advance. But Gill by this work became more than ever convinced that the definitive determination of the constant must rest on minor planets. For his third and final attempt, in 1888-9, the minor planets Tris, Victoria, and Sappho were chosen. Instead of measuring the diurnal parallax, he proceeded this time by the combination of ob- servations made at widely separated stations. This involved a great scheme of cooperation in which many observatories and individuals took some part. The actual heliometer measures of the planets were made mainly by Gill and Finlay at the Cape, by Elkin and Hall at Yale, and by Peter at Leipzig. Of the many other cooperators Dr. Auwers in particular took a large and important share in the work. Accurate places of the comparison stars were needed, and meridian observations of these were made at a large number of places. In the case of Victoria this was supplemented by a heliometer triangu- lation in order to avoid the various systematic errors that affect meridian observations. The whole discussion, which forms two 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. large volumes (vi and vii) of the Cape Annals, is a remarkable record of a thorough and laborious undertaking. It was particularly the kind of investigation to bring out the characteristic qualities of Gill’s genius. To plan the work required that perfect understand- ing of instruments and observations in which he was unrivaled; and to carry it through in its completeness required a dogged persistence which overcame all obstacles, an enthusiasm which shirked nothing, and a power of leadership which inspired all his helpers. There have been other great and successful cooperative schemes since then, but we miss in them the unity of execution which the immense driv- ing force of Gill’s leadership supplied. The final result gave for the solar parallax 8’’.804=-0’’.0046, and in due course this value was adopted (as 8’’.80) in the Ephemerides. In so far as a single investigation can be held to settle so important a constant, the solar parallax was now known with all the accuracy required for the calculations in which it plays a part. Subsequent researches have all tended to confirm Gill’s value; the discordant results found by other methods are disappearing, whilst the supe- riority of the minor planet method has become more and more mani- fest. In the Eros campaign of 1900-1901 the Cape Observatory took no share, owing to the northern declination of the planet, but Gill followed the investigation with keen interest and took part in the arrangement of the work. The results from Eros, whilst diminish- ing the range of uncertainty, so far as accidental errors are con- cerned, have not appreciably altered the value. Shortly before leav- ing the Cape, Gill initiated a determination of the same constant by means of spectroscopic observations, the line-of-sight velocity of the earth relative to a star being measured at opposite seasons, so that the earth’s orbital velocity is found. These observations are now yielding excellent results. We have seen that his measurements during the observations of Juno at Mauritius convinced Gill of the value of the heliometer as an instrument of research. In his hands it was capable of re- markable accuracy. The instrument is peculiarly difficult to use, and the number of those who observe with it has always been few. At the time when the 4-inch instrument was constructed for him the heliometer was usually regarded in England as an exercise for the textbook or the examination question. Even now that its pos- sibilities have been demonstrated it has not been taken up widely. At the present day it is natural to prefer photographic methods, which give equal or perhaps slightly superior accuracy, whilst mak- ing far less demands on the observer. Perhaps, too, the prospect for future progress and development is more obvious in the case of photographic than of heliometer observations. Certainly Gill’s success with the heliometer never blinded him to the advantages SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 517 of the long-focus refractor, and he fully shared the modern tendency to depend more and more on photography. But there is one ad- vantage of the heliometer over the photographic refractor, both for solar and stellar parallaxes, on which Gill strongly insisted— the heliometer measures are independent of the color of the object under observation. He maintained, and confirmed by experimental observations, that the skilled observer in making: coincidences of the images matches the colors and not the most intense points of the minute spectrum caused by atmospheric dispersion. This is a refinement obviously impossible in photography, and, for example, it is well known that the doubtful effect of atmospheric dispersion leaves a little uncertainty in the solar parallax deduced from the photographic observations of ros. So early as 1872 Gill had begun to plan a series of determina- tions of stellar parallax with a micrometer attached to his reflector— an investigation which was interrupted by his removal to Dun Kcht. On his appointment to the Cape he began to apply his 4- inch heliometer to this work. In this he was joined by Elkin, as a volunteer observer, and they set to work on a program of 9 stars, including Sirius, Canopus, « and @ Centauri, with some stars of exceptionally large proper motion. The most important outcome of this work was the parallax of « Centauri, 0’’.75, with a probable error of only a hundredth of a second of arc. The desirability of a larger instrument with some alterations of design soon became apparent, and in 1887 a 77-inch heliometer was constructed at a cost of £2,200. With this, Gill and Finlay, and afterwards De Sitter, measured 17 stars, including 12 of the brightest in the southern sky, in most cases with a probable error as low as +0’’.01. These results were of great interest, establishing the remoteness and intense luminosity of some of the brightest stars, such as Canopus and Rigel. Whenever they have been put to the test Gill’s values have always been confirmed. Spurious parallaxes are a great bane in stellar investigation, and, at least until recently, few observers have escaped an occasional bad error; but Gill’s parallaxes can always be relied on. His general accuracy has been equaled, perhaps a little surpassed, by some modern photographic determinations; but when we compare the sizes of the instruments— the 40-inch telescope at Yerkes or the 26-inch at Greenwich with his 7-inch heliometer—we must marvel at the precision he could obtain. The following table (given by him) will show the com- parative accuracy of his work. It gives the probable error of the measured position of a parallax star: Cambridge refractor (19.3 feet focus), 4 exposures__________________ =£0’’. 048 Yerkes refractor (63 feet focus), 3 exposures________- ae ee ees ==) 026 Heliometer, one complete observation, i. e., 16 pointings_-__-_________ =0 . 086 518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. Another application of the heliometer was made in his deter- mination of the elements of Jupiter’s satellites and of the mass of Jupiter. The longitudes of the satellites can be found very accurately from the usual observations of eclipses, but the lati- tudes are more difficult to derive. Heliometer measures had been made before by Bessel and others, but in all cases the satellite had been referred to.the limb or center of the disk. Gjill’s method was to measure the distances and position angles of the satellites rela- tive to one another; for, as he had found in his observations of Mars, the best results are only possible when the objects to be meas- ured have no sensible disks. The observations were carried out in 1891. On each night the measures were reduced to a constant scale by referring them to the distance between two standard stars. The absolute distance between the standards was determined by a lengthy comparison with the distances of stars employed in the Victoria triangulation, whose definitive coordinates had been found with an accuracy quite exceptional. These observations were the beginning of a very thorough investigation of the whole problem; but the further observations and the discussion of the results were placed by Gill in the hands of younger men, who could give a more undivided attention to the problem. The nature of the investiga- tion required a repetition of the observations at a subsequent date. This was made by the late Bryan Cookson at the Cape in 1901-2. Photographic observations were made concurrently in 1891 and 1902, and again in 1903-4. The whole material thus collected formed an exceedingly valuable source for improving the accuracy of our knowledge of Jupiter’s system. The detailed discussion was taken up by De Sitter at Gill’s suggestion; he reduced Gill’s own observations during a visit to the Cape (1897-99), and worked out the elements and masses derivable from the whole work. It is evident that Gill attached the greatest importance to this work, and, though the later stages were in the charge of other workers, he followed its progress to the minutest detail. His stimulating influence carried it to a successful conclusion, if conclusion it can be called, for in his summary of the work in-the History of the Cape Observatory he urges the need for an extended program of future work, and appeals to astronomers to carry it out. His last scientific effort, on the day the fatal illness began, was to write an introduction to De Sitter’s discussion. Gill’s detection of the existence of magnitude equation in observa- tions of right ascension with the meridian circle was an incidental result of his heliometer observations at Ascension. This definitive dis- covery of a systematic personality, by which faint stars are regularly observed too late relatively to bright stars, has been of fundamental importance in meridian work. He took great interest in the problem SIR DAVID GILL—EDDINGTON. 519 of eliminating this peculiarly difficult source of error by screens and other methods, and it was a source of great satisfaction to him that the traveling-wire micrometer seems to have successfully accom- plished this object. Reference has already been made to Gill’s early photographs of the moon. These were, of course, not by any means the first lunar photographs, but in 1882 Gill made a notable advance in celestial photography by successfully photographing the great comet of that year. Several pictures of this comet had already been obtained, with fixed camera, and the knowledge thus obtained that the light was sufficiently intense encouraged Gill to attempt to obtain images of greater scientific value by guiding the camera in the modern way. He was assisted by Mr. Allis, a local photographer, from whom he borrowed a doublet of 25 inches aperture and 11 inches focal length. He mounted this doublet on the 6-inch equatorial, which he used as guiding telescope. Excellent representations of the comet were ob- tained with exposures of from 30 minutes upwards; but, a fact of still greater importance, it was found that, notwithstanding the in- significant size of the apparatus, a great many stars were shown whose images were well defined over a large field. This suggested the practicability of using similar but more powerful instruments for mapping the sky and for other astronomical purposes to which photography is now applied. We now know how this result has revolutionized the methods of observational work. Gull led the way in turning the new possibilities to a practical account. The immediate outcome was the Cape Photo- graphic Durchmusterung, started in 1885. The survey covers the region of the sky from the South Pole to Dec. — 18°, and is complete so far as photographic magnitude 9™-2 (on the C.P.D. scale). A rapid rectilinear Dallmeyer lens of 6 inches aperture and 54 inches focal length was used for the photography. The work was completed in 1890. Very soon after the start Prof. Kapteyn’s offer was received to devote himself for some years to the arduous labor of the meas- urement and reduction of the plates, a work for which the Cape Ob- servatory was unable to provide. This is a further instance of Gill’s success in attracting for his helpers the men best capable of carrying out the work desired. The association of Gill and Kapteyn, which began now, has proved a most powerful influence in the advance of stellar investigation, and, to quote Gill’s own words, “ probably the most valuable result of the C.P.D. to science is the fact that it first directed Kapteyn’s mind to the study of the problems of cosmical astronomy and thus led him to the brilliant researches and dis- coveries with which his name is now and ever will be associated.” We can only mention briefly the other photographic work with which Gill was associated. When the history of the inception of the 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. International Astrographic Chart and Catalogue comes to be writ- ten it will probably be found that much was due to Gill’s initiative. It may be difficult to trace whence the first suggestion arose, but at least we know that he was in its councils from the very beginning and gave his whole-hearted support to the great enterprise. His measuring machine for photographic plates, designed by him and constructed by Repsold, has been very generally copied in its main features. Another work of great value which owes much to his coun- sel and assistance is the chart of the sky made by the late J. Franklin- Adams. Mr. Franklin-Adams, an enthusiastic amateur, who had only recently applied himself to astronomy, came to the Cape at an early stage of the work to photograph the Southern Hemisphere. It needs little imagination to realize how Gill, by his experienced ad- vice and his insistence on a high standard of quality, helped to make of this the valuable work that it became. In 1897 the necessary expenditure for a new reversible transit circle at the Cape was at length sanctioned. Since his first appointment Gill had lost no opportunity of urging the need for an instrument which should be free from the defects which were obvious in the old design. For the determination of fundamental right ascensions and declinations the chief requirements are an extreme stability of the instrument, means of eliminating or determining the flexures of the various parts, and of guarding against the effects of temperature changes both in the instrument and in the surrounding air. The problem of equalizing the distribution of temperature was most care- fully thought out. The piers were made hollow, covered externally with nonconducting material, and filled with water. The telescope tube was surrounded by a double envelope of copper to minimize the effects of local heating, and the graduated circles were similarly pro- tected by copper disks. Of special interest was Gill’s method of ob- taining fixed meridian marks for maintaining the azimuth of the transit circle. Four deep pits, reaching down to the unweathered rock, were constructed underneath the long-focus collimating lenses and the marks respectively, and a simple method was devised by which the apparatus above ground could be readily set in a definite position with respect to the vertical collimating lines of object glasses fixed in the rock below. So perfect is the stability of these marks that it has been found possible to measure the movement of the North Pole over the earth’s surface by the apparent change of azimuth. It is certain that the device will be widely imitated in future. On his appointment as H. M. astronomer, in 1879, Gill began to consider the question of a geodetic survey of South Africa. His previous experience of such work had been obtained on the occasion of his visit to Mauritius. In connection with the Transit of Venus expeditions of 1874, numerous longitude determinations were made SIR DAVID GILL EDDINGTON, 521 by the various parties of observers; and, indeed, these geodetic re- sults proved to be the most important outcome of the whole work. Gill’s share was a chain of telegraphic longitudes connecting Berlin with Malta, Alexandria, Suez, and Aden. Before returning home he proceeded to Egypt, in response to an invitation from Gen. Stone, chief of the military staff of the Khedive, in order to measure a base line for the proposed survey of the country. This work made slow progress at first, as Gill had no trained assistance on which he could rely; but in the end, with the help of Prof. Watson, he carried it through satisfactorily. No permanent outcome of this work has survived, for the defining marks of the base line were afterwards destroyed by Arabs. It would serve little purpose here to enter into the details of the work which Gill succeeded in accomplishing in South Africa. Be- sides the more practical uses of an accurate survey, Gill kept ever in view the object of the ultimate measurement of the great are of the meridian of 105° from the North Cape to Cape Agulhas—the long- est measurable arc of the meridian in the world. Colonial and for- eign Governments, the Chartered Company, and the scientific socie- ties were all in turn pressed and persuaded. Difficulties of funds, of personnel, of war, interposed obstacles; but there was no resisting Gill. His indomitable persistence always won in the end. Worried ministers would ultimately come to terms with their genial perse- cutor. Still active in this great cause after retirement from the Cape, he had the satisfaction of getting the last link of the South African chain filled in. The great measured are along the meridian of 30° E. now extends from Cape Agulhas to within a short distance of Lake Tanganyika, near the boundary of British territory, a length of 24°, at which point it awaits the other chain of triangula- tion that will some day be pushed down from Egypt. We have now passed in review the most important of Gill’s scien- tific investigations. To these may be added some miscellaneous contributions, of which we can not here give any detail. A triangu- lation by heliometer of the southern circumpolar stars was made under his direction in 1897-1900, but he was not very satisfied with the consistency of the observations. A series of meridian observa- tions of the lunar crater Mésting A, organized by him jointly with Sir William Christie at Greenwich, led to a good determination of the lunar parallax and figure of the earth.» The arrangements for a catalogue of zodiacal stars were placed in his hands by the Inter- national Astrographic Congress. In October, 1906, Sir David Gill left the Cape. Owing to ill health he had anticipated by rather more than a year the date of compulsory retirement. But there were no signs of failing vigor when he returned to England; on the contrary, he plunged into a 529 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. strenuous life of scientific activity in London. He became presi- dent and afterwards foreign secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, president of the British Association at Leicester, and on the councils of the Royal and Royal Geographical Societies as prési- dent d’honneur of the committee of the astrographic chart, and in numerous other duties he was a center of energy and initiative. For several years he worked at his History and Description of the Cape Observatory, published in 1913. Amid our sorrow at his death, when still in the full vigor of scientific activity, there is cause for thankfulness that he was spared to complete and to see the reception of this retrospect of the work to which he had devoted his life. To this record of strenuous work in the cause of science must be added some allusion to the other side of his ife. There was an ideal background to his public life in the quiet home, always characteris- tically Scotch wherever he lived. In Lady Gill he found a sympa- thizer in all his sacrifices and devotion to astronomy. She did not become an astronomer, but she shared all his desires, and it was ever her care to aid him to fulfill his great calling. She was of Scotch birth, like himself, and their home was bright with an indescribable spirit of open-heartedness which seemed to come from his loved Highlands. In December, 1913, he was seized with double pneumonia, and from the first the gravity of the illness was realized. His magnificent constitution carried him bravely through a long fight with the dis- ease, but heart failure supervened, and on the morning of January 24 he died peacefully. There is no need to enumerate the honors conferred on him by the British, French, and German Governments, and by numerous acad- emies and universities. Official recognition was generously be- stowed; even richer was the tribute of admiration and affection of his world-wide circle of friends. WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL, 1847-19141 By J. N. LANGLEY. Walter Holbrook Gaskell was born on November 1, 1847, at Naples, where his parents were passing the winter for the sake of his father’s health. His father, John Dakin Gaskell, was a barrister, a member.of the Middle Temple, who followed his profession for a few years and then retired to private life. His mother was Anne Gaskell, second cousin of his father. Gaskell as a boy lived with his father at High- gate and attended Sir Roger Cholmeley’s school at that place. At school he worked chiefly at mathematics, but had considerable interest in natural history, and appears to have made more than the usual schoolboy collections connected with that subject. He came up to Cambridge in October, 1865, when he was not quite 18, as a member of Trinity College. In his third year he was elected to a foundation scholarship, and proceeded to the B. A. degree in 1869, being twenty-sixth wrangler in the mathematical tripos. After taking his degree he studied for a medical career, and in the course of his preliminary scientific work he attended the lectures on elementary biology and physiology given by Michael Foster, who came to Cam- bridge as prelector in physiology at Trinity College in 1870. Foster led a considerable number of his early pupils to a scientific career. He first aroused an interest in scientific problems and then, some- times gradually, sometimes suddenly, suggested that there was no better course in life than that of trying to solve them. Gaskell, as far as my recollection serves, was influenced in the latter way. In 1872 he went to University College Hospital, London, for clinical work. On his return to Cambridge, Foster, in the course of a conver- sation with him, suggested he should drop his medical career for the time and try his hand at research in physiology. Gaskell, I believe, adopted on the spot this suggestion, and instead of proceeding to the M. B. degree went to Leipzig to work under Ludwig (1874). At this time Ludwig’s laboratory was much the most important school of physiological research in Germany or elsewhere. It at- tracted students from all parts of the world. All the work was planned by Ludwig, who had an almost unerring sense of the lines 1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Series B, vol. 88, no. 606, April 1, 1915. 523 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. of work which would yield profitable results. To this the success of the school was mainly due. Its popularity was increased by the method of procedure adopted by Ludwig. This has been described by Sir T. Lauder Brunton, who was with Ludwig in 1869-70. The experiments were carried out by Ludwig with the pupil as assistant; Ludwig wrote the paper and then published it, occasionally as a con- joint work, but more usually in the name of his pupil. As I have heard from Gaskell, the method was the same in his time. The work given him was a continuation of that on the innervation of skeletal muscle already begun in the laboratory. This led him by a series of steps, which were perfectly logical but impossible to foresee, from point to point of scientific inquiry up to his theory of the origin of vertebrates. Soon after his return to England in 1875, Gaskell married Miss Catherine Sharpe Parker, a daughter of Mr. R. A. Parker, of the firm of Messrs. Sharpe, Parker & Co., solicitors, by whom he had one son, Dr. J. F. Gaskell, and four daughters, two of whom survive him. He settled in Grantchester, about a mile and a half from Cambridge, and in the Cambridge Physiological Laboratory he carried further the investigation on the innervation of the blocd vessels of striated muscle. He found (1877), amongst other facts, that stimulation of the nerve supplying the mylohyoid muscle of the frog caused con- siderable and constant dilatation of the blood vessels, although con- traction of the muscle itself was prevented by curare. This was the most decisive instance known at the time of such action in a purely muscular structure. It did not, however, settle the question of the occurrence of vaso-dilator fibers in the nerves of skeletal muscle, the discussion of which was carried on by Heidenhain and others. From the behavior of the arteries under nervous stimulation he passed to the investigation of the behavior of the small arteries and of the heart with varying reaction of the blood, and, finding that a small addition of alkali increased the tone of both, and that a small addition of acid decreased it, he suggested that, besides the nervous control of the circulation, there was also a chemical contro] in each organ and tissue by the products set free in activity, so that, for ex- ample, the contraction of the muscle by setting free acid led to an in- creased flow of blood through it. The suggestion: was not entirely new, but it was wider in range than any of its kind previously made and rested on more solid facts. This work directed his attention to the heart, and for the next four or five years he devoted his time to the questions of the innervation of the heart, and the cause of the heart beat. With these questions others were busily engaged, notably Engelmann and Heidenhain. In the early seventies it was universally held that the beat of the heart was due to the nerve cells present in it, and that it was initiated WALTER HOLBROOK GASKELL—-LANGLEY. 525 by the nerve cells of the sinus venosus. There were very varied views as to the method of working of the nervous mechanism, especially as to the parts played by the nerve cells of the septum of the auricle, and the nerve cells of the base of the ventricle. As it became more widely recognized that parts of the heart which had no discernible nerve cells could contract rhythmically, it was felt that the nervous theory did not account for the whole of the phenomena. Moreover, some of the pharmacological results could not be satisfactorily ex- plained on the theory as then put forward. But no one had any more satisfactory explanation to offer. The question of the action of the nerve cells in the heart was part of the general question of the functions of the peripheral ganglia. In 1869, Engelmann argued that the peristaltic contraction of the ureters did not depend on nerve cells and that the contraction was conducted from one muscle cell to the next without the intervention of nerve fibers. In 1875 he advocated a similar view as regards the passage of contraction from one part of the ventricle of the frog’s heart to the rest, and he thought this was probably also the case in the auricle. But in one important point he kept to the old theory and considered that the passage of contraction from auricle to ventricle was brought about by nerve cells and nerve fibers. Gaskell (1881) at first adopted the current theory with some modifications in detail, but in 1883 he abandoned it, and argued that the contraction of the heart was of muscular origin; it started in the sinus and spread as a peris- taltic wave to the other chambers, the delay in the passage of the contraction wave from one chamber of the heart to the next being due to a slow conduction in the modified muscular tissue which he found at the junction of the sinus venosus with the auricle, and at the junction of the auricle with the ventricle. In the course of his work Gaskell made a large number of original observations on the be- havior of the several parts of the heart and of the cardiac muscle. The term “block” Gaskell adopted from Romanes’s account of the passage of contraction waves in Meduse; the phenomena had been partly worked out in the frog’s ventricle by Engelmann, but they were much more completely elucidated by Gaskell’s work on the heart of the frog and the tortoise. It was known that the contraction of the ventricle might only occur at every second, third, or fourth beat of the auricle. Gaskell obtained this effect experimentally by vary- ing the degree of block between the two chambers. After the lapse of years the invention of the string galvanometer brought the obser- vation of heart block in man into the region of clinical medicine. The different effects produced on the heart of the frog by stimu- lating the vagus nerve were investigated simultaneously by Gaskell and by Heidenhain. Gaskell observed that stimulation of the vagus 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1915. sometimes caused an increase in the strength of the beats in addition to the quickening which had been already described by Schmiedeberg and others, and which had been attributed to special accelerator nerve fibers. Heidenhain found that by stimulating the medulla oblongata at different points, acceleration and augmentation, or slowing and weakening, of the heart beat could be obtained. Gaskell traced in the crocodile and frog the origin of the accelerator fibers to the sym- pathetic system, and this was followed up by a more complete anatomical investigation by Gaskell and Gadow. The innervation of the heart of lower vertebrates was thus brought into line with that of the mammal. In addition, he gave a more complete account than had been given by Heidenhain of the cause of the independence of the slowing and the weakening of the heart beat caused by pure vagus fibers: and of the quiskening and the increase of strength caused by sympathetic fibers. sc s = o's oe os cine c= oie elo eee ones 53 ark Dine en Bi Be sre eo a So's Sela ss Aenaja wee ee eae eee 106 ae cnoeine te net an eee sn ein PL UD S l 2 2 oreo wiser eeceneere 106 cS STOO TES 70,4 Sos 20) 0 Tg SI a ln ee ae a a a ae ro 2 107 Dominian, Leon (Linguistic areasin Europe: Their boundaries and political sig- MR CHEE eee Ce ee ecto ee ee eee ae re aha d 409 Dorsey, Harry W., chief clerk of the Institution .......-.........--.--+--+#---- pA ay at enebr ee ee ee Ln oe Lanes sine oe oe in ai ere 55 errant a ere eee oh os CS a Se ee staal doc 55 536 INDEX. a Page. Earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy, the (Mancini)...................- 215 Rast, Far, expeditions tothes.. oo. oes eecee epee ese 2. 4. ee 7 Eastman, Charles R. (Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus)..............- 349 Echinoderms, fossil, in western New. York... ..,...2W.00. oe Joe 6 Bddineton,, A/S... (Sir David Gill). oo. oes sos eee 511 Edwards; Charles Uo. 05 0.30.5 -2c02sness cee sass 5 auc SOEs Soe 106 Egypt, excavations at Tell el-Amarna, in 1913-14 (Borchardt)...........-.--- 445 Blectrical precipitation, clearing-ol fog byss/ fees) 23525224. 0) 3 123 Blectricity, unit ol: 22 22.05 = oe eek oe a ee Soe ee ee 175 RACCHONS 22.0 ie wae = gee oe es eee ae ee et ee 174 counting atoms and [2.0.52 25 fesse) es Oe ee ee 177 distribution of, dmthesitomt. i: se~ see nid lee G2 iss pee oe ee 199 tracks of atoms. andi. to 202 aes San ao Soebaseere Seen eee se 182 Elements, the evolution of the, and the constitution of matter (Rutherford)... 167 Hilts, (Carleton: 2/250 oe ue ote ese ei oe eae pees em na 106 Energy, solar, the utilization of (Ackermann).......-..----....22-sJcbslies 141 BYpry SCD ce 2 ie ssyetes, 5 te pacman ale cars aicie ata e Ses apnoea! se eR 106 Eskimo Curlew, the, and its disappearance (Swenk)..........--..-....-..--- 325 Establishment, the, Smithsonian../3/2 212i Je). cite. 2s enece’ ks eee 1 Ethnology, /‘Bureau/of American... > .--.2-- ss -ooee act see eee 22 library: oss Joos risers ood Rate. occ ieee ape ee a 58 publications < ./.,. 22... 2¢be eis sae 2 sree ae 17, 55, 109 185) 0X0) 0 eee een BSE O Se eRe eM Gol 40-59 Europe, linguistic areas in: Their boundaries and political significance MDOMHIMIAT 55,2 cock ate Bae ects wee ee ee be etm fee ie a 409 Bovamis PARTS SRE Gk Soh: 2 sca Seweio sie secs eeleniceeene seee ce Lan aoe eee 106 Bis yeeamass WW ta ea rn, Foe 5p ot os ona rn ne actA NA aus ace Se 35 INO AN So ut hoa s Swe Sie eek He OEE SR ee tie oe ee See ee 107 Byidences of primitive life (Walcott). /..5 2-25-2645 6-2 <2 4-222 eee ae eee 235 Evolution of the elements, the, and the constitution of matter (Rutherford)... 167 Excavations at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, in 1913-14 (Borchardt). .........-.-.- 445 Executive committee of the Board of Regents of the institution, report of. --- - - 111 Expeditions, Smithsonian... : 2. ose 2 ain essa se Ne Sein ee er 125 Borneo.atid Celebes.... ... 2.2.0.5 222 se. >= - Sa @ Cuba sc 2 oe rh ee ee he Ae ae ae aan 8 Island, of Mamor2 2 so ctos set eee oes ee ee 12 the Far Baast- bode bk. geciage as eeeiseds 2 jmaptcsnee Wat eee 7 Bysplorations and. researches. 22. 2. 202 5$ 2 a8) sos ehen et eee eee 4 in South: America, botanical. 2.2522) ber Oe 2 9 1b Rairbanks: Charles W.i(Regent).2 o.oo sce oe eee ee a. eee xi, 2,116 Berguson: Jobm Cr sossel3 eC cee ee eee 108 Berns: Seott (Recent) o2. 200 sss ce aeee = 200 ee eee oa xi, 2 Rew kes® 0 Walteres 3.6 tcc aes cine sk cease arrestee xii, 22, 40, 58, 105 Binances of the institutions {2/4 ses en ae ee ee ee ea eee PAN Eimnish speech, the area of. 220.5225 ..222 228 boot see ee ee 2 425 Fog, clearme of, by clectrical precipitation: > 02 Se once. ae 12, es Hord!, JSmMes: 5 o'osic tas ose.ck Ser ee So ain 5 hoe ero eles wee erie lee ee ee 107 Foreign depositories of U. 8. Governmental documents. ..........---------- 66 Forestry, the place of, among natural sciences (Graves). ....---------------- 257 Fossil DaCteria. (0.8226 ces ewes 5 aoe ence Se eee Seen ye eae eee 240 echinoderms in western. New. York =<: -2222cciec2esse taser cs se eee 6 ae INDEX. 537 Page “SO SETS GCE SSIS te Mae ee rs ee bs eer 5 vertebrate, in Montana......... SES ae MRR En Peete Lett Ne if VK OREO ee OE roan roto eye tie ieee ews e ao be cumyiee ee epeRee 22, 50 BO WAC bib tite eee sc cite awd. os a4 stentsete teen: gals ky cetyl cee xii, 85, 105 Mirchtenberr, eo sos. 5.2528 pe en? So-mchetcrece. oust ceekiln eR xii, 48 Franco-German linguistic boundary............-.............-- . peek 413 OE ioe QR de a Da 2 BAe 4 > ee 19, 35, 124 ices COMEIS EEO MENG Seer ke oe aap eye oye tava ra aee oie sie ome nye m Ieee 19, 124 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz (Impressions of the voices of tropical birds)........... 299 G. (ERG bh Cy Ea a SoS ON | A ee Ae oe ee eS Se cor aos 2 55 Garrison, Lindley Miller, Secretary of War (member of the institution).......- xi enkol, Walter tolbrook (Langley )s-.+2s220... 2 .-. 2 <200 ees occa cette tee 523 EDS ARGO NL ON Ie Cn SAU ied a ree AS bere xii Geological explorations in the Rocke Moumtaines .1..¢2 <4.) seek 5 work in British Columbia. ......-......--- OG. OE ASSES is a 126 Sanne ECC sLNOIATed Ole acer e eh) 2k 6 och anes wee eee e ULL eS ER 418 Gilbert, Chester G........ Sn cre oa Ho he le ae xii Gill, De Lancey........-- fo a Ad et Sok eee, Se ES = xii, 57 SELMER Coheed OS oe ae ee a SUS Bal? SO a 97 all Sint David (Ea dine GON) > Joe. te egies os lees aN ae 511 Rane Theodore Nicholas tribute tore: 2 Ae OE oe hg Se ee 26 ROS OL ESE TS | BSER ANA ge 9. ue ere A ay ee ehh 7, 30, 109 (SPEDE TNE UIST AG ce Jaa Da A Pe Asis ep Rie IM UA SB e en eee ae rice te Meee eee ea e-dkwd.w adhe x ax enmns occ eee xii Government documents, international exchange of. ..........-.------------- 24 Governmental documents, United States, foreign depositories of............--.- 66 eRReHO Ae CANO OL Serre ee ene ae MEL CREED: SUNOS) TAA 106 Grand Valley reclamation project, Colorado...........- TRO ick oe ET Graves, Henry S. (The place of forestry among natural: seionces)= = 257 LPH NR ORS OHS peer Sev ck he we Ee users eee 1g ay ECR b ee rae Ae sek TE LE 9.4 107 Rep APACS WHS ic tee en. Gere Ee ee eee ie Pa et DEINE OS 107 Gray; GeorrerCRecent) 262022 SA Pee Seek. be nie Le xi, 2, 115, 116, 117, 125 (Gueewe,, [Bekyemel ssseesaus G65 a5 ase Ss oe oe ee enon a tems ete Tt 98 Gregory, Thomas Watt, Attorney General (member of the institution)......... xi Gunnell Palbeonardi@stes mee ben ee oeletccicnc cc cekl ek cide aie cnc cuenta ee ee xii rice on interadtional Catalogue of Scientific Literature.. 101 RREEE PC AE LOSO PG Spexoe ss ko kA Sard sae oS xs) 25 Sed otter Ave = ee TE xii, 55, 109 130 Habel, Simeon (bequest).........- ee ene oe ae Se 8 ee es en eee 2 Halbert i. Seas PER Mae Reyer Bil: Wireh) 9 een ee A Ra Oe ESS ee 43, 55, 109 Peeples SBD TD SS gis seh she Ae et Se a gee TRE eG SL Dates il i 35 EPanilign aties (MEMIes pes ean Sees Seek eh et thane Soke Ae See 2 DASE E DTT a A OS a 8 gly ed a etl Sa eee a eg eb ct 12, 125, 127 BLS Wipers oa PEON {TARGETED IAG Lyra ap eee ayes taht arated oe AOR rales ese ye are ah ta 13, 125 Pace PTIOapTE Me HTC opr es St cn TAMU E LI. Aue! ANID Te theo deen xii, 47, 55, 59 LER oad En cive Scpepsiceenera: “al yet pail mae ee aa pe Bersih eh 97 frenderson, Johm B),-jr: GRegent).2... 2.20... X25 1520) 32,3416. 19s m2? Pencermumrex pedro imtCuba:. hte hs ss 2S .oSkk SEL SEL Eee SSS tae eee eee 8 2. Bg3w NTU SEES) eae pee A eee ae eA Sea ae See eee oe ee 359 538 INDEX. Page. Hetherington; Clark "Wisi sec. tae sine ieee oh ae eee ee poke et SOR, Se 108 Hewitt; 3s N Bliss Se GS VE Se nla in Bee xii, 43, 54, 56 Heye; George Giiake esis 2 2c S te RCE Eee ee ee te ee 30 Hill. Sse. property clerk of.the Institution. = -: 2s 2.220 49. 5¢ 22» eee xi Hippocampus, olden time knowledge of (Eastman)............--....-.------ 349 History, American, additions to collection: ofz: ::.2vs 2128 PAU: ees 31 Hod ee: Ra Wien aii cae LARS EE LEV Oe eb tie etree a 2 ee xii, 18 FOPORG (Ole ie ee ee EG See a pane eet ee A ay RRMA 40 Hodgkins funds 2.1218) S227 20e AO en Sy Be ALL) eA Rea eae 117 Hode kts: Thomas 'G: (bequest) oc 45 See ey a ee en A 2,3 Bii@ernmes: {Mi © ei- 2 cer tlie eh A re RA ge ea i ee 106 Mollis; Henry ‘Krench (Regent so nus. eee eee ee ee x1, 2, 116, 125 Holmes; William Heth: -8 Ga yaee sate ee er ge eth Bape Se x1i, 22, 50 Hooker: Blom T Oe 13 oS Oe ee iene ee) eee eee LS shxeititt pete 13, 122 Hooper “Tutiner’s 2.522 2, Snr ER A HR RULE SOE IEE ange ee 108 Hough, Walters 2<.0025..2:224222 peaatsee oot yee, eee Bae eee ee xii Houston, David Franklin, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) . xi Howard. O22 2-- eee a ne are TAA eae eS baat ce ae so xil Ca VAS ¢ Fee FES REE RARE oe Ee Ce OM # Re she ea xii, 10, 106 Eitieepitreyer PrP 27s et ee As ek Ge See ee Ree eee eee Be 120 Hinparian speech* the arearor st cece ee eh ek a ee ee 434 Hrimsaker\SiiG oo. Sis. 0 Bean Sy Sik eine oe al ger ied oe ee Re ee 120 Huntley reclamation project; Montana... -... 222.2 belie bee ee 480 | a Indi antmusretess ee eyo 3 Wes a ee ey tmeree ea eS hee ec en ee ee ey 28553 Insect ‘nests; construction of (Sjéstedt)aiz:o.22 Jace Sanna! -e eee eee 341 Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)................-------- xi International Catalogue of Scientific Literature............--....-..20225-4-- 24, 101 Exchanges: |. 2.52822 ee OS Seer cies hr eee 24, 60 Tnterparliamentary exchange of official journals... --. 1G.4anke ol ee 68 Ftalo-Gernian: limeuistie‘boundary the’: \9.0))5 222 afer) eee 422 Italo-Slavic linguistic boundary *the_.-2.-22 2:22 P22 ee 424 die Jaumann, Gusta viciis:cruiserh apt d 48 see ee Sneed Seek eee 8 eae ees 106 Jennings, Hennentes 5.250800 cin ede Bee oo 8 sek oe re dean BA et ee Ro ek23 Jewett, Frank B. (Some recent developments in telephony and telegraphy).. 489 Johnsons Duman So Ae ey ls PSs ey ate A a ee ie eee 107 Jolyi Secs 225 Ses PE Py A os Ses Gre eee 107 Pones! Ty pRe ys ys eee eee a eek ee 4 ME pena te i ec SPN Fe 107 Jardin Mes os ese ee eget ata 2) ee 51, 52, 53 IK; Kanokopis Kee yo avi h a G8 Sea a Oe ee 106 Kellen Henry Go 3022 finn ee ee re eee ee 107 ello g Mrs Je Fv. coca c ears tee ae i oe a ea 59 Klamath reclamation project, Oregon and California...........---------.----- 485 Kmowles,"W SAss Soh oo. ohh Eas foe ee ne, or, O on ies Di are ar ee xii Koren: Ca pte di ais ah oS 5-2 foe ee le id Ran a ee 7, 128 Kroeber. Ata Q sre at iret cat settee yet Sr er LARS Se 54, 55 Kunz, Georme Be sh eee Dae Soran eee Sees tare wap ical OE INDEX. 539 L. Page Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution)...........................2. xi eV CULe MIMO Suan n i oe Wolpe. els te te ban es dL. ee eedeeet oee 118 Pep b bene ie einai te Sota ates ee acme seins =< 0,5 0:0 va. nis 6-016, s nwt Re xii, 44 ea ace ae eee tee are Li eo awig ule he's sip. - ce ipa s Be 55 Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of fie Institution). . xi Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory. ....-......----- NFA TS ERIE ie 14, 117, 120 Mansleypacroplane: Misch Oley jensen see ow oc See eo cninirye se die ss eee gee 121 ancley. JN \WValtertolbrook Gaskell). 2. < so. cco een iaie ees yeewles 523 Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution)............... Xai engbonee ws oniamii Wee om sseeee eae sea. Me aoa heck Se teen ances - ss oe 13, 123 LUE RT AS LOSE OS Sere ee Ae ay SS St ag ER xii, 58 Mechimasmmyine National Museums. 3.220.202. S 2 sons ee cess ec a cede keke 36 1 DT DTEL Ss DES Fai Tel ical ur er caplet Oe Re Ae a a 2 Xll ea reeeney SSI RO ULAUIES alee eee Ae yl awete Saat toe esas a ate cle so ae nneeek 18, 91 Pic encinilive tovidences of (Walcait)..--2.0.2-0--.2. dees 8 28a ees see 235 1 Lk ASY SLE og cc ae NN tiie MINIM We MRUGIE MMI (SALIOLG) oe eae aes san cicioein ne as ls + sie lee eee 271 Linguistic areas in Europe: Their boundaries and political significance OT PTE TRG EO 0 eS a le ee ee 409 LASSIE TOTES DD 9 cs i le nec ga er 13, 122 [a ACLS tag 8 Vase Fa OF ovo re (SCS (25 0 en a en a ee. Xi 2 eloe Lower Yellowstone reclamation project, Montana, and North Dakota........ 481 Pima Ver ome ocean et erent Steere a (een NS SS a) ores oS lsyate ale) asaneuare cysin. a eneceere 108 i OTD AQHEE STIG 011 Ss a PR a oe a ne ECE 20, 29 M. McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution). xi TMC SIGIG OR Ns JO aS Bis cate es te be aes a deers ona Pa anne a ge Meee URES 105 Mame O nla ne Emer Case iO lames omen tet oe ere ee See ee en he ec ms ale 440 Minelceniale witenne uhm Were ence eee ae LL ech. Soa cee 105 eel COC ear ler ea Easy ears = tees eb ot ah Pe Mee ot a Ses 107 1 TENDS GRRE TASUCD IE LACT STPO) (1 Rae ee RR ere ne Be 10 Mancini, Ernesto (The earthquake in the Marsica, Central Italy) ........-.-- 215 INiziaim,. INTO EN RS ES 3 5 2 aR RE i a eee RES Se eS 126 TPS VT ees ae, J) a Ss TOE ET ea ce ae eee ae IPE 108 Rare Re VONULIOM OlCAtky ose a asst susie cece ee cnes ~ Sac ce sii soci viemeelee 247 Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the In- SNES SES ET OS 5 ca eC at ane) dete ae a x, 2, 16 Marsica, Central Italy, the earthquake in the (Mancini).............----.--- 215 RODE ere nee eta eee SEE NADP Re Se SL Lk cats ayes f ole winpalsta means he 30 Matter, the constitution of, and the evolution of the elements (Rutherford).... 167 EMPLOI AO ioe tet Sat ce Se cla cca cee we oe shee tesa eee 183 PY smectic See isin aie asole deo hep xii, 97, 105 Vilsgrredime ls Ue cr 2/0 0s RET SAAD SSG Ae li a moe eles xii, 97 ii@ieionrn A GSE Ere Res Se Sie es GE A A all ie Se a eee ea Oe SSE! 13, 125 LL) eSEULIS) asl a8 coe eer a ea pe ie ie en aan ise een Sesien n+ hes eI xii, 18 toh eloammrlnimmaniae Gch eel Us ote ole a das eee atari a a xii, 46 Maik Riverreelamation project, Montana. ./....-- 0... 2.02 .--2 22s r ence ee 480 1 CUR A 2agSigy OTS a Ae OP ea eee ier Sit ea be 108 hice ? SPEs Tip dS Meri 0 Gallas Gn ES em ate SIE oe emi EN Tee ce carp vere Yor xii Manidoka reclamation project, Idaho... .... =. :----------22te-seranee sass 479 RPU ORI RyME ARLE Dore G EU et oitgm Sacle tics paral aro .c ia we marek mich w SEIS ia Sl sle ot Syaieie’s Xli, 42, 58 540 INDEX. Page. Moore, Clarence Bi Shoo25200 262 6 one ce eee ee ee ee 30° Moorehead, Warren Ki... =) <2 s2cce kA RE eB ee ee 54 Mosouyis Pmilio. .. coc). dee Pe ee De ee os ee 30 Murie, James R...-...---.-- “ie, Satie Rath SGA eas poe 5 hl Re gr a Ey 54 Music, Indian .34-a¢ dasa cen eee ek ee i ee eg ae ee 23 N. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics..............--..--.+-+----+--- 14 National Gallery ‘of Art 2255 22 oe cee Se pels ae 20, 35 National Museum, thes 202.0 o: so. su. hones one oc oe aaa once nee ae eee ee 20 collections! :~ Sus ciscne cee ee cae ace ee ee 29 Library. 2232308 o.2 sie eis See ee ee ee Ge ey tee 94 meetings, congresses, and special exhibitions. ............-. 36 publications... .. 2.22 2562p aeons 2255 ese eee ee eee 192 Nuttine,Charles Cleveland 24.20 ae to seein sca ote aie erie on en 109 O. Official journals, interparliamentary exchange of..........-...-.---+.2ss++:--: 68 Oz ome Edward! B25 5226. co a eee eee 35am sshaaas Soe yee ee 107 Okanogan reclamation project, Washington. .9--..-...- f.2- 2 02. os papel Serena es 486 Olden time knowledge of Hippocampus (Eastman).......-....--------------- 349 Orland reclamation project,, California. ...2.:).5/: sate o.el ee a= ae ae 477 Oscillator, submarine telegraph, uses of. 2-- 222. 2... 2-2 2 ee oni a ee 203 P. Palmer'"Maj> George Henty 2.9. -<:eeccrs -2 cee serene = Se 29 Panama-California Exposition, anthropological exhibits at.............------- 10 Parker, “Artinir Oe2 090 50022 Posies ae oie, capac oe aera ek rrr ee 54 Parsons, William Barclay.2: 000 pe sere sen oe ere oe eee a 13, 123 PERTSG, CAC Sir ao. soe ees ee aie Se Se Me © or a te Re ee 106 PNantom eireultas. soos: saece oe ee aa ee dele Pe is ap EN RG BT 492 Pianos, collection of, in the National Museum. .22 5.202.202 0500 se eee 31, 119 Poast, Misa Plorence Me oo oo sae ee eee foo ee ae eee ee 40 INDEX, 541 Page Reeie Heer gunOIATOA hacen meter erie tke as ae na. teeta ls ee 426 PUTT [2 CAEL ty eS a ele ea mae NL ae Rai gM ea ala 10 Piero. fey) aanen creorre WW. (OeqUeHb) S20 62. eS ee ee 3,19, 117 Postmaster General (member of the Institution).............................. xi fc-Cumiitian Alsou Morin amertces 8.2 oe oo eee 236 Precipitation, electrical, clearmg of fog by..................:.2. 002.22 2.40% 12 President of the United States (member of the Institution)................... xi immniive Lite evidences'or (Walcothyec..2 2. See 235 1 OV eae LOI ELEC ESE) eee ek a 7 a ee a 17 Printing and publication, Smithsonian advisory committee on............... 18, 110 Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.......... 116 Progress in modern zoology, some aspects of (Wilson)........................- 395 ei exmons on tie TasiimtlOMee son. tess t es. 2 eee of. . ee cee ee ee 15, 104 LP MSR yl Plead te elac ears ep Dee Raa ee I ee ee 106 (Review of astronomy for the year 1918)..................-...-.-- 131 Perea llon ctiey.oaNoOlneneeatearat te ee aore oe oe cee ML DT eee 86 R. PSST CUT Behe ey che nk eB ey a ik ee 106 1 EG LE DH LADO eS. RS ee a ae A pe ee a ee a a 23, 86-90, 126 Merstterat tay RCHCUNE Mier hace t= Ges ee Io we cent Oo Noes ce ane ecto aee ie 196 ania tolopnomy and teloprapiy = --s00s.6 ste iss. se Secs sce eden ste ee eee 503 Rathbun, Richard, Assistant Secretary of the Institution.................... xi, xii iE OUT LOT aL rc PS ne sh 28-39 Le ANE USESEDL LSS SSTICGIIVE 6 au ee ge i Ra RC 2 97 LORE. sELV\C ORS SU. Ce a Regi mpeg a an 7, 29, 32, 125 LU STAUREE SS V0 KS Os ei el A a pea A ee SID Sl Le xii Reclamation of arid lands in the western United States, progress in (Beadle)... 467 Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution)... . xi LIVE DE JAI LS ge 3 2 ice ie li a a gE > 105 [oS BIDV IG) DPN ECG pd BV HU 03S ae a Nc Xa proccedingsio: the Board of: -2-..2-0 tiie see 116 IR GREMITTIRS UES 5a eee Ea Ge Ee oe! aaa arate HR am a rai 108 Pepe sl CisOrben(DOMUESi) ene se Stee uss fe os ons yee eae scaweee coe 2 PPE AEONMe DUD ORA OME en erp eee teen irs cco cee else adds cee hee gees 1222 Reneasee lene mplordm@Ones and seagate ene oS oso e ote oo s jerivae ceemne 4 PODS ESL SUPT ISS LIN os ls a ln a a eR SER a RT Fc 5 PMP otaW alin Sones (MeqUes) =. 22.24 /25cl-. 22.22 sl test aecscce- nose eeeepe 2a LS. TETEOTER YG ke (he NAMI eA 2 7 ae ae eS ace yk 97 LCT EASA. 20) CX] 9 pe i xii, 8, 97 Rio Grande reclamation project, New Mexico and Texas. .......-.----.....- 483 oberinnembern Wig(ivexenmt) > nce: os lccloc+--< ss ssceseesscee cee xi 2,15, 116, 122 SiocG) CURIE TEs | AO UEITS Pathe i Sy no ae ele ca a SR ra das ein ga 108 “SUSU FU esa OU Deere eee 6 11 al ea nn a ay tea Rp 27 Rocky Mountains, geological explorations in the. .........-...-....--------- 5 nese g Pare (WMC CEOS ere een rie feinia eee at oe oe cite Soe cite cite c's Soran amen eis 459 Veo SB a sea, Sih ela ae aaa ea beh aun, at ene Cl hy 9, 97 LSP D SIN UE ae, 1D patio a A ee a a EN REE SOE Ry 1 Sl 56 nila aMnpece lt tebeared Ole.) te). oon. cop wa ss : aaa a > rey : ¥ Z q 22° In 00 A A : i i { vA A