/* 4 eri Dai " vn 7 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF (REGENTS. OF THE SMITHSONIAN DNS ELE U TION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION POR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 1916 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 a : 2 amo : sf 7 Mis x "90 eTvaoTR 10 CHRO. ee PMAI“OeHTIMe THT | B WVOITUTITeMI ~ 4 GWA PEAUTIGNAIZE 2VOITATIIO BOMUTITA4L SRT IO “OITIa“oo- 08 aMUL OMIGMd AAaY’ ANT A807 - - BOTomBeAW: * | ‘as , WITO Oi TWAS TAIVHASION e Se es a ae Ne bo’ Paataeranay he ee LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, December 21, 1916. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and cendition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30, 1916. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Cartes D. Waxcort, Secretary. beg can aah sii Seta on Ac ond a ge uolise tie gagelioade - Ee a wittsttyd at canon ads wradt alae bobanke a Isteqy od} saergeo) 0) duadoa oy ae é Sh Sl ee ri ap ee rare > in a Fa beet =a a CONTENTS. Page. Letter from the Secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to COTO TCR Ape Pen ree Ao Ss ras RN las SORE Wirri Re EES Shaye Rg Ios Sin SO ur Wontenisiolthe report. 227 40ss, MTA RAO MOD AIEEE oo sec nish es Vv EG OM MVE ALONE eR in Men OLA NEE. Lie. od Metaayn Whi a cicka is ap Ss lee Ae vil Seuctansub ects-or tue annilal reports 2.2. $2 am 6. Lacie ee Spree aes sac wim emia IX Omeigis of the Insihution and its branches..;.2.- 2s .2.<{0-.-a 222252222222 ..02 2225222. 22 Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists............------- 23 Panama-Paciic pntermational Exposition .. So ay ae t- ee} sg one 24 Panama-California Exposition at San Diego............------ Lge barat: 26 sicaaat cara Hee yee oS ere cma ins Nat owe Geis aiaidabiepce's 60 tee Sbe=e 26 vi CONTENTS. Bvineamor american Ethnology. a. 22-2 = setate eee erecta etait ela ere ler sele Tine) V Op. (el whee een poe see bob es coac Seno os soso Sos seosongeeoscc0 ISSO Vio ovenenl I Eph ee Sheen eaee eee ae aos eden Besse Son Shs son aanons06 Astrophysical Observatory......--...---+2-<- 22-2202 22250 senses ee ene International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.............---- a isaac sate ISG SE Gee ge bos sae ee See mone On eS Oa SHO Bomar nce nodcEsHasas i aha as osc Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum. ...........-... 2. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology.................-- 3. Report on the International Hxchanges........,..-.--.---+.---- 4, Report on the National Zoological Park..................--..- 5. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory.............-..--...- GasKeport on thedibrary. cssssscet ern: ee asin occ ee se acer 7. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. . Seepoctvon puplucationses cas. seater oc emun ee noule. SAUER EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND REGENTS. oport Of Executive COMMIULCOS: 22.2 fn cckca eles sate octet ces seer EroceedinosiolboOarG Of INOPOMtS: = 2-25. escicge cleo tipi wae ee alee sles ons GENERAL APPENDIX. Administration and activities of the Smithsonian Institution, by A. Howard (Cag ke Ser Nae ek ae erate ee we aisvavalas:aioraya aiwia(e ctaeree oGtav aves sve islaret saya sim ovens etocaimiars Mewsinompihe stars wpyio. GerAbDObs s- aso coc ee Saco ec es are acto The distances of the heavenly bodies, by W. S. Hichelberger............-..-.. ECONSUS OF Ghe Sky DYeky As SAMPSON S <2 ccc /siate n.c cs velco Sie seas Siciale gto o eraiatels Gim-report noiseniby, Hiram P. Maxam 2202. Set o2 2 co ee Snares Molecular structureand life, by AméePictet—....- 2 0-2-2 e eee ie eee ese Ideals of chemical investigation, by Theodore W. Richards................... The earth: Its figure, dimensions, and the constitution of its interior, by T. C. Chamberlin, Harry Fielding Reid, John F. Hayford, and Frank Schlesinger. Pry land in geolosy, by Arthurie. Coleman ie. cnc ee tc gene sen aa The petroleum resources of the United States, by Ralph Arnold..............- a@heoutlook tor iron, by James: Murman Kemp... 222 -.-.-c-- ee sc sae eae tie :origin of meteorites, by Er. Berwerthi>.. 5302.5... - 5222.5. - ome eee eee The present state of the problem of evolution, by M. Caullery.............--- Some considerations on sight in birds, by J. C. Lewis..................-.-.-.--- Pirates of the deep: Stories of the squid and octopus, by Paul Bartsch... .....- The economic importance of the diatoms, by Albert Mann....-..........-...-- Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans, by W. E. Safford... New archeological lights on the origins of civilization in Europe, by Arthur. ihe preat dragon of Quirigua. by W-. Hy Holmes... 2.52. 3025.22 2- ote ye one A prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its people, by J. W. Fewkes.........-.- The art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio, by Charles C. Willoughby... A half century of geographical progress, by J. Scott Keltie..................-- The relation of pure science to industrial research, by J. J. Carty.............. Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau of Mines, by W/O? oo ee Se RN EM TATA. ee oy Co eal haha Natural waterways in the United States, by W. W. Harts.................... ieocore Ni Gill by William Ay Dalle ocean ope ee eee cee holiveiand work of Fabre, by EH: WiBouvier: ..co-ceceheneceoness ones scan LIST OF Page Smithsonian Institution (Clark) : Ta tes Ace es ee 138 Platesmo—o eee se a 140 PlatessOs 1 Oeie et. 22s ope A? Plates Ua tates sl 2 Boke 148 lhc) i ee 150 TACs Oa es oie et Se 152 News from the Stars (Abbot) : Plates 2s a ee | Bh 158 IP latesoy ate Ebare sry 2k ots 160 ELEN renege SEE SMG ey ye eres 163 Census of the Sky (Sampson) : LET) Ga i eee 192 “ Gun Report Noise (Maxim) : BEND Ret Coy CRN Cee LA a ee eee 198 Sight in Birds (Lewis) : Jed) ces} mi Ea: as Nae ee a A a 338 Pirates of the Deep (Bartsch) : Plates pslnr 2:2 oe eee Wate ee 348 IPT ACCS chy Ae ae 350 Platesiag. Gs... ee ee 352 PIB TCS Wie pOse ts sts ul es eS Ly 354 PlatesOs sal Quetelet 356 Healey eek }o01 la Ura ae eR a ees 358 TACOS ipl betel Ae een 360 Plates onclG se ee st 368 IBIAS eli), eal Bis uk ie oe 312 Tate Gee ees ee ee 314 Diatoms (Mann) : PIRtes lO oe aes eet See 386 Narcotic Plants (Safford) : IPS tesa (ees be ee 424 PLATES. Page Great Dragon (Holmes) : Plates ee a. ee ee ee es ee 448 Plabestay 4s ee te ee 450 Plates Wo Guat Sek ie 452 PINTS Ons nas ABA PAE CSO OHO eit tee es as eee 456 Mesa Verde Pueblo (iewkes) : EGG yee ae 0, See eee 464 Plates 2am. 4 ee ee Se 466 Blates).G=9 ees to eee ee 470 Plates Odie. See 472 Plates) WQS) ue 2 ae A76 Earthwork Builders (Willoughby) : Plates) aaa ee ee 490 Platest5\4 6262520. See eed oe IPIStesr ieee oe 2 ee __. 496 PlatecvO&i? 5. tu. = oe ee AGS Plate alg ees oo. : | See 500 Geographie Progress (Keltie) : Plates die De tok 2 oe cl ee tay Mine Safety Devices (Manning) : 1 Eas eet np Aca see RR ER Ne 538 PTAUES oa y Ase ote De iain ey yA PACS Oy Oe ee 542 Plate ype be So ne ae ea 544 Natural Waterways (Harts) : Plates aie2es — 22ers ey seen 552 Plates; cA 2 esate Nee 554 Plates Og Geet se er eee lee 558 PIAteSa i noeeee =e Csr A Se sea 562 21a] eso See te ete TS 568 Theodore N. Gill (Dall): PLC. is ees aie a ae ee 579 ru goad boy wi vats je ae ei EL Bay cia eee Ary 3 ck they z tity en AE a > me slihwlit) hae ieee Ure, - ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. SUBJECTS. 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1916, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1916. 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous mem- oirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1916. Ix THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. June 30, 1916. Presiding officer ex officio—Woovrow WIiLson, President of the United States. Chancellor. —Epwarp DoucLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: Wooprow WILxson, President of the United States. THomAS R. MarsHatr, Vice President of the United States. EpwArD DouGLAss WHITE, Chief Justice of the United States. RospertT LANSING, Secretary of State. WILLIAM Gripes McApoo, Secretary of the Treasury. NEWTON DIeEHL Baker, Secretary of War. THOMAS WATT GREGORY, Attorney General. ALBERT SIDNEY BuRLESON, Postmaster General. JOSEPHUS DANIELS, Secretary of the Navy. FRANKLIN KnicHtT LANs, Secretary of the Interior. Davip FRANKLIN Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. WILLIAM Cox REDFIELD, Secretary of Commerce. WittiAmM BaucHop WILson, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Epwarp Douciass WHitTsE, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. THOMAS R. MAarsHALL, Vice President of the United States. Henry Casor Lopce, Member of the Senate. WittiaAmM J. Stone, Member of the Senate. Henry FrReNcH Horiis, Member of the Senate. Scorr Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives. HRNest W. Roserts, Member of the House of Representatives. JAMES T. Lioyp, Member of the House of Represenattives. ANDREW D. WHITE, citizen of New York. ALEXANDER GRAHAM Bert, citizen of Washington, D. C. GEORGE GRAY, citizen of Delaware. Cuaries FF. CHoate, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. JOHN B. HENDERSON, Jr., citizen of Washington, D. C. CHARLES W. FarrBanks, citizen of Indiana. Hxrecutive committee-—GEORGE GRAY, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, ERNEST W. ROBERTS. Secretary of the Institution—CuHArRLES D. WALCOTT. Assistant secretary. RICHARD RATHBUN. Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsry. Accountant and disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS. Editor.—A. Howarp CLARK. Assistant librarian.—PavuL BROCKETT. Property clerk.—J. H. Hiv. xi THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. Keeper ex officio —CuHarLes D. WALCOTT, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. Assistant secretary in charge.—RIcHARD RATHBUN. Administrative assistant.—W. DE C. RAVENEL. Head curators.—WItttiAM H. Hotmes, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, G. P. MERRILL. Curators.—Pavut BartscH, R. 8. Basster, A. Howarp Crark, F. W. CLARKE, F. V. Covittr, W. H. Dati, CHESTER G. GILBERT, WALTER Hovuacu, L. O. Howarp, Ares HrpiiéKa, FrepertcK L. LewTon, GEORGE C. MAYNARD, GERRIT S. MIcxer, Jr., RoBERT RIDGWAY. Associate curators.—J. C. CRAwrorp, W. R. Maxon, Davin WHITE. Curator, National Gailery of Art——W. H. HoLMEs. Chief of correspondence and documents.—RanovorpH I. GEARE. Disbursing agent.—W. 1. ADAMS. Chief of exhibits (Biology) James HE. BENEDIcT. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. S. GoLDSMITH. Editor—Maxrcus BENJAMIN. Assistant librarian.—N. P. SCUDDER. Photographer—YT. W. SMILLIE. Registrar.—s. C. Brown. Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES. Engineer.—C. R. DENMARK. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Bthnologist-in-charge.—\l". W. Hoper. Ethnologists.—J. WALTER FEWKES, JOHN P. Harrineron, J. N. B. Hewitt, FRANCIS LA FLESCHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JAMES Moonry, JoHN R. SWANTON. Special ethnologist—Lro J. FRACHTENBERG. Honorary philologist—FRANZ Boas. Editor—JosrrH G. GURLEY. Librarian.—ELua LEARY. Tllustrator.—Dr LANCEY GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Chief clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. Superintendent. FRANK BAKER. Assistant Superintendent.—A. B. BAKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Director.—C. G. Apsor. Aid.—k. EH. Fowts, Jr. : Bolometric assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFC LITERATURE. Assistant in charge.—Lxronarp C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CHARLES D. WALCOTT, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1916. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the customary annual report on the operations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, including work placed by Congress under the direction of the Board of Regents in the United States National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. The general report reviews the affairs of the Institution proper and briefly summarizes the operations of its several branches, while the ap- pendices contain detailed reports by the assistant secretary and others directly in charge of various activities. The reports on operations of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology will also be published as independent volumes. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created an establishment by act of Congress approved August 10, 1846. Its statutory members are the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments. THE BOARD OF REGENTS. The Board of Regents, which is charged with the administration of the Institution, consists of the Vice President and the Chief Justice of the United States as ex officio members, three Members of the Senate, three Members of the House of Representatives, and six citizens, “ two of whom shall be residents in the city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them from the same State.” : 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. In regard to the personnel of the board the only change during the fiscal year was the appointment of James T. Lloyd, Representa- tive from Missouri. The roll of Regents on June 30, 1916, was as follows: Edward D. White, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor; Thomas R. Marshall, Vice President of the United States; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of the Senate; William J. Stone, Member of the Senate; Henry French Hollis, Member of the Senate; Scott Ferris, Member of the House of Representatives; Ernest W. Roberts, Member of the House of Representatives; James T. Lloyd, Member of the House of Representatives; Andrew D. White, citizen of New York; Alexander Graham Bell, citizen of Washington, D. C.; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F. Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, jr., citizen of Washington, D. C.; and Charles W. Fairbanks, citizen of Indiana. The board held its annual meeting on December 9, 1915. The pro- ceedings of that meeting, as also the annual financial report of the executive committee, have been printed, as usual, for the use of the Regents, while such important matters acted upon as are of public interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the present report of the Secretary. A detailed statement of disbursements from Gov- ernment appropriations, under the direction of the Institution for the maintenance of the National Museum, the National Zoological Park, and other branches, will be submitted to Congress by the Secretary in the usual manner in compliance with the law. FINANCES. The permanent fund of the Institution and the sources from which it was derived are as follows: Deposited in the Treasury of the United States. Beguest of James Smithson, W846. 2 ee as $515, 169. 00 Residuary, legacy of James Smithson, 1867____________________ 26, 210. 63 Deposit of savings of income, 1867____________ STS NE en ee 108, 620. 37 Bequestsof James Hamilton! W875i. Soe Des ae $1, 000 Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895_______ 1, 000 ———--- 2, 000. 00 Bequest of Simeon Habel 4SS80sne. ceey veer waver eepey 500. 00 Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881_____________ 51, 500. 00 Gift of Thomas,G. Hodgkins; 189t «cbse; lation sit weus inf 200, 000. 00 Part of residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1894___________ 8, 000. 00 Deposit from savings of income, 1908____________-__-_-___ 25, 000. 00 Residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1907_________________ 7, 918. 69 Wevposit- tron savings of-income, 1910-6 ee 636. 94 Part of bequest of William Jones Rhees, 1918_________ 251. 95 Deposit of proceeds from sale of real estate (gift of Robert Stan- ICHUCAVICE NAL OW Ot 2 a eee a ek) Seo) aeid poe Th 9, 692. 42 Bequestsor Addison "l: Reid; 1914 2. eee oc) a ee 4, 795. 91 Deposit of savings from income, Avery bequest, 1914____________ 204, 09 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 Deposit of savings from income, Avery fund, 1915_--_-__________ $1, 862. 60 Deposit of savings from income, Reid fund, 1915_______________ 426. 04 Deposit of balance of principal, $248.05, and income, $28.39, Rhees fC at Ol yee oe ee ne ree Ne ee ee eS 276. 44 Deposit of first payment of Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, oe ee a ee ere 24, 584. 92 Deposit of part of principal of Addison T. Reid fund, 1916_______ 4, 698. 59 Deposit of principal of George H. Sanford fund, 1916____________ 1, 020. 00 SPepositior sayings from income, 1916. — 2, 681. 41 Total of fund deposited in the United States Treasury____ 996, 000. 00 Other resources. Registered and guaranteed 4 per cent bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par WCE RG 0 NE A ED Ee ee ee eS 42, 000. 00 Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due enter eet cyan (COS ti) ae cere a eee ee ee 5, 040. 63 Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec. 15, SSI CCCORSTE) eee Lae a an een A Se eerie 5, 098. 75 TotalIpermanent CHM eet 2 yet ara thee Te 1, 048, 184. 38 The second installment to the Addison T. Reid fund, amounting to $4,698.59, and a bequest to be known as the George H. Sanford fund, amounting to $1,020, were added during the year to the per- manent fund deposited in the Treasury of the United States, which, together with incomes of several specific funds amounting to $2,681.41, now aggregates the total sum of $996,000, which bears interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum. The sum of $10,000, being a part of the bequest designated as the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, the income of which is to be applied to the maintenance of the Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks in the National collections, was received by the Institution in October, 1915, and on the advice of the executive committee was in- vested in gold notes maturing on December 15, 1917, and July 1, 1918. These investments form a nucelus of what will hereafter be known as the consolidated fund. The income account of each specific fund will be credited with the proportion of income which each in- vested fund bears to the whole fund. The income of the Institution during the year, amounting to $107,670.26, was derived as follows: Interest on the permanent foundation, $60,751.23 ; contributions frem various sources for specific purposes, $22,954.99; first payment of the Frances Lea Chamberlain fund, $10,000; second payment on account of the Addison T. Reid fund, $4,698.59; and from other miscellaneous sources, $9,265.45. Adding the cash balance of $42,165.86 on July 1, 1915, the total resources for the fiscal year amounted to $149,836.12. The disburse- ments, which are given in detail in the annual report of the executive 4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. committee, amounted to $105,125.10, leaving a balance of $44,711.02 on deposit June 30, 1916, in the United States Treasury and in cash. The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1916: Hnrern ational -exchaneesma ss waeee = ee = Ere = eer Se oes $32, 000 FAUMETIGATICEE LIN O10 Sey Peat eee ee ero SN EY a SO et eee ee 42, 000 ASLLODAY SICA ODSERVALOIy Sse — en Se oe ee 13, 000 National Museum: MUENEEURe sam) (ix ao ee ee ee 25, 000 Heatingrand iehting ae 2a ass ee ee eee ee 46, 000 Preservation) of collections ==.3s sea x eae a ee eae 300, 000 Books 222255. 3 5208 2) 2 oe Se ee eh ee Se 2, 000 US ea eae ae I ae aa ins eS 500 IBUUGingeere pains se sar ae ee ee EN ee ee 15, 000 BOOKSEACKSs tor GOVELMME Mtg OIE Ue I ages = ese ey ee see 6, 500 National Zoological (Parks 22. 2a) Se eee ee 100, 600 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature______________________ 7, 500 AR Oba 2 ee ge ee Sa ee ee ee ee ee 589, 500 In addition to the above specific amounts to be disbursed by the Institution there was included under the general appropriation for printing and binding an allotment of $76,200 to cover the cost of printing and binding the Smithsonian annual report, and reports and miscellaneous printing for the Government branches of the Institution. THE FREER ART GALLERY. One of the most important events since the foundation of the In- stitution was consummated in December last. In my last report it was mentioned that Mr. Charles L. Freer was considering the question of erecting a suitable building for the permanent preservation of the splendid collection of objects of art which he presented to the Institution in 1906 and has since augmented by many further gifts. It is exceedingly gratifying here to record the gift by Mr. Freer of $1,000,000 in cash for the immediate erection of a building and that the site and preliminary plans have been agreed upon, so that the actual construction work will soon begin. The building will be of granite and located at the southwest corner of the Smithsonian reservation at Twelfth and B Streets. The munificent donation by Mr. Freer of his collection and pro- vision for its preservation is unsurpassed in this country, and is one of the most notable gifts of its character in the world’s history. Mr. Freer describes his collection as follows: These several collections include specimens of very widely separated periods of artistic development, beginning before the birth of Christ and ending to-day. No attempt has been made to secure specimens from unsympathetic sources, my collecting having been confined to. American and Asiatic schools. My great REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 desire has been to unite modern work with masterpieces of certain periods of high civilization harmonious in spiritual and physical suggestion, having the power to broaden esthetic culture and the grace to elevate the human mind. The original collection consisted of about 2,300 paintings and other objects of art, and has since been increased to 5,346 items, including American paintings and sculptures, the Whistler collection, and oriental paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea, . Japan, and other Asiatic countries. A full catalogue of items is given by Mr. Rathbun in his Museum Bulletin on the National Gallery of Art. EXPLORATIONS AND RESEARCHES. The usual activities were continued during the past year in ad- vancing one of the fundamental objects of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, the znerease of knowledge. In this work various explorations and researches were inaugurated or participated in by the Institution and its branches, covering practically all divisions of astronomical, anthropological, biological, and geological science. The extent of these explorations and researches during the history of the Institu- tion covers a wide range, although a great deal more of most impor- tant work could have been accomplished had adequate funds been available. Friends of the Institution have generously aided this work, particularly during the last few years, through the contribu- tion of funds for specific purposes, but much yet remains undone, and opportunities for undertaking important lines of investigation are constantly being lost through lack of means to carry them into execution. Several proposed expeditions to various parts of the world have been temporarily delayed by the war in Europe. I will here mention only briefly some of the recent activities of the Institution in these directions and for details of other investigations may refer to the appendices containing the reports of those directly in charge of the several branches of the Institution. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. In continuation of my previous work in the Rocky Mountain re- gion, I was engaged during the season of 1915 in field investigation in the Yellowstone Park area and from there north into the Belt Mountains east of Helena, Mont. The work in the Yellowstone Park was carried on with two objects in view: First. To determine, if possible, the extent to which the lower forms of alge and possibly bacteria contributed, through their activities, to the deposition from the geyser and hot spring waters of the con- tained carbonate of lime and silica. 73839°—sm 1916—— 2 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Second. The securing for the National Museum of a series of geyser and hot spring deposits, also silicified wood from the petrified forests and certain types of volcanic rocks. During the investigation and collecting, numerous photographs were taken of geysers and hot springs and of deposits made from the waters through evaporation and organic agencies. The collections were brought to the camps by pack horses and buckboard and subsequently packed for shipment at Fort Yellow- stone and Yellowstone. Material assistance was afforded by the co- operation of the acting superintendent of the park, Col. L. M. Brett, United States Army, and oflicers of the United States Engineer Corps in charge of the maintenance and development of the park roads and trails. Upward of 5 tons of specimens were collected and shipped to the National Museum. This collection permits of the preparation of a special Yellowstone Park exhibit ofsgreat beauty and interest. It was found that algal growth was everywhere present when the temperature of the waters was from 70° to not much above 180° F., and that this growth had a marked effect upon the amount and charac- ter of both calcareous and siliceous deposits. After completing the investigation of the geyser and hot spring deposits, a trip was made to the Fossil Forest in the northeastern section of the park, in the Lamar River Valley. Large collections were made here of silicified wood and various minerals, one of the latter being a remarkable and beautiful form of calcite rosettes, which were illustrated and technically described in the pamphlet on Smithsonian explorations in 1915.1 The camp site in the Lamar Valley was one of unusual interest and beauty. The high hills to the south showed the rock cliffs con- taining silicified woods, calcite rosettes, and beautiful specimens of chalcedony. A little way from the camp the party met with a large herd of bison grazing freely in the broad open valley; also herds of elk, bands of antelope, a few black bear, and an occasional wolf. On leaving the park, after 675 miles of travel with the camp out- fit, the party proceeded down the West Gallatin River Canyon, stop- ping to examine the section of Cambrian rocks at the mouth of Squaw Creek. The next permanent camp was made in Deep Creek | Canyon, 17 miles east of Townsend, Mont., where the extensive pre- Cambrian sections of the Big Belt Mountains are beautifully shown. About 2 tons of pre-Cambrian specimens were collected in this vicinity before the storms of late September (1915) closed the sea- son’s field work. 1Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 66, No. 3, 1916. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 MASTODON FROM INDIANA. Many finds of mastodon and mammoth remains, especially from different localities in States bordering on the Great Lakes, are con- stantly being reported to the Institution. These “ finds,” chiefly in swamp deposits of the Pleistocene, generally consist of a few isolated bones or teeth, but afford evidence of an abundance of these great _ creatures during the geological age just preceding the present. Com- pared, however, with the great number of remains found, complete skeletons are rare, principally because the finds are generally brought to ight by workmen who have little or no knowledge of the scien- tific value of the remains. The National Museum was therefore fortunate during the past year in the acquisition of a fine, nearly complete adult male mastodon skeleton from a swamp deposit in northwestern Indiana. A part of the skull, four limb bones, a few ribs and vertebre were unearthed by a dredge crew while excavating a drainage canal and shipped to the Institution. Mr. J. W. Gidley, of the National Museum, later succeeded in finding the lewer jaws, most of the re- maining vertebrie and ribs, parts of the pelvis, and a few more limb and foot bones, and on a second visit found the missing sections of the vertebral column, several more foot bones, and other important fragments. On assembling all the bones recovered it has been found that, with comparatively little artificial restoration, an unusually fine and complete specimen of the American mastodon can be prepared for exhibition. PALEONTOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC STUDIES IN THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS. Dr. EK. O. Ulrich of the National Museum, was occupied for sev- eral months during the field season of 1915, under the auspices of the United States Geological Survey, in a study of the lower Paleozoic deposits of the Mississippi Valley. He was engaged chiefly in seeking evidence respecting the boundary line between the Cambrian and Ozarkian systems. For this purpose many of the outcrops of these rocks were visited, but the most important evidence was found in the upper Mississippi Valley and in the Missouri where the Upper Cambrian rocks are particularly well displayed, and the succeeding deposits of the Ozarkian system are more commonly fossiliferous than elsewhere. The relative abundance of fossils in these areas permitted the actual boundary between the two systems to be accurately determined after considerable study. This boun- dary was found to coineide with the uneven plane formed at the junction of the deposits laid down by the retreating Cambrian sea with those formed by the return of the waters in the succeeding Ozarkian time. During the progress of these stratigraphic studies 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. numerous collections of fossils were secured for the museum series, and incidentally the investigations resulted in the proper placement of many fossils whose stratigraphic position had hitherto been un- certain. In the latter part of the season Dr. Ulrich worked out the field relations of some insufficiently located collections of Paleozoic fossils made in southwest Virginia at various times in the past. The most important result of these investigations is the proof that a large coral fauna, exceedingly like that which marks the horizon of the Onondaga limestone throughout the extent of this well known and widely distributed Middle Devonian formation, had already in- vaded the continental basins as far as southwest Virginia during the closing stages of the preceding Lower Devonian. This instance of recurring fossil faunas is regarded as one of the most important of the many similar instances that have been established through the field studies of Dr. Ulrich during the past 25 years. All have served in correcting erroneous correlations of formations that had arisen through the confusion of earlier or later appearances of faunas with the one recognized in the standardized sequence of stratigraphic units. Mr. R. D. Mesler, under the supervision of Dr. Ulrich, spent the summer of 1915 in making collections of Ordovician and Silurian fossils from formations and localities in the Appalachian and Missis- sippi Valleys which had hitherto been little represented in the museum collections. A large number of fossils resulted from his trip, particularly from the Middle Ordovician rocks of east Tennes- see, which will form the basis of a future monograph on the paleon- tology of that region. EXPLORATIONS IN SIBERIA. Through the liberality of the Telluride Association the Institution was enabled to send Mr. B. Alexander with the Koren Expedition to the Kolyma River region of northern Siberia. The expedition left Seattle, Wash., in June, 1914, and returned in September, 1915. The. immediate purpose of the trip was to obtain remains of large extinct animals, particularly of the mammoth for which the region is noted. The results were not all that were hoped for, but a considerable quan- tity of material was obtained, though no complete skeleton. A re- — port, with photographs taken by the party, was published in the pamphlet on Smithsonian explorations and field work in 1915. The collection of bones sent in by the expedition contains a few fine speci- mens, together with a considerable number of isolated bones, which are valuable for study and comparison. They all indicate a late Pleistocene age, as the bones of many of the forms represented can with difficulty be distinguished from those of species still living in REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9 that region. The animals represented include the mammoth, bison, carabou, horse (two or more species), rhinoceros, musk-ox, wolverine, and wolf. The prize specimen is a finely preserved, almost complete skull of Elephas primigenius. It is of especial interest as being the only skull of the Siberian mammoth in any of our American museums, COLLECTING FOSSIL ECHINODERMS IN THE OHIO VALLEY. Explorations for fossil echinoderms were conducted during the summer of 1915, under the supervision of Mr. Frank Springer, asso- ciate in paleontology in the United States National Museum. The work was limited to two areas of Silurian rocks in the Ohio Valley from each of which much valuable material was procured for the study of certain definite problems. In southern Indiana Mr. Her- rick EK. Wilson, under Mr. Springer’s direction, spent a number of weeks quarrying for Niagaran echinoderms, particularly crinoids, in the vicinity of St. Paul where numerous outcrops of the Laurel lime- stone occur. The object of this work was to secure as many speci- mens as possible for comparisons of this peculiar fauna with those from European Silurian rocks. Not only was much material ob- tained by the quarrying operations, but all of the local collections of fossils were purchased for Mr. Springer, so that the Museum, which hitherto had practically no fossils from the Laurel limestone, is now in possession of a splendid general collection of fossils from this particular formation. The second area of exploration was in west Tennessee along the Tennessee River, where Mr. W. F. Pate spent some weeks in search- ing for the peculiar crinoidal bulb, Camarocrinus, and the associ- ated crinoid, Scyphocrinus, both of which Mr. Springer has proved to belong to the same organism. Mr. Pate was successful in finding several localities where excellent specimens of the Camarocrinus and Scyphocrinus were associated. Much material was secured and the specimens will be used in the preparation of Mr. Springer’s mono- graph upon this group of crinoids. GEOLOGICAL WORK IN PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA. By arrangement with the United States Geological Survey, Dr. Edgar T. Wherry, of the National Museum, continued his studies of the geology of the Reading quadrangle in eastern Pennsylvania for a month during the summer of 1915. He completed the areal mapping of the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks of the region, and has transmitted to the Survey the manuscript of a report upon his work. He also mapped Cambrian and Triassic formations on 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. the Quakertown and Doylestown quadrangles, which lie to the east of the Reading. A brief visit was made to a newly discovered cave near Lurich, Va., where the cave marble was reported to be of economic im- portance. This view proved to be unjustified, but some unusual stalactitic formations were found, two specimens of which were obtained for the Museum collections. EXPEDITION TO BORNEO AND CELEBES. As the result of zoological explorations carried on by Mr. H. C. Raven in Celebes, through the generosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott, the Museum has received 464 mammals, 870 birds, 50 reptiles, and some miscellaneous specimens. The mammals and birds are of great value as the first adequate representation of a fauna that has par- ticular interest in connection with previous work in other parts of the Malay Archipelago. Early in the summer of 1915 Mr. Raven returned to America and spent several months on vacation and in preparing for further explorations in Celebes and other parts of the East Indies. Dr. Abbott has offered his continued support to this work. Mr. Raven left Washington for the East by way of Japan and Singapore, about the middle of October. Two months later he reported from Buitenzorg, Java, that he was making good prog- ress toward the collecting ground. EXPLORATIONS IN CHINA AND MANCHURIA, Zoological explorations, mentioned in previous reports, have been continued in China and Manchuria by Mr. Sowerby through the generosity of a friend of the Institution who desires to remain un- known. During July, August, and September, he made an expedi- tion to the lower reaches of the Sungari River and the I-mien-po district in north Manchuria, where he succeeded in collecting some interesting specimens of mammals, birds, and fishes to be for- warded to the Institution. EXPLORATIONS IN EASTERN SIBERIA. In the summer of 1915 Mr. Copley Amory, jr., returned from the northeast coast of Siberia, where for about a year he had been gathering zoological material in connection with a party under Capt. John Koren. As his part of the results of the expedition Mr. Amory turned over to the National Museum 865 mammals, 264 birds, and various miscellaneous specimens principally of plants, fish, and birds’ eggs. Most of this material was prepared by Mr. Amory him- self, though various members of the expedition contributed to the collections of both mammals and birds. Among the mammals, about REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. abi | 25 wild species are represented and are of interest for comparing the Alaskan species with their nearest Asiatic relatives. EXPEDITION TO ST. THOMAS, DANISH WEST INDIES. Mr. C. R. Shoemaker, of the division of marine invertebrates in , the National Museum, spent the two months from the middle of June to the middle of August, 1915, in the Danish West Indies, under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D. C., securing collections of corals and other marine invertebrates. This expedition has enriched the collections cf the National Museum by about 5,000 specimens, which it is hoped will throw considerable light on the correlation of these islands in the West Indian complex. The collecting was done in the open water, bays, and channels at St. Thomas, St. John, and St. James. The deeper waters were ex- plored by means of dredging from a motor boat, while native divers, working from the heavy West Indian row boats, were used for collecting in the shallow waters. In addition to this, much shore collecting was done. Owing to the very strong and constant trade wind, work on exposed reefs was in many cases made impossible by the heavy surf. Collecting in the protected bays, however, was most successful, as a great variety of bottom was to be found in many of them. While the chief aim of the expedition was to seeure as complete a representation of the coral fauna as possible—and this aim met with considerable success—fine collections of other marine inverte- brates were also obtained, including protozoa, sponges, hydroids, medusex, aleyonarians, anemones, bryozoans, starfish, sea urchins, holo- thurians, annelids, crustaceans, mollusks, and ascidians. Collections were also made on land whenever opportunities offered, including insects, mollusks, reptiles, and batrachians. CACTUS INVESTIGATIONS IN BRAZIL AND ARGENTINA, Dr. J. N. Rose, associate in Botany, United States National Museum (at present connected with the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the preparation of a.monograph of the Cactacez of America), accompanied by Mr. Paul G. Russell, of the United States National Museum, continued the botanical exploration of South America during the summer of 1915, spending over five months in travel and field work in Brazil and Argentina. In addition to the good-sized collections of cactuses, consisting of living, herbarium, and formalin specimens, moderately large collec- tions of insects, shells, diatoms, and other natural-history specimens were obtained. In all about 8,000 herbarium specimens were ob- tained and over 90 cases, large and small, of living plants were sent 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. back to the United States. The living collection is now on exhibition at the New York Botanical Garden. Bahia, Brazil, was the first place visited, which city served as a base for collecting trips into the interior of the State of Bahia. One of these was to the town of Joazeiro, located about 800 miles north-northwest of Bahia, and lying in a typical cactus desert, although this region is traversed by the large Rio Sao Francisco. Notwithstanding the fact that this stream is full the entire year, little or no attempt is being made to use the water for irrigation purposes, The country is of that type known as “ catinga,” and resembles in a remarkable way the deserts of the West Indies; indeed, the genera of plants are in many cases the same, though the species are distinct. Here was seen the “ carnuba,” or wax palm, from which is obtained the wax utilized in making records for phonographs. Near Joazeiro is the Horto Florestal, or “forest garden,” a Government experiment station in charge of Dr. Leo Zehntner, who rendered great assistance in the study and collection of the cactuses of the region. After making short stops at various stations in returning to Bahia, a trip was made to Machado Portella, a small town about 175 miles west and a little south of Bahia, the terminus of a little narrow-gauge railway. This is also a semiarid region and proved exceedingly interesting botanically. The next side trip was to Toca da Onea, still farther south, on the edge of a thick tropical forest and in a region much more humid than the northern part of the State. About six weeks were then spent in beautiful Rio de Janeiro and vicinity. Here, even in the city itself, a botanist finds a great deal to interest him, for the trees are covered with epiphytic cactuses, mostly of the genus Rhipsalis, and within the city itself rises the picturesque Corcovado, a thickly wooded mountain on whose slopes are found many rare ferns and tree-inhabiting eactuses. The Jardin Botanico in this city is one of the finest in the world. Over 200 species of palms from all parts of the tropics are here grown in the open, besides many other rare tropical plants. In another section of the city, in a fine large park called the Quinta Boa Vista, is the Museo Nacional, where a number of rare cactuses were found in the herbarium. From Rio de Janeiro an ascent of Itatiaya, the highest mountain in Brazil. was made, and on the very top, 10,000 feet above the sea, was found a small eactus with beautiful rose-colored flowers. Excursions were also made to Cabo Frio, to Ilha Grande, and to the islands in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. A few days were spent in the Organ Mountains, near Petropolis, the summer home of the wealthiest classes of Rio de Janeiro. This range of mountains merits a more thorough biological exploration than has been hitherto undertaken. Proceeding southward, a day was spent at Santos, Brazil, the world’s greatest coffee center. Buenos Aires was visited next, although but little time was spent in the city. Several visits were made to the fine suburb of La Plata, where resides Dr. Carlos Spegazzini, the leading authority on Argentine cactuses. From Buenos Aires a trip was taken across Argentina to Mendoza, a city situated near the foot of the Andes, in a region favorable to the growth of sue- culent plants. From there a short excursion was made to Portrerillos, Argen- tina, on the railway which leads to Valparaiso, Chile. Many very interesting plants were found in both these places. In the city of Cordova, Argentina, northwest of Buenos Aires, the cactus col- lection of Dr. Frederick Kurtz was found to contain some rare types, which were very kindly submitted for examination and study. In this vicinity, as well as in the neighboring town of Cosquin, many cactuses were collected on the semi- arid peneplain. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 FOG-CLEARING INVESTIGATIONS. Aided by a grant of $2,000 from the Smithsonian Institution and a grant from the Research Corporation, a committee of electrical engi- neering experts, under the general direction of Mr. F. G. Cottrell, continued during 1915 the investigations begun at San Francisco by the University of California, in cooperation with the United States Lighthouse Service, relative to the clearing of fog by means of elec- trical precipitation. In a preliminary report read at the first meet- ing of the committee, Prof. Ryan, of Stanford University, says: Science has established the fact that all dust and fog particles in the open atmosphere are electrified and subject to dispersion or precipitation. It is ap- parent, therefore, that a source of very high direct voltage, with facilities for control and application, may be of inestimable value in certain quarters and seasons for clearing fog away from a street, from along a passenger railway, from around the landing stages of a ferry, or, possibly, about or in advance of a ship under headway at sea. The clearing of fog differs from the treatment of smoke and fumes in several respects, principally in that the smoke particles must be actually deposited on the electrodes to bring about the desired effect, whereas in treating fog it is only necessary to cause coalescence of the minute particles into larger ones to give much greater transpar- ency, even disregarding the more rapid settling of the larger drops. However, other difficulties are to be expected in the problem of clearing fog, such as the conditions arising from the continual immersion in the wet atmosphere. What is chiefly needed for an intelligent conception of the problem is actual first-hand experience in handling these and other unusual conditions. The most striking features of the apparatus used in these experi- ments are the Thordarson 350,000 to 1,000,000 volt transformers, which I saw while visiting the San Francisco Exposition. A great deal was learned during the year about the electrical technique of the problem, and although days of suitable fog condi- tions were extremely scarce, on the rare occasions of actual trial very perceptible clearing for a short distance around the high-tension wires was obtained as the fog swept past. EXPLORATIONS OF ANCIENT MAYA CITIES IN GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. Through the courtesy of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Smithsonian Institution has been enabled to participate in some very interesting explorations in Central America. Prof. W. H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology in the National Museum, gives the following general account of his work in that country: In February, 1916, owing to a generous grant of funds by the Smithsonian Institution, the writer had the good fortune to become a member of the Car- 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. vegie Institution’s archeological expedition to Central America under the able direction of Sylvanus G. Morley. The work of exploring and studying in detail the remarkable remains of the ancient Mayan culture was vigorously carried forward. An especial object of the expedition was the discovery of additional inscriptions embodying glyphic dates, for it is the dates, now read with facility, which furnish the skeleton of Maya history. Among the ancient cities visited while the writer was associated with the expedition were Antigua, the ancient Spanish capital of the kingdom of Guatemala, built on the site of a prehistoric city; the extensive ruins of the ancient city of Iximache, near the site occupied to-day by the capital of Guatemala, Guatemala City; the ruined city of Quirigua in eastern Guatemala, the subject of much scientific interest during recent years; and the ruins of Copan, in Honduras, perhaps the most remarkable of all the American monu-. ments of antiquity. special attention was given by the writer to the collection of data and drawings to be utilized in preparing panoramic views of the several cities visited, and every effort was made to obtain information regarding the techni- cal methods employed by the ancient builders. The quarries from which the stone was obtained were too deeply buried in tropical vegetation to yield up their story without extensive excavation and the methods employed in dressing and carving the stone remain in large part undetermined. Certain chipped and ground stone implements that could have served in dressing the stones used in building were found in numbers, but the story of the carving, especially of the very deep carving of the monuments of Copan, remains unrevealed. Although it is thought that stone tools may have been equal to the great task, it is believed by some that without bronze the work could net have been done. There are, however, no traces of the use of bronze by the Central Americans. The monuments are on a grand scale and great skill and excellent taste are manifest in their embellishment, the whole giving evidence of a state of culture advancement unsurpassed in any other part of aboriginal America. STUDY OF NOCTURNAL RADIATION. Several grants from the Hodgkins fund have been made to Prof. Anders Angstrém during the past few years to enable him to carry on researches on the radiation of the atmosphere, particularly noc- turnal radiation. The results of observations made by him in Algeria in 1912 and in California in 19138 were embodied in a pamphlet published by the Institution in 1915. In this pamphlet he summarizes his work as follows: The main results and conclusions that will be found in this paper are the following. They relate to the radiation emitted by the atmosphere to a radiat- ing surface at a lower altitude, and to the loss of heat of a surface by radiation toward space and toward the atmosphere at higher altitudes. I. The variations of the total temperature radiation of the atmosphere are at low altitudes (less than 4,500 m.) principally caused by variations in tem- perature and humidity. II. The total radiation received from the atmosphere is very nearly propor- tional to the fourth power of the temperature at the place of observation. III. The radiation is dependent on the humidity in such a way that an in- crease in the water-vapor content of the atmosphere will increase its radiation. The dependence of the radiation on the water content has been expressed by an exponential law. : ee Leer REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 TV. An increase in the water-vapor pressure will cause a decrease in the effective radiation from the earth to every point of the sky. The fractional iain is much larger for large zenith angles than for small ones. . The total radiation which would be received from a perfectly dry atmos- phere would be about 0.28 observation. VI. The radiation of the upper, dry atmosphere would be about 50 per cent of that of a black body at the temperature of the place of observation. VII. There is no evidence of maxima or minima of atmospheric radiation dur- ing the night that can not be explained by the influence of temperature and humidity conditions. VIII. There are indications that the enaintion during the daytime is subject to the same laws that hold for the radiation during the nighttime. IX. An increase in altitude causes a decrease or an increase in the value of the effective radiation of a blackened body toward the sky, dependent upon the value of the temperature gradient and of the humidity gradient of the atmos- phere. At about 3,000 meters altitude of the radiating body the effective radia- tion generally has a maximum. An increase of the humidity or a decrease of the temperature gradient of the atmosphere tends to shift this maximum to higher altitudes. X. The effect of clouds is very variable. Low and dense cloud banks cut down the outgoing effective radiation of a blackened surface to about 0.015 calorie per cm.” per minute; in the case of high and thin clouds the radiation is reduced by only 10 to 20 per cent. XI. The effect of haze upon the effective radiation to the sky is almost in- appreciable when no clouds or real fog are formed. Observations in Algeria in 1912 and in California in 19138 show that the great atmospheric disturbance caused by the eruption of Mount Katmai in Alaska, in the former year, can only have reduced the nocturnal radiation by less than 3.0 per cent. XII. Conclusions are drawn in regard to the radiation from large water sur- faces, and the probability is indicated that this radiation is almost constant at different temperatures, and consequently in different latitudes also. an With a temperature of 20° C. at the place of Another grant was made to Prof. Angstrém in October, 1915, for a study of nocturnal radiation in the far north during the long Arctic night. Concerning this study he wrote to the Institution on February 16, 1916, as follows: Through this grant I have been able to make observations on nocturnal radiation during the Arctic night in the north of Sweden, at a place named Abisko, at about 68° 30’ latitude. The observations were extended during about a month (Jan. 1-26) and were obtained under various atmospheric con- ditions. One night observations were taken at a temperature of —380° C. (—20° F.), when consequently the absolute humidity must have been very low. In general, these observations confirm the views expressed in my paper’ in regard to the influence of temperature and humidity upon the nocturnal radia- tion and the radiation of the atmosphere. In connection with the named measurements observations were also made on the cooling of snow surfaces under the temperature of the surrounding air as a consequence of nocturnal radiation. As was to be expected, a linear relation was found to exist between the radiation and the named temperature difference. 1 Smithsonian Mise. Coll., Vol. 65, No. 3, 1915. 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. I hope in the near future to get an opportunity to extend these important observations on the connection existing between radiation and the cooling of various materials existing on the earth’s surface. The question is one of scientific as well as of practical agricultural interest. HARRIMAN TRUST FUND. Dr. C. Hart Merriam, research associate of the Institution, aided by the income of a trust fund established for the purpose by Mrs. E. H. Harriman, has continued his zoological investigations, par- ticularly the study of the big bears of North America. RESEARCH CORPORATION. The Research Corporation was established in 1912 under the New York State laws with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as one of the directors and a member of the executive committee. The primary object of the organization was to develop certain pat- ents described in previous reports which had been offered to the Institution by Dr. F. G. Cottrell but which could not be administered directly by the Institution. Other inventions and patents have since been acquired by the corporation, and through royalties from the installation and utilization of these patents a considerable fund has been created and the income therefrom will be devoted to the ad- vancement of technical and scientific investigation and experimenta- tion through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution and such other scientific and educational institutions and societies as may be selected by the directors. The Cottrell patents relate to the precipitation of dust, smoke, and chemical fumes by the use of electrical currents. Successful commercial installations have already been made on the following fumes: (a) Silver fumes from electrolytic slimes of copper refinery; (0) tin fumes from detinning process residues; (c) hydrochloric acid fumes from cleaning vats in electrogalvanizing plant; (d) tin and zinc fumes from waste metal recovery plant; (e) “low bleach” from electrolytic plant; (7) sulphuric acid mist from contact acid plant; (7) lead fumes from copper converters; (A) fumes from roasting of zine ores; and (¢) dust from buffing wheels and from machines for powdering slate. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL. At its annual meeting in Washington in April, 1916, the National ' Academy of Sciences voted unanimously to offer its services to the President of the United States in the interest of national prepared- ness, and it was suggested that the academy “might advantageously REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PZ organize the scientific resources of educational and research institu- tions in the interest of national security and welfare.” The President accepted the offer and requested the academy to proceed with the organization. An organizing committee was accordingly appointed, and on June 19 the council of the academy, acting upon recommenda- tions of that committee, voted— That there be formed a National Research Council whose purpose shall be to bring into cooperation existing governmental, educational, industrial, and other research organizations with the object of encouraging the investigation of natural phenomena, the increased use of scientific research in the development of American industries, the employment of scientific methods in strengthening the national defense, and such other applications of science as will promote the national security and welfare. That the council be composed of leading American investigators and engineers, representing the Army, Navy, Smithsonian Institution, and various scientific bureaus of the Government; educational institutions and research endowments ; and the research divisions of industrial and manufacturing establishments. After the close of the fiscal year the National Research Council was fully organized, the President of the United States appointing the representatives of the Government and authorizing the appoint- ment of other members by the president of the National Academy of Sciences. OFFICERS AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Chairman, George E. Hale; vice chairmen, Charles D. Walcott and Gano Dunn; secretary, Cary T. Hutchinson; executive committee, John J. Carty (chairman), William H. Welch (ex officio), George H. Hale (ex officio), Edwin G. Conklin, Gano Dunn, Arthur A. Noyes, Raymond Pearl, Michael I. Pupin, S. W. Stratton, V. C. Vaughan (others to be appointed). MEMBERS OF NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, Dr. L. H. Baekeland, Yonkers, N. Y. Dr. Marston T. Bogert, professor of organic chemistry, Columbia University. Dr. John A. Brashear, Allegheny, Pa. Dr. John J. Carty, chief engineer, American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Dr. Russell H. Chittenden, director, Sheffield Scientific School, Yale Uni- versity. Dr. Edwin G. Conklin, professor of zoology, Princeton University. Dr. John M. Coulter, professor of botany, University of Chicago. Brigadier General William Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, U. 8S. Army. Mr. Gano Dunn, president The J. G. White Engineering Corporation. Dr. Simon Flexner, director, Rockefeller Medical Institute. Major General William Crawford Gorgas, Surgeon General, U. 8S. Army. Dr. W. F. M. Goss, dean of engineering, University of Illinois. Dr. George E. Hale, director, Mount Wilson Solar Observatory. Mr. Clemens Herschel, president American Society of Civil Engineers. Prof. William H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology, United States Na- tional Museum. Dr. W. W. Keen, president American Philosophical Society. Mr. Van H. Manning, Director U. S. Bureau of Mines. Prof. Charles F, Marvin, Chief United States Weather Bureau. 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Prof. A. A. Michelson, director, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago. Dr. Robert A. Millikan, professor of physics, University of Chicago. Dr. Arthur A. Noyes, director, research laboratory of physical chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. Raymond Pearl, director, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Prof. E. C. Pickering, director, Harvard College Observatory. Dr. Michael I. Pupin, professor of electro-mechanics, Columbia University. Mr. Charles F. Rand, president United Engineering Society. Prof. Theodore W. Richards, director of the Wolcott Gibbs Memorial Labora- tory, Harvard University. Mr. C. E. Skinner, director, research laboratory, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. Lieutenant Colonel George O. Squier, Chief of Aviation, U. S. Army. Dr. S. W. Stratton, Director U. S. Bureau of Standards. Mr. Ambrose Swasey, Cleveland, Ohio. Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, Chief Constructor U. S. Navy. Dr. Elihu Thomson, Swampscott, Mass. Dr. CG. R. Van Hise, president of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science. Dr. Victor Clarence Vaughan, director, medical research laboratory, Uni- versity of Michigan. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. William H. Welch, president of the National Academy of Sciences. Dr. W. R. Whitney, director of the research laboratory, General Electric Co. The council will be gradually enlarged by the addition of new members who are to serve as chairmen of important committees or who are otherwise to engage in some special work. To carry out the work of the council committees are being ap- pointed, including (a) committee on rules and procedure; (4) com- mittee on publication; (¢) committee on research in educational institutions to consider general plans for the promotion of research in educational institutions and to arrange for local committees in each institution; (7) committee on promotion of industrial research with functions in the field somewhat similar to those of the preceding committee; (e€) committee on a national census of research to pre- pare a national census of equipment for research, of the men engaged in it, and of lines of investigation pursued in cooperating Govern- ment bureaus, educational institutions, research foundations, and in- dustrial research laboratories. It has also been decided to form joint committees in various branches of science in cooperation with the corresponding national scientific societies. THE LANGLEY AERODYNAMICAL LABORATORY. In view of the organization of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, provided for by act of Congress approved March 3, 1915, it has appeared unnecessary at present to proceed further toward the permanent establishment of the proposed Langley labora- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 tory. As secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I was appointed a member of the National Advisory Committee and elected chairman of its executive committee, and in this connection I have been able to cooperate toward the solution of many important problems per- taining to the science and art of aviation. One of the chief advan- tages already being realized by the establishment of the advisory committee is a closer cooperation between the Army and Navy and other Federal departments and coordination of work in the general advancement of aviation. The Institution published during the year two pamphlets on aeronautics, one, a series of reports on wind tunnel experiments, and the other on “Dynamical stability of aero- planes,” both of them by J. C. Hunsaker and associates. PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the Institution proper include three series: Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge; Smithsonian Miscellan- eous Collections; and Smithsonian Annual Reports. Under the di- rection of the Institution there are also issued the Annual Reports, Proceedings, and Bulletins of the United States National Museum, including the Contributions from the National Herbarium; Annual Reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory. All of these series except the “ Contributions” and “ Collections” are printed through annual Congressional allotments. In all of these series there was pub- lished during the year a total of 8,498 pages and 623 plates of illus- trations. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—This series is intended to show results of original research constituting important contribu- tions to knowledge. One memoir of the series was in press at the close of the year giving ‘the results of an extended study on the com- parative histology of the femur. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections —Twenty-two papers, forming parts of five volumes of this series, were issued, among them three papers on Cambrian geology by your secretary. In this series the annual exploration pamphlet was issued, giving brief accounts of the explorations and field work of the Institution in geology, biology, and anthropology, covering every continent on the globe, and illustrated by 141 photographs taken in the field by the scien- tists themselves. The Smithsonian Physical Tables, which together with the Mathematical and Geographical Tables have become stand- ard works of reference in educational.and research institutions, are published in this series. The sixth revised edition of the Physical Tables, issued during the preceding year, was quickly exhausted, making it necessary to print additional copies. Still another edition is now in press, indicating the constant demand for this work. 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Smithsonian report.—The complete volume of the 1914 report was received from the printer and distributed at the beginning of the year. Material for the 1915 report was sent to press in December, and was completed just before the fiscal year closed. In the general appendix are 22 papers showing recént progress in various branches of science, including “The utilization of solar energy,” “ Evidences of primitive life,” by your secretary, “ Heredity,” “ Linguistic areas in Europe,” and “ Recent developments in telephony and telegraphy.” The custom of printing special editions in pamphlet form of papers in the general appendix has proved of great advantage; in several cases there has been a demand for a very large number of copies, which was especially noticeable in connection with an article on “ The value of birds to man” in the 1918 report. Special publications—Opinion 67 of the Opinions of the Inter- national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature was issued as a special publication. A special paper by Chester G. Gilbert of the National Museum, on “ Sources of nitrogen compounds in the United States” attracted considerable attention. Among other conclusions, he states: The evolution of a practicable process for the oxidation of by-product ammonia to render present resources available, with the development of an atmospheric nitrogen fixation output by the Cyanamide process carefully timed to meet growing demands following a reduction in the retail price of nitro- genous fertilizer, would appear to be the desirable governmental procedure as being the one least liable to disastrous consequences. National Museum publications.—The National Museum issued an annual report, 2 volumes of the proceedings, 52 separate papers form- ing parts of these and other volumes, and 4 bulletins. Bureau of Ethnology publications—The Bureau of American Ethnology published 2 annual reports, separates of 4 accompanying papers in these reports, and 2 bulletins. Reports of historical and patriotic societies —The annual reports of the American Historical Association and the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution were submitted to the Institution and communicated to Congress in accordance with the charters of these organizations. Allotments for printing—Most of the allotment to the Institution and its branches for printing was used during the year, though it was impracticable to complete a large amount of material in press at the close of the year in the National Museum and Bureau of American Ethnology series. The allotments for the year ending June 380, 1917, are as follows: For the Smithsonian Institution: For printing and binding the annual reports of the Board of Regents, with general appendices, the edi- tions of which shall not exceed 10,000 copies----_---_-_-_-_-______ $10, 000 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 For the annual reports of the National Museum, with general appen- dices, and for printing labels and blanks, and for the Bulletins and Proceedings of the National Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies, and binding, in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific books, and pamphlets presented to or acquired byothe Wational Museum Wbrary£) 2S beet ere ee Te SAL $37, 500 For the annual reports and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Hth- nology and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the bureau____ 21, 000 For miscellaneous printing and binding: UN tCRnatlOMalOh CMAN OOS mu = sen aap eee ee el ee ea 200 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_______-__-_§_-_ 100 IN a EL OMANG AO OLORLC ANG ats eae We eee 200 ANSEL OD MY SL CHes OD SCI Va UO Tyee ee ee re nee Be 200 For the annual report of the American Historical Association________ 7, 000 DUNG Ge a ee a eee et tee 76, 200 Committee on printing and publication —All manuscripts submit- ted for publication by the Institution or its branches have, as usual, been referred to the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. During the year 18 meetings were held and 96 manu- scripts examined and passed upon. The personnel of the committee was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, acting chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory; Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the National Zoological Park; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Smith- sonian Institution, secretary of the committee; Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge of the Bureau of American ethnology; and Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, United States National’ Museum. LIBRARY. The accumulation of a scientific library has always been an im- portant phase of the Institution’s work in the “ increase and diffusion of knowledge,” and the collection has increased in size from year to year until at present it numbers well over half a million titles. The accessions of the year aggregated about 13,000 books and pamphlets. The main Smithsonian library is assembled in the Library of Con- gress and is known as the Smithsonian deposit. In addition the Institution maintains the Smithsonian office library, the National Museum library, the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological Park library, besides some 35 specialized sectional libraries main- tained in various offices for the use of the scientific staff of the Insti- tution and its branches. The Smithsonian office library contains a collection of books relating to art, the employees’ library, and an exten- sive aeronautical library. This collection of aeronautical works has been notably increased by additional gifts from Dr. Alexander 73839°—sm 1916——3 UA ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Graham Bell, consisting of 33 books and 37 portfolios of periodicals, and by a number of reference works from the library of Major Baden-Powell. The National Museum library received 4,840 accessions, among them 207 titles contributed by Dr. William Healey Dall to his col- lection of works relating to mollusks; and the scientific library of Dr. Theodore Nicholas Gill, numbering about 3,000 volumes, pre- sented to the Institution by his brother, Mr. Herbert A. Gill, which is a valuable addition to the natural history series, especially in ichthyology. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES AND EXPOSITIONS. SECOND PAN AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS. The Second Pan American Scientific Congress, which held its ses- sions in Washington from December 27, 1915, to January 8, 1916, was the fifth of a series of scientific congresses, the first three of which included only the Latin American countries. At the first strictly Pan American Congress, held in Peru in 1908, in which the United States was invited to participate, it was unanimously voted to hold the next meeting in Washington. The congress held its inaugural session at 10 a. m., December 27, at Memorial Continental Hall, and business sessions and social affairs were arranged for every day thereafter until January 8. The following are the sections into which the congress was divided: I. Anthropology. II. Astronomy, Meteorology, and Seismology. III. Conservation of Natural Resources, Agriculture, Irrigation, and Forestry. IVY. Education. VY. Engineering. VI. International Law, Publie Law, and Jurisprudence. VII. Mining and Metallurgy, Economic Geology, and Applied Chemistry. VIII. Public Health and Medical Science. IX. Transportation, Commerce, Finance, and Taxation. At the meetings of these sections a great number of papers of scientific and economic importance were read. The Institution proper was represented in the congress by your secretary and Prof. W. H. Holmes, head curator of anthropology, United States National Museum, as delegates. Of the branches of the Institution, the Bureau of American Ethnology was represented by the ethnologist in charge, Mr. F. W. Hodge, and Dr. J. W. Fewkes, delegates; and the Astrophysical Observatory by Dr. C. G. Abbot, delegate, and Mr. F. E. Fowle, alternate. A reception was held for the Latin American delegates by the Board of Regents and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23 the Secretary of the Institution in the new building of the National Museum on the evening of December 29. This highly successful and important congress was attended by approximately 100 official delegates from the 21 American Republics, and 60 by special invitation, or representing societies or universities. The United States was represented by approximately 1,000 unofficial delegates or members. NINETEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS, The Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, which was to have been held at Washington on the invitation of the Smith- sonian Institution in October, 1914, was postponed on account of the war in Europe until a more favorable time for an international gathering. When it became evident that a fully attended meeting would be out of the question in the near future, it was decided to hold the congress in affiliation with the section of anthropology of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress and jointly with the American Anthropological Association, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Historical Association, and the Archaeologi- cal Institute of America. In consequence the date of the meeting was definitely fixed for December 27-81, 1915. Mr. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State, former minister to Mexico and Russia, ex-president of the Washington Society of the Archaeological Institute, etc., served as president of the congress. The honorary presidents were the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution; Mr. Clarence B. Moore, of Philadelphia; and Prof. William H. Holmes, of the National Museum. Mr. Clarence F. Norment, of Washington, served as treasurer, and Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, of the National Museum, as secretary of the Congress. There was a long list of honorary vice presidents, a general (honorary) com- mittee, associate foreign secretaries, and an organizing committee (with the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution as chairman). Official representatives of foreign Governments were in attendance from Austria, Chile, Cuba, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Guate- mala, Nicaragua, Peru, Russia, Sweden, and Uruguay, and about 100 official delegates from various learned societies and universities in the United States and foreign countries. The headquarters of the congress were at the National Museum, and most of the sessions were held there. Nearly 100 papers relating to the study of somatology, arche- ology, ethnology, folklore, history, and linguistics were read at the sessions of the congress, among them papers by several members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology and of the National Museum. ho re ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION. Only a very small allotment was allowed the Smithsonian Institu- tion and its branches from the congressional appropriation for Gov- ernment exhibits at San Francisco in 1915. It was possible, how- ever, to make a small display showing in a general way the scope and activities of the Institution, and an ethnological exhibit illustrating the characteristics and culture status of typical primitive peoples. The exhibits were lccated in the Liberal Arts Palace, covering a floor space of about 6,000 square feet. The exhibit of the Institution proper consisted of a series of photo- graphs of its founder, James Smithson, the four secretaries, pictures of the building and departments, and a complete set of its publica- tions. There was also displayed an exact reproduction of the Langley experimental steam flying machine which performed the epoch-making flights over the Potomac River, May 6, 1896, together with photographs taken at the time. Langley’s success as a pioneer in aviation was commemorated on the Column of Progress at the exposition (pl. 1) by a tablet with the following inscription: To commemorate science’s gift of aviation to the world through Samuel Pier- pont Langley, an American. The principal exhibit by the National Museum dealt with eth- nology, or the scientific study of the races of men, their origin, distri- bution, relations, and culture. It included four family lay-figure groups, the Eskimo of Alaska, the Dyak of the East Indies, the Zulu-Kaffir of South Africa, and the Carib of South America; also village groups in miniature illustrating the houses and house life of various peoples, together with cases of specimens relating to the primitive arts and industries. The remaining departments or branches of the Institution, includ- ing the International Exchange Service, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Zoological Park, the Hodgkins fund, the Aerodynamical Laboratory, and the Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, were represented by charts, photographs, maps, instruments, and publi- cations illustrative of their various functions. Mr. W. de C. Ravenel, administrative assistant of the United States National Museum and secretary to the exposition board, acted as the representative of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches, with the assistance of Dr. Walter Hough, curator of ethnology, United States National Museum. The exhibits were enumerated in detail in a descriptive catalogue of 120 pages. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 The family groups illustrated the most effective museum method of presenting ethnological material. The catalogue describes the groups as follows: The Eskimo family group comprises seven life-size figures clad in the native costumes and colored according to life, engaged in the usual summer vocations and amusements. At the left a woman is cooking meat in a primitive pottery vessel, and another woman is putting dried fish in the storehouse. In the back- ground a man with a sinew-backed bow is watching a youth practicing with his sling. On the right another man is seated on the ground carving a wooden dish with a curved knife, and two little girls are playing with their native toys. The structure in the back of the case is a representation of the storehouse commonly used by the western Eskimo. The dwelling groups show the houses to be dome-shaped, made of earth piled over a cobwork of timbers erected in an excavation in the ground. In the summer a passageway gives entrance, but in the winter a tunnel is built. A bench on which the people sleep runs around the wall on the inside of the house. The cooking within the dwelling is done in a pottery vessel suspended over a lamp. The group representing the Zulu-Kaffir and Bantu tribes, which live in the semiarid southern extremity of the African continent, depicts the natives as physically strong and energetic and not so dark as the true negro. This race is superior in military and social organizations and compares favorably in the arts and industries with other African families. The group shows a section of a house with a doorway, a fireplace on which a woman is cooking mush, a woman dipping beer from a large pottery jar, a woman from the field with a hoe, a water carrier with a jar on her head, a man playing a marimba or xylophone, and a boy driving a goat. The natives are represented as they existed some years ago, before they were affected by contact with the white man. Other cases include models of the native African dwellings and examples of the handiwork of these people, an interesting feature of which is the primi- tive ironwork in which many African tribes were highly skilled. The next group takes the exposition visitor from Africa across the Atlantic to northern South America, where dwells the Carib in the forested tropical interior of British Guiana. Some of the tribes of this great race have only recently been visited by white men. Here is to be seen a Carib warrior with his blowgun, a woman and a child squeezing cassava in a primitive lever press, another woman decorating a tree gourd with characteristic interlocking designs, and a child playing with a pet parrot. A hammock swung between two house posts represents the form of bed in general use in ancient as well as modern Latin America. Among the articles manufactured by these natives examples of ceremonial objects and articles of personal adornment are ex- hibited, including headdresses, earrings, belts, arm bands, necklaces, and capes. A fourth family group represents the Dyaks of the island of Borneo. They are expert house and boat builders and skilled in the use of the blowgun. Rice, sago, tropical fruits, monkeys, wild pigs, and other game, yield them subsistence. The men are warlike, and are still, to some extent, head-hunters, their weapons being spears, short swords, and biowguns with poison-tipped darts. The Dyak family group is represented on the porch of a communal house, carrying on various occupations. A woman is pounding rice in a wooden mortar, while another is represented as bringing in a basket of rice on her back, a third is making a basket, a man armed with a bayoneted blowgun is approaching with a freshly killed monkey, and two children are shown playing eat’s cradle, a popular native game. 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The museum exhibits also included a series of objects illustrating the development of six kinds of implements and appliances of the arts—apparatus for fire making, the jackknife, the saw, the spindle, the shuttle, and the ax. Pictures of other exhibits in biology, geol- ogy, and anthropology in the National Museum were shown by a “ stereomotorgraph ” machine. The Smithsonian Institution was awarded a grand prize, under the head of scientific investigation, for the collective exhibit by the Institution proper, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Museum, the Astrophysical Observatory, and the Bureau of International Catalogue of Scientific Literature; a grand prize for the balloon pyrheliometer designed and exhibited by the Astrophysical Observa- tory; a gold medal for the “Group of elk” shown by the Museum; and a silver medal for investigations for the betterment of social and economic conditions. The balloon pyrheliometer, as its name implies, is an instrument for measuring the heat of the sun. It is carried aloft by a pair of rubber balloons until one of them bursts, when it gradually descends to the earth, supported by the other. Records have thus been obtained at heights of over 9 miles. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION AT SAN DIEGO. Although no appropriation was made by Congress for exhibits at San Diego in 1915, it was possible for the Institution, through cooperation with the exposition authorities, to arrange an interesting exhibit of physical anthropology and one illustrating American aboriginal industries. These exhibits were described in my report of last year. At the close of the San Francisco Exposition a number of the Smithsonian exhibits were transferred to San Diego, this fair having been extended over another year. These exhibits were located in the Science of Man Building, and included four large cases containing the family groups of natives from different quarters of the globe, as described above, and some cases containing specimens of their arts and industries, together with several small family dwelling groups. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The report of Assistant Secretary Rathbun, appended hereto, re- views in detail the operations of the National Museum. The total number of new specimens acquired was 248,733; about one-half per- tained to the department of zoology, about one-third were botanical and paleontological, and the rest were additions to the anthropo- logical and other collections. Among the ethnological additions of special interest may be noted a series of costumes, weapons, and utensils from British Guiana; many objects from Celebes, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. et Borneo, and the Philippines; and a large collection from aboriginal mounds and ruin sites in Utah. To the division of American his- tory the additions included china and glassware and other objects once the property of General and Martha Washington. The memor- ials of Gen. Sherman, which had long been in the custody of the Museum, have now been presented by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh Sherman, and the Cromwell collection of 20,000 domestic and for- eign postage stamps, deposited some years ago, became the absolute property of the Museum on the death of Mr. Cromwell in Septem- ber, 1915. To the interesting collection of historical costumes there have been added costumed figures representing four hostesses of the White House, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, Mrs. Abraham Lincoln, and Mrs. James R. McKee. By the will of Dr. Shepard there was bequeathed an important collection of meteorites which had been in the possession of the Museum for a number of years. In the department of biology the additions were representative of many parts of the world, including mammals, birds, and reptiles from Celebes and Borneo, collected through the long-continued gen- erosity of Dr. W. L. Abbott; and like collections from Siam, Kash- mir, northern China, and Manchuria. Part of the results of the Smithsonian biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone was a collection of about 18,000 fishes. The Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington deposited some 8,000 botanical specimens gathered by Dr. J. N. Rose in Brazil and Argentina. Mr. Rathbun enumerates many other interesting objects recently received, particularly those pertaining to the industrial arts, a depart- ment which has been very greatly developed since the removal of the natural history exhibits to the new building, yet the proper installa- tion of series illustrating the many branches of the arts and indus- tries is already seriously hindered through lack of space. It is in this department in particular that the Museum manifests one of its principal functions. The exhibits are so selected and so installed as to teach visitors how things are made and what they are made of, and not so much who makes the best articles or how they should be packed to meet the demands of trade. And yet while these collec- tions first of all educate the public they also teach the manufacturer and therefore are of decided economic importance. One of the lead- ing New England manufacturers not long since, while examining the exhibits in his own industrial line, remarked, “this helps business.” T can not too strongly urge the need of still greater advancement in this department of Smithsonian activities. The time is fast ap- 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. proaching when there should be constructed in the Smithsonian reservation another new building, a Museum of Industrial Arts. The collections are here and in many respects they surpass similar collections in Europe or elsewhere. The splendid new building in which the natural history collections are now so adequately housed has offered opportunity for the development of that department beyond the highest expectations. Like progress could be made with a Museum of Industrial Arts. European countries have such struc- tures, one is needed here in Washington. It is an economic question. Commercial museums have their place for developing trade and commerce, and are of much value for such purpose, but the develop- ment of the artistic taste of the public through an educational Museum of Industrial Arts is of even greater importance. It would stimulate inventive skill and advance every art and every industry. The exhibits illustrating textile industry and mineral technology in particular are very complete, consisting of specimens of raw mate- rials, machinery used in manufacture, and the finished products. To the National Gallery of Art there has been added a collection of 82 drawings in pencil, pen, etc., by contemporary French artists, a gift from citizens of France to the people of the United States; also an oil painting of Abraham Lincoln, by Story, the gift of Mrs. KE. H. Harriman. The paintings in the National Gallery collection are of much popular interest and of great artistic and intrinsic value, but they are crowded in temporary quarters in a building designed for purposes other than a gallery of art. During the last year Mr. Freer made 535 additions to his collection, including 23 paintings and sculptures by American artists, and over 500 oriental objects consisting of paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades. The entire collection now aggregates about 5,346 items. The auditorium in the new building has been the meeting place of a number of scientific bodies and of international congresses; and in the foyer opportunity was offered for several special exhibitions. In cooperating with schools and colleges there were distributed some 7,000 duplicate specimens of minerals, fossils, mollusks, and other objects, classified and labeled for teaching purposes. The number of visitors to the new building averaged 1,012 on week days and 1,240 on Sundays. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Ethnology is under the direct charge of Mr. F. W. Hodge, whose detailed report is appended hereto. The operations of the bureau include field work and special researches pertaining to the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii. With the cooperation of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the Nacoochee mound in Georgia was excavated and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 proved to have been used both for domicile and for burial purposes. In the mound were found a large number of smoking pipes and a great amount of broken pottery. In New Mexico, also in cooperation with the Museum of the American Indian, plans were made for excavating the historic pueblo of Hawikuh in the Zufi Valley south- west of Zuni pueblo. Among the most interesting field operations during the year were those by Dr. Fewkes in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., where he unearthed a type of structure archi- tecturally different from any hitherto found in the Southwest. The excavation was carried on under the joint auspices of the bureau and the Department of the Interior, and the building, which Dr. Fewkes has named the Sun Temple, is described in a pamphlet published by that department. The Sun Temple is a large D-shaped structure, the longest wall of which measures 131 feet 7 inches. The walls are 2 to 5 feet in thickness and show structural qualities that compare favorably with any building of this type north of Mexico. Dr. Fewkes is of the opinion that though the building was used pri- marily as a place of worship, it was intended also for a place of refuge in case of attack. In the Northwest, investigations were continued by Dr. Frach- tenberg on the languages, history, and traditions of the various Indian tribes of Oregon and Washington. In connection with this work it is interesting to note that in revising some manuscript mate- rial Dr. Frachtenberg secured the assistance of the last surviving member of the Atfalati tribe of the Kalapuya Indians. A number of special researches have been in progress during the year, among them research work by Dr. Franz Boas in connection with the completion of part 2 of the Handbook of American Indian Languages. Through the liberality of Mr. Homer E. Sargent, of Chicago, work has been well advanced on an extended study of the Salish dialects, as well as on a study of Salish basketry, which it is intended to describe in an illustrated memoir. Part 1 of the Hand- book of American Antiquities by Prof. W. H. Holmes was in type at the close of the year, and the preparation of part 2 was well under way. The study of Indian music by Miss Frances Densmore, which has attracted considerable attention among musicians, has been continued during the year, chiefly among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians in North Dakota. A number of. ceremonial and war songs were re- corded phonographically and a new phase of the work was under- taken, consisting of testing the pitch discrimination of the Indians by means of tuning forks. There was in press at the close of the year a bulletin by Miss Densmore entitled “Teton Sioux music.” 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The publications of the bureau issued during the year comprise two annual reports with their accompanying papers, and two bulle- tins. In press or in preparation at the close of the year were three annual reports and five bulletins. The bureau library was enriched by the addition of 1,078 volumes, among them 20 volumes of Bibles and portions of the Bible in American Indian languages, INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The total number of packages of governmental and other docu- ments handled by the International Exchange Service during the year was 301,625, an increase of 25,869 over the previous year. This figure, however, still shows a decrease as compared with the total handled in 1914, owing to the suspension of shipments to 10 countries involved in the European war. Efforts have been made to resume shipments to certain of these countries, which have met with some degree of success in the case of Germany and Russia. The Exchange Service has continued its policy of international helpfulness by assisting governmental and scientific establishments to procure publications especially desired both in this country and abroad. One instance showing the value of this policy may be cited. The Pan American division of the American Association for Inter- national Conciliation, of New York, wished to assemble a collection of several thousand volumes of North American origin for presen- tation to the Museo Social Argentino at Buenos Aires. Through the Exchange Service the matter was brought to the attention of the proper establishments and several hundred governmental and oe publications were received for the proposed Collecaen The number of sets of United States governmental documents sent through the Exchange Service to ee countries has been reduced from 92 to 91, owing to the discontinuance of shipments to the gov- ernment of Bombay at the request of that government. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. The National Zoological Park is becoming each year a greater and greater attraction to the public, and as its collections increase so does its value become of more importance as a source of information to the zoologist in his study of animal life. There is now in the park a total of 1,383 individual animals, rep- resenting 360 species, as shown by the detailed census in the report of the superintendent. Among the recent accessions may be mentioned a pair of young lions, a pair of Siberian tigers, a great red kangaroo, several mon- keys, and a number of interesting birds, but the newly acquired ani- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ai | mal that seems most popular is a male chimpanzee, about 44 years old, from the forests of French Congo. The number of visitors during the past year was 1,157,110, as com- pared with 794,530 in the year preceding. This included 161 schools, classes, etc., numbering 8,679 individuals. Recent improvements include the construction of a hospital and laboratory building and the grading of some ridges and gullies to secure additional building sites and paddocks for the deer and other large animals. As mentioned in previous reports an appropriation was made in 1913 for the purchase of several acres as an extension to the western boundary of the park, but legal proceedings and complications inci- dent to adjustment of values and benefit assessments caused such delay that the appropriation, not being a continuing one, lapsed on June 30, 1915, and Congress has failed to renew the allotment for this much desired improvement. Many important needs are urged by the superintendent, some of which I have mentioned year after year. One of these is an aviary building for thé birds now being housed in temporary quarters greatly deleterious to their health. Other needs area building for the elephants, hippopotami, and similar animals; an ape house; a reptile house; a pheasantry; an ostrich house; an aquarium; and an insect- ary; also a gatehouse and a permanent boundary fence. THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Observations of the solar constant were continued at Mount Wil- son, Cal., from July to October, 1915, and were begun again in 1916. During the year there was published the results of solar-constant observations made under Prof. Pickering’s direction at Arequipa, Peru, since August, 1912, with a silver-disk pyrheliometer lent by the Smithsonian Institution. These observations confirm the vari- ations of the sun observed at Mount Wilson. An intéresting feature of the Arequipa observations was the fact that the volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai in 1912, which produced a great deal of dust over the northern hemisphere, apparently had no effect on the atmosphere south of the equator. The results of observations at Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914 on the distribution of radiation along the diameter of the sun’s disk were published during the year. It is thus shown that the average distribution over the disk varies from year to year as well as frem day to day. Observations have been continued on the transmission of rays of great wave length through long columns of air, which it is expected will be of much interest in studying the earth’s temperature as dependent on radiation toward space. 34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. After several years of experimenting the Astrophysical Observa- tory has constructed an instrument called the pyranometer, designed for measuring the intensity of sky light by day and of radiation outward toward the sky by night. full account of this instrument has been published in pamphlet form. The pyranometer may prove of advantage in botanical investigations in forests and greenhouses, since it can measure radiation in deep shade as well as in the full sun. The Institution has made an allotment from the Hodgkins fund for carrying on solar-constant work at some suitable place in South America. Throughout the year, for several years, it is intended to continue observations at Mount Wilson in California and at the South American station with a view to determine the dependence of the earth’s climatic conditions on the sun’s variation of radiation. In addition to his solar-constant work the director of the observatory has given considerable attention to experiments at Mount Wilson with solar cooking apparatus “ comprising ovens heated by oil under gravity circulation maintained by heat collected by a concave cylin- dric mirror of about 100 square feet surface.” These experiments were not concluded at the close of the year. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, the United States bureau of which is administered by the Smithsonian Institu- tion, was organized in 1901, and since that date 17 volumes of refer- ences to scientific literature, one for each of 17 branches of science, have been published each year. During the past year 24,160 classi- fied references to American scientific literature were prepared by the United States bureau, bringing the total number of references to the literature of this country since the inception of the catalogue up to 369,509. As stated in last year’s report, the war in Europe caused consid- erable financial embarrassment to the publication of the catalogue owing to the impossibility of collecting subscriptions from several of the countries involved. The generosity of the Royal Society of Lon- don in making up this loss of income made possible the publication of the thirteenth annual issue, and this year a request was made for assistance from the United States. Your secretary succeeded in in- teresting the Carnegie Corporation, of New York, in the project and through the generous assistance of that establishment it was made possible to publish the fourteenth annual issue. The value to science of this catalogue is universally recognized, and it is the opinion of scientists everywhere that any lapse in its publi- cation would be a real calamity, as shown by the action of the Inter- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 national Council of the Catalogue in voting to extend the work to at least 1920. NECROLOGY. James Burrill Angell, doctor of laws, died April 1, 1916. He had been a regent of the Institution for a quarter of a century, from Janu- ary 19, 1887, to January 15, 1912, when he resigned on account of age and inability longer to attend meetings of the board. He was born at Scituate, R. I., January 7, 1829, and through his long life as a journalist, an educator, and a diplomat he served his country faith- fully in many positions of honor and trust. He began his career as a professor of modern Janguages at Brown University, was a journalist during the period of the Civil War, president of the University of Vermont 1866-1871, president of the University of Michigan 1871-1909, United States minister to China 1880-1882, and minister to Turkey 1897-98, and served on several important treaty commissions. In accepting his resignation as a regent in 1912 the board recorded its appreciation of his long and faithful service to the Smithsonian Institution. Respectfully submitted. Cuar.es D. Waxcort, Secretary. APPENDIX 1. ~ REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1916: INTRODUCTORY. Seventy years ago Congress first definitely recognized the national collections and directed their segregation and preservation under the custody and supervision of the Smithsonian Institution in the building to be erected for that establishment. By 1850 arrange- ments had been sufficiently perfected to justify the appointment of an assistant in charge of museum matters and to begin the acquisition of natural-history specimens, but it was not until 1858 that the extensive collections which had previously accumulated at the Patent Office could be accepted. With an influx of material rela- tively as phenomenal as in more recent years, the Museum rapidly spread beyond the boundaries originally assigned to it and by 1875 was practically in possession of all parts of the Smithsonian building not required for the offices of the parent institution. But even so, there was a condition of great congestion from which relief was only obtained in 1881, the year of the completion of the second building. Though specially designed for displaying the many im- portant donations in numerous branches of the industrial arts from the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, the latter had also to serve for the overflow in natural history, a combination which fully taxed its capacity in less than three years. Then followed nearly three decades during which about as much material was assembled in outside storage as found lodgement within the two structures. The problem as regards the departments of natural history was solved when the new large granite building was made ready for occupancy in 1911, except that it lacked accommodations for the division of plants, or National Herbarium. As the depository for the Department of Agriculture and other establishments conducting extensive botanical explorations, this branch of the Museum has about outgrown its provisional quarters in the Smithsonian building, and its future requirements should not long go unheeded. 35 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The most serious phase of the situation now confronting the Mu- seum, however, results from the wholly inadequate facilities for sys- tematically developing the collections illustrative of the industrial arts. Comprehended under the fundamental act, partly organized in 1880, greatly enriched from the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876, and with a steady growth through ali subsequent years, this important department, whose principal aim is popular education on technical lines by means of exhibits visualizing conditions and processes as well as products, is filling to such an extent every foot of available space that the halls present rather the appearance of gross storage than of orderly and classified arrangement. Public sentiment, ex- pressed through many channels, demands better progress than here- tofore in carrying out the purposes of this department, but the difficulties in the way are by no means confined to limitations of space, since the more immediate embarrassments arise from an insufficiency of funds for employing the necessary skilled assistants required for working up and preparing the exhibits, which includes the construction of many models. The department of the fine arts is even more poorly provided for than any of the other Museum branches, as it is occupying borrowed space which is already so crowded as seemingly to forbid further contributions, and while this condition lasts there can be little hope for advancement. There is, however, one bright feature to mention in this connection—the decision to immediately begin the erection of the building for the Charles L. Freer collections of American and oriental art, the plans showing a beautiful granite structure, the completion of which will bring to the Institution much the largest donation it has ever had, one of the most notable gifts of its character in the world’s history. Put to no expense for either building or collections, it is hoped that the example set by Mr. Freer will lead to more liberal consideration on the part of the Govern- ment of the needs of the National Gallery of Art, for which no ap- propriations of any kind have ever yet been made. During the past year many valuable additions were made to the collections generally, new and instructive features were incorporated in the exhibition halls, and a wider public interest was stimulated through an exceptional number of meetings and of special exposi- — tions of scientific and art objects held at frequent intervals in the- convenient quarters provided for such purposes. COLLECTIONS. The total number of specimens acquired during the year was ap- proximately 243,733. Received in 1,525 separate accessions, they were classified and assigned as follows: Department of anthropology, 29,493; zoology, 120,303; botany, 40,631; geology and mineralogy, REPORT OF THE SHCRETARY. EW 1,700; paleontology, 48,403; textiles, woods, and other animal and vegetable products, 2,304; mineral technology, 280; and the National Gallery of Art, 619. As loans for exhibition, 1,960 articles were also obtained, mainly for the Gallery of Art and the divisions of history and ethnology. Material for examination and report, consisting chiefly of rocks, ores, fossils, and recent animals and plants, was received to the extent of 1,036 lots. Anthropology—One of the most desirable ethnological additions was a series of costumes, weapons, and utensils—excellent illustra- tions of the arts and industries of recently discovered tribes in the interior of British Guiana, collected by Mr. John Ogilvie. The aborigines of Celebes and Borneo were represented by many import- ant objects assembled by Mr. H. C. Raven and presented by Dr. W. L, Abbott; and those of the Philippine Islands by extensive and varied contributions, including weapons, musical instruments, baskets, costumes, etc., received from Mrs. Caroline E. Bates, Mr. K. H. Hammond, and the following officers of the United States Army, namely, Maj. Edgar Russel, Maj. W. T. Johnston, and Capt. J. R. Harris. Baskets, ornaments, and other articles of various Indian tribes of North America, were also given by Mrs. Bates; a number of rare and valuable objects from the Osage Indians were deposited by the Bureau of American Ethnology; interesting ex- amples of art and ethnologica from various parts of the world were presented by Miss Louise Salter Codwise; and costumes and imple- ments from the Blackfeet Indians and the Greenland Eskimo were likewise obtained. An extensive collection of archeological material from mounds and ruin sites in Utah, resulting from explorations by Mr. Neil M. Judd for the Bureau of Ethnology, is of particular value in aiding to determine the distribution of Pueblo culture toward the north. Other accessions from America consisted mainly of artifacts, includ- ing many rare specimens, from several of the States, and of woven fabrics and pottery from Peru. A gift of Old World antiquities from Miss Codwise was composed principally of Egyptian scarabs, necklaces, and figurines, and Palestinian amulets, while a collection of prehistoric stone implements from Great Britain contained some choice specimens. The division of physical anthropology received many skeletons and skulls, in very complete condition, from Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who obtained them at “The Indian Knoll,” on the Green River, Ky.; and a similar collection from Mr. George G. Heye, secured during an exploration of old burial sites in Georgia and Tennessee. Es- pecially noteworthy was an excellent series of skulls and numerous other bones belonging to the period before the advent of the whites, procured in old burial caves in Hawaii by Mr. August Busck. - 73839°—sm 1916——4 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The-more notable accessions in mechanical technology bore upon the subjects of the telephone and firearms. The American Tele- phone & Telegraph Co. contributed a set of instruments and of load- ing coils, with examples of line wire and glass insulators, used at the opening of the first telephone line between New York and San Fran- cisco on January 25, 1915, and also a duplicate of the first instrument through which speech was transmitted electrically in Boston in 1875; while Dr. Alexander Graham Bell deposited his diplomas, certificates of award, and announcements of election to scientific societies, an interesting series of documents indicative of the many honors which have been conferred upon him. A gift from Mrs. Bates of much historical value included old military guns of European and Ameri- can manufacture, pistols and revolvers, a gun made in the Philip- pine Islands, two very fine bronze swivel cannon, and several Toledo blades and other swords. Mr. Hugo Worch added three old American pianos to his munifi- cent donation of the previous year, and made a provisional deposit of four other instruments, three American and one of London make. The permanent acquisitions in ceramics consisted mainly of examples from some of the prominent potteries of the United States, but among the loans were specimens of porcelains from abroad and also of glassware, bronze, and brass, which are now exhibited in the ceramic gallery. Among the accessions in graphic arts were experimental apparatus and pictures illustrating progress and the several steps in the elec- trical transmission of photographs from one place to another, as also the development of the engraving machine called the akro- graph; a Wells printing press; examples of the art of overlay in printing; samples of poster stamps and lithographs; and a number of fourteenth and fifteenth century manuscripts. The additions in photography included daguerreotypes, ambrotypes, and tintypes; a sepia print of a painting on carved wood by Rosselimo; and a series of prints of astronomical subjects from the Yerkes Observatory. American history—tThe historical collections were increased to an exceptional extent by both gifts and deposits. Most prominent was a loan by Mr. Walter G. Peter, a descendant of Martha Washington, of many objects of artistic and domestic interest once the property of General and Mrs. Washington at Mount Vernon, which richly — supplement the Lewis collection long in the possession of the Museum. Mention can here be made of only a few of the articles, among which were a china portrait plaque of Washington designed by Richard Champion; a water-color portrait of him by William Thornton; two gold lockets containing locks of his hair; a gold watch of Mrs. Washington, the cover engraved with the Washington coat of arms; a child’s French dressing table of exquisite workman- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 ship presented by Lafayette to the granddaughter of Mrs. Washing- ton, Martha Custis, who became Mrs. Thomas Peter; letters written to Mrs. Washington on the death of her husband; documents relat- ing to the settlement of her estate; and a number of fine examples of eighteenth century china and glassware. It is pleasing to note that the valuable loan collection of memorials _ of Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman, United States Army, with some additions, was given into the permanent keeping of the Museum during the year by his son, Hon. P. Tecumseh Sherman. From the widow and children of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Lawton, United States Volunteers, there was acquired as a gift an extensive series of objects, including a medal of honor from Congress, forming a significant reminder of the distinguished career of this officer in the Civil War, several Indian wars, and the Philippines. Important relics of Capt. Edward Trenchard, United States Navy (1784-1824), and of his son, Rear Admiral Stephen Decatur Trenchard, United States Navy, including two presents awarded to the former by acts of Congress, were received on deposit. There were also many other gifts and loans of notable personal and period relics, and the national societies of the Colonial Dames of America and the Daughters of the Ameri- can Revolution made interesting additions to their already extensive loan collections. By the death of Mr. David W. Cromwell, of New York, on Sep- tember 11, 1915, the splendid collection of nearly 20,000 domestic and foreign postage stamps, which he placed on permanent deposit in 1908, became the absolute property of the Museum. Among other additions in philately, including stamps, stamped envelopes, and post cards, were 1,565 new foreign and 269 new domestic issues, received from the Post Office Department. The collection of historical costumes was enriched to the extent of 562 articles, nearly all of which were loans. To the series of cos- tumed figures representing hostesses of the White House four were added, namely, Mrs. James Monroe, Mrs. John Quincy Adams, Mrs. Abraham Lincoln, and Mrs. James R. McKee. Biology.—tIn the accessions of vertebrate animals the Asiatic region was especially well represented, and many genera and species new to the collection were obtained. The name of Dr. W. L. Abbott remains conspicuous in this connection through three contributions. The first, composed of material gathered under his direction and at his expense in Celebes and Borneo by Mr. H. C. Raven, consisted of 465 mammals, 869 birds, and a number of reptiles and batrachians. The second, presented jointly with Mr. C. B. Kloss, contained 197 mammals and 133 birds, besides reptiles and batrachians from Siam; while the third was a series of 183 mammals from Kashmir, British india. The Celebes and Siam specimens are especially important, 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. both as coming from localities not hitherto represented in the Mu- seum and as supplementing the existing large collections from the related faunal regions of the Malay Peninsula, the Philippine Tslands, and Borneo. From northern China and Manchuria was re- ceived a valuable series of mammals, birds, and reptiles, the results of further field work by Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby. Obtained by Mr. Copley Amory, jr., during a collecting trip to the little-known Kolyma River region of northeastern Siberia and presented by him, were 365 mammals and 248 birds, besides a number of nests and eggs of the latter. Additional mammals were received from Baluchistan through ex- change with the McMahon Museum at Quetta and from East Africa as a gift from Mr. Elton Clark. The most important accessions of reptiles, batrachians, and fishes consisted of the specimens obtained in connection with the Smithsonian biological survey of the Canal Zone by Mr. S. F. Hildebrand, Prof. S. E. Meek, and Mr. E. A. Gold- man, the number of fishes amounting to about 18,000. An extensive collection of Peruvian fishes made by Dr. R. E. Coker in 1907 and 1908 was presented by the Government of Peru, and another from South American localities was received from Indiana University in exchange. The Bureau of Fisheries deposited 1,242 specimens from Albatross explorations in the Pacific Ocean. The receipts by the division of marine invertebrates were excep- tionally extensive. Twenty-seven separate collections were trans- ferred by the Bureau of Fisheries, a part of which had been worked up and described. They represented investigations by the steamer Albatross in the Pacific Ocean, by the steamers Fish Hawk and Bache and the schooner Grampus in the Atlantic Ocean and con- tiguous waters, and certain other inquiries. Of crustaceans there were about 15,000 specimens, of annelids about 1,000 specimens, of pteropod mollusks about 3,200 specimens, of starfishes nearly 150 types, and of fresh-water mollusks about 1,000 specimens from the Mississippi River, besides very many unassorted lots of crustaceans, salpa, pyrosoma, and other groups. A very large number of miscellaneous invertebrates from the Dan- ish West Indies and about 5,000 specimens of land and marine mol- lusks from the Florida Keys were deposited by the Carnegie Institu- tion of Washington, while over 3,000 miscellaneous specimens from - dredgings off the coast of Florida and about 7,000 land and fresh- water shells from Cuba were presented by Mr. John B. Henderson. An accumulation of samples of ocean bottom, filling nearly 11,000 bottles, obtained by vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey dur- ing hydrographic investigations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Gulf of Mexico, were transferred to the custody of the Museum. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al The principal accessions of insects consisted of Lepidoptera and Diptera deposited by the Bureau of Entomology, of named species of beetles and Hymenoptera from Australia, and of types of new species presented by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell. The division of plants received several large and important col- lections. The Department of Agriculture transferred over 6,600 specimens, of which a considerable proportion were grasses. Some §,000 specimens, representing the field work of Dr. J. N. Rose in connection with his cactus investigations in Brazil and Argentina during the summer of 1915, were deposited by the Carnegie Institution of Washington; and about 2,000 specimens secured by the Peruvian expedition of 1914-15 were presented by the National Geographic So- ciety and Yale University. Among other important accessions were specimens from the Philippines, Amboina, China, and Panama. Geology.—During explorations in the Rocky Mountain region in the summer of 1915, Dr. Charles D. Walcott procured for the Museum in the Yellowstone National Park a large and well-selected series of the siliceous and calcareous sinters, including some masses of excep- tional size, native sulphur, silicified wood, sundry mineral specimens, and an extensive representation of volcanic rocks, intended in part for an exhibition of the geological features of that park. Among other important acquisitions were illustrations of the geology and mineral associations of the pegmatite deposits of southern California, and of the emerald mines at Muzo, Colombia; a number of scheelite specimens of more than ordinary interest from Utah; and an unusu- ally fine large specimen of secondary copper sulphate from the Sil- ver Bow Mine, Mont. The Geological Survey transferred examples of the nitrate deposits in Idaho and Oregon, and of potash-bearing salts and associated rocks from the vicinity of Tonopah, Nev.; and Dr. Joseph P. Iddings presented some fine specimens of the peculiar problematic bodies known as obsidianites and Darwin glass from Borneo and Tasmania, and an important series of phosphate rocks from Ocean and Makatea Islands. By the will of Dr. Charles Upham Shepard, who died early in July, 1915, the very important collection of meteorites belonging to him, which has been on deposit for a number of years, was bequeathed to the Museum; while from several other sources material represent- ing 32 distinct falls of meteorites in many different parts of the world was also acquired. The mineral collection received many additions, including excep- tionally fine specimens, examples of recent finds and several rare species, the largest accession, a deposit from the Geological Survey, consisting of about 300 specimens mostly illustrative of a report by Dr. W. T. Schaller on the gem minerals of the pegmatites of Cali- fornia. From the same Survey was also transferred a large amount 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. of petrological material, mainly rocks illustrating the geology and ore deposits of several districts and localities, described in recent papers. Of fossil invertebrates the Geological Survey made extensive con- tributions from the Tertiary of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain, the Cretaceous of New Mexico, and other formations and localities. Other important accessions were several thousand specimens of bryozoa and ostracoda from various parts of the world, a collection of Upper Cretaceous forms of special interest as containing types described long ago by Prof. T. A. Conrad, insects from the Floris- sant beds of Colorado, and types of new species of crabs. Most prominent of the additions in vertebrate paleontology was a nearly complete skeleton of a large mastodon found near Winamac, Ind., which has already been mounted and placed in the exhibition hall. From the Koren expedition to the Kolyma River region of northeastern Siberia were received nearly 200 specimens, of which the most valuable is a fine skull of the Siberian mammoth, the only one of this northern form now in any American museum. ‘Two col- lections of fossil plants, recently described, including the type and figured specimens, were transferred by the Geological Survey. One was from the San Juan Basin, N. Mex., the other from the Fox Hills formation, Colo. Textiles—tIn the division of textiles excellent progress was made in the acquisition and installation of new exhibits. Probably the most important was an extensive series of specimens, and of models, sections, and photographs of machinery from the American Thread Co., showing the manufacture of cotton thread in all its details. Other noteworthy accessions were two additional Jacquard machines for decorating textiles; further illustrations of the operation and work of the embroidery automats, of the manufacture of silk fabrics, and of the designing, weaving, and printing of silk upholstery and drapery materials; examples of Javanese batik work on cotton and silk, and of various patterns of moiré silks; a demonstration of the successive stages in the production of painted cut velvet, called “ Yuzen Birodo” by the Japanese; and samples of silk skein-dyeing and silk piece-dyeing and printing. The Japanese Commission to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition contributed 100 commercial fabrics, including many kinds. not produced in this country. The representation of American up- holstery and drapery fabrics and allied textiles of various materials and character of decoration was greatly increased and improved, and manufacturers continued to keep the collection supplied with novel- ties and new types and designs of dress fabrics as soon as they were brought out. Numerous excellent examples of the handicraft work done in the schools of the Philippine Islands were also obtained. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 Wood technology.—in the recently organized section of wood technology there were many accessions of samples of important com- mercial woods and of illustrations of wood utilization, the public installation of which was about to be taken up at the close of the year. While the wood specimens, mostly in the form of large boards, were intended primarily for practical educational purposes, a large proportion had been determined botanically, insuring for them a proper technical designation. The principal collection of wood samples, from the Philippine Islands, consisted of 110 pieces, representing 85 species, the dupli- cates showing different characteristics as to grain and figure. In addition there were 16 pieces and 15 species from Argentina; 32 specimens of various foreign woods highly prized for veneers and for cabinet and furniture work, including the several important varieties which are imported into this country under the trade name of mahogany ; 38 specimens of redwood from the Pacific coast, repre- senting a large range of patterns produced by the manufacturers and some of their better grades of plain lumber; and also examples of koa and ohia woods from Hawaii, Honduran mahogany, red gum, yellow poplar, white oak, and black cherry. Material received as part of an exhibit of the turpentine industry included three butt sections of longleaf pine from a commercial tur- pentine orchard, illustrating the manner in which gum for the dis- tillation of turpentine is obtained by the box, the cup and gutter, and the Forest Service methods, clearly showing the progressive improve- ment from the former wasteful to the modern economical processes. These were accompanied by samples of the gum, scrape, turpentine, and resin, and examples of the tools used, and, in addition, there was a model of a turpentine still of a pattern common to the long- leaf pine belt, in a setting typical of the region, some of the trees being boxed and others provided with cups and gutters. The utiliza- tion of wood was also illustrated by samples of dyewoods in the log, and a series of extracts from them, including logwood, Brazil wood, fustic, and quebracho; and by several series of specimens showing the materials and successive stages in the manufacture of a number of articles of common use, such as matches, tool handles, brushes, and sporting goods. Of subjects other than textiles and woods, while no special efforts were made in their behalf, much desirable material was received, in- cluding agricultural products generally, foods, medicines, resins, models of fishing methods and boats, fishery products, etc. Mineral technology.—A very realistic model of Trinidad Asphalt Lake and its environs, a series of colored transparencies and photo- graphic enlargements, and a complement of specimens typifying the 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. different forms of asphalt occurrence as well as the useful products prepared therefrom, constituted the most striking addition to the exhibits in the division of mineral technology. Next may be men- tioned a complete ore stope removed bodily, ore faces, timbering, chute, manway, and all accessories, from the Copper Queen Mine at Bisbee, Ariz. Among other important acquisitions were a model representing the layout of a Portland cement plant and the sequence of operations connected with the manufacture of cement; an industrial series of specimens covering the occurrence and uses of natural graphite, in- cluding a remarkable block of pure graphite weighing 250 pounds; a model reproducing the unique method of mining placer gravel for gold in the frozen north by a system of underground drifting or tunneling bedrock, with the ground thawed out in immediate advance of the tunnel by means of steam; and a model of a cyanide leaching plant showing admirably the method commonly employed in the extraction of gold from its ores where the metal does not lend itself to simpler and more direct processes for its segregation. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. It is very gratifying to note that early in the year Mr. Charles L. Freer waived the condition attending his munificent gift of American and oriental art to the effect that the collection remain in his pos- session during his life, and expressed a desire that the erection of the building be taken up at the earliest possible moment. The sum required for this purpose, $1,000,000, also a donation from Mr. Freer, was turned over to the Institution in December, and the site and preliminary plans, both satisfactory to the benefactor, received later the approval of the Board of Regents of the Institution, and of the Federal Commission of Fine Arts. The site is the southwestern part of the Smithsonian reservation, at the corner of Twelfth and B Streets, S. W., and approximately two years will be required for the completion of the building, at the end of which time the transfer of the many precious objects to Washington may be expected to take place. The fact that the planning and the execution of the work of construction is in the hands of Mr. Charles A. Platt, of New York, insures their being carried out in an eminently satisfactory manner. _ Since the last report Mr. Freer has increased the extent of his collection to about 5,346 items by 535 additions, of which 28 are paintings and sculptures by the American artists Tryon, Thayer, Metcalf, Murphy, and Saint-Gaudens; while the oriental objects, numbering 512, consist mainly of paintings, pottery, bronzes, and jades from China, Korea, and Japan. Mr. Freer announces con- siderable headway in the preparation of the final catalogues, on which a number of experts of wide repute are at work. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 The National Gallery of Art also received during the year from the Department of State a most interesting collection of 82 draw- ings in pencil, pen, charcoal, chalk, crayon, and water color, executed by eminent contemporary French artists and presenfed to the people of the United States by the citizens of the French Republic as a token of their appreciation of the sympathetic efforts of American citizens _ toward relieving the distress occasioned by the European war. There should likewise be mentioned an oil portrait of Abraham Lincoln, by George H. Story, presented by Mrs. E, H. Harriman. MEETINGS AND CONGRESSES. The auditorium and committee rooms in the new building were utilized to a much greater extent than in any previous year for scientific and art meetings, lectures, and other functions. Three of the local societies made the Museum their regular meeting place, among these being the Washington Society of the Fine Arts, which presented its customary three courses of lectures. Annual or special meetings were held by the National Academy of Sciences, the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, the Society of American Foresters, the American Oriental Society, and the American Surgical Association. Lectures, singly or in short series, were given under the auspices of 10 of the science and art societies, and 6 receptions were held in connection with large gatherings of national and inter- national bodies. Among the special meetings there were several which merit dis- tinctive mention. The most important of these was the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists which met from December 27 to 31, in affiliation with Section I of the Second Pan American Scientific Congress, then also in session in Washington, the American Anthropological Association, the American Folk-Lore Society, the American Historical Association, and the Archaeological Institute of America. On the afternoon of February 9 a bronze tablet in memory of Prof. 8. F. Baird as the instigator of the Federal fishery service, a contribution to the Bureau of Fisheries by 47 subscribers, was dedicated in the auditorium with appropriate ceremonies in the _ presence of a large assemblage. During the week of the safety-first exhibition, February 21-28, the auditorium was occupied on five days for lectures and discourses on the subjects comprehended by this notable display, nearly all of them being profusely illustrated, both motion pictures and lantern slides being used. The speakers, besides the Secretary of Labor and several assistant secretaries of departments, were all experts in the several bureaus represented. The exercises attending the centenary celebration of the organization of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. held in the auditorium on April 5 and 6, consisted of an exposition of the work of this, the first scientific service of the Government, by eminent authorities who had been invited to speak upon those phases of the Survey’s activities with which they are best acquainted. The American Association of Museums held its eleventh annual meeting in Washington from May 15 to 18, and the American Federa- tion of Arts its seventh annual convention from the 17th to the 19th of the same month. While only one session of the former and none of the latter was held in the Museum, a reception was tendered to both on the evening of May 17, when an important loan exhibition of the industrial arts was apened with a special view. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS. The educational efforts of the Museum were most notably served by several large and important special exhibitions. Supplementing the arrangements for the meetings of the Congress of Americanists and affiliated societies during convocation week, an interesting installation was made of material relating to pertinent subjects. During the week of February 21-27 the foyer, with three of its communicating rooms, was occupied by one of the most remarkable and interesting Government exhibitions that has ever been assembled. Having as its theme the “ safety-first ” idea, it was participated in by 20 bureaus, the American National Red Cross Society, and the Metro- politan police department, the activities of all of which are primarily for or comprehend in a marked degree the safeguarding of life and property, as well as the prevention and care of disease. Although the available area was restricted the display proved most effective and satisfactory, as it was also comprehensive, probably nothing in the Government service relating to “safety first” having escaped some representation. Attention was widely called to the exhibition in ad- vance. The governors of States were notified of the nation-wide aspect of the exposition, one of the results of which was to bring about a meeting of State mine inspectors in the Museum, and manu- facturers and operators from all over the country were invited to be present. The total attendance of visitors during the week was 35,447. The exercises commemorating the centenary of the Coast and - Geodetic Survey, held on April 5 and 6, were supplemented by an exhibition in the foyer, the purpose of which was to illustrate the appliances and methods used and the results obtained in both its marine and geodetic work during the 100 years of its existence. The material was admirably selected and arranged, constituting one of the most complete and instructive special displays ever installed in the Museum. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47 The models and drawings submitted in competition for the monu- ment at Fort McHenry, Baltimore, in memory of Francis Scott Key, author of the “Star-Spangled Banner,” and the soldiers and sailors who participated in the battle of North Point and the attack on Fort McHenry in the War of 1812, were arranged in the rotunda of the new building, where, after having been passed upon by the jury of awards, they were exhibited to the public from May 17 to June 17. The exhibition of American industrial art, held during the spring and summer of 1915 under the auspices of the American Federation of Arts, was repeated as a feature of the seventh convention of this association, being opened on May 17, 1916, and continuing for one month. The foyer and five of its communicating rooms were occu- pied. The exposition was designed to bring together examples of art on industrial lines, both hand and machine made, to show what is being produced in this country, and though not exhaustive in any particular, some of the best-known art workers of the country par- ticipated, and it was felt that a fairly high standard had been maintained. Following the close of the Panama-Pacific International Exposi- tion on December 4, and in accordance with an act of Congress, a large part of the Museum’s ethnological exhibit was transferred from San Francisco to the Panama-California International Exposition at San Diego, to be shown there until the end of the calendar year 1916. The selection made for this purpose consisted of four large family groups of Eskimo, Zulu-Kaflirs, Caribs, and Dyaks; miniature dwelling groups of aboriginal peoples in many parts of the world; four cases of artifacts; and a set of lithographs from Catlin’s North American Indian paintings. MISCELLANEOUS. Duplicate material to the extent of over 7,000 specimens, classified and labeled for teaching purposes and arranged in 96 sets, was dis- tributed to schools and colleges, the subjects principally represented being rocks, minerals, ores, fossils, and recent mollusks. For obtain- ing additions to the collections through the medium of exchange, about 9,400 duplicates, chiefly from the natural-history divisions, were utilized. A large number of specimens were sent for study to collaborators of the Museum and other specialists. They consisted mainly of plants, recent animals, and fossils, and were contained in 114 lots. The attendance of visitors at the new building aggregated 316,707 for week days and 64,521 for Sundays, being a daily average of 1,012 for the former and of 1,240 for the latter. For the older Museum building, which is only open on week days, the total was 146,956 and 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. the daily average 469. The halls in the Smithsonian building, which were closed for renovation during about five months, received 48,517 visitors. The publications of the year comprised 2 volumes of Proceedings and 4 Bulletins, besides the annual report and 52 separate papers belonging to the series of Proceedings and Contributions from the National Herbarium. The total distribution of Museum publications aggregated 73,798 copies. Through the addition of 1,895 volumes, 72 parts of volumes, and 2.873 pamphlets, the number of volumes in the Museum library was increased to 47,718, and of pamphlets and unbound papers to 79,241. Respectfully submitted, RicHarp RaTHBun, Assistant Secretary in Charge, United States National Museum. Dr. Cuartes D, WAtcorr, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. OcrozBer 30, 1916. APPENDIX 2, REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1916, conducted in accordance with the provision of the act of Congress approved March 3, 1915, making appropriations for the sundry civil expenses of the Government, and with a plan of operations submitted by the ethnologist in charge and approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The provision of the act authorizing the researches of the bureau is as follows: American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the Amer- ican Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preserva- tion of archzologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodi- cals, $42,000. Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge, devoted most of his ener- gies, as usual, to administrative affairs. However, in pursuance of a plan for cooperative archeological research by the Bureau of Amer- ican Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian (Heye Foundation) of New York, Mr. Hodge early in July joined Mr. George G. Heye, of the museum mentioned, in the excavation of the Nacoochee mound in White County, northeastern Georgia, permis- sion to investigate which was accorded by the owner, Dr. L. G. Hardman. The Nacoochee mound is an earthwork occupied by the Cherokee Indians until early in the nineteenth century. The name “ Nacoo- chee,” however, is not of Cherokee origin; at least, it is not identifi- able by the Cherokee as belonging to their language, and by no means does the word signify “the evening star” in any Indian tongue, as one writer has claimed. The summit of the mound, which had been leveled for cultivation about 30 years ago, measured 83 feet in maximum and about 67 feet in minimum diameter; the height of the mound above the adjacent field was 17 feet 3 inches, and the circumference of the base 410 feet. These measurements are doubtless less than they were at the time the mound was abandoned by the Cherokee, as all the dimensions 49 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. have been more or less reduced by cultivation, the slope at the base particularly having been plowed away for several feet. The mound was reared both for domicile and for cemetery purposes and was composed of rich alluvial soil from the surrounding field. Excava- tion determined that the mound was not built at one time, but evi- dently at different periods, as circumstances demanded. This was shown plainly by the stratification of the mound soil, the occurrence of graves at different depths with undisturbed earth above them, the presence of fire pits or of evidences of fires throughout the mound at varying levels, and by the finding of a few objects derived from the white man in the upper part and in the slopes of the mound, but not in the lower levels. From this last observation it is evident that the occupancy of the mound extended well into the historical period, a fact supported by the memory of the grandparents of present resi- dents of the Nacoochee Valley, who recalled the mound when the Cherokee Indians still occupied it and the surrounding area. The fact that the mound was used for burial purposes is attested by the finding of the remains of 75 individuals during the course of the excavations, the graves occurring from slightly beneath the summit to a depth of about 19 feet, or below the original base of the mound. These graves, with few exceptions, were unmarked, and in most instances were not accompanied with objects of ceremony or utility. The exceptions were those remains with which were buried stone implements, shells or shell ornaments, a smoking pipe, a pot- tery vessel, or the like. The skeletons were found usually with the head pointed in an eastwardly direction, and were all so greatly de- composed that it was impossible to preserve any of them for measure- ment and study, the bones in most cases consisting of only a pasty mass. As mentioned above, most of the burials were unmarked. The exceptions consisted of two graves incased and covered with slabs of stone, both unearthed near the very base of the mound. One of these stone graves contained a skeleton the bones of which were largely of the consistency of corn meal, owing to the ravages of insects, but what was lacking in the remains themselves was more than compensated by the finding near the skull of a beautiful effigy vase of painted pottery, the only piece of painted ware, whole or fragmentary, found in the entire mound. The occurrence of this type of vessel and the presence of the stone graves at the bottom of the mound suggest the possible original occupancy of the site by Indians other than the Cherokee. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the mound was the large number of smoking pipes of pottery, mostly broken, but in many forms and of varying degrees of workmanship. Some of the pipes are of excellent texture and are highly ornamented with conven- BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 tionalized figures of birds, etc., or marked with incised designs. An- other feature of the mound was the presence of a great amount of broken pottery, especially in the refuse at the base and covering the slopes. This pottery is chiefly of fine texture, although some of the cooking vessels are of coarse ware. With the exception of the painted vessel above noted, the only ornamentation applied by the . makers of the pottery consists of incised and impressed designs, the latter made usually with a paddle of clay or wood, or worked out in the moist ware before firing by means of a pointed tool, a spatula, a piece of cane, or a shell. In pursuance of another plan of cooperative archeological research, Mr. Hodge, in October, visited Zuii, N. Mex., with Mr. Heye, for the purpose of examining the ruins of the historic pueblo of Hawikuh, in the Zuni Vailey southwest of Zuni pueblo, and of making the nec- essary arrangements with the Indians for its excavation. This site is of great archeological and historical interest, as the pueblo was in- habited when first seen by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539, and when visited and stormed by Coronado in the following year. It became the site of an important Franciscan mission in 1629, and was finally abandoned in 1670 on account of depredations by hostile Indians. By reason of the fact that Hawikuh was inhabited continuously from prehistoric times until 130 years after the opening of the historical period, it is expected that a thorough study of its ruins will shed important information on the effect of the earliest Spanish contact with the Zufi people and will supplement archeological work con- ducted in other village sites of that tribe. Owing to unforeseen cir- cumstances, active work was not commenced before the close of the fiscal year, but it is hoped that its initiation will not be long delayed. A permit therefor has been granted by the Secretary of the Interior. By provisional agreement with the School of American Arche- ology at Santa Fe, N. Mex., and the Royal Ontario Museum of Archeology at Toronto, plans were perfected whereby the Smith- sonian Institution, in conjunction with those establishments, was to conduct archeological researches of an intensive character in the Chaco Canyon of northern New Mexico, one of the most important culture areas north of Mexico. Although every effort was made to obtain from Congress the necessary appropriation for meeting the Institution’s share of the expense (a permit for the excavations hav- ing been issued by the Secretary of the Interior), the project was presented too late for action, hence the work, so far as the Smith- sonian Institution is concerned, has been necessarily postponed. As opportunity offered, the preparation of the bibliography of the Pueblo Indians was continued by Mr. Hodge, who also represented the Smithsonian Institution as a member of the United States Geo- graphic Board, and the Bureau of American Ethnology at the meet- 52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. ings of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publi- cation. Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, ethnologist, having been detailed to con- tinue the excavation and repair of prehistoric ruins in the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., under the joint auspices of this Bureau and the Department of the Interior, left Washington for that locality in August, 1915, and remained in the park continuously until the close of October. Dr. Fewkes devoted his attention mainly to a large mound of stones and earth situated near the point of a promontory opposite Cliff Palace, across Cliff Canyon, the excavation of which revealed a type of structure hitherto unknown in the Mesa Verde Nationa! Park, and architecturally different from any that had been previously excavated in the Southwest. The rooms of this building, which Dr. Fewkes designates as “Sun Temple,” were thoroughly cleared out, the débris removed, and the walls were repaired in such manner that they will not be likely to deteriorate for many years. A report on the work of excavation and on the structural features of this interesting building forms the subject of an illustrated pamphlet published by the Department of the Interior in June, 1916, under the title “ Excavation and repair of Sun Temple, Mesa Verde National Park.?” | Structurally the Sun Temple consists of two parts—an original building, to which an annex is so united as to give the two a D- shape ground plan, the southern or straight wall of which extends almost exactly east-west. This wall measures 131 feet 7 inches in length; the highest wall of the structure is 11 feet 7 inches, the lowest 5 feet. The walis are massive, varying in thickness from 2 to 5 feet, and are composed of a core of rubble faced on both sides, the exposed stones having been carefully fashioned by hand and accurately fitted, although, as in the case of pueblo masonry gen- erally, the stones are usually neither “broken” at the joints nor bonded at the corners. Nevertheless the walls of the Sun Temple display excellent structural qualities that will compare favorably with any of its class north of Mexico. Architectually the annex re- sembles certain tower-like structures in the ancient pueblo region, and in plan the whole ruin bears resemblance also to Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, N. Mex. : The building contains three circular rooms resembling kivas, or ceremonial chambers, still used by some of the Pueblo Indians, and many other rooms of unusual shape and doubtful significance. There was no indication that the Sun Temple had been roofed; indeed, there is strong evidence that the construction of the buildings was never finished. Dr. Fewkes was not able to determine the age of the Sun Temple, but he is of the opinion that it was built later REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. DO than Cliff Palace. One evidence of its antiquity, however, was observed, namely, a cedar tree growing from the top of the highest walls was found to have 860 annual rings of growth, indicating that it sprouted a few years after Coronado led his expedition into the Southwest in 1540. The builders of the Sun Temple are supposed by Dr. Fewkes to have been the former cliff dwellers of the neighboring canyons. As to its purpose, he is of the opinion that the building was used pri- marily for worship, but that like other temples among primitive peoples it was intended secondarily as a place of refuge in case of attack, and for the storage of provisions. The impression of a fossil palm leaf on the corner stone at the southwestern angle is believed to mark a shrine where rites to the sky or sun god were performed long before the temple was built. It is this supposed shrine that sug- gested the name for the edifice. On the completion of the excavation and repair of the Sun Temple, Dr. Fewkes similarly treated Oak-tree House, a cliff dwelling in the precipice of Fewkes Canyon above which stands the Sun Temple. A collection of artifacts found in this dwelling was gathered in the course of the excavation and later deposited in the National Museum, En route to Washington, Dr. Fewkes visited the so-called “ Buried City of the Panhandle,” on Wolf Creek in Ochiltree County, Tex., which had been reported to the bureau by residents of the neighbor- hood and had become locally celebrated. The remains examined hardly justify the name given to the site, which in former days was used as an encampment by wandering Indians rather than by sed- entary people. Dr. Fewkes’s attention was drawn also to a supposed artificial wall which gave name to Rockwall, not far from Dallas, Tex., but on examination this was found to be a natural sandstone formation. Dr. Fewkes returned to Washington in November and immedi- ately prepared a report on his summer’s work in the Mesa Verde National Park for the use of the Department of the Interior, an advance summary of which, issued by the department, was widely published in the newspapers. An account of the excavation and repair of Oak-tree House and Painted House, the largest cliff ruins in Fewkes Canyon, was also prepared for publication. On the com- pletion of these tasks Dr. Fewkes devoted the remainder of his lim- ited time to the preparation of the extended memoir on The Abo- rigines of the West Indies for publication in a report of the bureau. In June he again departed for the field with the view of initiating, before the close of the fiscal year, an inquiry into the archxological evidences bearing on Hopi legends that ancestors of the clans of the ancient pueblo of Sikyatki lived at Tebungki, or Beshbito, an oval ruin 15 miles east of Keams Canyon, Ariz. Dr. Fewkes visited and 73839°—sm 1916——5 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. surveyed the ruin and made photographs and notes thereof. He likewise investigated certain large ruins east of Tebungki, on the ancient trail of migration from Chaco Canyon, and traced for some distance the prehistoric trail running from San Juan Valley south- ward past the great ruins, as yet undescribed, near Crownpoint, N. Mex. During the months of July to December, 1915, Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, continued to devote most of his attention to the prepar- ation for publication of the Cherokee Sacred Formulas, including transliteration, translation, and explanation of each formula, with complete glossary and botanic index. These formulas, collected by Mr. Mooney on the East Cherokee Reservation in North Carolina, are written in the Cherokee language and alphabet and held for their own secret use by priests of the tribe, most of them long since dead. They consist of prayers, songs, and prescriptions, dealing with medicine, love, hunting, fishing, agriculture, war, the ball play, self-protection, etc. They number in all between 500 and 550, con- tained in several manuscripts, as follows: 1. Gadigwanasti (‘“ Belt,” died 1888).—-186 in a large blank book of foolscap size, and 94 others on separate sheets of the same size, closely written; 280 in all. Obtained from his son. 2. A‘yunini (‘ Swimmer,” died 1899).—Written in an unpaged blank book of 242 pages, 34 by 12 inches, only partially filled; 187 in all. Obtained from him- self and transliterated and translated with full explanation from his distation in 1888. A 3. A‘wanita (“ Young Deer,” died about 1892) .—24 written on separate sheets and obtained from him in 1888. Transcribed later into No 4. 4. Tsiskwa (“ Bird,” died 1889).—22, dictated from deathbed and with other formulas written out in regular fashion, with index, in a blank book of 200 pages, 8 by 10 inches, by his nephew, W. W. Long (Wiliwesti), in 1889. 5. Dagwatihit (“Catawba Killer,’ died about 1890.—Written out from his dictation by W. W. Long, in No. 4, in 1889; 11 in all. 6. Gahuni (died 1866).—10 in all, together with a Cherokee-English vocabu- lary in Cherokee characters and other miscellany, contained in an unpaged blank book, 6 by 14 inches. Obtained in 1889 from his widow, Aydsta, mother of W. W. Long. 7. Other formulas originally written by Inali (‘Black Fox,” died about 1880), Yantigfilegi (“Climbing Bear,” died 1904, Dfininali (‘‘ Tracker,” still living), Aydsta (“ Spoiler,’ died 1916), Aganstata (‘Groundhog Meat,” still - living), and others; mostly transcribed into No. 4. 8. A large number of dance songs, ceremonial addresses, Civil War letters from Cherokee in the Confederate service, council records, ete., all in the Cherokee language and characters, contained in various original blank book manuscripts and letter sheets. Some of these have been transcribed into No. 4, and many of them might properly appear with the Sacred Formulas. Of all this material, about 150 formulas, including the entire Swimmer book, No. 2, were transliterated, translated, and anno- tated and glossarized, with Swimmer’s assistance, in 1888-89. Of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 these, 28 specimen formulas were published in 1891 in “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” in the Seventh Annual Report of the bureau. The manuscript glossary for the whole 150 formulas num- bers about 2,000 words. All the other formulas, together with the more important miscel- -lany noted under No. 8, were transliterated and translated with inter- linear translation in the summers of 1911-14, together with such additional explanation as might be furnished by surviving experts. Also some 500 or 600 plants noted in the medical prescriptions have been collected in the field, with their Cherokee names and uses, and the botanic identification made by assistance of the botanists of the National Museum. This entire body, exclusive of No.2 completed, is now in process of final transcription and elaboration, with explana- tion, botanic appendix, and glossary. Most of the work at present is being devoted to the Gadigwanasti manuscript, but the interdepend- ence of the formulas necessitates frequent shifting from one to another. The glossary proceeds incidentally with the final transla- tion, but more slowly as the full import of the words becomes mani- fest. Many of the words and expressions are technical, symbolic, and in archaic and unusual dialectic forms, with corresponding difficulty of interpretation. The complete glossary will probably comprise at least 4,000 words. The botanic section will consist of a list of all the plants used in the formulas, as stated, and of some others of special importance, with their Indian names and meanings, botanic identification, and Cherokee uses as deduced from the various formulas and from direct information. An explanation of the method and significance of the ceremony, the preparation of the medicine and the manner of its application will accompany each formula, but this work is deferred to the end, to insure symmetrical treatment without unnecessary repetition. It is planned to have one or more introductory chapters explana- tory of the Cherokee mythology, beliefs relating to the spiritual and occult world, ceremonial observances, initiation of hunters, and other matters illustrative of the formulas, together with parallels from other tribal systems, and also a chapter explanatory of the peculiar linguistic forms. More than 200 formulas have received final form. The finished work will fill at least one large report volume and require a year for completion. In July and August, 1915, Mr. Mooney gave considerable time to furnishing information and suggestions for the proposed Sequoya statue intended to constitute Oklahoma’s contribution to the Capitol gallery. The usual number of letter requests for miscellaneous in- formation also received attention. 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. On May 27 Mr. Mooney proceeded to western North Carolina for the purpose of continuing his Cherokee studies, and at the close of the fiscal year was still in the field. Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted the greater part of the year to his memoirs pertaining to the Creek and associated tribes, to which reference was made in the last report. The first of these, dealing with the habitat and classification of the former Southeastern Indians, their history and population, is nearly completed ; it consists of upward of 750 typewritten pages, exclusive of the bibliography, all of which has been put in order and annotated. Some new manu- script sources of information have recently been discovered which will make further additions necessary, but with this exception the text is now complete. Six maps are to be used in illustration; two of these, which are entirely new, are now being made, and the others are to be reproductions. The second paper, to cover the social organi- zation and social customs of the Creeks and their neighbors, has likewise been arranged and annotated, but it is being held in order to incorporate the results of further field research. From the end of September until the latter part of November, 1915, Dr. Swanton was in Oklahoma, where he collected 113 pages of Natchez text from one of the three surviving speakers of the lan- guage; he also spent about three weeks among the Creek Indians, where about 80 pages of myths in English were procured. Further ethnological material was also obtained from the Creeks and from the Chickasaw, to whom a preliminary visit was made. While with the former people Dr. Swanton perfected arrangements with a young man to furnish texts in the native language, which he is able to write fluently, and in this way 173 pages have been submitted, not including translation. From Judge G. W. Grayson, of Eufaula, Okla., to whom the bureau has been constantly indebted in many ways, was obtained in Creek and English, and also in the form of a dictaphone record, a speech of the kind formerly delivered at the annual poskita, or busk, ceremony of the Creeks. From an Alibamu correspondent, referred to in previous reports, some additions to the Alibamu vocabulary and a few pages of Alibamu text were procured. At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnolo- gist, transcribed and edited the Seneca text “ Dooii’dane’gé” and Hotkwisdadegé’’a; making 45 pages, to which he added a literal interlinear translation that required more than twice as many Eng- lish words as Indian, the whole being equivalent to about 130 pages. This text is a part of the Seneca material now in press for the Thirty-second Annual Report of the bureau. Mr. Hewitt also read for correction, emendation, and expansion, the galley proofs of Cur- tin’s Seneca material, and prepared more than 50 pages of notes and additions for the introduction and also for the text; he also has ready REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57 notes and corrections for the proofs still to come. From unedited text Mr. Hewitt completed a free translation of 82 pages of the Onon- daga version of the “requickening address” of the Ritual of Con- dolence of the League of the Iroquois, being a part of the material for his projected memoir on the Iroquois League. After the material of the Seneca legends had been submitted for - printing, Mr. Curtin’s field records and notes, made while recording this material, came into possession of the bureau. Mr. Hewitt de- voted much time to reading and examining this undigested material, some 4,000 pages, for the purpose of ascertaining whether part of it should be utilized for printing or for illustrative purposes in what was already in type. This examination yielded some good material for notes and interpretations, but only small return as to new ma- terial for printing. In the early autumn Mr. Hewitt made special preparations for the prosecution of field work on his projected memoir on the League of the Iroquois, by tentative editing and copying of a number of Mohawk and Onondaga texts recorded hastily in the field in pre- vious years. The following parts of the Ritual of the Condolence Council were thus typewritten: The fore part of the Ceremony of Condolence, called “ Beside-The-Forest,” or ‘“ Beside-The-Thicket,” in Mohawk; the so-called “ Requickening Address,” in the Onondaga version, and also the explanatory “introduction” and the “reply” in Onondaga to the “ Beside-The-Forest ” address already noted; and the installation address in Onondaga, made by Dekanawida to the last two Seneca leaders to join the League, was likewise edited and typewritten. Mr. Hewitt also devoted much study to other parts of the League material, for the purpose of being able to dis- cuss it intelligently and critically with native informants. Some of the most striking results of this year’s field work are due to this preparatory study of the material already in hand. Mr. Hewitt spent many days in the office in searching out and preparing data for replies to correspondents of the bureau. On April 17, 1916, Mr. Hewitt left Washington for the Six Nations reserve near Brantford, Ontario, for the purpose of resuming field work, having in view primarily the putting into final form of the Onondaga and Mohawk texts pertaining to the League of the Iro- quois, recorded in former years. These texts cover a wide range of subjects and represent the first serious attempt to record in these languages very technical and highly figurative language from per- sons unaccustomed to dictate connected texts for recording. These text embody laws, decisions, rituals, ceremonies, and constitutional principles; hence it is essential that correct verbal and grammatic forms be given. 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. One of the most important results of Mr. Hewitt’s field studies is the demonstration that, contrary to all available written records and various printed accounts, there were never more than 49 federal civil chiefs of the League of the Iroquois, and that the number 50, due to misconception of the meaning of ordinary terms by Thomas Webster of the New York Onondaga, who died about 30 years ago, is modern and unhistorical. This false teaching has gained credence because it arose only after the dissolution of the integrity of the League of the Iroquois in the years following its wars with the United States, when most of the tribes became divided, some remov- ing to Canada and some remaining in New York State, a condition which naturally fostered new interpretations and newer versions of older legends and traditions. Mr. Hewitt also recorded a Cayuga version of the so-called Dekan- awida tradition, comprising 130 pages of text, dictated by Chief John H. Gibson, which purports to relate the events that led to the founding of the League or Confederation of the Five Iroquois tribes and the part taken therein by the principal actors. In this inter- esting version Dekanawida is known only by the epithet “The Fatherless,” or literally “ He Who is Fatherless,” which emphasizes the prophecy that he would be born of a virgin. In this version “The Fatherless” is represented as establishing among the Cayuga tribesmen the exact form of government that later he - founded among the Five Iroquois tribes. It is said that the Cayuga selfishly limited the scope of that form of government, and therefore its benefits, to the Cayuga people alone, for the Cayuga statesmen did not conceive of its applicability to the affairs and welfare of all men. And so, this tradition affirms, it became needful that “ The Father- less” return to the neighbor tribes of the Cayuga to establish among them the League of the Five Tribes of the Iroquois, which was de- signed to be shared by all the tribes of men. This event is men- tioned in the other Dekanawida versions. This Cayuga version also purports to explain the origin of the dualism lying at the foundation of all public institutions of Iroquois peoples, by attributing the first such organization among the Cayuga to two persons who were related to each other as “ Father and Son,” or “Mother and Daughter,” and who agreed to conduct public’ affairs jointly. This statement of course is somewhat wide of the mark, because it does not explain the existence of similar dualisms among other tribes such dualisms resting commonly, in the social organization, on the dramatization of the relation of the male and female principles in nature. Mr. Hewitt was also able to confirm another radical exegesis of a part of the installation ceremony of the League of the Troquois as first proposed by himself. This deals with the significance and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 the correct translation of the words of the famous “Six Songs” of this ceremony. All other interpreters who have attempted to trans- late these words have assumed that these songs are “songs of greeting and welcome,” but Mr. Hewitt, solely on grammatic grounds and the position of these songs, regards them rather as “songs of parting,” or “songs of farewell,” which are dramatically sung by an imperson- - ator for the dead chief or chiefs. Mr. Hewitt also recorded, in the Onondaga dialect, a short legend descriptive of the three Air or Wind Beings or Gods, the so-called Hondu”’i, the patrons of the Wooden-mask or “ False-face” Society, whose chief function is the exorcism of disease out of the community and out of the bodies of ill persons; another on the Medicine Flute; another on the Husk-mask Society; and another on the moccasin game used at the wake for a dead chief: in all more than 100 pages of text not related to the material dealing with the Iroquois League. While in the field Mr. Hewitt purchased a number of fine specimens illustrating Iroquois culture, exhibiting art of a high order; these consist of a wooden mask, colored black; a husk-mask; two small drums; a “ medicine ” flute; a moccasin game used at a chief’s wake; a pair of deer-hoof rattles; a horn rattle; and a squash rattle. During the time he was in the field, until the close of the fiscal year, Mr. Hewitt read, studied, corrected, and annotated about 8,000 lines of text other than that mentioned above, and also made a number of photographs of Indians. Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, was engaged in assembling his notes on the rites of the Osage tribe. Up to the month of February, 280 pages of the ritual of the Fasting degree of the war rites were finished, completing that degree, which comprises 492 pages. The Cathadse, or Rush-mat degree, was next taken up and completed; this degree covers 104 pages. The Child-naming ritual was then commenced, and 21 pages have been finished. In September, while on leave of absence, Mr. La Flesche was visited on the Omaha reservation by Xuthai Wato"" of the Tsizhu Wano® gens, who gave a description of the Washabe Athi", or war ceremony, as he remembered it. With this description he gave 5 wigie and 14 songs. The wigie and the words of the songs have been tran- scribed from the dictaphone but are not yet typewritten, and the music of the songs has not yet been transcribed. A number of stories also were obtained from Xuthi Wato™l, among them that of the Osage traditional story of the separation of the Omaha and Osage tribes. Xutha Wato"1" died soon after his return home, his death being regarded by many as confirming the old-time behef that anyone who recites informally the rituals associated with these cere- monies will inevitably suffer dire punishment. The death of this old 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. man shortly after giving the rituals has therefore added to the diffi- culties attending the task of recording these ancient rites. Notwithstanding these obstacles, Mr. La Flesche succeeded, during his visit to the Osage Reservation in April and May, in securing from old Sho’ gemo"i the version of the Fasting ritual belonging to the Tsizhu Peace gens, of which he is a member. The wigie and the words of the songs have been transcribed from the dictaphone, but are not yet typewritten, and the music of the songs is also to be transcribed. Sho®’gemo"l likewise gave the Child-naming ritual belonging to his gens, in which there are two wigie, one containing 227 lines and the other 94. In addition to these rituals, Sho*’- gemo'i", after considerable hesitancy, recounted the “Seven and Six” (13) coups he is always called on to recount when any No™ho"zhi"ga of the Hoga division performs the ceremonies of some of the war rites. For this service he is paid a horse and goods amounting in value from $125 to $150. Mr. La Flesche also secured from Waxthizhi information concern- ing the duties of the two hereditary chiefs of the Osage tribe, the gentes from which they were chosen, and how their orders were enforced. He also obtained from Watsemo"i two wigie, one recited by him at the ceremonies of the war rites, and the other by the Notho'zhitga of the H6"ga Ahiuto® gens. In these studies Mr. La Flesche was materially assisted by Washoshe and his wife, who have both overcome their aversion to telling of the rites. Washéshe resigned from the N6*ho"zhitga order because of the injustice of its members toward a woman whom he selected to weave ceremonially the rush-mat shrine for a waxobe when he was taking the Cathadse degree. This man presented to Mr. La Flesche a mnemonic stick owned by his father and gave the titles of the groups of lines marked on the stick, each of which represents a group of songs. This mnemonic stick will be placed in the National Museum with the Osage collection. Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the entire fiscal year in making an exhaustive study of the Indians of the Chumashan lin- guistic stock of southern California. Three different bases have been established for working with informants and elaborating the notes. The period from July to October, inclusive, was spent at . San Diego, Cal., where every facility for the work was granted by the courtesy of the Panama-California Exposition; November to March, inclusive, at the Southwest Museum, Los Angeles; and April to June, inclusive, at Santa Ynez. The month of January, 1916, was spent at Berkeley, Cal., where, through the courtesy of the Ban- croft Library of the University of California, various linguistic manuscripts and historical archives pertaining to the Chumashan stock were studies and copied. During the period named more than REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 300,000 words of manuscript material were obtained and _ elab- orated. In addition to the grammatical and ethnological material an exhaustive dictionary of the Venturefio is well under way, which. comprises some 8,000 cards. This is to be followed by similar dic- tionaries for the other dialects. The most satisfactory feature of the work was the collection of material on the supposedly extinct dialects of San Luis Obispo and La Purisima. The Purisimefio material consists mainly of words and corrected vocabularies, while on the Obispeno important grammatical material was also obtained. A large part of the material which still remains to be obtained de- pends on the life of two very old informants, consequently it is most important that Mr. Harrington continue his work in this immediate field until the opportunities are exhausted. The beginning of the fiscal year found Dr. Truman Michelson, eth- nologist, at Tama, Iowa, engaged in continuing his researches among the Fox Indians, which consisted mainly of recording sociological data and ritualistic origin myths. In August, Dr. Michelson pro- ceeded to Oklahoma for the purpose of investigating the sociology and phonetics of the Sauk Indians, as well as of obtaining transla- tions of Fox texts pertaining especially to ritualistic origin myths. After successfully concluding this work, Dr. Michelson returned to Washington in October, when he commenced the translation of the textual material gathered in the field. Advantage was taken of the presence in Washington of a deputation of Piegan in obtaining a de- tailed knowledge of Piegan terms of relationship. From these studies Dr. Michelson determined that the lists of relationship terms recorded by Lewis H. Morgan, as well as by other investigators, re- quire revision. He also commenced to arrange the material gathered by the late Dr. William Jones pertaining to the ethnology of the Ojibwa Tribe, with a view of its publication as a bulletin of the bureau. Toward the close of the year Dr. Michelson undertook to restore phonetically the text of the White Buffalo dance of the Fox Indians, which likewise is intended for bulletin publication. It is believed that the results of this task will be ready for the printer before the close of the calendar year. Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, special ethnologist, divided his time, as in previous years, between field research and office work. On July 8 he left his winter headquarters at the United States training school at Chemawa, Oreg., and proceeded to the Yakima Reservation, Wash., where he revised, with the aid of the last Atfalati Indian, the Kalapuya manuscript material collected in 1877 by the late Dr. A.S. Gatschet of the bureau. This material, comprising 421 manuscript pages, consists of vocables, stems, grammatical forms, and ethno- logical and historical narratives, and its revision marked the comple- 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. tion of the work on the Kalapuya linguistic family commenced two summers ago. This work lasted until the latter part of July. In - conjunction with this particular phase of field work, Dr. Frachten- berg corrected the second revision of the galley proofs of his Siuslaw grammatical sketch to appear in the second part of Bulletin 40. On returning to Chemawa, Dr. Frachtenberg took up the editing and typewriting of his grammatical sketch of the Alsea language, the compilation of which was completed during the previous winter; this was finished in the early part of October, and the complete sketch, consisting of 158 sections and 421 typewritten pages, was submitted for publication in the second part of the Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bulletin 40). Dr. Frachtenberg interrupted this work on August 22 and took a short trip to the Siletz Reservation, where he collected 52 Athapascan and Shastan songs, which were transmitted to the bureau for future analysis. On October 7 he proceeded to the Quileute Reservation, where he enlisted the services of a Quileute informant, with whom he returned to Chemawa and brought to a successful completion the study of the grammar and mythology of the Quileute Tribe. This investigation extended from October until the latter part of March. The material collected by Dr. Frachtenberg during this period consists of 30 native myths and traditions fully translated, a large body of notes to these texts, voluminous grammatical forms, and vocables. In Janu- ary Dr. Frachtenberg left Chemawa for a short trip to the Grand Ronde Reservation, Oreg., where he recorded 19 Kalapuya songs on the dictaphone. As Dr. Frachtenberg’s allotment for field work among the Quileute was then exhausted, he was obliged to remain at Chemawa until the close of the fiscal year. He therefore undertook the correction of the page proofs of his grammatical sketch of the Siuslaw language (pp. 431-629), and on its completion engaged in translating, editing, and typewriting the Alsea texts collected in 1910. The editing of these texts involved much labor, since it was deemed advisable to present in the introduction a complete discussion of Alsea mythology, and a concordance beween the folklore of this tribe and the myths of the other tribes of the Pacific coast. For that purpose all the pub- lished works on the folklore of the tribes of the northwestern area were consulted, including that of the Maidu, Shasta, Yana, Klamath, - Takelma, Coos, Lower Umpqua, Tillamook, Chinook, Kathlamet, Wishram, Quinault, Chilcotin, Shuswap, Thompson River, Lillooet, Haida, Tlingit, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, Bellacoola,and the Athapascan Tribes of the north. This work was practically completed by the close of the fiscal year. The collection consists of 8 creation myths, 18 miscellaneous tales, 3 ethnological and historical narratives, 4 statements as to religious beliefs, and 3 tales collected in English (31 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 traditions in all). It comprises, in addition to the introdution, 392 typewritten pages, and will be submitted for publication as a bulletin of the bureau. SPECIAL RESEARCHES. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, continued his researches con- nected with the preparation of the remainder of part 2 of the Hand- ~ book of American Indian Languages, assisted by Dr. Hermann K. Haeberlin, Miss H. A. Andrews, and Miss Mildred Downs, and also devoted attention to the completion of the report on Tsimshian mythology. The bulletin on “ Kutenai Tales,” for which galleys were received in July, 1915, has been revised twice and is nearing completion. The page proof is being extracted preparatory to the accompanying grammatical sketch and vocabulary. Through the liberality of Mr. Homer E. Sargent, of Chicago, it has been possible to do much work on the preparation of an extended paper on the Salish dialects, now comprising about 500 pages of manuscript. The material has been collected since 1886, partly by Dr. Boas himself and partly by Mr. James Teit, the considerable expense of the field work of Mr. Teit having been generously met by Mr. Sargent. In the course of the last 30 years it has been pos- sible to collect vocabularies of all the Salish dialects, sufficient to afford a clear insight into the fundamental relations of these dialects, a preliminary work necessary to a more thorough study of the lan- guage. At the same time Mr. Teit gathered ethnological notes which are to be included in this work. The preparation of the vocabularies and of the detailed comparison that had been begun in previous years by Dr. Boas has been continued by Dr. Haeberlin, the basis of this study being their manuscript material and the published sources. Also through the liberality of Mr. Sargent and in cooperation with Columbia University in the city of New York, Dr. Haeberlin will be able to supplement his material by an investigation of one of the tribes of Puget Sound. The interest of Mr. Sargent has also made possible a detailed study of the Salish basketry of the interior plateau and the preparation of the illustrations for a memoir on this subject. For the latter purpose there have been utilized the collections of the United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the University Museum of Philadelphia, the Museum of the American Indian (Heye Foundation), and the private collections of Mr. Sargent and others. The preparation of a manuscript on the Ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians has been well advanced. The material for the first volume, which is to contain data collected by Mr. George Hunt, has been completed, excluding a number of translations which remain to be 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. elaborated. According to the plan, the work is to consist of two parts, the first a collection of data furnished by Mr. Hunt in answer to specific questions asked by Dr. Boas; the second a discussion of them, and other data collected on previous journeys to British Colum- bia. This volume is to consist of an account of the material culture, social organization, religion, and kindred subjects. Most of the illustrations for this volume have been completed, and about 1,600 pages of manuscript have been prepared. Miss Downs has made detailed extracts from Kwakiut] myths required for a discussion of this subject. Miss Downs has also compared the proofs of Dr. Frachtenberg’s Siuslaw grammar with published texts, and these proofs have been compared and passed on by Dr. Frachtenberg. This work completes the revision of the Siuslaw grammar, the publication of which has been delayed owing to various reasons. No progress has been made toward the final publication of the Chukchee grammar, as it has been impossible to communicate with the author, Mr. W. Bogoras, who is in Russia. Some progress has been made with the contributions to Mexican archeology and ethnology, to be edited by Prof. Alfred M. Tozzer, of Harvard University, with a view of their publication by the bureau as a bulletin. Dr. Paul Radin has furnished a manuscript on Huave; Dr. Haeberlin has nearly completed the study of modern Mexican tales, collected by Dr. Boas and by Miss Isabel Ramfrez Castafieda; and Dr. Boas has been engaged in the preparation of material on certain types of Mexican pottery and on an account of a journey to Teul, Zacatecas. Prof. W. H. Holmes, of the National Museum, completed for the bureau the preparation of part 1 of the Handbook of American Antiquities (Bulletin 60), and at the close of the year galley proofs of the entire work had been received and were in process of revision. On account of the pressure of more urgent work in connection with his official duties, only limited progress was made in the preparation of part 2. On April 21 Mr. Holmes made a brief visit to the museums of Philadelphia and New York for the purpose of conduct- ing studies required in the preparation ofthis handbook. Miss Frances Densmore’s field trip during the summer of 1915 for the purpose of continuing her studies of Indian music, comprised visits to three reservations and occupied two and one-half months. Most of the time was spent among the Mandan and Hidatsa, at Fort Berthold, N. Dak., and during part of her sojourn Miss Densmore camped near what is recognized as the last Mandan settlement, where she was enabled to record many interesting data that could not have been obtained in any other way. The Indians felt more free to sing there than at the agency, and Miss Densmore also had an 7 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 opportunity to observe and photograph native customs, notably those of tanning a hide and preparing corn. The study of music on the Fort Berthold Reservation included that pertaining to the ceremony connected with eagle catching. An old eagle trap was visited and photographed, and the songs of the leader in the eagle camp were recorded by the only Mandan who had the hereditary right to sing them. The songs of the Goose Women Society and the Creek Women Society were also sung by those who inherited them and were re- corded phonographically. Among these are the ceremonial songs sung by the “corn priest” in the spring to fructify the seed corn. Songs of war and of the various men’s societies were also recorded. The total number of songs from this reservation now transcribed exceeds 100. A new phase of the work was that of ascertaining the pitch dis- crimination of the Indians by means of tuning forks. This was be- gun at Fort Berthold and continued for comparative purposes at the Standing Rock and White Earth Reservations. Data from four tribes are now available on this subject of research. Miss Densmore read all the galley and part of the page proofs of the bulletin on Teton Sioux Music. Important additions were made to this book in the form of graphic representations, original plots of 240 songs and 18 diagrams having been made to exhibit the results obtained through mathematical analyses. Of these graphic representations 63 will appear in the bulletin. One hundred and fifty pages of manuscript were submitted during the year, in addition to the descriptive analyses of the songs. In the preparation of the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains East of the Mississippi, Mr. D. I. Bushnell, jr., added much new material. Many letters were sent to county officials in New England requesting information regarding the location of ancient village sites, burial places, and other traces of aboriginal occupancy in their respective areas. Many of the replies contained valuable and interesting infor- mation. Letters of like nature were addressed to officials in the Southern States, and the replies were equally satisfactory. Numer- ous photographs have been received from various sources, which will serve as illustrations for the handbook, but it is desired to increase the number if possible. The manuscript of the handbook will prob- ably be completed during the next fiscal year. Dr. Walter Hough, of the National Museum, was detailed to the bureau in June for the purpose of conducting archeological investi- gations in western central New Mexico. Proceeding to Luna, So- corro County, Dr. Hough commenced the excavation of a ruin pre- viously located .by him, as described in Bulletin 35 of the bureau (p. 59). This site was thought to contain evidence of pit dwellings exclusively, but excavations showed that an area of about 40 acres 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. contained circular, semisubterranean houses in which no stone was used for construction. Seven of the pits were cleared, and it was ascertained that many more existed beneath the surface, dug in the sandy substratum of the region. Burnt sections of roofing clay showed that these houses were roofed with beams, poles, brush, and mud, as in present pueblo construction. The roof was supported by wooden posts, charred remains of which were found. Nothing was ascertained respecting the construction of the sides of the dwell- ings or in regard to the height of the roofs. On the floor of each of the pits uncovered were a rude metate, grinding stones, slabs of stone, and the outline of an otherwise undefined fireplace not quite in the center of the chamber. ss Chestnut-breasted castameothorag)..Us2— ati _ oo eis Napolean weaver (Pyromeiana afra) —~ Madagascar weaver (foudia madagas- cariensis) : Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea)___ Paradise weaver (Vidua paradisea) __ yer ested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- OE ine a sree ee EE Age ete rate pe pd a Common cardinal NGAUS) serene Se AIL een enane phy Saffron finch (Sycalis flaveola) Yellow hammer (Hmberiza citrinella) — Common canary (Serinus canarius) __— Cowbird (Molothrus ater)___________ reer starling (Lamprotornis cauda- us HMuropean raven (Corvus corax)_____ Australian crow (Corvus coronoides) _ Be eunroated jay (Garrulus leuco- 13) eae 8 ob SN a Ff, Baden 3s Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) ______ American magpie (Pica pica hud- SOMICC)) me etree Be ae Red-billed magpie (Urocissa occipi- CAS) — 2 adhe pees A aheg sy bg! ly apie cec eke Yellow tyrant (Pitangus sulphuratus HALTED CNUIULS) eee ED See Se Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) _-____ Concave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros Gicornis) Ce ee ee ee ie Reddish motmot (Momotus subrufes- cens) Yellowzbréastedislonyl_—_ ssuew. ee Blue Mountain lory (Trichoglossus nove-hollandimyatk 2222 \ aw ate Scaly-breasted lorikeet (Psitteuteles chlorotepidotus)iea ak St ae Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua gatlerita) asitbs. sodas at sos _ White cockatoo (Oacatua alba) __--__ Great red-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Oacatua lead- beateri) Bare-eyed nopis) “cockatoo (Cacatua gym- a aw ww = oe eo ee ee : foe ee kangaroo (Macropus gigan- CUS) a Se i ee LTS 12 | Wallaroe (Macropus robustus)______— Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) _~____ 8 | Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus ruficollis 1 De CLE) area ee ST 2 | Phalanger (Trichosurus vulpecula) ___ 4 | Virginia opossum (Didelphys marsu- 17 DUAL BY Oo RNOLD See 3 BIRDS. 1 |} Roseate cockatoo (Cacatua roscica- 1 DULG) reer ee ee Se ee a aes ee Oe 2 pce and blue macaw (Ara ararau- MD Che) a ee me ae Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara 2 MACHO) HAA wY 1 LL _ Tet | Sst Red and blue macaw (Ara chlorop- 2 CE7-0)). ere Lei) - ea 4 | Gray-breasted parrakeet (Ifyopsitta- 2 CUS MONEChUS) sa 4 | Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) _ Festive amazon (Amazona festiva)___ 41! Porto Rican amazon (Amazona vit- 6 COL) cron ASS, SA § | Yellow-shouldered amazon (Amazoné 6 OCRFEOPEET A) SPL TT A Ee 12 | Yellow-fronted amazon (Ameazona ochrecepnaia) swt oer _ Sines i4 | Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona auri- PALAED) PEL SEO Sie) DERE EE OE 2 | Yellow-headed amazon (Amazona le- paitlantt) Leotg et ewe). Saas ee iz, Neer amazon (Amagona @s8- EBA) pee ee ee ns oe ae ee 1 | Gray parrot (Psittacus erythacus) ___ Lesser yasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — 6 | Banded parrakeet (Paleernis fasci- 4 CEG pai ee) Se ea Love bird (Agapornis pullaria)_____ 4 | Shell parrakeet (Melopsittacus wun- 8 Clits) Baten = baa ene 8 | Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) _— Arctic horned owl (Bubo virginianus 2 SUUCHCLICHS). EOS: eens a Wee Barred owl (Strix varia) _______-___ 4 | Sparrow hawk (Falco sperverius)___ 15 | Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus) — 1 | Alaskan baid eagle (Halieetus leuco- G cephalus) ‘alascanus)-2_ 20s Sess 23% 1 { Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos) ____ Australian.eagle 2. = Si LOS i | Harpy eagle (Thrasaéius harpyia)___ 1 | Crowned hawk-eagle (Spizaétus coro- 1 NATES): BOSD By PSE ere Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperi)__~ i: | Venezucianithawk = Seite bste Bei 1 | Caracara (Polyborus cheriway)_____ Lammergeyer (Gypaétus barbatus) __ 3 | Secretary vulture (Gypogeranus secre- CORVES) CONTE A SR eae 1 | South American condor (Sarcorham- phustorypniey st: 2s eee 1 | California condor (Gymnogyps cali- 2 OVI CEILS) ) es eee ee Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)_ ~~ ___-_ 1 | Cinereous vulture (Vultur monachus) — Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnop- f CCTUS enor a eee AL Seay ee eee 1; Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) ____ Black vulture (Catharista wrubi)____ 8 | King vulture (Gypagus papa)—--___ Snow pigeon (Columba leucenota) ___ fs waa pigecn (Columba flaviros- Aa RE PONT Said ACS OG TSF ERS 3 | White-crowned pigeon (Columba leuco- 3 COpTrpla igs SUSE TIS HN TB SUS Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) _ 1 | Mourning dove (Zenaiduraé macroura) — Peaceful dove (Geoepelia tranqguilla) —- 1 | Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) ____-_-_ Collared turtle-dove (Turtur risorius) - 3 | Cape masked dove (@na capewsis)__- 87 eB De Whe = bo tb wa an an Whe HB BH HOHE BNE ORE RO HE Bee wb tb bh He Bee bobo hee eal 5) BOW NW APL Be 88 Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) Wonga-wonga pigeon (Leucosarcia picata) __-_--- ee eee Blue-headed quail-dove (Starnenas CYONOGEDILGLG) a eee Red-billed curassow (Cragx caruncu- (GAA) 2 ee Se eee Mexican curassow (Crax globicera) —- Daubenton’s curassow (Craw dauben- EON) eee ee ee ee Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo SLU EStrtS) pe eae ee eae es Peafowl (Pavo cristata) _-~------_ == Peacock pheasant (Polylectron chin- (9) ee er Silver pheasant (Huplocamus nycthe- AYU CTEUDS) ) ee Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) _-—--- Curacao crested quail (Hupsychortye CHIStAALS); Mana =e ae eee te Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) —_~ Valley quail (Lophortyx californica AULAGOLG) oe ee ee ee teees Ste Gambel’s quail (Lophortyx gambeli) —_ Massena quail (Cyrtonye montezum@) — American coot (Fulica americana) _-~- Great bustard (Otis tarda)_-------~ Common cariama (Cariama cristata) -— Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides ak gi Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina Whooping crane (Grus americana) —— Sand-hill crane (Grus mewicana)__-- Australian crane (Grus australasiana) — European crane (Grus_cinered)—---- Lilford’s crane (Grus lilfordi) _----~- Indian white crane (Grus_ leuco- CRO TUUS))) ree ike Bs a White-necked crane (Grus leucauchen) — Ruff (Machetes pugnar) === —-=+ == Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorar NY CUCOTAE. NEVIUS) — 2 == Sse Snowy egret (Hgretta candidissima) — Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) ___ Great black-crowned heron (Ardea COCOU) pai a Oh eee Bae ees J & Boatbill (Cancroma cochlearia)__—-~ Black stork (Ciconia nigra) __—_-_--~-_ Marabou stork (Leptoptilus dubius) —— Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) ~~~ Sacred ibis (Ibis e@thiopica)___._.--~ White ibis (Guara alta) 2222-224 2-2 Roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja)_____ European flamingo (Phenicopterus TOSCUS)) = =e OEE SS i ee Black - necked screamer (Chauna CHUA GTA) igs a ee tes a ae 38 Horned screamer (Palamedea_ cor- PUAN CE: tp as = A as Ne Sal ai uy Sn Whistling swan (Olor columbianus)— Trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator)__~ Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus)__-_---~ Black swan (Chenopis atrata)_----~-~ Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus IS OMLO COSTS) eS eS a aa pe ph aa White muscovy duck (Cairina mos- CH GEG) | = Sas es lee ales Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) — Painted box tortoise (Cistudo ornata) — Dunean Island _ tortoise (Testudo CORD DUM) Sea ee eS a Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo RNG) ee = a es eee Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — Regal python (Python reticulatus) ~~ Common boa (Boa constrictor) _----- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus) ------- = mB b Oe ESRD OT Eh BOO Re bE Oa to toe SB eB COD RR Gf DS NNW eebe ROD Het 27 2 RiRcCR bho ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Wood duck (Aigv sponsa)——~-__-_____ Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeric- ULATED) yaaa ak oe OY eta Set ae Cape Barren goose (Cereopsis nove WOMANI) os ee a Lesser snow goose (Chen hyper- DOVES) hee a re LU TPA ee Greater snow goose (Chen hyper- bor ets NiValia) sae UL) pmo sey Blue goose (Chen cerulescens) ___-__ Ross’s goose (Chen rossi) __.----___ American white-fronted goose (Anser alouirons gamve) 2 Barred-head goose (Anser indicus) _—~ Chinese goose (Anser cygnoides) _____ Canada goose (Branta canadensis) ___ Hutchins’s goose (Branita canadensis RUE CHANG) EL Os AE Ee es Cackling goose MULAN) ee Bernicle goose (Branta leucopsis) ___~ Upland goose (Chloéphaga magel- EGNACG,) Veale say OS OAS AE AEE ATEY, White-faced tree duck (Dendrocygna VIAUGEM) FACE RMAs OSA POT 2 EE oe Fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bi- COLO) Soa ee oa AD a ee ea Wandering tree duck arcuate) nes 22) foes PAMesn-A9 Ruddy sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea) — Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)__—~_~ Hast Indian black duck (Anas sp.) —-~ Black duck (Anas rubripes)_~- ____~ European widgeon (Mareca penelope) — Pintail, ((Daefila-acuta) ae Blue-winged teal (Querquedula Gis- COTS) Pens A oe alent SIS Rosy-billed DOSGed) Sees ee ea Red-headed duck (Marila americana) — American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrornynchos)i2 223 see eee Huropean white pelican (Pelecanus ONOCrOLAIUS) 225 ee ee AS Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus) ——_ Brown pelican (Pelecanus occiden- ECOULS )) Na EG EEE Eee Australian pelican (Pelecanus con- Spicillatwsy) Sass eee ee eee Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoragz au- TALUS [LOTLE ANUS) a ee ee Water turkey (Anhinga anhinga) Great black-backed gull (Larus ma- WNUS) OL BE EU SRN LY EY American herring gull (Larus argen- tatus smithsonianus) —=--==----=-— Laughing gull (Larus atricilia)______ South African ostrich (Struthio aus- EK GLIS OS Sa a ES. Ae Somali ostrich phanes)).LsB Vee eee SiC ea Poe cassowary (Casuarius galea- tus Common rhea (Rhea americana) —___- Emu (Dromeus nove hollandie)—---- REPTILES. Black snake (Zamenis constrictor) ~~ Coach-whip snake (Zamenis flagel- Hem) yet tee ok” ome a are) 23 ee Water snake (Natriz sipedon)_-_____~ Common garter snake (Hutenia sir- talis) =~ oe an Ea) Texas water snake (Yutenia prowima) — King snake (Ophibolus getulus) ——-~- Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortria) - to ~~ by © NAheNwoO eNe Ww bh RHE ROR bb 0 oH e _ ee won wp aA wd © RH Nie & -& NDS F&F Bore oF oo REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. SECS CTU CC ee eaten eter ens Dae Se Ne Re le a A Cul Sanne y 66 LENDER G OVE IS YG espe ne chk SE a 0 i dahil a ele alder Niel Rance tales tat mele 105 Born and hatched in the National Zoological Park_______- 21 OL Received) inyexchange cmt wine yi ol re} woe Wo very ech pi ur re 187 Recelved) front Yellowstone: Nabonal Parkt 2.2 22) to a, 2 Caneured sin INawonale Zoological, Park =) eso Dp 1 Deposited in, ANE ero ave Maya) Koyea Ween Lal Ech) hep ae me SD a TEs i ae a Se ih 12 4 saa VRE EE eS IN CN Ee Cea oe Ds 474 SUMMARY. Animal Stonehan de wlliye Ae LOUj a sae Se Ee ee ee ee ea 1, 397 EXCCESSSIONGRG MUN es Ley. Cane cat 8 ies i 0 ee oe i 47 1, 871 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, ete.) ________________ 488 Onishand) JumecsO; FL91 Gs) 2 ae ee ee ee eer Pn es Dae bo Class. Species. pind Wives paes tall SAR 3 SROs 6 6 Oe Seewees | AN sae eae 2 oe ee Se OE omen see en OES 2 155 574 TUDO pM tk Be RR 8 Es RR Se BAe aa 8 a LL ire kh EL 189 751 188) 3) 0 US ete Baas ore oe Be Se MORSE S ABER TEE Bee EE ESPON OHGrIS= SACS ee RE = Ayan ere ae 16 &8 ARO buenos ek eee Peete PEN Mena, SSI A RE RA Ne Ver ep a Sane fe 360 1,383 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined by count and estimate, was 1,157,110, a daily average of 3,162. This was the largest year’s attendance in the history of the park. The greatest number in any one month was 248,080, in April, 1916, an average per day of 8269. The attendance by months was as follows: 1915.—July, 71,900; August, 79,100; September, 100,200; October, 121,600; November, 90,300; December, 34,050. 1916.—January, 55,200; February, 58,380; March, 95,800; April, 248,080; May, 128,200; June, 74,300. One hundred and sixty-one schools, classes, etc., visited the park, with a total of 8,679 individuals. IMPROVEMENTS. The hospital and laboratory building which was mentioned in last year’s report has been nearly completed, lacking only the interior fittings and the necessary outside yards. It is a pleasing structure, built, after the designs of the municipal architect, of blue gneiss of this neighborhood, warmly colored by infiltration of iron oxide. A retaining wall was built and some grading done to provide sufficient 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. area near the building for quarantine quarters for such animals as do not require artificial heat. Many of the chestnut trees surround- ing the building became blasted by the “ chestnut blight” and had to be cut down. A roadway of tar-bound macadam was constructed about the building connecting with the nearest main driveway. Con- nection with the nearest sewer (in Klingle Road) has been effected. Preparation should now be made to put the laboratory into effective operation. A modest supply of the necessary apparatus should be furnished in order that suitable facilities may be available for post mortem examination by the Government bureaus cooperating with the Zoological Park. Attention has previously been called to the fact that the topog- raphy of the park is so irregular that it is difficult to find building sites with attached yards in convenient situations without extensive grading. A case in point occurs at the site of the barn which has been used for bison and other hoofed animals. The building here, made of logs with bark on, has become unsightly by decay and re- quires extensive repairs. It is situated on a hill of small elevation, but the slopes of which are sufficiently steep to cause continual erosion when it is worn by the hoofs of the animals. It was there- fore thought best to grade down this hill and fill up the adjoining gullies, much enlarging the area of the yards. In order to do this effectively, it was necessary to borrow earth from the prominent ridge that extends from the zebu house northwesterly to the camel yards. About 25,000 square feet will be added to the level ground previously available. Only a portion of this work will be defrayed from the current appropriation, the remainder from next year’s appropriation. The work was let out by contract, very favorable terms being se- cured. The additional paddocks thus obtained will be used, in part, for the exhibition of the beautiful ruminants presented to the park by the Duke of Bedford. New sheds were built in the property yard for temporarily housing these animals and others displaced during the alteration of their regular quarters. A needed convenience was provided at the elephant’s quarters by installing, at small cost, hydraulic lifts to raise the heavy doors which give access to the outside yards. The inclosure for ducks near the flight cage was reconstructed to make it safe from raccoons, etc. A concrete driveway was constructed in the rear of the bear yards to provide for convenient transfer of animals and care of the quarters. A motor truck was purchased during the year to haul food sup- plies, for which a trip is made every day except Sunday to the market REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91 and the fish wharf. |s The next attempt to determine the distance of a heavenly body was made about 150 A. D. by Claudius Ptolemy, the last of the ancient astronomers and one whose writings were considered the standard in things astronomical for 15 centuries. To determine the lunar parallax he resorted to direct observations of the zenith distance of the moon on the meridian, comparing the result of his observations with the position obtained from the lunar theory. He determined the parallax when the moon was nearest the zenith, and also when it crossed his meridian at its farthest distance from the zenith. Krom his observations he obtained results varying from less than 50 per cent of the true parallax (57’.0) to more than 150 per cent of that value. According to Houzeau the definitive result of Ptolemy’s work is 58’.7. It is thus seen that the astronomers of 2,000 years ago had a fairly accurate knowledge of the distance of the moon from the earth, but an entirely erroneous one of the distance of the sun, the true distance being something like 20 times that assumed by them. This value of the distance of the sun from the earth was accepted for 19 centuries from Aristarchus to Kepler, having been deduced anew by such men as Copernicus.and Tycho Brahe. With the announcement by Kepler, early in the seventeenth cen- tury, of his laws of planetary motion it became possible to deduce from the periodic times of revolution of the planets around the sun their relative distances from that body, and thus to determine the DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—-EICHELBERGER. dite | distance of the sun from the earth by determining the distance or parallax of one of the planets. From observations of Mars, Kepler obtained the distance of the sun from the earth as about three times that accepted up to his time. His value, however, was but one-seventh of the true distance. About 50 years later Flamsteed and Cassini, working independently and using the same method as that employed by Kepler, obtained for the first time approximately the correct value of the distance of the sun from the earth. In a letter dated November 16, 1672, to the publisher of the Philosophical Transactions, Flamsteed says: September last I went to Townley. The first week that I intended to have observed ¢ there with Mr. Townley, I twice observ’d him, but could not make two Observations, as I intended, in one night. The first night after my return, J had the good hap to measure his distances from two Stars the same night; whereby I find, that the Parallax was very small; certainly not 30 seconds: So that I believe the Sun’s Parallax is not more than 10 seconds. Of this Observation I intend to write a small Tract, when I shall gain leisure; in which IT shall demonstrate both the Diameter and Distances of all the Planets by observations; for which I am now pretty well fitted. During the two and a half centuries since Flamsteed’s determina- tion there have been more than a hundred determinations of the solar parallax by various methods. In the method used by Flam- steed the rotation of the earth is depended upon to change the rela- tive position of the observer, the center of the earth, and Mars. Another method is to establish two stations widely separated in lati- tude and in approximately the same longitude. At one station the zenith distance of Mars will be determined as it crosses the meridian north of the zenith; at the other station the zenith distance will be determined as it crosses the meridian south of the zenith. The sum of the two zenith distances minus the difference in latitude between the two stations will give the displacement of Mars due to parallax. These two methods have been successfully applied to several of the asteroids whose distances from the sun are very nearly that of Mars. The nearest approach of Venus to the earth is during her transit across the face of the sun, and these occasions—four during the last two centuries—have been utilized to determine the solar paral- lax. Here, as in the case of Mars, two different methods may be used, either by combining observations at two stations widely sepa- rated in latitude or at two stations widely separated in longitude. The methods just described for obtaining the solar parallax, the geometrical methods, were made available, as has been said, by the discovery of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Newton’s dis- covery of the law of gravitation gave rise to another group of methods, designated as gravitational methods. The best of these is probably that in which the distance of the sun from the earth is determined from the mass of the earth, which in turn is deter- 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. mined from the perturbative effect of the earth upon Venus and Mars. This method is long and laborious, but its importance hes in the fact that the accuracy of the result increases with the time. Prof. C. A. Young says this is the ‘‘ method of the future,” and two or three hundred years hence will have superseded all the others, unless, indeed, it should appear that bodies at present unknown are interfering with the movements of our neighboring planets, or unless it should turn out that the law of gravitation is not quite so simple as it is now supposed to be. A third group of methods of determining the distance of the sun from the earth, called the physical methods, depends upon the de- termination of the velocity of light in conjunction either with the time it takes light to travel from the sun to the earth obtained from observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites or with the constant of aberration derived from observations of the stars. In August, 1898, Dr. Witt, of Berlin, discovered an asteroide since named Eros, which was soon seen to offer exceptional oppor- tunity for the determination of the solar parallax, as at the very next opposition, in November, 1900, it would approach to within 30,000,000 miles of the earth. At the meeting of the Astrographic Chart Congress in Paris in July, 1900, it was resolved to seize this opportunity and organize an international parallax campaign. Fifty-eight observatories took part in the various observations called for by the general plan. The meridian instruments determined the absolute position of Eros from night to night as it crossed the meridians of the various observatories; the large visual refractors measured the distance of Eros from the faint stars near it, at times continuing the measures throughout the entire night; and the photo- graphic equatorials obtained permanent records of the position of Eros among the surrounding stars. In addition long series of obser- vations had to be made to determine the positions of the stars to which Eros was referred. When several years had elapsed after the completion of the obser- vations, and no general discussion of all the material had been provided for, Prof. Arthur R. Hinks, of Cambridge, England, vol- unteered for the work. The undertaking was truly monumental. He first formed a catalogue of the 671 stars which had been selected by the Paris congress for observation as marking out the path of Eros from a discussion of the results obtained by the meridian instruments and from the photographic plates. This done, with these results as a basis, a larger catalogue of about 6,000 stars had to be formed from measures on the photographic plates. He was then ready to commence the discussion of the observations of Eros itself. From 1901 to 1910 there appeared in the Monthly Notices of DISTANCES OF HEAVENLY BODIES—EICHELBERGER. ite the Royal Astronomical Society eight articles covering 135 pages giving the results of his labors. From a discussion of all the photographic observations he obtained a solar parallax of 8’’.807+0’’.0027 a probable error equivalent to an uncertainty of about 30,000 miles _in the distance to the sun. From a discussion of all the micrometric observations he obtained 8’’.806--0’’.004- The observations with the meridian instruments gave 8’’.837-+0’".0185 a determination relatively much weaker than either of the others. A parallax of 8’’.80, the value adopted for all the national alma- nacs 20 years ago, corresponds to a distance of 92,900,000 miles. At present it seems improbable that another parallax campaign will be undertaken before 1931, when Eros approaches still nearer to the earth, its least distance at that time being about 15,000,000 miles. TABLE I.—A pproximate distance from earth to sun as accepted at various times. Date. Distance. Miles. PiDEES AOAC O LOAD een ae ieiae- oe ce ie ee ee ae Seti e wa SS CNN ta ee oe ee MeL e accion yoace ae bas 4, 500, 000 HERO URC ler ceti teens os septal too tte SEs rock eee Ty eai iy ee Rati he hy Wt eles Py 13, 500,000 DGC oPMMTISUPGOe LG Re al an Oca ay meg rae ries a: ne ral UE ence ea au ites: awe Deh Hen: ponieae he ut aimee ca ae ag ae tee A ie A CENSUS OF THE SKY.1 By R. A. Sampson, M. A., F. R. S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland. [ With 6 plates. ] It might seem to call for some Temark, even some apology, that at a period like the present one, when all the ordinary interests of life disappear or are transformed, that we should meet as we hac arranged to meet, and exchange with one another the different truisms of science. There occurs to me a passage in a book by a celebrated private in the French Army, Anatole France’s “Isle of Penguins”; one of his characters, deeply depressed by the perversity of the world, reflects somewhat as follows: “Since riches and civilization bring as many occasions for war as barbarism and poverty, since the folly and ill will of mankind are incurable, there remains one good deed to do, some wise man shall collect enough dynamite to blow this planet up. Then when it whirls in fragments across space some imperceptible alleviation will be felt in the universe and some satisfaction will be given to the universal conscience, which, indeed, does not exist.” While we feel as much as any this same savage indignation—- Swift’s seva indignatio—that folly and ill will have still the power to throw the whole world off its bearings, and while we are all of us busily engaged in collecting enough dynamite to blow some partis of it to pieces, it is wise to remind ourselves that there are other things besides folly and ill will that are indestructible, and among these is the desire to increase natural knowledge. We are at no loss for precedents. Our Royal Society was initiated in the midst of civil war. The “Principia” was published a year before the Great Revolution. Kepler found in the Thirty Years’ War no reason to 1 Evening discourse delivered before the British Association Sept. 11, 1915. Reprinted, by author’s permission, from The Observatory, a monthly review of astronomy, vol. 38, No. 4938, Nov., 1915. 73839°—sm 1916——_138 181 182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. interrupt his study of the planetary motions, nor did Gauss in the invasion of Napoleon. Successive volumes of Mécanique Céleste came out, and bear evidence in their title-pages of the political changes of the French Revolution. Hevelius and Gassendi corre- sponded across a Europe in turmoil, and Newcomb worked with De- launay at the theory of the moon while the Paris Commune raged almost to the doors of the observatory. Had science always waited to advance till times were quiet, it would have remained to this day uncommonly near to its starting point. : The subject to which I ask your attention for an hour to-night is not a small one. It is nothing less than the simplest compre- hensive view of the whole universe. Indeed, it is a subject so vast that some have felt that in the study of it human interests would shrivel away and that as we looked steadily upon its extension we should be gripped with a kind of nightmare and feel ourselves shrink- ing and shrinking, and unless by violent effort we could throw it off we should seem in risk of vanishing altogether. But somehow that is not the case. Those who most study the matter and those who have lately contributed most to our knowledge are men well known to us, very human beings. Certainly a correct conception of the universe must govern the scale of ultimate values of all we do; but in the history of ideas it is remarkable that interest in it has for the most part of the time been satisfied with obvious fairy tales, has, in fact, been limited to the very narrow outlook of what we might immediately expect to accomplish, and has often combined in indi- viduals an intense interest in the question, with a total disregard of any but the individual’s point of view, as if even the “ vasty halls” of cosmogony were an arena of sport, where the attempt was not so much to reach the goal as to gain a place for self-expression. As president for the time being of the Royal Astronomical Society, I keep a certain amount of involuntary touch with such people. “I should like to know, sir,” one of these wrote to me severely the other day, “ what steps are being taken to spread the true chronology and the truth about the deluge.” Well, perhaps that gentleman was a paradoxer; but it is interest- ing to bestow a side glance upon the way astronomy has been viewed by acute and catholic minds before the era when the commonplaces of diffused education had blunted a good many first-hand judgments. ° T shall not take you on a long excursion into history. Two or three pregnant examples will suffice. Take Bacon’s New Atlantis. In that remarkable country, which had flying men and submarines and scientific stockbreeding for the production of definite variations, it is true that they had a statue to “the inventor of observations of astronomy,” but the systematic con- CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON, 183 templation of the heavens does not appear to have formed a part of their national scheme of study: We have high towers, the highest about half a mile in height; and some of them likewise set upon high mountains, so that the vantage of the hill with the tower is in the highest of them 3 miles at least. * * * We use these towers, according to their several heights and situations, for insolation, refrigeration, conservation, and for the view of divers meteors; as winds, rain, snow, hail, and some of the fiery meteors also. And upon them in some places are dwellings of hermits, whom we visit sometimes and instruct what to observe. This passage is very disappointing to an astronomer. These her- mits, with their magnificent equipment, state support, and boards of visitors, were nothing more than meteorologists, Or, again, take Shakespeare. It is admittedly difficult to make out what views, if any, Shakespeare held on any subject, and I shall have to quote words put into the mouth of the light-minded Biron in order to make my point; but we know that the farcical figures of his plays are chiefly pedants and policemen; in particular, the pedant moved him to a school-boy ribaldry, and from two or three references I surmise that astronomy, as a science and apart from its poetic incrustations, struck him as yet another field for the preci- osities of his ineffable pedants. ‘“ Study,” says Biron— Study is like the heaven’s glorious sun, That will not be deep searched with saucy looks. Small have continual plodders ever won, Save base authority from others’ books. Those earthly godfathers of heaven’s lights That give a name to every fixed star Have no more profit of their shining nights Than those that walk and wot not what they are. Too much to know is to know naught but fame; And every godfather can give a name. That is all there is in it—giving names; science is nominalism. We may brush it aside, but, after all, it is a painfully shrewd hit against science. Now, there was a very considerable and extended astronomy in Shakespeare’s and Bacon’s days. Copernicus’s work De Revolu- tionibus was 50 years old. It was perhaps not much read, but for a century before devious voyages, lasting for months or years, to North and South America, to South Africa, and to India had made indis- pensable a working knowledge and command of its practice, and with the practice grew up a scientific interest. In 1578 Mr. John Winter passed through the Straits of Magellan “in a good and newe shippe called the ‘ Elizabeth,’ of 80 tonnes in burthen,” as one of Sir Francis Drake’s consorts. Neither the place nor the vessel can have been favorable to scientific abstraction, yet he determined his longitude there from an eclipse of the moon. The 184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. passage (Hakluyt, Vol. VIII) is a gem of accurate astronomy, and I shall read it to you, for every point mentioned is relevant and the conclusion quite justified and near the truth: The 15 of September the moone was there eclipsed, and began to be darkened presently after the setting of the sunne, about sixe of the clocke at night, being then Equinoctial vernal in that country. The said eclipse happened the 16 day in the morning before one of the clocke in England, which is about sixe houres difference, agreeing to one quarter of the World from the Meridian of England, towards the West. Now, take a long step from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Passing by a fastidious and academic writer like Tennyson, we find a mind as careless of fact and untrammeled by convention as Mark Twain deriving perpetual delight from the mere scope and scale of things astronomical in its revelation of the very size of the world as measured in millions upon millions of any units we can tell off. Tt may be hard to say exactly what this proves, but we may allow it to suffuse the continual plodder with a gentle glow of satisfaction, for without his continual plodding it would never have come to pass. Undoubtedly the last word of astronomy must be heard before we can solve the problem of the philosophers upon its material side and place man in true relation to the universe. I suppose it is evolution that has made us feel responsible for the universe, incurring thereby, it must be confessed, a very heavy responsibility with fate—a debt that would cause serious anxiety had not philosophy long since become reconciled to permanent bank- ruptcy. J mean that before evolution became one of our fixed ideas “man’s place in nature” was an expression to which only an arbi- trary meaning could be attached. There was no obligation to con- nect the phenomena of the universe in one long chain. Nothing is more illuminating as to our change of view than to read the words of one of the lesser lights of the eighteenth century—for example, Thomas Wright, of Durham, is an author who is often mentioned alongside Immanuel Kant as having foresight of the nebular hy- pothesis, the great evolutionary scheme of astronomy. Without depreciating the insight and the breadth of Wright’s views on ex- tended stellar systems the defect—the perfect defect of any evolu- tionary glimpse in them—strikes one now as an almost painful incompetence. We are sensible of the necessity of connecting all the parts of our system. That is the general interest in a survey of the sky, outside of professional interest in a difficulty overcome and of curiosity—which, indeed, is soon bored by mere magnitude—and that is the reason why we come back to it again and again, especially row that we are beginning from more than one avenue to approach some reliable, and one hopes some permanent, point of view. CENSUS OF THE SKY—SAMPSON, 185 ' That avenue which I would ask you to follow this evening is the most direct, the least artificial, and one would say the driest of all— mere enumeration, a census of the sky. But it is not dull. As I shall show you in a few minutes, the material dealt with is of com- pelling beauty, and, as scientific people, I hope it may interest you to have in brief review the considerable difficulties, instrumental and of organization; the many collateral questions that must be answered before any confident, or even approximate, reply can be given to the - main question of how many stars there are and how they are dis- tributed. And, finally, as British people, I think you feel a legiti- mate pride to know that this great and unobtrusive work, of central interest to astronomy, that I wish specially to describe to you is all British (including therein the Transvaal Colony) in design and execution; the plans made, cost provided, and very many of the photographs taken by an amateur, the late Mr. Franklin-Adams, a business man of London; the instrument designed by Mr. Dennis Taylor, and constructed by him at Cooke’s works at York; the series of photographs completed at the Union Observatory at Johannes- burg; and the counts performed and discussion made at Greenwich Observatory by Mr. Chapman and Mr. Melotte, two members of the staff. [Specimens of the Franklin-Adams chart were shown (pls. 1-6).] You now see, more or less, the problem before you. To “give a name to every fixed star” is a task that we are not likely to under- take. The Arabs gave many of them proper names, which no doubt had some meaning, more or less substantial, but now passed on to the westerns with meaning, pronunciation, and accent alike in corrup- tion, uncertainty, and disrepair, form a somewhat trying detail to the conscientious astronomer. Ptolemy adopted in his list a crude and picturesque description with reference to the asterism. Thus, in Leo: “The one on his muzzle,” “the one in his throat,” “the one at the tip of his front right claw,” “the western one of the three on his belly,” “the one at his heart named Regulus.” It is a troublesome plan, even for the 1,000 stars of which he gives the places. Tycho, who was only incidentally a stellar observer, using the stars to fix his planets, carried on the method of Ptolemy. Not till the middle of the seventeenth century did Bayer in his Uranometria, introduce the device of attaching the Greek letters to stars in each asterism. The advent of the telescope, with Hevelius and our own Flamsteed, utterly outran any method except that of numbering. Lalande’s Histoire Céleste in 1801 contained 50,000; Argelander’s Durchmus- terung in 1847, upward of 300,000 in zones from the pole to Dec. —10°. At each effort the object, if completeness was its aim, showed more mountainlike. In 1879, at the instance of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, Argelander’s zones were revised by the cooperation of 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. many observatories in upward of 20 years. It hardly requires proof that with such resources as astronomy has ever commanded, or is likely to command, a complete enumeration upon these lines will never be attained. If we are to attain a conspectus of the whole, now or ever, we must make a radical reduction in the demands of our problem. Now, in all these catalogues the places of the stars are recorded in their two coordinates, and the calculations made in each individual case which are necessary to allow for precessional change in the axes of refer- ence. We can not dispense with knowing where the stars are, but if our interest is in their numbers and regional distribution, we can dispense with recording it precisely. And if we can take an elevated standpoint and eliminate the earth, like the Blessed Damozel, leaning on the gold bar of heaven, and see far below this earth Spin like a fretful midge— why, then, we may dispense with the troublesome calculation of pre- cession. There is almost nothing left then except to count. But let nobody think lightly of the importance or the difficulty of mere counting. When the White Queen put to Alice the question: How many are one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one and one? Alice does not appear to have been able to answer. Counting correctly is very difficult, because, so to put it, it requires from the mind a simultaneous hold upon the past, present, and future. Count- ing, on the other hand, done carefully is the only region of knowl- edge, even of mathematics, in which we can be perfectly sure we are not talking nonsense. Much that was formerly classed as geometry is now classed as nonsense. ye : sae oor i Fol A. ve oe Mat ie “ye ED 4h * A fg - « J y A ee ee ae — EE ake eet een eee = ~ sal he be oe Cue Cr uosduies— be ans i 7 Pte =a) At | TWedy ‘O16 Ip 7 : = = ‘pp ALVid ; *uosdwes—'916| ‘HWodey ueiuosy}iWws f+ 30nuiLv7 —_ S _ z 2 J : “ 7 - 4g m 4 : hi ; ~ r 5 | i mS ad s = = £ = i ; NS 5 Lo) i 1 w Valbad » ~ = Z "G ALVId /. : Lr ——s > 3 en oy : N 9 3Lv1d ‘uosdwes—'g1 6] ‘yodey uriuosujiWe , Openers re GUN REPORT NOISE*—ACTION OF THE MAXIM SI- LENCER AND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REPORT NOISE AND BULLET-FLIGHT NOISE EXPLAINED. By Hiram Percy Maxim. [With 7 plates. | When a gun is discharged it is the common idea that there is a single noise heard—the report noise. That such is not the case, and that there are two entirely separate and distinct noises has been proved in a very interesting manner by the advent of the Maxim silencer. The history of the research work which led up to this device is very instructive and well worth recording. When the work was undertaken, at the beginning the object was to annul report noise so that concealment of position, partly attained by smokeless powder, would be completed. When the firing line be- came invisible there was only left the report noise to indicate its position and also its strength or number of guns. To attain this object, it was thought only necessary to check the suddenness of the release of the high pressure powder gases into the atmosphere. This pressure. in the caliber 30 United States service Springfield rifle, was approximately 10,000 pounds per square inch, when the base of the bullet emerged from the barrel muzzle. salt eae ed ga Ua, See ee LA he, i. i PE ey ae hry ects. * rl | | oe i ee: : get IDEALS OF CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION. By THEODORE WILLIAM RICHARDs. In the present address I shall try to put before you some of the ideals of chemical investigation. Our present efforts and our hopes for the future are founded upon past acquisitions; therefore I shall call your attention first to the gradual development of chemistry. Less than three centuries ago an outspoken student of nature some- times faced the grim alternatives of excommunication, imprisonment, or death. To-day he no longer needs to conceal his thoughts in cryptic speech or mystic symbolism. Although the shadow of in- comprehensibility may still darken the langauge of science, mystery is no longer necessary to protect the scientific investigator from per- secution. The generally recognized value of the truth within his domain gives him the right to exist. The courage needful for the task of addressing éifis august assem- bly on a topic concerning chemistry is, therefore, of a different order from the courage required for such a task in the days of Galileo. The problem to-day is not how to obscure the thought, but, rather, how to elucidate its inevitable complications. Modern chemistry has had a manifold origin and tends toward a many-sided destiny. Into the fabric of this science men have woven the thought of ancient Greek philosophers, the magic of Arabian alchemists, the practical discoveries of artisans and ingenious chemi- cal experimenters, the doctrine of physicists, the stern and uncompro- mising logic of mathematicians, and the vision of metaphysical dreamers seeking to grasp truths far beyond the reach of mortal sense. The complex fabric enfolds the earth—indeed, the universe— with its far-reaching threads. The history of the complicated evolution of chemistry is pro- foundly significant to the student of human thought. Long ago, at the very dawn of civilization, Hindu and Greek philosophers were deeply interested in the problems presented by the nature of the uni- 1 Oration delivered before the Harvard Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa in Sanders The- ater, Cambridge, Mass., on June 19,1916. Reprinted from Science, N. S., vol. 44, pp. 37-45, July 14, 1916, and Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, vol. 25, pp. 1-10, Sept., 1916. 73839°—sm 1916——15 213 214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. verse. They speculated intelligently, although often with childlike naiveté, concerning energy and the structure of matter, but they forebore to test their speculations by experiment. They builded better than they knew; their ancient atomic hypothesis, ardently sup- ported but inadequately applied two thousand years ago, now finds itself installed in the innermost recesses of chemical theory. Inde- pendently, ancient artisans and medieval alchemists, dealing with the mysterious actual behavior of things, acquired valuable acquaintance with simple chemical processes. After much chemical knowledge of facts had been gained alchemy sought the aid of philosophy. Thus little by little order was brought into the chaos of scattered expe- rience. But strictly chemical knowledge alone was inadequate to solve the cosmic riddle; it had to be supplemented by knowledge of heat and electricity—agencies which produce profound alterations in the chemical nature of substances. Thus the study of physics was combined with that of chemistry. Again, since mathematical gen- eralization is essential to the study of physics, this discipline also was of necessity added to the others. All these powerful tools taken together having failed to penetrate to the ultimate essence of things, imagination is invoked, and physiochemical dreams to-day conceive a mechanism of infinitesimal entities far beyond our most searching powers of direct observation. é Chemistry has not grown spontaneously to its present estate; it is a product of human mentality. The science which we know to-day is but an echo of the eternal and incomprehensible “ music of the spheres ” as heard and recorded by the minds of individual men. Im- personal and objective although matter and energy may be, their appreciation by man involves much that is subjective. The history of science, like all the rest of human history, is, as Emerson said, “the biography of a few stout and earnest persons.” Robert Boyle, self-styled “the skeptical chymist,” a gentle spirit skeptical only of the false and vain, pure-minded aristocrat in an age of corruption; Mikhail Lomonosoff, poet, philosopher, philologist, and scientific seer, far outstripping contemporary understanding; Antoine Lavoisier, whose clear mind first taught man to compre- hend, after thousands of years, the mighty stolen gift of Prome- theus; John Dalton, Quaker peasant, who found convincing chemical ~ evidence for the ancient atomic hypothesis; Michael Faraday, a blacksmith’s son, whose peerless insight and extraordinary genius In experiment yielded theoretical and practical fruits beyond the world’s most daring dreams—these men and a few score others are the basis of the history of chemistry. The science has not come into being, Minerva-like, full-grown from the brain of Jove; she has been born of human travail, nursed and nourished from feeble in- CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS. 215 fancy by human caretakers, and she sees the universe to-day through human eyes. The diversified origin of chemistry has shaped the varied con- temporary application of the science and its many-sided destiny in the years to come. Chemistry has wide theoretical bearings, but at the same time is concerned with the crudest and most obvious affairs of manufacture and everyday life. Chemical knowledge must form an essential part of any intelligent philosophy of the nature of the universe, and alone can satisfy one manifestation of that intense in- tellectual curiosity which to-day, no less than of old, yearns to understand more of the fundamental nature of things. On the other hand, rational appled science to-day must follow in the footsteps of the swiftly advancing strides of theory. The laws of chemistry can not be adequately applied until they have been discovered. Chemi- cal insight, concerned with the intimate changes of the substances which are all about us as well as within our bodies, furnishes us with the only means for employing material things to the best advantage. Chemical processes appertain in large degree to medicine, hygiene, agriculture, and manufacture; these processes depend upon laws of which the perfect understanding is essential to the full development of most of the activities of civilized life. However oblivious we may be of the inexorable laws of chemistry, we are ever under their sway. Our consciousness is housed in a mortal shell, consisting primarily of compounds cf less than a score of chemical elements. The physiological behavior of our bodies is inevitably associated with the chemical changes or reactions among highly intricate chemical unions of these few elements. The driving tendency or immediate cause of the reactions which support life is to be found in the chemical affinities and respective concentrations of the several substances. Our bodies are chemical machines, from which we can not escape except by quitting our earthly life. The nature of the chemical elements and their compounds therefore pre- sents one of the most interesting and important of all problems of- fered to mankind. That the study of chemical problems of life is consistent with the study of man in a biological, a psychological, or a spiritual sense is obvious. To-day the epigram “ The proper study of mankind is man” must be greatly broadened in order to corre- spond with modern knowledge. These words regarding the origin and significance of chemistry serve as an introduction. Your committee has honored me by the request that I should tell you something about the object and out- come of my own endeavors, and these could be made clear only by reviewing the peculiar nature of chemistry. In my case the in- centive to the pursuit of science was primarily that intense curiosity 2°16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. concerning the nature of things which echoes down the ages from the time of the ancient philosophers. To the feeling of curiosity, as time went on, was added the perception that only through a knowl- edge of the fundamental laws of chemistry can men use the re- sources of the world to the best advantage. Any further gain in this knowledge must, sooner or later, directly or indirectly, give mankind more power. Even an abstract chemical generalization must ultimately be of priceless service to humanity, because of the extraordinarily intimate relation between theory and practice. The field is wide and it is traversed by many paths. Among these one must be chosen and persistently followed if progress is to be: made; and in my case that one was the study of the fundamental attributes or properties of the chemical elements and the relation of these properties to one another. The work was undertaken with the hope of helping a little to lay a solid foundation for our under- standing of the human environment. What, now, are the fundamental attributes of the elements? First and foremost among these stands we¢ght—the manifestation of the all-pervading and mysterious force of gravitation possessed by all forms of matter. Hand in hand with this attribute of weight goes the equally inscrutable property of inertia—that tendency which causes a body once in motion to keep on moving forever in the same straight line, if not acted upon by some new force. The idea of inertia, conceived by Galileo and amplified by Newton, was one of the starting points of both modern philosophy and modern physics. So far as we know weight and inertia run parallel to each other. Of any two adjacent bodies, that having greater weight has also greater inertia. Hence they may be determined at one and the same time, and this Siamese-twinlike conjunction of properties establishes itself at once as perhaps the most fundamental of all the attributes of matter. Next perhaps comes volume, the attribute which enables matter to occupy space, with the corollaries dealing with the changes of volume caused by changes of temperature and pressure. Other fundamental properties are the tendency to cohere (which has to do with the freezing and boiling points of the liquids) and the mutual tendency of the elements to combine, almost infinite in its diversity, which may be measured by the energy changes manifest- ing themselves during the reaction of one substance with another. These are only a few of the important properties of the elements, but they present an endless prospect of further investigation, in spite of all that has been done during the past hundred years. For as yet we know only the surface of these things, and comprehend but little as to the underlying connections between them and the reasons for their several magnitudes. Why, for example, should oxygen be a gas, having an atomic weight just four times as great as that of CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS, 91% helium, and why should it have an intense aflinity for sodium and no affinity whatever for argon or fluorine? No man can answer these questions; he can discover the facts, but can not yet account for them. The reasons are as obscure and elusive as the mechanism of gravitation. But we shall not really understand the material basis upon which our life is built until we have found answers to questions of this sort. In order to correlate the properties of the elements, and to attain any comprehension of their significance, one must first exactly ascer- tain the facts. Therefore, my endeavor has been to institute sys- tematic series of experiments to fill the gaps in our knowledge of the actual phenomena. In much of this work I have had the invaluable aid of efficient collaborators, for which I am grateful. The atomic weights were the first of the fundamental properties of the elements to receive attention in carrying out this plan. These, as everyone who has studied elementary chemistry knows, represent the relative weights in which substances combine with one another. They are called atomic weights rather than merely combining pro- portions, because they can be explained satisfactorily only by the assumption of definite particles which remain indivisible during chemical change. Even if some of these particles or so-called “atoms” suffer disintegration in the mysterious processes of radio- active transformation, the atomic theory remains the best interpre- tation of the weight-relations of all ordinary chemical reaction. In- deed, it is entrenched to-day as never before in man’s history. The determination of atomic weights is primarily a question of analytical chemistry—a question of weighing the amount of one substance combined with another in a definite compound—but its successful prosecution involves a much wider field. First, the sub- stances must be prepared and weighed in the pure state, and, next, they must be subjected to suitable reactions and again weighed with proof that in the process nothing has been lost and nothing acci- dentally garnered into the material to be placed on the scale pan. These requirements involve many of the principles of the new physical chemistry, so that the accurate determination of atomic weights really belongs as much in that field as in the field of ana- lytical chemistry. At Harvard during the last thirty years the values of the atomic weights of thirty of the most frequently occurring among the eighty or more chemical elements have been redetermined. From data secured here and elsewhere is compiled an international table of atomic weights, revised from year to year by an authoritative com- mittee composed of representatives of various nations. The values thus recorded are in daily use in every chemical laboratory through- out the world, serving as the basis for the computation of count- 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. less analyses performed by the analytical chemist, whether for tech- nical or for scientific purposes. This practical utility of atomic weights, although not forgotten, was not the prime incentive in the work under discussion. The real inspiration leading to the protracted labor of revising these fundamental quantities was the hope of finding some clue as to the reasons for their several magnitudes and for the manifest but incomprehensible relationships of the elements to one another. The unsolved cosmic riddle of the meaning of the atomic weights may have far-reaching significance in another direction, because the atomic weights may be supposed to hold one of the keys to the dis- covery of the mechanism of gravitation. The mutual attraction of the earth and sun, for example, must be due to the countless myriads of atoms which compose them, each atom possessing, because of its own appointed relative atomic weight, a definite if infinitesimal gravi- tational force attracting other atoms. If we could discover the rea- sons for the individual atomic weights we should probably gain a far better understanding of the all-embracing force built up of the infinitesimal effects represented by their individual magnitudes. Among the striking facts to be considered is the constancy of gravity (and therefore of the sum total of the weights of all the atoms concerned) as shown in many ways. Moreover, not only is the sum total of the weights of the atoms remarkably constant, but also in many cases the values for the individual elements are found to be numbers of amazing constancy. Silver from all parts of the world and from many different ores yields always the same value; copper from Europe has the same atomic weight as the native metal mined under the bottom of Lake Superior; and yet more wonderful, the iron which falls from the sky in meteorites having their birth far beyond the terrestrial orbit has precisely the same atomic weight as that smelted in Norway. Many atomic weights therefore must be supposed to be constant, whatever the source of the elements. Although thus we know only one kind of copper and iron and silver, evidence has recently been discovered which points toward the existence of at least two kinds of metallic lead. Every sample of ordinary lead always has exactly the same atomic weight as every other sample; but lead from radioactive minerals—lead which seems to have come from the decomposition of radium—has neither the same atomic weight nor the same density as ordinary lead, although in many properties, including their spectra, they seem to be iden- tical. This recent conclusion, reached only two years ago at Har- vard, has been confirmed in other laboratories, and it now seems to be beyond question. Whatever may be the ultimate interpretation of the anomaly, the solution of this cosmic conundrum must surely give us a new idea of the essential nature of matter. Indeed, the CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS. 219 fascinating subject of radioactivity bids fair to give us in many ways an entirely new insight into the innermost structure of the atom, During the progress of the study of the combining proportions of the elements, it became more and more evident to me that the atomic weights should be considered not only in relation to one another but also in relation to many other essential distinguishing properties of the elements. This wider problem involved a great extension of the experimental field. Among other attributes of the various forms of matter, compressi- bilities, surface tensions, densities, dielectric constants, heats of re- action, and electromotive forces have begun to receive attention, and already many new data have been accumulated. The explanation of the nature of these researches would take us far beyond the scope of this present address, but their object deserves attention. This object is the correlation of the various properties into a consistent whole, in the hope of tracing the unknown physical influences which determine the nature of the elements. The rigorous science of thermodynamics enables us to predict in logical and precise fashion some of the relations between physical properties. My hope is not only to aid in providing accurate experi- mental basis for calculations of this kind, but also to achieve the correlation of different properties, apparently independent of one another from a thermodynamic point of view, thus, perhaps, enabling one by inductive reasoning to penetrate further into the causes which lie back of all the attributes of matter. In attempting to follow this inductive path comparisons of the properties of the elements have been made in two different ways. On the one hand, a given property of one element has been com- pared with the same property of another. For example, the ques- tion, ‘““ Which of the two elements, cobalt or nickel, has the heavier atom?” was answered by parallel determinations, using the same methods, conducted side by side in the laboratory. Cobalt was found to possess the higher atomic weight. On the other hand, the attempt has been made to discover a rela- tion between the different, apparently quite distinct, properties of a single element. For example, one may ask: “ Have the low melting and boiling points of phosphorus any connection with its small density and its large compressibility?” Here one compares various properties of the same element, and one seeks to discover if all are based upon some common, ultimate characteristic of phosphorus, of which the properties are merely symptoms. The inductive methods used in comparisons of this sort can not be explained here. They are partly statistical, partly mathematical, 220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. and partly graphical. From the nature of the problem, which in- volves many unknown variables, perfect mathematical exactness is not to be expected. Nevertheless, little by little, one may hope to trace the conflicting tendencies and ascribe them to a few common causes. With the help of these methods the tentative conclusion has been reached that the space occupied by the atom and molecule in solids and liquids is highly significant. The actual atomic bulk or volume is diminished but slightly by moderate mechanical pressures and by cooling even to the absolute zero; but it is very greatly affected, apparently, by the mutual attractions of the atoms, called cohesion and chemical affinity. Usually the less volatile a substance (that is to say, the more firmly it is held together by cohesion) the greater is its density and the less is its compressibility, other things being equal. Greater cohesion is associated with greater compactness. Likewise, the existence of powerful chemical affinity between ele- ments forming a compound is usually associated with great decrease in volume during the act of combination, and consequent increase in the density of the product in relation to the average density of the constituents. Thus, we can hardly escape the inference that both cohesion and affinity, by pulling the atoms together with enormous pressure, actually exert a compressing effect upon the atoms, or at least upon the space which they demand for their occupation. The result of each of these compressing agencies is found to be greater the greater the compressibility of the substances concerned— a new evidence of the reasonableness of the inference. Not always are these effects easily traced, because the situation is often complicated, and the several effects are superposed. Nevertheless, enough evi- dence has been obtained to leave but little doubt, at least in my mind, as to the manner of working of the essential agencies concerned. But we need not dwell upon this tentative hypothesis. Many more data and much more thought are necessary to establish it in an impregnable position, although no important inconsistency has thus far been pointed out in it. At present it may be looked upon as valuable because it, like other hypotheses of this type, has stimu- lated thought and experiment concerning the fundamental facts with which it deals. f As the years go on, the recent contributions to the study of atomic weights and volumes and other properties will be sifted and tested; and such contributions as may stand the test of time will take their places among the multifarious array of accepted chemical facts, laws, and interpretations accumulated by many workers all over the world. CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS—RICHARDS. 291 But we may well ask: What use in the years to come will man- kind make of this knowledge gained step by step through the eager study of many investigators ? Chemistry has, indeed, a many-sided destiny. A mere catalogue of the countless applications of the science, which underlies many other sciences and arts, would demand time far exceeding the limits of this brief discourse. Some of the more obvious uses of chemistry have become daily topics in the public press. America is gradually awakening to the consciousness that, because every material object is composed of chemical elements and possesses its properties by virtue of the nature of these elements, chemistry enters more or less into everything. We perceive that chemical manufactures must be fostered, and also that chemical knowledge must be applied in many other industries not primarily of a chemical nature. Although chemistry plays so prominent and ghastly a role in war, her greatest and most significant contributions are toward the arts of peace. Even explosives may be highly beneficent; they may open tunnels and destroy reefs, furthering friendly communication between men; dig ditches for irrigation; help the farmer in his planting; and in many other ways advance the constructive activities of mankind. Again, poisonous gases, confined and harnessed within safe limits, may render valuable aid to humanity in preparing precious sub- stances otherwise unattainable. Such obvious and well-recognized offices of chemistry need no further presentation to this intelligent company. Neither is it necessary for me to call your attention to the services which science may render to agriculture through the chemical study and enrich- ment of the soil in preparing it for the development of those subtle chemical mechanisms called plants, upon which we depend for our very existence. There is a further beneficent possibility worthy of more than pass- ing mention—namely, that which arises from the relation of modern chemistry to hygiene and medicine. Already your attention has been called to the indisputable fact that the human body is, physiologi- cally considered, a chemical machine. For this reason, future knowl- edge of chemical structure and of organic reaction may perhaps revolutionize medicine as completely as it was revolutionized by the devoted labors of Pasteur—not by doing away with his price- less acquisitions of knowledge, but rather by amplifying them. Chemistry may show how germs of disease do their deadly work through the production of subtle organic poisons, and how these poisons may be combated by antitoxins; for both poisons and anti- toxins are complex chemical substances of a nature not beyond the possible reach of chemical methods already known. In that far-off D2, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. but not inconceivable day when the human body may be understood from a chemical standpoint we shall no longer be unable to solve the inscrutable problems which to-day puzzle even the most learned hygienist and physician. Is not a part, at least, of the tragedy of disease a relic of barbarism? In North America tillites, probably of the same age, have been found by Sayles near Boston * and by Cairnes on the Alaskan boundary.’ A year ago, near Penganga River, under the hot sun of India, in latitude 19° or 20°, I walked across fields of ancient till strewn with glaciated stones and bowlders and stood on a well-polished and stri- ated surface of Vindhian limestone, as typical as can be found in Ontario or northern New York. This resurrection of an ice-worked surface of the Paleozoic, in what are now the sweltering Tropics, gives a glacial geologist something to ponder over; and to see the same things in Africa and Australia, only on a much larger scale, as I have had occasion to do within the last few years, raises some of the most thrilling problems in all geology. Our Pleistocene ice age, with its array of glacial and interglacial beds, was merely an imitation on a much smaller and less impressive scale of the tremendous Paleozoic ice age, which laid down in places 1,000 feet or more of till and included interglacial times long enough to form great coal seams, as in the Greta beds of New South Wales. These ancient bowlder-clays and moutonnées rock surfaces of the southern continents bring us face to face with the most dramatic moment in geology, when a world, enervated by the moist, hot-house conditions of the earlier Carboniferous, found itself in the grip of the fiercest and longest winter of the ages, followed by the merciless droughts of the Permian and Triassic. LATE PRE-CAMBRIAN ICE AGE. Still more ancient tillites have been found in a number of regions, sometimes described as Lower Cambrian; at others as Uppermost pre-Cambrian. In a few cases Cambrian fossils have been collected in beds above the tillite, but, so far as I am aware, never beneath it. 1 Brazilian coal fields, pp. 11-15; and geological expedition to Brazil and Chile. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol. 56, No. 1. 2 Keidel : Compte Rendu, Geol. Congress, XII Session, 1914, p. 676. $ Halle: Geol. Mag., n. s., Dec. 5, vol. 5, pp. 264—265. *Compte Rendu, 1895, vol. 117, p. 255. Striated stones and angular blocks up to 12 or 15 cubic meters are described. 5J. D. G. G., 1893, vol. 45, p. 69. Bowlders occur scattered through unstratified gray- wacke in the upper Culm. ® Sayles and La Forge: Science, n. s., vol. 32, pp. 723-724; also Harvard Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 56, No. 2. 7G, S. C., Mem. 67, Alaska Boundary Survey, pp. 91-92. 266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. It is possible that there were two early ice ages, with an interval between; but it seems more probable that they are of the same age and all really pre-Cambrian. The Australians believe that their more ancient tillites are Cambrian, however. Tillites have been suggested at two places in the Keweenawan of America. They occur in the Gaisa beds of Norway, where there is a striated surface beneath; perhaps also in the Torridonian of Scot- land. In Australia Howchin describes an area of 460 miles by 250, and they are found also in Tasmania. They are reported from the Nant’ou formation in China; the Griquatown series in Cape Colony, where they have an area of at least 1,000 square miles, and near Simla, in India. The last two mentioned may be older than the Keweenawan. Sir Thomas Holland thinks the Simla tillite may even be as old as the Huronian. These tillites belong to higher latitudes than those of the Permo- carboniferous, none coming nearer the Equator than 29°; but some of them occupy regions now warm temperate, while the ice sheets of the Pleistocene halted at about 88° in North and South America and 52° in Europe. In so old a period one can hardly expect to find very complete evidence of the area covered by glaciers; but this ice age seems to have been more severe than that of the Pleistocene. HURONIAN ICH AGH. Much farther off in the abyss of pre-Cambrian time is the Lower Huronian Glacial period, thus far known with certainty only from the Canadian Shield, unless the tillite reported by Hintze from the Wasatch Mountains and that from Simla in India are to be referred to so early an age. A characteristic tillite with well-striated stones has been found in the famous Cobalt region, its hard bowlder-clay cut by the richest veins of native silver in the world. Striated stones have been found also 60 miles to the east, in the Province of Quebec, by members of Morley Wilson’s geological survey party,' and one from the original Huronian region, 160 miles to the southwest, has been figured by Collins. Areas of similar coarse bowlder conglom- erate or tillite, sometimes inclosing blocks tons in weight and miles from their source, have been mapped at various points as far north- east as Chibougamau, 320 miles from Cobalt, and have been found also to the west of Cobalt. They are widely scattered over the Cana- dian Shield and were once much more extensive, covering, no doubt, many thousands of square miles. In most cases the tillite rests with gentle dips on the low hills and shallow valleys of a peneplain closely resembling the present Lauren- 1G. 8. C., Mem. 39, pp. 88-97. 2G. 8. C., Museum Bull., No. 8, plate 1. DRY LAND IN GEOLOGY—COLEMAN. 267 tian peneplain. In some places the tillite passes downward, with no visible break, into an old regolith due to the decay of the Lau- rentian gneiss or Keewatin greenstone beneath. In others the rock below has been smoothed and polished, though no striz have yet been found on it. It is impressive to come on this old land surface half way down in the pre-Cambrian succession, yet as thoroughly baseleveled as the neighboring undulating surface of gneiss and greenstone, from which rain and frost are now stripping the bowlder clay. The continent sealed up beneath the Huronian tillite looks as finished and as ancient as the Laurentian peneplain beneath the bowlder clay of the last ice age. The strenuous history of the world since Huronian days could add nothing appreciable to its hoary antiquity. Great mountain ranges had already been gnawed down to the bare crystalline founda. tions before the ice of the Huronian covered the surface with bowlder clay, and this all happened long before a trilobite was entombed in the mud of a Cambrian sea. Though the extent of the Huronian ice sheet is only imperfectly known, it is certain that a plain in all respects like that beneath the tillite stretches 2,000 miles northwestward to the Arctic Ocean and more than 1,000 miles northeastward to the edge of Labrador, for flat-lying areas of Animikie or Keweenawan rocks cover a dozen broad areas of similar peneplain in other parts of the Canadian Shield. The same plain slips gently under Silurian and Devonian sediments in the central depression of Hudson Bay, under Ordo- vician limestone and Potsdam sandstone in Ontario, and under Silurian, Devonian, and Cretaceous rocks toward the southwest. How far the unchanged pre-Huronian peneplain or its little changed successor extends southwestward beneath the stratified rocks is un- known. Much of this vast surface has been buried at one time or another and sheltered from erosion by marine sediments, and has since been disinterred scarcely modified, but it is probable that it was never all covered by the sea at once. Portions of it seem to have re- mained dry land as cities of refuge for the inhabitants in every inundation. That other continental nuclei have had similar histories may be considered certain. In Scotland and Scandinavia nearly horizontal pre-Cambrian beds, whether of glacial origin or not, cover a pene- plain closely like ours, and quartzites and conglomerates called pre- Cambrian may be seen resting with gentle dips on a similarly trun- cated plain in West Australia. Near Clackline, for instance, Huronian-looking quartzite rests on gneiss penetrated by pegmatite dikes, and at several places in the neighborhood of Kalgourlie ancl 268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Koolgardie a somewhat tilted conglomerate, like that of the American Huronian, overlies the steeply dipping gneissoid rocks. PRE-HURONIAN LAND CONDITIONS. No unchanged land surface has yet been found below the peneplain just described, but important land areas can be inferred with cer- tainty, though now obliterated by squeezing and folding and the metamorphism due to eruptive granites. The great development of clastic sedimentary rocks included under the names of Seine Series, Sudbury Series, Temiscaming Series, ete., widely distributed over the Canadian Shield, imply broad lands and even mountain ranges far older than those destroyed before the Huronian. They generally begin with a great basal conglomerate, so coarse and bowldery sometimes as to suggest ice action, but squeezed and rolled out and folded in with other rocks in ways that make the find- ing of striated stones or a striated surface beneath quite hopeless. It is, however, highly probable that the climate was in general cool and moist, for the rocks are gray and often include arkoses, with little weathered feldspars, though Lawson speaks of the Seine conglomer- ate in one place as “ fanglomerate” of desert formation. The rocks as a whole suggest a continental origin, and their materials must have come from the weathering of land surfaces. Some of the gray- wackes and slates are very evenly bedded and show regular altera- tions of coarser and finer materials, caused by varying seasons, either warm and cold or wet and dry. They resemble the stratified silt and clay laid down in glacial lakes at the end of the Pleistocene. Seder- holm’s Bothnian slates, with seasonal banding, probably of somewhat the same age, show similar conditions in Finland. Land can be discovered still farther down in the misty depths of time, for the pebbles of the Seine and Doré conglomerates include far older sedimentary rocks derived from the Keewatin or Couchiching or Grenville series, showing vast destruction of land surfaces in pre- Laurentian ages at the very beginning of the geological record. These glimpses of American land surfaces in a past twice removed from the ancient pre-Huronian continent give one a strange vista into a dim antiquity almost infinitely remote from a dweller in the post-Pleistocene. There is no visible beginning to dry land on the continent of America. WHY SHOULD THERE BE DRY LAND? Though it is commonly accepted that there were lands in the earliest known times, there are geologists who hold a theory of the origin of the world which logically excludes the possibility of land showing itself above the sea. The original nebular hypothesis, if DRY LAND IN GEOLOGY—COLEMAN. 269 followed without mishap from the stage of a cooling gas to that of a liquid, and then of a solid, would result in a correct spheroid of rotation. The lithosphere thus formed would be covered by an un- broken hydrosphere, followed in its turn by an atmosphere. A good workman would certainly have come close enough to the ideal form of his world to prevent errors amounting to 60,000 feet. A properly manufactured world, following the orthodox nebular process, would be completely covered by an ocean 8,000 or 10,000 feet deep. This ideal world without a continent or an island would have avoided many difficulties. Land animals, blundering, bloodthirsty, even cannibal in their crude instincts, could never have existed. The ocean itself might never have been inhabited if life originated, as is commonly supposed, under shallow-water conditions. How quiet and peaceable such a world would have been! One almost longs for it under the turmoil of present conditions. A world without land would have had its disadvantages, however. There could have been no geologists and no geology. But it is idle to speculate as to the possibilities of a landless world. The blunder was committed and the lithosphere was so far warped out of shape that more than a quarter of it rises above the sea. One might inquire, however, whether the blunder might not have been rectified by providing more water, so as to drown out the objection- able lands. We know that there have been times when much of the present continental area was encroached on by the sea. Was there more water then, or was it merely differently arranged? Large amounts of water are withdrawn from circulation by the hydration of various minerals. Are they balanced by the amounts restored as juvenile waters and the steam from volcanoes, assuming, of course, that volcanoes give off steam and not ammonium chloride? Prob- ably most geologists take it for granted that the amount of water on the globe is nearly constant from age to age. The existence of dry land at all when there is so much water on the earth is a profound mystery not even plausibly explained by the nebular hypothesis, since it demands an inexcusable irregularity in the working of the nebular machinery. HAVE OCEANS AND CONTINENTS EVER CHANGED PLACES? Admitting that in the beginning the lithosphere bulged up in places, so as to form continents, and sagged in other places, so as to form ocean beds, there are interesting problems presented as to the permanence of land and seas. All will admit marginal changes affecting large areas, but these encroachments of the sea on the conti- nents and the later retreats may be of quite a subordinate kind, not implying an interchange of deep sea bottoms and land surfaces. The essential permanence of continents and oceans has been firmly held 270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, by many geologists, notably Dana among the older ones, and seems reasonable; but there are other geologists, especially paleontologists, as well as zoologists and botanists, who display great recklessness in rearranging land and sea. The trend of a mountain range, or the convenience of a running bird, or of a marsupial afraid to wet its feet seems sufficient warrant for hoisting up any sea bottom to con- nect continent with continent. A Gondwana Land arises in place of an Indian Ocean and sweeps across to South America, so that a spore-bearing plant can follow up an ice age; or an Atlantis ties New England to Old England to help out the migrations of a shallow- water fauna; or a “ Lost Land of Agulhas” joins South Africa and India. Tt is curious to find these revolutionary suggestions made at a time when geodesists are demonstrating that the earth’s crust over large areas, and perhaps everywhere, approaches a state of isostatic equilib- rium, and that isostatic compensation is probably complete at a depth of only 76 miles. Hayford’s results have been ably supported and applied by my predecessor, Dr. Becker, in his address last year, but some geologists hesitate to accept them. Barrell, after an elaborate discussion of the whole question, thinks the equilibrium much less complete than Hayford’s results would suggest, but his arguments do not seem entirely convincing.’ Great stress is laid on the sub- marine deltas of the Nile and the Congo as loads which should have depressed the floor on which they were laid down, but have not done so. It should be remembered, however, that we know them only from soundings, and that assumptions regarding them are more or less hypothetical. On the other hand, the delta of the Mississippi seems to conform to the theory of isostasy, and there are numerous examples of depression going hand in hand with the formation of shallow-water deposits quite in accord with the isostatic theory. The 14,000 feet of coal measures at the Joggins are an instance. But more convincing still is Fairchild’s demonstration that a wave of elevation followed up the retreat of the ice front during the closing stages of the Glacial period. The thickness of ice near its margin could not have been more than a few thousand feet, perhaps half a mile, which would mean in weight of rock only 750 feet. If the stiff carapace of the earth in the State of New York yielded to so shght a change of load it is hardly credible that 9,900 feet of sediments spread over 75,000 square miles of sea bottom off the coast of Africa could have no effect. Tf I understand Barrell’s discussion aright, his differences from Hayford’s conclusions are rather of degree than of kind. He thinks the earth’s crust more rigid and considers adjustments to change of 1 Articles on the strength of the earth’s crust. Jour. Geol., vols. 22 and 23. DRY LAND IN GEOLOGY—COLEMAN. 271 load much less complete, and also that they are carried out by slow movements in the “asthenosphere” much below Hayford’s level of complete compensation at 76 miles below the surface. He would probably agree that on the broad scale continents are buoyed up because they are light, and ocean bottoms are depressed because the matter beneath them is heavy. He would admit that to transform great areas of sea bottom into land it would be necessary either to expand the rock beneath by several per cent or to replace heavy rock, such as basalt, by lighter materials, such as granite. There is no obvious way in which the rock beneath a sea bottom can be expanded enough to lift it 20,000 feet, as would be necessary in parts of the Indian Ocean, to form a Gondwana land; so one must assume that light rocks replace heavy ones beneath a million square miles of the ocean floor. Even with unlimited time, it is hard to imagine a mechanism that could do the work, and no convincing geological evidence can be brought forward to show that such a thing ever took place. Discussing this question not long ago in the Journal of Geology, Prof. Chamberlin showed that the only typical case of deep-sea deposits found on land, the well known one of the Barbadoes, occurs on one of the great hinge lines around which motions of the earth’s erust take place and has no real bearing on the change of ocean bot- toms of continents.t. The same may be said of the deep-sea deposits on Timor, in the East Indies, recently described by Molengraaff.* In position Timor is almost the counterpart of the Barbados in the West Indies. The distribution of plants and animals should be arranged for by other means than by the wholesale elevation of ocean beds to make -dry-land bridges for them. W. D. Matthew’s excellent paper on climate and evolution suggests ways in which this may be done more economically. The elevation of mountain chains by folding or the overriding of blocks might be expected to make trouble for the isostatic theory; but the two best known examples, the Rockies and the Himalayas, seem to be approximately in isostatic equilibrim. In the case of the Hima- layas, the youngest and highest of the great mountain systems, it is staggering to find nummulitic beds 20,000 feet above the sea; but however it was managed, enough light material seems to have been introduced beneath to float the mountains at about the proper height. We may conclude that, broadly speaking, the dry-land areas have always been where they are now. The adjustments of the boundaries of land and sea have been confined to the margins of the continental masses. 1 Jour. Geol., vol. 22, pp. 131, etc. 2 Koninklijke Akad. y. Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, deel 24, pp 415-430. B72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. TELEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. There are certain teleological features of the relations of land and water to which attention may be drawn in closing. Without water, no life such as we know would be possible. On the other hand, uniformly deep water over the whole earth, such as might have been expected in a rigidly mechanical scheme, would probably not have provided the conditions necessary for the development of life. An apparently accidental lack of homogeneity in the earth allows lighter parts to rise above what would otherwise have been a universal sea. The combined efforts of the epigene forces since the earliest known times have been directed toward the destruction of continents and islands and their reduction to shoals completely covered by the sea, but their efforts have always been foiled by movements originating in the earth’s interior. No continent seems to have been completely submerged since Triassic times. The life of land plants and animals appears to have been uninterrupted since that time on all the con- tinents. There has been perpetual oscillation in respect to the area and eleva- tion of land exposed, but on the whole the balance has been care- fully maintained. But for the presence of oceans of water, of an abnormal lghtness in some parts of the earth’s crust, and an unfail- ing balance for 50,000,000 years between the forces of elevation and of destruction, life such as ours would have been impossible. Can we look on these surprising adjustments as merely accidental ? THE PETROLEUM RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES.1 By RaLtpH ARNOLD. INTRODUCTION. In 1908 when the agitation for the conservation of our mineral and other natural resources was at its height, a paper was prepared by Dr. David T. Day on “The Petroleum Resources of the United States.”? It was the privilege of the writer to contribute some of the data upon which Dr. Day based his conclusions. Since the prep- aration of that article much development work has been done in this country, new fields have been opened up, and the possibilities of the older fields have been more closely studied. The present paper is intended as a revision of Dr. Day’s thesis in view of the latest in- formation pertaining to the subject. The writer wishes to acknowl- edge his indebtedness to the following, among others, who have contributed data used in the preparation of these estimates: James H. Gardner, M. J. Munn, Prof. L. C. Glenn, Prof. G. D. Harris, and Richard R. Hice. EXTENT OF THE PETROLEUM FIELDS. The oil fields of the United States usually are classified as the Appalachian, Lima-Indiana, Illinois, Mid-Continent, Gulf, Rocky Mountain, California, and Alaska. Appalachian field—The Appalachian field extends from south- western New York, through western Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, West Virginia, and eastern Kentucky, into northern Ten- nessee. The formations yielding the oil throughout this field in- clude those of the Devonian and Carboniferous. The oil occurs along the axes and on the flanks of anticlines, parallel in general with the strike of the Appalachian Mountains, and on minor ter- races or other structures associated with them. Occasionally it has 1 Reprinted by permission from Economic Geology, Vol. 10, No. 8, December, 1915. 2 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 394, pp. 30-50, 1909. 273 274 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. been found in waterless synclines. The reservoir rocks are prin- cipally sandstones and coarse sediments. The oil from this field is of the best quality in the world, yielding a high percentage of the lighter oils such as gasoline and kerosene, and is utilized entirely for refining. It is of paraffin base and varies in gravity from 25° to 50° Beaumé (0.9032 to 0.7778 sp. gr.), the heavier grades coming only from the southern end of the field. The price of the “ Penn- sylvania grade” oil is always high, ranging up to $2.50 per barrel. The average daily production of the wells is low, being 0.2 to 0.4 barrels in 1911. This field is almost completely developed except the portions in Kentucky and Tennessee, and even here recent pros- pecting has resulted negatively in a majority of cases. Lima-Indiana. field —The Lima-Indiana field covers a considerable portion of northwestern Ohio and eastern Indiana. The oil is derived from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Carboniferous, largely from the Trenton limestone, the reservoir rock being porous dolo- mitic lenses or beds or sandstones. Favorable structures, such as half domes, terraces, etc., on the flanks of the Cincinnati uplift, usually harbor the commercial deposits. The oil is of paraffin base, varies in gravity from 30° to 35° Beaumé (0.8750 to 0.8484 sp. gr.), carries a little sulphur, and is utilized entirely for refining purposes. The average initial daily production of the wells up to 1911 was 15.5 barrels; the average daily production per well was 0.7 barrel for that year. This field also is practically outlined, although new pools are even yet being occasionally discovered. Illinois field —The Illinois field occupies a strip of territory along the La Salle anticline in the southeastern part of the State. It also extends a short distance into Indiana. The oil is derived largely from the Pennsylvanian and a little from the upper Mississippian (both Carboniferous), and occurs principally in well-defined sand- stone horizons along the crest of the asymmetric La Salle anticline. Impregnation is governed locally by the lithology. eae le ae Be co Pee eee 8, 536, 352 432, 762, 004 piel sriregrrice eeege ee er ees SO ph ete nee ae Coe emia aoe ee oS 631, 724 461, 833, 466 Benisylvaliaes on. Sige eee Tie ee OD fe be ate 8,170, 335 754, 180, 215 GN ID SIS oe este ee cae ay (oe ee Spain log pea een RUSS Set Omar Ree 20; 068, 184 203, 799, 381 Wiest, Varrinis S\Sty ere iat insets hp ce eT SPT Me! eee 9 680, 033 260, 232° 815 RUNG OTT iTs oeree ee eee mee men ere ES ad MEE ota sete ieee ck eee ecaer eee 3, 560, 375 re 964, 944 Oiler eeeeee MORE ES Laer METER OTT Tel, ROA, POR A TE WNTOD W'S. os Seems IRotalies reer sh eee. cient DTN e Prye Pet ee 5s ee SETA EE CES ELLE 265, 762, 585 | 3,335, 457, 130 1 Included in ‘‘ Other.” 2 Included in Pennsylvania. FACTORS GOVERNING THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. Before entering into a discussion of the probable future production of petroleum in the United States, it will be well to outline the various factors which govern this production. These factors may be divided into two groups, natural and artificial. 73839°—sm 1916——19 278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. A. NATURAL FACTORS. 1. Pressure—The pressure exerted on the oil in its underground reservoir may be hydrostatic, hydraulic, or gas; it may be coexten- sive with the field or pool, in which case it is called “ field pressure,” or it may be exceedingly local in extent, when it is called “local” or “well pressure.” Pressure in oil wells varies from 0 to over 2,000 pounds per square inch, usually declining as the field or well grows old. Other things being equal, the production varies with the pres- sure. . 2. Viscosity—Production varies inversely with the viscosity, and since the viscosity in general increases with the specific gravity (in- creases inversely with the Beaumé degrees) it may be said that, other conditions being equal, the production varies inversely with the spe- cific gravity of the oil. Natural petroleums vary from substances as fluid as water (low viscosity) to those having the consistency of “cold molasses” (high viscosity), or even to those possessing the properties of solids. 3. Thickness and extent of reservoir rocks.—The production varies with the thickness and extent of the reservoir rock. The thickness of the pay streaks may vary from 2 feet, as in some fields of the eastern United States, to over 200 feet, as in some California fields. The lateral extent of the layer or lens may be from a few feet to several miles. 4, Porosity of reservoir rocks—Production varies inversely with the porosity within certain limits. In uniformly grained rocks the coarser the grain of the reservoir the less is the actual porosity; but the larger the size of the interstices the less is the friction surface per unit of oil. Therefore, coarse sediments are really less porous and consequently hold less oil, but they give it up more readily than fine sediments and usually give a greater ultimate yield per unit of volume. Reservoir rocks may be fine shale to the coarsest conglo- merates, or porous or cavernous dolomites or limestones. Fracture or fault zones also may act as reservoirs. The world’s maximum producers obtain their oil from cavernous limestones or dolomites; the steadiest and longest-lived wells are in medium-grained sand. 5. Structure of reservoir rocks.—Structure usually has a profound influence on oil accumulation and production, the most advantageous positions being in the crests of domes or anticlines, or on the flanks of sealed or terraced monoclines. Lithology or other causes may locally produce exceptions to all rules of accumulation. B. ARTIFICIAL FACTORS. 1. Price of oit—The price of oil is the dominant factor governing the production of oil, especially as it relates to groups of wells, fields, PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. 279 districts, or States. The price may vary from 10 to 15 cents a barrel at the well, as at certain periods in the history of the Mexican or California fields, or it may range up to $2.50 per barrel, and in ex- ceptional cases much higher, when the demand is great and the sup- ply limited. Price of oil largely affects the other artificial factors, which may be summarized as follows: 2. Depth of wells and time required to drill—Production may be accelerated or retarded by the time required to drill wells. In some places wells can be put down in a week or 10 days; elsewhere it may take from one to two years to finish a well. In a shallow well dis- trict production can be increased quickly by a vigorous drilling pro- gram; in deep well areas much time and money may be necessary to increase or even sustain production. 3. Distance separating wells—Within a certain underground reservoir, the quantity of oil that ultimately can be recovered and the rapidity with which it may be produced are largely dependent on the distance separating the individual wells. The thicker the wells the quicker the recovery of the oil and the greater the expense of recovery. Wells may be spaced 25 feet apart or as near together as the derricks will stand, as in the congested Spindle-top field of Texas, or they may be separated by a distance of one-fourth mile or more. Ownership of property often determines the spacing of the wells, many small tracts under separate ownership tending toward congestion of development and rapidity of recovery. Conservation is best attained by single ownership of large bodies of land, so that development will be determined by the principle of recovering the oil at the least possible expense, that is, with the least number of wells. 4, Condition of well, pump, etc.—The condition of the well, pump, and other physical properties involved in the winning of the oil greatly influences the production. Clean wells, efficient pumps, and energetic employees tend toward maximum production ; sanded up or improperly perforated wells, leaky pumps, and inexperienced or careless employees militate against successful operation. 5. Discovery of new fields—The discovery of new fields is a most potent factor in oil production. The search for new fields is stimu- lated by high prices; their discovery usually results in a flush yield and a lowering of the price. Obviously, each new field raises the normal production to be expected from any district or State, and it is this factor of new territory which lends so much uncertainty to the oil business. 6. Distance from market—The distance from market of any field or group of wells often determines the rate of development and con- sequent production. Those fields nearest to market or favorable 280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. transportation facilities are usually quickly developed to their maxi- mum capacity, while fields farther away are often left for years without even being adequately prospected. 7. Improvements in development and recovery methods—New methods of drilling and increasingly efficient methods of recovery are favorably affecting preduction in many fields. The most important advance in recent years has been along the line of increased use of compressed air in the recovery of oil, especially in California and Pennsylvania. 8. Water complications—* Water troubles” may be either natural or a combination of natural conditions and human carelessness or ignorance. Water causes the final ruin of practically all oil fields; it is the omnipresent and greatest menace of the producing fields. In most cases water troubles are inexcusable. Their results almost always are negative and sometimes irremediable. Oil in most fields of the United States and, in fact, throughout the world, occurs in inclined or sloping beds of sand or other porous rock, and these oil zones usually are overlain and underlain by water sands or zones which are separated from the oil zones by impervious clay, shale, or other strata. In these two cases the water is extraneous to the oil sands. These waters are called “top” and “bottom” waters, in accordance with their occurrence, respectively, above or below the oil zones. In a properly finished well the “top” water is cased off or cemented off before the well is drilled into the oil sand. The “ bottom ” water never is drilled into except by accident, in which event it is plugged off. With the “top ” water shut off and the “ bot- tom” water untouched, the oil is produced practically free from water. Water, being heavier than oil and often also under a, greater hydrostatic pressure, will replace part or all of the oil at the point of ingress into the well if it is allowed to reach the oil sand. In this way it replaces the oil, in whole or in part, and thus lessens the amount of oil produced and increases its cost of recovery. Water also occurs indigenous to the oil sands in certain fields, but in this case it does not at first occupy the same part of the stratum as that occupied by the oil, but hes in the lower or “ down-slope” portion of the sand, and the line marking the junction of the oil in the “up- slope” part of the bed and the water in the “ down slope” part de- termines the limits of the productive territory. The water under these conditions is called “edge” water. Upon exhaustion of the oil by flowing or pumping, the “edge” water, through hydrostatic or other pressure, usually “follows up” and replaces the oil. The ap- pearance of the originally extraneous “top” water or “bottom” water in a well indicates a failure to exclude the water properly by the manipulation of casing, cement, or plugs. Such a condition usually can be remedied and the offending fluid kept out of the oil sand, PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. 981 although what has come in already may sometimes remain in the oil to a greater or less extent. The appearance of “edge” water in a well is another matter, for here the oil has been permanently replaced by the water, and, so far as the affected sand is concerned, the well can be considered as no longer productive. “ Edge” water sometimes appears in a well in some particular sand, while other producing sands are free from water. In this instance, the “ edge” water sand is abandoned and cased off and the production continued from the other sands. Most of the water troubles are due to a failure to shut off the “ top ” water in the process of drilling. Wells, properties, and entire fields have been seriously damaged or entirely ruined by the water, some- times from only a few offending wells. This factor of water is, therefore, one of the most potent in oil production and at the same time the most uncertain. METHODS OF ESTIMATING FUTURE SUPPLY. Two methods of estimating the future production or supply of oil in any area or field are in use, one known as the saturation method, the other, the production curve method. SATURATION METHOD.? The saturation method of computation involves finding the cubical contents of the reservoir, determining the degree of porosity of the volume, and then estimating the total, available, and net supply of oil contained under the area in question. By total supply is meant the total quantity of oil in the reservoir; by available supply is meant the quantity that theoretically can be recovered with ordi- nary methods in vogue; net supply is the quantity marketed after deducting for fuel used in development and operation, leakage, and other losses. Total supply depends on the volume and porosity of the reservoir and on the volume of free gas and of water which are included in the oil. The first factor usually can be approximated by taking the area involved and multiplying by the average thickness of the oil sand or zone. The porosity can be approximated from outcrop samples or drilling samples of the reservoir. Gas and water contents are un- certain, but in most instances can be disregarded for rough approxi- mations. Gas usually is in solution and the water only in the out- lying edges of the oil pools. Available saturation may range from 0 to, possibly, 80 per cent, depending largely on! the gas pressure and other factors, such as grain of reservoir, coherency, etc. From 40 to 60 per cent of the total quantity ordinarily is recoverable. Of 1This method is described by Chester W. Washburne, Bull. A. I. M. E., No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 469-471. 282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. this quantity possibly 10 per cent to 15 per cent is lost in production or used for fuel, so that of the total supply but 34 per cent to 54 per cent ordinarily is marketed. Many years may be required to make even this recovery. Tt is the writer’s belief that estimates based on the saturation method are much less reliable and satisfactory than those worked out through the production-curve method, but the former must be used for new or poorly developed fields and will be briefly described. The thickness of producing oil sands or oil zones varies from 2 feet in the Illinois field to over 200 feet in the California field. Total supply or saturation as marked by the porosity varies from a trace, in sands, up to 50 per cent in some exceedingly porous diatomaceous shale from California. Between 5 and 15 per cent is the average for sands, some, however, going as high as 80 per cent. An acre of ground covered with oil a foot Abeer (1 acre-foot) contains 7,758 bar- rels. This would be complete saturation for the 43,560 cubic feet. Assuming an average of 10 per cent saturation would give 775.8 bar- rels per acre-foot for normal conditions. On this basis a 5-foot sand would contain 3,879 barrels per acre, and a 50-foot sand 38,790 bar- rels. Actual yields of over 100,000 barrels per acre are known. Estimates of the average production per acre for the various States are given in Table III. Most of these figures are based primarily on the production-curve method, but a few are based on or checked by the saturation method. = PRODUCTION-CURVE METHOD. feneral statement.—Kstimating future production or supply by a plotting of hypothetical curves, based on actual figures in well- known areas or fields, is the safest method, as it involves factors which it is possible to obtain. Another thing in its favor from the standpoint of the producer and marketer of oil is that it is based on and has to do with actual “net” oil figures, instead of theoretical quantities. Basis of theoretical curve—The theoretical curve shown in the diagram accompanying this article is based primarily on the yearly total production figures of New York and Pennsylvania. These figures cover a period of productivity of 54 years, longer by far than that of any other field in the United States. Furthermore, over this period this field has been subject to all of the vicissitudes from both natural and artificial causes that beset oil fields in general. The area involved in the Pennsylvania and New York field is greater than that in any other field in the United States, which is still another reason why the result should be conservative. The interesting part of the production curve is that following the period of maximum yield. In some instances it is fairly safe to 283 PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. ea a FECECEEEEERSCEECE EE Pdeeel aa sna Omar Lf JOU {e107 Lf f, wtewsuceiade LLIN OLY, Soa eee ee PLL AI d {FH ee eee s LALOY YHOO Joudiasateue. 2OL/O/S177O F Fe Ee es SOKEL ARS OSES TS SIOLM, “hf rie. Sereda LLL Fi 284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. predict just when this period is reached, although usually a great divergence of opinion prevails, due to whether the prophet is a pro- ducer or a consumer. As a rule, the crest of the production curve is not a sharp peak, but is represented by a more or less wavy dome, showing that the production remains near the maximum for several years. In the case of the Pennsylvania-New York curve, the period of high production extended over about 10 years; that of Ohio and West Virginia over 8 years; and that of Illinois over 2 years. Fol- lowing this period the production is more or less irregular, but in general decreases at a fairly regular rate, the rate of decrease, based on the previous year’s production, becoming gradually less and less as is indicated in the theoretical curve in the diagram. In figures this decrease may be tabulated thus, the basis of computation being the maximum yearly production for the field: Per cent of maximum production. Attend ofmirst 10 years-) 2 s_ 50 Average for 10 years____--____ T5 At end of second 10 years______ 30 Average for 10 years__________ 40 At end of third 10 years_______ 20 Average for 10 years__________ 25 At end of fourth 10 years_______ 15 Average for 10 years__________ ine At end of fifth 10 years________ 12, 5-|| Average for 10 years22-" 7s 1B} (5 At end of sixth 10 years________ 10 Average for 10 years__________ ala PA The usual development history in the period of high production is, first, a decrease of yield followed by increase in price, then re- newed development activity, with a resultant increase in yield, a fall in price, and so on until the development reaches a point where the production of new wells fails to make up the decrease of the old, when the final period of decrease begins. ESTIMATED FUTURE PRODUCTION. The following table gives the estimated future production of petroleum in the United States, together with the approximate figures as to the proven and prospective oil-bearing areas, and a summary of the principal points regarding the occurrence and character of the oil. The figures of future supply take into account a certain per cent of the prospective oil area, as the curve on which they are based pertains to an area where new fields have been added from time to time as development progressed. In the case of Texas, Wyoming, etc., where the ratio of prospective area to proven area is high, the future supply may be considerably greater than that predicted if the bulk of the prospective land proves productive. COMPARISON WITH DR. DAY’S FIGURES FOR 1908. Table IV is a comparison of the estimates given by Dr. Day for 1908 with those by the writer for 1915. They are here presented by fields in order to correspond with Dr. Day’s divisions. ARNOLD. 985 PETROLEUM RESOURCES yr eel ame 956 601 ‘F z ooo‘st | oz Ig +06 000% | og 0ce Pa 281.0006 ene te +68 000‘2T | Ost 0g 2 000‘0r | 2 262 , 0¢ ¢ 19 GOR Tay eens. «es aes } 68 000 ‘T 00T 00F ‘T 88.2... |. 000.1 eel pe aa ee Be oni Py Sco I PE 00s‘ | OF 18 Lb 008 00T 00t rag 008 ‘T 0g OL +68 00F O0r 00g +98 00s‘% | OOT oor $ee 000 ‘T 8 LT *G 000‘0g | OF 9ST 0 000 ‘T 5] aaa lal heer a "e1DB Aes sed Hoy | coreeayy | “care -onpoid | -oodsoig | wesoig 780 JO | osei0ay 000 ‘00T “e9z ‘¢| OST ‘2¢F ‘cee ‘s} SEs ‘zoL ‘coz 000‘000‘008 | #F6‘F96‘L G1g ‘09S ‘E 208. | 000 '000'208 | $18 ‘ZEs ‘092 __| ££0'089'6 000‘000‘00F | 188 ‘662 ‘80% | #81 ‘890 ‘Oz 000 ‘000 ‘SS ‘T| 99F ‘EER ‘TOF | FoL‘TE9 ‘SL 000 ‘000 ‘soz | FO0‘z9L ‘cer | see ‘9ec’s 000 ‘000 ‘SET | SIZ ‘O8T ‘FS | 608 “601 ‘6 000 ‘O0T GIL ‘GL G6L‘L 000 ‘000 ‘0ZT | seh ‘c68 ‘68 CSF ‘608 ‘FI 000 ‘000 ‘OT 16 ‘S60 ‘6 IPP ‘Z08 000 ‘000 ‘OF £10 ‘LPS ‘8% 8g ‘E01 ‘E 000 ‘000 ‘02 =| 862 ‘€z8‘ZOT | och “cee ‘T 000‘000‘00F | 9T9‘9zE‘zEe% | 6FL ‘616 ‘TZ 000 ‘000 ‘Iz SFT ‘659 ‘OT BLL ‘ZOE | 000 ‘000 ‘008 ‘Z| 699 ‘E1z ‘TRL | Le ‘SL2 “66 000 ‘000 ‘OT seceee ee ee ee ee : *PI6T aoe Sora *PIBL 10s uononpor WOrONnpolg e[qeqorg [210 py alae i iets Co as ab al He I | (ea ee gpa Ree ee oe Sin oe Pa nae el eee ycae ene, Sear “snoedBj01/+ - SNOJE;TMOq Ie) CO8L° -69F6° — oSF-.8I | unsered-4reqdsy CLOU eer [OSs at he ote ca | ae ea GPCR 01 CObas circ 0 hard C Cn || nena Gann “uy? eee8° -9996° —'g o88-.$1 |-1ed pus yeydsy PES Si}! Neh elliagad |Po a Ye) eso C06Li —PSPSi—— Aioty occ n|aameae nO Disa SLLL° -2806" —"@ 09-093 | °°" UMeIeg 0928 eri is OCrem onal tre atc ygpoens LEIS T2260) ——s eco Geen | ames ee O Dima 7808) CLO mt ia Gyo Ome | an ane ae “Uyyeled eee" -L168° —' 88-26 | Weqdse-ugyeieg P8t8° -0SL8° —E of8-008 PSC 0088s — 1 cOS ao SOmm| nee san OD oma e CFOS -8EE8° —'A off-o88 ““Uyyeled F8h8 6986" —"G oGS=oet f= qpeydsy 8962 0-F828 0—'. 06°SP-068)°---** “upyeled "Teo Jo Apryen ‘eseg torr sess op ts"! -4OLL) UWBLOTAOPIO - 4Seq (e101, “sn0e0ej01O -SNosejrmoqieg | -"-*"*°**Saru0 A AA ““snoJejImoqivy -UvIUOAed |” *"STUISITA 4SO AA ae era tees en eteeeeceeeeeres|seeeeeeet ener eengy *Areus0ezent)-sno -90ejoIQ + ‘uvruvATAsuUeg Gy ae BBXOMy Bestel es -"-aerueAlAsuue dg ‘SNOIOJTMOGIBO - UBIOTAOPIO emmmens 2000110: (0) “4S0M pues jsBe ‘orgO “*BIUBA -[Asumo g ‘x10 X MON 7aBeC “"-OOFKOPT MONT ““Tnossi, ‘UBSIYOT PY -" SNOJOJMO IB - UBTMOASC FASB OTIS AIO snozoyTM0qaep, “eeD0F-SN09deIOID ‘AIwMIOyeNe - suosdVJOID |--"*** *****gUeISInOT 99s Sepp sara iS -merddyssissryy -souue,y, ‘ (5) 0.4 *syoo1 Zururejuo0o jo ody 01819 Se ee Oe "saIDIG) payugQ ay, ue wnapoujad fo woyonposd aingnf panwiysa pup isvg—'TIJT AAV], ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, 286 000 ‘000 ‘00s ‘Fz | 000000 ‘000 ‘or | OFT ‘2¢¢‘860‘6 | O0T 000000000‘ | 000‘000‘000'T | 402 ‘996‘6rE‘T | S 000 ‘000 ‘00s ‘8 | 000‘000‘000‘¢ | 000 ‘828 ‘TF ee 000 ‘000 ‘000‘E — | 000 ‘000 ‘oz Sh ‘G68 ‘Z6S 9 000 ‘000 ‘000‘T — | 000 ‘000 ‘00% 000 ‘000‘9F8‘S | 92 000 ‘000‘000‘T | 000 ‘000 ‘ose 000 ‘2z8 ‘Ze9 L 000 ‘000‘000‘€ — | 000‘000‘000‘T | 000 ‘98z ‘90% 7 000000 ‘000°S | 000‘000‘000‘Z | 000‘608‘6z2‘T | 61 j “mOTy | UMUNxXe yy “TONAL -mpoud [v104, “qued Jeg “8061 —Aeg. “SI6I—Pplouly SplPU IOUT SE OO OT es Seat ata ee BlIALOFTEO m[sjninininin(s) =\nfote visio mleiulajajn\ale\=\=rele/a'winial= alafatalalaintetarteiniatatarels) aia lecers miele intera iain om iadela tals teendelataterarsintete eta ria aiatatetetetasiatetatetataieiccaiaetateictemetone SIOUIITE eueipuy-eury SOD ONO ASSO 5 SS OOS O OO OREO AOOO S900 RSE OOI OO SOON OS ONSaS 9o S056 G5 SOS SAO OOo BOOS OOo Sogo KOS Oss 2sneoom UeIyoRye ddy *spjayf hg ‘saqvig panugQ ay) fo wovonposd 7020) pyyvwisyA— AJ ATA], PETROLEUM RESOURCES—ARNOLD. 287 Comparing the writer’s estimates with those of Dr. Day, it is at once apparent that the estimates for the older eastern fields have been reduced while those for the western fields have been increased. This is especially true for the Mid-Continent field, in which there was little development at the time Dr. Day’s figures were compiled. In the case of California? it has been found that the available satura- tion is less than was expected during the early history of the field. At the time the first estimates were made the field gas pressure was high and water trouble had not become serious. With the lapse of time it has become evident that a reduced gas pressure and water infil- tration necessitate materially cutting the original figures. At the present rate of consumption of approximately 265,000,000 barrels per year, an estimated supply of 5,763,100,000 barrels would last only, approximately, 22 years. However, as the total produc- tion of the United States will gradually decrease from year to year, it is believed that the total available supply will spread out over a period of from 50 to 75 years. The price of oil, which now ranges from 40 cents to $2 per barrel (average, 95 cents), depending on the locality and grade of the product, probably will increase to figures approximating $1 per barre! for fuel oil and possibly $5 or more for the lighter grades. All other factors being equal, a barrel of fuel oil as compared with coal on the Pacific coast is worth to-day 93 cents. Even were oil to be used only as a fuel, the tendency would be for it to rise in price until it reached a point set by the value of coal in the same regions. As oil has so many points in its favor, as regards ease of handling, cleanliness, ete., it is quite evident that eventually it will be sold at a higher price than is warranted by its heat value as compared with that of coal. Before the free natural petroleum in the earth is exhausted the oil shales of Colorado, Utah, California, and other States will have begun to be utilized as a source of petroleum. Also artificial oil made from animal and vegetable waste probably will be available to take its place. Even at the present time the necessities of war have led certain of the European governments to utilize various substi- tutes for petroleum and its derivatives, the substitutes in general being made from organic substances. Tn conclusion, the writer might repeat what often has been pointed out by conservationists, that oil as far as possible should be used for those purposes for which we have no other substitute, namely, for lubricants, refined derivatives, etc., and not for fuel. If used for fuel, it should not be in connection with the wasteful steam engine, but in the Diesel engine and similar types, which are so much more efficient that their use doubtless will become more and more general as time goes on. 1Dr. Geo. Otis Smith discusses the duration of California petroleum resources in Min, Res; U. stor 1910, Pt. It, p. 416; et seq: at idan BS ¢ oot i Pixs r3s- 4 = ah cn " Da, THE OUTLOOK FOR IRON.! By Prof. JAMES FurMAN KEMP, Columbia University. The close of the nineteenth century produced an attitude of mind in many students of national affairs akin to that of a merchant who balances his books at the end of a twelvemonth. When the results of a year’s business have been demonstrated, the merchant decides on his plans gnd policies for the future. He makes a reliable esti- mate of his resources and learns his possibilities and his limitations. As a nation which looked over a hundred years instead of one year, we were in much the same position when the twentieth century opened. From small beginnings, all manner of industries had reached an impressive development. Some employed materials which were con- stantly reproduced either by plants or animals, and which, by im- proved methods, could be increased in amount; but other industries were rapidly drawing upon fixed reserves which could not be re- newed. We naturally began to forecast the future and, with a look ahead, to infer the course of events in the century then opening. Among the industries, that of mining came in for special attention. It is a very great one in this country, and it is distinctive in that it destroys its raw materials in utilizing them. Forests, crops and live stock all grow again. Ore and coal mined are gone forever. Not un- naturally, in a fundamental industry such as iron mining—one on which so many others rest,—people vitally interested began to raise the question of reserve for the future and to wonder in what position the industry would find itself fifty or a hundred years later. We are not surprised, therefore, to note that open expression was given ta feelings of apprehension, nor that some prophecies were made whose restatement now possesses much interest. Not alone, however, in our own country were these apprehensions felt. Abroad, they like- wise found expression, especially in England, whose people had been roused for years regarding the future of their coal fields. In October, 1902, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, one of our most distin- guished ironmasters, was installed as rector of the University of 1 Reprinted by permission from Contributions from the Geological Department, Columbia University, Vol. 27, No. 1. 289 290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. St. Andrews, Scotland. He delivered a very interesting address in which he stated that if the rate of consumption of iron ore in the United States did not greatly increase, we would have a supply of first-class iron ore for only 60 or 70 years and of second-class for 30 years longer. Mr. Carnegie estimated our demonstrated store of unmined ore at 1,000,000,000 tons. The consumption, at that time, was between twenty-five and thirty millions of tons annually. All persons well informed upon mining matters would infer that the mining of a billion tons, now demonstrated, would reveal appreciably more; and while a billion tons divided by 25 gives a life of 40 years, 60 or 70 years was a not unreasonable figure. Yet this period is a relatively short one and the forecast justifies anxiety. Since Mr. Carnegie’s address was delivered, the annual output of ore has doubled, and, unless relieved by other considerations, whatever ap- prehensions were justified then are twice as emphatic now. In 1895, from three different spokesmen came prophecies similar to those of Mr. Carnegie. Sir Robert A. Hadfield, whose words re- garding the iron and steel industry should carry as great weight as any man’s, in a presidential address to the British Lron and Steel Institute! forecasts the call of the world’s furnaces upon the mines at the outset of the new century, and upon the basis of known re- serves also gave good ground for apprehension. In the same year, the late Prof. Térnebohm, long the chief of the Swedish Geological Survey and with special experience in iron ores, made a report to the Parliament of Sweden, based on a visit to this country.” At this time the Swedish Government was actively sharing in the develop- ment of the great bodies of iron ore in Lapland, far within the Polar Circle. The importance of knowing the part which they might play in the world’s iron industry of the future was great, and the deter- mination of the limits of annual output was a matter in which the Swedish authorities felt a lively interest. Prof. Térnebohm credited the Mesabi Range with half a billion tons; the other Lake Superior ranges, collectively, with as much more; and the Eastern brown hematites with 60,000,000. This total of a little over a billion tons gave cause for anxiety, since the out- put in 1905 of American mines had risen beyond forty millions, and a life of 25 years was thus indicated. But, of course, a moment’s reflection shows that the estimates are incomplete, since the Clinton ores of the East, and especially of Alabama, are omitted entirely. In the same year, 1905, the late Prof. N.S. Shaler sought to rouse his countrymen to an appreciation of the situation with regard to the mining industry in a paper of a popular nature on “The Ex- 1 Proceedings, 1905, I., 27, and especially 86-60. 2 Reprinted in the Iron Age, Nov. 2, 1905. OUTLOOK FOR IRON——KEMP. 291 haustion of the World’s Supply of Metals.”* Prof. Shaler, in gen- eral terms, considers the supply of ores of all sorts remaining to us as, roughly, twenty times the amount already mined. He thinks another century will exhaust the European supplies of iron ore. The best place for the iron industry is in the Mississippi Valley, and the ores tributary to it are passed in review without. definite figures, except for Alabama, to whose Clinton red hematites a life of 50 years 1s assigned. Other papers preceded, accompanied or followed the four specially cited and of these a list is given at the close of this contribution. They can not all be mentioned now, and the ones briefly reviewed will suffice to show the apprehensive state of the public mind, here and elsewhere, from 10 to 15 years ago. As a symptom of the widespread interest and as a natural step to prevent waste and to maintain as long as possible the material sup- ports of industries, the conservation movement sprang up in this country. It has taken form in annual conventions and discussions, and has been influential in matters of legislation. Outside the American boundaries, similar steps have been taken. Reports of the Canadian Conservation Commission regularly reach us. - In connection with conservation in general, iron ore has been one of the chief subjects to be considered, and we are not surprised to find our Swedish colleagues, as soon as they were assured at the International Geological Congress held in Mexico City, in 1906, that their invitation for the meeting of 1910 would be accepted, began to plan a great work on the “Ircn Ore Resources of the World.” Iron mining is one of the chief, if not the chief, single industry in Sweden. The subject, therefore, possessed great local as well as international importance. The associated authors in all lands began to busy themselves at once with data and estimates of reserves. A year after the movement had been started by the Swedish committee and by its representative in this country, a special investigation of American iron ore reserves was also initiated under the United States Geological Survey with Dr. C. W. Hayes in charge of the collection of data. The result of these endeavors led to the preparation of as complete estimates as were practically pos- sible.2 They will be mentioned and utilized later on. Before we can actually undertake a discussion of the future, we must have clearly before us several matters of vital import. We must know the large features of production in the United States as a whole and in the more important individual districts. We need to 1 International Quarterly, vol. 2, 230-247, 1905. 2C. W. Hayes, Bull. 394, U. S. G. S., 70-114, 1909. 292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. briefly trace the progress of production during recent years. We need further to know what the general run of working percentages has been and to answer the questions: Is the yield per ton declining as the years pass, and are we content now to treat ores of lower grade than were our fathers? How do our ores compare in yield with those of foreign productive areas? We can not overlook the vital bearing of our supply of coking coal—a factor in present iron metallurgy not inferior to ore supply itself. We must consider sources of ore outside the United States and yet so situated as to contribute to our furnaces. We must also consider present, or rea- sonably certain future improvements in processes of smelting. No horoscope for the future can be cast without attaching due weight to all these factors. The growth in the production of iron ore in the United States has been so great as to be the chief cause of anxiety for the future. The tabulation of a few figures, using a million long tons as the unit, will make the matter clear. Extended statistics are not necessary. IT am extremely anxious that the great striking truths should not be lost in a maze of figures. The statistics are taken from the Mineral Resources of the United States Geological Survey. Detailed figures are not attainable for 888 and earlier years, except in those in which a census was taken. In the years before the Civil War the production was small, but shortly after peace was restored the Lake Superior mines began to assume greater and greater importance, and later Alabama developed its mining and smelting industry. Statistics in millions of long tons. United Other States: | , Lake Alabama. | Eastern | Western total Superior. States! States. V1) RSE Siaeeye atten neces ple a he cee DB cece Ssislate ees eesiare aioe Sear ended eee ee eee TSO) Ge Raye DE RE, Te ere Oa ae ok Shere Fath 43 r 3.8 LUE 325] Paes Stranraer |W obi He Lave TS 75S Panes here eee ee oree 4.0 ORS Pree, BUMS (aaa att ened oem eee a feepeawgdte: hee Se O wee Melee 7 1.9 0.17 | 5.2 0.00 [EDIE UR See nn i RE ats iis acre Rel 8.7 PA i ioe hea et ae (aed ead 0.05 BRA Sete Gens Se eee | Seal ee Sata AE een Teel Panag fe Ree SO tS RE eee 0.02 TPSSO SRE sm 335 foos Sees oases Sales eeeee eee 10.0 Pati happenin Stan aie a belles ST Lass VSSS SSSR? SF ASc jE S Bee eee sae eee es 12.0 LO) oles oe ea Src ES 0.03 SOO Oe Rees era hes Sepeingee Coetava sa) oto SS Sale ee See 16.0 8.98 1.90 4.96 0.19 NBO 2 he Saye Se Soke a eee eee Soren 16. 2 9.50 2.31 4.24 0.15 Bot et OO eS Eee ee eerie Rae eRe Ss 11.8 7.60 1.49 2.70 0. 29 PROG Bert i Skee ec aey= eel SESE CC ees 16.0 10. 50 2.04 3.10 0. 26 8 19.4 13.8 2.40 2. 84 0.37 27.5 20. 50 2.05 3.75 0. 54 35.5 27.05 3.57 4.30 0.65 27.6 20. 30 3.70 3. 28 0, 36 47.7 37.80 3.99 4.91 0. 80 35.9. 28.10 3.70 3.50 0.52 56.8 46.30 4.80 4.80 0. 80 55.1 46. 40 4.60 3.10 0.90 42.0 32:91 |iscme see sce tolreweces Been eeeeeeenenee OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 293 GENERAL PROGRESS OF PRODUCTION. By these figures a modest but steady growth in the production of iron ore is shown up to 1884. A marked increase then developed, which subsequent figures will show was chiefly due to the entrance of the Gogebic and Vermilion Ranges. A rapid growth followed to 1890; and then production held steady, or, as in 1894, temporarily _ dropped back during panic times. Following 1896, the growth was very marked and was chiefly due to the Mesabi Range. Hard times checked it in 1904, in 1908, and again in 1914. No industry is more sympathetic with general business conditions than is the production of iron and steel. The figures also show that the great increase in output is due to the growth of the industry in the Lake Superior region. Without the contributions from the lake, the country as a whole would be back in the position which it occupied in 1886, with about 10,000,000 tons total production. In general, if we look back to 1860 and take time by decades, we may say that to-day the production is twenty times what it was in 1860; fifteen times what it was in 1870; eight times that of 1880; three and one-half times that of 1890; and twice that of 1900. We can not continue in the same ratio, but must ere long reach our zenith. Production of the Lake Superior ranges in millions of long tons. Total . United | Marquette. net Gogebic. | Vermilion.| Mesabi. Cuyuna. States. , 1} (5 Se ee ee 3.8 0.85 0.0 0.0 0.0 0! Oe Reh eee IOS See aes 4.0 0. 88 0.0 0.0 0.0 O. OEE eet. ease BSS Rees: soceee 7.1 1.38 0. 52 0.0 0.0 0: OR Bes e5 sae ASS2 eras S523 8.7 1. 83 14 0.0 0.0 O70; fattt. sak... NEST aasitocase ace doell 1.56 0. 89 0. 001 0. 06 (OX ee Se US8Gseconc: Sess. 223 10.0 1.63 0.88 0. 75 0.30 0.07 | Rte RSS Epa ce ece es 12.0 1.92 1.19 1. 43 0.51 O30) ez see eos 1800 EE es 16.0 2. 86 2.27 2.91 0. 89 0.0. | 255352332 LESH Pee a ee 16.2 2.84 2.40 3.06 1. 23 0503" |-225 cohen Li ee eee 11.8 1.93 1.25 1/52 1.05 GOs. ces ssese ABIG Saath reels css 16.0 2.42 1.76 2.10 1.20 BAC 9 eee eee oe LSU eae ae eee 19.4 2.99 2.27 2.55 1.12 4:83 |. 220553-088 EDU) arya S sae os 20:5 3.94 3.68 3.10 1.67 ish Ai ee OA MOOD aE Be a 35.5 ni) 4.42 3.68 2.06 13 OS oa. sacs co Lk iae tee aetna 27.6 2. 46 2.87 2.13 1.05 1 ETS (i (Gi eae es ees 906 © =e. 47.7 4.07 4.96 3. 48 a hee (E) 23.58; saasc- cece OOS Ms fob ae 35.9 3caL 2.90 3. 24 0.92 Wisdz, | aasnceare ce MOTOR oan cas ness 56.8 4.63 4.98 4.74 1.39 DIY Aa eS’ Babee NOL ee 2 He Ae oo 55.1 3. 54 4.46 3.92 1.45 32. 60 0.37 1A Uae ee EDA EAA seic8 Se Sas SB Sa eSB eros Bebe o See es is See s*abe eon Rares Rene sl Eases See A brief survey of the figures relating to the individual Lake Superior ranges will justify the following conclusions: The Mar- quette, Menominee, Gogebic, and Vermilion Ranges show a steady, normal increase in output, which is not startling nor one to cause, under ordinary circumstances, undue apprehension. Some signs of 73839°—sm 1916——20 994 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. declining output are manifest in the case of the Vermilion. The vast increase in the output of iron ore is due to the Mesabi Range, and from it in 1912 came nearly 60 per cent of the country’s total. A marked decline in available supply from the Mesabi would bring about a greater falling off in ore supply than any possible increase in the other Lake Superior ranges, or than the present sources of supply from other mining districts, could make good. The Mesabi Range is the key to the maintenance of the domestic supply at its present grade, and when it declines we must appeal to foreign sources to keep the iron and steel industry in its present position. YIELD OF THE ORES. Conditions vary greatly in different parts of the country; at different times; with different ores; and with the entrance of new sources of supply. It is a general truth that the richest ores are obtained in the early days of mining. As time passes and the in- dustry becomes firmly established, lower and lower grades come within the range of profit. Alabama Clinton ores gave much higher percentages when mined wholly above the permanent water level than they do now, when pursued below it. For many decades only lump ore, and much of that over 60 per cent iron, was produced by the magnetite mines of the eastern Adirondacks. To-day the greater portion of the ore goes first through a magnetic concentrator before it is shipped. In earliest years on Lake Superior hard, specular ore at 65 and above was sought. With improved facilities the grade came down to and below 60, but the soft ores found slight sale. Now the soft, earthy ores are the principal objects of mining, and the average grade is well down in the fifties. Important ship- ments of ore with percentages below 50 have been placed on the steamships. In the summer of 1875, Prof. Albert H. Chester,’ an experienced chemist, visited the Lake Superior region in the endeavor to secure average samples from the stock piles of the larger mines, all, of course, at that time in the Marquette range and shipping hard, specu- lar ores. Four samples ranged from 61.01 to 66.83 and probably give a fair idea of the ore at that time sent away. Iron Mountain, Mo., ore ran 64.87; Lake Champlain magnetites, 56.01 to 62.68; Clinton, N. Y., fossil ore, 44.57, but yielded 43 in the furnace. } In September, 1890, Geo. W. Goetz? published a tabulated series of analyses from the four older Lake Superior ranges, which, when averaged, afford the following values. To give a correct average, the analysis of each mine’s ore ought to be weighted with the output, and as the data for this calculation are not available, we must be 1 Albert H. Chester, ‘‘On the Percentage of Iron in Certain Ores.” Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 4, 219, 1875. 2Geo. W. Goetz, ‘‘ Analyses of Lake Superior Iron Ores,’ Idem, vol. 19, 59, 1890, OUTLOOK FOR IRON—-KEMP. 295 content with the general significance of the results. On the whole, they supply us with trustworthy values. Range. ee Maximum.| Minimum.| Average. LLEERT ETE) 1 Kode Ses ae Ses Se eee peepee eer es a a 36 69.77 53.02 62.33 MGHORMMEG oo cis See ac Dee eso aoehee cas Uae bees oeeneer 23 65. 20 52.18 60.00 SLM soé pa SS OESE SSSHSSE SHE JSS OSSEH SS SaScereret eee | 21 65. 45 54.95 62.09 _ \WGREEN GT Se Soe eee ee See Oe ee ee eee 8 67. 54 60. 20 64. 50 | | These figures represent the good old times when specular ore was almost the only one produced and before the soft ores began to be a serious factor. They are, however, significant, in that customary working percentages, such as these, very probably were not without their influence in the estimates of the life of the ranges, as set forth by several of the writers whose opinions were cited in the introduc- tion to this address. Raphael Pumpelly, in connection with the summaries of the Tenth Census,! estimated on the best and most comprehensive data which we have ever had, the general average of iron ores for the United States at 51.22 per cent iron. The maximum average percentage among the States was that of Missouri, 60.01 (but Michigan had 59.57). The minimum was West Virginia, 37.92. Pennsylvania, the largest producer of ore in that year, gave 45.28. On the basis of ore, production and pig-iron production, allowance being made for mill cinder, foreign ores, etc., John Birkinbine estimated for the Eleventh Census? an average of 51.27 for the country at large. An appreci- able error crept in, however, in assuming pig iron to be entirely iron, whereas it is only about 95 per cent or less metallic iron. We can hardly compare this figure with the one given by Prof. Pumpelly which was based on actual analyses of samples. If we credit the 7,000,000 tons of pig iron, as used by Mr. Birkinbine, with 95 per cent iron, the average is 48.71, which indicates an appreciable falling off in yield in 10 years. General estimates of average percentages which will be trust- worthy are difficult to carry out on the basis of annual statistics of tons of ore and tons of pig iron. Foreign ores contribute to an appreciable degree, and their yield can only be estimated. Stocks of mined ore, stored at furnaces or mines at the end of a year, are naturally credited to that year, but they are not turned into pig iron until the following twelvemonth. Mill cinder is also a con- tributor of iron to the extent of a small percentage of the total. The data for all these corrections are not available for a long period of years, and, therefore, all could not be introduced in the following 1Tenth Census, vol. 15, 19, for the year 1879. 2,Volume on Mineral Industries, p. 10. 296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. estimates. The importations could, however, be deducted, and to them an average of 58 per cent iron has been arbitrarily assigned. The results obtained are so variable that their significance is rather one of degree than of actual individual accuracy. The statistics are chiefly taken from the Mineral Resources for 1910, page 76. Long tons are used. i 95per | Ironin Esti- United Imported] 5. ; cent pig | imported mated States area Pig iron | iron, me-| oresat by E.C. iron ore | thoy. | inthou- | | tallic 58 per : Average | Eckel, in thou- Sarid sands | iron,in | centin |Netiron.} percent| ‘Iron sands otlod of long thou- thou- of ore. Ores,” oflong | “one 8 | tons sands | sands page tons. of long of long 358, tons tons. 1914 ASVOLSIS LE. SUS 22. 3, SBZ Ee ALE 1,678 MY 508s Ses 8 1,594 ALG |b 28 Boe, LSID soem aeeiaiace 4,018 56.6 2,040 1,938 33 1, 903 CC piasecece os NSQ0EI SIG Oe 7, 120 493 3, 802 3, 612 286 3,326 HON ow 3b betes 1 Oe aoe eee Seer fee 7,600 391 4,077 3, 874 227 3, 647 AS. Ol pace eee ASQOEE RES eT SIE 116,302 | 1,247 9, 203 8,653 723 7, 930 48.6 56. 50 ROG 2 spigot ahs lee 117, 203 5 9,446 8,974 304 8, 670 50. 4 54.95 NOOO eceee scence lees 1 26,722 898 13, 789 13, 100 521 12,579 47.1 61.55 WO Dee leche eis 1 43,433 846 22, 992 21, 842 491 21,351 49.1 53.19 MOVOCE SS = SIE 3. ECE 155,246 | 2,591 27,304 25, 939 1,501 24,439 44.2 49. 42 MOTD eee Reese eee 158,031 q4 2,104 29,727 | 28,241 1,220 | 27,021 46.5 51. 46 ! These totals are the apparent iron ore consumptions as given in the Mineral Resources, United States Geological Survey, for 1912, P- 162. They differ from the totals of production in the previous tables because corrected for unsmelted stocks, exports, and zine residuum. No correction is made for mill cinder. The variations shown above are so pronounced as to cast some doubt upon the accuracy of the individual percentages, but we may have some confidence in the general tendencies shown. We can not but be impressed with the apparent practice of the mining companies of using lower grade ore in good times, as shown by high produc- tion, and saving higher-grade ores for bad years. So far as recent years are concerned, we can only say that the general grade has de- clined, although it does not appear to be as low as it was in 1870, when the brown ores of the East were so large a factor in produc- tion. It must be to-day well below. 50 per cent. In the last column, and for the years beginning with 1890, are given calculations of average yield, prepared by E. C. Eckel in his valuabie manual on “Iron Ores,” published in 1914. The same figures for apparent iron ore consumption have been used as in the calculations given in the first column of the present table; that is, - the total annual production has been increased by imports and by zine residuum (i. e., used for spiegeleisen by the New Jersey Zinc Co.), and diminished by exports and by stocks on hand at the close of the year. The zinc residuum is only 0.2 to 0.4 per cent of the total and makes little difference. But a decided difference arises in calculating the yield of American ores if one assumes that pig iron is pure iron, and lets the much richer importations of foreign ores enter into the calculation. These last two elements in the problem explain the wide divergence in percentages of from 4 to nearly 8 per cent between the average values given in this paper and those OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 297 quoted by Mr. Eckel. Both calculations depart from the truth in so far as mill cinder, blue billy, scrap iron, etc., enter into the prob- lem, since no account has been made of them. Of course, there is also a slight loss of iron in blast-furnace cinder. The great importance of the decline in yield is the vastly increased amount of reserves which are thereby brought within the range of mining. As the average may still further decline until it reaches, say, 35 per cent, the reserves, as figures to be given later will show, become enormous. Thirty-five per cent, however, is by no means an unreasonable figure for the general yield of the Jurassic ores in the Lorraine and Luxembourg districts, which so largely supply Belgian, French, and German furnaces. The same statement will apply to the Cleveland district in England. The great reserves of 35 per cent ore in the Lake Superior district are, however, highly siliceous, whereas the Jurassic ores are basic. In Silesia, in southeastern Ger- many, even lower percentages are not esteemed beyond the possibili- ties. Thirty-five per cent is therefore a not unreasonable figure to consider, when a long look ahead is taken. On the other hand, in comparing the yield of the ores in different lands, a distinction should be made between exporting and smelting countries. Exporting coun- tries necessarily must furnish high-grade ore, so as to meet freight charges incident to long transportation. ESTIMATES OF RESERVES. Since 1905, several estimates of reserves have been made, of which condensed summaries may be cited.1. The amounts are in millions of long tons. 1905. Tornebohm: Aker Superiore = ae be JOR Je ee 3 a Ad eg AW 8 1, 000 JNU) OB TOES pk oS ec SE Rs a RS Saat SRE Oe eee eh. 60 MIS@ where ja2-22- =.) Fe EAR Bt 2 we eee Aid ee Sa ey 40 1, 000 1907. KE. C. Eckel: makes Superior = = ese ee Ei Soot en a mie Ooi ae 1, 500-2, 000 AAUGY OW ATES 00 SOLE See ee ee eS eae Ce Se eee 1, 000 PMA VAT aC OWS OLGE= teeter see 1O ee ee eae 75 (CORR At COO TOs Mpatuciey min Si Ney Site Seats ies ee 200 GeOTETAY DROWN ORG fo 2 2 ee oe ER hae eS a hee 125 MennNeSSCOETCGI ORCL c Ss. at Pee Be Te oe 600 TMeEnNeSSee HPO WNRONe ne ee Stee ag ee a ee 225 Walia bs we rixart ls Oya isso 79a eer ae i setae anes aerrenetonss Bik ek sas aeeeeeee ee enane 50 AV GiTS RIN Ae O VV TTR ONC meer rues Pe a AN ee a 300 Southern reserves for the remote future were estimated at 10,000 million tons. 1 The figures as given for Térnebohm, Eckel and Butler-Birkinbine are cited from E. C. Eckel, “Iron Ores,” 341-351, 1914. 998 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. 1909. Butler-Birkinbine: TAKE SUSI LO Teg oa eee ee ea ee Dae oe Us ei 1, 618 Southern)? States > 2: s22eer 2a ee ee eas eee Bee 1, $14.9 INGW: NOD Kos 3 seed wen ote See aE a re Se ae ee eee nee 750 New Jersey___--- PVE Ue SL ARYAN | Mode ONE LR AAP aA Abd 185 Pennsylvania 204 2 pias ar SE ESI) OS) TT LY SEL ST SUE ES Ft 45 Rocky Mountain region__________ ata. stepibrer. spe iyeeee SP 100 4, 462.9 1911. Minnesota-Michigan Tax Commission, J. R. Finlay, engineer: Winrlesotar ang) iT chine Pee See eee eae aes 1, 584 1912, EK. C. Eckel: Make: ySupenion: tery dl 228 ches rely. obey Dh erent aa oe ee Bs DEONO= 22500 INGGUNEAS TOT (52 Se sae Ba See Se) ae 300- - 600 VW CSST OT eg ee ge 2 dl eg ae egg Seer ee tee Bees * 300-— 700 [Shier c Nake rE nee eee SER ee ee ee eee a _— 1, 500-2, 000 TREKS) eee Bewe he Bh hes LE Nl ie dined cere (TO DIL. (20d) Other “Southern (States: fs ese a Bee Sew eae a 500— 750 5, 200-7, 550 The most complete of all the estimates is that of Dr. C. W. Hayes in Bulletin 394 of the United States Geological Survey, 1909. The estimates are divided into two classes of ores; first, those available under present conditions; and second, those which come within rea- sonable possibilities of utilization for the future. The statistics are given in long tons in millions and decimals of a million. Specular fi Seale Magne- | and red ‘inton | Brown | Carbon- Districts. tite. hema- ore. ore. | ateore. | Total. tite. Available ores: INorpheasterm =! sos. -teececeaeeeme eee Southeastern. . . = Lake Superior. Minas Valley..... : Rocky Mountains Ae Pacific Slopezs...-. 22-222 sctacee see ee Totals essa eb 3s 28ss ohisciese == cee te Titaniferous magnetite considered cMen bal Lelie Js ENS cHepousopsicd sandodco0d laoRcaopaab|lsaacooanod lcoonsceenc|KaotSocisac Not available ores: Northeasternss-= 2s eccncc sc oteess eee 211.5 2.0 620.0 13.5 248 1,095.0 Southessterni so 522. ee ese ke ceca 23.0 53.0 970.5 168.0 62 1, 276.5 hake Superior: oc ceises enieeemecoacceess 4,525.0 | 67, 475.0 SOLON ES sss cares ieietermaieteete 72, 030.0 Mississippi Vialley.- = ssc. = sc ceecs neces ses cceeene IE Re Sesaogees 56050 | 3os52525 570.0 Rocky Mountains: 22) 555. ccesene. secc 116.9 Ya eee see LOL Reereeecce 120.6 PacitieiSlopet estes asce ee cee sees ceee 13.8 LO: Onleeratee* Pi Uh psa se a 23.9 Dota leees.n mcs aeons teciaaeeechoeee 4,890.2 | 67,552.1 | 1,620.5 743.2 310 | 75,116.0 Tn the last group of ores I have included Dr. Hayes’s estimates of titaniferous magnetite without sepa- rate classification. OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP, 299 The estimates for the Eleventh International Geological Congress were grouped in a somewhat different manner, as follows: Avail- | Probable able. | addition. Archean magnetites: SUI POTOS 9a <5 iste Ae io yon he oe he SE RE PETE Pn solos Jo dao ye bo: eek bees 20.0 30.0 WONCEMUNaLES Mace sta saree oeemensil Menem cne ros cima onc ee moos enon mena 40.0 10.0 ACIFOndarknad hemayitese. «ls. eso) F ede. hep dal - chen cage mates efesweryctce 2.0 2.0 PERNS wy AMA SOL MALTOUILCS seis seis ga cinie cess ron aee ch cece eee ene oe oe 40.0" |-Jciswazcee Cambro-Ordovician brown hematites..................-222-2.20---- Se eee 5 et ee 65.0 181.0 Mesozoiciand. tertiary DEOWM NeMaAtites.. - =. 52 loc ccc cc ee cose cee cbectccc ues 10.0 15.0 Clinton red hematites.................-.- 05.3 1,368.0 Alabama gray and red hematites 7.5 27.5 CarbpnateOres. - 258. h-bcsos dh. och t-e.4 308.0 AEN SUP CHIOMNOMAUILOS see ne eerie a netic men came sie oe mote oem ie ote eee eee oe .-| 3,500.0 | 72,000.0 Mississippi Valley specular and red hematites..... 5 pteree' ee a oe eS te ae 15.0 5.0 Mississippi Valley Palaeozoic brown hematites..............-.-.- Heese ce oobi 30.0 45.0 Mississippi plley,;Lentiary brown hematites..4.~.... 64.2 .8---<-s08.-n65- fee secs 260.0 520.0 Wordilleram maenMerites and NEMaLitesccnc-ces cscs or cece ree rotor st ete vemos ste eonee 63.8 55.0 ; 4,578.6 | 74,566.5 PRIEAN TOL GUS QTOS Ey ery te repay oan sz see ER nate oF vps eet pee hora teresa rp cows ae 90.0 128.5 As shown earlier, the annual production in recent years has totaled between 50 and 60 millions of tons. Let us assume that it will be 60 millions in the near future. Dr. Hayes’s estimates indicated practically 4,800 millions of tons of available reserves or eighty years’ supply. The estimates for the International Geological Congress of 1910 are not appreciably different. By just so much as the annual production exceeds the amount of 60 millions, will the time be shortened, except in so far as further exploration opens up new reserves. In mining enterprises in gen- eral, however, if the management of a company felt that it had eighty years fairly well assured, it would congratulate its stock- holders on the outlook. This attitude of mind would be justified by the common experience in mining the ores of such a widely dis- tributed metal as iron, that new reserves open up in old or new properties as old supplies are exhausted. On the other hand, if we anticipate the general decline in the yield of ores, so that lower and lower grade reserves may be brought in; and if we assume that more tons of ore will be required to furnish the usual output of pig iron, such that the annual output of ore may reach 100 millions; then from the probable addition of reserves, given in the second column of estimates, we forecast from practi- cally 75,000 million tons a life of 750 years. That iron could be produced in these amounts and for this period of time, there can be no doubt, if we omit consideration of cost and if we only consider possible ores down to 35 per cent. Iron-bearing rocks of still lower percentages are so abundant as to be inexhaustible. No one need feel anxiety about the physical possibility of producing iron up to the conceivable life of the race on the planet. 300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. In earlier pages, the point was emphasized that the crux of the present situation lies in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota. Of the 55.1 million tons produced in 1912, 32.6 millions came from it. The chief point of immediate interest, therefore, is concerned with the life of the Mesabi. Its decline means great rearrangements in the present situation in the iron industry. The most recent estimates are those of C. R. Van Hise, C. K. Leith, and W. J. Mead, in cooper- ation, as given in Monograph 52 of the United States Geological Survey, 1911. Fifty per cent of iron in the dried ore is assumed as the minimum average yield at the time the estimates were made; 1,600 millions of tons were then credited to the Mesabi (p. 489). The output for 1910, for this range, was 30.57 millions, indicating a life of a little over 50 years. At the production of 32.6 millions for 1912, a life of almost exactly 50 years is shown. If, on the other hand, a minimum percentage of 35 in iron is considered, the same authors assign to the Mesabi Range reserves of 30,000 million tons (p. 492), which would give us 300 years of life, even at 100 million tons annual output. The authors of Monograph 52 also discuss the reserves of the en- tire Lake Superior region. The reserves of 50 per cent ore, in the other ranges than the Mesabi, are less than one sixth its amount, and their combined output about two-fifths its total. Their estimated life is thus much shorter. The time period lies between 20 and 25 years. When, however, we consider a minimum yield of 35 per cent, their combined reserves are greater than those of the Mesabi, and are estimated at 37,630 millions of tons. If we credit them with two to three times their present annual output, a life of fully 1,000 years is shown. Thus one can attack the problem from various points of view, and with varying assumptions; but the conclusion is inevitable that the output of ore from the Lake Superior region can not be kept up at the present production and with a minimum yield of 50 per cent for as much as 50 years, unless unanticipated new discoveries of rich ore are made. With diminishing yield, however, and with the tenor still at percentages above 35, the shipments of iron ore, even in increasing amounts, can be maintained for centuries. Let us turn next to Alabama and its closely related States, Georgia and Tennessee; since, together, they constitute the second center of ore production. The great reserves lie in the Clinton ores, which are well stratified and which have been and will be explored by bore holes. The reserves are much increased by the brown ores of the region and of northwestern Alabama, and by the probable devel- opment of much older gray and red hematites in eastern Alabama; but attention will be alone directed at this point to the Clinton ores. The latter are so well stratified and persistent and are now proved OUTLOOK FOR IRON—-KEMP. 301 by such extensive exploration that with much confidence we may credit them, at least in the Birmingham region, with 36 to 37 per cent iron, and may consider the estimates of reserves as unusually trustworthy. Dr. C. W. Hayes, on the basis of the careful field work of C. F. Burchard, estimated them at the following amounts in millions of tons, HAC Not Available. | ,vailable. Tennessee, Georgia, and eee ATADEM eres Sees cea aa eee See eee ees 86.5 440 Birmingham «district, Alabama «spat seeews sejoe shot we ceeds - spesassen esuereas 358.5 438 Totalin aes ROO CES C COMCISOE SC UEC OO= ERB ic Bes Poses Cae IES Cece e ce Ore = 445.0 878 Mr. E. C. Eckel had previously credited the Birmingham district with 1,000 million tons, a number not unduly above the sum of the two figures for Birmingham given above. The officers of the Tennessee Coal & Iron Co. considered, in 1909, in round numbers 500 million tons as reliably assured. The combined output of these three States in Clinton ore was practically 4 millions of tons in 1912, indicating at this rate 111 years’ life assured, and over 200 years’ additional life as probable. In these estimates we do not assume an essential falling off in the yield of the ores below percentages actively mined to-day. Were we to take up the figures for the other portions of the country very similar results would be reached. But, as their con- tributions are proportionately smaller, the effects of rearrangements are less serious. Obviously, in a general way, viewing the country at large, and allowing for reasonable decline in yield, the ore supply is good for several centuries. FOREIGN SOURCES OF SUPPLY. The yield in the furnace is certain to be maintained, in an im- portant manner, by importations of rich ores from abroad. These contributions are already a serious factor, since they amounted to 2.1 million tons in 1910, and had reached 2.5 millions in 1912, rang- ing between 3.5 and 4.6 per cent of the total. | Cuba.—The most accessible and the heaviest contributor of ore is Cuba. The mines in the vicinity of Santiago, on the southeastern coast, have been shipping for 20 years amounts which annually range below and above a half million tons of magnetite, with some hematite mechanically intergrown. The ores now run from 55 to 60 per cent in iron and are of Bessemer grade. For some years addi- tional, these contributions will continue. The great and enduring 1Bulletin No. 394, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 88-89, 1909; No. 400, pp. 129-133, 1910. 302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. reserves, however, are on the northeastern coast or near it. Exten- sive areas of serpentine have weathered in the tropical climate so as to afford a heavy mantle of alteration products, which when freed of absorbed water yield 48 per cent iron, with about 1 per cent nickel and 1 to 2 per cent chromium. When freed of additional com- bined water in calcining furnaces the ore reaches 56 per cent iron. The Mayari tract, already actively mined, can yield 600 million tons of excellent nickel-bearing Bessemer ore. The undeveloped Moa and San Felipe (or Cubitas) districts can swell the reserves to 2,000 million tons. .Thus, as the output of the mines in the United States falls lower and lower below present percentages, more and more can the grade be kept at or near the above values by Cuban contributions to furnaces near the Atlantic seaboard. The supply of Cuban ores is sufficient to last several centuries, at any reasonable consumption of conceivable importations. They are very conveniently situated for low costs of mining and shipping. Sweden.—In recent years, the second contributer to American fur- naces has been Sweden. The supplies have come from the great mag- netite body at Kiruna, in Swedish Lapland. The ore reaches the sea at Narvik in Norway, a port open all the year round, and distant from the mines 100 miles by rail. A generally high phosphorus ore is now mined, with a small proportion of rich Bessemer grade. The output is sorted into different grades, possessing from 59 to 69 per cent iron, with perhaps a general average of 65. Importations in 1912 into this country were practically 334,000 tons. The output of the mines is carefully regulated by the Swedish Government with the purpose of conserving the supply for a long life. The United States can not an- ticipate more than a moderate contribution from this source. Norway.—In Norway, not far from the sea and adapted to mag- netic concentration, there are additional deposits which are possibili- ties for the future. One enterprise is already active on the extreme northeastern frontier of Norway, east of the North Cape. The Eu- ropean furnaces have, however, absorbed the output hitherto. Newfoundland.—The third source of importations, in recent years, has been Newfoundland. The shipments come from the red hema- tite mines on Bell Island in Conception Bay. The ores are beds of red hematite in Cambrian and Ordovician strata and are strongly reminiscent of the Clinton ores. They supply a non-Bessemer ore of 50 per cent, or slightly less, in iron, and in their best years have ex- ported over 200,000 tons to the United States. The reserves which run beneath the sea are estimated by J. P. Howley at over 3,000 mil- lions of tons. The ores are generally called the Wabana. With a sea voyage of 1,100 to 1,500 miles, they can reach our principal ports OUTLOOK FOR TRON—-KEMP. 803 of entry. Their chief markets, however, are the iron and steel cen- ters of Nova Scotia. Chile—The Panama Canal has made accessible one great deposit or iron ore on the west coast of Chile, called the Tofo. Tofo is 30 miles north of Coquimbo. The ores are only three or four miles from the sea. The Bethlehem Steel Co. is making extensive preparations for shipments on a large scale in the immediate future. Published de- scriptions mention reserves of 100 million tons of ore ranging above and somewhat below 60 per cent and prevailingly of Bessemer grade. A possible annual output of 1.5 to 2 millions of tons is expected. (Iron Age, May 11, 1914.) Other deposits along the west coast of South America have been reported in an incomplete way, but are not yet sufficiently developed to seriously enter into our forecasts. Brazil—For some years past reports have been current of very large, rich, low-phosphorus deposits of specular hematite in the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil. They constitute beds in metamorphic sedi- ments of pre-Cambrian age, and appear some three hundred and seventy-five miles from the seacoast. Deposits of hard specular hematite and loose blocks on the surface are available in enormous quantity. The first estimates, for the Eleventh International Geo- logical Congress, by Orville A. Derby, the able State geologist of Brazil, gave 2,000 million tons. Since then the observations of Leith and Harder indicate more than three times this amount. Vast quan- tities run between 65 and 70 per cent in iron and are well within Bessemer limits. The chief handicap les in the long railway haul to the sea. While railways tap the district, both from Rio Janeiro and Victoria (the latter the probable port of future shipments), the present roadbeds are not adapted to the hard wear and tear of a heavy iron ore traffic and must be rebuilt.1. Once on shipboard, the distance to Atlantic ports is about 4,000 miles. Europe and Africa—The United States also import appreciable amounts of ore from Spanish, Algerian, and Grecian ports. Spain is the chief contributor, approximately 440,000 tons reaching Atlantic ports in 1910. To some extent, therefore, declining American per- centages may be raised by future shipments from these sources, yet as time passes British and continental needs will be even more press- ing than American and will call more insistently for supplies from European and northern African mines. The possibilities of importation and sale turn, however, upon mar- ket conditions. Through the kindness of Mr. Charles F. Rand, presi- dent of the Spanish-American Iron Co., the following figures have 1The latest account is by BH. C. Harder, “ The Iron Industry of Brazil,” Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. 304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. been supplied the writer. They summarize market conditions and ocean freights as they have prevailed in recent years: Ocean freight from Cuba is 95 cents a ton; from Wabana, New- foundland, 70 cents; from Brazil, $2.124 (1. e., 8s. 6d.) ; from Sweden, $1.50; from Spain, $1.374; from North Africa, $1.25; from Chile, $3. When the ore reaches American ports, it brings as a general rule 7 cents a unit, although specially rich and pure varieties may com- mand 8 cents. From these data, in a general way, one can see the market conditions which must be met by an exporter of ore from any one of the countries which are the chief contributors to American furnaces. Ocean freights, for some time to come, certainly will not be less than in recent years, even when seagoing bottoms can be secured. THE SUPPLY OF COKE. So long as iron ore is turned into pig iron as the first step toward steel, as in our present-day practice, coke will be no less vital to the industry than ore itself. The relatively great height of a modern stack and the heavy burden of charge which rests upon the still burning fuel demand strong and resistant coke. Not every coke will answer. From an address by Mr. J. E. Johnson before the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, January 12, 1915, the fol- lowing figures are taken: From 52 per cent iron ore a ton of pig iron may be made with 1 ton of coke. These conditions are approxi- mately those of Lake Superior ores to-day. From a 38 per cent ore, a ton of pig requires 1? tons of coke, conditions approximately those of Alabama. Should we ever use 25 per cent ore, 2? tons of coke will be necessary to the ton of pig. Whatever may be said, therefore, regarding the coke supply to-day will apply with increasing force as the years pass and the yield of ores declines. Anthracite coal has been, to a certain extent, used in the iron furnaces, but its desirability and increasing price for household fuel and for steam purposes in our Eastern cities make it a factor in future iron metallurgy of diminish- ing importance. Open-burning bituminous coal has been used raw to some extent, but is not now a serious factor. The following table summarizes the bituminous coal reserves as calculated by M. R. Campbell, of the United States Geological Sur- vey, and as given in the Mineral Resources of the United States for 1910, page 28. Only eastern coke-producing States are selected be- cause the present effect of Rocky Mountain States upon the total result is not great. The influence which they can exercise upon the future is small or remote. The same is true of the Pacific coast and its possible future industry in iron and steel. In the table the OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 305 total bituminous coal reserves have been reduced by an arbitrary fraction, which is assumed to represent the portion of coking grade suitable to blast-furnace use. Much difference of opinion might arise over this reduction. Its importance turns, however, upon the ultimate result; that is, if the supply of coke proves to be a less serious matter than the supply of ore, these fractions might vary widely and yet not destroy the reliability of the final result. In the further calculations I assume that two-thirds of the coal can be ultimately mined, one-third being left in pillars. In passing from coal to coke, I use the same percentages of yield for each of the States as are given in the Mineral Resources of the United States Geological Survey for 1912, Part II, page 251. The estimates are, moreover, within the probable reserves in this additional respect that no account is taken of Illinois, although its weak coking coals, when mixed with others in by-product ovens, give suitable fuel for blast-furnace use. Reserves of bituminous coal of coking grade in millions of long tons. Total . Two- 3 - | Fraction for ea, lt Pen bitumi- coking. thirds anh Coke. nous. mined. BES ERAS 00 Neer 4= 27, 300 18, 200 | 66.5 | 12,100 Oni St tee re as Pode ttek io cee eee -cpaed face po= 8,515 5,676 | 69.2 3, 927 WIGS EN Ges soot cjsg Sage ede Se DEB Sos assbe seReooEe = 1,950 1,300 | 65.8 855 Virginia? josie te - A— 7,464 4,976 | 62.2] 3,095 West Vir pinia......- 4— 37, 350 24,900 | 60.7 15,114 Eastern Kentucky. . 4= 6,768 4,512 | 62.4 2, 815 piestert Kentucky . jo= 3,610 2,406 | 62.4 1,501 iA— Gani Ps eer BOUL Tro] oo) ong iit we “eRe a Bt | baa PAN AD AIO. Cok mers SRE SANS oe asses < operas aobiclas baa preeye'e 68, 594 4= 20, 865 13,910 | 64.9 9,027 572,457 | 120, 659 80, 487 50, 882 The production of pig iron by States in 1912—the maximum year as yet—is given in the statistics in the next table in millions of long tons. The figures are taken from the Mineral Resources for 1912 of the United States Geological Survey. If we assume that the coke consumption per ton of pig iron is one ton in those States where Lake Superior ores or others equally rich are used, one and three- quarter tons in Alabama, and one and one-half tons in West Vir- ginia and Virginia we can make a rough estimate of the coke con- sumption for pig iron manufacture in a maximum year. 306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Pig iron production in millions of long tons, by States, 1912. +e Coke con- Pig iron. sumed. pees vaule BABAR SS AERROSE OnE BES At SCoenDe baer Sac BE SoS SE ged soncEeadeaneoauanaedad 12. 55 12. 55 ee 22 See Sa Seer sobs HAC Bab aon ere Somat merrrec Paebess asebe seer Oo 6.80 6.80 Tuinois RH DOE OA SADE SAD ET ober ne wocdedsedoreaiacentercp oadods Ro nnecebdoneEeomencEces 2. 89 2.89 ING NETH ees ISB EOS be oo ee re CRORE pe Sunes Face erccanec Aces Sonessebe Ease bos ssocae- 1.94 1.94 Jali opti Jase eeasedar su she Seo sasScocbenes dee CaS gueeRcebeanoueed uacuneoeueeeouasus 1.86 3. 25 Lisa ae. MUTT Pe so eee sages oe eesie ele ot ode es Cnn de Soh ascSe = see auer aacsesseesce ead Tih Missouri, Colorado, and California..........-.--.--.--- meade RSH BOL HaCanbEeckbosas -40 @) GUGM An ae pornos seigaa ser od ebb bea one Pres! Hohe secur ates senMece sossdcuscaaces 34 - 60 Va Raha iri G a ite OS ee ee emereeee Socespbdacdanec saSas eer anbuaddesudoaEaeoacae™ 30 30 Vila Wile tithe eee ee See ee eae Semen acs as baccense -popcassese sae sco scare 27 40 Wing bith a oneosodoossdore dander soatbgoadteer sero upedeosbdanreocesesooGanaoneseuseuc 26 39 IN reer G | 2882 See oe eee & see soar epee seas sese dels se eed 0-Fonoens: amncaser scence: 22 22 (Os 1 TR aoBoCerCdUTTeasuboce sasae eaespsomnbo ooh ooarcoD copanoSConarrbscoansEeoduasod 12 15 29.72 31. 26 1 Omitted. We have thus an apparent available coke supply of 50,882 million tons, and a consumption for blast-furnace purposes, in our heaviest year of production, of 31.26 millions. There are thus over sixteen Hundred years’ supply at this rate. In Pennsylvania, on the assumed ratio of coking coal, there is about one thousand years’ supply. These time periods are so great that despite possible errors in assumptions ; despite increasing coke consumption with lowering of grade of ore; and despite increasing output of pig iron, we seem justified in con- cluding that the fuel supply is rather more abundant than the ore supply. The reserves of bituminous coal in 1912 were placed by the volume on Mineral Resources for that year at 1,651,057 millions of short tons of which two thirds or 1,100,705 millions of short tons could be mined. With an annual production, as in 1912, of 450 mil- lion tons, a life of nearly twenty-five hundred years would be indi- cated. Apparently coal for general fuel will last longer than coal for coke. THE INCREASING STOCK OF SCRAP IRON. Much of the iron or steel, once it is used, is lost by oxidation, wear and tear, or by being thrown away. A goodly proportion is, how- ever, returned to furnaces and worked over. For this purpose, in America, the electric furnace has proved of special advantage, as the writer learns from Prof. J. W. Richards. With growth of produc- tion and with increasing attention to the prevention of waste, now so generally manifested throughout the country, the return of old iron and steel for re-treatment is likely to ease somewhat the strain on the mines. IMPROVEMENT IN PROCESSES. Electrical processes of smelting, in regions of great water powers and low cost for current, have excited hopes of saving fuel. The OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 307 fuel in the blast furnace accomplishes two purposes—the production of a high temperature and the reduction of the iron oxide to the metallic state. The electric furnace could serve to replace the former portion, but carbon for the reduction of the iron oxide would always be necessary. Some heat, of course, would be developed in the re- action itself, which practically implies the combustion of the carbon. If we assume a practicable electric furnace, comparable so far as the installation is concerned with a blast furnace, we have to balance against each other the cost of heat from combustion of coke and from electric current. Thus far coke has proved more economical, al- though it is conceivable that countries like Sweden and Norway, with abundant water power and ores, but without coal, might develop an electric smelting industry. Charcoal would probably then furnish the reducing agent. For some time to come, we can see little chance for electric smelting in eastern North America. Improvements are then reduced to those possible for the blast fur- nace itself. We are reminded of the great economies introduced by the chilling and separation of the moisture in the air to be used in the blast. A great debt is due Mr. James Gayley for this invention, which steadies the running of the furnace and keeps conditions uni- form. We recall the use of the spent blast in internal-combustion engines, and the economical generation of power in this way instead of through the ordinary medium of steam. The power is then avail- able for all manner of applications around a works, and lowers costs. We note the recent and very encouraging experimental run of some months at the Port Henry, N. Y., furnace, with large proportion of titaniferous magnetite in the charge. The reports of Mr. J. E. Bachman,! in charge of the furnace, do much to remove the stigma from this variety of ore and to make available large reserves now looked upon with suspicion. By just so much as these neglected ores come into use the life of the nontitaniferous varieties will be prolonged. Dr. C. W. Hayes? estimated the titaniferous ores in 1909 at 90 million tons available and 128.5 million tons as not at present available. Dr. J. T. Singewald* has concluded that in some of the areas used in the calculations of Dr. Hayes, the ores are too low for probable use. These ores have not been very generally ex- plored as yet because of their bad reputation, but the amount is quite certainly large. A remote possibility for improvements in the blast furnace but one worthy of careful consideration was suggested by Mr. J. E. Johnson in the address at the annual meeting of the Mining and 1The Iron Age, Oct. 22, 1914, p. 986; Dec. 24, 1914, p. 1470. A complete report is in press in the publications of the Iron and Steel Institute. 2C. W. Hayes, Bulletin 394, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 102, 1909. ’J. T. Singewald, Bulletin 64, Bureau of Mines, p. 38, 1913, 308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Metallurgical Society of America, January 12, 1915, which has been already cited. The air passing through the furnace is, by volume, nearly four-fifths inert nitrogen, which contributes nothing to the reactions and is a serious absorber of heat. Were it possible to relatively increase the proportion of oxygen, loss of heat might be avoided and fuel consumption reduced. Mr. Johnson called atten- tion to the production of greatly enriched proportions of oxygen by the expansion of liquid air under suitable control, as now used in - practicable processes for obtaining oxygen on the one hand and nitrogen on the other. Were it possible with the low-cost power, to be developed by the products of the blast furnace, to manufacture liquid air or to produce in the same general way a strongly enriched oxygenated air for the intake, the volume of atmospheric gases would be greatly reduced and the heat economies would ensue. The contrast presented by employing the coldest substance known as a means of facilitating one of the hottest reactions of technical prac- tice is so novel as to arrest attention. Costs, however, should it ever become practicable, place it in the remote future. A more immediately practicable economy, involving the saving of waste, is the use of blast-furnace cinder for the manufacture of cement. By just so much as this ordinarily rejected product can be made a source of financial return, costs will be reduced. While we may not realize the whimsical ideal presented by Mr. Johnson in the above address, when he pictured the furnace of the future as yielding pig iron at the tap and cement at the cinder notch, yet we may think of slag utilization as helping to usher in the next age of the world, the one which is rapidly displacing the present steel age— the one which we all recognize as the inevitable age of cement. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1902. Andrew Carnegie. Rectorial Address, University of St. Andrews, Oct. 22, 1902, p. 36. J. Stephen Jeans. Staffordshire Iron and Steel Institute, Dec. 13, 1902. Tron and Coal Trades Review, voi. 65, pp. 1580, 1681. 1905. R. A. Hadfield. Presidential Address in the Journal of the British Iron and Steel Institute, 1905, I, pp. 56-57, 59. N. S. Shaler. “The Exhaustion of the World’s Metals,” International Quarterly, II, p. 230, 1905. Llewellyn Smith. A Blue Book of Iron Ore Deposits in Foreign Coun- tries, compiled for the London Board of Trade, 1905. A. E. Térnebohm. “The Iron Ore Supply of the World,” Teknisk Tidskrift, Sept., 1905. The Iron Age, Nov. 2, 1905, pp. 1158-1160. 1906. E. C. Eckel. ‘“‘ A Review of Conditions in the American Tron Industry,” Engineering Magazine, June, 1906, p. 521; U. S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 255, pp. 172-179, 183-189, 1906. Cc. K. Leith. “Iron Ore Reserves,” Economic Geology, I, p. 360, 1906. OUTLOOK FOR IRON—KEMP. 3809 1909. J. G. Butler and John Birkinbine. Brief filed with the Finance Committee of the United States Senate in 1909 (cited in E. C. Eckel’s “ Iron Ores,” p. 347, in 1914). C. W. Hayes. “Iron Ores of the United States,’ in Papers on the Con- servation of Mineral Resources, Bulletin 394, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 70-114. 1910. James F. Kemp. “Iron Ore Reserves in the United States,” in “ Iron Ore Reserves of the World,” vol. 2, pp. 753-778, Eleventh International Geological Congress, Stockholm, 1910. James EF. Kemp. Discussion of the question: What shall the iron in- dustry of the future do for ore? Symposium of representatives of six chief producing nations, Sweden, Spain, France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, Hleventh International Geological Con- gress, Stockholm, 1910, Compte Rendu, I, 321-328. Mining Magazine, London, Nov., 1910, 863-3867. 1911. C. R. Van Hise, C. K. Leith, and W. J. Mead. ‘“ Reserves in the Lake Superior District,” Monograph 52, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 488- 495, 1911. 1914. E. C. Eckel. “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation, and Control,” p. 480, fig. 66, New York, 1914, especially pt. 4, pp. 889-427. 73839°—sm 1916——21 Dies ai 9 OSE 986, hod His penne ALB ; yi aa iclvcoie ‘yaa inne whece ‘elit ah oa | : eke PREYS i, ae Prrnli sui: Me, on apiuadian, Save CAE thal el % ‘ Epc. Eset Ayn ae Niawes Ao an Ae daar Wee Hae Veatch oo int Eeaeesnhy et ne ‘ati a lspaiath ie here Lene, ri his. c, nina at Melee ies” mecca y rein! weft hie aerate eae Fiat: Pee | a i AR visa Pe ee wares ton Pn tm De ete 5h) Eig sees fis. sae agai Filament VB G0 pila habe Vane iat 4 tbh aah pce SESOR hd, vb vhs eine bi ey bipra ir vl mae atthe ite brea Di “pill ily, ies fi ‘ Ah case yh, Siar) aie mtn rH oO AY cia wags toon cM pineal on ighag +f By ost. ee ty Ae erates: Hg me Sa bee Pil Ma Saleh = Om Ges: ne — i a De een ae Re rane heal etait a, to ieul rami (aarti i Aiea ieee: 4 : Press nah _ Pat a, Aiba cs phy ge. ey ehpit, > iat ee ronstetind bd i weblion ne Asibadeaietd Wout Siyerio Paki signe ‘ rs ON THE ORIGIN OF METEORITES.* By FRiepRICH BERWERTH. In the Imperial Court Museum of National History there is pre- served what is literally a heavenly treasure. Its peculiar nature is well known to the professionals of cultured nations, and to all in- quiring friends of nature, while it is regarded by the great majority of people more with the vague uncertainty with which one is usually accustomed to present to strange, unusual things. I can assert with some satisfaction that, thanks to the occasional court boards of ad- ministration, to the intendants and to the former keepers of the collec- tion, we have in this scientific treasure the largest and scientifically the most valuable collection of meteorites, and the richest in number of falls in the world. Because of this circumstance you will certainly sympathize with me if I, as the present superintendent of this precious collection, consider it my patriotic duty at your worthy and honorable invitation to explain briefly one of the most interesting chapters in the lore of meteorites. The knowledge of stones which have fallen from heaven extends into the oldest history of humanity, back into prehistoric times. Among the Chinese the mention of heaven stones goes back to 6,000 years, and the fact of falling stones has always been recognized by the people of Asia Minor, by the Greeks and Romans, and we must not be surprised if these “messengers of heaven” were generally re- garded as divine gifts. But with the advance of Christianity an- other opinion has become prevalent. The many meteoric divinities do not conform to its teaching and the system of the Roman estab- lished church. Gradually there was lost the oriental conception of them as blessings, and people began to regard them rather as “ prodi- gies,” or miraculous events, until through the whole Middle Ages and modern times the falling of meteorites was considered the foreboding of approaching misfortune, and the occurrence occasioned in human beings only a feeling of fear, horror, and terror. 1 Translation from the German of a lecture given in the Scientific Club of Vienna on the 26th of January, 1914, 311 312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. By the latter part of the eighteenth century the fact of the falling of stones had finally so far been forgotten that a fall which occurred near Luce in France in 1768 caused great embarrassment to the pro- fessors and academicians at Paris, because they did not know what to make of the event as related and the until then unknown material. Lavoisier, at that time a young chemist, but who afterwards became famous, stated that the meteorite might be a kind of iron pyrites. in Vienna, also, there existed at that time a complete disbelief in meteorites. The then director of the court mineral cabinet, Andr. Xaver Stiitz, expressed himself concerning the mass of pure iron of Agram, which fell in 1751, and with the acquisition of which our me- teorite collection was founded, as follows: Certainly even the clear heads of Germany in 1751, owing to the gross ignor- ance prevailing at that time regarding natural history and practical physics, mnay have believed the dense iron masses of Agram and WHichstadt to have fallen from heaven, but in our times it would be unpardonable to consider such fairy tales even probable. A similar conception prevailed also in America, for when someone told President Jefferson in 1807 that two professors had described the fall of a stone he declared “ one can rather believe that two Yan- kee professors lie than believe that stones fall from heaven.” The German physicist Chladni in the year 1794 first challenged this disbelief in meteorites in his paper on the Pallas iron, and he commended meteorites to the scientific investigation which through the whole past century has been zealously kept up and furthered by certain scholars, especially here in Vienna. Now, what do we denote as meteorites? You have doubtless all observed on clear, cloudless nights the sudden appearances and again disappearances of light and fire in the heavens. Such are known to us as comets and meteors, and meteors are again distin- guished as Sternschnuppen (shooting stars, étoiles filantes), and as Feuerkugeln (fireballs or bolides). The astronomers regard these three heavenly bodies, which are not members of our solar system, as identical, one with another. They are connected by intergrada- tional forms, and their varying appearances are but varying phases of one and the same natural phenomenon. This identity of shooting stars and of fireballs we must, however, to-day regard as quite uncertain, since there are circumstances in- dicative of their independence of each other as well as of comets. When fireballs coming from various directions in the heavens reach the neighborhood of the earth, where on dark nights they afford to human beings a sight arousing amazement through the lighting up of the landscape over which they pass as bright as day, they are seen to burst, usually with an explosion, throwing out streams of fire, accompanied by a noise comparable to the firing of musketry. Dark- ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 313 ness follows and the solid masses forming the kernel of the fireballs fall to earth in separate fragments, or as a shower of stones. These solid masses, consisting of stone or iron, which reach our planet from space, and are transformed into balls of fire only in our atmosphere, we call meteorites. Such Weltspihne (world frag- ments), as Chladni once called them, have been given different names at different times according to the conception which people had of their origin or their character, as baetylus or beseelte stones, sky stones, thunderstones (ceraunites, brontoliths), thunderbolts, air stones, moonstones (uranoliths), and at present they are often called aeroliths, a name first used by Blumenbach in 1804. Concerning the origin of these stone and iron masses opinions have greatly varied from time to time. When Chladni’s epoch-making work (The Pallas Iron, 1794) over- came the doubt as to the falling of stone and iron masses from the air, people began to seek explanations for the mysterious and still incomprehensible phenomena of the Feuerkugeln and to advance opinions as to their origin. Passing over the beautiful, mythical conceptions of the oriental peoples, which have been already referred to, and the assumption in the middle ages that they might be due to lightning, one can generally divide into two groups those holding opinions as to the origin of meteorites—that is, into supporters of the hypothesis that they came from space and did not belong originally to the earth and its atmos- phere, and the supporters of the hypothesis that they did originally belong to our planet. Each of these two main groups falls again into subgroups, first the supporters of the hypothesis that the meteo- rites come from unlimited space and the supporters of the hypothesis that they are ejected from lunar voleanoes. ‘The second large group upholding the terrestrial origin of meteorites is divided into two sections, those who think that they originated from the constituents of the atmosphere and those who consider them ejected from terres- trial volcanoes. A suggestion of Proust that meteorites may come from the poles of our earth because there the iron can not have oxidized, on account of the eternal cold, may here be mentioned only as a curiosity. Chladni named the supporters of the four special hypotheses cos- mists, lunarists, atmospherists, and tellurists. To the cosmists Chladni himself belonged first of all. He considered it possible that the meteorites might be original or chaotic material (“ Urmaterie ”)— that is, aggregates of matter which existed in space and which had never belonged to a larger world body, but which might furnish the material from which such world bodies might be formed. Many of the nebula may be nothing else than such shining material spread through enormous spaces. Originating from these world clouds 314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. (Weltworlken), comets and meteorites are distinguished from one another only through their relative size. The formations occurring at the boundary of our atmosphere as loose, dust-like, or gaseous aggregates lose their cosmic velocity through its resistance, and finally, by the explosions taking place, are compacted into a solid body. Chladni, however, did not consider it impossible that the meteor- ites might be remnants of a destroyed world body, as an illustration of which he mentioned the disappearance of a planet between Jupiter and Mars. Olbers gave occasion for this discovery. In portraying the solar system the space between Mars and Jupiter caused him great vexation, and he anticipated that a planet might be found there. This ingenious idea was soon afterwards verified by the dis- covery of the asteroids Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, which he now conceived to be broken pieces of the great planet missed by him. The little planets (asteroids), denoted here as fragments, belong to the ring now known as planetoids, * ™ ™ which a hundred years ago were reported to be angular, not always of uniform size, and therefore of irregular form and variable light intensity. We shall see further on that very recently E. Suess has claimed the vanished planet and the planetoids which were derived from it as the sources of our meteorites. There were many respected adherents of the hypothesis of the origin of meteorites from the volcanoes of the moon. Telescopic observation had at this time already given information as to the sur- face of the moon, “upon which there were overlapping mountains, large chains of mountains extending for great distances, depressions, craters, and planes,” so v. Ende writes in his book “ Ueber Massen und Steine die aus dem Monde auf die Erde herabgefallen sind,” 1904. V. Ende endeavors to strengthen Chladni’s hypothesis and to establish, or at least make probable, the connection between the earth and its satellites. Olbers first expressed the moonstone hypothesis on the occasion of the fall of a meteorite at Siena in 1795. The great geometrician Laplace expressed the same supposition, which Blumenbach also took up with much approval and called it “the most plausible opinion concerning these things.” Arago and Smith were also of the same opinion, and Berzelius, too, was an active follower of the lunar hypothesis in 1836. According to his opinion the meteoric stones came from two different voleanoes on the moon. * * * But when it was established that a volcano on the moon would not possess sufficient energy to impart to an ejected block of stone the necessary initial velocity to reach our earth the hypothesis of the lunar origin fell into disfavor. Strange to relate, it has, however, even at the present day, some individual upholders— for example, the Dutchman Verbeeck, who considers that the glasses ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 315 (telctites) which are conceived by Franz Suess to be meteorites are glass meteorites from the moon. For the sake of justice I must also mention that the lunar hypothe- sis had a predecessor in the writer Paolo Maria Terzago, who, in the description (1660) of the fall of a stone at Milan in 1650, at which a Franciscan monk was killed, expressed the opinion that the “moon was the cause of the falling 4 the stones.” The idea, according to which meteorites were formed out of « con- stituents of the atmosphere, was held only so long as their com- position was yet little known. It was soon seen that iron, nickel, chromium, silica, etc., could not be contained in the air, and Klap- roth noted also that iron would necessarily be oxidized under these conditions. Many other reasons, such as the occurrence of the fire- balls at a great height, their velocity, and occurrence at all times of the day and year, among other things, early withdrew every sup- port from the hypothesis of the origin of meteoric masses in the atmosphere. Of longer duration was the theory of their terrestrial origin—that is, that they had a connection with the formation of the earth— even though not the ejecta of volcanoes (with which, indeed, they do not entirely coincide). A terrestrial derivation in this sense was ascribed to meteorites by Lagrange and later by Tisseraud. According to this they are said to have been thrown out of the in- terior of our planet in the dim early ages with so great force that they were carried beyond the limit of its attraction to form a ring about it, like that of Saturn, out of which fragments fall to the earth again. Such a conception with somewhat different foundation we shall find later held by V. Goldschmidt. Little reference is made to meteorites by astronomers at the be- ginning of the last century. The books on astronomy of those times contain nothing at all about fireballs. Even Bode in his “ Introduc- tion to the Knowledge of the Starry Heavens” (1823) devotes only the following lines to our subject: The so-called flying dragon, the leaping goat (capra saltans), torches, burn- ing beams, and other shining meteors probably have the same nature and consistency in part as the falling stones, and are only distinguished from them in size and shape. Partly they may also consist of thick and viscous vapors of the lower air, which give off a phosphorescent light through a decomposition of their original materials and are blown away by the wind in all sorts of chance forms and shapes. Astronomic hypotheses as to the origin of meteorites did not de- velop until a much later time, and took their rise from the idea that meteorites, shooting stars, and comets were all of the same character. Schiaparelli in 1871 suggested important reasons for the connection between the three kinds of phenomena, reasons which were also 316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. presented with a few changes by the Viennese astronomer Weiss. It was thought that they could assume with some certainty that the shooting stars are bodies as solid as are the meteorites which pene- trate with cosmic velocity the atmosphere of the earth, where they become glowing in the heated air and begin to shine, and after be- ing resolved to dust or consumed become extinct or pass out of the atmosphere. After it had been shown that swarms of shooting stars have been returning regularly for two and one-half thousand years and pro- ceed from a definite point of radiation in the sky, then it was con- sidered the only possibility that the swarms of meteors circling around the sun intercept the orbit of the earth at some point, on the approach to which, in consequence of the density of the earth, a portion of them fall down upon our planet as little meteoric bodies. From the period of rotation, direction, and other factors we have learned how to calculate the course of the meteors and have found that their orbits very nearly coincided with those of the periodic comets. Thus the Leonids move in the orbits of the comet Tempel, 1866, the Perseids in that of the comet 1862 IIT, and the Bielids of the 27th to 29th of November in the éourse of the comet Biela. The agreement is so consistently exact that a whole series of meteor streams can with great probability be traced back to orbits of known comets. That comets are divided by the influence of the sun or of the planets, as has happened to the comet Biela, or altogether break to pieces and scatter themselves along the course of the comets and form a meteoric ring out of which come the swarms or shooting stars; all these coordinate occurrences tend very convincingly to identify the falling meteorites with the shooting stars, and to the belief, therefore, that they are broken pieces of comets. A difference between shooting stars and meteorites con- sists, then, only in that the first named pass noiselessly across the heavens and disappear, while the fireballs hurl their missiles, the meteorites, with thundering noise upon the earth. This theory is still ;held in esteem among astronomers, and is also taken up by Trabert in his Textbook of Cosmic Physics, 1912. The hypothesis can be quite briefly expressed in the following words: Comets which have become periodic split up into periodic swarms of shooting stars which revolve in the courses of the mother comet. The fireballs are, then, nothing more nor less than shooting stars which have been driven into lower layers of air and appear to us in larger sizes. According to all these conceptions one would expect that at times of the abundance of shooting stars, especially of the Leonid and Perseid swarms, there would occur an increase of meteorite falls. Among the about 350 known falls some, to be sure, have fallen at ORIGIN O# METEORITES—BERWERTH. Sud these times. Thus the iron of Mazapil is said to have come from the meteoric shower of the 27th of November, 1885, and, according to this, is a fragment of the comet Biela. But this must remain a mere assumption. The time-table of meteorite falls gives proof that the great majority of meteorites have not come to the surface of the earth at the time of swarms of shooting stars. In opposition to this briefly outlined theory, according to which the meteorites represent a part of the shooting-star phenomena, an hypothesis was proposed in the seventies in the past century which did not take its origin from astronomical assumptions. It was based on a mineralo-geological basis, upon the study of the component material of the meteorites, and upon the times of arrival of me- teorites of like composition. This new (volcanic) hypothesis, founded upon actual observations, was presented in 1875 by G. Tschermak, of the Viennese Academy of Sciences, and was later through supplemental work augmented and established. If Brew- ster, L. Smith, Haidinger, and Daubree have claimed the origin of meteorites through the dissolution of a heavenly body, so the disin- tegration of small celestial bodies is for the first time ascribed by Tschermak to a volcanic process. From the shape of meteorites it is to be concluded that they are actual ruins or broken bits which may come from larger planetary masses. Not only their shapes, but also the slicken-sided surfaces occurring in meteorites point to frac- turing in the mass, and many are like volcanic tuffs or clastic masses, as Haidinger and Reichenbach have already suggested. Where Daubree leaves it undecided whether the fragmentation of a world body is brought about by collision or by explosion, Tschermak based his decision that they resulted from explosive destruction on the ~ physical condition of the meteorites, which are formed by vol- canic explosions unaccompanied by the pouring out of lava just as terrestrial stones which come from explosive craters (similar to the Maaren of Eifel). An explosive activity to which meteorites point can only be brought about by sudden expansions of gases and steam, among which hydrogen may have been in the first rank. Vulcanism as a cosmic phenomena is the destroyer of planetary masses, as we learn from the constituents of meteorites, in harmony with the solar development of stars, which all go through a volcanic phase. The broken bits after their separation are arranged in swarms which cross the orbit of the earth in accordance with law. The most convincing examples for the existence of meteorite streams are formed by the group of eukrites. If one ascertains their orbits and the intersection which they make with that of the earth, one finds that this intersection is progressively retarded, which means that the line of nodes relative to the earth 318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. retrogrades. From the calculation of the time of the nodes of intersection and comparison with observations Tschermak was sble years ago to predict the next falling of a eukrite for about the end of October, which calculation was actually borne out by the falling of the eukrite of Peramiho on the 20th of October, 1899. For the four undoubtedly similar eukrites of Stannern, Jonzac, Juvinas, and Peramiho, the retardation of the intersection was found proportional to the time by the formula (K=longitude of node) K=230.64-++1.6175t, in which t denotes the number of the year minus 1800. The greatest difference between the observations and the calcu- lation is not more than one and one-half days. From the deter- mined return and the regular shifting of the lines of nodes, which yearly corresponds to a change of 1° 36’, there is therefore very great probability for the astronomic connection of the eukrites. Although y. Niessl did not find the astronomic courses of these eukrites to be identical, which means that they did not indicate the same point of origin, still one can always consider as open the possi- bility that the Stannern, Jonzac, and Juvinas stones came from the same region in space, when one considers that the testimony of eye- witnesses as to the course of fireballs is subject to great error because of the suddenness of the occurrence. According to vy. Niesslt the meteorite falls move in hyperbolic courses, which, however, does not shut out the possibility that meteorites occur which move in elliptical courses like planets. Firm support also for this meteoric hypothesis, deduced from indisputable facts, comes from astronomic consideration. More recent observa- tions have shown that there is a difference in kind between the mate- rial of meteorites and shooting-stars. If one arranges the meteorites according to their specific weight, a series results, which begins with the carbonaceous forms, of the density 1.7 to 2.9. Then follow those bearing feldspar with the density 3 to 3.4, those containing bronzite and olivine (mostly chondrites) with the density 4 to 7, and finally the irons of the density 7.5 to 7.8. @arbonaceous “meteoritess— Ss eas ee ee ee 1.7-2.9 Heldspar-bearingsmeteorites*: i) sews See eee ere 3.0-3.4 Bronzite-olivine-bearing stones (mostly chondrites) —-_____~ 4.0-7.0 MR OT tye is Ae es i el ee ee 7.5-7.8 In the face of the lesser densities, which are found in the moon (3.4) in comparison with the earth (5.6), and which decrease in the 1 Determination of Meteor Orbits: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 66, No. 16, 1917.—TRANSLATOR. ORIGIN OF METEORITES—BERWERTH. 319 outer planets of the solar system to 1.4 in the planet Jupiter and 1.1 even in Neptune— Density. TPG Nee ot eee wees © Oe ope ee ee ee Ow Os SPREE ore Pew a PO Bers 5.6 HVE) 0 rae Me se a ea eg 3.4 PREIS ORM ees aE Sate A wea ee ee 1.4 ISSREY OVE NO (Sy ce cca a No lit NE np eh de et Sp ee) eR Ail the supposition becomes the greatest probability that in space parti- cles are spread abroad in clouds of loose consistency, which consist of matter like rock dust, salt-like compounds, carbon, and hydro- carbons, which come into the solar system in streams and upon their entrance are consumed, leaving behind carbonic acid, vapor, and fine dust. The Tschermak hypothesis mentioned here gains in importance when we consider the opinions of many astronomers of to-day, ac- cording to which the completion of the heavenly bodies is incon- ceivable without vulcanism. One need but observe the conditions upon our earth, the moon, and the sun. Also, we find on the comets with elliptic courses phenomena which may be connected or com- pared with volcanic occurrences. Hertz considers the comet tails to be electric waves, Goldstein considers them kathode tufts, others consider them alpha rays of helium, and Svante Arrhenius declares them of mechanical origin, formed through pressure of light radia- tion. He considers the particles of the comets so tiny that they no longer obey the law of gravitation, but are forced out into space by the light rays of the sun, and by electric discharges in the heads of the comets, which also work repulsively upon the material forming the tail. All these phenomena are straightway compared with the great stresses in the interior of the planets, as with volcanic forces, which also Tschermak has applied to the explosive fragmentation of small world bodies and by this means has explained the origin of meteorites. Paying due respect to the opinion of Daubree on the relationship of meteorites to planets and to Tschermak’s derivation of meteorites from small planetary bodies, E. Suess reminds us of the variability in the light of the planetoids as observed by Seeliger and Wolf. Since the course of the latter lies partly outside and partly inside that of Mars, his view is corroborated that between Mars and Jupiter there has existed a unified planetary mass which, according to our knowledge of the constituents of meteorites, must have come from the basic rocks occurring in the kernel of the earth. We therefore find here Tschermak’s conception applied to the dissolution of a definite planet which Olbers missed 100 years ago and in the place of which the planetoids were discovered. Suess says: “ Meteorites and planetoids are nothing else than the passing witnesses of an epi- sode which has taken place in the history of our planetary system.” 320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The lively interest in the visitors to our solar realm which have come to us has aroused numerous other investigators to take a stand as to the origin of meteorites. Goldschmidt apples his“ Komplikation law,” which he has been able to prove in crystalline forms and musical harmony—also to harmony in space—and relegates the formation of meteorites to the time of the separation of the moon from the earth’s sphere, at which time neither moon nor earth absorbed all the dis- rupted material, the residuals being condensed into drops which now probably run their course as meteorites around the earth and are called cosmolites. Svante Arrhenius, in a very recent work, puts the origin of meteor- ites into the realm of nebula or nebulous stars beyond our solar sys- tem. He considers that the little particles separated out by the suns through ray pressure meet in space and collect into aggregates of cosmic dust or meteor stones. The stony aggregates not falling upon the other worlds form a kind of haze, which is the reason that the largest part of the sky between the stars is dark. If we recall the differences mentioned by Tschermak between shoot- ing stars and meteorites, then the results of the investigation of the American astronomer, W. J. Pickering, give strength to the hypo- thesis of Tschermak, since he has found that the courses of the shoot- ing stars and meteorites have different fall curves and the meteorites form a girdle lke the asteroids. He recognizes in the stony meteor- ites similar orbits to those of the planets. On the other hand, they are conceived by Goldschmidt as products of separation at the time of the formation of the moon, while the meteoric irons, moving with a greater velocity, are relegated to the comets. If we pass in review the changing opinions of the century regard- ing the origin of meteorites, we shall without hesitation grant to them the right of membership in our solar system. We shall con- sider their stellar origin and their coming in from strange worlds as improbable, and shall marvel at them according to their constitution and their forms as broken bits of a world body destroyed by volcanic events. THE PRESENT STATE OF THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION. By Prof. M. CauLiery. The exchange of professors between the Sorbonne and Harvard University for the first time brings to Cambridge a professor of science. In a certain way I come in return for the visits which Prof. M. Bocher and Prof. W. M. Davis have already made to the faculty of sciences at Paris. All my predecessors belonged to our faculty of letters. All have brought back a recollection of the hearty wel- come which they received, and what they told me contributed largely in inducing me to accept the mission which was offered to me. I had the assurance of good will and generous sympathy from my eol- leagues as well as from my pupils. In the beginning I must excuse myself for not being able to express myself, at least for the present, in English. The most important point in teaching is clearness in expressing thoughts. By speaking to you in my own language I hope to succeed much better in a diffi- cult subject, and for that reason to obtain forgivness for the effort which, to my regret, I occasion you. The purpose of the exchange between the two universities is to convey to the one the methods of teaching employed in the other. IT have the honor -to occupy at the University of Paris a chair of biology especially devoted to the study of the evolution of organic beings. It is then to the present state of this great problem that the lectures which I am going to give will be dedicated. I do not enter upon this subject here without some apprehension. Certain of my predecessors by the very nature of their subjects were able to have, at least, the illusion that Europe is still the veritable center of learn- ing. But I have not this advantage. The necessary conditions for the development of the sciences are now at least as well fulfilled—I will even say better fulfilled—in the United States than in Europe, and for many of the sciences Europeans coming to this country have as much to learn as to teach. This seems to me particularly the case 1 An introductory lecture in a course offered by Prof. M. Caullery as exchange professor at Harvard University, Feb. 24, 1916. Translated from the French by Mrs. C. H. Grand- gent. Reprinted from Science, April 21, 1916. 321 322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. in biology and especially in the questions connected with the problem of evolution. Besides, the advance of American science in these directions does not date from yesterday. In the study of paleontology, which has a large place in the questions with which we are to concern ourselves, your scholars have, for a long time, been working with activity and considerable success the marvellous layers of American deposits, and have drawn from them, to cite only one instance, magnificent collec- tions of reptiles and mammals, which we come to admire in the mu- seums on this side of the Atlantic. Here more than anywhere else have been enlarged the paths opened a century ago by George Cuvier. In zoology, properly speaking, the museum of comparative zoology, in which I have the honor to speak at this time, justly famous in Europe, bears witness to the importance and long standing of the re- sults accomplished. Louis Agassiz, more than half a century ago, was one of the most eminent names of his generation. Later, when the investigation of the great depths of the ocean marked an impor- tant and consequent stage in the knowledge of earth and life, Alex- ander Agassiz, his son and illustrious successor, was one of the most eager and skillful workers. The expeditions of the Blake and of the Albatross are among those which have drawn from the deep the most important and most precious materials, and their results have been the most thoroughly studied. The personality of Alexander Agassiz, whom I had the honor of meeting in Paris about 13 years ago, made upon me a striking impression. His real laboratory was the ocean, and he succeeded to the end of his life in maintaining an activity that corresponded to its amplitude. He was truly the naturalist of one of the great sides of nature. Around Louis and Alexander Agassiz, the museum and the laboratory of comparative zoology of Harvard College have been for a long time a center of studies of the first rank. In the domain of embryology Charles S. Minot also has carried on important work. But it is especially at the present mo- ment that American biological science has made an amazing advance which expresses itself in the excellence of publications and in the results which they reveal by the number of collaborators, the activity of societies, the number of laboratories, and the abundance of mate- rial resources at their disposal. Here occurs a special factor, which has considerable importance, the enlightened and large generosity of numerous patrons. It is incontestable that men of talent find more easily in America than in Europe, and especially at the age of their full activity, the cooperation without which their greatest efforts are to a certain extent barren. Now, at the point to which we have ar- rived, the greater part of scientific problems demands the exercise of considerable pecuniary resources and of collaborators of various ca- PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. ovo pabilities. This is particularly true of biology, where, moreover, many questions, notwithstanding their scientific importance, do not lead to practical application, at any rate immediately. We succeed too rarely in Europe in combining these resources, above all in com- bining them rapidly enough. The European public does not sufii- ciently realize their necessity and interest. And the action of the state necessarily lacks the flexibility needful for rapid realization. Thus Pasteur was able to organize the institution which bears his name only at the end of his life, and at the inauguration he was heard to say mournfully, “I enter here defeated by Time.” In America the power and the eagerness which private initiative gives provide for this need. Truly the greatest wonder is that this liber- ality is generally well conceived and well employed. It is also true that the problems of the day in contemporaneous biology are nowhere else attacked at the present time with such activity, perseverance, and success as in the United States. As we look at different points on the biological horizon we see the studies on the Mendelian theory of heredity in full development in numbers of laboratories. It will be enough for me to cite in this connection the names of Messrs. Castle and East in this very spot, and that of Mr. T. H. Morgan, in New York. In the realm of the physiology and the structure of the cell and of the egg, the researches of KH. B. Wilson, and of his pupils on the chromosomes; of J. Loeb on experi- mental parthenogenesis; of F. R. Lillie on oe fertilization of the egg; of Calkins, and recently of Woodruff, on the senescence of the infusoria, suffice to show the share which this country has had in the advance of knowledge. And I ought also to mention numer- ous works on embryology and on the study of the filiation of the cells of the embryo (cell lineage), on regeneration, on the behavior of the lower organisms, on geographic distribution, and the varia- tions of the species studied from the most diverse sides; all branches of biology are flourishing vigorously. In addition, the United States, more than any other country, has developed scientific institutions designed for the study of the application of biology to agriculture, to fisheries, etc. In the face of this situation, I wish to make it clear at the outset that I have not the least expectation of bringing here a solution of the problem of evolution. I have too full a realization of the extent of the scientific movement aroused by this question in the United States, and I hope to derive great benefit myself from my stay here, from the contact which is permitted me with my col- leagues and with their laboratories. This latter advantage is not the least which arises from the exchange between the two uni- versities. Nor have I the expectation of bringing to you a new 324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. solution of the problem, nor of examining it from a special and original point of view, such as might be the case in a single lecture or a small number of lectures. I will adhere strictly to the point of view of the instructor, taking the question as a whole, expounding it in its older aspects as well as in its more recent ones. The interest in these lectures is, above all, in my opinion, in the coordination of facts and in their critical examination. As this coordination is influenced in a large measure by the surrounding conditions, the view that a naturalist has of them in Paris ought to be interesting here. In questions as complicated and as undeveloped as these still are, where we have not reached a precise conclusion, the relations of facts can not be established in a harsh and unequivocal fashion. This is particu- larly true of the problem of evolution at the point we have reached. During the last few years very rapid and great progress has been made in our knowledge relative to certain kinds of data, notably heredity and variation. But they have not failed to shake mark- edly the notions which previously seemed to be at the very founda- tion of evolution. One of my compatriots, an ardent disciple of Lamarck, F. Le Dantec, wrote even as far back as eight years ago a book bearing the significant title “a Crise du Transform- isme,”? in which he brought out the contradictions in question, contradictions which, according to him, were to result in the ruin of the very idea of transformism. Since that time opposition has become even more marked, and at the present day, either tacitly or explicitly, certain of the most authoritative men, by their works, have arrived very near to a conception which would be the negation of transformism rather than its affirmation. The term “evolution,” in French, at least, has had historically two contrary meanings. In the eighteenth century it was the ex- pression of the theory of the preformation or “emboitement” of the germs, according to which the lot of every organism was deter- mined from the beginning. The succession of generations was only the unfolding (evolutio) of parts that existed from the beginning. In the nineteenth century, and it is in this sense that it is always used now, it had an opposite sense; it is the synonym of transform- ism and it signifies the swccessive transformation of animal or vege- table organic types, not realized beforehand, in the course of the history of the earth, under the influence of external causes. Now, if one admits the general value of certain of the ideas recently ex- pressed, evolution would be only the unfolding of a series of phases completely determined in the germs of primitive organisms. It is a reversion, under a modern form, to the idea which the word evolution 1 Nouvelle collection scientifique,” Paris, Alcan, PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 325 represented in the eighteenth century. It is unnecessary to say that I use the word evolution in its nineteenth-century sense, which is synonymous with transformism. It is evident then that all is far from being clear in the present conception of transformism and that, in consequence, an exposition of its various aspects and an effort to coordinate them is not a useless thing in a course of lectures. Fur- thermore a comprehensive glance at the principal questions which we shall have to examine will make my meaning clear and will give me the chance to indicate the general plan of the course. In spite of the contradictions to which I have just alluded, the reality of transformism as an accomplished fact is no longer seri- ously questioned. We can make the statement that, in the unani- mous opinion of biologists, evolution—that is to say, the gradual differentiation of organisms from common ancestral forms—is the only rational and scientific explanation of the diversity of fossil and living beings. All the known facts come easily under this hypothesis. All morphology in its different aspects, comparative anatomy, embryology, paleontology, verifies it. By virtue of this same hypothesis these different branches of morphology have made an enormous progress since Darwin’s day. The significance of cer- tain categories of facts, especially in the domain of embryology, may have been exaggerated. Scientific men have certainly overworked the idea that the development of the individual, or ontogeny, was an abridged repetition of phylogeny—that is to say, of the several states through which the species had passed—an idea which Haeckel raised to the fundamental law of biogenesis and which a whole gen- eration of naturalists accepted almost as a dogma. Without doubt ontogeny, in certain cases shows incontestable traces of previous states, and for that reason embryology furnishes us with palpable proofs of evolution and with valuable information concerning the affinities of groups. But there can no longer be any question of systematically regarding individual development as a repetition of the history of the stock. This conclusion results from the very prog- ress made under the inspiration received from this imaginar y law, the law of biogenesis. The first part of the course will be devoted then to the consid- eration of the general data which morphology furnishes toward the support of the idea of evolution. Thus we shall see what con- ception comparative anatomy, embryology, and paleontology afford us of the way in which evolution is brought about, and within what limits we may hope to reconstruct it. Evolution is essen- tially a process which belongs to the past and even to a past extraor- dinarily distant. It is a reasonable supposition that evolution is going on to-day, but let us remember that nothing authorizes us to believe that what we may observe in the present epoch about 738389°—sm 1916—— 22 326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. organisms will necessarily explain the succession of their former states. Evolution is an irreversible process and one which has not progressed at a uniform rate. We must not, then, expect to verify necessarily by the present organisms all the facts disclosed by morphology. It follows in my opinion that morphological data may force upon us indirectly certain conclusions even though we should have no experimental proof of them in contemporary nature. Because of this very limitation which I have just pointed out, much of the difficulty of the study of the mechanism of evolution arises and to this may be attributed many of the profound dif- ferences among naturalists on the subject of evolutionary mech- anism. The second part of the course will be devoted to the ex- amination and the criticism of the solutions that have been proposed. In a general way, the study of the mechanism of evolution is that of the reciprocal influence of agents external to the organisms, on the one hand, and of the living substance, properly speaking, on the other hand. There are, then, if you wish, the external fac- tors which together constitute the environment, and the internal factors which are the specific properties of the organism. ‘These two elements are very unequally accessible to us. The environ- ment is susceptible of being analyzed with precision, at least as far as the present is concerned, and we can surmise it with enough probability as to preceding periods. We know very much less about living matter, and especially about the way in which its properties may have varied in the course of time. Hence one meets with two tendencies which have been encountered ever since the evolutionary question arose and which are still very definite and very contra- dictory in their effects on the general theories of evolution. One of those attributes a large share to the external factors and attempts to explain facts by physicochemical actions which are directly ac- cessible. The other sees in internal factors, in the intrinsic prop- erties of the organism itself, preponderant if not exclusive agents. The first tendency attracts us more because it gives a larger share to analysis; that is to say, to the truly scientific method. The second flatters our ignorance with fallacious verbal explanations. It is open to the objections brought against vitalist conceptions; and when, as is the case of certain old and new theories, we come to restrict the effective réle to internal factors alone, we may ask ourselves whether there is a really essential difference between con- ceptions of this nature and creationist ideas; between declaring that species have been created successively and arbitrarily by an arbi- trary sovereign will, without the external world having influenced their structure, or maintaining that organic forms succeed one an- other, derived, to be sure, one from another but following a suc- cession that is really determined in advance and independent of PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 307 external contingencies. Between such views there is in reality no considerable difference. Such an idea substitutes for successive creations one initial creation with successive and continuing mani- festations. The present crisis of transformism, as Le Dantec and others set it forth, is the conflict concerning the reciprocal value of external and internal factors in evolution. The two principal and classic solutions proposed to explain evo- lution were based on the eflicacy of external factors, both the theory advanced by Lamarck in 1809 in his Philosophie Zoologique, as well as that of Darwin, formulated in 1859, in The Origin of Spe- cies. Lamarck starts in fact with the statement that the structure of organisms is in harmony with the conditions under which they live and that it is adapted to these conditions. This adaptation is, in his opinion, not an a priori fact, but a result. The organism is shaped by the environment; usage develops the organs in the indi- vidual; without usage they become atrophied. The modifications thus acquired are transmitted to posterity. Adaptation of indi- viduals, inheritance of acquired characteristics—these are the funda- mental principles of Lamarckism. Except for its verification, it is the most complete scientific theory of transformism which has been formulated, because it looks to the very cause of the change of or- ganisms by its method of explaining adaptation. Darwin adopted the idea of Lamarck and admitted theoretically adaptation and the inheritance of acquired characteristics, but he accorded to them only a secondary importance in the accomplishment of evolution. The basis for him is the variability of organisms, a general characteristic whose mechanism he did not try to determine and which he accepts as a fact. This being so, the essential factor of the gradual trans- formation of species is the struggle for life between the individuals within each species and between the different species. The individ- uals which present advantageous variations under the conditions in which they live have more chance to survive and to reproduce them- selves; those which, on the contrary, offer disadvantageous variations run more chance of being suppressed without reproducing them- selves. There is established, then, automatically a choice between in- dividuals, or, according to the accepted terminology, a natural selec- tion, a choice which perpetuates the advantageous variations and eliminates the others. And with this going on in each generation the type is transformed little by little. Natural selection accumulates the results of variation. This is not the time to discuss Darwin’s theory. I wish only to observe at this time that it is less complete than that of Lamarck in that it does not try to discover the cause of variations; also that, like that of Lamarck, it attributes a considerable participation to the con- 028 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. ditions outside the organism, since it is these finally which decide the fate of the variations. And one of the forms in which the oppo- sition to the transformist ideas, at the time of Darwin, manifested itself was the very argument that if organisms had varied it was only because of an internal principle, as Kélliker and Nigeli have more particularly explained. The biologists at the end of the nineteenth century were divided with regard to the mechanism of evolution into two principal groups, following either Lamarck or Darwin. Among the neo- Lamarckians some have accorded to natural selection the value of a secondary factor, holding that the primary factors are the direct modifying influences of the surroundings which according to them cause the variations. Selection came in only secondarily, by sort- ‘ing out these variations and especially by eliminating some of them. Such was the particular doctrine developed by my master, A. Giard, at the Sorbonne. Others have more or less absolutely refused to grant any value to selection. Such was the case of the philosopher Herbert Spencer. We must also recognize that, since the time of Darwin, natural selection has remained a purely speculative idea and that no one has been able to show its eflicacy in concrete indisputable examples. The neo-Darwinists, on their side, have in a general way gone further than Darwin because they see in selection the exclusive factor of evolution and deny all value to Lamarckian factors. This was the doctrine of Wallace, and has been especially that of Weismann. I will digress a moment to speak of the ideas of these last-mentioned authors, because of the influence which they have exerted and still exert, correctly in some respects, incorrectly in others, at least as I think. Weismann attacked the doctrine of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and has incontestably shown the weakness of the facts which had been cited before his time in support of this kind of heredity. But he went too far when he tried to show the impossi- bility of this form of heredity. In so deing, he starts from a concep- tion which meets with great favor—the radical distinction between the cells of the body proper, or soma, and of the reproductive ele- ments, or germ cells. He saw in these two categories distinct and in- dependent entities, the one opposed to the other. Soma, which con- stitutes the individual, properly speaking, is only the temporary and perishable envelope of the germ, which is itself a cellularsauton- omous immortal line, which is continuous through successive genera- tions and forms the substratum of hereditary properties. The germ alone has some kind of absolute value. The soma is only an epiphe- nomenon, to use the language of philosophers. The soma is, of PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 829 course, modified by external conditions, but for one to speak of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, the local modifications of the soma would have to be registered in the germ and reproduced in the same form in the soma of following generations in the absence of the external cause which produced them in the first place. Now, says Weismann, the possibility of such an inscription, as it were, upon the germ of a modification undergone by the soma is not evident a priori, and when we go over the facts we find none supporting this con- clusion. There are, indeed, modifications which appear in one gen- eration and which are reproduced in the following generations; but Weismann goes on to attempt to prove that at their first appearance they were not the effect of external factors on the soma, but that they proceeded from the very constitution of the germ; that they were not really acquired and somatic, but were truly innate or germinal. Such, reduced to its essential points, is the negative contention of the doctrine of Weismann. It rests upon the absolute and abstract distinction between the soma and the germ. In spite of the support which this conception has had and still has, I consider it, for my part, as unjustifiable in the degree of strictness which Weismann has attrib- uted to it. It is true that the advance in embryology and cytology often allows us to identify the reproductive tissue and to follow it almost continuously through successive generations, but the concep- tion of its autonomy is at least a physiological paradox. Though the continuity of the germ cells is sufficiently evident in many organ- isms, it is more than doubtful in others, particularly in all those which reproduce asexually; that is to say, many large groups of animals like the Coelenterata, the Bryozoa, the Tunicata, and many plants. This has more than the force of an exception; it is a general principle of the life of species. One can not, then, say that the con- ception of Weismann carries full conviction. But this conception exercised a tyrannical influence upon the minds of contemporaneous biologists, and it is exclusively through it that most of them look at the facts. Weismann, besides, exercised a considerable influence by champion- ing a theory of heredity based at the start on the preceding ideas. This theory, built with undoubted ingenuity and adapted to the knowledge gained from the study of cell division, turns out on the other hand to agree with the recent works on heredity. Lamarckism and Darwinism shared the support of biologists up to the end of the nineteenth century, discussion being in general re- stricted to speculation. The controversy begun in 1891 between Weis- mann and Spencer, who represented the two extremes, gives an idea of the extent to which one could go in this direction. 330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The last 20 years constitute indisputably a new period in the his- tory of transformism where the field of discussion has been renewed, and scientists have sought to give it a much more positive and ex- perimental character. Two kinds of investigation have been devel- oped in this direction: On one hand the methodical study of varia- tions, and on the other that of heredity and especially of hybridiza- tion. These two categories overlap. Note that this new point of view is not, properly speaking, a study of evolution. According to it, variation and heredity in themselves, under present conditions, are analyzed independently of all hypo- thetical previous states of the organism. Afterwards the results obtained with the Lamarckian, Darwinian, and other succeeding theories will be confronted. The sum of these researches, which are now in high favor, is a new and important branch of biology, which has received the name of genetics. It defines for us in particular the hitherto very vague notion of heredity and seems certain to lead us to an analysis of the properties of living substance somewhat comparable to that which the atomic theory has afforded concerning organic chemistry. We can not maintain too strongly its great importance. As far as the theory of evolution is concerned, the results obtained up to this time have been rather disappointing. ‘Taken together the newly dis- covered facts have had a more or less destructive trend. In truth the results obtained do not agree with any of the general con- ceptions previously advanced and do not show us how evolution may have come about. They have a much greater tendency, if we look only to them, to suggest the idea of the absolute steadfastness of the species. We must evidently accept these facts such as they are. But what is their significance? On the one hand they are still limited, on the other hand, as I have already stated above, and as I shall try to show in the following lectures, the advances made by the study of heredity in organisms at the present time and under the conditions in which we are placed, does not permit us to accept ipso facto the doctrines of heredity for all past time and under all circumstances. To use a comparison which has only the force of a metaphor but. which will make my thought clear, the biologist who studies heredity is very much like a mathematician who is studying a very complex function with the aid of partial differential equations and who tries to analyze the properties and the function about a point without being able as in the case of an elementary function to study it in itself, directly, in all its aspects. The properties ascertained about one point are not necessarily applicable to all space. As far as the organisms are concerned, the conditions of their variability have not certainly been the same in all periods. The PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 8381 idea of a progressive diminution of their variability has been often expressed, notably by D. Rosa. Le Dantec, according to his favorite theoretical method in which he considers only the fundamental prin- ciples of the problem, has tried to reconcile these facts with the La- marckian doctrine in his book on La Stabilité de la Viet. In the transformation of organisms as well as in that of inert matter, he regards every change as the passage from a less stable to a more stable state. The many organisms, after having varied much and rapidly, might then, perhaps, be for the present in a state of very constant stability, at least the greater part of them. But for the time being I must omit further consideration of this suggestion. We shall have then in the third part of the course to examine, while bearing in mind the preceding opinions, the general results of recent researches in variation and heredity. I shall now sum up the principal lines of investigation preparatory to tracing the plan of these lectures. The methodical study of variations in animals and in plants has led us to recognize that the greater part of these variations are not inherited. If we apply to them the methods of the Belgian statis- tician Quetelet, we shall perceive that for each property numerically stated the different individuals of a species range themselves accord- ing to the curve of the probability of error, the greatest number of individuals corresponding to a certain measure which represents what is called the mean. The term fluctuation is given to those variations that are on either side of the mean and the study of these fluctuations, begun in England by Galton, has been developed and systematized by H. De Vries and Johannsen. In short, it is the whole of the curve of fluctuations which is characteristic of heredity in a given organism, and not such and such a particular measure corresponding to a point in the curve. In cross-bred organisms there is, in each generation, an intermixture of two very complex inheritances, since these organisms result from an infinite number of these intermixtures in former generations. On the contrary, the problem is very simplified, if one considers the organisms regularly reproducing themselves by self-fertilization as is the case in certain plants. Here there is no longer in each genera- tion a combination of new lines, but a continuation of one and the same line. It is the same hereditary substance which perpetuates itself. The Danish physiologist and botanist Johannsen attacked, as you know, the problem in this way, by studying variation along a series of generations in lines of beans, and the conclusion of his researches, which have had in recent years a very great influence, is that each pure line gives a curve of special fluctuations under special 1‘ Bibliothéque scientifique internationale,’ Paris, Alcan. 332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. conditions. The variations that we observe in the action of external agents explain the different reactions of the hereditary substance to the conditions of the environment, but this substance itself remains unaltered. The consequence is that, in what since the time of Linné we have considered a species, and have admitted to be a more or less real entity, there is an infinity of lines, more or less different among themselves in their hereditary properties, which are fixed and in- dependent of environment. This it is that Johannsen calls the bco- type, or genotype; a species is nothing but the sum of an infinity of genotypes differing very little from one another. H. De Vries on his side reached analogous views which prove to harmonize with the results and ideas formulated some 40 years ago by a French botanist, Jordan, an unyielding adversary of transformism. J ordan, too, by means of well-ordered cultures, had analyzed a species of erucifer (Draba verna) in 200 elementary species independent of ‘one another. He deserves to be considered in any case as the pre- cursor of the ideas of which I have just given a synopsis. It is not, then, in ordinary varibility, as it was known up to this time, that one can, following the ideas of De Vries and Johann- sen, hope to find the key to evolution, since variations can not be the starting point for permanent changes. Examining a plant (@nothera lamarckiana), De Vries thought he had found this key in abrupt transformations succeeding one another in organisms, under conditions which he has not been able to determine and which remain mysterious. The abrupt and immediately hereditary varia- tions he named mutations and set them in opposition to fluctuations (i. e., common variations). According to him, evolution is not con- tinuous but operates through mutations. The theory of mutations has been, since 1901, the occasion of an enormous number of experi- mental studies and of controversies, into which I shall not enter at this time, but I shall finally endeavor to extract the results won by this method of work. Let us note that, if De Vries and the muta- tionists do not formally deny the intervention of external factors in the production of mutations, the role of these factors is no longer very clearly or directly apparent, and some deny it more or less fully. In short, systematic study has led to an antithesis between fluctua- tions produced under the influence of the environment but not heredi- tary, and mutations not directly dependent upon the environment but upon heredity. We shall have to discuss the value of this distinction, the extent and the importance of mutations. Another and very effective branch of research which has developed since 1900 and which dominates the study of biology just now, is the study of hybridization, which has led to the doctrine known as Mendelism. Sometimes the name genetics is specifically applied to it. PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 833 Toward 1860 the study of hybridization had led two botanists, the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel and the French botanist Naudinj simultaneously but quite independently, to conceptions which did not particularly attract the attention of their contemporaries, but which were brought to light again in 1900, and which then formed the starting point of very many and important investigations. The ex- perimental study of Mendelian heredity has been carried on, espe- cially here in Harvard, with great success by Mr. Castle on various mammals and by Mr. East on plants. This topic, therefore, is famil- iar to the students of biology in this university. I shall speak of it for the present, only to state the general results. Let me recall to your minds as briefly as possible the essentials of Mendelism. According to this doctrine most of the properties which we can distinguish in organisms are transmitted from one generation to another as distinct units. We are led to believe that they exist autonomously in the sexual elements or gametes, and we caf, therefore, by proper crossing, group such and such properties in a single individual, or, on the con- trary, we can separate them. The biologist deals with these unit characteristics as the chemist does with atoms or with lateral chains, in a complex organic compound. The properties which we distin- guish thus are nothing but the very indirect external expression of constituent characteristics of the fundamental living substance of the species. But we imagine, and it is in this that the enormous im- portance of Mendelism consists, that it has been the means of giving us a more precise idea than we have had heretofore of a substantial basis for heredity. In itself Mendelism is only symbolism, like the atomic theory in chemistry, but the case of chemistry shows what can be drawn from a well-conceived symbolism, and the Mendelian symbolism becomes more perfect each day in its form, in its concep- tion, and in its application. The recent works of T. H. Morgan? ar particularly interesting in this respect. Further, the facts furnished by Mendelism agree well with those of cytology. The results are explained easily enough, if we accord to the chromatine in the nucleus, and particularly to chromosomes, 2 special value in heredity. The agreement of cytology and of Men- delism in incontestably a very convincing fact and a guide in present research. But if we return now to the study of evolution, the data of Mendel- ism embarrass us also very considerably. All that it shows us, in fact, is the conservation of existing properties. Many variations which might have seemed to be new properties are simply traced to previously unobserved combinations of factors already existing. 1“ Nouvelles Recherches sur l’Hybridité dans les Végétaux.” Nouvelles Arch. du Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, Tome 1, 1865, cf. p. 156. : 2 Cf. Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller and Bridges, ‘‘ The Mecianism of Mendelian Heredity,’ New York, 1915. 334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. This has indeed seriously impaired the mutation theory of De Vries, the fundamental example of the Z’nothera lamarchiana seeming to be not a special type of variation, but an example of complex hybridiza- tion. The authors who have especially studied Mendelian heredity find themselves obliged to attribute all the observed facts to combina- tions of already existing factors, or to the loss of factors, a conception which seems to me a natural consequence of the symbolism adopted, but which hardly satisfies the intelligence. In any case, we do not see in the facts emerging from the study of Mendelism, how evolu- tion, in the sense that morphology suggests, can have come about. And it comes to pass that some of the biologists of greatest authority in the study of Mendelian heredity are led, with regard to evolution, either to more or less complete agnosticism, or to the expression of ideas quite opposed to those of the preceding generation; ideas which would almost take us back to creationism. Lamarckism and Darwinism*are equally affected by these views. The inheritance of acquired characters is condemned and natural selection declared unable to produce a lasting and progressive change in organisms. The facts of adaptation are explained by a previous realization of structures which are found secondarily in harmony with varied surroundings. That is the idea which different biologists have reached and which M. Cuenot in particular has developed sys- tematically.t Two recent and particularly significant examples of these two tendencies are furnished us by W. Bateson and by J. P. Lotzy. In his Problems of Genetics, Bateson declares that we must recognize our almost entire ignorance of the processes of evolution, and in his presidential address at the meeting of the British Association in Australia, in 1914, he goes so far as to express the idea that evolu- tion might be considered as the progressive unrolling of an initial complexity, containing, from the first, within itself, all the scope, the diversity, and all the differentiation now presented by living beings. As Mr. Castle cleverly expressed it, carrying the idea to its logical issue, man might be regarded as a simplified ameba, a conclusion which may well give us pause. Here we clearly recognize, on the other hand, modernized in form, but identical in principle, the con- ception of the “emboitement” of the germs, and of preformation, ideas to which, as I have reminded you, the eighteenth century applied the name evolution. It is a conception diametrically op- posed to that of the transformism of the nineteenth century. Mr. Lotzy, struck by the results of the crossing of distinct species of Antirrhinum, has reached in the last three years the conclusion that a species is fixed and that crossing is the only source of produc- 1Cuenot, “‘La Genése des espéces animales,’ Paris, Biblioth@éque Scientifique Interna- tionale (Alcan), 1911.—“ Théorie de la préadaptation,” Scientia, Tome 16, p. 60, 1914. PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION—CAULLERY. 835 tion of new forms. Hybridization among species, when it yields fertile offspring, may, according to him, give rise, all at once, to a whole series of new forms, whose mutual relations and differential characteristics correspond exactly to what the natural species show. However subversive and delusive ideas of this kind, positive or negative, appear to generations saturated with Lamarckism and Darwinism, we must not lose sight of the fact that they were formu- lated by eminent biologists, and that they are the result of long and minute experimental researches and that many of the facts on which they rest may be considered as firmly established. But without thinking of rebelling against the facts resulting from genetic studies, we may question whether they have so general a sig- nificance. I have already more than once pointed out that the present aspect of organic heredity does not oblige us to conclude that it has always been the same. We may ask ourselves whether condi- tions, which have not yet been realized in experiment, do not either modify directly the germinal substance itself, or the correlation existing between the parts of the soma, and indirectly through them the germinal substance. The facts which the study of internal secre- tions are just beginning to reveal, perhaps indicate a possibility of this kind. Even if we admit that evolution proceeds only discon- tinuously by mutations, we still have to discover the mechanism of the production of these mutations. In short, we may believe that, with heredity and variations acting as recent researches have shown them to act, there are nevertheless conditions that are still unknown and that they have been realized for each series of organisms only at certain periods, as seems to be suggested by paleontology, and in which the constitution and properties of hereditary substances are changeable. Of course these are purely hypothetical conjectures, but such conjectures must be made if we wish to reconcile two categories of already acquired data which we are obliged to recognize as facts. On the one hand we have the results of modern genetics which of themselves lead to conceptions of fixity, and on the other hand, the mass of morphological data which, considered from a rational point of view, seem to me to possess the value of stubborn facts in support of the transformist conception; I will even go so far as to say in support of a transformism more or less Lamarckian. It seemed to me necessary to devote the first meeting of the course to this general analysis of the conditions under which the problem of transformism now presents itself. I believe that this analysis is the justification of the course itself. It shows the advantage of con- fronting in a series of lectures the old classic data with the modern tendencies, all of which have to be brought into agreement. 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By Dr. J. C. Lewis, R. A. O. U., Melbourne. [With 5 plates.] That continual adjustment, so necessary for life, between internal relations of an organism and the external world would be impossible were it not for the communion of the sense organs. . They stand, as it were, midway between the organism and its surroundings, keeping the internal relations aware of and alive to the external happenings and conditions. These functions probably arose with the necessity for adaptation to environment and its ever-changing demands, and in the struggle for existence they are necessary factors for the survival of the race. Of the different special senses, hearing and sight stand apart in the degree of specialization, and this specialization, again, varies greatly in the divisions of the animal kingdom. In the animal world, for example, we find all stages from blindness to acute vision. Where the sight is poor, smell and hearing are, in compensation, extremely acute. The vision of the rhinoceros is limited to some 50 yards or so and is poor even for that short range, but the acute- ness of the sense of smell makes good the sight deficiency. In birds specialization of sight reaches its highest degree of development; and though hearing is fairly acute, the sense of smell is certainly vestigial. One feature of the functions of hearing and sight is the projection of their sensory impulses. Taking sight, we find that light reflected from a distant object is picked up by the cornea and lens and brought into focus at a point on the retina. The stimulation of the numerous endings of the optic nerve sets up an activity which, after passing through many systems of relays, reaches the sight centers in the brain, giving rise to a complex chemical action in the cells, where the myriad impulses are figured out into a light pattern in the image of the original object. Though the action setting up these impulses originates in the brain, where the image is really 1 Reprinted from the Emu, Vol. 15, Pt. 4, April, 1916. 338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. synthetized, the sensation is projected to the object from which the light is reflected. A similar projection occurs with the function of hearing, though perhaps not so definite in its localization. If we consider the eye as an optical apparatus, looking at it from a mechanical point of view, we find that it can be likened with advan- tage to a camera, the convergence of rays being brought about by the lens and the cornea, the retina taking the place of the sensitized plate. This convergence of the diverging rays of light into focus on the retina from objects at varying distances is termed accommo- dation and corresponds roughly to the focusing of a camera. The process of accommodation differs greatly in the different classes of the animal kingdom. In terrestrial forms, where there is media of very much less density outside the eye—namely, the air—the princi- pal convergence is done by the cornea, the outer transparent covering of the eye, the amount of convergence depending upon the laws of refraction governing light passing from a less dense to denser media. Though the lens also acts to a lesser extent in the same way, the corneal convergence is the more important in these forms, the special important function of the lens being the alteration of focus. On the other hand, in aquatic forms, such as fish, no corneal convergence, or almost none, is present, the media—namely, sea water, or even fresh water—being of practically the same density as the media of the eye itself. In these forms convergence must, therefore, be brought about by the lens only, and for that purpose a spherical lens is present. The physiology of accommodation in birds is remarkably com- plicated, differing in many respects from that found in the mam- mals. In the latter, or to be more correct, in the terrestrial forms alteration of focus is brought about by alteration in the shape of the lens. This structure when focused for near objects becomes more convex, particularly on the anterior surface. There is no change in shape of the transparent front part of the eye. In birds, on the other hand, with the exception of some of the night fliers, though like in man and other animals, the eye is normally focused for distance, accommodation is a more complex process, there being change in shape both of the lens itself and of the eyeball as a whole. It fur- ther differs in that it is a positive process, relaxation of the muscle focusing the eye for nearer points. In birds there are found two main types of eyes, though inter- mediate forms exist—namely, the tubular eye, with rounded lens, which allows for a normal near vision such as in the night-flying birds; and the other, the almost spherical eye, with flattened lens, characteristic of high-soaring birds of prey, and consequently adapted for distant vision (pl. 1). Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Lewis. Plate 1 1, Eyeof Emu dissected to show anterior and posterior chamber of globe, showing well- developed pecten, almost spherical eye, flat- tened lens. Type of eye normally focussed for distance. 2. Globes of the eye of a Horned Owl. Skull dissected away to show comparative size of eyes to the brain. Cornearemoved from right eye. Specimen shows the tubular eye of near-sighted night birds, the eyes capable of forward vision, both seeing practically the same field of vision. 3. Plain Wandercr. Type of total monocular vision. Both visual fields distinct. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Lewis. PLATE 2 AUSTRALIAN BARN OWL. Showing eyes capable of forward double vision. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Lewis. PLATE 3. NANKEEN KESTREL. Showing eyes capable of seeing a single object with both eyes, though total visual fields vary greatly. “yoalqo o]SuIs B UO 9A9 JeT}O OY} Jo UOT}LI}MID0N Ut UOTssorddns Jo ejqedvo oAd JOYALO ‘BUlIaPIP Spley [enslA YA0q ‘aejnoouour AT[V}0} WOIST A ‘NO3ZDIqd GALSAYO “p sLV1d "SIMa7—'916| ‘HOday uR|UOsY}IWS CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS. 839 There is little to be said of the iris in birds apart from the fact that the movement of this curtain or diaphragm is voluntary, the pupil widening or closing at will. Apart from the voluntary action, closing of the pupil or a stopping-down process occurs in the presence of strong light, and is, therefore, reflex in nature, widening of the pupil being noticed in weak light and also for distant vision. The retina—the sensitive plate, as it were, of the eye—consists of a layer of fine nerve endings which in most animals conform to two well-marked types—rods and cones. In birds it has been for a long time thought that this layer consisted of rods only, but closer examination shows that cones are present, though very much reduced in number. There is also a belief existent, with perhaps some reason, that the function of the cones is associated with differ- entiation of colors or the formation of visual purple, while rods determine movement, form, and shape. This is the layer which is stimulated by the photo-chemical action of light, the sensitizing substance being found in the external layer of the retina and called, for convenience, visual purple. It is believed that this substance changes under the effect of ight, and the chemical changes effected act on and stimulate the nerve endings, giving rise to the particular sensation. In vertebrates this retina is not without its drawbacks. There is a well-marked blind spot where the optic nerve branches out into its numerous endings, this area being particularly large where the pecten is well developed. Further, many blood vessels ramify over the surface of the retina, and here, also, light is pre- vented from falling on and being registered by the sensitive layer. It is well known that in man there is a central small area where sight is keenest. This is called the fovea centralis, and here only rods are present. In birds it is believed that there are two such areas in each eye, one on either side of the pecten. It may be stated here that the pecten is a pigmented, vascular structure lying in the posterior chamber of the eye, protruding forward from the papilla of the optic nerve (pl. 1, fig. 1). The size varies consider- ably in different species, extending in some almost to the posterior surface of the lens, while in others it is small and inconspicuous. It is absent in one bird—namely, the Apteryx—and is practically absent in the Nankeen night heron (Nycticorax caledonicus). The function of the pecten has always been a matter of controversy. There seem to be no special habits or conditions in birds possessing this structure of equal size and shape, while birds with similar habits show great variations. One theory was that it was protective, guarding the retina from the action of excessive light, in other words, a light filter. Its structure being vascular suggests some functions associated with the tension or nutrition of the eyeball. In accommodation for near 340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. objects it has been found that there is, with the passage backward of the posterior surface of the cornea, the transference of fluid from the anterior chamber. This is shown by injecting methylene blue into the anterior chamber and stimulating the nerves of accommodation, then noting the course of the fluid. Admitting then that there is a transference of fluid from one chamber to another to maintain an unvarying intraocular pressure, some governor must be present to effect this quick interchange, and it is believed that the pecten acts in this way. In support of this theory it can be shown that in high-flying birds, birds of rapid flight, birds of prey where the eyes have to be accommodated to extremely rapid alteration of focus, the pecten is well developed. It is, on the other hand, comparatively small in nocturnal birds. Against this theory it may be stated that reptiles, or some reptiles, possess a pecten, and in these animals the above conditions hardly exist. The important point is that the presence of this large pecten créates a large blind area in the eye, and as it is heavily pigmented all light falling on it is naturally absorbed. It explains to some extent the constant shifting of the head when a bird is on the watch, as the visual field is considerably limited, the portion obstructed being toward the upper outer field of vision. Before leaving the retina it should be mentioned that the presence of oil globules in this layer has been known for a long time. These globules are colored red and yellow and are found only in birds. They appear to exert no effect on color vision, as they are in no way identical in composition with the visual purple or sensitizing substance. ' The numerous fibers from the endings of the rods and cones col- lect to form the optic nerves. The nerve from each eye converges and meets at what is known as the optic chiasma, where they unite and again separate. In all animals where binocular vision takes place, or to be more correct, where there is total binocular vision, there is partial decussation of the fiber. Those fibers leading from the right half of the right eye pass to the right side of the brain, while the fibers from the left side of the right eye cross over at the chiasma to the left side of the brain. The amount of decussation varies accordingly with the power of binocular vision. In some animals where partial binocular vision is possible, though not usual, as in the horse and some rodents, only a few fibers do not decussate. In animals incapable of any binocular vision complete decussation takes place. This latter condition is found in birds, or nearly all birds, the fibers entirely crossing over at the chiasma. One must first get a grasp of the true meaning of binocular vision to appreciate the difference between pure binocular vision and seeing the same object with both eyes. If we hold a piece of paper between the eyes so as to view, say, a red area with the CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS. 341 right eye and a yellow area with the left, we do not see the two sepa- rate colored spots, but a spot of the color equalling the blending of the pigments; this is due to a superimposing of the images registered. In animals and birds where the axes of the eyes are not parallel it means that the image of an object falling on the right half of the right eye falls on the left half of the left eye. Only in animals where the axes of the eyes are parallel do the images fall on the same half of each eye, notably in human beings and monkeys, thus making possible true binocular vision. In other words, in birds, with the possible exception of some of the birds of prey and some nocturnal birds, the sight or visual field consists of two separate views not capable of being superimposed and not stereoscopic in effect. The advantage of observing the same object with both eyes is that it permits of greater concentration once an object or victim has been perceived, and it is thus found in eagles, hawks, etc., where acuity and concentration are so necessary for their existence. In man the stereo- scopic vision gives him the judgment of distance, and it is chiefly by this and, to a smaller extent, by accommodation, that distance is ac- curately estimated. On the other hand, birds, or most birds, have to depend upon accommodation for their judgment of distance possi- bly by the focusing movement of the lens brought about by the action of Crampton’s muscle, the pull being so strong in some species that a ring of bony lamine is provided in the sclerotic coat near the corneal margin to prevent alteration in shape of that part of the eye. Monocular vision has a great advantage of giving a far more ex- tensive scope of vision. Jt is a valuable asset for the birds which must maintain a constant lookout for the approach of danger, and for that reason it is found mainly in those birds of poor defense, whose safety lies in speedy detection and evasion of their enemies. In these birds there is the range of two extensive visual fields, each being equally recorded and scrutinized. The moment an object of interest is detected the bird does not direct both eyes toward it, but there is a concentration of one eye, the vision of the other being sup- pressed at will. In some diseases of man, where the axis of one eye has departed from the parallel of the other, each eye sees a field which does not correspond with the other, yet diplopia, or double vision, is not present, as the one or the other field of vision is sup- pressed according to the automatic concentration in one or the other eye. Note a group of pheasants or pigeons watching the same ob- ject; one eye only will be directed toward the position. Watch a fowl or a pigeon gazing upward at a hawk; one eye will be skyward, the other toward the ground. In such cases the vision of the down- ward eye is being suppressed. If suppression were not possible in birds a position similar to diplopia would be present. An idea of this condition can be gained by pressing one’s eye, thus shifting the 73839°—sm 191623 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. visual axis of one eye, when a double image is obtained. In the human it is possible to suppress the vision by exercise and education, otherwise the eye must be closed—thus, in shooting or looking down a microscope—but by a continual effort at concentration it is possible to keep both eyes open and to suppress the vision of one. When we come to acuity of vision in birds one must immediately vecognize a superiority over the rest of the animal kingdom. There is no doubt that they possess an acuity almost immeasurable compared with our own standard. Normal sight in man gives an acuity of about 1 minute in degrees of the circle, which means that at 6 meters we can distinguish clearly enough to identify letters in lines 1 centi- meter in width. Man and monkeys are perhaps in advance of the rest of the mammals, but fall extremely short of the standard found in birds. Speaking roughly, it is justifiable to say that birds possess about a hundred times the degree of acuity found in man. Visual acuity for moving objects is much more keen. This probably accounts for the habit of small animals or birds wishing to escape detection hecoming inimobile, their protective coloring blending with the sur- roundings. Peep through the smallest hole in a fowl-yard fence, and one will find that some old hen has perceived the action. An instance of the yvemarkable visual acuity can be seen in the vulture and its habits. ()n the death of an animal there may not-be a vulture in sight, and in a. few hours’ time many will have arrived at the feast. These birds hecome aware of a dead beast not by smell (as that sense is vestigial), but by sight. Vultures are extremely high fliers, only one bird out- soaring them—namely, the adjutant. It is probably that the nearest vulture sights the animal and descends to the carcass. The bird’s action is observed by the vulture farther away, which is likewise led to the scene, and so it goes on. In this way it is believed that birds come from a distance of from 50 to 100 miles by their observation of each other’s action. A fact pointing to their ability to locate a carcass was observed in one of the outbreaks of rinderpest in Natal. It was found that if a carcass were covered by branches immediately after death, so as to obscure it from the sight of the birds, it was never disturbed by vultures. Though there is no means of measuring accurately the visual acuity of birds, a fair idea may be obtained by observation of their habits. A great brown kingfisher (Dacelo gigas), from a position on a post where it can inspect newly plowed land, seems to have no difficulty in locating the exposed part of a worm from any distance up to 100 yards. Watch an old hen in charge of a few chicks, and nothing overhead, be it ever so small, will escape her notice. Acuity for stationary objects, though not so finely sensitive as for those moving, is still remarkable. Experiments have been made with CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS——LEWIS. 343 pigeons, feeding them on a board on wheat, among which a per- centage of the grains have been stuck by adhesive substance. One mistake is sufficient to prevent them again making the error, small, slight alteration from the natural position of the grain giving them the clue. Many similar cases could be quoted. The vision of noc- turnal birds is enhanced by the size of the eyeball itself and the con- vexity of the cornea, which collects more light from an object than that with less convexity. They present, too, the markedly tubular eye. The pupil in these birds is capable of great dilatation. The poorness of vision of these birds in the daytime is accounted for by the fact that the eye is normally focused for objects comparatively near and, again, because of the amount of stooping down necessary to exclude the strong light. The eyes of these birds are probably what are known as dark-adapted eyes, and the attempt to see in bright sunlight has an effect similar to that which we experience on emerg- ing from a dark room into the sunlight. This is not due so much to the contraction of the pupil as to arrangement of the protective pig- ment around the endings of the optic nerve. The power of individual movement of the eyes is greater in birds than in man, extensive divergent movement being possible, while con- yvergent movement is seen as in the human being. But, in spite of this, the amount present is not sufficient for the needs of the bird, which nearly always moves the head to shift the direction of gaze. Of the accessory structures of the eye not much need be said. The eyelids present little differing from mammals, with the exeep- tion of the absence of eyelashes and the greater mobility of the lower lid. The third eyelid, known as the nictitating membrane, is well developed in birds, constantly sweeping the surface of the cornea and keeping it free of small particles, etc. In mammals it is not moved voluntarily, but by pressure exerted by the backward movement of the eye itself. This membrane in birds is moved by two voluntary muscles, which bring it across the eye with lightning- like rapidity. In aquatic birds it invests the eye while submerged, and is then transparent, to allow vision without endangering the sensitive surface of the globe. We come now to a more interesting though more difficult prob- lem—that of color vision. If one accepts the Young-Helmholtz theory, it must be taken that white light consists of the combina- tion of three primary colors, namely, red, green, and violet. Later works seem to incline toward the older division according to New- ton—that the primary colors included red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. In other words, the blue and yellow have as much right to be considered as primary colors as the other three. The existence of color vision in animals is, of course, very difficult to 344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. determine. It appears, however, that with trained dogs and horses there is no difficulty at all in teaching them to distinguish between the saturated colors. The preference of some birds, notably the Bower Birds, for objects of a certain color and the general evolu- tion of color in the different species must point to an appreciation of different shades. Color sensation must be appreciated by the stimu- lation of waves of varying lengths. In man it varies from about 770 p. to 896 pw, the latter being the extreme of light registered at the violet end of the spectrum. It would appear, if we adopt the Young-Helmholtz theory, that man has a trichromatic vision, and that all the shades appreciated are due to the degree in which the three classes of nerve fibers are stimulated. Yellow, for example, is caused by an equal stimulation of the sets of fibers for the red and green percipients. When red is seen the fibers percipient of red are strongly stimulated, the others only weakly. Color blindness is an interesting side study in this respect, particularly when we come to the color vision of birds. In man dichromatic vision appears most commonly with a blindness for red or green, the violet blind being rare. In red or green blind- ness the subject confuses reds and greens, and in a mixture of colors including these colors other than red or green are the only ones appreciated. Now, it has been shown by feeding experiments that birds are blind in the violet end of the spectrum. In other words, if we accept the Young-Helmholtz theory they have a dichromatic vision. Their color vision would be restricted to red and green and the mixtures of these colors. They would be blind to violet and to the spectral violet in blue, indigo, and yellow. Such a conclusion would be dis- astrous to our theory of selection in the coloration of birds, where many blues and shades of blue are seen. It would mean that the development of color in the evolution of the present-day bird was merely incidental and apparently without reason. The flaw in the reasoning probably hes in our acceptance of the Young-Helmholtz theory instead of recognizing the other colors as primary. Again, the conclusion obtained from the feeding experiments may be faulty. The birds are fed in spectral red light and in spectral green, where they pick up the grains readily; but when taken to spectral violet remain still, fail to see the grains, and are to all intents and purposes in darkness. A man color blind in red or in green, though not seeing these colors as a normal person would see them, still sees the objects, but is blind to the color only. His vision extends right to the red end of the spectrum, though not recognizing the red there, so that the waves stimulate the eye, though not giving the color sense. It is probable that in birds the sight is keyed to a higher pitch than in man, and CONSIDERATIONS ON SIGHT IN BIRDS—LEWIS. 345 that the retina is not stimulated by wave lengths as short as that of the violet, while yet possessing the whole of the range of colors as far as the violet. In man we know that the eye is blind beyond the two limits of red and violet, but we are able to ascertain the presence of ultra red and ultra violet rays that the retina does not register. There is still a great field for investigation into the function of sight. So far the work done is mainly comparative, and must be based on the lines found existent in the human subject, where the subjective assistance is of great value. But of the conditions in birds we can only theorize, while there may be present conditions outside our comprehension of the powers of the eye. There is still much to be learned concerning accommodation, monocular vision, color vision, and the function of the pecten. 7 mitt’ erate HFS FANG lee WOM Ver PIRATES OF THE DEEP—STORIES OF THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS. By Pau Bartscu, Curator of Marine Invertebrates, U. S. National Museum. [With 19 plates. ] INTRODUCTION. The largest, the most highly organized, as well as intelligent, and therefore, most interesting invertebrate creatures of the sea belong to the class of organisms known as Cephalopods, a group of marine mollusks embracing the Nautilus, Squid, Cuttlefish, Octopus, Argo- naut, as Well as the Nautiloids, Ammonites, and Belemnites of the ancient seas. The old forms, geologically speaking, as far as known, were all shell-bearing organisms. Their changing from the cramped condi- tion of an inclosing and confining exoskeleton or shell to an endo- skeleton or pen, or even no skeleton, came only in very recent times and carried in its train of development not only possibilities of bodily expansion, as shown by the giant squid of our seas, but pro- duced even greater and far more important consequences, namely, the development of a highly specialized brain, which to-day easily places this group in the first rank of all the invertebrate dwellers of the sea when viewed from the standpoint of mentation. Compared with our squids, the chambered Nautilus, the relic of the most ancient stock, is an extremely stupid animal. PAST HISTORY. In order to follow the customary line of the biographer, we must first give a bit of attention to the ancestors of our subjects and to this alone one might well devote the entire space allotted to our sketch. Paleontology has taught us that these wonderful creatures 347 348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. can boast of a Jong line of progenitors; indeed, there are few groups that can compare with them in this respect. For millions upon mil- lions of years ago, or to be more precise, in Upper Cambrian times, there existed a small nautiloid animal in the seas, whose deposits are known as the Chau-mi-tien limestone near Tsi-nan, Shantung, China. The shell of this little animal, which was christened Cyrtoceras cam- bria by Dr. Walcott in 1905, is only 7 millimeters in length and 3 millimeters in diameter (fig. 1). Ever since that time, and probably long before this tiny, flexed, but noncoiled chambered nautiloid ancestor of the Cephalopoda existed, chambered nautili were living somewhere in our seas. The Ozarkian period ushered in a number of families, each with its genera and species. The Canadian added materially to these, but the ereatest differentiation of all took place in the Ordovician and Silurian, after which the decline of the order began, resulting finally in the rem- nant of four closely allied species belonging to the single now existing genus Nautilus. In all, about 3,000 species have been named and to their number new forms are constantly being added by the patient paleontologist. In all these forms we have the shell divided into chambers by trans- verse concave septa whose margins may be : straight or undulate; a siphuncle or tube extends Fic. 1—Cyrtoceras cam- from chamber to chamber connecting them with a pata Gees each other. The range of variation in shape and poda, Side view, X 5. size is quite great. ‘There are straight cones, as a Ate in Orthoceras; flexed forms, as in Cyrtoceras; loosely coiled forms, as in Sphyradoceras; closely coiled forms, as in Nautilus; or even closely coiled and finally solute shells, as in Ophidioceras and Lituites. The sculpture, too, presents no end of variations, for some shells are smooth, others axially or spirally striate, or channeled; or lirate, or threaded, ribbed, or keeled, or marked by combinations of these elements, some even have tubercles and bosses, but whatever the sculpture or size, which varies from the 7-millimeter ancestor to the 14-foot or more long cones of Endoceras, one word characterizes the entire group, and that is elegance (pl. 1). During the Upper Silurian period a new offshoot of the Cepha- lopod stock developed, a stalk which has far excelled the Nautiloids in numbers as well as in diversity of structure. We refer to the order Ammonoidea, “the Ammon’s horns,” of which probably more than 1Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 29, p. 22, 1905. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. NAUTILOIDS. 1. Thoracoceras corbulatum (Barrande). 2. Sphyradoceras optatum Barrande. 3. Ophidioceras simplex Barrande. 4. Endoceras timidum Barrande. 5. Hercoceras mirum Barrande, 6. Lituites lituus Montf. Smithsonian Report, 1916 —Bartsch. AMMONOIDES, PLATE 2. A Wi 1. Phylloceras heterophyllum (Sowb.). 2. Turrilites catenatus @’Orb. 3. Lytoceras licbigi (Oppel.). 4. Choristoceras marshi Hauer. 5. Hoplites tuberculatus Sow. 6. Alocolytoceras germainci (d’Orb.). 7. Hamites rotundatus (Sowb.). 8. Phylloceras ptychoicum (Quenstedt). 9. Macroscaphites ivanii (@Orb.). 10. Septa of Lytoceras liebigi (Oppel.). 11. Mortoniceras inflatum Sow. tuberculatus Sow. 13, Dowvilleiceras mamillare (Schloth.). 12. Hoplites THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 849 6,000 species are known. . Here form, complexity of septation, and external sculpture ran riot, or, may we say, attained an overspeciali- zation which soon spelled exit, for the group reached its highest development in the upper Trias and disappeared suddenly and com- pletely at the close of the Cretaceous. In size their shells vary from the dimension of a pea to more than 6 feet in diameter. Plate 2 will give the reader a little more intimate view of the group. The third order, Belemnoidea, of the Cephalopoda, is of consider- ably less antiquity, dating back only to the Triassic period with not a single living representative, for the little chambered Spirula has been definitely disposed among the modern 10-footed members, though the paleontologists still classify it with the Belemnoidea. It is among these Belemnoids that we have to seek the ancestors of our squids and cuttlefishes for, like them, they have an internal shell, but of much greater complexity. They also possessed the ink bag, a character present in all our modern Cephalopods excepting the Nau- tilus. It is quite possible that these members were as abundant in these later seas as their ancestors were in their time and as their descendants are to-day, but they had little of fossilizable material to leave behind them at death, and thus have left a rather poor, scat- tered and fragmentary record of their existence. Judging from some of the pens, however, it is well to assume that the soft body inclosing them may have compared favorably in size with the mem- bers of the now existing fauna. Some of these pens are called fossil “thunder bolts” by the uninitiated. Plate 3 shows a selection of these remains. We next come to the modern dwellers of the seas, our “ pirates of the deep.” In these we have either an internal skeleton or none at all. In the squids the shell is embedded in the dorsal part of the mantle and frequently reduced to a mere chitinoid remnant, called the pen (pl. 4, fig. 1) from its resemblance to the quill pens of old. At times this is decidedly reinforced by calcareous material, as shown by the cuttlebone (pl. 4, fig. 2) which we are accustomed to furnish our canaries, for this is the skeleton of our cuttlefish. The only coiled or chambered test is found in Spirula, but here it serves not as a container, but iscontained within the mantle. Theshell of the beauti- ful Paper Nautilus or Argonaut is not a skeletal shell at all, but a mere case used by the female for the protection of her eggs. In all these animals the body is enveloped in a soft mantle. The head is strongly differentiated from the rest of the body and is sur- rounded by a circle of 8 or 10 sucker-bearing arms or feet which, in reality, are modified elements of what corresponds to the anterior part of the foot in other mollusks. It is the position of these feet about the head of these animals that has gained for them the name 350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, Cephalopoda, head-footed. The mouth is situated in the middle of the tentacular disk and is armed with a pair of formidable parrot- beak-like jaws. Not least conspicuous are the two large, highly specialized eyes situated on the side of the head. Behind the head is a constricted neck. Here we find a cleft, the communicating orifice between the exterior and the mantle cavity; here also is inserted the tubular siphon which, in reality, is the modified posterior part of the foot and serves as the chief organ of locomotion, for much of the Cephalopod swimming is accomplished by the rapid expulsion of water through this organ by means of the sudden contraction of the muscular mantle. The posterior portion of the body may be globular, conic, spindle, or lance shaped, or cylindric; it may or may not have lateral flukes, which may serve as organs of locomotion; or may be modified to form a sucker, as in Spirula. The internal organization is also interesting, but we shall content ourselves with the simple statement that the sexes are distinct and that the rather complex brain is shielded in most of them by a cranial cartilage that protects the principal nerve centers, incloses the auditory organs, and supports the very highly developed eyes. An interesting structure found in all the living forms, except the Nautilus, is the ink bag, a glandular sac and a reservoir connected by a duct with the rectum near the anus. This organ produces a dark fluid which the animal is capable of discharging at will. It is usually ejected when the animal is pursued and effectively enwraps it in an impenetrable smudge, thus aiding it to make good its escape. The secretion of the Cephalopod ink bag forms an important element of commerce and our arts, where it is better known under the name of sepia and india ink. The living Cephalopods, excepting the Nautilus, are easily divided into two groups or orders. One of these, Decapoda, embraces all the members having 10 feet, while the members of the other order, Octopoda, have but eight (pl. 5). Beautifully preserved specimens of squids have been found in those remarkable reliquaries, the Solenhofen lithographic limestone deposits of Bavaria, the hardened ooze of an ancient sea, which has contributed so many chapters to our knowledge of the past. These remains proclaim the presence of the order in the Lower Jurassic. Plate 6 is a photograph of a specimen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 28382, which comes from this formation at Eichstatt and shows the perfect manner in which the soft, enfolding ooze has preserved its record for us. FACTS AND FANCIES. Size, power, speed, beauty, and intelligence have ever been the elements that have elicited the admiration of man. Add to this the » O_O EEE Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. ESS Ned CAATRGUE: ms EE. Waa ANY o" DER DY. Bak asd LER BNE NY BELEMNOIDS. land 2. Belemnites mucronatus Schloth. 3. Belemnites brugierianus Miller. 4, Restoration of same. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 4. 4 INTERNAL SHELLS OF MODERN SQUIDS. 1. Loligo vulgaris L. 2. Sepia officinalis L. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 851 mystery of the sea and the toothsomeness of our beasts, and you have a setting with possibilities that seek a rival. No wonder, then, that we find the ancient writers and bards and all those of years be- tween them and our modern penman singing songs and spinning yarns about our Cephalopods, for they possess all the qualifications denoted above. Passing through the literature of the ages, one finds myths and fancies so wonderfully intertwined with a basis of facts, that even the knowing, prosaic but incisive naturalist finds it difficult to pass judgment on what is fact or fiction. One thing, however, is certain, and that is that all the legends and myths appear as clumsy sailor yarns when compared with the facts which are being slowly revealed by the painstaking students of the group. The early writings frequently combine in their discussion of some one of these animals, characteristics that belong to widely different orders. Not only that, but the earlier authors even assigned to the Physalia or Portuguese Man-o’-War, and the beautiful little Velella, attributes belonging to the Argonauta and the Chambered Nautilus, for the fairy sails that were assigned to these animals are un- doubtedly the wonderfully colored floats of the lowly organized Hydrozoans (pl. 7). We quote from Pliny: THE NAUTILUS, OR SAILING POLYPUS. Among the most remarkable curiosities is the animal which has the name of Nautilus, or, as some people call it, the Pompilos. Lying with the head upward, it rises to the surface of the water, raising itself little by little, while, by means of a certain conduit in its body, it discharges all the water, and this being got rid of like so much bilge-water as it were, it finds no difficulty in sailing along. Then, extending backwards its two front arms, it stretches out between them a membrane of marvelous thinness, which acts as a sail spread out to the wind, while with the rest of its arms it paddles aiong below, steering itself with its tail in the middle, which acts as a rudder. Thus does it make its way along the deep, mimicking the appearance of a light Liburnian bark; while if anything chances to cause it alarm in an instant it draws in the water and sinks to the bottom. The Chambered Nautilus lives in the tropical western Pacific, usually at a depth of a hundred or more feet, and, all myths to the contrary, has never been known to sail the surface of the sea (pl. 8). We quote more from the same authority, this time a story relating to a gigantic octopus: At Carteia, in the preserves there, a polypus was in the habit of coming from the sea to the pickling tubs, that were left open, and devouring the fish laid in salt there—for it is quite astonishing how eagerly all sea animals follow even the very smell of salted condiments; so much so, that it is for this reason that the fishermen take care to rub the inside of the wicker fish kipes with them. At last by its repeated thefts and immoderate depredations it drew down upon 352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. itself the wrath of the keepers of the works. Palisades were placed before them, but these the polypus managed to get over by the aid of a tree, and it was only caught at last by calling in the assistance of trained dogs, which sur- rounded it at night as it was returning to its prey; upon which the keepers, awakened by the noise, were struck with alarm at the novelty of the sight pre- sented. First of all, the size of the polypus was enormous beyond all concep- tion; and then it was covered all over with dried brine and exhaled a most dreadful stench. Who could have expected to find a polypus there or could have recognized it as such under these circumstances? They really thought that they were joining battle with some monster, for at one instant it would drive off the dogs by its horrible fumes and lash at them with the extremities of its feelers, while at another it would strike them with its stronger arms, giving blows with so many clubs, as it were; and it was only with the greatest difficulty that it could be dispatched with the aid of a considerable number of three-pronged fish spears. The head of this animal was shewn to Lucullus; it was in size as large as a cask of 135 gallons and had a beard (tentacles), to use the expressions of Trebius himself, which could hardly be encircled with both arms, full of knots, like those upon a club, and 380 feet in length; the suckers, or calicules, as large as an urn, resembled a basin in shape, while the teeth again were of a corresponding largeness; its remains, which were carefully preserved as a curiosity, weighed 700 pounds. Denys Montfort, who spent many years in ardent study of Cephalo- pods and devoted a whole volume? to the publication of his results, cites numerous incidents of marvelous encounters between man and some of the larger members of this group. We shall quote a few selections: An old captain named John Magnus Dens, who resided in Dunkirk, related that, sailing once between the isle of St. Helena and Africa, near the coast the ship was becalmed. He took advantage of this calm to send men over the side to clean off the grass which accumulates near the water line on long voyages. The men were standing on stages suspended near the water’s edge, scraping with iron scrapers, when suddenly a huge cuttlefish appeared at the water’s edge and, throwing one of his arms about two of the men, tore the unfortunates, with their stage, from the side of the vessel and dragged them into the water. At the same time it threw another arm about a man who was just mounting the main rigging; but here its arm became entangled with the shrouds and ratlines, and it was unable to disentangle itself. The man, who was being severely squeezed, cried out for help, and the crew immediately ran to his assistance. Several threw harpoons into the body of the beast, which was now rising along the ship’s side; others with axes cut in pieces the arm which held the man to the rigging and took the unfortunate down on deck. This done, the cuttle sank down, but the captain payed out on the lines which were fast to the harpoons, in the hope that presently he would be able to drag the beast up again and recover the two men who had been dragged down. In fact, at first he was able to drag the animal toward the surface; but presently the huge beast again sank down, and they were obliged to pay out line after line, till at last, having but a little left, they were forced to hold on; and now four of the harpoons drew out, while the fifth line broke, and thus all hope of saving the unfortunates or killing the monster was lost. 1 Histoire Naturelle Des Mollusques, Tome 2, Paris, An. X. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 5 AN OcToPuS (OCTOPUS VULGARIS L.) CAPTURING A CRAB. PLATE 6. Bartsch. Smithsonian Report, 1916. A FossiL SQUID FROM THE SOLENHOFEN LIMESTONES OF BAVARIA. ) THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH, 353 ‘This should be followed by the illustration of the sailing vessel attacked by a huge octopus, also taken from Montfort, which is said to be a facsimile of a painting that he saw in the Chapel of St. Thomas, in St. Malos, a French seaport, and of which he relates the following story, told by some of the crew of the vessel to which the adventure it depicts happened (pl. 9): The ship was on the west African coast. She had just taken in her cargo of slaves, ivory, and gold dust, and the men were heaving up the anchor, when suddenly a monstrous cuttlefish appeared on top of the water and slung its arms about two of the masts. The tips of the arms reached to the mastheads, and the weight of the cuttle dragged the ship over, so that she lay on her beam- ends and was near being capsized. The crew seized axes and knives, and cut nway at the arms of the monster; but, despairing of escape, called upon their patron saint, St. Thomas, to help them. Their prayers seemed to give them renewed courage, for they persevered, and finally succeeded in cutting off the arms, when the animal sank and the vessel righted. Now, when the vessel returned to St. Malos the crew, grateful for their de- liverance from so hideous a danger, marched in procession to the chapel of their patron saint, where they offered a solemn thanksgiving, and afterwards had a painting made representing the conflict with the cuttle, and which was hung in the chapel. But let Montfort, who was once painfully bitten in the side by an octopus, whose bite, he says, is not poisonous, relate one of his own experiences: On one oceasion a huge mastiff which accompanied me on my explorations drew my attention by his excited barking. When I came to the rocks I found a cuttlefish, whose arms were 3 feet long. He was defending himself against the violent attacks of the dog, an animal of immense size and strength and un- daunted courage, which had already once saved my life when attacked by a wolf. The dog ran around the cuttle, vainly attempting to seize the arms, which followed him with singular dexterity and lashed him over the back like whips. I looked on a minute in great astonishment at the dexterity of the cuttle, which seemed full of rage, and showed no desire to retreat, though the water was just behind it. When it saw me it seemed for the first time some- what intimidated. There was a change in its tactics. The arms struck out less often, and it endeavored to drag itself to the shore. Seeing this, my brave dog seemed encouraged. Watching a chance, he leaped within the arms and fastened his teeth in one, quite near the body. Instantly four arms were drawn up and twined rigidly about the dog, who struggled vainly to free himself, and, for once losing his courage, uttered pite- ous howls and cries for help. Meantime the cuttle, whose huge protruding eyes seemed actually to flash fire, and whose body had turned many colors, from dark violet to bright scarlet, was drawing itself with considerable speed toward the water, dragging with little effort the heavy body of my struggling dog. The rough rocky ground helped him to drag the weight along, by giving his arms secure holds. Already the monster had reached the water side, when I could no longer bear the sight, and rushed to the help of my faithful dog. I seized two of the arms of the cuttle, and, bracing my feet firmly against a solid rock, pulled with all my strength. I succeeded in tearing loose these arms. The animal 354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. struggled, uttered cries of rage which resembled the growl of a fierce watch- dog, and finally attacked me, too, throwing two of its arms about my person. But my brave dog had not been idle. Gathering courage from my advance, he had succeeded in quite tearing off with his strong teeth two of the arms of the euttle; and with another struggle he was free. Then, with a fury which I never saw equaled, he attacked the disabled monster, which we together soon over- powered. I determined never again to attack an animal of this kind unarmed, or to venture to close quarters with it. Beale, an English physician, who made a whaling voyage in 1831-82, described an octopus adventure worth relating. While upon the Bonin Islands, searching for shells upon the rocks which had been left by the receding sea tide, I was much astonished at seeing at my feet a most extraordinary looking animal crawling toward the surf which had only just left it. I had never seen one like it under such circumstances before; it therefore appeared the more remarkable. It was creeping on its eight legs, which, from their soft and flexible nature, bent considerably under the weight of its body, so that it was lifted by the effort of its tentaculae only a small distance from the rocks. It appeared much alarmed at seeing me, and made every effort to escape, while I was not much in the humor to endeavor to capture so ugly a customer, whose appearance excited a feeling of disgust not unmixed with fear. I, however, endeavored to prevent its escape by pressing on one of its legs with my foot; but although I made use of considerable force for that purpose, its strength was so great that it several times quickly liber- ated its members, in spite of all the efforts I could employ in this way on wet, slippery rocks. I now laid hold of one of the tentacles with my hand and held it firmly, so that the limb appeared as if it would be torn asunder by our united strength. J soon gave it a powerful jerk, wishing to disengage it from the rocks to which it clung so forcibly by its suckers. This it effectually resisted; but the moment after the apparently enraged animal lifted its head, with its large eyes projecting from the middle of its body, and letting go its hold on the rocks suddenly sprang upon my arm, which I had previously bared to my shoulder for the purpose of thrusting into holes in the rocks to discover shells. It clung with its suckers with great power, endeavoring to get its beak, which I could now see between the roots of its arms, in a position to bite. A sensation of horror pervaded my whole frame when I found this monstrous animal had affixed itself so firmly to my arm. Its cold, slimy grasp was extremely sickening; and I immediately called aloud to the captain, who was also searching for shells at some distance, to come to my release from my dis- gusting assailant. He quickly arrived, and taking me down to the boat, during which time I was employed in keeping the beak away from my hand, quickly released me by destroying my tormentor with the boat knife, when I disengaged it by portions at a time. This animal must have measured across its expanded arms about 4 feet, while its body was not larger than a large clenched hand. It was that species of sepia which is called by whalers “ rock squid.” And yet another narrative is taken from Cassell’s Natural History: The following account of a marine diver, attacked by an octopus, exhibits the behavior of these animals toward any being that intrudes upon them in their native element: On 4th November, 1879, Mr. J. Smale, Government diver, was at work at the bottom of the tideway of the River Moune, Mel- bourne. Having placed a charge of dynamite between two large stones, he came up and exploded it, and on descending again found one of the stones Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 7 A SAILING ARGONAUT. Showing the animal as it does not swim. PLATE 8. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. naa 5 peel SOs 28S Re NAUTILUS POMPILUS L. SHOWING TRAP USED BY THE FILIPINOS FOR THEIR CAPTURE. From “Notes on Living Nautilus,” by Bashford Dean. American Naturalist, vol. 35, p. 820, 1901. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH, 355 thrown out, which he sent up, and then hooked on to another, but could not start it, and having descended again, the current being pretty strong at the time, he stretched himself out on the stone, and reaching his right arm down to feel if he could get another small charge under it, not being able to do this in any other position. ‘My arm,” he says, “was scarcely down, however, before I found that it was held by something, and the action of the water was stirring up the loose clay, and therefore I could not see distinctly for a few minutes, but when it did clear away I saw, to my horror, the arm of a large octopus entwined round mine like a boa constrictor, and just then he fixed some of his suckers on the back of my hand, and the pain was intense. I felt as if my hand was being pulled to pieces, and the more I tried to take it away the greater the pain became, and, from past experience, I knew this method would be useless. But what was I to do, lying in this position? I had the greatest difficulty in keeping my feet down, as the air rushed along the interior of my dress and inflated it, and if my feet had got uppermost I should soon have become insensible, held in such a position, and if I had given the signal to be pulled up the brute would have held on and the chances; would have been that I should have had a broken arm. I had a hammer down by me but could not reach it to use it on the brute. There was a small iron bar not far from me, and with my feet I dragged this along until I could reach it with my left hand. And now the fight commenced; the more I struck him the tighter he squeezed, until my arm got quite benumbed, but after awhile I found the grip began to relax a little, but he held on until I had almost cut him to pieces, and then he relaxed his hold from the rock and I pulled him up. I can assure you I was completely exhausted, having been in that position for over 20 minutes. I brought the animal up, or rather a part of it. We laid him out and he measured over 8 feet across, and I feel perfectly convinced that this fellow could have held down five or six men. It is only when a person gets a grip from these brutes that one realizes their strength, and it was lucky for me that I was not an amateur, for I can assure you that I had the greatest struggle to get clear of it that I have ever had with any animal under water. Here is still another yarn by Aldrovandi, who speaks of the possum-playing of the octopus: An octopus, considered dead, was placed in a kettle and hung over the fiie, became revived, and gained sufficient strength to leave the kettle, climb through the chimney, and seat himself upon the roof, where, after considerable hunting, he was discovered. While Pennant states, on authority of a friend long resident in the East Indies, that— in those seas, the eight-armed cuttlefish has been found of such size as to measure 12 feet in breadth across the central part, while each arm was 54 feet in length; thus making it extend, from point to point, about 120 feet (pl. 10). He further states that— the natives of the Indian Isles, when sailing in their canoes, always take care to be provided with hatchets, in order immediately to cut off the arms of such of these animals as happen to fling them over the sides of the canoe, lest they should pull it under water and sink it. Quite an excellent picture made by Gustave Doré showing Gilliatt’s fight with the devilfish in Victor Hugo’s Toilers of the 356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Sea is here reproduced (pl. 11), but we regret greatly that the au- thor’s powers of observation were not on a par with his wonderful gift of dramatic diction, for a trifle more knowledge would have ‘raised this chapter from the limbo of silly yarns to a production From newspaper clipping. 2.—Modern conception of an octopus. Fic. worthy of Victor Hugo. The fol- lowing statement, which we quote from the above work, contains not a single atom of truth, al- though the author attempts to strengthen his case by referring to men of science, from whose works he undoubtedly gleaned some of his rare information: The muscles swell, the fibers of-the body are contorted, the skin cracks under the loathsome oppression, the blood spurts out.and ming!tes horribly with the lymph of the monster, which clings to its victim by innumerable hideous mouths. The hydra inecorpo- rates itself with the man, the man be- comes one with the hydra. The spectre lies upon you; the tiger can only de- your you; the devilfish, horrible, sucks your lifeblood away. He draws you to him, and into himself; while bound down, glued to the ground, powerless, you feel yourself gradually emptied into this horrible pouch, which is the monster. It would be unfair to leave the Octopoda without calling atten- tion to the efforts of some of the modern story tellers. We select for this purpose a clipping from the San Francisco Chronicle, re- produced in figure 2. This is a marvelous combination of crab and octopus; the artist has termi- nated not only every one of the eight arms in a pair of pincers, but he has even modified the body into a claw. An endless number of instances might be quoted from the daily press relating struggles between man and the octopus, not all of which have terminated as favorably as those which we have quoted. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 9. REPRODUCTION OF A PAINTING IN THE CHAPEL OF ST. THOMAS AT ST. MALos, FRANCE. PLATE 10. Bartsch. Smithsonian Report, 1916 ih a AN OLD ILLUSTRATION, SHOWING A SAILING VESSEL ATTACKED BY AN OCTOPUS IN THE INDIAN SEA. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 857 The octopus is carnivorous, and hence must seek his animal prey. He lives chiefly on mollusks and fish, and even Pliny, in the long ago, shows a remarkable knowledge of their habits, for he states: They feed upon the flesh of shellfish, the shells of which they ean easily break in the embrace of their arms; hence it is that their retreat may be easily detected by the pieces of shell which lie before it. * * * In its own domestic matters it manifests considerable intelligence. It carries its prey to its home, and after eating all the flesh, throws out the débris, and then pursues such small fish as may chance to swim toward them. It also changes its color according to the aspect of the place where it is, and more especially when it is alarmed. The octopus, however, is not always the hunter, but frequently the hunted. Not least among his enemies is man, for since very ancient times he has been considered a choice morsel in many coun- tries. The Greeks and Romans considered them the finest fish in the sea. Pliny tells us that the gourmands of Rome ate every variety of octopus known in the Mediterranean. They were cooked in a pie, the arms being cut off, and the body filled with spices; and the Romans were so careful in their preparation that their cooks used pieces of bamboo for drawing the body, instead of knives of iron, which were supposed to communicate an ill flavor to the de- licious morsel. How highly the cuttle was esteemed by the Greeks is evident from a story told of Philoxenus of Syracuse, who, de- siring a delicious dinner, caused a polypus of three feet spread to be prepared for the principal dish. He ate it alone, all but the head, and was taken so sick in consequence of his surfeit that a physician was called. On being bluntly told that his case was desperate, and that he had but a few hours to live, Philoxenus called for the head which had been left over from dinner, ate that, and resigned himself to his fate, saying that he left nothing on the earth which seemed to him worthy of regret. The methods employed in their capture vary with the people pur- suing them. Aristotle tells us that the cuttlefish and the octopus may be caught by bait. The octopus, in fact, clings so tightly to the rocks that it can not be pulled off, but remains attached even when the knife has been employed to sever it; and yet, if you apply fleabane to the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it. This procedure is still common on the Mediterranean shores, where either fleabane (Inula coryza) or the even handier drug tobacco is used for this purpose. Simmonds, in his Commercial Products of the Sea, gives the fol- lowing quotation from Vice Consul Green’s report on octopus fish- ing on the Tunisian coast in modern times: On the first arrival of the Octopodia in the shallows they keep in masses or shoals, but speedily separate in search of shelter among the rocks near the beach, covered by only 1 or 2 feet of water, and in the stony localities prepared 73839°—sm 1916—— 24 358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. for them by the fishermen in order to frustrate the depositing of their spawn. Polypi are taken in deep water by means of earthen jars strung together and lowered to the bottom of the sea, where they are allowed to remain for a cer- tain number or hours, and in which the animals introduce themselves. Fre- quently from 8 to 10 polypi are taken from every jar at each visit of the fishermen. In less deep water earthenware drainpipes are placed side by side for distances frequently exceeding half a mile in length, and in these also they enter and are taken by the fishermen. As they are attracted by white and all smooth and bright substances, the natives deck places in the creeks and hollows in the rocks with white rocks and shells, over which the polypi spread themselves and are caught from four up to eight at a time. But the most suc- cessful manner of securing them is pursued by the inhabitants of Karkenah, who form long lanes and labyrinths in the shallows by planting the butt ends of palm branches at short distances from each other, and these constructions extend over spaces of two or more miles. On the ebb of the tide (the fall here is about 10 feet) the Octopodia are found in the pools inside the inclosures and are easily collected by the fishermen, who string them in bunches of 50 each, and from 8 to 10 of these bunches, called “risina,’ are secured daily during the season by every boat’s crew of four men. The simplest method, probably, is that used by the Filipinos. Well do I recall my first octopus hunt with them in the southern islands. Tt was a dark night. The good ship Albatross lay peacefully at anchor some half mile off a Moro village, whose dim outline was faintly silhouetted against the sky. We had just finished our dinner, returned to the deck to take up submarine light fishing, when we noticed a torchlight procession proceeding from the village down the sand spit that fringed a reef. The orderliness of the procedure soon changed to what one at our distance might have considered some wild ceremonial dance. Our curiosity being thoroughly aroused, we lowered a boat and soon joined the party of men and boys, who were clad in the con- ventional G-string costume, each provided with a torch varying from about 4 to 6 inches in diameter and probably 10 to 12 feet in length, made of slender segments of dried, split bamboo, carried on the left shoulder, held by the left hand, and lighted in front. The right hand was reserved for the ever-present bolo or a spear. The light of these torches would show through the shallow water and thus reveal the luckless devil fish, which seemed to have forsaken the secure caverns of the reef and to have gone a-hunting on the shallow flats within. They are curious creatures, and their humped- up attitude and large eyes render them rather mirth provoking at such times. But there is little time given to contemplating, for a native bolo or spear brings him in and he is promptly strung on a rattan string, where he may continue to squirm with his fellow captives until dead. We secured enough specimens that night to enable us to spare some to the cook, for Ming assured us that they were “vely good.” So they were—rather, I should say it was, for I chewed a single Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 11 GUSTAVE DoRE’s ILLUSTRATION OF GILLIATT’S FIGHT WITH THE OCTOPUS IN VicTOR Hugo's * TOILERS OF THE SEA.” Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 12. AN OCTOPUS FEEDING ON FISH. By permission, from ‘“‘ Denizens of the Deep,’”’ by Frank T. Bullen. Fleming H. Revell -Co., publishers. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 359 tentacle the greater part of the following forenoon and relinquished it only, and that with regret, when my jaws, aching from overexertion, refused to operate more. On the island of Guam we found an entirely different method in use. Here we watched the na- tives fishing for the octopus on the inside of the slender reef that stretched from Capra Island to- ward the steamer entrance to the beautiful Piti * Bay and Harbor. The natives here take a specimen of a large, repulsive-looking Holothurian and tie it toa line with a sinker. This is lowered among the crevices of the reef. If it finds a cavity with an octopus the animal at once leaves the premises and is then easily speared by the man in the bow of the canoe. There is evidently something about the Holothurian that is so intensely distasteful to the octupus that he at once forsakes his lair. It is quite a picture to see these fishermen as they work in the very teeth of the pound- = ing surf with a craft so frail that one con- Fic. 3.—Torchlight octopus stantly wonders how they manage to keep it hunt in the Philippines. from being dashed to pieces. The following is a quotation taken from an article by Dr. H. M. Smith on “Japan, the Paramount Fishing Nation,”* which shows how the Japanese fishermen catch these Lane The octopus or devilfish is abundant and is an important food product in Japan, although my personal opinion is that it does not appeal strongly to the 1 Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, July, 1904, p. 119. 360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. American palate. The octopus is caught in various ways, one of the most inter- esting of which is by the use of earthenware pots, which are lowered to the bottom by means of cords; they are entered by the octopuses, which, having insinuated themselves, are reluctant to withdraw, so that the pots may be pulled te the surface before the animals try to escape. I bring up this fishery in order to refer to a very ingenious corollary, which was first mentioned to me by a professor in the imperial university and later verified by myself. More than a century ago a vessel laden with a very valuable cargo of porcelains from Korea destined for the imperial household was wrecked in the Inland Sea; the captain and other officers did what seems to have been a favorite amusement of the olden days; namely, they committed suicide just before the vessel sank in deep water. Recently the fishermen have been recovering pieces of this pottery, which now has an ap- preciated value, by tying strings to octopuses and lowering them in the vicinity of the wreck. The animals enter the vessels and retain their hold of them while being drawn to the surface. Several pieces of this porcelain which I saw were gems, seeming but little the worse for their prolonged submergence. To show how extensive the octopus fisheries . : ‘ i Fig. 4. — Fishing are we again quote from Vice Consul Green’s re- aio: vane port in Simmonds’s Commercial Products of the a” cE at . . . . uam, Sea, who furnishes some interesting particulars as to the fishing and trade in cephalopods in the Tunis waters: Octopodia and polypi are the trade names under which these cephalopods are known in the Levant and Greek markets, where they are solely imported for consumption during Lent, the Orthodox Church not including them in the pro- hibition against the use of flesh in seasons of religious abstinence. In a good season the Several villages on the island of Karkenah supply about 3,000 hun- dredweight, and the Jubah waters a third part of this quantity. In an average year the yield will be under 2,000 hundredweight, and in one of scarcity 1,000 hundredweight. On the shores from the village of Luesa to that of Chenies, in the Gulf of Khabs, the natives collect from 4 to 5 hundredweight of cuttlefish a day during the season, but this supply generally serves for the consumption of Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 13 Hi Ug AUN | “J A CUTTLEFISH (LOLIGO VULGARIS L.). PLATE 14. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. AN ENCOUNTER WITH A GIANT SQuiD. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH., 361 the regency. The remaining coast and islands may be calculated to furnish a minimum of 650 to 700 hundredweight of dried molluscs. The Tunisian Government claims a third of all the polypi fished upon its coast. The sell- ing price varies considerably according to the size, supply, and demand, but at Sfax a pair of them may cost, as circumstances rule, from 6d. to 1s. 8d.; however, the preparatory mace- ration, by beating on a stone slab or rock, required before drying entails a small addi- tional expense and brings the extremes of low and high prices to 25 or 50 shillings per hundredweight. 'To the cost price must be added an export duty of 5s. 1d. and the purchaser ought to be careful to receive his merchandise from the seller during dry weather, as a damp day will add from 4 to 5 per cent to the weight of every hundredweight. From two to three public sales of dried polypi take place in a season on the island of Karkenah; these are regulated according to the abundance of the fish. The average price of the last six years has been: During the first sale, from 45 to 50 shillings per hundredweight; second sale, 35 to 45 shil- lings; third sale, 25 to 30 shillings. A few first parcels, in order to secure an early market, have, however, occasionally been sold for £5 the hundredweight. Malta receives the largest share of the Tunisian polypi, but they are only sent to that island for ultimate transmis- sion to Greece and other parts of the Levant. Portugal is one of the few countries that competes with Tunis in supplying the Greek markets with polypi. In Greece they are either sold, after being pickled, at from £12 16s. to £15 9s. the cantar of 176 pounds, or, in their original dried state, from £12 to £14; but these prices fluctuate according to the favorable or unfavorable results of the season’s fishing. We must not forget that while we see little of dried or pickled octopi in our own country except in the Chinese, Greek, and Italian markets of New York, Boston, San Francisco, and Chicago, it would be difficult to find a food dealer in the oriental markets lacking in these choice dainties. So much, then, for the octopus, the animal that in modern times has become the emblem of selfishness and iniquity. Let us next turn to the decapods, our squids and cuttlefishes, for it is here Rig. S=wisnille tor eitids in that we find the most wonderful mem- Japan. bers of the group. Inch for inch, the squids will compete in swimming power with any other creature that lives in the sea. Well do I recall the rude awakening to which I was subjected when I tried to capture some slender Loligopsoid squids in the southern 362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Philippines. I had always been told that squids were old-fashioned, antiquated relics of the past, whose very method of backward pro- gression marked them as unfit competitors with other marine animals. It was on board the Al- batross in the harbor of Jolo on a dark night, with the sea as smooth as glass. We were fishing with the submarine light, a mere 16- candlepower electric bulb inclosed in a glass globe connected to a water-tight cable. It should be stated that the sea about Jolo Harbor was found to be one of the richest plankton-bearing pieces of water that it has been my good fortune to visit; and where you have an abundance of microscopic life, there, too, will you find the larger forms that subsist upon it. A swish or two of the light and a raising and lowering of it at once attracted a cloud of minute forms, then larger elements came, in part attracted by the hght and in part by the food. The protozoans accumulating about the globe were soon followed by worms and crustaceans, whose tangential course would soon have carried them beyond our light were it not that the fascination curves it more and more and apparently renders the animal unable to escape from the charm that draws, and bends its path to spin about the globe. Thus we soon found millions of creatures drawn into a spinning vortex about our light—the “wheel of life,’ as some one has aptly termed it. But new members were soon added; small fish of various kinds, a school of sardines dashing madly after the small crustaceans and worms, and still larger and larger fish at greater distances from the light, always preying upon the lesser circle within; now and then even the shadowy outline of a large shark injected itself into the distant reaches of our lamp. It was a mad dance, this whirling, circling host of creatures. Soon a new element entered; living > Fic. 6.—¥ishing with octopus in Japan. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH., 863 arrows, a school of Loligopsis shooting across our lighted field, apparently not so much attracted by the light as by the feast before them. They were wonderful creatures, unlike anything else; they shot forward or back like a shuttle, with lightning rapidity. Not only that, but they were able to divert their course into any direction with equal speed. Shooting forward, their tentacles would seize a small fish, and instantly they would come to a full stop, only to dart backward like a flash at the least sign of danger. Kall, kill, kill; they were bloodthirsty pirates. A bite in the neck, and the fish was done for; but the sport continued, and, likely as not, the fish would be dropped and another seized and dispatched. Never before nor since have I seen anything that appeared to me more beautifully equipped for an aquatic existence than these squids. Frequently— yes, very frequently—their impetuous darts would carry them away above the surface of the sea; flying squids, when the pumping of their siphons produced a popping sound. I tried to jig some of them, having heard that the Newfoundland fishermen employ a sinker with a series of hooks attached to it, which they bob up and down in the water, thereby attracting the squids and hooking them. But our Sulu squids refused to be hooked. They would dash up to the contrivance, follow it at a safe distance, but disdained to be caught. They would even snatch from the hooks the small fish used as a bait, and make good their escape. Even the expert jiggers aboard failed to catch them. The bright idea to float a pocket net from the beam and have them enmesh themselves in it occurred to someone. This was tried, and we found that our squids possessed an intelligence equal to their lightning movements. Did they enmesh themselves? Oh, no; not one of the thousand or more that composed the school, but they seemed to enjoy shooting through a hole in our seine and it was a comical as weil as wonderful sight to see them dart through this opening not more than 18 inches in diameter, like arrows fired from a rapid-fire machine gun. Now and then the whole school would come near the surface and pause, then again it would sink to a depth beyond our range of vision. Then they would line up on the far side of our net, sink below it, and shoot up on our side, to make an assault upon the small fish fry which attempted to escape by breaking from the water. We finally did capture some by carefully watching the speedy flight of an individual near the surface and quickly casting our dip net ahead of him. But three nights’ efforts of a half a dozen fisher- men yielded only a couple of dozen specimens. These were wonderful nights in the Sulu Sea! Turn off the elec- tric current, and where a moment before you saw a mass of circling life, you now have a glowing whirlpool, each spark an atom of life, 364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. while bright phosphorescent streaks mark the movement of the larger forms, themselves luminous or rendered so by exciting their smaller neighbors to flash as they come in contact. An endless array of species has been made known by our scien- tists—species large and small, slender and stout, long and short; species with wondrous eyes and blind species, many of the deep-sea forms bearing complex luminous organs, and all of them possessing wonderfully developed chromatophores which can be contracted or enlarged at the animal’s will. The contraction may reduce them to a mere dot, or they may be expanded to 20 times that diameter. The changes in the contraction of thousands of these minute pigment cells, some of which are rosin colored, others yellow, blue-green, or brown, produce the flashes and changes of color that have gained the name of “chameleons of the sea” for our squids. The literature of the past abounds in sea-serpent myths, which in a large measure are traceable to giant squids. For these are the only known animal whose arms can, without distortion, be made to assume a serpentine form. This is clearly shown by our sketch which is proportioned, excepting partly the thickness of the tentacular arms, which has been slightly increased, after measurements of an actual specimen. The expanded end of these long arms, studded with suckers, might easily be mistaken for the bearded or maned head, usually assigned to the serpent. There would be enough basis in a short view of such a vision at long range to enable the untrained mind to supply more than enough detail from the imagination to create a kraken, kraxen, krabben, korven, ankertrold, soe-horven, a haf-gua, soe ormen, horven, aale-tust, or sea serpent. Another thing very suggestive in support of this explanation is the fact that the known distribution of the giant squids is coextensive with the re- gions from which the above-named beasts have been reported. It is also interesting to note that the size of these mystic animals has decreased with increased ocean travel and general education. While sea serpents are annually reported in sea-serpent season, no one ex- cept the fearless sailors of old who braved the dangers of the deep in their small vessels, have been favored with such visions as one finds related by the Rt. Rev. Erich Pontoppidan, Bishop of Bergen in Norway, and member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Copen- hagen, in his Natural History of Norway. We quote from a trans- lation published in London in 1755 (pp. 199-200) : Another drawing also, which appears more distinct with regard to the form of this creature, was taken from the reverend Mr. Egede’s journal of the Green- land mission, where the account stands thus in page 6: ‘‘On the 6th of July, 1734, there appeared a very large and frightful sea monster, which raised itself up so high out of the water that its head reached above our maintop. It has a THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 865 sharp snout, and spouted water like a whale, and very broad paws. The body seemed to be covered with scales, and the skin was uneven and wrinkled, and the lower part was formed like a snake, After some time the creature plunged backward into the water and then turned its tail up above the surface a whole ship length from the head. The following evening we had very bad weather. So far Mr. Egede. The drawing annexed gives me the greatest reason to conclude (what by other accounts I have thought probable) that there are sea snakes, like other fish, of different sorts. That which Mr. Egede saw, and probably all those who sailed with him, had under its body two flaps, or perhaps two broad fins; the head was longer und the body thicker and much shorter than those sea snakes of which I have had the most consistent accounts. Though one can not have an opportunity of taking the exact dimensions of this creature, yet all that have seen it are vnanimous in affirming, as far as they can judge at a distance, it appears to be of the length of a cable, i. e., 100 fathoms, or 600 English feet; that it lies on the surface of the water (when it is very calm) in many folds, and that there are, in a line with the head, some small parts of the back to be seen above Fic. 7.—Giant squid in role of sea serpent. the surface of the water when it moves or bends. These at a distance appear like so many casks or hogsheads floating in a line, with a considerable distance between each of them. Mr. Tuchsen, of Herroe, whom I mentioned above, is the only person, of the many correspondents I have, that informs me he has observed the difference between the body and the tail of this creature as to thickness. It appears that this creature does not, like the eel or land snake, taper gradually to a point, but the body, which looks to be as big as two hogsheads, grows remarkably small at once just where the tail begins. The head in all the kinds has a high and broad forehead, but in some a pointed snout, though in others that is flat, like that of a cow or a horse, with large nostrils, and several stiff hairs standing out on each side like whiskers. It is supposed that the sea snakes have a very quick smell, which we may conclude from this, that they are observed to fly from the smell of castor. Upon this account, those that go out on Stor-Eggen to fish in the summer, always provide themselves with these animals. They add, that the eyes of this creature are very large, and of a blue color, and look like a couple of bright pewter plates. The whole animal is of a dark-brown color, but it is speckled and variegated with light streakes or spots, that shine like tortoise shell. It is of a darker hue about the eyes and mouth than elsewhere, and appears in that part a good deal like those horses, which we call moors heads. 366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. I do not find by any of my correspondents, that they spout the water out of their nostrils like the whale, only in that one instance related by Mr. Egede, as mentioned above; but when it approaches, it puts the water in great agitation, and makes it run like the current at a mill. Those on our coast differ like- wise from the Greenland sea snakes, with regard to the skin, which is as smooth as glass, and has not the least wrinkle, but about the neck, where there is a kind of a mane, which looks like a parcel of seaweeds hanging down to the water. The observer undoubtedly mistook the tail of a giant squid for the head of the serpent and the flukes for the limbs. We quote again (pp. 202-203) : One of the aforesaid North traders, who says that he has been near enough to some of these sea snakes (alive) to feel their smooth skin, informs me, that sometimes they will raise up their frightful heads, and snap a man out of a boat, without hurting the rest; but I will not affirm this for a truth, because it is not certain that they are a fish of prey. Yet this, and their enmity to man- kind, can be no more determined, than that of the land snake, by the words of the prophet Amos (chap. ix, v.38): ‘‘ And though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the serpent, and he shall bite them.” And again (p. 207) Magnus, in his Histor, Septentrion. Lib. 21. c. 24, speaks of a Norwegian sea snake 80 feet long, but not thicker than a child’s arm. He says: This creature, was put to such pain by the crabs fastening on, it, that it writhed itself into a hundred shapes. I have never heard of this sort from any other person, and should hardly believe the good Olaus, if he did not say that he affirmed this from his own experience. * * * The disproportion betwixt the thickness of a child’s arm, and a length of 80 feet, makes me think there must be an error of the press in the place, for xl. perhaps should be xi. ells, or 22 feet; a more proportionable length, for the thickness. And yet good Olaus’s observation may not have been so very wrong, in fact much nearer the truth than the above listed yarns, in all prob- ability it represented the tentacular arms of a giant squid. To show the keenness of observation of early seamen, we quote the following from the same source (pp. 211-213) : Our fishermen unanimously affirm, and without the least variation in their accounts, that when they row out several miles to sea, particularly in the hot summer days, and by their situation (which they know by taking a view of certain points of land) expect to find 80 or 100 fathoms water, it often happens that they do not find above 20 or 30, and sometimes less. At these places they generally find the greatest plenty of fish, especially cod and ling. Their lines, they say, are no sooner out than they may draw them up with the hooks all full of fish; by this they judge that the kraken is at the bottom. They say this creature causes those unnatural shallows mentioned above, and prevents their sounding. These the fishermen are always glad to find, looking upon them as a means of their taking abundance of fish. There are sometimes 20 boats or more got together and throwing out their lines at a moderate dis- tance from each other; and the only thing they then have to observe is whether the depth continues the same, which they know by their lines, or THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH, 867 whether it grows shallower by their seeming to have less water. If this last be the case, they find that the kraken is raising himself nearer the surface, and then it is not time for them to stay any longer. They immediately leave off fishing, take to their oars, and get away as fast as they can. When they have reached the usual depth of the place and find themselves out of danger, they lie upon their oars, and in a few minutes after they see this enormous monster come up to the surface of the water. He there shows himself suifli- ciently, though his whole body does not appear, which, in all likelihood, no human eye ever beheld, excepting the young of this species, which shall after- wards be spoken of. Its back or upper part, which seems to be in appearance about an English mile and a half in circumference—some say more, but I choose the least for greater certainty—looks at first like a number of small islands surrounded with something that floats and fluctuates like seaweeds. Here and there a larger rising is observed like sand banks, on which various kinds of small fishes are seen continually leaping about till they roll off into the water from the sides of it. At last several bright points of horns appear, which grow thicker and thicker the higher they rise above the surface of the water, and sometimes they stand up as high and as large as the masts of middle-sized vessels. It seems these are the creature’s arms, and, it is said, if they were to lay hold of the largest man-of-war they would pull it down to the bottom. After this monster has been on the surface of the water a short time it begins slowly to sink again, and then the danger is as great as before, because the motion of his sinking causes such a swell in the sea and such an eddy or whirlpool that it draws everything down with it, like the current of the river Male, which has been described in its proper place. As this enormous sea animal, in all probability, may be reckoned of the Polype, or of the starfish kind, as shall hereafter be more fully proved, it seems that the parts which are seen rising at its pleasure, and are called arms, are properly the tentacula, or feeling instruments, called horns as well as arms. With these they move themselves and likewise gather in their food. Besides these, for this last purpose the great Creator has also given this creature a strong and peculiar scent, which it can emit at certain times, and by means of which it beguiles and draws other fish to come in heaps about it. This animal has another strange property, known by the experience of a great many old fishermen. They observe that for some months the kraken, or krabben, is continually eating and in other months he always voids his excrements. During this evacuation the surface of the water is colored with the excrement and appears quite thick and turbid. This muddiness is said to be so very agreeable to the smell or taste of other fishes, or to both, that they gather together from all parts to it and keep for that purpose directly over the kraken. He then opens his arms, or horns, seizes and swallows his welcome guests, and converts them, after the due time, by diges- tion, into a bait for other fish of the same kind. I relate what is affirmed by many, but I can not give too certain assurances of this particular as I ean of the existence of this surprising creature, though I do not find anything in it absolutely contrary to nature. As we can hardly expect an opportunity to examine this enormous sea animal alive, I am the more concerned that nobody embraced that opportunity which, according to the following account, once did and perhaps never more may offer of seeing entire when dead. The Rey. Mr. Friis, consistorial assessor, minister of Bodoen, in Nordland, and viear of the college for promoting Christian knowledge, gave me at the latter end of last year, when he was at Bergen, this relation, which I deliver again on his credit. 368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. In the year 1680 a krake (perhaps a young and eareless one) came into the water that runs between the rocks and cliffs in the parish of Alstahoug, though the general custom of that creature is to keep always several leagues from land, and therefore of course they must die there. It happened that its extended long arms, or antennae, which this creature seems to use like the snail—in turning about—caught hold of some trees standing near the water, which might easily have been torn up by the roots; but besides this, as it was found afterwards, he entangled himself in some openings or clefts in the rock, and therein stuck so fast, and hung so unfortunately, that he could not work himself out, but perished and putrified on the spot. The eareass, which was a long while decaying and filled a great part of that narrow channel, made it almost impassable by its intolerable stench. Let us now turn from these distorted and fanciful images to the animals that are responsible for them. Prof. A. E. Verrill, in his Fig. 8. Jaws of the giant squid. Half natural size. report on the cephalopods of the northeastern coast of America, published in the annual report of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1879, tells us many interesting things about the Ameri- can members of the group. Among other things he presents a table on page 22 which gives measurements of the various giant squids that he had examined to date. The largest of these had a total length of 55 feet. The length of the tentacular arms of this speci- men are cited as 35 feet, while the length of the body from tip of tail to the base of the arms is given as 20 feet. The greatest length of tentacular arms mentioned in the table is 37 and the greatest circumference of the body as 12 feet. The diameter of the largest sucker is given as about 2.25 inches, and the breadth of the eye opening is 7 by 9 inches, Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 15. A Piece OF SPERM WHALE SKIN RELATING A BATTLE WITH A GIANT SQUID, IN SUCKER SCAR SCRIPT. By permission, from ‘‘ The Depths of the Ocean,” by Murray and Hjort. ‘The Macmillan Co. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 16. A FIGHT BETWEEN A SPERM WHALE AND A GIANT SQUID. By permission, from ‘‘ The Cruise of the Cachelot,” by Frank T. Bullen. D. Appleton & Co. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 369 In another place he states: A specimen was found alive in shallow water at Coombs Cove and cap- tured. Concerning this one I have seen only newspaper accounts. It is stated that its body measured 10 feet in length and was “ hearly as large around as a hogshead” (10 to 12 feet); its two long arms (of which only one remained) were 42 feet in length and “as large as a man’s wrist”; its short arms were 6 feet in length but about 9 inches in diameter, “ very stout and strong”; the suckers had a serrated edge. The tentacular arms of this specimen would have had a spread of 84 feet. But I have somewhere seen measurements cited of a specimen that carried the extension beyond the 100-foot mark. A splendid basis for sea-serpent yarns. We again quote from Dr. Verrill: I have been informed by many other fishermen that these “big squids,” as they call them, are occasionally taken on the Grand Banks and used for bait. Others state that they have seen them . in that region without being able to eapture them. Nearly all the speci- mens hitherto taken appear to have been more or less disabled when first observed; otherwise they probably would not appear at the surface in the daytime. From the fact that they Fic. 9.—Suckers of the giant squid. Half have mostly come ashore in the night pa tural size. 1, Krom jose arm.) 2. rem I infer that they inhabit chiefly the Soa very deep and cold fiords of Newfoundland and come up to the surface only in the night. That they may at times be a danger to man is shown by the following statement which we quote from Dr. Verrill’s paper: The following extract is from a letter written by the Rev. M. Harvey to Dr. J. W. Dawson, and published in the Montreal Gazette, February 26, 1874: “Two fishermen were out in a small punt on October 26, 1873, off Portugal Cove, Conception Bay, about 9 miles from Saint John’s. Observing some object floating on the water at a short distance, they rowed toward it, supposing it to be a large sail or the débris of a wreck. On reaching it one of the men struck it with his gaff, when immediately it showed signs of life, reared a parrotlike beak, which they declare was ‘as big as a 6-gallon keg,’ with which it struck the bottom of the boat violently. It then shot out from about its head two huge livid arms and began to twine them around the boat. One of the men seized a small ax and severed both arms as they lay over the gunwale of the boat; whereupon the fish moved off and ejected an immense quantity of inky fluid, which darkened the water for two or three hundred yards. The men saw it for a short time afterwards, and observed its tail in the air, which they declare was 10 feet across. They estimate the body to have been 60 feet in length, 5 feet in diameter, of the same shape and color as the common squid, and they observed that it moved in the same way as the squid, both backward and forward. One of the arms which they brought ashore was unfortunately destroyed, as they were ignorant of its importance; but the clergyman of the yillage as- 370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, sures me it was 10 inches in diameter and 6 feet in length. The other arm was brought to Saint John’s, but not before 6 feet of it were destroyed. TFor- tunately, I heard of it and took measures to have it preserved. Mr. Murray, of the geological survey, and I afterwards examined it carefully, had it pho- tographed, and immersed in alcohol; it is now in our museum. It measured 19 feet, is of a pale, pink color, entirely cartilaginous, tough, and pliant as leather, and very strong.” In a letter dated November 27, 1877, Mr. Harvey gives an account of another specimen, which was stranded on the shore at Lance Cove, Smiths Sound, Trinity Bay, about 20 miles farther up the bay than the locality of the Catalina Bay specimen (No. 14). He received his information from Mr. John Duffet, a resident of the locality, who was one of the persons who found and measured it. His account is as follows: ‘On November 21, 1877, early in the morning, a ‘big squid’ was seen on the beach, at Lance Cove, still alive and struggling desperately to escape. It had been borne in by a ‘spring tide’ and a high in- shore wind. In its struggles to get off it ploughed up a trench or furrow about 30 feet long and of considerable depth by the stream of water that it ejected with great force from its siphon. When the tide receded it died. Mr. Duffet measured it carefully, and found that the body was nearly 11 feet long (prob- ably including the head); the tentacular arms, 33 feet long. He did not measure the short arms, but estimated them at 13 feet, and that they were much thicker than a man’s thigh at their bases. The people cut the body open and it was left on the beach. It is an out-of-the-way place, and no one knew ‘that it was of any value. Otherwise, it could easily have been brought to St. John’s, with only the eyes destroyed and the body opened.” It was subse- quently carried off by the tide, and no portion was secured. From Capt. J. W. Collins, of the United States Fish Commission, I learn that in October, 1875, an unusual number of giant squids were found floating at the surface on the Grand Banks, but mostly entirely dead and more or less mutilated by birds and fishes. In very few cases they were not quite dead, but entirely disabled. These were seen chiefly between north latitude 44° and 44° 30’, and between west longitude 49° 30’ and 49° 50’. He believes that between 25 and 380 specimens were secured by the fleet from Gloucester, Mass., and that as many more were probably obtained by the vessels from other places. They were cut up and used as bait for codfish. For this use they are of considerable value to the fishermen. Capt. Collins was at that time in command of the schooner Howard, which secured five of these giant squids. These were mostly from 10 to 15 feet long, not including the arms, and aver- aged ubout 18 inches in diameter. The arms were almost always mutilated. The portion that was left was usually 8 to 4 feet long, and at the base about as large as a man’s thigh. One specimen, when cut up, was packed into a large hogshead-tub, having a eapacity of about 75 gallons, which it filled. This tub was known to hold 700 pounds of codfish. The gravity of the Architeuthis is probably about the same as that of the fish. This would indicate more nearly the actual weight of one of these creatures than any of the mere estimates that have been made, which are usually much too great. Allowing for the parts of the arms that had been destroyed this specimen would, probably, have weighed nearly 1,000 pounds. Among the numerous other vessels that ‘were fortunate in securing this kind of bait Capt, Collins mentions the following; THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 871 The schooner Sarah P. Ayer, Capt. Oakly, took one or two. The H. R. Nicker- son, Capt. McDonald, secured one that had its arms and was not entirely dead, so that it was harpooned. Its tentacular arms were 36 feet long. The schooner T'ragabigzanda, Capt. Mallory, secured three in one afternoon. These were 8 to 12 feet long, not including the arms. These statements are confirmed by other fishermen, some of whom state that the “big squids” were also common during the same season at the “ Flemish Cap,” a bank situated some distance northeast from the Grand Banks. The cause of so great.a mortality among these great Cephalopods can only be conjectured. It may have been due to some disease epidemic among them, or to an unusual prevalence of deadly parasites or other enemies. It is worth while, however, to recall the fact that these were observed at about the same time, in autumn, when most of the specimens have been found cast ashore in Newfoundland in different years. This time may, perhaps, be just subsequent to their season for reproduction, when they would be so much weakened as to be more easily overpowered by parasites, disease, or other unfavorable condi- tions. Aside from man the sperm whale is undoubtedly the greatest enemy possessed by these monstrous animals, for it is well known that parts of them are usually found in the stomach or are vomited by the sperm whale when the animal is captured by whalers. We quote from The Depths of the Ocean, by Sir John Murray and Dr. Johan Hjort (pp. 651-652) : On the 15th of August the Michael Sars arrived in Mofjord on the east coast of Iceland, and visited the local whaling station. On the shore were two freshly caught whales, one a north-caper, the other a cachalot. Inspecting the cachalot I saw around its enormous jaws several long parallel stripes con- sisting, as closer scrutiny revealed, of great numbers of circular scars or wounds about 27 mm. in diameter. It occurred to me that these scars must have been left by the suckers of a giant squid, and following up this idea I found in the whale’s mouth a piece of a squid tentacle 17 cm. in maximum diameter. In the stomach of the whale many squid-beaks of various sizes were found, the largest measuring 9 cm. in length, besides some fish bones, and the men who had shot the whale told me that in its death flurry it dis- gorged the arm of a squid 6 meters long. Our illustration (pl. 15) shows the sucker scars in the skin. An encounter between a sperm whale and giant squid is described in Frank T. Bullen’s book on The Cruise of the Cachalot, from which we quote (pp. 143-144). At about 11 p. m. I was leaning over the lee rail, gazing steadily at the bright surface of the sea, where the intense radiance of the tropical moon made a broad path like a pavement of burnished silver. Eyes that saw not, mind only confusedly conscious of my surroundings, were mine; but suddenly I started to my feet with an exclamation, and stared with all my might at the strangest sight I ever saw. There was a violent commotion in the sea right where the moon’s rays were concentrated, so great that, remembering our position, I was at first inclined to alarm all hands; for I had often heard of voleanic islands suddenly lifting their heads from the depths below, or dis- 372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. appearing in a moment, and, with Sumatra’s chain of active volcanoes so near, I felt doubtful indeed of what was now happening. Getting the night glasses out of the cabin scuttle, where they were always hung in readiness, I focussed them on the troubled spot, perfectly satisfied by a short examination that neither voleano nor earthquake had anything to do with what was going on; yet so vast were the forces engaged that I might well have been excused for my first supposition. A very large sperm whale was locked in deadly conflict with a cuttle-fish, or squid, almost as large as himself, whose interminable tentacles seemed to enlace the whole of his great body. The head of the whale espe- cially seemed a perfect network of writhing arms—naturally, I suppose, for it appeared as if the whale had the tail part of the molluse in his jaws, and, in a businesslike, methodical way, was sawing through it. By the side of the black columnar head of the whale appeared the head of the great squid, as awful an object as one could well imagine even in a fevered dream. Judging as carefully as possible, I estimated it to be at least as large as one of our pipes, which contained 350 gallons; but it may have been, and probably was, a good deal larger. The eyes were very remarkable from their size and black- ness, which, contrasted with the livid whiteness of the head, made their ap- pearance all the more striking. They were at least a foot in diameter, and seen under such conditions looked decidedly eerie and hobgoblin-like. AW | around the combatants were numerous sharks, like jackals around a lion, ready to share the feast and apparently assisting in the destruction of the huge cephalopod. So the titanic struggle went on in perfect silence as far as we were concerned, because, even had there been any noise, our distance from the scene of conflict would not have permitted us to hear it. It is quite possible that the animal observed was an octopus, which would better fit the geographical position of the conflict than the squid. Such a fight is depicted in chapter 11, The Autobiography of a Sperm Whale, Frank T. Bulien’s “ Denizens of the Deep,” from which we have taken plate 17. It is probable, from various observations, that this and the other species of squids are partially nocturnal in their habits, or at least are more active in the night than in the day. Those that are caught in the pounds and weirs mostly enter in the night, evidently while swimming along the shores in “schools.” They are often found in the morning stranded on the beaches in immense numbers, especially when there is a full moon, and it is thought by many of the fishermen that this is because, like many other nocturnal animals, they have the habit of turning toward and gazing at a bright light, and since they swim backwards they get ashore on the beaches opposite the position of the moon. This habit is also sometimes taken advantage of by the fisher- men, who capture them for bait for cod fish; they go out in dark nights with torches in their boats and by advancing slowly toward a beach drive them ashore. That Cephalopods furnished an attractive bait for fish was known to the ancients, for Aristotle tells us: For this reason fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttlefish and use it as bait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted by it; they also bake the octupus and bait their fish baskets or weels with it entirely, as they say, on account of its smell. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 17 A BATTLE BETWEEN A SPERM WHALE AND A GIANT OCTOPUS. By permission, from “‘ Denizens of the Deep,’’? by Frank T, Bullen. Fleming H. Revell Co., publishers. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 18. AN IMPALED SQUID SHOOTING WATER FROM THE SIPHON. From ‘‘ The Herring Weirs of the Maine Coast, Their Building and Their Use,” by C. E. H., Country Life in America, August, 1904. THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 373 Our American cod fishermen will thoroughly agree with him, but they will say that baking or roasting is not essential, that salting even will do. Let us quote again from Simmonds’s Commercial Products of the Sea: The squids form an important element in the North American fisheries, The common Loligo is the favorite food of the cod, and is therefore itself fished for bait. One-half of all the cod taken on the banks of Newfoundland are said to be caught by it. When the vast shoals of this mollusk approach the coast hundreds of vessels are ready to capture them, forming an extensive cuttle fishery, engaging 500 sail of French, English, and American ships. During violent gales of wind hundreds of tons of them are often thrown up together in beds on the flat beaches, the decay of which spreads an intolerable effluvium around. They must themselves be consumed in enormous numbers, for it has been estimated that a single squid will lay in one season 40,000 eggs. A recent inquiry at the Bureau of Fisheries yielded the statement that about 3,000,000 pounds were captured annually, estimated to have a value of about $43,500, Sixty-six per cent are caught in traps in moss chiefly about Cape Cod, though many are obtained in the same manner all the way from Maine to Maryland. Considerable quantities also are obtained by American fishing vessels on the coasts of Canada and Newfoundland. These are not noted in the above statistics. To a considerable extent in former times, but only to a limited extent recently, squids have been caught by means of jigs, a collection of hooks arranged in circular form along a central weight. Jigs are dangled in the water at the end of short lines and attract the squids which are caught when they attempt to seize them. On our west coast squids are caught for food purposes, being chiefly used by the Oriental element of the population. All through the south seas, the Philippines, and Japan, as well as the adjacent mainland countries, one may see split and dried cuttlefish hung in the stores and offered for sale as an element of proteid food. In the Mediterranean countries, where they are also used as food, they are usually pickled. Nor is the flesh the only element of commercial value, for the cuttlefish bone forms quite an element of commerce. It is not only used as an adjunct to the canary’s cage, but in powdered form has served as a fine polishing powder, a fine dentifrice, and an ingredient of medicine. The ladies of ancient days knew it also, for they were accustomed to use the burned product, known to them as pearl powder, as an aid to complexion. In later days this was even improved upon by the addition of a bit of carmine to form the so-called French rouge. Sepia and India ink have been already referred to and need no further mention here. We will close our sketch with some extracts from a charming ar- ticle, “ First Photographs Ever Made of a Paper Nautilus,” pub- 73839°—sm 1916—— 25 374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. lished by Charles Frederick Holder, in Volume 15, No. 4, 1909, of Country Life in America, which gives one a glimpse of the marvelous beauty of some of these pirates of the deep. The term paper nautilus suggests the dainty structure in which the animal lives at times—a fragile, involuted, vase-like object, deeply fluted and coiled, the keel or edge sharp, having double points, while all over the calcareous and pearly shell are deep graceful and branched radiations. The general color is a delicate gray, the opening in the side of nacre, heavily coated, in sharp con- trast to the horny translucent shell paper. The keel is tinted a rich brown that often extends an inch or two up the side of the shell, which may be 2 or 8 or 9 inches across. The shell is not to be compared with the ordinary covering of mollusks, as it is not essential to the animal; it is only a dainty object having the shape of a shell, formed by the animal for the protection of its eggs. It is, then, a nest and in no way connected with the animal, as in the case of the pearly nautilus, where the animal forms partitions as it grows and is connected with them all by a fleshy pedicle or cord. The paper nautilus ean dart out of its fairy ship at a second’s notice. Glancing into the shell we may see a yellow bupch of miniature grapes hanging from the interior wall—the eggs—and perched in front of them is the argonaut, looking very much like an octopus or devilfish. From the number of empty shells found upon Santa Catalina beaches in winter and summer it might be assumed that the argonaut deserts the shell at times and lives a roving, octopuslike life. In appearance it is one of the most beautiful of all animals as it rests in its shell, trembling with color, as waves of rose, yellow, green, violet, and all tints of brown are continually sweeping over it; now irised in the most delicate shade of blue, now brown or green, changing to rose, vivid scarlet, or molten silver. So sensitive is it that every convulsive movement of the mantle of my paper nautilus in taking water to breathe and forcing it out of the siphon caused a wave of color to pass over the entire body. When the water was taken in the color cells contracted, leaving it pale for a fraction of a second; when it was forced out they evidently relaxed and the entire surface was suffused with color to disappear as quickly, giving a continuous heat-lightning effect. Of the three living specimens that I have kept in confinement one was 4 or 5 inches long, another 8 or 9. The small one was extremely active, leaving its shell to crawl about its prison and darting back with great agility, directing its funnel backward at the cluster of eggs hanging in the interior of the shell, always paying the most assiduous attention to them to prevent the intrusion of any parasite or enemy. It would recline against the weed-covered rock watching me or eyeing my hand as it moved about, blushing, paling, displaying remarkable sensitiveness, and when I touched the shell would protest by pumping violently, shooting the shell backward and, if I held on, aiming the siphon at my hand and pump- ing water at it, on one occasion filling the water with an extraordinary volley or cloud of ink. But ordinarily this argonaut did not resent my friendly ad- vanees and when touched it would twine its tentacles about my fingers, hold them closely, and rise partly from the shell, the big black and silver staring eye evidently watching every movement. The speed with which the argonaut could move backward, propelled by its siphon, was remarkable when seen from the side, but when it was observed from behind it was seen to be a perfect racing machine; the sharp keel of the shell covered by the extraordinary velamentous arms presented a perfectly Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Bartsch. PLATE 19. 1. THE ARGONAUT AND HER EGG CASE. From ‘‘ First Photographs Ever Made of a Paper Nautilus,” by Charles F. Holder, Country Life in America, February, 1909. 2. A FISH TRAP ON THE CAPE CoD COAST, IN WHICH LARGE NUMBERS OF SQUID ARE CAUGHT. From “ King Herring: An Account of the World’s Most Valuable Fish, etc.,’* by Hugh M. Smith. National Geographic Magazine, August, 1909. i! Sirs aa ov Bees me - ii = - pee) - THE SQUID AND OCTOPUS—BARTSCH. 375 smooth surface, and the slightest current from the siphon was sufficient to send it along, the entire animal being concealed, the tentacles not trailing behind, as often described. When the argonaut left the shell it crawled about in the position of an octopus, mouth down, but when in the shell its favorite position apparently was with its mouth pointing directly upward, the two dorsal or upper arms thrown back, or it would fasten itself to the glass of the tank by the two large arms and gradually expand them until they were as large as the shell itself, presenting a rippling ultramarine blue on the outer side and iridescent frosted silver on the other. “beta eeri0t90 + ‘GTA \ arson om i ain EF cn cifr shitgih' Gs dee A ee ar cen Delts ton wsliainst Aah. Statens wale Waser ans uote HH bnew Frode holwnny i) Leila od Mot tnenogs ols neRYl Ledtioea) cote en batdod ailsovet zit Jioda out nt sow dod werob Aimar soho 2s Io noiizot ofa — aS. Ve = 2 fat ~ 7 D ree P, Man J if he ‘ i in i: ye iy é mt - a ae A re PK ms A ta t ' ' ~ , ae My Te %) he 4 aS T ° ; * - ‘ a ey ae 4 < : roe i 2 fer i Be) ‘ mal? ¢ ' abe ; Ve Ye ———— — ’ ; ~ mn A 4 * aif . > : t : ca ‘ea i/o vee aia ) ; j nif { q hs 7 i , - J \ * é PN Reear se = es Fae) ist UN) ee — ips lg HE a al 2 ee en ; or alt (raswqu yloeih galisiog thvoct etl itw Bae’ wiinewngys BoidiRoy> ay wilt to ania add od Uoatl aatent blows i 10 bad qvrotds eras toque Ao tietpD en piow wat? fits met besqce qUerbar ban ean estat ows oly yd Anas hs lll ala caal naiiqati n gaiiogaeny Moet Hide odd ep opal : | See ee eee THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE DIATOMS. By ALBERT Mann. [With 6 plates.] Scientific study is constantly giving emphasis to the fact that in nature there is little, if any, relationship between size and impor- tance. Charles Darwin long ago made it plain that among the myriad of living creatures the earthworm plays a very important role in the economy of nature, especially as applied to mankind, and is in fact a greater animal than the elephant. The lowly grass outweighs in importance the loftiest tree of the forest. A brilliant series of dis- coveries led by Pasteur has revealed to us that the most gigantic power, in some cases beneficent, in others baleful, is exercised by the minutest of all living things, the bacteria. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the plants here under consideration, although as a class quite invisible to the naked eye, and many of them so minute that a hundred can be laid upon the head of a common pin, are at the same time of great economic importance. But for a long time the attention of mankind was diverted from the more practical values that we are here to consider by that most striking characteristic of these plants, their surprising beauty and the unequaled complexity of their ornamentation. Coupled with their minuteness there is a daintiness of structure and an artistic diversity of design among the six thousand and odd species which has doubtless been the cause why until recent times they have been objects of merely esthetic interest. They have never been neglected, for from the time of the invention of the microscope they have been the darlings of the microscopists; but only to-day are they begin- ning to be recognized as an important factor in the welfare of the human race. Each diatom plant secretes for itself an incasing box or invest- ment of pure silica, somewhat as a clam or oyster secretes its shell; and these crystalline walls, within which the tiny living plant is housed, are sculptured and carved with such bewildering complexity of design and yet with such perfection of finish that their attrac- tiveness has absorbed the attention of students to the detriment of their many less spectacular qualities. 377 378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Only one practical use has been developed from this esthetic study of the diatoms; they have been long recognized as the most accurate and satisfactory test objects for determining the perfection of micro- scopic lenses and accessories, the ability of any microscope to render visible the fine lace ornamentation which overspreads some of the species being the best index of its optical excellence. As a conse- quence of this, all microscopes are to-day tested with one or both of two species of diatoms, Pleurosigma angulatum, or Amphipleura pellucida. One of the oldest of the economic uses of diatoms has been that of employing fossil diatom earth as a polishing powder, especially in metal work. These organisms appeared geologically about the middle of the Cretaceous period, and although, therefore, among the later of the now existing forms of plant life, their prolific multi- plication has resulted, during former periods of time, in the forma- tion of enormous fossil beds composed of the silica remains of these minute aquatic plants. Such beds are found all over the world, famous deposits being located at Luneburg, Germany; Bilin, Bo- hemia; Sendai, Japan; Ananino, Russia; Oamaru, New Zealand; Moron, Spain; Keene, N. H.; Nottingham, Md.; the coast of Cali- fornia, and many other places of minor importance. The first con- siderable fossil deposit of diatomaceous earth used was confused with a polishing material called “ rottenstone,” mined at Tripoli, in Africa, and it was therefore referred to in commerce by the same name, “ Tripoli powder,” and is in fact so sold in drug stores at the present time. Its high abrasive value comes from the fact that the material, silica, has a high degree of hardness and the grain of the diatom powder is so fine as to produce as a polish the highest luster. Its extreme fineness of texture is shown by a computation made by Ehrenberg, that in 1 cubic inch of the Bilin diatom earth there are 40,000,000 individuals. This abrasive quality of the diatoms has led to their use for other purposes than metal polishing, as for example, for tooth powder. One of the widely advertised tooth powder preparations upon the market is composed entirely of diatomaceous earth. It can not be said that this is a good material for the purpose, as the cutting quality of this siliceous substance is too great to be used constantly upon the thin layer of enamel of the teeth. It is, however, interest- ing to think that many of the users of this diatom dentifrice would be amazed if they could see the thousands of exquisite gem-like organ- isms lying upon their tooth brush and used as a toilet preparation. As a curious instance of perverted use, it might be well here to mention the fact that diatomaceous earth was at one time extensively eaten by the impoverished and half-starved tribes inhabiting the remoter portions of eastern Europe and Asia. Generally the diatom ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN, 879 earth was mixed with flour, and although the nutritive value of this added substance is practically nothing, the advantage of its use was an actual one; because, when the normal requirement of the human stomach for a “square meal” is a quart, and the available flour for that meal is a half pint, the unfortunate consumer gets at least the semblance of a full dinner by adding to his food supply three times its volume of harmless and inert matter. This is probably the ex- planation of the custom of those tribes known as the “ earth eaters.” A number of years ago and shortly after the invention of nitro- glycerine, the diatoms came into an economic use of great importance, namely, the manufacture of dynamite. This substance, so great a blessing and a curse to mankind, is essentially nothing but nitro- glycerine absorbed into the cavities of dried diatom earth. As each diatom plant is a microscopically small silica box, the walls of which are perforated with intensely minute openings, the diatom earth serves to isolate tiny particles of nitroglycerine in such a way as to render the liquid practically a solid and at the same time to obviate the dangerous quality of free nitroglycerine of exploding by means of shock and at low temperatures. To-day, although diatomaceous earth is used to a considerable extent as an element in nitroglycerine explosives, it has been somewhat replaced by other substances, as for example, wood meal. If the meaning of the word economic is not too rigidly taken and may include our increased facility in certain lines of research, it is proper to mention among the economic uses of these plants their value in the determination of certain problems of oceanography, especially in the determination of the direction and the extent of the great ocean currents. Those familiar with this phase of research are aware of the great difficulties attendant upon the accurate meas- urement of the extent and speed of an ocean current, due to the fact that the vessel from which such observations have to be made is itself a drifting object, acted upon by the current in question, as well as by the wind and other forces difficult to compute. Could the ship be anchored, this disadvantage would vanish; but inasmuch as this phase of oceanographic research is carried on in the deep seas, anchoring is not practicable. These organisms, on account of their peculiar structure, composition, and size, lend themselves perfectly to studies of this kind. It is perhaps safe to say that they are the only organisms which meet fully the requirements. Being com- posed in part of an indestructible substance, they do not suffer the rapid decay of many of the microscopic organisms of the sea. This is equally true of other marine organisms incased in silica; but none of these have a second characteristic of the diatoms which is of equal importance, namely, a minuteness of size sufficient to enable them to be carried hundreds or thousands of miles by ocean currents. Such 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. animal denizens of the sea as the Radiolaria are as immortal as to their silica encasements as are the diatoms; but their larger bulk and more massive construction precipitates them to the bottom, while the diatoms are held in suspension like the finest dust for an indefi- nite distance. When we add to these two qualities a third one, the large number of well-defined species, differing in kind according to the parts of the world in which they are found, we see that the pres- ence of these organisms in an ocean current, even thousands of miles from land, will often indicate the direction, the extent, and to some degree the speed of the current by which they are borne along. It should be here stated as a factor in this problem that the diatom flora of any part of the world is always peculiar to that locality, just as the land flora varies at different latitudes and on the different con- tinents. Thus we have a north and south arctic, a north and south temperate, and a torrid diatom flora, which are in strong contrast to each other and which, wherever met with, indicate the place of their origin. In the same way the fresh-water forms, which are poured in large quantities into the sea by the rivers, are still more distinctive, and each section of the coast of our continent has at least some of these plants to be found nowhere else upon the earth. The student of these minute plants is constantly made aware of this sharp distinction of the diatom flora of one part of the world from that of the rest. Let us take some examples: A recent study of some living material from the Hawaiian Islands yielded a large and elaborately ornamented diatom, Biddulphia imperialis, and search through diatom literature revealed this in an obscure monograph, where it was recorded that it also had been found “at the Sandwich Islands.” Doubtless the locality of the original specimen was prac- tically that of the one later found. Another species was named by a Philadelphia diatomist as having been found in a gathering at Mag- dalena Bay, Lower California, and marked as “very rare.” The writer subsequently found it to be very plentiful in a dredging of the U. S. S. Albatross, and, by comparison with the record of the original discovery, it was shown that the two localities were within a mile of each other. The writer named a new species discovered in the Arctic Sea, and subsequently, in a study of the dust collected in pockets on the ice floes of the Arctic, this diatom was rediscovered ; and on comparison it was found that the latitude and longitude of the two were practically identical. Material secured by the Smith- sonian Institution adjacent to the openings of the Panama Canal and previous to its completion has yielded a great many remarkable forms.. A rare species known as Pleurosigma spectabile occurs abundantly in one of the gatherings. This was previously reported by Prof. Grunow, of Vienna, as occurring along the coast of Brazil; that is to say, it is a coastal, middle Atlantic diatom. An even more ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN, 881 rare form known as Clampylostylus striatus was recently rediscovered in an irrigation ditch leading from the Everglades, in Florida, It was first found by Mr. Shadbolt, of England, on some mahogany logs shipped to London from the shores of Honduras; in other words, it is a Gulf of Mexico diatom. An argument, and doubtless a valid one, to support the theory of Prof. Nansen that a current passes northward from the Bering Strait across the north polar region and southward along the western shores of Norway is based upon the fact that the diatom flora of Bering Sea was found by Prof. Nansen to be singularly similar to that of Greenland and the Norwegian coast, thereby indicating a con- nection between these apparently remote localities. From such ex- amples as the foregoing it is reasonable to believe that when the nor- mal diatom floras of the different seas have been investigated and the local diatom floras of the shallower waters, and especially of the rivers of the land, shall be known, we can tell by samples taken at re- mote points of the ocean the parts of the earth traversed by the cur- rent in which are found the specimens in question. In this same way a problem of no little importance to ocean travel becomes one of easy and certain solution, namely, the area of contact between the cold Arctic water of the north and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream off the coast of Newfoundland, this contact being the cause of the dan- gerous fogs prevalent in that locality; for a sample of sea water taken anywhere in that neighborhood must reveal at once to a diatom expert whether the water came southward from the Arctic, or north- ward on the current of the Gulf Stream, or is a blending of the two. A consideration of the economic value of the diatoms requires mention of some minor uses. The large diatom beds of the western part of the United States, and especially those along the Pacific coast, where there are cliffs several hundred feet in height almost wholly made of this material, are coming to be of commercial value because of the use of this substance as a substitute for asbestos or in combi- nation with asbestos as a nonconducting coating for steam pipes, as a filler for refrigerators, and for many other uses where a noncom- bustible material is needed. Fossil diatom deposits are also of value to the art of pottery making, being combined with various other in- gredients in the composition of certain grades of porcelains and glass. There has recently come into notice another use for diatomaceous earth which bids fair to become of considerable value to medical science. The material is compressed into filters in the shape of hollow cylinders or plates to be used for the filtration of serums, toxins, and other sterile liquids of service in the modern treatment of diseases. The porosity and extreme fineness of this material, 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. coupled with its resistance to the action of acids and most solvents, renders it peculiarly well suited for this purpose. A rather baleful use, at one time more extensive than at present, thanks to our pure-food laws, and reminding us of the “earth eaters” previously mentioned, was the employment of diatom earth as an adulterant of candies. A large diatomaceous earth deposit in the eastern United States which formerly did a thriving business along this line has been practically abandoned at the present time, because certain candy manufacturers who used this substance have been compelled to resort to other means for cheapening their prod- uct. It is only to be hoped that the substitute, whatever it is, is as little harmful to the consumer as was the diatom material. It seems right to revert to the artistic beauty of these minute organisms, mentioned at the opening of this article, because their economic importance should not exclude their practical value to the arts in the matter of designs. Those who are familiar with these organisms find their great beauty consists not only in the delicate and complex tracery of their surfaces, surpassing in this respect the most ingenious arabesques of the Moor, but in the symmetry and ereat diversity of form and outline displayed by the members of this group. Nearly every symmetrical figure possible to curves and straight lines is represented in the diatoms. Elongated forms of graceful sigmoid structures, like Hogarth’s line of beauty; thin crescents, like the face of the new moon; triangles, rigidly exact or varied by all graduations in the curvature or undulations of their sides and by the blunted or keenly sharpened character of their angles; spindles and ellipses of every variety of breadth and con- vexity; squares; double squares; stars, from five to twenty pointed ; circles, so accurate in their periphery as to correct the errors of the most perfect mathematical instruments; and combinations of these fundamental figures are to be seen in great abundance. It comes about from these qualities that the diatoms have a suggestiveness in the matter of design that should render them of great value to certain kinds of the mechanical arts. Jewelers, though they might well despair of copying the elaborate perfection of some of these forms, could doubtless obtain useful suggestions for new figures in ornamentation. Manufacturers of articles of artistic quality, such as laces, wall papers, printed fabrics, oilcloths, etc., have ready- made in this gallery of art, the diatom flora, new and better ideas in designing; and, although the difficulty of obtaining and _ pre- paring diatom material for examination will limit their use in this field to some extent, the expense and toil of studying these objects would in many cases be well repaid. At the risk of stretching a little the legitimate meaning of the title of this article, I wish to mention.an element of importance connected ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN, 888 with these organisms, namely the value they have in throwing light upon a study of the differences between objects which are the product of mere mechanical construction and those the construction of which is coordinated with life. There are two things to be said in regard to the ornamentation of these plants. First, there is a perfection at- tained that is essentially absolute, and yet not so servilely exact to the type as to preclude the marks of individuality in each separate plant. Take a diatom, upon the surface of which are found some hundreds of glittering hemispherical beads, and a careful examination with the finest optical apparatus will discover no trace of crudity or irregularity in these hemispheres, each one being polished with a perfection and curved with an accuracy that is absolute; and yet it would be hard to find two individuals with the same number of beads. Among the thousands of these organisms that can be found in a spoonful of ooze dredged from the bottom of the sea and extending for thousands of miles beneath its waters, each separate form will show the same adherence to its type, the same perfection in its work- manship, but the same unmistakable individuality. This is not mere mechanical accuracy, but an accuracy associated in some un- known way with the qualities of that master builder within each cell, cytoplasm. The distinction here insisted on is precisely that between the flight of a bullet and the flight of a bird. It is well illus- trated by the contrast to be seen in two of the accompanying illustra- tions; the sctilpture of the living organism being shown in the figure of Surirella baldjikii copied from a photograph of that diatom, while the sculpture represented in the figure of a very similar diatom, Surirella gracilis, is a mechanically drawn counterfeit. How this living, almost formless jelly, plays the role of a peerless artificer it still remains for science to discover. The other point in a study of the structure of these organisms is that the principles of design are sui generis and not at all associated with the substance of which they are composed. Silica, like all other mineral matter, has its definite lines and angles of crystallization; so that a particle from one part of the world fits with infinite nicety into a particle from any other part of the world. But this silica is woven on the looms of the diatoms into fabrics the mesh of which may be one of many thousand patterns, and no principle of curves and no combination of lines known to geometry correspond in the slightest degree to those found in the ornamentation of these plants. For ex- ample, a line may begin straight, bend gently into a curve, gradually or instantaneously be changed again and thus make up, with the thousands of other lines of the pattern, a variety of arrangement that has no relationship to the principles of mathematics. And yet there is a law within this apparent lawlessness so rigid that the individual species hold their characteristics through thousands of years, and 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. a Navicula lyra newly born in the Delaware River is a sister plant of a Navicula lyra born millions of years ago in the island of New Zealand. When, furthermore, it is borne in mind that we are here dealing with a unicellular organism the wonder becomes ac- centuated. Great complexity is also found in the flowers; but a flower consists of millions of cells and the complex of the whole is the sum total of the different parts. But here is one cell, with a single nucleus and microscopic droplet of cytoplasm, which builds for itself its own palace and is to itself its own architect. It is certainly not too much to say that here is a problem in the constructive resource- fulness of animate nature which must long woo and puzzle the ob- server. | There is at present a growing interest in the theory that the di- atoms have contributed largely to the world’s stock of petroleum. The author does not consider the evidence for this at all conclusive; as, among other things, there is a significant lack of contiguity be- tween the world’s great oil fields and the chief diatom deposits. But the subject is here-mentioned because certain curious facts do lend a strong plausibility, if not a probability, to this theory. That these oils are of organic origin is generally recognized; and a physi- ological peculiarity of the diatoms, their enormous secretion of oil, explains why these tiny organisms suggest themselves to an explana- tion of the origin of petroleum. Most plants, during a part of their existence, manufacture more food-material, that is, building mate- rial, than is at the time required for growth; and this is temporarily stored up as a reserve supply. The chief reserve plant-food material is starch, with sugars, cellulose, inulin, asparagin, etc., as minor sub- stances. But, outside of seeds and nuts, only a few plants store up their reserve supply in the form of oil. The diatom is perhaps the most remarkable in this respect. Living diatom plants will always be found to contain from two to ten shining oil globules, deep orange-yellow in color, and with a high refractive index. The bull of this oil, in proportion to the size of the diatom, rarely falls below 5 per cent; and the author has samples of diatom material in which a careful measurement of the contained oil shows a proportion of 50 per cent. If we consider, therefore, the large extent of many of the known diatom deposits and their frequency in most parts of the world, it becomes evident that the potential volume of organic oil from this one source is very large. But, as above intimated, the application of cause and effect to the diatom-petroleum theory is at present very far from satisfactory. In the diversified uses of the diatoms, if there be one that is of supreme importance, it is the value of these organisms as the great fundamental food supply of the marine world. In the sea as on the land, animal life is dependent upon plant life for the transformation ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DIATOMS—MANN. 885 of the inorganic substances of the earth into organic materials that shall serve as food. The elements necessary to sustain life must be brought into certain chemical relationships, known as a class as or- ganic substances, before the animal can draw upon these to supply its life processes. In other words, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, etc., will not juggle themselves into edible com- pounds. It is only by the alchemy of the green, chlorophyl-bearing plants that these combinations are brought about. The diatom is the smallest of all the green, chlorophyl-bearing plants; but despite its insignificant size, these lilliputian workers are so numerous that the sum total of their activity is almost beyond calculation. Prof. Kofoid has estimated that the average number of diatoms in 1 cubic meter of water in the Illinois River is 35,558,462. Thriving abund- antly in all the waters of the earth, fresh and salt, from the north pole to the south, the countless myriads of these plants are turning the substances held in solution in the waters of the streams, lakes, and seas into living material and are doing this in that strange alembic where it always takes place, namely, the green, chlorophyl- grain. By harnessing in some way a sunbeam to its machinery it turns out from the crude material of mineral matter the vital mate- rial of plant tissue, and on this plant tissue there feeds directly or indirectly most of the animal life of the sea. Some of the minuter forms of economic value to mankind, like the smaller fishes (for example, the sardine) and the shellfish (clams and oysters) make these plants their principal if not their exclusive food. The teem- ing swarms of tiny animal creatures, of which the copepods may be cited as as an example, are the links between the diatoms and those other organisms which in turn prey upon them. And thus, as upon the land the carnivore feeds upon the herbivore and the herbivore feeds upon the plant, so in the sea its animal denizens may be referred back in their food supply to the final source, the diatoms. It may therefore be said, without stretching the truth, that these plants are the grass of the sea, because they occupy the same important relationship toward the life of the sea that grass does toward the life of the land. It is not meant by this that other marine plants do not contribute to the store of animal food. Many of the brown and red seaweeds form the pas- tures of animal sea life; and one plant especially, the so-called eel grass, Zostera marina, is of great importance to those forms of life inhabiting the shallower waters along the shore and especially of the bays and estuaries indenting the coast. Although Zostera does not appear to be extensively preyed upon while it is growing, it becomes a highly nutritious feast for myriads of forms of animal life at the time of its decay. But its usefulness in this respect is greatly circumscribed because it is not available during the greater 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. portion of the year and is available only in those shallower waters in which it is fitted to flourish. Out upon the wide ocean, compris- ing roughly three-fourths of the surface of the globe, it is the diatom which is the plant par excellence as the supplier of animal food. It also shares this service with the other plants above mentioned in the shallower waters of the coast. The full value of the diatoms in this particular is only recently being appreciated. It seems strange that the study of this im- portant point has been so long deferred; as strange as if the stock raiser should have persistently neglected the study of those forage crops upon which the welfare of his stock depends. The enormous value of the fisheries to the world, to the inhabitants of all lands, is the measure of the importance of the study of these minute organisms, because of their intimate relationship to the problem of fish food. When the diatom flora of our coasts and of the high seas is sufli- ciently investigated we shall be in a position to understand better such problems as the migration of fishes and the prevalence of certain kinds in certain waters; and it is not improbable that means will be devised for augmenting the fish food supply through the diatoms, just as the science of agrostology works toward the betterment of the cattle raising industry. Asa single illustration of this point, let us take the teeming animal life of the Antarctic. Those who have seen illustrations of recent explorations near the South Pole were certainly impressed with the enormous fecundity of animal life in that region. It is strange therefore to note that this life is confined almost entirely to its waters; to learn that there are no land birds, no land animals, nor insects. This is because there is no plant life upon the shore. All bird life, all animal life is marine, penguins, gulls, petrels, and a long list of strictly aquatic animals. Now, in these waters of the Antarctic the plant life that is most prominent is the diatom. ‘This plant, more than all others, is the explanation of the teeming life that inhabits those remote seas. The writer in investigating the diatoms of the Shackleton Expedition to the South Pole, found in most of the samples collected a larger percentage of diatoms than in any other samples known. Some dredgings made at McMurdo Bay were found to be at least 50 per cent edible diatomaceous material. No wonder therefore that the lower animal forms swarm in these waters and that the carnivorous animal forms of larger bulk are so prolific; for between them and extinction there stands the abundant and ever-present supply of plant food represented by the diatom flora. Norr.—In the accompanying illustrations, with the exception of two figures, I am in- debted for the use of the original photographs from nature, to the Hon. Alvey A. Adee, Washington, D. C. The magnifications of the group illustration is approximately 60 diameters, of the others from 600 to 750 diameters. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. PLATE 1 Fossit MARINE DIATOMS FROM HUNGARY. GROUPED FOR ILLUSTRATION. MAGNIFIED ABOUT 60 TIMES. ON: \ ae) x Tot a 5 BY ie CeRCaCIe C3 ¢ On> 2 e309 - Cot¢ Ber CIOCICIC; ERAS OO CE 2352 Se OVA Ea C.OP¥9, : SOE Oem OO 67 O,6209 WS SEB U VOOR AAS OLD G EIAPARARSYGLOBS BS 2 GIVER SB P,P 9% BEBY BARBS SG 00n0F epeirietel™ BOO? 56900 : - Ca > “a ¢ 7 ox ee) €53€9 © Oi - ST: 4 oy fe ~d pee Yo IE eaencar Wess 2 Se | at | ~ 4. aise oe JOE ES Lee EcAyS coy oe RE eos Un PRA pee ARACHNOIDISCUS EHRENBERGII BAIL. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. PLATE 2. - eS) c . a el at mk wh bel et hd It eh be be te Re ° < ea a> TRICERATIUM BALANIFERUM T. AND BR. BIDDULPHIA GRUNOWII (JAN.). PLATE 3. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. TRICERATIUM ARCTICUM BRIGHT. VAR. w Ww ORTHONEIS SPLENDIDA (GREG.) GRUN. ACTINOPTYCHUS HELIOPELTA GRUN. PLATE 4. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. ACTINOPTYCHUS ASTER BRUN. AULISCUS PRUINOSUS BAIL. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. PLATE 5. rs od ae ig f/ —— tae Sx, . x au ss Pe. » one 4 “ee < a 2 a wo ete UW rrh: BIDDULPHIA PENTACRINUS (WALL.) V. H. AULACODISCUS CONCENTRICUS MANN. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Mann. ’ PLATE 6. oe SE ENT oS DRI A oh OE SURIRELLA GRACILIS O’ME. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS OF THE ANCIENT AMERICANS. By W. E. Sarrorp, Economic Botanist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. [With 17 plates. ] The use of narcotic plants and stimulants was widely spread in both North and South America long before the discovery, not only for the purpose of exhilaration or intoxication, but also in connection with the practice of necromancy and in religious rituals and cere- monies accompanying the initiation of boys into the status of man- hood. The companions of Columbus on his first voyage observed the custom of smoking cigars made of bundles of tobacco leaves as practiced by the aborigines of Hispaniola, or Haiti, and the same custom was observed on the Isthmus of Panama. The use of this plant was found to be very widely spread on the mainland of both North and South America. In Mexico tobacco was used in religious rituals like incense, and its leaves were chewed with lime. Though of subtropical origin, its cultivation extended as far north as the St. Lawrence River. The antiquity of tobacco smoking in North America is attested by the discovery of ceremonial tobacco pipes in prehistoric mounds and graves. : A narcotic snuff called coheba, described by Ramon Pane, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage, has been confused with tobacco. It was used by the natives of Hispaniola, who inhaled it through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated tube. Snuff simi- larly inhaled was afterwards found among several Indian tribes of South America. It proved to be a powder prepared from the seeds of a mimosalike tree, Piptadenia peregrina, to be described below. Among the Aztecs, in addition to tobacco, two other narcotic plants, a small, fleshy spineless cactus mistaken by early writers for a fungus from the appearance of its dried discoid sections and the seeds of a species of Datura called ololiuhqui, were used by priests and magicians in their incantations. So holy were these plants held that collectors sent in quest of the cactus (peyotl) were con- secrated with incense before starting on their journey, and it was 1 Published by the authority of the Secretary of Agriculture. 387 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. considered a pious task to sweep the ground where the ololiuhqui grew. Among the Zunis and the Indians of Arizona and Southern California the roots and other parts of a closely allied Datura were used in incantations and initiatory ceremonies. Among the Indians of Virginia the common Datura stramonium was used in a similar ceremony (huskinawing) to cause intoxication of candidates for initiation; and it is interesting to note that in the Andes of Peru a related tree datura, Brugmansia sanguinea, was used by the priests of the Temple of the Sun to induce exhilaration accompanied by supernatural visions. Other narcotic plants belonging to the Solanaceae, or Nightshade Family, allied to the Mandragora and Hyoscyamus of the Old World, were species of Solandra, resembling climbing daturas with long trumpet-shaped flowers; Himeranthus and Jaborosa of South America, used as aphrodisiacs and in religious ceremonies; Salpi- chroa and Acnistus, with properties like those of Atropa Belladonna; and, in addition to these, a South American forest climber belonging to the Malpighiaceae described by Richard Spruce under the name Banisteria Caapt. Among nerve stimulants used by American aborigines must be mentioned first of all Hrythroxylon Coca, now of great importance as the source of cocaine; /lea paraguariensis, the yerba mate, or Para- guay tea, and its very close ally of our Southern States, lea vomi- toria, the basis of the celebrated “black drink”; Z’heobroma Cacao, from which chocolate is made; and Paullinia Cupana, the source of the cupana or curana, of South America, which acts, somewhat like tea, as a wholesome stimulant. Among alcoholic intoxicants were chicha or azua, prepared by fermenting gruel made from grains of maize or chenopodium, to which various fruit juices were sometimes added; tizwin, or teshuino, made by our southwestern Indians from sprouting maize or other grains, and also from mezquit pods or cactus fruits; and a fermented drink prepared in South America from the roots of mandioca. From the sap of certain species of palms wine was made in various parts of tropical America, and from century plants, or agaves, and yuccas the Mexicans made their fermented octh, or pulque. The art of dis- tillmg was unknown in ancient America, but with the fermented liquors above mentioned, often strengthened by narcotic herbs, roots, or seeds, many of the aboriginal tribes succeeded in “ getting glori- ously drunk,” as one of the early Spanish writers declared. Some of them were addicted to most disgusting forms of debauchery long before they came under the degrading influence of civilization, so often deplored by travelers and missionaries.' 1See Spix and Martius. Reise in Brasilien, 3:1075. 1831; and Robert Southey, History of Brazil, 3: 722-723. 1819. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 3889 TOBACCO. (Plates 1 and 2.) Tobacco is first mentioned in the account of Columbus’s discovery of the New World. In the narrative published by Navarrete, under the date of November 6, 1492, is the following entry: Last night, says the admiral, came the two men whom he had sent to observe the interior of the island, and they told him how they had walked 12 leagues to a village of 50 houses. * * * On the road the two Christians encountered many people proceeding to their villages, men and women, holding in their hands a firebrand and herbs which they were accustomed to take in their incense burners. In a footnote on the same page is added: In the Historia general de las Indias which he wrote, Bishop Casas refers with greater detail to this occurrence. ‘‘ These two Christians met on the road (says he) many people who were proceeding to their villages, women and men, always the men with a firebrand in their hands and certain herbs to take in their incense burners, which are dry herbs wrapped in a certain leaf, also dry, after the manner of a musket made of paper which the boys make at the feast of Pascua del Hspiritu Santo; and having lighted one end of it, at the other they suck or inhale, or receive within with the breath, that smoke, with which the body is soothed and which almost intoxicates, so that they do not feel fatigue. These muskets, or whatever we shall call them, they call tabacos. I knew Spaniards on this island of Hispaniola who were accustomed to taking them, and, being reproached for so doing because it was a vice, they replied that they could not stop the habit. I know not what savor or benefit they found in them. Here may be seen the origin of our cigars. Who would have ventured to say at that time that their consumption and use would one day become so common and general and that upon this new and strange vice there would be established one of the fattest revenues of the State?” * USE OF TOBACCO BY THE MEXICANS. By the ancient Mexicans tobacco was regarded as a sacred or magic herb. It was used in their religious rites and in ceremonies of various kinds in the form of incense. They also inhaled its smoke and chewed its leaves together with lime. In the Nahuatl language it was called yetl, as prepared for their fumigations it was called piciet]; and the leaf of green tobacco together with lime, prepared for chewing was called tenexiet] (from tenextli, lime, and yet], tobacco). The last name is often modified into other forms, varying even in the writings of a single author, as tenegiete, tene- chiete, etc.; the Nahuatl] X having the sound of the English SH (which is absent from the Spanish language), and the Spaniards having a tendency to drop the terminal L of Nahuatl words. The plant itself, Vicotiana tabacum, was described by Dr. Nicolas Monardes of Seville, in 1574, and highly recommended by him for its 1 Navarrete, Colleccion de los Viages de Descubrimientos, que hicieron por mar los Tispatioles desde fines del siglo XV. Tomo. 1. Viages de Colon: Almirantazgo de Cas- tilla. pp. 50-51. 1825. 73839°—sm 1916——26 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. supposed medicinal virtues. After enumerating a long lst of maladies which might be cured by it, and relating specific instances in which he had known it to be efficacious (very much after the manner of the testimonials published at the present day in connec- tion with patent medicines), he describes its ceremonial use by the Indian priests, or necromancers. In this connection, however, since he speaks of its intoxicating effects, it is very probable that other narcotics were mixed with it. The custom of chewing it, as prac- ticed by the Mexicans, he describes as follows: The Indians make use of tobacco to aid them to endure thirst as well as hunger, and to enable them to pass days without having necessity to eat or drink. When they have to journey across some desert or wilderness where neither water nor food is to be found, they use little pellets made of this tobacco. They take the leaves of it, and chew them, and as they go chewing them they go mixing with them a certain powder made of burnt clam shells, and go mixing them together in their mouth until they make a kind of paste, out of which they make little pellets a little larger than garbanzos and place them in the shade to dry, after which they keep them and use them in the following manner: When they are obliged to journey in regions where they do not expect to find water or food, they take one of those pellets and place it between the lower lip and the teeth, and they go along sucking it all the time that they are walking, and what they suck they swallow, and after this fashion they pass and journey three or four days without having necessity for food or drink; beeause they feel neither hunger nor thirst nor faintness which might hinder their journey. . Padre de la Serna, who prepared a manual for instructing the missionaries sent to the Indians concerning witchcraft, necromancy, and idolatry, as practiced by the payni and titzitl of the Mexicans, speaks repeatedly of the use of tobacco (picietl) and lime-and-tobacco (tenexiet]) in their various conjurations. This plant, to which the Mexicans ascribed divine honors, was invoked like the sacred ololiuh- que and peyotl, which will be described later. In all cases the spirits of the plants, designated as brown or green or white, were called upon to cast out various maladies, also distinguished by colors, with threats if they failed and promises if they succeeded. In classifying these narcotics Padre Serna observes: They called by the name of “green spirit” the tenegiete [tenexietl] which they prepared with lime, in order to give strength to the mouth, venerating it as though it were the guardian angel of travelers. Tobacco, since it did not cause hallucinations, was not held to possess the virtues of divination like those of the narcotic ololiuhqui [Datura] and peyotl [Lophophora]. The latter were held in such reverence by certain persons “forsaken by God” that they were carried about to serve as charms against all injuries. * 1Monardes. ‘ Historia medicinal de las Cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occi- dentales que sirven en Medicina.” f. 30. 1574. 2See Jacinto de la Serna, ‘‘ Manual de Ministros para el conocimiento de idolatrias y extirpacion de ellas.’’ In Documentos Inéditos para la Historia de Espafa, vol. 104, p. 165. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 391 USE OF TOBACCO IN NORTH AMERICA. The antiquity of the custom of tobacco smoking in North America is indicated by the discovery of tobacco pipes in graves and burial mounds in various parts of the United States. Two _ these pipes are shown in the accompanying illustrations (figs. 1, 2). They are but a sample of many, often fashioned in the one of mammals, birds, or reptiles, and sometimes of human beings, found in the Scioto Valley, where the writer was born. It was the discovery of objects like these in the mounds near Chillicothe, Ohio, that first instilled in him an interest in study of the origin and history of the aboriginal inhabitants of America. So widely spread was tobacco at the time of the discovery that, although a mic. 1—stone pipe from Indian plant of, subtropical. origin, it was found \\Mound, near Chillicothe, Ohio, in cultivation as far north as the St. Law- 7 Oe rence River. Indeed, one of the great tribes of North American Indians, known as fee “Tobacco Nation,” inhabited nine villages lying just south of Lake Huron. They took their name from the fact that they cultivated tobacco on a large scale and sold it to other tribes. * The important part played by tobacco in many ceremonies of the North American Indians is too well known to need description in this place. In the South tobacco smoking often accompanied the ceremonial of the “black drink.” At meetings of ambassadors, councils of nations, treaties of peace, and the reception of visitors, the calumet or pipe of peace was invariably circulated. The accom- panying illustration (fig. 3) represents the stem of a ceremonial calumet, like that carried by Marquette during his travels among the Indians. In Virginia its cultivation was taken up on a large scale by the colonists. Tig. 2.—Stone pipe in the form of a human Tobacco is undoubtedly the most. important Hicar Sa lang; Bie, waich America, has presented to the eality. world: No other visible and tangible product of Columbus’s discovery has been so universally diffused among all kinds and conditions of men, even to the remotest nooks and corners of the habitable earth. Its serene and placid charm has everywhere proved irresistible, although from the outset its use has been frowned upon with an acerbity such as no other affair of hygiene has ever called forth., The first recorded mention of tobacco is in Columbus’s diary for Novem- ber 20, 1492 [Nov. 6, according to Navarrete]. The use of it was soon introduced 1It is interesting to note that in 1914 10,000,000 pounds of tobacco were produced in the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. into the Spanish Peninsula, and about 1560 the French ambassador at Lisbon, Jean Nicot, sent some of the fragrant herb into France, where it was named in honor of him Nicotina. It seems to have been first brought to England by Lane’s returning colonists in 1586, and early in the seventeenth century it was becoming fashionable to smoke, in spite of the bull of Pope Urban VIII and King James’s “ Counterblast to Tobacco.” Everyone will remember how that royal author characterized smoking as “a custom loathsome to the eye, hate- ful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black stinking fume thereof nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.” ! In spite of all efforts to discourage its use and cultivation, tobacco soon became the principal staple of the New World, and was even Fie. 3.—Ceremonial pipe of peace, or calumet. used instead of gold and silver for currency. In 1619, owing to the scarcity of wives in Virginia a shipload of young women— spinsters carefully selected and matronized (says Fiske) were sent to the eolony. They had no difficulty in finding suitors, but no accepted suitor could claim his bride until he should pay the London Company 120 pounds of tobacco to defray the expenses of her voyage.” Fiske calls attention to the important role which tobacco has played in the history of our country by repeating a remark of Moncure Conway: “A true history of tobacco would be the history of English and American liberty.” Fiske continues: It was tobacco that planted an English nation in Virginia. It was the desire to monopolize the tobacco trade that induced Charles I to recognize the House of Burgesses; discontent with the Navigation Act and its effect upon the tobacco trade was potent among the causes of Bacon’s Rebellion; and So on 1 Fiske, John. Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 1: 174-175. 1898. 2 Fiske, op. cit., 1: 188-189. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 393 down to the eve of Independence, when Patrick Henry won his first triumph in the famous Parson’s Cause, in which the price of tobacco furnished the bone of contention, the Indian weed has been strangely implicated with the history of political freedom.' Such a certain and steady demand was there for it that, like choe- olate in Mexico, it became the currency of the colony. The prices of all articles of merchandise were quoted in pounds of tobacco. In tobacco taxes were assessed and all wages and salaries were paid. This use of tobacco as a circulating medium and as a standard of values was begun in the earliest days of the colony, when coin was scarce, and the structure of society was simple enough to permit a temporary return toward the primi- tive practice of barter. Under such circumstances tobacco was obviously the article most sure to be used as money.” It was exchangeable for whatever any- body wanted in the shape of service or merchandise, and it was easily pro- cured from the bountiful earth. * COHOBA SNUFF OF THE ANCIENT HAITIANS. (Plate 3.) In addition to tobacco the companions of Columbus encountered another narcotic in Haiti, or Hispaniola, called cohoba. It was taken in the form of snuff, inhaled through the nostrils by means of a bifurcated tube. It was correctly described by Ramon Pane, appointed by the great admiral to report upon the superstitious be- hefs of the islanders, and also by Las Casas, who was an eyewitness to the ceremonies accompanying its use. Subsequent writers, mis- led by Oviedo’s incorrect statement that this substance was ignited and its smoke inhaled through the nostrils by the bifurcated tube, confused it with tobacco. It was in reality derived from the seeds of a mimosa-like tree, known botanically as Piptadenia peregrina. That it could not have been tobacco is apparent from the descrip- tion of the physiological effects caused by it. All writers united in declaring that it induced a kind of intoxication or hypnotic state, accompanied by visions which were regarded by the natives as super- natural. While under its influence the necromancers, or priests, were supposed to hold communication with unseen powers, and their in- coherent mutterings were regarded as prophesies or revelations of hidden things. In treating the sick the physicians made use of it to discover the cause of the malady or the person or spirit by whom the patient was bewitched. The snuff was called coxoba in the language of the islahders. This was rendered in the Italian or- thography of the translation of Pane’s description, “cogioba,” and incorrectly transcribed as “cogiba,” or “cojiba.” In Spanish or- thography it is written “ cojoba.” 1 Fiske, Old Virginia and her Neighbors, 2: 174. 1898. 2Jt is interesting to note that at a later epoch whisky distilled from maize was used in certain parts of the United States as currency, even for paying the salaries of school teachers and clergymen. 8 Tiske, op. cit. p. 216. 394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. In describing the idols of the islanders Pane gives the following account: Those of wood are made in this fashion: When someone is going along on a journey he says he sees a tree which is moving its roots; and the man in a great fright stops and asks: ‘‘ Who is it?” And he replies: “My name is Buhuitihu, and it will indicate who I am.’ And the man goes to the physician and tells him what he has seen, and the enchanter or wizard runs immediately to see the tree which the man has told him of and sits down by it, and he makes cogioba as we have described [above in the story of the four]. And when the cogioba is made he stands up on his feet and gives it all its titles as if it were some great lord, and he asks it: ‘‘ Tell me who you are, and what you are doing here, and what you want of me, and why you have had me called. Tell me if you want me to cut you or if you want to come with me, and how you want me to ~ carry you, and I will build you a cabin and add a property to it.” Then that tree or cemi, become.an idol or devil, replies to him, telling him the shape in which it wants to be made. And he cuts and makes it in the shape it has di- rected ; builds its house for it, and gives the property, and many times in the year makes cogioba for it. This cogioba is to pray to it and to please it and to ask and to learn some things from the cemi, either evil or good, and in addition to ask it for wealth. And when they want to know if they will be victorious over their enemies they go into a cabin into which no one else goes except the principal men, and their chief is the first who begins to make cogioba and to make a noise; and while he is making cogioba no one of them who is in the com- pany says anything till the chief has finished; but when he has finished his prayer he stands a while with his head inclined and his arms on his knees; then he lifts his head up and looks toward the sky and speaks. Then they all answer him with a loud voice, and when they have all spoken, giving thanks, he tells the vision that he has seen, intoxicated with the cogioba which he has inhaled through his nose, which goes up into his head. And he says that he has talked with the cemi and that they are to have a victory; or that his enemies will fly; or that there shall be a great loss of life, or wars, or famine, or some other such things which occur to him who is intoxicated to say. Consider what a state their brains are in, because they say the cabins seem to them to be turned upside down and that men are walking with their feet in the air. And this cogioba they make for cemis of stone and of wood as well as for the dead, as we have described above.’ Peter Martyr’s account of the inhabitants of Hispaniola, in his De Orbe Novo, is simply a paraphrase of Fra Ramon’s paper, in Latin. It adds nothing to his description of cohoba, but on the other hand it is misleading, since it refers to it as “an herb which they pound up and drink”; and though it states that the natives “absorb the intoxicating herb called cohobba, which is the same as that used by the bovites to excite their frenzy,” it fails to specify that they breathed it through their nostrils by means of a forked tube. Nothing is said of the apparatus by which the snuff is taken, and indeed Ramon Pane himself neglects to give a description of it. Fernando Colombo, however, in his Historie (1571) states that for holding the snuff the natives had a finely wrought table of a 1 Ramon Pane (1496), in appendix to Fernando Colombo’s Historie, cap. XIX, p. 137a, L571. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 895 round form, resembling a trencher (come un tagliere), and that they took it by means of a bifurcated tube, “con una canna di due rami, che si mettono al naso.” The description of Las Casas is even more precise. The snuff tray he describes as “a plate, not flat but slightly concavish or deep, made of wood, so handsome, smooth, and pretty that it could not be very much more so were it made of gold or silver; it was almost black and polished like jet” (cuasi negro y lucio como de azabache). In describing the tube he says: The tube was fashioned the size of a flute and was quite hollow, like a flute. From two-thirds of its length onward it divided by means of two hollow canes, just as we open the two middle fingers, leaving out the thumb, with the hand extended. The ends of these two canes inserted into the windows of the nostrils and the base of the flute, let us say, into the powder on the plate, they would draw in their breath and snuffing up, would receive through the nostrils as much of the powder as they wished to take, which, when taken, would go at once to the brain, almost as though they had drunk strong wine; for they would become drunk or almost drunk * * *, It was their custom, in coming together to decide difficult matters, such as the maneuvers of one of their war parties, or the performance of other things which they deemed important, to make their cohoba and with it intoxicate themselves or nearly so to do * * *, T saw these people on several oc- easions celebrate their cohoba, and it was an interesting spectacle to witness how they took it and what they spake. The chief began the ceremony, and while he was engaged all remained silent. When he had taken his cohoba (that is, when he had snuffed up the powder through his nostrils, as I have described), they being seated on certain handsomely carved low benches which they called duohos (the first syllable long), he remained silent for a while with his head inclined to one side and his arms placed on his knees. Then he raised his face heavenward, uttering certain words which must have been his prayer to the true God, or to him whom he held as God; after which all responded, almost as we do when we say amen; and this they did with a loud voice or sound. Then they gave thanks and said to him certain complimentary things, entreating his benevolence and begging him to reveal to them what he had seen. He described to them his vision, saying that the Cemi had spoken to him and had predicted good times or the contrary, or that children were to be born or to die, or that there was to be some dispute with their neighbors, and other things which might come to his imagination, all dis- turbed with that intoxication; or if perhaps without it, what the devil, to deceive them and win them to his worship, had brought to them,” The snuff itself was described by Las Casas as “finely ground and of the color of cinnamon or powdered henna” (de color de canela 6 de alhefia molida).? 1Las Casas. Apol. Hist. de las Indias, Chap. 166, pp. 445-446, ed. Serrano y Saenz, Madrid. 1909. 2 Alhefia is the name of the so-called Egyptian privet, Lawsonia inermis, the powdered leaves of which, called henna, were used by the Egyptians for coloring their finger-nails. The fragrant flowers of this plant are the principal source of the perfume wafted by the breezes of ‘‘ Araby the Blest.” 396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. THE COHOBA TREE STILL PERSISTS IN HAITI. That a substance with the intoxicating effects of cohoba should have been identified with tobacco seems strange; but if not tobacco, what could have been its origin? Is the custom of taking a narcotic snuff by means of bifurcated tube still in existence in any part of America? If so, from what plant is the snuff prepared, and is this plant to be found growing on the island of Haiti? These questions may be answered as follows: The custom of taking a narcotic snuff still prevails in various localities of South America, showing that at one time it must have been widely spread. In inhaling it some tribes used bifurcated tubes which correspond very closely with the descriptions of those used in Hispaniola (fig. 4). The plant from which the snuff is derived is Piptadenia peregrina, a tree which grows both spontaneously and in cultivation on the banks of the Orinoco and Amazon Rivers and their tributaries. This tree does grow on the island of Hispaniola, or Haiti, as well as upon the neigh- boring island of Porto Rico and several other of the Antilles, and—most interesting and convinc- ing of all facts connected with it—it still bears the name cohoba, which was applied in ancient times both to the snuff itself and to the ceremonial practice of using it. In connection with his studies of the plants used by the aborigines of America, the writer encountered various narratives of travelers in South America in which ceremonial snuff taking by savage tribes by means of bifurcated tubes was described. In all cases the snuff was made from the seeds of Piptadenia peregrina, the tree called Cohoba in Haiti. Among the writers who bear testimony to this practice are Padre Gumilla, in his Orinoco Ilustrado (1741); M. de la Con- damine in his interesting Relation, published in the Memoires de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, Année 1745; Humboldt and Bon- pland in their Voyage aux Régions Equinoxiales (1819), and Spix and Martius, Reise in Brasilien (1831). One of the most interesting features in connection with the use of the seeds of Piptadenia is described by Spix and Martius—the use of an infusion made from them asan enema. ‘This was accomplished by means of pear-shaped rubber syringes, which, according to M. de la Condamine, were passed around to guests at ceremonial feasts. In various parts of South America the snuff was called niopa, fupa, curupa, curuba, and paricé; and a similar or identical snuff, also made from Piptadenia seeds, was called cebil or sebil in Argentina and vilea, huillca, or willca in Peru. rn LL. - Aa wo 3 SS << mm. | SS Fic. 4.—Forked tube for inhaling narcotic Piptadenia snuff through the nose. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 397 For a full account of this interesting narcotic the reader is referred to the author’s recent paper, “ Identity of Cohoba, the narcotic snuff of ancient Haiti,” published in the Journal of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences, volume 6, pages 547 to 562. It is remarkable that the identity of cohoba, mentioned in the very first account of the ethnology of the aboriginal inhabitants of the New World, should have remained unknown for three centuries, and more remarkable still that the seeds of Piptadenia peregrina, known to possess violent narcotic properties, should never have been studied by chemists. Humboldt was so much surprised on finding that the source of the snuff was a leguminous seed that he suggested the possibility of its intoxicating effects being due to the admixture of lime with it, but Richard Spruce, who saw the snuff prepared without lime, showed that this supposition was erroneous. It is not so strange, as Hum- boldt would indicate, that seeds of Leguminose should possess nar- cotic properties. The scarlet seeds of Sophora secundifiora, or Brous- sonetia secundifiora, of Texas and northern Mexico, are also very narcotic and are still used by certain Indian tribes for ceremonial purposes, as described below. THE RED BEAN OF NORTHERN MEXICO AND TEXAS. (Plate 3.) Broussonetia secundifiora, described and figured by Ortega in 1798 from a plant growing in the Royal Garden at Madrid, but more com- monly known by the name Sophora secundifiora, is a beautiful ever- green shrub or small tree with pinnately compound glossy leaves, racemes of violet-colored flowers, and indehiscent pods containing scarlet bean-like seeds. The latter have been studied chemically and are known to contain a narcotic poisonous alkaloid allied to cytisin, having a physiological effect very much like that of tobacco. From Texas, reports have been received that the seeds have poisoned chil- dren. The plant, though usually avoided by animals, is eaten by deer and goats, and the hard, glossy beans when swallowed whole are apparently harmless. In early days they were much used by certain tribes of Indians for making a narcotic decoction, and when ground to a powder were put in mescal, or Agave brandy, to make it more intoxicating; hence the name “mescal bean,” which was formerly applied to them. In early days these beans were so highly valued by the Indians of the Mexican border region that a string of them 6 feet long would be accepted in barter for a pony. According to Dr. Rothrock, who quotes Mr. Bellanger, of Texas, “the Indians near San Antonio used this bean as an intoxicant, half a bean producing delirious exhilara- tion followed by a sleep that lasts two or three days; and it is asserted that a whole bean would kill a man.”+ 1 See Havard, V., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 8: 500. 1885. 398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Mr. Alanson Skinner, in describing the Red Bean Dance of the Iowa Indians, says that among them this ancient rite far antedates the practice of eating peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) which they have more recently adopted. According to their traditions the society of red-bean dancers was founded by an Indian who while fasting dreamed that he received the secret from the deer: “for red beans (mescal) are sometimes found in deer’s stomachs.” The beans were prepared by first placing them before the fire until they turned yellow. Then they were taken and pounded up fine and made into a medicine brew. ‘The members then danced all night. A little after midnight they began to drink the narcotic decoction, and continued to drink it until daybreak, when its effects became apparent in caus- ing them to vomit. After vomiting and praying repeatedly they believed themselves ceremonially cleansed, the evil being having been expelled from their bodies. Members of the society, when they went to war, tied some of these red beans around their belts, deeming them efficacious as a charm to protect them from injury. The mancacutzi warthawe, or “ red-bean war-bundle,” was regarded by the society as a sacred charm, the possession of which brought success in war, hunting, especially for the buffalo, and in horse racing. These beans are often confused with those of certain species of Erythrina, which are sometimes sold in their place in the markets of Mexico, but which are not at all narcotic. Sometimes both kinds are found mixed together in the same package. Both are known alike under the names colorin, frijolillo, and coral bean, on account of their similarity; but in southern Texas the seed of Broussonetia is known as Indian Bean, or mescal bean. The plants of Broussonetia and Erythrina do not in the least resemble each other, and there is no possibility of confusing either the flowers or the legumes of the two genera; so that when adulteration of the narcotic beans occurs it is undoubtedly intentional. MEXICAN PLANT WORSHIP. From the accounts of early writers it appears that the ancient Mexicans attributed to all plants a spirit not unlike that of animals or even of man himself. To certain plants special honors were paid; others were avoided with dread; while others, with no pronounced virtues or evil properties, were little noticed. An example is given by a Mexican writer of the homage paid to a certain tree cut down in order to form a bridge over a stream in Michoacan. The people of the village were called together by the governor and a religious service was held about a cross erected for the special ceremony, with candles burning before it and choristers assisting. A pro- 1Skinner, Alanson. Anthrop. Papers, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 11: 718. 1915. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 899 cession was formed which climbed the mountain where the tree was growing. When it fell there came an aged Indian woman who, taking a few of its branches, laid them on the trunk where it had been cut, and, consoling it with loving words, begged that it might not feel humiliated or angry; for they had chosen it on account of its magnificent stature and great strength, and it was destined to span a mighty river, so that all the people of the land of Michoacan might cross over upon it. And before dragging it away they placed upon the place where it had fallen a piece of lighted candle which had been left over from Holy Thursday, and they repeated in its honor a very solemn litany, sprinkling it with holy water and much pulque.? On the next day, having pro- pitiated the spirit of the tree, they bore away the hewn beam to the bridge with much shouting and jubilation. ? The same author speaks of the veneration paid by the Mexicans to certain medicinal plants and to the narcotic ololiuhqui, the sacred nanacatl, the peyotl, and the picietl (tobacco), “to which they ascribe deity and with which they practice superstitions.” LOPHOPHORA WILLIAMSII, THE SO-CALLED SACRED MUSHROOM. Bancroft, in referring to the narcotics used by the ancient Mexi- cans, mentions one which was believed by the early Spaniards to be a fungus. In writing of their ceremonial feasts, he says: Among the ingredients used to make their drinks more intoxicating the most powerful was the teonanacatl, “flesh of God,’ a kind of mushroom which excited the passions and caused the partaker to see snakes and divers other visions.” * This information was undoubtedly derived from accounts of the Spanish padres, one of whom, Bernardino Sahagun, writing before the year 1569, states that it was the Chichimeca Indians of the north who first discovered the properties and made use of these “evil mushroom which intoxicate like’ wine.” * They were gathered in the territory now northern Mexico and southern Texas, preserved by drying, and carried southward. The inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico knew them only in their dry state. It is also very probable that the early writers who recorded their use had seen them only when dry and never knew them as living plants. Francisco Hernandez, the physician sent by Philip IT in 1570 to study the resources of Mexico, or New Spain, describes 1 Fermented sap of the century plant (Agave americana), which also yields the strong distilled spirit called mescal. 2 Jacinto de la Serna, “ Manual de Ministros par el conocimiento de idolatrias y extir- pacion de ellas.’”’ In Documentos inéditos para la Historia de Hspana, vol. 104, pp. 159-160. 3 Bancroft, H. H., Native Races, 2: 360. 1875. 4Sahagun, Bernardino (1499-1590). Hist. Nueva Espafia (ed. Bustamante), Salis: 400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. them under the heading “ De nanacatl seu Fungorum genere.” From the harmless white mushrooms (iztacnanacame), red mushrooms (tlapalnanacame), and yellow orbicular mushrooms (chimalnana- came), used for food, he distinguished them as teyhuinti, which signifies “ intoxicating.” * In this connection it is interesting to note that this Nahuatl word, teyhuinti, or teyuinti (from yuinti, to be drunk), survives in the form of tejuino or tehuino in the State of Jalisco, Mexico, and tesuino or tizwin in the southwestern United States as the name of certain intoxicating drinks, the principal of which is a kind of beer brewed from malted maize. DETERMINATION OF THE DRUG. Three centuries of investigation have failed to reveal an endemic fungus used as an intoxicant in Mexico, nor is such a fungus men- tioned either in works on mycology or pharmacography, yet the belief prevails even now that there is a narcotic Mexican fungus, and it is supported by Siméon in his monumental dictionary of the Nahuatl language, in which the following definitions occur: Teonanacatl, espéce de petit champignon qui a mauvais gout, enivre et cause des hallucinations; il est médicinal contre les fiévres et la goutte. * Teyuinti, qui enivre quelqu’un, enivrant; teyuinti nanacatl, cham- pignon enivrant. * In connection with his study of the economic plants of the Mexi- cans and the Indians of the southwestern United States the writer has sought diligently for a fungus having the properties attributed to the teonanacatl. As this narcotic was used by various tribes of Chichimecas, and the Chichimecas inhabited the territory situated in what is now northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, it was natural to look for the plant in this region. No such fungus, however, was discovered, but in its place a narcotic plant having properties exactly like those attributed to the teonanacatl was en- countered; moreover, one form of this plant, when prepared as a drug, resembles a dried mushroom so remarkably that at first glance it will even deceive a mycologist (pl. 5). It is discoid in form and apparently peltate when seen from below; but the upper surface bears tufts of silky hairs, and a close inspection reveals the fact that it is the crown of a small fleshy spineless cactus which has been cut off and dried. The cactus in question, Lophophora Williamsii, when 1“ Quoniam inebrare solent, Teyhuinti nomine nuncupati sunt, et e fulvo in fuscum vergant colorem, risum inopportunum concitent, imaginemque citra risum inebriantium aad eeenee Hernandez, Francisco (1514-1578). Hist. Pl. Noy. Hisp. (ed. Rom.) 2 Siméon, Rémi, Dict. de la langue Nahuatl, p. 436, 1885. 8 Qp. cit., p. 412. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 401 entire, resembles a carrot or radish rather than a mushroom, and when cut into longitudinal slices or irregular pieces, would never be mistaken for a fungus. Its chemical properties were investigated first by Dr. Lewin of Berlin, in 1888; afterward by Dr. Heffter of Leipzig. It was also studied by Drs. D. W. Prentiss and Francis P. Morgan of Washington. Alkaloids derived from it have been named lophophorine, anhalonine, and mezcaline. IDENTITY WITH NARCOTIC PEYOTL. Sahagun, who described the drugs of the ancient Mexicans from specimens brought to him by Indian herb doctors, failed to recognize the identity of the teonanacatl and peyotl of the Chichimecas, al- though he attributes similar narcotic properties to each. The latter he describes as follows: There is another herb, like tunas’* of the earth; it is called peiotl; it is white; it is produced in the north country; those who eat or drink it see visions either - frightful or laughable; this intoxication lasts two or three days and then ceases; it is a common food of the Chichimecas, for it sustains them and gives them courage to fight and not feel fear nor hunger nor thirst; and they say that it protects them from all danger. ? The plant itself was described by Hernandez as follows, under the heading De Peyotl Zacatecensi, seu radice molli et lanuginosa: The root is of nearly medium size, sending forth no branches nor leaves above ground, but with a certain woolliness adhering to it on account of which it could not be aptly figured by me. Both men and women are said to be harmed by it. It appears to be of a sweetish taste and moderately hot. Ground up and applied to painful joints it is said to give relief. Wonderful properties are attributed to this root (if any faith can be given to what is commonly said among them on this point). It causes those devouring it to be able to foresee and to predict things; such, for instance, as whether on the following day the enemy will make an attack upon them; or whether the weather will continue favorable; or to discern who has stolen from them some utensils or anything else; and other things of like nature which the Chichimecas really believe they have found out. On which account this root scarcely issues forth but conceals itself in the ground, as if it did not wish to harm those who discover it and eat it.* From the above description, which applies perfectly to the plant from Zacatecas shown in plate 6, it follows that the peyotl zacate- censis of Hernandez is identical with Lophophora Williamsii. Speci- mens of the drug collected in northern Zacatecas by Dr. Francis E. Lloyd are shown in plate 7. They bear little resemblance to the mushroom-like buttons shown in plate 5, and it is not surprising that they should have been supposed to be distinct from the teonanacatl by the early Spanish writers. 1Tuna, the Spanish name for the fruit of the Opuntia, or prickly pear. 2Sahagun (1490-1590). Hist. general de las cosas de Nueva Espana (ed. Bustamante) 3:241. 18380. 3 Hernandez (1415-1578). De Hist. plant. Nov. Hisp. 3:70. 1790, 402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, RAIZ DIABOLICA, OR DEVIL’S ROOT. (Plates 6 and 7.) By this term it was designated by Padre José Ortega, who tells of its use by the Cora Indians in his Historia del Nayarit, published anonymously at Barcelona in 1754, and republished under his own name in 1887. In describing their nocturnal dances he writes as fol- lows: Close to the musician was seated the leader of the singing whose business it was to mark the time. Each of these had his assistants to take his place when he should become fatigued. Nearby was placed a tray filled with peyote which is a diabolical root (raiz diabolica) that is ground up and drunk by them so that they may not become weakened by the exhausting effects of so long a function, which they began by forming as large a circle of men and women as could occupy the space of ground that had been swept off for this purpose. One after the other went dancing in a ring or marking time with ‘their feet, keeping in the middle the musician and the choirmaster whom they invited, and singing in the same unmusical tune (el mismo descompasado tono) that he set them. They would dance all night, from 5 o’clock in the evening to 7 o'clock in the morning, without stopping nor leaving the circle. When the dance was ended all stood who could hola themselves on their feet; for the majority from the peyote and the wine which they drank were unable to utilize their legs to hold themselves upright. * The early missionaries were opposed to the drug not so much on account of its physiological effects upon the Indians but because of its connection with certain superstitious rites connected with their primitive religion. Eating the teonanacatl, or peyotl, was declared by the padres to be almost as grave a sin as eating human flesh. Ina little religious manual published by Fray Bartholomé Garcia in 1760, for the use of the missionaries to the Indians of San Antonio, Tex., the following questions, to be used in the confessional, are printed : “Has comido carne de gente?” (Hast thou eaten flesh of man’) “Has comido el peyote?” (Hast eaten the peyote?) ” The name teonanacatl is now obsolete. The drug is called by various names among the Indians using it—xicori by the Huicholes of Jalisco; hikori, or hikuli, by the Tarahumaris of Chihuahua; huatari by the Cora Indians of the Tepic Mountains; kamaba by the Tepehuanes of Durango; ho by the Mescalero Apaches, of New Mexico, who formerly ranged as far south as Coahuila; seni by the Kiowas; and wokowi by the Comanches, some of whom formerly lived in the State of Chihuahua. The name peyote has survived as a general commercial term; and the mushroomlike disks from the Rio Grande region are now widely spread among the northern In- 1 Ortega, Padre José (d. 1700). Hist. del Nayarit, pp. 22-23 (new ed.). 1887. 2Garcia, Fr. Bartholomé, Manual para administrar los Santos Sacramentos, etc., p. 15, 1760, NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 403 dians of the United States under the misleading names of “ mescal buttons” or “mescal beans,” as well as under the Nahuatl name peyote. CEREMONIAL USE BY THE INDIANS. In a paper by the present writer published in the Journal of Heredity (vol. 6, No. 7, 1915) under the title, “An Aztec Narcotic,” the author gives an account of the ceremonial use of this plant by various tribes of Indians. The first to bring to public notice its ceremonial use by existing tribes of Indians was James Mooney, of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1891). His attention had been directed to it while making investigation among the Kiowas, who are descendants of one of the tribes called Chichimecas by the Az- tees; and it is from the Chichimecas that they declared they had re- ceived the knowledge of this plant. Like the Aztecs, the Kiowas ascribed divine attributes to the drug, and their ceremony in connec- tion with it was essentially religious. Not only the Kiowas, but other tribes now living in Oklahoma receive supplies of the narcotic from traders who bring it from the vicinity of Laredo, Tex., in olden times the land of the Chichimecas. Mr. Mooney’s account was published in the Therapeutic Gazette of September 16, 1895. Other observers who mention the use of the narcotic Lophophora are Lum- holtz, who describes the ceremonies of the Tarahumari Indians con- nected with it, and Leon Diguet, who tells of its use by the Huichol Indians of the mountains of Jalisco and Tepice. Efforts have been made to prevent its spread among the Indians of the United States. An account of the recent prosecution of an Indian named Nah-qua-tah-tuck, of the Menominee Indian Reserva- tion, Wis., for furnishing this drug to Indians of his tribe is given in the author’s paper above cited. It developed in the trial that there is a regularly organized association among the Indians, called the Peyote Society, holding weekly services in which it is ad- ministered as a sort of communion; and it was claimed that its use put an end to the habit of drinking alcoholic beverages. Dr. Morgan, of the Bureau of Chemistry, gave to the court an account of his experiments bearing upon the physiological action of the narcotic. At a meeting of the Lake Mohonk Conference in October, 1914, several papers relating to the effects of this drug upon the Indians were read and affidavits from two Omaha Indians were quoted. From one of the latter I take the following extracts: AMONG THE OMAHA INDIANS. At the meetings of the society ‘“‘ before they sing they pass the peyote around. They begin taking this medicine along about dark, and when they pass it, ask you how many you want, and they often try to persuade you to take more 404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. than you want. The medicine does not work right away, but after it begins to take effect along toward midnight they begin to ery and sing and pray and stand and shake all over, and some of them just sit and stare. I used to sit in their range right along, and ate some of their medicine, but after I ate it the first time I was kind of afraid of it. It made me feel kind of dizzy and my heart was kind of thumping and I felt like crying. Some of them told me that this was because of my sins. It makes me nervous, and when I shut my eyes I kind of see something like an image or visions, and when my eyes are open I can’t see it so plain. One of these fellows took 12 beans, or 12 peyote, sitting with some girls. “After I have take 12 peyote I saw a mountain with roads leading to the top and people dressed in white going up these roads. I got very dizzy, and I began to see all kinds of colors, and arrows began to fly all around me. IL began to perspire very freely. I asked to be taken out of doors. At that time it was 20° below zero. I felt better when I got out of doors. When I went in again I began to hear voices, just like they came from all over the ceiling, and I looked around in the other room and thought I heard women singing in there; but the women were not allowed to sing in the meetings usually, and so this was kind of strange. After eating 36 of these peyote I got just like drunk, only more so, and I felt kind of good, but more good than when I drink whisky ; and then after that I began to see a big bunch of snakes crawling all around in front of me, and it was a feeling like ag if I was cold came over me. The treas- urer of the Sacred Peyote Society was sitting near me, and I asked him if he heard young kittens. It sounded as if they ‘were right close to me; and then I sat still for a long time and I saw a big black cat coming toward me, and I felt him just like a tiger walking up on my legs toward me; and when I felt his claws I jumped back and kind of made a sound as if I was afraid, and he asked me to tell him what was the matter, so I told him after a while. I did not care to tell at first; but I made up my mind then, after what I saw, that I would not take another one of these peyotes if they gave me a $10 bill. In this Sacred Peyote Society they have a form of baptism and they baptize with the tea made from stewing the peyote, and they baptize ‘in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost,’ the Holy Ghost being the peyote. Then you drink some of the tea, and they make signs on your forehead with the tea, and then take an eagle’s wing and fan you with it. I heard an educated Indian, and he said in a meeting on Sunday morning, ‘My friends, I am glad I can be here and worship this medicine with you; and we must organize a new church and have it run like the Mormon Church.’ ”’* USE IN ANCIENT MEXICO. From the preceding description of a meeting of the Sacred Peyote Society held by the Winnebagos and Omahas in 1914, I turn back to the first account we have of the Teonanacatl feasts of the Aztecs, written by Padre Bernardino Sahagun in the sixteenth century—be- fore Sir Francis Drake set out upon his voyage round the world— before tobacco, which the Mexicans also. worshipped, was first brought to England: _ The first thing eaten at the party was certain black mushrooms, which they call nanacatl, which intoxicate and cause visions to be seen, and even provoke 1 Daiker, F. H., ‘‘ Liquor and Peyote a Menace to the Indian,’ in Report of the Thirty- second Annual Lake Mohonk Conference, October, 1914, pp. 66, 67. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 405 sensuousness. These they ate before the break of day, and they also drank cacao (chocolate) before dawn. The mushrooms they ate with sirup (of maguey sap), and when they began to feel the effect they began to dance; some sang; others wept because they were already intoxicated by the mushrooms ; and some did ngt wish to sing, but seated themselves in their rooms and re- mained there as though meditating. Some had visions that they were dying and shed tears; others imagined that some wild beast was devouring them; others that they were capturing prisoners in warfare; others that they were rich; others that they had many slaves; others that they had committed adul- tery and were to have their heads broken as a penalty ; others that they had been guilty of astheft, for which they were to be executed; and many other visions were seen by them. After the intoxication of the mushrooms had passed off they conversed with one another about the visions which they had seen. ? NARCOTIC DATURAS. In early accounts of the aborigines of America, both north and south of the Equator, we find repeated references to the use of various daturas as narcotics. The Quichuas of Peru put the seeds of a datura into their azua, or fermented corn beer, to make it more intoxicating. ‘They believed that the visions thus produced were supernatural and, like the remote Zunis of New Mexico, they resorted to datura seeds in order to divine the hiding place of some precious object or to detect the thief who had stolen it. The professional Indian hechiceros of Spanish America were prosecuted by the church authorities for using narcotics in their practices of idolatry and witchcraft, very much as were the dhatura doctors of India for dispensing datura to criminals; and in the New World, as in the Old World, datura seeds were administered in various ways as a love potion or aphrodisiac. Another remarkable parallel may be seen in the religious use of the drug. Among the Aztecs the seeds of a certain datura were held sacred and the spirit of the plant was invoked to expel evil spirits, recalling the exhortations of the priests, or physicians, of ancient Babylon and the necromancers of medieval Europe. In the Andes of South America Indian priests used datura seeds to produce delirium, recalling the use of intoxicants to induce frenzy by the Pythie in consulting the famous oracle of Apollo at Delphi. | M. de la Condamine, while exploring the Rio Marafon in 1748, found the Omagua Indians inhabiting the banks of that river addicted to narcotics, one of which was referred by him to Datura arborea, the plant “called by the Spaniards floripondio, with flowers shaped like a drooping bell, which has been described by Pére Feuillée.”? Miss Alice Eastwood, while exploring south- eastern Utah, came upon an abundance of DP). meteloides, and she 1Sahagun, Bernardino. Hist. Nueva Espafia (ed. Bustamante) 2:366. 1829. 2 See Mem. de l’Acad. Roy. des Sciences, Année 1745, p. 480. 1749. - 73839°—sm 1916——27 406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. calls attention to the occurrence of its seed-pods “in the ruins of the ancient people who once filled this land and guarded every spring with towers of stone.”? Stephen Powers found this same plant in use as an intoxicant and hypnotic by the priests and wizards of the Yokuts Indians inhabiting the banks of the Tule River and Lake Tulare in California.2 Dr. Ed- ward Palmer states that a decoction of the plant is given by certain California Indians to their young women to stimulate them in dancing, and that an extract of its root is used as an intoxicant by the Pah-Utes.* Other authorities state that Fic. 6.—Stone mortar, f ( x : 4 : used by the Cali- the Mariposan Indians of California, including fornia Indians for the Noches, or Yokuts, already mentioned, use a grinding root of Da- ») » p) tura meteloides for decoction of Datura meteloides in the ceremonial ceremonial purposes. initiation of their youths into the status of man- hood; and the medicine men of the Hualpais, or Walapais, belonging to the Yuman stock, indulge in a sacred intoxication by breaking up the leaves, twigs, and root of this plant to make a beverage which induces an exhilaration accompanied by prophetic utterances. + THE SACRED OLOLIUHQUI OF THE AZTECS. (Plate 8.) This narcotic, beyond all doubt the seeds of a datura, or possibly two species of datura, played an important part in the religion of the ancient Mexicans and in the practices of their medicine men or necromancers. Sahagun, about 1569, called attention to this plant in the following words: There is an herb which is called coatlxoxouhqui [green snake weed]. It produces a seed called ololiuhqui which intoxicates and causes madness (en- loquece). It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magi- cians or those who wish to harm some one administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal, and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected. ° In other accounts it is stated that in Mexico it was believed that this plant, like the peyotl would give to those who ate it the power of second sight and prophecy, by means of which they could discover the identity of a thief, if an object had been stolen, or could predict the outcome of a war or the intended attack of a hostile tribe. In the descriptions of ololiuhqui there are many discrepancies, owing possibly to the fact that the same name was applied to two or 1Zoe, 3: 360. 1892. 2See Contr. North Amer, Ethn. 3:380 and 428. 1877. 3 Amer. Nat. 12:650. 1878. 4See Bourke, John G. On the Border with Crook, p. 165. 1892. 5Sahagun, Bernardino de. Hist. Gen. de las Cosas de Nueva Espafia, 3:241 (ed. Bustamante), Mexico. 1830. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 407 more plants with flowers resembling morning-glories. Hernandez (1514-1578) in all probability never saw it growing, and figured it as an Ipomoea, but he indicates its relationship by suggesting that it may be the same as the Solanum maniacum of Dioscorides, and Padre Serna, who likewise never noticed the plant itself, described the seeds as resembling lentils (semilla a modo de lantejas que Haman ololiuhqui). It is interesting to note that Acosta makes the same comparisons in his description of the East Indian Datura metel, saying that it has flowers like the plant called in Spain correguela mayor (greater convolvulus) and that its fruit is filled with seed of the size of lentils (todo Meno de una simiénte del tamafio de lentejas). Great veneration was paid by the Mexicans to the ololiuhqui as well as to tobacco (picietl) and to the narcotic teonanacatl, or peyotl (Lophophora Williamsii).1. To these plants according to Padre Serna, the Mexicans ascribed divine powers, with which they prac- ticed magic. The methods of the Aztec titzitl, or herb-doctors, in casting out the evil spirits causing sickness, are remarkably like those employed by the priests of ancient Babylon and of the island of Haiti. The spirit of the powerful Ololiuhqui was invoked in the following words: Come now, come hither, Green Woman; behold the green heat [fever] and the brown heat; remove thou the flaming or scarlet heat, the yellow heat, or by this token I send thee to the seven caves. And, I do command thee, put it not off till tomorrow or another day; for sooner or later thou wilt be compelled to do it. Who is the god—the so powerful and superior one—who can destroy the work of thy hands? It is I who command it, I the prince of enchantment.’ THE USE OF DATURA METELOIDES BY THE ZUNIS. (Plate 9.) It seems strange that the property of giving the power of second sight and prophecy, attributed to the ololiuhqui by the Mexicans, should be similarly attributed by the ancient Peruvians to Datura sanguinea and by the Zunis of New Mexico, so far remote from them, to D. meteloides, with which the ololiuhqui is undoubtedly identical. Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson in her Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians relates a pretty legend connected with “this precious plant, which is believed to have once been a boy and a girl,” resembling a story from Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Plate 9 is the photograph of flowers and fruit of a specimen of Datura meteloides, two-thirds natural size, made at Sacaton, Arizona, by Mr. Harold Murphy. It was secured by the writer through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas H. Kearney, of 1For an account of the ceremonial use of the last-named plant see the writer’s paper on ‘An Aztec Narcotic’ in Journal of Heredity, 6: 291-311. 1915. 2 See Jacinto de la Serna, ‘Manual de Ministros para el conocimiento de idolatrias y extirpacion de ellas.” In Documentos inéditos para la Historia de Espana, vol. 104, pp. 159-160. 408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. the Bureau of Plant Industry. The plant is identical in all respects with similar plants previously collected in various parts of Mexico and the southwestern United States by the late Dr. Edward Palmer, who called attention to the use of the plant at the present day by several tribes of Indians as a ceremonial and narcotic. ORIGIN OF THE NAME JIMSON, OR JAMESTOWN WEED. (Plate 10.) The narcotic properties of Datura stramonium were known to our own southern Indians as well as to the Mexicans. Hernandez calls attention to the fact that its fruit causes insanity if eaten incau- tiously. That this is true is shown by the following anecdote taken from Robert Beverly’s History and Present State of Virginia, in his account “ Of the Wild Fruits of the Country.” It appears that the soldiers sent to Jamestown to quell the uprising known as Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) gathered young plants of this species and cooked it as a potherb. The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the Plant so ecall’d) is supposed to be one of the greatest Coolers in the World. This being an early Plant, was gather’d very young for a boil’d salad, by some of the Soldiers sent thither, to pacifie the Troubles of Bacon; and some of them eat plentifully of it, the Effect of which was a very pleasant Comedy ; for they turn’d natural Fools upon it for several Days: One would blow up a Feather in the Air; another would dart Straws at it with much Fury; and another stark naked was sitting up in a Corner, like a Monkey, grinning and making Mows at them; a Fourth would fondly kiss, and paw his Companions, and snear in their Faces, with a Countenance more antick, than any ina Duteh Droll. In this frantick Condition they were confined, lest they should in their Folly destroy themselves; though it was observed, that all their Actions were full of Innocence and good Nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly ; for they would have wallow’d in their own Hxcrements, if they had not been prevented. A Thousand such simple Tricks they play’d, and after Hleven Days, return’d themselves again, not remembring any thing that had pass’d, ? THE HUACA-CACHU OF PERU. (Plate 11.) The narcotic effects of Datura sanguinea, known in Peru as Hua- eacachu, or Yerba de Huaca, have been described by several travelers. Tschudi, who found it growing on the declivities of the Andes above the village of Matucanas, repeats the statement of Humboldt that from its fruit the Indians prepare a very powerful intoxicant which they call tonga, on which account the Spaniards named the plant borrachero. His account is as follows: The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into com- munication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an opportunity 1Tts active principle, daturine, has been identified with the alkaloid atropine, for which it is a perfect substitute. In 1916 one firm in the United States used one and a half million of pounds of this plant for the manufacture of atropine. 2? [Beverly, Robert.] History and Present State of Virginia. Bk. 2, p. 24. 1705. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 409 of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink. Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor; he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his vision, dur- ing which he alleged he had held communication with the spirits of his fore- fathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted. In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the thorn- apple in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though the estab- lishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures concealed in the huacas, or graves; hence the Indian name of the thorn-apple—huacacachu, or grave plant. Humboldt and Bonpland, who collected Datura sanguinea on the banks of the Rio Mayo, in New Granada, state that the natives be- heve that the tonga prepared from this species to be more efficacious as a narcotic than that made from the white-flowered Datura arborea mentioned above. It is from the account of these travelers that the story of the Peruvian prophets is taken. The Temple of the Sun in which they officiated was at Sagamoza, in the interior of what is now Colombia. Dr. Santiago Cortés, in his account of the medicinal plants of the province of Cauca, Colombia, says that there are many stories and fables relating to this plant told by the natives. COCA, THE SOURCE OF COCAINE. (Plates 12 and 13.) The most important stimulant of the ancient Peruvians was Fry- throxylon Coca. Specimens of its 3-ribbed leaves were found by the writer in many prehistoric graves along the Peruvian coast, usually in bags suspended from the necks of mummies, or in bundles wrapped in cloth. Some of the coca bags, or pouches, were woven in beautiful and intricate designs (pl. 12), often representing conventional figures of birds, mammals, or fishes. All were accompanied by small gourds (a variety of Cucurbita lagenaria) containing lime, and a spatula by means of which the lime was dipped out. In place of lime, wood- ashes were sometimes used. The use of lime or ashes to set free the alkaloid contained in the leaves recalls the same custom in connec- tion with the betel of Asia, the piptadenia snuff already mentioned, and the “ green tobacco” of the Mexicans. That its efficacy should have been independently discovered by the primitive inhabitants of such widely separated regions is remarkable, The lime gourds were not infrequently ornamented, and in those discovered in some localities, especially at Arica, on the coast of northern Chile, the spatule were 410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. of carved bone, many of them of beautiful designs, and the gourds were suspended by carved bone toggles resembling Japanese netsukes. Specimens of the latter may be seen in the Field Museum at Chicago. Two packages of leaves from Peruvian graves sent to the Smithsonian Institution by the late Henry Meigs, the builder of the great trans- Andine railway from Callao to Oroya, were found by the writer, one bearing the label “ tobacco,” the other “ Paraguay tea.” The contents of both of these packages proved to be coca leaves, easily identified by the pseudo-rib, extending on each side of the midrib from the base to the apex. In the accompanying illustrations plate 13 is a photograph by Mr. Grover Bruce Gilbert of a specimen collected by Mr. O. F. Cook at Santa Ana, Peru, during his recent mission to South America.* The leaves of E'rythroxylon Coca, which from remote ages have been used by South American Indians as a stimulant, are the source of cocaine, now so widely used in surgery to deaden pain and also as a narcotic. Like other narcotic alkaloids, although it is a great blessing to the human race when wisely used, yet when abused it is a terrible curse. In Peru the use of coca by miners and cargueros is still common. There the entire leaf is used. In North Brazil, where it is also extensively used under the name ipadi, the leaves are ground to a fine powder. Spruce, who saw the process of preparing the leaves near the mouth of the Rio Negro in 1851, gives the following account of it in Hooker’s Journal of Botany for July, 1853: The leaves of ipadt are pulled off the branches one by one and roasted on the mandiocea-oven, then pounded in a cylindrical mortar, 5 or 6 feet in height, made of the lower part of the trunk of the Pupunha or Peach Palm (G@uwilielma speciosa), the hard root forming the base and the soft inside being scooped out. It is made of this excessive length because of the impalpable nature of the powder, which would otherwise fly up and choke the operator; and it is buried a sufficient depth in the ground to allow of its being easily worked. The pestle is of proportionate length and is made of any hard wood. When the leaves are sufficiently pounded the powder is taken out with a small cuya fastened to the end of an arrow. A small quantity of tapioca, in powder, is mixed with it to give it consistency, and it is usual to add pounded ashes of Imba-fba or Drum tree (Cecropia peltata), which are saline and antiseptic. With a chew of ipadt in his cheek, renewed at intervals of a few hours, an Indian will go for days without food and sleep. In April, 1852, I assisted, much against my will, at an Indian feast in a little rocky island at the foot of the falls of the Rio Negro; for I had gone down the falls to have three or four days’ herborising, and I found my host— the pilot of the cataracts—engaged in the festivities, which neither he nor my man would leave until the last drop of cauim (coarse cane or plantain spirit) was consumed. During the two days the feast lasted I was nearly famished, for, although there was food, nobody would cook it, and the guests sustained themselves entirely on cauim and ipadG. At short intervals ipadt 1See Mr. Cook’s paper entitled “‘ Staircase Farms of the Ancients” in The National Geographic Magazine, 29: 474-5384. May, 1916. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 411 was handed around in a large calabash with a tablespoon for each to help himself, the customary dose being a couple of spoonfuls. After each dose they passed some minutes without opening their mouths, adjusting the ipada in the recesses of their cheeks and inhaling its delightful influences. I could scarcely resist laughing at their swollen cheeks and grave looks during these intervals of silence, which, however, had two or three times the excellent effect of checking an incipient quarrel. The ipadt is not sucked, but allowed to find its way insensibly into the stomach along with the saliva. I tried a spoonful twice, but it had little effect on me and assuredly did not render me insensible to the calls of hunger, although it did in some measure to those of sleep. It had very little of either smell or taste, and in both reminded me of weak tincture of henbane. I could never make out that the habitual use of ipadG had any ill results on the Rio Negro; but in Peru its excessive use is said to seriously injure the coats of the stomach, an effect probably owing to the lime taken along with it. AYA-HUASCA, OR DEAD MAN’S VINE, BANISTERIA CAAPI. Richard Spruce, in his Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, describes a remarkable narcotic plant, the botanical identity of which he was the first to discover. It proved to belong to the genus Banisteria, and it is the only member of the family Malpighia- ceae thus far known to possess narcotic properties. For its specific name he adopted the common name by which it was known in Brazil and Venezuela, caapi, signifying in the Tupi language “ thin leaf.” Banisteria Caapi Spruce has a twining habit of growth. It has thinnish opposite leaves with oval-acuminate blades 6.4 by 3.3 inches in size with petioles scarcely an inch long. Its inflorescence is in the form of 4-flowered umbels. The flowers are composed of a 5-parted calyx and 5-clawed petals, 10 stamens, and 3 styles. The capsules are “ muricato-cristate, prolonged on one side into a green- ish white semi-obovate wing.” The lower part of the stem is beaten in a mortar with water, some- times with the addition of a few slender roots of the caapi-pinima, an Apocynaceous twiner with red-veined leaves belonging to the genus Haemadictyon. When sufficiently triturated it is strained and enough water is added to it to make it drinkable. It forms a brown- ish-green infusion with a disagreeable bitter taste. Mr. Spruce describes the ceremonial drinking of caapi at a feast held at a village above the first falls of the Rio Uaupés. It is accom- panied by the greatest solemnity, and is preceded by the sound of the botutos, or sacred trumpets. On hearing these every woman seeks seclusion in a house with all possible haste; for merely to see one of these sacred instruments would be to her a sentence of death. The night was spent in dancing. Between the dances the young men partook of the drink, a few at a time. The formality attending the dispensing of it recalls that of the “black drink” ceremony of 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. our southeastern Indians, and the same is true of the taboos imposed upon the women, who were not permitted to touch or taste either the caapi here described or the black drink of our southeastern Indians, which will be described below. In presenting the caapi the cupbearer runs quickly from the oppo- site end of the house with a small calabash containing about a tea- cupful in each hand, muttering “ Mo-mo-mo-mo-mo” as he runs, and gradually sinking down until his chin nearly touches his knees, he presents one of the cups and then the other to the man for whom it is intended. In two minutes or less after drinking it, its effects begin to be apparent. The Indian turns deadly pale, trembles in every limb, and horror is in his aspect. Suddenly contrary symptoms succeed; he bursts into a perspiration, and seems possessed with a reckless fury, seizes whatever arms are at hand, his muruct, bow and arrows, or cutlass, and rushes to the doorway, where he inflicts violent blows on the ground or the doorposts, calling out all the while, “Thus would I do to mine enemy (naming him by his name) were this he!’ In about 10 minutes the excitement has passed off and the Indian grows calm, but appears exhausted. Were he at home in his hut he would sleep off the remaining fumes, but now he must shake off his drowsiness by renewing the dance. Spruce afterwards witnessed the use of this plant by the Indians inhabitating the northeastern Andes of Peru, and saw the plant itself growing in the villages of Caneles and Puca-yacu, inhabited chiefly by the Zaparos. Here it was called by the Quichua name Aya- huasca, which signifies “ Dead man’s vine.” The following is a sum- mary of what he learned concerning it at Puca-yacu: Aya-huasca is used by the Zaparos, Angutéros, Mazanes, and other tribes precisely as I saw caapi used on the Uaupés, viz, as a narcotic stimulant at their feasts. It is also drunk by the medicine man, when called on to adjudi- eate in a dispute or quarrel, to give the proper answer to an embassy, to dis- cover the plants of an enemy, to tell if strangers are coming, to ascertain if wives are unfaithful, in the case of a sick man to tell who has bewitched him, ete. All who have partaken of it feel first vertigo, then as if they rose up into air and were floating about. ‘The Indians say they see beautiful lakes, woods laden with fruit, birds of brilliant plumage, ete. Soon the scene changes; they see savage beasts preparing to seize them; they can no longer hold themselves up, but fall to the ground. At this crisis the Indian wakes up from his trance, and if he were not held down in his hammock by force, he would spring to his feet, seize his arms, and attack the first person who stood in his way. Then he becomes drowsy, and finally sleeps. If he be a medicine man who has taken it, when he has slept off the fumes he recalls all he saw in his trance, and thereupon deduces the prophecy, divination, or what not required of him. Boys are not allowed to taste aya-huasca before they reach puberty, nor women at any age, precisely as on the Uaupés. 1 Richard Spruce. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2: 419-420. 1908. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 413 Villavicencio says (in his Geografia de la Republica del Kcuador, p- 373, 1858) : When I have partaken of aya-huasca, my head has immediately begun to swim; then I have seemed to enter on an aerial voyage, wherein I thought I saw the most charming landscapes, great cities, lofty towers, beautiful parks, and other delightful things. Then all at once I found myself deserted in a forest and attacked by beasts of prey, against which I tried to defend myself, Lastly, I began to come round, but with a feeling of excessive drowsiness, headache, and sometimes general malaise. This is all I have seen and learned of caapi or aya-huasca. I regret being unable to tell what is the peculiar narcotic principle that produces such ex- traordinary effects. Opium and hemp are its most obvious analogues, but caapi would seem to operate on the nervous system far more rapidly and violently than either. Some traveler who may follow my steps with greater resources at his command will, it is to be hoped, be able to bring away materials adequate for the complete analysis of this curious plant.” In the above account the description of the hallucinations caused by the narcotic caapi, or aya-huasca, a remarkable parallel will be found with similar effects of Lophophora Williamsii, the narcotic cactus of the Aztecs already described. ILEX TEAS. Among the important stimulants, or restoratives, of ancient America were tea-like infusions and decoctions prepared from several species of holly, or ilex—in southern Brazil and Paraguay, from /lea para- guariensis, commonly known as yerba mate; in Eucador, an ilex with much larger leaves, called guayusa; and in Florida, the Carolinas, and Texas, /lex vomitoria, called cassine or yaupon, the scource of the celebrated ceremonial “black drink.” All of these owe their stimu- lating virtues to an alkaloid, which has been identified with caffein. Prepared as a simple infusion by pouring hot water on the leaves, as in brewing the yerba mate, the effect is very much like tea itself. When boiled for a long time, as is the custom with the guayusa and cassine, the decoction has the effect of an emetic. It is interesting to note that in localities so widely remote as Ecuador and Florida the aboriginal inhabitants habitually used decoctions of ilex as an emetic and believed themselves benefited by vomiting. That the stimulating properties of two very closely allied plants like /lex paraguariensis and I, vomitoria should have been independently dis- covered by tribes so widely separated as the Guaranis of South America and the Creeks of Florida is also remarkable, and especially in view of the fact that the leaves of the plants in question were subjected by the natives to a similar preliminary process of scorching before they were used. Another noteworthy feature connected with the black drink is the taboo imposed upon women by various tribes 1 Spruce, op. cit., p. 424-425. 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. of the southern United States in connection with its ritual, which has remarkable parallels in the customs of various South American tribes in connection with their rituals accompanying the preparation and use of certain narcotics. ILEX PARAGUARIENSIS, THE YERBA MATE OF PARAGUAY. The use of the leaves of Jlex paraguariensis by the Guarani Indians and their neighbors must have begun centuries before the discovery. In pre-Columbian times the plant was known only in its wild state, but after the arrival of the Jesuits its cultivation was successfully undertaken in their missions in Paraguay and Brazil. When they were expelled the plantations went to ruin, but the industry was resumed at a later date and is now of great commercial importance. According to a bulletin of the Pan American Union issued in May, 1916, the value of the prepared leaves exported from Brazil amounts annually to about $8,727,000. In 1915 Argentina received from Brazil about 48,000 tons and 3,500 tons from Paraguay. The plan- tations of Paraguay were formerly guarded with jealous care. Bon- pland, the companion of Humboldt, was imprisoned for many years by the Paraguayan Government for attempting to export living plants and seeds from Paraguay to Europe. For the methods of propagating, cultivating, gathering, curing, and packing yerba mate the reader is referred to the Pan American bulletin cited above. The writer first encountered the custom of drinking Paraguay Tea in Uruguay, on an expedition with the eminent botanist, Don José Arechavaleta and his botany class of the National College of Medi- cine, October 1, 1886. The locality visited was an estancia, or cattle ranch, not far from the railway station of Santa Lucia. He recalls with pleasure the band of young students, many of them wearing the picturesque costume of the gauchos, or cowboys of the pampas— ponchos of guanaco wool, broad-brimmed hats, knives thrust in em- bossed silver scabbards, and silver spurs. At the station horses were awaiting many of them with silver-mounted bridles and saddles with heavy silver stirrups. After filling portfolios of drying paper with the beautiful spring flowers of the pampa (there were acres and acres of scarlet verbenas) yerba mate was served in gourds (Cucur- bita lagenaria). These gourds, called mate, or mati in the Quichua language, give to the plant its name. The infusion was sucked up scalding hot through a bombilla, a silver tube terminating at the lower end in a hollow perforated bulb, which served as a strainer. A single gourd was passed around a circle composed of gauchos and students, each taking a suck at the bombilla in turn. To have hesi- tated to follow their example would have caused resentment. The infusion was not unlike tea, but more astringent, and too bitter for NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 415 the taste of a novice. Its effects were undoubtedly stimulating, very much like strong tea. During a continuation of his cruise the writer encountered yerba mate at Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, and at various ports along the coast of Chile; and later he found it offered for sale in the markets of Bolivia. Ilex paraguariensis is an evergreen shrub or small tree with short, petioled, glossy, oblong leaves 15 to 20 cm. long, acute or rounded at the apex and wedge shaped at the base, with the margin remotely toothed. The inflorescence consists of clusters of small flowers growing from the leaf axils. The small globose fruits usually con- tain four hard nutlets. The plant grows in Paraguay, especially at Villa Real, above Asuncion, and at Villa San Xavier, between the Rivers Uruguay and Parana. In Brazil the principal localities in which it is cultivated are in the State of Parana, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. The prepared yerba differs in quality. The more common kind, called guazu, is produced by pounding the scorched leaves in mortars in the earth. In preparing a finer grade, called caa mirim, the leaves are carefully chosen and deprived of their midrib before roasting, and the caa-cuys of Paraguay, the finest of all, is prepared from the scarcely expanded buds and young leaves. THE GUAYUSA ILEX OF ECUADOR. An Ilex resembling the yerba mate, but having much larger leaves, was found by Richard Spruce in Ecuador, where it was used by the Zaparo and Jibaro Indians inhabiting the eastern side of the equatorial Andes. It was called by them guayusa. Spruce could not satisfy himself as to its specific identity, for he was unable to secure either flowers or fruits for comparison with herbarium ma- terial. Botanists have not all agreed as to the delimitations of the various species of South American Ilex. Some have treated various forms, distinguished by the size of the leaves and other differences, as varieties of a single species; others have regarded them as botanically distinct. According to Miers several distinct species are used as a source of tea, including /lex curitibensis, I. gigantea, I. ovalifolia, I. humboldtiana, and 1. nigropunctata. The genus needs further critical study. Spruce found the guayusa planted near villages and on the sites of abandoned settlements, at elevations as great as 5,000 feet above sea-level. In 1857 he observed a group of these trees in the gorge of the Rio Pastaza, below the town of Bafios, which were supposed to have been planted before the conquest. He describes them as “ not 1See Safford, W. E. “The flora of Banda Oriental.” Bull. Torrey Botanical Club, 14: 159-164. 1887. 416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. unlike old holly trees in England, except that the shining leaves were much larger, thinner, and unarmed.” During his travels he found guayusa leaves to be a good substitute for tea or coffee. As pre- pared by the Jibaros Indians, however, the infusion is so strong that, like the black drink of our own Indians, it acts as an emetic. The guayusa pot, carefully covered up (like the pots in which the black drink was brewed), was kept simmering on the fire throughout the night. On awakening in the morning the Indian would drink enough of the guayusa to make him vomit, his notion being he would be benefited by the operation.t It is interesting to note that many Indian tribes both of North and South America practiced certain ceremonies attended by purging or vomiting, believing that thereby they would be freed from evil. THE BLACK DRINK OF FLORIDA AND THE CAROLINAS, (Plates 14 and 15.) Tlex vomitoria takes its specific name from the emetic effect of its concentrated infusion, which under the common name of “black drink” was used ceremonially by several tribes of our southern In- ‘dians. Mark Catesby, in his Hortus americanus (1763) speaks of it as follows: The esteem the American Indians have for this shrub, from the great use they make of it, renders it most worthy of notice. They say its virtues have been known among them from the earliest times, and they have long used it in the same manner as they do at present. They prepare the leaves for keeping by drying or rather parching them in a pottage pot over a slow fire, and a strong decoction of the leaves thus cured is their beloved liquor, of which they drink large quantities, both for health and pleasure, without sugar or other mixture. They drink it down and disgorge it with ease, repeating it very often and swallowing many quarts. They say it restores lost appetite, strengthens the stomach, and confirms their health, giving them agility and courage in war. It grows chiefly in the maritime parts of the* country, but not farther north than the capes of Virginia. 'The Indians of the seacoast supply those of the mountains therewith and carry on a considerable trade with it in Florida, just as the Spaniards do with their South Sea tea from Paraguay to Buenos Aires. Now, Florida being in the same latitude north as Paraguay is south, and no apparent difference being found on comparing the leaves of these two plants together, it is not improbable they may both be the same. In South Carolina it is called cassena, in Virginia and North Carolina it is known by the name of yopon; in the latter of which places it is as much in use among the white people as among the Indians, and especially among those who inhabit the seacoast.. The earliest written account of the ceremonial use of Jlex vomi- toria is contained in the narrative of the expedition of Cabeza de Vaca, who found it in use among the Cultachiches (1536), west of 1 Spruce, Richard. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2: 453. 1908. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 417 the mouth of the Mississippi River. He described the plant as having leaves resembling those of an encina, or live oak. Its leaves, after having been toasted over the fire in an earthenware vessel were boiled for a long time, and the decoction poured into a vessel made of a half-gourd and stirred so as to make it foam. It was drunk boiling hot. While on the fire the vessel in which it was boiling was kept carefully covered ; and if by chance it should be uncovered, and a woman should come by in the meantime, they would drink none of it but fling it all away. Likewise while it was cooling and being poured out to drink, no woman was allowed to stir or make a motion, or they would pour it all out on the ground and spew up any which they might have drunk, while she would be severely beaten. All this time they would continue bawling out: “Who will drink?’ whereupon the women, on hearing this call, became motionless, and were they sitting or standing, even on tip-toe, or with one leg raised and the other down, they dared not change their position until the men had cooled the liquor and made it ready to drink. The reason they gave for this is quite as foolish and unrea- sonable as the custom itself; for they said that if the women did not stand still on hearing the call some evil would be imparted to the liquor which they believed would make them die. René de Laudonniére, the leader of the ill-fated Huguenot expedi- tion to Florida (1564), noticed the use of the “ black drink” as prac- ticed by the Indians living at the mouth of the St. Johns River, Florida. Le Moine, his historian, wrote a narrative of the expedi- tion, in which he mentions cassine leaves among the presents be- stowed by the Indians upon the Frenchmen. Of the ceremonies accompanying its preparation and dispensing he gives the following account, accompanied by an illustration which is here reproduced (pl. 14). Unlike the Indians observed by Cabeza de Vaca, the Florida Indians did not exclude women from the ceremonies con- nected with its preparation, although neither they nor youths unini- tiated into the dignity of manhood were permitted to partake of it. The chief and his nobles are accustomed during certain days of the year to meet early every morning for this express purpose in a public place, in which a long bench is constructed, having at the middle of it a projecting part laid with nine round trunks of trees for the chief’s seat. On this he sits by him- self for distinction sake; and the rest come to salute him, one at a time, the oldest first, by lifting both hands twice to the height of the head and saying, “Ha, he, ya, ha, ha.” To this the rest answer, ‘Ha, ha.” Each as he com- pletes his salutation takes his seat on the bench. If any question of im- portance is to be discussed the chief calls upon his lauas (that is, his priests), and upon the elders, one at a time, to deliver their opinions. They decide upon nothing until they have held a number of councils over it, and they deliberate very sagely before deciding. Meanwhile the chief orders the women to boil some cassine, which is a drink prepared from the leaves from a cer- tain root and which they afterwards pass through a strainer. The chief and his councilors being now seated in their places, one stands before him, and spreading forth his hands wide open, asks a blessing upon the chief and the others who are to drink, Then the cupbearer brings the 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. hot drink in a capacious shell, first to the chief, and then, as the chief directs, to the rest in their order in the same shell. They esteem this drink so highly that no one is allowed to drink it in council unless he has proved himself a brave warrior. Moreover, this drink has the quality of at once throwing into a sweat whoever drinks it. On this account those who can not keep it down, but whose stomachs reject it are not intrusted with any difficult com- mission or any military responsibility, being considered unfit, for they often have to go three or four days without food; but one who can drink this liquor can go for 24 hours afterward without eating or drinking. In military ex- peditions also the only supplies which they carry consist of gourd bottles or wooden vessels full of this drink. It strengthens and nourishes the body and yet does not fly to the head as we have observed on occasion of these feasts of theirs. Accounts of the Black Drink ceremony are given by many other writers, including John Lawson, in his History of Carolina (1714) ; James Adair, in his History of the American Indians (1775) ; Bossu, in his account of the Allibama Indians; Bernard Romans, in his Natural History of Florida (1775); and William Bartram, in his Travels in Florida (1791). By the Catawba Indians this plant was called yaupon; by the Creeks it was known as assi-luputski, or “small leaves,” which liter- ally corresponds to the Guarani name (caa-mirim) of the finer form of Llex paraguariensis, a most interesting coincidence. The custom of drinking tea made of /lex vomitoria was adopted by many of the white settlers of Florida, the Carolinas and Georgia, but it has not persisted. Similar drinks are still used by certain tribes of Oklahoma, in the ceremonies connected with their feast commonly called the busk. According to the statements of various authors Ilex leaves alone were used along the southeastern seacoast, but in other localities it is quite probable that other plants were added to or substituted for the infusion, especially the so-called Indian tobacco, Lobelia inflata, and the button snake root, Hryngiwm aquat- icum, both of which were held in high esteem by many tribes of North American Indians. Ilex vomitoria (pl. 15) is an evergreen shrub or small tree. Its small glossy leaves, likened by Cabeza de Vace to those of an encina or live oak, and by Lawson to box leaves, are deep green above and pale beneath, oblong, oval, or elliptical in form, and obtuse at the apex, with the margins crenate-serrate. Those of the upper branches are 1 to 2.5 cm. long, while those on the vegetative shoots are often larger and oblong-lanceolate in shape. Though this species has been confused with /lex Cassine L. by several botanists the two species are easily distinguished by their leaves. Those of Jlex Cassine are usually much larger, more nearly resembling those of J. para- guariensis, but with the margins entire or few toothed. The small 1See Hale, E. M., Bull, No. 14, Div. Bot., U. S. Dept. Agr. 1891. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 419 white flowers of /lex vométoria are borne in axillary clusters having short smooth peduncles, and its flowers are distinguished from those of the allied species in having obtuse instead of acute calyx-teeth. In the pistillate flowers the 4 stamens are shorter than the petals, while in the staminate they are longer. The fruit is in the form of red globose drupes 5 or 6 mm. in diameter, usually containing 4 slightly ribbed nutlets. Plate 15 is the photograph of a specimen collected near Austin, Tex., May 27, 1904, by Mr. F. V. Coville, Botanist of the Bureau of Plant Industry. GUARANA. Guarana is a substance somewhat resembling chocolate prepared from the bitter seeds of a Sapindaceous climber by certain tribes of Indians of Brazil and Venezuela. It owes its stimulating virtue to an alkaloid (guaranin) chemically allied to caffein. Like chocolate it is reputed to have aphrodisiac properties. In Venezuela it is known by the name of cupana. Although the plant from which it is derived is known as Paullinia sorbilis, a name applied to it by Martius, Spruce has shown that it is identical with the previously described Paullinia cupana of Humboldt, Bonpland and Kunth and that ac- cording to the rules of priority the latter name takes precedence. Though normally a twining plant it is kept pruned in cultivation to the size of a currant bush. It has pinnate alternate leaves com- posed of 5 coarsely serrate leaflets, with the apical tooth retuse. The inflorescence consists of clusters of small white flowers growing in racemes from the axils of the leaves. The fruiting capsules are obovate to pyriform tapering at the base to a long neck or stipe and shortly beaked at the apex. When fresh they are yellow and tinged with red near the apex, with the thin pericarp smooth on the outside and woolly on the inner surface, 3-valved, but dehiscing only along two of the sutures. The solitary black glossy seed is nearly half covered by a white cup-shaped aril. Martius gives a description of the process of making guarand from the seeds of this plant by the Indians of the Rio Mauhé, Brazil. As prepared by them it is a very hard paste of a chocolate brown color almost devoid of odor. For use this paste is reduced to a fine powder and mixed with sugar and water to make a stimulating drink. The seeds, which mature in October and November, are removed from the capsules and dried in the sun until the fleshy white cups are in such a state as to be easily rubbed off with the fingers. They are then poured into a heated stone mortar, where they undergo a process of parching and are ground to a fine powder, which is mixed with water or exposed to the night dew and kneaded into a paste. When the process is finished a few seeds either whole or broken into fragments 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. are introduced and the whole is made up into sticks or cakes, usually cylindrical or spindle-shaped, about 5 to 8 inches long and weigh- ing about 12 to 15 ounces. These sticks are then dried in the sun or by the fire and become so hard and resistant that it requires an axe to break them. They are then packed in broad leaves of banana-like plants and put into baskets or bags. If protected from moisture this paste will keep in good condition for several years. In the Province of Para the jawbone of a fish called Piracurti, covered with sharp processes, is used as a rasp for grating it. Humboldt and Bonpland state that in southern Venezuela the powdered seeds are mixed with mandioca flour, wrapped in plantain leaves, and allowed to ferment until it acquires a saffron-yellow color. This yellow paste, dried in the sun and diluted with water, is taken as a morning drink like tea or coffee. It is bitter, stimu- lating and tonic in its effects. Humboldt did not like its flavor, but Spruce, who drank it in the form of a cooling beverage prepared from the pure paste with cold water and sugar, liked its flavor and found that its effects were very much like those of tea. At Cuyabaé it was served in taverns as a refreshing drink, and in various parts of South America Spruce found it to be a popular remedy for sick headache (hemicrania).? CHOCOLATE. (Plates 16 and 17.) Chocolate, made from the seeds of 7’heobroma. cacao, is undoubt- edly of Central American origin. It was known to the inhabitants of Mexico and Central America long before the Discovery, and after the Conquest it soon found its way to Europe and to the most remote parts of the earth. No vestiges of the seeds or pods of cacao or any representation of them on funeral vases have been found in the prehistoric graves of the Peruvian coast region; and so rich are these graves in remains of fruits and vegetables as well as in repre- sentations of such objects in terra cotta that the inference is that cacao was unknown to the aboriginal inhabitants of that part of the world. Prescott’s imaginary picture of the Peruvian coast adorned with plantations of cacao is wholly without foundation in fact. Padre Cobo, in his Historia de] Nuevo Mundo, tells of the high esteem in which cacao was held in Mexico: This fruit is so highly prized by the Indians of Nueva Espafia that it serves for money in that kingdom, and with it they buy in the markets and from trav- eling venders small objects, such as tortillas of maize, fruits, and vegetables; and I on the roads of that kingdom bought such things many times with cacao. Even in the city of Mexico they give as alms to the poor Indians two or three cacaos, as though they were money. But the reason why these cacao-almonds are principally esteemed is for a drink called chocolate, which the Indians made of them and which now the 1Spruce, Richard. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes, 2: 448-453. 1908. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 421 Spaniards prepare with greater neatness, care, and expense. It is of a dark- red color, with a foam which rises like scum and which is distasteful to newly arrived colonists and to those unaccustomed to drink it; but the people of the country are crazy for it. They regard chocolate as a delicacy, and Indians and Spaniards entertain with it the friends who come to their houses. In addition to the toasted and ground cacao seeds chocolate may contain many other ingredients, every one mixing with it those things which they fancy will improve its quality or flavor. But everybody usually puts in these five constituents: cacao, achiote (Bizra orellana), vanilla [the fruiting pod of an orchid called tlilxochitl, or “black flower,” by the Aztecs], cinnamon [brought from the East Indies after the Discovery], and sugar [also an introduced productj. To these they add some other kinds of dried flowers [orejuela, or ear-flower, called xochinacaztli by the Aztecs], sesame, anise, chilli or aji (Capsicum pepper), and other things more or less according to their taste. In some parts of Central America (especially in Nicaragua) they make use of & preparation of ground cacao mixed with toasted and ground maize, which when mixed with water yields a delightful and nutritious drink called tiste * * *, The most highly prized cacao in New Spain is that which is grown in the Province of Soconosco and in the diocese of Guatemala; and the largest is that of the diocese of Venezuela, or Caracas * * *, Just as the almonds of Chachapoyas have bats for enemies, so the cacao has monkeys, which are bred in the large trees which shelter it, and they devour as much as they can.* Plate 16 is the photograph of a trunk of cacao growing near the village of Coahuila, in the State of Chiapas, southern Mexico, taken in January, 1907, by Mr. Guy N. Collins of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, showing the peculiar habit of fruiting of the tree. In this region the cultivation of cacao is more successful and lucrative than in any other part of tropical America visited by Mr. Collins. Plate 17, which shows a slightly reduced pod from the same tree, will give some idea of the enormous size of the pods. The seeds are seen enveloped in their soft fleshy white aril. At this locality the trees produce almost continuously from November to June, and during this interval the pods are gathered three times. As soon as the seeds are removed from the pods they are washed by placing them in shallow baskets partly submerged in water and rubbing them against the bottom and sides of the baskets, forcing the pulp through the meshes. The seeds are then sun dried, the quicker the better, it is thought. This unfer- mented product would not command a high price in the European or American markets, but it is said that the Mexicans do not demand a fermented bean. * * * From a few miles below Pichucalco to within a few miles of San Juan the banks of the river are almost continuously lined with cacao planta- tions, a great part of which is shaded with rubber. * * * About 1,500 tons of cacao pass through San Juan annually, valued at about $1,250,000. In spite of the enormous amount of cacao produced in Mexico and an import duty of 30 cents per kilo, cacao is still imported from Guayaquil. In the fine cacao lands above San Juan the growing of this commodity is the most lucrative agricultural operation with which we are familiar. 1 Padre Cobo. Historia del Nuevo Mundo, 2: 63-64, ed. Jiménez de la Espada, 1891. 73839°—sm 1916——28 422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The primitive custom of using cacao for currency still prevails in the State of Chiapas, especially in the city of Tuxtla and its vicinity. A common expression for cheap articles in the market here is that they sell for so many a cinco. This originally meant 5 cacao beans; but to allow for the fluctuating value of the cacao, a cinco actually consists of from 2 to 5 seeds, but the ratio of exchange will be uniform throughout the market. Mr. Collins found three distinct types of cacao at Tuxtla: Small plump beans from Tabasco; flatter beans that had been rolled in ashes from Quechula; and cacao pataxte, the seeds of Theobroma bicolor. The latter parched and ground are used together with maize for making a drink called “ posol” (from pozolli, foaming). Another drink called “tascalate” (from tezcalli, one who grinds maize or some other substance on a stone metlatl) was composed of ground cacao mixed with ground parched corn and almonds. It was carried in the form of powder by travelers on long trips when there was little opportunity of obtaining food, and made into an agreeable and nourishing drink by the addition of sugar and water.’ BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. Theobroma cacao is a small tree with a bare stem which generally rises to a height of about 2 meters before branching and reaches a height of 5 or 6 meters. Sometimes, however, under good condi- tions of moisture, soil, and situation it grows higher. The tree is cauliflorous; that is, the flowers spring forth from the trunk and older branches. Leaves large, undivided, smooth, broad, pointed, and of a thin texture, of a reddish color and hanging limp from the branches when young, but soon turning green and becoming firm; flowers produced from adventitious buds under the bark, usually at the “eyes,” or points marked by the scars of fallen leaves, small, growing in clusters or solitary, usually only one of a cluster develop- ing into fruit; calyx 5-parted, often of a pinkish color; petals 5, yellowish, concave at the base and having a straplike appendage at the tip; stamens 10, united at the base into a cup, 5 without anthers and the other 5 alternating with them bearing 2 double- celled anthers each; style threadlike, terminating in a 5-cleft stigma; fruit somewhat like a cucumber in shape, 15 to 25 cm. long, yellow or reddish, longitudinally ribbed, the rind thick and warty, leathery and tough, not splitting when ripe, 5-celled, and containing many seeds in a soft butterlike pulp of a pleasant sweetish-acid flavor; seeds compressed, somewhat almond shaped, with a thin, pale, reddish brown, fragile skin or shell covering an oily, aromatic, bitter 17The above information was derived from Mr. Collins’s field notes. See his abridged report: ‘‘ Notes on Southern Mexico,” by G. N. Collins and C. B. Doyle, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in the National Geographic Magazine, March, 1911, pp. 801 to 320. NARCOTIC PLANTS AND STIMULANTS—SAFFORD. 423 kernel, which consists mostly of the crumpled cotyledons. If taken from the pod the seed soon loses its vitality. It is consequently dificult to transport it to distant countries unless in a germinating condition or in ripe pods, which, if kept cool, will last 10 days or perhaps 2 weeks. In gathering the pods care is taken to cut the stalks neatly half way between the pod and the tree, so as not to tear the bark, as is often done if the pod is removed by twisting; for it is in the bark at the base of the old stalk that adventitious buds issue which produce the ensuing crop. As a rule only one or two of the flowers in each cluster develop pods. In many countries seeds are usually subjected to a process of sweating or fermenting, by means of which the flavor is developed. Sometimes this process takes place in holes or trenches in the ground, after which the seeds are dried. Plantations of cacao were visited by the writer in the French Antilles, on the island of Trinidad, in the vicinity of Caracas, and near Guayaquil. From the latter place great quantities of cacao are exported. In Mexico he witnessed the preparation of chocolate by grinding the beans into a paste on a stone metlatl just as maize is ground for making tor- tillas; and on the Pacific coast of Central America he was regaled with delicious tiste made of ground cacao and parched maize and served in gourds (the fruit of Crescentia cujete). On the island of Guam, where cacao culture was introduced from Mexico, the Mexican metlatl is used. Here the beans, after having been care- fully cleaned, are usually dried without fermentation and kept until required for use. They are then toasted like coffee, ground on the family metlatl, and made at once into chocolate. Chocolate made from newly toasted and ground beans is especially rich and aromatic. Sometimes more than is required for immediate use is prepared with the addition of a little flour or arrowroot, but without spices, and made into balls or lozenge-shaped disks large enough for a single cup of chocolate. Thus prepared it has a fine flavor and since none of the oil is removed it is very rich. The natives of the island scorn imported chocolate, declaring that it tastes like medicine. It is interesting to note that the alkaloid theobromine, which is the active principle of cacao, is also found in cola, which plays almost as important a role in certain parts of Africa as cacao in tropical America. More interesting still is the fact that this is almost iden- tical with the alkaloids found in Paullinia cupana and the American ilexes described in this paper, and in tea and coffee. But while the ilexes and tea and coffee are only stimulants, chocolate is both stimulant and food. Theobromine is now valued in medicine, es- pecially for use as a diuretic. Its physiological effects are very similar to those of caffein. 494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. SUMMARY. 1. The principal narcotic plants and stimulants of ancient America were tobacco, cohoba, the red bean, peyotl, ololiuhqui, jimson weed, huaca-cachu (a tree Datura), coca, aya-huasca, yerba-mate, cassine, guarana, and cacao. Divine attributes were ascribed to them. They were used in divination, in medicine, and in ceremonials, and in many cases were carried by the Indians as safeguards or amulets to insure success in warfare and the chase. 2. Tobacco, the most important of these plants, is now extensively cultivated in both hemispheres and its use is world wide. The jimson weed (Datura stramonium) is now important as a source of atropine, and coca (H’rythroxylon Coca) as the source of cocaine. The most important stimulants are the yerba-mate (/lex paraguariensis) the leaves of which are known as Paraguay tea, and cacao (7heobroma Cacao), the seeds of which are made into chocolate and cocoa. 3. Of less importance but of possible medicinal value are peyotl (Lophophora Williamsi) identified as the “ divine flesh” or teonana- eat] of the Mexicans, and the ololiuhqui (Datura meteloides), still extensively used by Indians of Mexico and the United States; huaca- cachu (Brugmansia sanguinea) of Peru; and aya-huasea (Panisteria caapt) of Brazil and Venezuela. Cassine (Jlex vomitoria) of the southern United States, which has the same properties as its Para- guayan congener, may prove to be valuable as a refreshing tea, and guarana (Paullinia cupana) as the source of a drink resembling chocolate. The red bean, or frijolillo, of Texas (Proussonetia se- cundifiora), though possessing a narcotic alkaloid, is not used com- mercially and its use among our Indians is now very limited. Cohoba (Piptadenia peregrina), the seeds of which were used by the aborigi- nal Haitians and are still used by many Indians of the tributaries of the great rivers of South America as the source of a narcotic snuff, remains chemically unknown, though known and reported by the companions of Columbus. 4. In view of the shortage of medicinal alkaloids resulting from the present war it is suggested that investigations be made to deter- mine the nature of the properties of these less-known narcotics, with a view to their utilization as substitutes for others now recog- nized in the standard pharmacopeeias, Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 1. INFLORESCENCE OF NICOTIANA TABACUM, THE PICIETL OF MEXICO, THE PETUN OF BRAZIL. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 2. NICOTIANA TABACUM: LEAF CHEWED BY THE ANCIENT MEXICANS TOGETHER WITH LIME, AND CALLED BY THEM TENEXIETL. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. THE SOURCE OF THE NARCOTIC COHOBA SNUFF OF THE ANCIENT PIPTADENIA PEREGRINA, NATURAL SIZE, HAYTIANS. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 4. BROUSSONETIA SECUNDIFLORA ORTEGA (SOPHORA SECUNDIFLORA LAG.); THE PLANT YIELDING THE NARCOTIC MESCAL BEAN OF NORTHERN .MEXICO AND SOUTHWEST- ERN UNITED STATES, Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. DiskS OF LOPHOPHORA WILLIAMSII, CALLED “SACRED MUSHROOMS” (TEONANACATL) BY THE ANCIENT MEXICANS. Smithsonian Report, 1916 —Safford. PLATE 6. DEVIL’S ROOT (LOPHOPHORA WILLIAMSII). *SB09}LOCZ Usoy}AoU url pAoyT “a “wy Aq poydvasojoyg “SOSLZY SHL 4O “TLVOVNWNOA] YO ‘TLOARd SHL 'SNLOVD OILOOUVN Vv ‘IISAVITIIM VHOHdOHdO7] "2 ALWId *plojyes—'g 16] ‘Hoday ueluosy}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLaTte 8. DATURA METELOIDES, A CEREMONIAL NARCOTIC OF THE ANCIENT MEXICANS, ZUNIS, AND CALIFORNIA INDIANS. TWO-THIRDS NATURAL SIZE. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 9, DATURA METELOIDES, NARCOTIC PLANT USED BY THE ANCIENT AZTECS, ZUNIS, AND CALIFORNIA INDIANS AS AN INTOXICANT AND Hypnotic. NATURAL SIZE. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLaTeE 10. THE JAMESTOWN WEED, DATURA STRAMONIUM L., WHICH INTOXICATED THE BRITISH SOLDIERS SENT TO QUELL BACON’S REBELLION. NATURAL SIZE. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Satford. PLaTE 11 TREE DATURA (BRUGMANSIA SANQUINEA), USED AS A NARCOTIC BY THE PRIESTS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN. “AWI7] ONINIVLNOD GENO HLIM YSHLSNOL ‘SAVED NVIANYSd OINOLSIHSHYq WOU SSAVAT VOOO SONINIVLNOD HONOd xl seve *plopyeS—'9 16] ‘HOdey ueluOsY}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 13. ERYTHROXYLON COCA, THE SOURCE OF COCAINE. PHOTOGRAPH-OF SPECIMEN COL- LECTED AT SANTA ANA, PERU, BY O. F. COOK. “(p9G!) ANAOW 37 ¥314V ‘vVdIdO14 NYSHLYON NI GANYOIYSd SV ANOWSYSD MNIYQ MOV1gG “pl 3Lv1d *PlOHVES—'9161 ‘HOdey ueiuosyyIWS Smithsonian Report, 1916 —Safford. PLaTe 15 ILEX VOMITORIA, THE SOURCE OF THE BLACK DRINK OF THE INDIANS OF FLORIDA AND THE CAROLINAS. SPECIMEN COLLECTED NEAR AUSTIN, TEX., MAY 27, 1904, BY FRED- ERICK V. COVILLE. NATURAL SIZE. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLATE 16. THEOBROMA CACAO, THE PLANT FROM WHICH CACAO IS OBTAINED. SPECIMEN GROW- ING IN THE STATE OF CHIAPAS, MEXICO. PHOTOGRAPHED BY COLLINS AND DOYLE. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Safford. PLaTe 17. CACAO PoD, SHOWING SEEDS SURROUNDED BY FLESHY WHITE ARiL. SPECIMEN FROM TREE SHOWN ON PRECEDING PLATE. Ay NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL LIGHTS ON THE ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE. By Sir ArtHur Evans, D. Litt., LL. D., P. S. A., F. B.S. When I was asked on behalf of the council of the British Associa- tion to occupy the responsible post of president at the meeting in this great city—the fourth that has taken place here—I was certainly taken by surprise; the more so as my own subject of research seemed somewhat removed from what may be described as the central in- terests of your body. The turn of archeology, however, I was told, had come round again on the rota of the sciences represented; nor could I be indifferent to the fact that the last presidential address on this theme had been delivered by my father at the Toronto meeting of 1897. Still, it was not till after considerable hesitation that I accepted the honor. Engaged as I have been through a series of years in the work of excavation in Crete—a work which involved not enly the quarrying but the building up of wholly new materials and has en- tailed the endeavor to classify the successive phases of a long, con- tinuous story—absorbed and fascinated by my own investigation, T am oppressed with the consciousness of having been less able to keep pace with the progress of fellow explorers in other departments or to do sufficient justice to their results. * * * ‘Fhe science of an- tiquity in its purest form depends, indeed, on evidence and rests on principles indistinguishable from those of the sister science of geol- ogy. Its methods are stratigraphic. As in that case the successive deposits and the characteristic contents—often of the most frag- mentary kind—enable the geologist to reconstruct the fauna and flora, and climate and physical conditions of the past ages of the world, and to follow out their gradual transitions or dislocations, so it is with the archeologist in dealing with unwritten history. In recent years—not to speak of the revelations of late quaternary culture on which I shall presently have occasion to dwell—in Egypt, in Babylonia, in ancient Persia, in the central Asian deserts, or, coming nearer home, in the Agean lands, the patient exploration 1Address of the president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne, 1916. Reprinted by permission from author’s pamphlet edition. 425 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. of early sites, in many cases of huge stratified mounds, the unearth- ing of buried buildings, the opening of tombs, and the research of minor relics, has reconstituted the successive stages of whole fabrics of former civilization, the very existence of which was formerly unsuspected. Even in later periods archeology, as a dispassionate witness, has been continually checking, supplementing, and illustrat- ing written history. It has called back to our upper air, as with a magician’s wand, shapes and conditions that seemed to have been irrevocably lost in the night of time. Thus evoked, moreover, the past is often seen to hold a mirror to the future, correcting wrong impressions—the result of some tempo- rary revolution in the whirligig of time—by the more permanent standard of abiding conditions, and affording in the solid evidence of past well-being the “substance of things hoped for.” Nowhere, indeed, has this been more in evidence than in that vexed region between the Danube and the Adriatic, to-day the home of the Serbian race, to the antiquarian exploration of which many of the earlier years of my own life were devoted. What visions, indeed, do those investigations not recall! Impe- rial cities, once the seats of wide administration and of prolific mints, sunk to neglected villages, vestiges of great engineering works, bridges, aqueducts, or here a main line of ancient highway hardly traceable even as a track across the wilderness! Or, again, the signs of medieval revival above the Roman ruins—remains of once populous mining centers scattered along the lone hillside, the shells of stately churches with the effigies, bullet-scarred now, of royal founders, once champions of Christendom against the Paynim— nay, the actual relics of great rulers, lawgivers, national heroes, still secreted in half-ruined monastic retreats! Sunt lacrime rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt. Even the archeologist incurs more human debts, and the evocation of the past carries with it living responsibilities. * * * Whole provinces of ancient history would lie beyond our ken— often through the mere loss of the works of classical authors—were it not for the results of archeological research. At other times again it has redressed the balance where certain aspects of the ancient world have been brought into unequal prominence, it may be, by mere accidents of literary style. Even if we take the Greek world, generally so rich in its literary sources, how comparatively little should we know of its brilliant civilization as illustrated by the great civic foundations of Magna Graecia and Sicily if we had to depend on its written sources alone. But the noble monuments of those regions, the results of excavation, the magnificent coinage—a sum of evidence illustrative in turn of public and private life, of art and ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS. 427 religion, of politics and of economic conditions—have gone far to supply the lacuna. Look, too, at the history of the Roman Empire—how defective and misleading in many departments are the literary records. It has been by methodical researches into evidence such as the above, nota- bly in the epigraphic field, that the most trustworthy results have been worked out. Take the case of Roman Britain. Had the lost books of Ammianus relating to Britain been preserved we might have had, in his rugged style, some partial sketch of the Province as it existed in the age of its most complete Romanization. As it is, so far as historians are concerned, we are left in almost complete darkness. Here, again, it is through archeological research that light has penetrated, and thanks to the thoroughness and persistence of our own investigators, town sites such as Silchester in Roman Britain have been more completely uncovered than those of any other Province.t. Nor has any part of Britain supplied more important contributions in this field than the region of the Roman wall, that great limitary work between the Sol- way and the mouth of the Tyne that once marked the northernmost European barrier of civilized dominion. Speaking here, on the site of Hadrian’s bridge-head station that formed its eastern key, it would be impossible for me not to pay a passing tribute, however inadequate, to the continuous work of ex- ploration and research carried out by the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle, now for over a hundred years in existence, worthily sec- onded by its sister society on the Cumbrian side, and of which the volumes of the respective Proceedings and Transactions, Archzolo- gia, liana, and last but not least the Lapidarium Septentrionale, are abiding records. The basis of methodical study was here the survey of the wall carried out, together with that of its main mili- tary approach, the Watling Street, by MacLauchlan, under the auspi- ces of Algernon, fourth Duke of Northumberland. And who, how- ever lightly touching on such a theme, can overlook the services of the late Dr. Collingwood Bruce, the “ Grand old man,” not only of the wall itself, but of all pertaining to border antiquities, distinguished as an investigator for his scholarship and learning, whose lifelong devotion to his subject and contagious enthusiasm made the Roman wall, as it had never been before, a household word? New points of view have arisen, a stricter method and a greater subdivision of labor have become imperative in this as in other de- partments of research. We must, therefore, rejoice that local ex- plorers have more and more availed themselves of the cooperation, and welcomed the guidance of those equipped with comparative knowl- 1 See Haverfield, ‘‘ Roman Britain in 1913,” p. 86. 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. edge drawn from other spheres. The British Vallum, it is now real- ized, must be looked at with perpetual reference to other frontier lines, such as the Germanic or the Rhetian lines; local remains of every kind have to be correlated with similar discoveries throughout the length and breadth of the Roman Empire. This attitude in the investigation of the remains of Roman Britain—the promotion of which owes so much to the energy and experience of Prof. Haverfield—has in recent years conducted exca- vation to specially valuable results. The work at Corbridge, the ancient Corstopitum, begun in 1906, and continued down to the autumn of 1914, has already uncovered throughout a great part of its area the largest urban center—civil as well as military in charac- ter—on the line of the wall, and the principal store base of its sta- tions. Here, together with well-built granaries, workshops, and bar- racks, and such records of civic life as are supplied by sculptured stones and inscriptions, and the double discovery of hoards of gold coins, has come to light a spacious and massively constructed stone building, apparently a military storehouse, worthy to rank beside the bridge piers of the North Tyne, among the most imposing monu- ments of Roman Britain. There is much here, indeed, to carry our thoughts far beyond our insular lhmits. On this, as on so many other sites along the wall, the inscriptions and reliefs take us very far afield. We mark the gravestone of a man of Palmyra, an altar of the Tyrian Hercules—its Phoenician Baal—a dedication to a pantheistic goddess of Syrian religion and the rayed effigy of the Persian Mithra. So, too, in the neighborhood of Newcastle itself, as elsewhere on the wall, there was found an altar of Jupiter Dolichenus, the old Anatolian God of the Double Axe, the male form of the divinity once worshipped in the prehistoric Labyrinth of Crete. Nowhere are we more struck than in this remote extremity of the Empire with the heterogeneous religious elements, often drawn from its far eastern borders, that before the days of the final advent of Christianity, Roman dominion had been instrumental in diffusing. The Orontes may be said to have flowed into the Tyne as well as the Tiber, I have no pretension to follow up the various affluents merged in the later course of Greco-Roman civilization, as illustrated by these and similar discoveries. throughout the Roman world. My own recent researches have been particularly concerned with the much more ancient cultural stage—that of prehistoric Crete—which leads up to the Greco-Roman, and which might seem to present the prob- lem of origins at any rate in a less complex shape. The marvelous Minoan civilization that has there come to light shows that Crete of 4,000 years ago must unquestionably be regarded as the birthplace of our European civilization in its higher form. ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN ERUROPE—EVANS. 499 But are we, even then, appreciably nearer to the fountain head ? A new and far more remote vista has opened out in recent years, and it is not too much to say that a wholly new standpoint has been gained from which to survey the early history of the human race. The investigations of a brillant band of prehistoric archeologists, with the aid of representatives of the sister sciences of geology and paleontology, have brought together such a mass of striking materials as to place the evolution of human art and appliances in the last Quaternary period on a far higher level than had even been sus- pected previously. Following in the footsteps of Lartet and after him Riviere and Piette, Profs. Cartailhac, Capitan, and Boule, the Abbé Breuil, Dr. Gbermeier and their fellow investigators have revo- lutionized our knowledge of a phase of human culture which goes so far back beyond the limits of any continuous story that it may well be said to belong to an older world. To the engraved and sculptured works of man in the “ Reindeer period” we have now to add not only such new specialties as are exemplified by the molded clay figures of life-size bisons in the Tuc d’Audoubert Cave, or the similar high reliefs of a procession of six horses cut on the overhanging limestone brow of Cap Blane, but whole galleries of painted designs on the walls of caverns and rock shelters. So astonishing was this last discovery, made first by the Spanish investigator Sefior de Sautuola—or rather his little daughter—as long ago as 1878, that it was not till after it had been corroborated by repeated finds on the French side of the Pyrenees—not, indeed, till the beginning of the present century—that the Paleolithic age of these rock paintings was generally recognized. In their most devel- oped stage, as illustrated by the bulk of the figures in the Cave of Altamira itself, and in those of Marsoulas in the Haute Garonne, and of Font de Gaume in the Dordogne, these primeval frescoes display not only a consummate mastery of natural design, but an extraordi- nary technical resource. Apart from the charcoal used in certain outlines, the chief coloring matter was red and yellow ochre, mor- tars and palettes for the preparation of which have come to light. In single animals the tints are varied from black to dark and ruddy brown or brilliant orange, and so, by fine gradations, to paler nuances, obtained by scraping and washing. Outlines and details are brought out by white incised lines, and the artists availed themselves with great skill of the reliefs afforded by convexities of the rock surface. But the greatest marvel of all is that such polychrome masterpieces as the bisons, standing and couchant, or with limbs huddled together, of the Altamira Cave, were executed on the ceilings of inner vaults and galleries where the ight of day has never penetrated. Nowhere 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. is there any trace of smoke, and it is clear that great progress in the art of artificial illumination had already been made. We now know that stone lamps, decorated in one case with the engraved head of an ibex, were already in existence. Such was the level of artistic attainment in southwestern Europe, at a modest estimate some 10,000 years earlier than the most ancient monuments of Egypt or Chaldea! Nor is this an iso- lated phenomenon. One by one, characteristics, both spiritual and material, that had been formerly thought to be the special marks of later ages of mankind have been shown to go back to that earlier world. I myself can never forget the impression pro- duced on me as a privileged spectator of a freshly uncovered inter- ment in one of the Balzi Rossi Caves—an impression subsequently confirmed by other experiences of similar discoveries in these caves, which together first supplied the concordant testimony of an elabo- rate cult of the dead on the part of Aurignacian man. Tall skeletons of the highly developed Cro-Magnon type lay beside or above their hearths, and protected by great stones from roving beasts. Flint knives and bone javelins had been placed within reach of their hands, chaplets and necklaces of sea shells, fish vertebra, and studs of carved bone had decked their persons. With these had been set lumps of iron peroxide, the red stains of which appeared on skulls and bones, so that they might make a fitting show in the underworld. Colors, too, to paint his body, Place within his hand, That he glisten, bright and ruddy, In the Spirit-Land !* Nor is it only in this cult of the departed that we trace the dawn of religious practices in that older world. At Cogul we may now survey the ritual dance of nine skirted women round a male satyrhke figure of short stature, while at Alpera a gowned sister ministrant holds up what has all the appearance of being a small idol. It can hardly be doubted that the small female images of ivory, steatite, and crystal- line tale from the same Aurignacian stratum as that of the Balzi Rossi interments, in which great prominence is given to the organs of maternity, had some fetichistic intention. So, too, many of the figures of animals engraved and painted on the inmost vaults of the caves may well have been due, as M. Salomon Reinach has suggested, to the magical ideas prompted by the desire to obtain a hold on the quarries of the chase that supplied the means of livelihood. In a similar religious connection may be taken the growth of a whole family of signs, in some cases obviously derivatives of fuller pictorial originals, but not infrequently simplified to such a degree 1 Schiller ‘‘ Nadowessier’s Todtenlied.” ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS, 431 that they resemble or actually reproduce letters of the alphabet. Often they occur in groups like regular inscriptions, and it is not sur- prising that in some quarters they should have been regarded as evidence that the art of writing had already been evolved by the men of the Reindeer age. A symbolic value certainly is to be attributed to these signs, and it must at least be admitted that by the close of the late Quaternary age considerable advance had been made in hiero- glyphic expression. The evidences of more or less continuous civilized development reaching its apogee about the close of the Magdalenian period have been constantly emerging from recent discoveries. The recurring “tectiform” sign had already clearly pointed to the existence of huts or wigwams; the “ scutiform ” and other types record appliances yet to be elucidated, and another sign well illustrated on a bone pendant from the Cave of St. Marcel has an unmistakable re- semblance to a sledge.1 But the most astonishing revelation of the cultural level already reached by primeval man has been supplied by the more recently discovered rock paintings of Spain. The area of discovery has now been extended there from the Province of Santan- der, where Altamira itself is situated, to the Valley of the Ebro, the Central Sierras, and to the extreme southeastern region, including the Provinces of Albacete, Murcia, and Almeria, and even to within the borders of Granada. One after another, features that had been reckoned as the exclusive property of Neolithic or later ages are thus seen to have been shared by Paleolithic man in the final stage of his evolution. For the first time, moreover, we find the productions of his art rich in human subjects. At Cogul the sacral dance is performed by women clad from the waist downward in well-cut gowns, whilein a rock shelter of Alpera,? where we meet with the same skirted ladies, their dress is supplemented by flying sashes. On the rock painting of the Cueva de la Vieja, near the same place, women are seen with still longer gowns rising to their bosoms. We are already a long way from Eve. It is this great Alpera fresco which, among all those discovered, has afforded most new elements. Here are depicted whole scenes of the chase in which bowmen—up to the time of these last discoveries un- known among Paleolithic representations—take a leading part, though they had not as yet the use of quivers. Some are dancing in the attitude of the Australian corroborees. Several wear plumed head- dresses, and the attitudes at times are extraordinarily animated. What is specially remarkable is that some of the groups of these 1 This interpretation suggested by me after inspecting the object in 1902 has been ap- proved by the Abbé Breuil (Anthropologie, XIII, p. 152) and by Professor Sollas, ‘“‘Ancient Hunters,” 2 1915, p. 480. 2 That of Carasoles del Bosque: Breuil, Anthropologie, XXVI, 1915, p. 329, et seq. 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Spanish rock paintings show dogs or jackals accompanying the hunters, so that the process of domesticating animals had already begun. Hafted axes are depicted as well as cunningly shaped throw- ing sticks. In one case at least we see two opposed bands of archers— marking at any rate a stage in social development in which organized warfare was possible. Nor can there be any question as to the age of these scenes and figures, by themselves so suggestive of a much later phase of human history. They are inseparable from other elements of the same group, the animal and symbolic representations of which are shared by the contemporary school of rock painting north of the Pyrenees. Some are overlaid by palimpsests, themselves of Paleolithic charac- ter. Among the animals actually depicted, moreover, the elk and bison distinctly belong to the late Quaternary fauna of both regions, and are unknown there to the Neolithic deposits. In its broader aspects this field of human culture, to which, on the Kuropean side, the name of Reindeer age may still, on the whole, be applied, is now seen to have been very widespread. In Europe itself it permeates a large area—defined by the boundaries of glaciation— from Poland, and even a large Russian tract, to Bohemia, the upper course of the Danube and of the Rhine, to southwestern Britain and southeastern Spain. Beyond the Mediterranean, moreover, it fits on under varying conditions to a parallel form of culture, the remains of which are by no means confined to the Cis-Saharan zone, where incised figures occur of animals like the long-horned buffalo (Bulba- lus antéquus) and others long extinct in that region. This southern branch may eventually be found to have a large extension. The nearest parallels to the finer class of rock carvings as seen in the Dordogne are, in fact, to be found among the more ancient speci- mens of similar work in South Africa, while the rock paintings of Spain find their best analogies among the Bushmen. Glancing at this late Quaternary culture, as a whole, in view of the materials supplied on the European side, it will not be superfiu- ous for me to call attention to two important points’ which some observers have shown a tendency to pass over. Its successive phases, the Aurignacian, the Solutrean, and the Mag- dalenian, with its decadent Azilian offshoot—the order of which may now be regarded as stratigraphically established—represent, on the whole, a continuous story. 1 will not here discuss the question as to how far the disappearance of Neanderthal man and the close of the Mousterian epoch represents a “fault” or gap. But the view that there was any real break in the course of the cultural history of the Reindeer age itself does not seem to have sufficient warrant. ORIGINS OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE—EVANS. 433 Tt is true that new elements came in from more than one direction. On the old Aurignacian area, which had a trans-Mediterranean ex- tension from Syria to Morocco, there intruded on the European side—apparently from the east—the Solutrean type of culture, with its perfected flint-working and exquisite laurel-leaf points. Mag- dalenian man, on the other hand, great as the proficiency that he at- tained in the carving of horn and bone, was much behind in his flint-knapping. That there were dislocations and temporary set- backs is evident. But on every side we still note transitions and reminiscences. When, moreover, we turn to the most striking fea- tures of this whole cultural phase, the primeval arts of sculpture, en- graving, and painting, we see a gradual upgrowth and unbroken tradition. From mere outline figures and simple two-legged profiles of animals we are led on step by step to the full freedom of the Magdalenian artists.. From isolated or disconnected subjects we watch the advance to large compositions, such as the hunting scenes of the Spanish rock paintings. In the culminating phase of this art we even find impressionist works. , was made by the writer from a piece of slate. The only implements used. were stones such as may be picked up on almost any field, and two or three rude chipped knives. After roughly forming and perforating the slate disk, a stick about 6 inches long was fitted tightly in the perforation and its ends rounded and hardened in the fire. The stick was then placed between adjoining limbs of a tree, its ends being inserted in depressions cut into the limbs. With the aid of an improvised bow, the stick bearing the ring was revolved back and forth, and the ring finished by the use of the stone knives held against a crossbar. Sand, water, and ashes were used for polishing. The above device formed, of course, a rude lathe, but it was merely the adaptation of the bow drill which was known to the Eskimo and some other American tribes in prehistoric times. TEXTILE FABRICS. The textile fabrics of this people did not differ materially from those of many other tribes of the United States. They appear to be principally of the twined-woven variety which was so widespread 500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. among people who had not adopted the loom. Many fragments of this cloth have been preserved by contact with metal objects, or have been found charred on the altars, or with cremated human remains. Some of this cloth is of a remarkably fine texture, for weaving done principally with the fingers unaided by mechanical devices. Plate 18, a-c, shows small sections of twined-woven cloth at the right, at the left enlarged drawings of each which illustrate more clearly the relation of the warp and woof cords. Other examples of this weaving are shown in g-2. The wavelike arrangement of the warp cords in zis very unusual. The twined woof cords in all of the above specimens are relatively like those shown in the sectional sketch in 7. In f we have an example of the simple in-and-out weave; this is probably a piece of the upper portion of a bag. This type of weaving was sometimes followed in this region in making much finer cloth. What appear to be fragments of netted bags are illustrated at the right in d and e. Enlarged drawings appear at the left, showing the stitch. This type of netting is found among the northern Athapascans, in California, in the Pueblo region, and in northern Mexico, but is rare in other sections north of Mexico. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Willoughby. PLATE 13 CN Ww S TEXTILE FABRICS FROM THE HOPEWELL GROUP, OHIO. a—c,g-i, Twined weaving; f, in-and-out weaving; d.e, netting. (Drawings at the left, a-c, are enlarged;) all others about (4/s).) A HALF CENTURY OF GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS. By J. Scorr Kertriz, LL.D., Late Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society, London. [With 2 plates. ] b When I was honored with a request from your council to open this new session of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, by a lecture on geographical progress during the last half century, I am afraid I accepted the invitation with a light heart. It was only when I be- gan to face the subject that I realized its magnitude. To do it justice would take volumes. In the brief space of a lecture I can only hope to indicate succinctly the lines upon which the main advances have been made; to bring before you an impressionist picture, marked, it may be, by some of the bewildering confusion characteristic of that evolution in the domain of art. * * * First of all, it may be useful to make it clear to ourselves what is the field covered by the subject, the progress of which during half a century it is our task to trace. I think for our purpose we may regard geography as the science which deals with the distribution of the features of the earth’s surface and of all that it sustains, min- eral, vegetable, and animal, including man himself. In fact, man is the ultimate factor in the geographical problem, the final object of which is to investigate the correlations which exist between humanity and its geographical environment. It is evident, then, that before the geographer is in a position to apply scientific methods to the problem which it is his function to solve he must first have an ade- quate knowledge of the data which form the terms of the problem. Such data can only be obtained by the exploration of the earth’s sur- face conducted by scientific methods. Therefore in attempting to review the progress of geography during the past half century, our first task is to ascertain what have been the main additions to our knowledge of the earth’s surface by means of exploration. Secondly, we should endeavor to ascertain what progress has been made in our methods of dealing with such results. Has there been any marked 1An address delivered before the Royal Scottish Geographical Society in Edinburgh on Noy. 18, 1915. Reprinted by permission from the Scottish Geographical Magazine, December, 1915. 73839°—sm 1916——33 501 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. advance in the application of scientific methods to geographical prob- lems? Thirdly, what EONS Hen has been introduced into geo- graphical education ? In attempting to take stock of the results of the exploration of the unknown and little-known regions of the globe during the last half century, starting for convenience with the year 1860, I think it is safe to say that we have to go back to the half century which followed 1492 (when Columbus stumbled on a new world) before we find a period so prolific. The two poles have been reached and large addi- tions made to our knowledge of the polar regions. The unknown two-thirds, at least, of the Dark Continent have been more or less provisionally mapped, and all but an insignificant fraction partitioned among the powers of Europe. Great areas of North America have been surveyed and occupied, while much has been done for the ex- ploration of Central and South America. The map of Asia has to a large extent been reconstructed, while the vast unknown interior of Australia has been traversed in all directions. [ven much of Europe has been resurveyed. A new department of science, oceanography, has been created as the result of the Challenger and other oceanic surveys. But let us deal with the subject in somewhat more detail, beginning at the north. The leading episodes that have marked the progress of exploration since 1860 must be within the memory of many of you, though prob- ably few of the audience can go back to the forties and fifties as I, alas, can do. But time will not permit of my dealing in detail with the episodes that have marked the progress of discovery, only with the results. What, then, has been the result of all the half century’s strenuous efforts to unravel the secrets of the lands that fringe the great ice- bound ocean around the North Pole. In 1860 the north coast of Greenland had never been reached, and the east coast beyond 65° north was only known in patches. Our knowledge of the Arctic archipelago was greatly defective. What lay between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla was entirely unknown; the coast of Siberia was imperfectly mapped and the seas beyond largely unexplored. No soundings had been taken in the Arctic Ocean, and the farthest north reached was a little over 82°, a latitude reached by Hudson some 300 years ago. Now Greenland, largely through Peary’s work, has been extended toeover 83° north, and the whole coast has been practically charted; the Arctic. Archipelago has been greatly ex- tended; Franz Josef Land has been placed on the map; a large island has been discovered to the north of Siberia and another on the west of the Arctic Archipelago; great additions have been made to our knowledge of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla; depths of 2,000 fathoms have been sounded in the Arctic Ocean; and the North Pole GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIE. 503 itself has been located amid thick-ribbed ice. Besides these geo- graphical discoveries, substantial contributions have been made to other departments of science which enable us to understand better the régime of these inhospitable regions in the general economy of our earth. There still remains much to be done, especially in the wide region to the north of Bering Strait, before our knowledge is complete. Turning to the other end of the earth, there is a great gap between the work of Ross, Wilkes, D’Urville, and Bellingshausen, and the outburst of enterprise in the exploration of the Antarctic continent in quite recent years. Borchgrevink and the Belgians under Gerlache began the campaign some 18 years ago. But undoubtedly the first organized attempt on a great scale to scatter our ignorance of a continent as large as Europe, though probably of little use to human- ity, was made by the great expedition under Capt. Scott, whose tragic and heroic death with his four companions some years later places them high up on the nation’s roll of honor. Amundsen, who discovered a new and easy route, rushed in and reaped the fruits of the 10 years’ labors of these indomitable British explorers. Then there is Drygalski’s expedition, and we have Bruce, Shackleton, and Mawson (from Australia) and Charcot on the Graham Land side. John Murray saw the land from the Challenger in the seventies, and with his usual insight surmised that here lay a great continent. Before the campaign began the only big gap was that made by Ross in the Ross Sea and along the great ice barrier, with somewhat hypo- thetical patches elsewhere. Now, it may be said truly that in the period with which we are dealing, and especially in the last 18 years, enormous additions have been made to our knowledge of the outline, and even a large extent of the interior, of the most repellent land on the face of the earth. It may be said that with Ross’s discovery as 2 basis within the last 15 years the whole coast line of the Antarctic continent has been laid down from King Edward VII Land to Kaiser Wilhelm Land, considerably more than a quadrant of the circumference, and that from the observations which have been made the interior is a lofty ice-covered plateau, bordered in parts by still higher mountain ranges, with indications that in past ages a climate favorable to temperate or even subtropical vegetation must have existed. The meteorological work carried out, especially by Mawson’s expedition, may turn out to be of practical service to meteorology in general and to that of Australia in particular. In the interests of science at least, it is hoped that the entire outline of the Antarctic Continent will be laid down and further investigations carried out sufficient to satisfy our natural curiosity as to the past history of this great ice-bound land. 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. As a contrast to the frigid regions with which we have been deal- ing, let us turn to the most tropical, and in 1860 the most unexplored. of all the continents, Africa. One of my earliest geographical recollections is of a map of Africa somewhere in the forties and early fifties on the wall of the school of my boyhood; begrimed and faded, with the word “unexplored” in large capitals, from the Sahara to the borders of the Cape. I am afraid we boys were not sorry for the great blank without a single name to plague our memories. As represented on the best maps of 1860, Africa from about 10° north to about 20° south, was mainly a blank, checkered here and there with conjectural and imaginary features. Livingstone and Burton and Speke had been at work. We see the course of the Zambezi laid down, and vague indications given of Lake Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza, and Lake Nyasa. The Nile is timidly brought down in dotted lines toward the Equator. A little bit of the lower Congo is shown with many dotted lines of conjectural tributaries joining it from various directions, but no indication given of its real course. Our positive knowledge was comparatively infinitesimal. It is not too much to say that of the 11,000,000 square miles of Africa something like 6,000,000 was practically unknown, and of the remaining 5,000,000 probably not more than 1,000,000 was mapped with anything approaching accuracy. The real inspiring initiative of the modern exploration of Africa undoubtedly rests with David Livingstone, who in the fifties led that ever memorable expe- dition across south-central Africa which placed the great Zambezi for the first time throughout its length upon the map. But it is impossible to follow in detail the work of the multitude of explorers who, since 1860, have entirely changed the face of the no longer “ Dark Continent.” The work of the great army of explorers during the half century has changed the face of the continent and filled up the enormous blanks that disfigured the maps of 1860. While the outline of the coast remains as rigid as in the old maps, unindented by any of those great oceanic intrusions which mark the other continents, exploration has revealed a surface much more diversified than the geographers of two generations ago would have led us to expect; while the interior is mainly of a plateau character, the borderlands ali around are more or less mountainous, with peaks rising in certain cases to heights approaching 20,000 feet. It has four great river systems and many subsidiary basins; a profusion of lakes, abundant forests, and park lands, and open areas that may be turned to the uses of humanity. Even the greatest desert in the world, the Sahara, has its mountain ranges and lofty plateaux, sometimes snow clad. Un- fortunately the abundant water-supply is not well distributed, though even the Sahara and the Kalahari have underground stores which GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIR. 505 may yet be utilized with good results. We have found that the con- tinent is not nearly so hopeless as was believed from the standpoint of European settlement and enterprise. The white man has learned better how to adapt himself to tropical conditions, while there are many regions with altitudes that afford a climate in which the Euro- pean can live in comfort and wholesomeness. Still, so far as we can see at present, the resources of the continent must be developed mainly by native races under the guidance of their white brothers. As to these white brothers, we must next consider the areas that have fallen to the share of the various European powers. The scram- ble, which may be said to have begun when Stanley went out for the King of the Belgians to annex the Congo in 1879 and was virtually completed in 1886, has culminated in the absorption of the whole of the continent, except Abyssinia in the east and Liberia in the west. Britain has no need to be dissatisfied with her share, which now in- cludes the whole of Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan. * * * Britain’s share amounts to 3,500,000 square miles, with a popula- tion of 58,000,000; France to 4,500,000 square miles, with a population of only 42,000,000; and Germany 1,000,000, with a population of 12,000,000. The rest belongs to Portugal, Spain, Liberia, and Abyssinia. Of the total trade in 1914 Britain claimed £155,000,000 (of which 90,000,000 were exports), or two-thirds, leaving only one- third to the other powers. Much still remains to be done before our knowledge of the geog- raphy and economic potentialities of Africa can be regarded as ade- quate. A great network of routes and more or less provisional sur- veys have been laid down all over the continent, but the broad meshes between these lines have yet to be filled in. To accomplish this sat- isfactorily we require the services of specialists trained to scientific investigation in the various departments of science on which geog- raphy, in its broadest and highest aspects, is based, for it is only as all the raw material from all over the surface of our globe is brought together and systematically arranged that the geographical student will be in a position to work out the many problems, physical and human, with which his science has to deal. IT fear I must treat America with brevity. In the most popular American textbook of geography a few years before our half century it was gravely stated that the Alleghenies of North America were the continuation of the Andes in South America. Half a century ago much of the region west of Lake Ontario in the north and of the Mississippi in the south was the home of the Indian, the trapper, and the buffalo. Canada consisted still of Upper and Lower Canada; Victoria on Vancouver Island was only a Hudson’s Bay Co.’s post; and so was Fort Garry, now the great city of Winnipeg. Vancouver City did not exist. How Canada has since pushed westward you all 506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. know. Winnipeg, Vancouver, and Victoria are flourishing cities; the whole habitable country has been more or less explored and provisionally mapped, partly by individual explorers but mainly by the Canadian Survey; waving fields of wheat have taken the place of the rank grass of the prairie; great cattle ranches reach to the foot of the Rocky Mountains; coal mines are being worked in the east and west. The area of settlement and of agriculture has been pushed some degrees farther north and northwest; the British Atlantic has been connected with the British Pacific by railways which make Britain independent of all foreign routes. The caterpillar shading which indicated the Rocky Mountains from Alaska to California has given place to complicated ranges, with characteristic buttressing features, great plateaus with many offshoots, and beautiful coast ranges. All the vastly increased knowledge of Canada has led to the development of its resources at a constantly increasing rate. The whole country has been united into one great Dominion, divided into many Provinces, in place of the Upper and Lower Canada of half a century ago. The popu- lation has increased from 3,000,000 to over 8,000,000, but Canada is capable of sustaining ten times that number. Over 110,000,000 acres of land are occupied, and of this 10,000,000 acres are under wheat and an equal area under oats. The annual value of the mineral products alone amounts to about 30,000,000 sterling, and of manu- factures to 240,000,000 sterling, while the total exports approach closely to 100,000,000. I give these figures as affording some idea of the vast progress made by Canada in the half century in expand- ing this great country and obtaining a knowledge of its resources. But there is ample room for still further exploration and develop- ment, and more detailed and accurate mapping; during the next half century the progress achieved must be much greater than in the past. What Canada has done in the north the United States has done on a much greater scale in the south—naturally so, when one con- siders the difference in climate over the whole area. Not to men- tion the work of individual explorers, the survey men have pene- trated into the remotest regions; have told a wondering world of the canyons of the Colorado, those 5,000-feet-deep gorges which are matchless specimens of nature’s sculpture; of the gorgeous beauties of the Yellowstone Park; the witcheries of the Yosemite; the great deserts which the coast ranges deprive of moisture; and the Rocky Mountains themselves with their picturesque peaks and rich upland parks. As a result of all this activity the whole of the 3,500,000 square — miles of the Republic has been occupied; with the exception of remote Alaska, all the old Territories have been organized into States; the population has risen from 30,000,000 to over 100,000,000; GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIR. 507 excluding Alaska, 1,300,000,000 acres of the total 1,900,000,000 acres have been appropriated and reserved. These figures may afford some idea of the activity of the United States during the half cen- tury in exploring its enormous territory and taking stock of its resources. As to South America, it was in 1860 that Bates returned, after 11 years’ sojourn in the Amazon Basin, mainly as a naturalist, but with abundant fresh information on the geography of that enor- mous river basin. Since that time a host of explorers—British, French, German, American, Swedish—have penetrated into the re- cesses of the continent, exploring its multitude of rivers, climbing and mapping the great Andean Range, investigating the interesting antiquities of the continent, studying its natives of many types, and reporting upon its resources. The Argentine and Chile, the two most advanced of South American States, have surveyed and mapped, at least provisionally, their extensive territories, while boundary commissions have added much to our knowledge. The result is that the map of South America is very different from what it was half a century ago. Still, it must be said that more remains to be done in the way of pioneer exploration in South America than in any other continent except the Antarctic. At least 1,000,000 square miles are practically unexplored, while a large area of the remainder is imperfectly known. In the northern basin of the Amazon very much still remains to be done. A vast extent of the great forest area of Brazil has never been penetrated. Maj. Fawcett in a recent exploration in the Bolivia-Brazil border came across a forest tribe that thought themselves the only people in the world except a hairy tribe some miles away. In Venezuela, Colom. bia, Ecuador, and even in Peru and Bolivia great areas are all but unknown; even ‘the interior of the Guianas has never been ade- quately explored; and very much remains to be done before the magnificent chain of the Andes can be regarded as_ sufliciently mapped. South America has been attracting increased attention in recent years, and it is to be hoped that in the near future serious attempts will be made to complete our knowledge of a continent teeming with features and races of interest, and the abundant re- sources of which are capable of vast development. Tf now we turn to Australia we shall find that as much heroism, endurance, and self-denial have been displayed in the exploration of the interior of that great southern continent as there has been in the case of Africa. Half a century ago we knew little more than the rim of the continent. Men could only wonder what lay in the unknown interior; was it picturesque mountains, flowing rivers, great lakes, luxuriant forest and pasture lands, or was it only a southern Sahara? During the last half century the Australians have made the most 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, strenuous and praiseworthy efforts to discover the characteristics of this great continent of which they are the stewards. All the Aus- tralian States have for years had well-organized surveys at work, and New South Wales and Victoria are now fairly well mapped, and their features and resources known. One of the great episodes in Australian exploration is the terrible disaster that befell the Burke and Wills expedition which, in 1860- 61, actually crossed the continent from Victoria by the Stony Desert and the Mackinlay Range to the estuary of the Flinders River in the Gulf of Carpentaria; the two leaders paid for their zeal with their lives. Much more successful was Macdouall Stewart who, in 1862, after two previous attempts, crossed the center of the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin along the route now occupied by the trans- Australian telegraph line and the transcontinental railway now under construction. He brought back good news of fine ranges of hills, grassy plains, and fair supphes of water, and altogether gave the Australians new hope of their continent. About the same time two other expeditions crossed the continent from north to south and south to north, in search of Burke and Wills, adding much to our knowledge of Queensland. The Stony Desert of Sturt was found flooded with water, and all around its borders were rich pasture grounds. The general result of the many exploring expeditions in the eastern half of Australia has been to show that while there are great patches of desert there are extensive areas of excellent country which would be as valuable as the finest land in Europe if only the rainfall could be depended upon; but away from the coast you can not expect 10 inches a year; occasionally there may be more, but sometimes also much less. Still, about the western half of the continent nothing was known, though in the north and northwest various expeditions had found rivers and plateaus and hills, and the country in the immediate neighborhood of Perth and along the west coast was fairly well surveyed. The first successful attempt to cross from east to west was made in 1873 by Col. Warburton, who, with his son, some natives, a few Afghans, and a troop of camels, started from the center of the continent and crossing mainly between 20° and 22° south latitude reached the De Gray River after terrible sufferings through want of food and water. Nothing marked their dreary way but a desert of sand hills and spinifex, with here and there a scanty water hole. Since then the continent has been crossed and recrossed in all di- rections by Forest, Giles, and their successors. The discovery of gold in Western Australia led to further exploration of that terri- tory and an influx of immigrants adding greatly to the scanty popu- GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIR, 509 lation of half a century ago. All these expeditions, combined with the official surveys, have afforded a fair knowledge of the main features of the interior, which are much more varied than was at one time supposed. At the same time, the numerous rivers shown on the map in central and western Australia lack that permanency which is necessary for successful agricultural operations. But great schemes are on foot for irrigation and storage, and, as is known, the immense underground supply of water has been tapped, though, as it is not unlimited, its use ought to be carefully regulated. The population during the past half century has trebled, and the ma- terial progress during recent years has been so great that the Im- perial Government felt justified in combining the various colonies into one great commonwealth. Under this new régime there is no doubt that a much more detailed exploration of the continent on scientific lines will be carried out in future, with beneficial results on its development, mineral, agricultural, pastoral, and manufactur- ing. In the annual production and commerce of the Commonwealth gold has ceased to be the most important factor. The agricultural production alone amounts to about 50,000,000 sterling, the pastoral to close on 60,000,000, while dairying products yield 20,000,000 and manufactures 58,000,000. Mining products amount to some 25,- 000,000. The total exports are now almost 80,000,000, and of that wool alone is valued at over 26,000,000. This will afford some measure of the extent to which Australia has been explored during the past half century. When we remem- ber what man has been able to accomplish in older countries by tree- planting, irrigation, and other judicious methods, there is no need to despair of Australia. At the worst there is plenty of room for the hundred millions which it is estimated—by Australians—will be the population of the continent a century hence. We may be sure there is a great future in store for our southern dominion, with British energy to make the best of geographical conditions. Although New Guinea, especially the spacious western section belonging to Holland, remains one of the few regions which affords ample scope to the adventurous pioneer explorer, still, much has been done in recent years to furnish a fuller knowledge of its in- terior, especially since the narrower eastern section was annexed by Great Britain and Germany. Half a century ago it was prac- tically a blank. Into the discoveries that have been made in that magnificent archipelago that fringes southeastern and eastern Asia IT can not enter. Much has been done in the Philippine Islands and in Formosa by the United States and Japan, to which respectively these islands now belong. Though many additions have been made to our knowledge by British and Dutch explorers in the other islands 510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, of the great Asiatic archipelago, still much remains to be accom- plished, especially by the scientific explorer. As for New Zealand, its exploration during the last half century has been carried on mainly by its well-organized survey, so that it is now to a large extent well mapped, while the peaks of its pic- turesque mountain ranges have been ascended by many Alpinists, with the result that the map of what is now the Dominion of New Zealand is very different from that of half a century ago. The de- velopment of its resources has kept pace with the progress of ex- ploration, so that the value of its exports have reached the amount of £23,000,000, mainly wool, agricultural and dairy products. The population has grown from a few thousand in 1860 to over a million. As for the great continent of Asia itself, the primitive home of the human race, according to some, and therefore the longest known of all the continents, I can barely touch it. Unlike Australia and the New World, its great features, its matchless mountain systems, its magnificent rivers, its spacious table-lands, its sandy deserts, have long been known in their main features. But during the last half century very much has been done to fill in the details of these fea- tures and give them precision. War and conquest have here been the great handmaids of geography. In our own great Asiatic depend- ency—India—we have acted on the wise principle that to govern a country well, you must know it well. One of the greatest enterprises ever undertaken by any Government has been brought to a comple- tion during the half century. Nothing is more creditable to us in our connection with India than this great trigonometrical survey, begun about. a century ago and completed quite recently. We have meas- ured every mile of the country; we have plotted all its mountain sys- tems, laid down the courses of its mighty rivers, mapped its deserts and its forests and its great alluvial plains, which now form one of the great wheat granaries of the world. Many of the towering peaks of the Himalayas have been measured in their heights, and some of them scaled, and those grand glaciers, which the great Humboldt declared could not exist, have been explored and mapped; the meteorology of the peninsula, on which so much depends, has been and is being worked out on a magnificant scale, while the Geological Survey has done much to unriddle the evolution of India and reveal its mineral treasures. Our wars with Afghanistan have enabled us to map partially at least that troublesome country. Our explorers, some of them native Indians, some of them Britons of the fine old adventurous type, have faced many dangers, penetrated into nearly every corner of central Asia, and brought back treasures in the way of knowledge. But all around our Indian borders our modest military expeditions have always been accompanied by sur- veyors, British and native, who have generally returned with a rich GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIR, 5li harvest of geography. Only quite recently the age-long problem of the Sanpo-Brahmaputra has been all but solved by the enterprising son of the society’s late secretary, Capt. Eric Bailey, when some thousand or two square miles of the region were surveyed and mapped. Burma and the Malay States are being surveyed; Siam has been mapped, while similar services are being rendered by France in the territories under her domination. Partly through the enter- prise of individual travellers and partly as a result of Sir Francis Younghusband’s expedition, Tibet and Lhasa are no longer the mysteries that they were, and the great Brahmaputra has been traced to its source. Sven Hedin, confirmed the existence and explored the great range beyond the Himalayas conjectured to exist by Trelaunay Saunders as far back as the seventies. But I can not attempt to record the work of individual explorers. The High Pamirs have been fully mapped. The Kuen Lun, the Tian Shan, and these other great ranges that lie between Tibet and Turkestan and southern Siberia have been plotted in their main fea- tures. The Gobi, the Takla Makan, and other desert regions have been explored, as has the Tarim basin and the shrinking lakes scat- tered about in the eastward, while many of the marvelous remains of ancient cities and towns have been discovered. The upper courses of the great rivers, the Hwang, the Yangtze, and others flowing to the south that rise in the region of the northeast of Tibet have been approximately mapped. Progress has been made in the accurate mapping of China, though much still remains to be done in this interesting land. Japan has been as well mapped as India. Our knowledge of Mongolia and Manchuria have been greatly increased ; this has also been the case with Siberia, through the surveys for the Trans-Siberian Railway which has made it possible to reach Japan and Pekin in about a fortnight from London. Southern Siberia it- self, it has been found, may compare with Canada as a wheat-grow- ing country. In central and northern Siberia much still remains to be done, especially in connection with the hydrography of its great Arctic-flowing rivers. To the ever-progressing conquests of Russia we owe much of our knowledge of Central Asia. Half a century ago her borders scarcely extended beyond the Caspian shores. Little by little her explorers traveled east and north and south, followed by her armies, until she marches with China, and is within measurable distance of India. The ancient Oxus has been traced to its source, though problems remain in connection with its old channels and the fluctuations of the Aral and Caspian, and the conditions of ancient civilization in these regions. We know a good deal more about Per- sia than we did half a century ago, though there is much room here for the investigations of the qualified explorer, especially as to the present and past conditions of the Lut desert. Just half a century 519 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. ago Palgrave succeeded in crossing Arabia. Various explorers have been at work since then in the west, the north, and the center. Quite recently it was crossed again in the opposite direction from Pal- grave’s route by Capt. Shakespear, who, alas, a few months ago laid down his life in the interests of the empire. But for the pioneer Arabia still presents a fruitful field, especially in the great south- eastern desert, which is practically unknown. While Palestine has been adequately surveyed and accurately mapped by the Palestine Exploration Fund, and much geographical and archeological work done in the rest of Turkey-in-Asia, there is much of interest still to accomplish here by the well-trained explorer. While, therefore, the map of Asia has to a large extent been reconstructed during the last half-century, it has, with certain exceptions, been mainly the work of pioneers. There is ample room for accurate work all over the conti- nent, especially with the various historical and economic problems dealing with the distribution and grouping of different physiographi- cal and animate types, in which Asia abounds perhaps more than any other continent. It is moré than half a century ago since Mrs. Hemans asked the question— “What hid’st thou in thy treasure caves and cells, Thou hollow-sounding and mysterious main?” The question has been answered to a large extent by the deep-sea researches of the last 50 years, and on the basis of these researches a new department of science has been created under the name of ocean- ography which has now plenty of work to do. There have been numerous expeditions whose main purpose has been to explore the ocean from its surface to its deepest depths, but undoubtedly the greatest of them has been that which for three years sailed all over the oceans in Her Majesty’s ship Challenger. The ocean has now been sounded in thousands of places, specimens of its bed have been brought up and analyzed; its denizens have been captured and brought to the light from all depths; its saltness and its temperature have been tested in all quarters of the globe; its surface and undercurrents have to some extent been charted; and in every way it has been sub- jected to the never-satisfied curiosity of humanity. It would be hopeless for me to give you anything like a satisfactory summary of the results. As to depths, I may say that the average depth of the Pacific is something like 15,000 feet and of the Atlantic 12,000 feet. The great- est depth yet found in the Pacific is 31,614 feet, off the Marianne Islands, while in the Atlantic the deepest trustworthy sounding is 97,366 feet, near the Virgin Islands. The waters of the ocean seem to be in a state of constant circulation, cold undercurrents coming down from the poles and warm surface currents going south and north in “£01009 [Rorydvas0ey [BAO ‘10}eINO dey ‘soaeeyy “Vy “A “IW Aq JojIM yy porddns deur @ u101 yy "31VQ LVHL LY GSASAUNS N339 GVH 1] HOIHM OL LNALXQ ONIMOHS ‘O981} NI G1YOM SHL al}e@y¥—'9 161 ‘Hodey ueluosy}IWUS "| aLWid *Ayeroo0g [vorydeisoer [esoy ‘10;vIng dey ‘seaeory *V “A “JN Aq Joytim oy} poyddns deur 8 wot “| ALV1d 33S ASM HO4 “GIGI NI GQTYOM SHL ‘a1}24—'91.6| ‘HOdey UR!UosYyrWUS "S ALVId GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS——KELTIRE. pills return. One of the best. known of these great ocean currents is the Gulf Stream, about the régime of which popular ideas have had to be considerably modified. As to the distribution of life in the ocean, researches of the Challenger and other similar expeditions have dis- closed thousands of new forms in all seas and at all depths of the ocean. There does not seem to be any part of the open ocean so deep, so dark, so still, or where the pressure is so great as to have effectually raised a barrier to the invasion of life in some of its many forms. Even in the greater depths many divisions of the animal kingdom are represented. We have had revealed to us from these hidden depths great, broad valleys, spacious plateaus, gently undulating ridges rising here and there into mountains, whose peaks overtop the water in the shape of the islands that stud the bosom of the sea, with here and there pre- cipitous gorges covered with the débris of the myriads of animals that have found a home and a grave in those waters during untold years. I need hardly remind you that the many island groups which stud the bosom of the spacious Pacific have, like Africa, been parted among the powers of Kurope, as well as the United States, with the result that much has been done to add to our knowledge of the islands and their vanishing peoples. The accompanying maps will show roughly by different shading the progress which I have tried to outline in the exploration of the globe during the half century. (Pls. 1 and 2.) The raising of the standard of geography during the last 30 years and the increasingly rigid application of scientific method to geo- graphical research and to the practical application of its results has had considerable effect on the organization and equipment of ex- ploring expeditions, and of the type of men selected to carry out exploring work. So long as a great part of the world was very much of a blank we welcomed any authentic information that could help to fill it up, even though the explorer was a pioneer without any special training. But now that the main features have been filled in with varying degrees of accuracy we must insist that explorers shall have a training adequate to the conduct of their work on scientific lines. Dr. de Filippi’s recent expedition to the Karakoram may be taken as a model of what the expedition of the future should be, with its ample staff of specialists in every department of science involved in the work the expedition had to accomplish, and its complete equip- ment. with the latest instruments necessary to give the most satis- factory results. But this condition has been increasingly recognized in recent years. 514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. This is the place to refer in a word to the great service rendered to exploration, and to geography in general, by photography since it began to be applied to this purpose. The old wood engravings, and even plates, which were used for illustrations in the prephotographic days, while sometimes wonderfully good from the artistic, and even from the geographical standpoint, could seldom compete in the latter respect with the photographs taken by a discerning eye. I remember well the difficulty in persuading some of the more conservative mem- bers to permit the introduction of lantern slides at the meetings of the Royal Geographical Society as being too trivial and too childish for a serious scientific body. I need not remind you of the universal use now of this method for scientific lectures of all kinds. One other feature which has marked the development of geographi- eal work during the half century might be pointed out. Fifty years ago geographical enterprise was the work of individual explorers, sometimes backed by their Governments; but in recent years a re- markable circumstance in geographical method has been the growth of international cooperation, as shown in the international congresses and international bodies, such as the International Geodetic Associa- tion, the International Meteorological Committee, the International Council for the Study of the Sea, with special reference to fisheries ; the international map of 1: 1,000,000; and the great bathymetric map of the oceans undertaken by the Prince of Monaco with an interna- tional committee. J have thus endeavored to present to you, I fear in a very summary fashion, the results which have been achieved during the past half century toward the completion of our knowledge of the home of the human race. I think you will admit that so far as results are con- cerned it will compare favorably with any other half century in the history of exploration. I have had necessarily to confine myself to what I may call the superficial results of all this activity. But apart from the fact that vast areas of previously unknown lands have been brought within human ken and provisionally mapped, abundant ad- ditions have been made to all the aspects that come within the sphere of geography. Many departments of science have profited by these explorations—the character and distribution of physical features of minerals and vegetation, of animal life, of climatic and economical conditions, of man himself in his various races and varieties. Of some of the results of all this knowledge you may have been able to form some idea from the figures I have given as to the growth of the population and the greatly enhanced value of the results of economic development. For the more detailed and precise is our knowledge of the habitable lands of the globe the more are we in a position to turn them to the best account for the benefit of humanity. As I have pointed out, there is still a certain amount of pioneer work to GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIR. 515 be done, especially in South America, but the explorer of the future must be very differently equipped from the pioneer of the past. Something more is wanted now than a daring spirit and a geo- graphical instinct. What we now want, even for pioneers, are men who have been thoroughly trained and who will be content to devote themselves to a limited region and work it out in all its details of features, and geological character and meteorology, and animals and plants; ever keeping in mind that man is the center of all, and that we only reach the last stage of the problem when we have worked out the action and reaction that is constantly taking place between man and his topographical surroundings. If in the solution of such problems as these there is as much activity shown in the next 50 years as there has been in the past half century in the work of pioneer exploration, there will not only be an unprecedentedly rich harvest for science, but also, I venture to think, magnificent results bearing on the social and individual welfare of man, who can not but benefit from a better knowledge of his geographical settings. In the vast amount of the work of exploration during the half century, the British Empire, I think, may claim the lion’s share. “We sailed wherever ship could sail, We founded many a mighty State, Pray God our greatness may not fail Through craven fear of being great.” I fear I have left little time to deal with the other two sections of the subject—the progress that has been made in raising the standard of geography as a department of scientific research, and the improve- ments that have been introduced into geographical education. Until about 30 years ago I fear geography was not treated seriously in either of these aspects. Long before that, in the early seventies, at- tempts were made by the Royal Geographical Society to induce the universities to recognize the subject in their curricula; but the society was politely flouted. The subject, we were assured, was beneath the dignity of university recognition, and was only suited for elementary schools. At this we need not be surprised when we examine the geo- graphical literature of the period. It is true, that in certain of our great narratives of exploration—Franklin, Ross, Darwin, Bates, Wal- lace, Livingstone, and others—the scientific side of the subject was dealt with seriously, but the few works which existed on general geog- raphy were entirely descriptive; no attempt was made to show the relations which existed between the various distributions over the earth’s surface and the interaction between these and the human be- ings who had to adapt themselves to the geographical conditions or modify them for the benefit of humanity. In 1884 the Royal Geographical Society decided to make a thorough inquiry into the position of geography at home and abroad; 516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. and with the results of this inquiry they again approached the universities, this time happily with success. Schools of geography were established at Oxford and Cambridge, and in time lectureships in the subject were instituted at the Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, London, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Reading, Sheffield, Aberystwyth. It was just before this that the Manchester Geographical Society was formed, and a week or two later the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, with branches in Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen, followed at intervals by similar societies in Liver- pool, Newcastle, Leeds, Southampton. Thus geography was raised to an altogether different platform in this country from the lowly position she had previously occupied, she was placed on a level with the subject in Germany, though that pushful country had the start of us by many years, as she has had in other directions, and a long leeway has to be covered. But we have been making headway. Apart from the purely educational work carried out by the universities, a beginning has been made in the work of geographi- cal research. Both at Oxford and Cambridge, at the London School of Economics, and I believe at Edinburgh and Glasgow work of this kind is encouraged. On the university programs we have such heads as the principles of geography; survey of the natural regions of the globe; land forms and the morphology of the continents; meteorology, climatology, and oceanography; human geography in its various phases; geographical methods of notations, and soon. To the university tutor, the schoolmaster, the textbook compiler of 30 years ago, most of this would have been an unknown tongue. Ex- amples of what may be regarded as geographical research work have been forthcoming from trained men like Mill, Mackinder, Chisholm, George Adam Smith, Herbertson, Grant Ogilvie, Roxby, Miss Newbi- gin, and others on this side, and by Davis, Huntington, Miss Semple, Brigham, and others in the States, which may be said to have been inspired from the mother country. Much good work has been done by the various students in the geographical distribution of vegeta- tion in this country. As samples of scientific exploring work I might refer to Sir John Murray’s investigations of the Scottish lochs; Mill’s survey of a region in Sussex; Giinther’s researches on the Italian coast line; Hogarth, Ramsay, and others in the Near East; Willcocks in Mesopotamia; Filippi, Stein, Carruthers, and Huntington in cen- tral Asia; Hamilton Rice in South America; Scott, Shackleton, Bruce, and Mawson in the Antarctic. All this is a good beginning, and there is every reason to hope for still further work of this kind in the future, if those responsible for geography at our universities will do their duty. You still find some scientific men in England who deny that geog- raphy is a science or can ever be a science, because for one thing it GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIE. 517 is a graphy and not a logy. It is remarkable if geography is the one thing in the universe that can not be dealt with on scientific methods, producing a body of knowledge as systematically arranged as that included under geology, meteorology, astronomy, or engineering, and other sections of the British Association. Personally it does not irk me whether geography is admitted to be a science or not. It is a department of investigation which deals with a field untouched by any other department—the earth as the home of humanity. Like other departments of inquiry, it can collect its facts and draw its inferences on scientific methods, with results which in many cases could be cited in the geographical output of Germany, and happily, as I have stated in a few instances, in our own country—of the first importance toward the solution of problems intimately associated with human life and activity. To quote from the anniversary ad- dress, in 1892, of the late Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff, president of the Royal Geographical Society : Whether it is taught or not taught in schools and universities, geography must in the nature of things rule the territory in which the sciences relating to organie life, from history down to the structure of the humblest animate thing, meet the sciences which have to do with inorganic nature. Call it a graphy or a logy or a Kunde or what you please, it remains the body of knowledge which has to do with the theater of the activity of man and all things that have life. We may stunt and injure the activity of the next generation by refusing to teach it, but eventually it must obtain the position which the greatest of living systematic botanists, Hooker, claimed for it in 1886. “It must permeate,” he said, “ the whole of education to the termination of the university career, every subject taught having a geographical aspect.” With such authorities as these on our side we have no need to be ashamed of the work our science has performed in the past and is capable of performing in the future. In this country we are com- paratively new to the work; only feeling our way, as it were; only trying to find out exactly what are the conditions under which our line of research will produce the best results, what are the limits within which we must work. It is true that geography is the mother of all the sciences, and though her numerous children have long ago set up for themselves, still she has more or less intimate relations with many of them. All the same, she must not be too grasping; she ought to form a clear idea of what she has a right to, what are the limits of her field of operations. To vary the simile, the geographers in this country have been moving into a much more spacious man- sion; we have hardly had time to put our house in order; we may find when we do so that we have not room for all the furniture that some of our friends would like to squeeze into it. Anything like overcrowding is unnecessary and would be embarrassing. Ellsworth Huntington, one of the most active and most original of our younger geographers, * * * has the fullest belief in the influence of 73839°—sm 1916——34 518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. geographical conditions on history and other human activities; but he maintains that the claims made in this respect are often too vague to convince the skeptical historian. What we want, he says, is a more precise statement as to the nature and amount, the quantity and quality, in each case of this environmental influence compared with various other elements. Probably we can never reach mathe- matical precision in this respect, as we might do in other departments of our subject; but it would be a splendid exercise in geographical research and in mental training for the qualified student of the subject to tackle the problem in certain specific instances. A group of physical features might be taken—say the Alps, or the Himalayas, or the deserts of central Asia, or the Sahara—and the question of their control over human distribution and human activity worked out with as much precision as possible. Or a particular country or region might be selected, and the control which geographical condi- tions have exercised on its history and development, as compared with other factors in the problem, be indicated. As to the progress which has been made in geographical education outside the universities during the period, let anyone who is old enough recall the textbooks of 80 years ago, with their dreary list of names and little more—names of capes, names of bays, names of mountains, names of rivers, names of lakes, names of towns, all completely isolated, as if they had no sort of relation to each other nor to the human beings who had to live and move and have their being among them. We had such tags as Edinburgh, Leith, Portobello, Musselburgh, and Dalkeith, all on the Firth of Forth; London on the Thames; Colchester on the Colne, famous for its oysters; Peter- borough on the Nen, near which is Fotheringay Castle, where Mary, Queen of Scots, was cruelly beheaded, and such like items. No wonder that geography was rejected and despised by the universities if this kind of thing was all it had to say for itself. Then there were the featureless atlases and wall maps, the value of which was esti- mated mainly by the number of names which they contained. Pic- tures, photographs, stereos, the lantern, were regarded as too childish to be used for serious educational or scientific purposes, while, as for the many other appliances now available for geographical edu- cation, no one seems to have thought them possible. Out-of-door work in those days was undreamed of. Need I remind you of the change in all these directions which has taken place during the last 30 years? Contrast the conditions then and now. It might seem invidious if I referred to any particular textbooks or treatises or maps and other appliances. I am sure it is unnecessary before an audience like this. The ever-increasing series of treatises and textbooks which are being produced, and for which, therefore, there must be a demand, are no doubt familiar GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIE. 519 to you all. Some may be open to criticism, but all, from the most bulky and elaborate down to the modest blosisdistey textbook, are on a totally different plane from those of 30 years ago. But textbooks and maps are not everything in geographical teach- ing, and, happily, in some of the universities and in a considerable number of secondary and even elementary schools outdoor work is carried on. Geography, like geology, has to deal with a concrete earth, and not merely with maps. It has surface features of all kinds to investigate, and the life that is lived amid these features and is to a considerable extent conditioned by them. It is the duty of geography, as it is of geology, to investigate these conditions on the spot and to work out the problems suggested by them. This depart- ment of geological work is still in its infancy; a mere collection of local facts and statistics is not enough; correlations ought to be inves- tigated and deductions as precise as possible made as to the results of the interaction of the various factors. A new epoch in the history of geographical education in England may be said to have begun when the board of education issued its regulations for the teaching of geography in secondary schools. Perhaps the most important point in the new regulations was that a definite number of hours a week—not less than two periods of school work and one of home work—were to be allotted to geography in secondary schools. Provision had to be made for a four-year course of the work, and the course had to include the geography of the whole world, so that the custom of keeping the pupil at work on one or two apn aor ee continents, according to exigencies of exam- inations, until he left school was discountenanced. Particular atten- tion was given in the board’s circular to the importance of practical exercises, such as “worked-out problems, together with original maps and plans,” in geographical instruction. Consequence had to be connected with cause and reasons had to be stated with facts, instead of presenting lists of place names, rivers, communications, and so on, as catalogues to be learned without being understood. When the board’s regulations were issued, teachers who had spe- cialized in geography were few, and the regulations would have been a long time coming into practical effect if suitable manuals had not been forthcoming. The board defined the spirit of the teaching it desired to establish, and gave the outlines of a scheme, but it left the actual working ,out to the teachers themselves, and in most cases they had to obtain their guidance from manuals and text-books. Much had already been done by the university extension lectures to teachers. The teaching of the subject throughout the country now underwent a change on account of the pew condition. From being classed as memory work, which could be put into the hands of any 520 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, teacher, geography became a reasoning subject requiring individual work by the students and sound knowledge by the teacher as much as any other subject taught on scientific principles. Too much atten- tion was perhaps paid at the outset to the working of practical prob- lems and exercises, but this has now righted itself, and the human note is not forgotten while the scientific method of arriving at it is followed. What is more important than anything else is that the standard of work in geography is steadily rising. The subject is be- ing treated more and more on a regional basis, and the work is con- sequently gaining in intelligence. The program for instruction for elementary schools has been greatly improved on the best lines, and where teachers have been adequately trained to deal with it intelligently the results are a great advance on what passed for geography 30 years ago. But in the case of the younger pupils, I fear it is difficult to get them to do little more than to read narratives. In the upper classes of these schools, however, more systematic work is prescribed in the official pro- gram, and I believe the whole tendency is toward an improvement upon the methods and outlook of previous years. The inspectors of the board of education consider that geography is now on a much better footing than it was, and is often intelligently taught. Much depends upon the training which students in training colleges receive before they are turned out to carry on the work of education. In certain institutions facilities are provided for training college students going through a course of instruction in geography, with opportunities of actual practice in schools. I am not sure that this method is quite satisfactory; it would be well if all training colleges were as fully equipped for geographical work as they are in other departments. In no class of school can geography be satisfactorily taught on modern lines unless the teachers are as seriously trained in that as they are in grammar, arithmetic, or any other essential parts of their course. In certain training colleges the subject is in charge of geographical specialists. This ought to be the case in all training colleges, as well as in the universities from which the sup- ply of teachers for secondary and higher schools are drawn. But if the progress is as marked in the next quarter of a century as it has been in the past, there can be little doubt that the existing deficien- cies will be removed, and geographical education will be on as satis- factory a footing in Britain as it is in Germany. But time forbids me to go further. I hope I Have succeeded in showing that during the last 30 years geography has grown in stature and in strength in this country; that, in fact, it has reached man’s estate, and that both in education and in research it is trying to do a man’s work. It has still much to learn that can only come by GEOGRAPHIC PROGRESS—KELTIRE. 521 experience, but it is bound to come if we work in the future as in the past, and that all the more rapidly and successfully in proportion to the increasing number of workers. The Royal Geographical Society has itself extended, not only in numbers, but in varied activities, dur- ing these years. Its staff has been quadrupled, to keep pace with its work; the scientific side of the subject receives more and more atten- tion. The efforts of the parent seciety are effectually supported by those younger societies which have grown up in various great cen- ters. It is often stated that the work of geographical societies is nearly completed; that they will soon have had their day and cease to be, for the world is being rapidly explored and mapped. There is plenty of work still to do in exploration and mapping, and when that is complete the real work of geography and geographical societies will only begin. The explorer and map maker only lay down the foundations of the subject; it will remain for generations of geogra- phers to rear thereon a stately structure fitly representing “ the king- doms of this world, and the glory of them.” pe. ae a. a. oe ne Bi Rene seg tet a me a ie is Sane - . pe ee aushinig vers eatin We ihi S\cmoatt ther shove, aoa he epee fey : pet Le avi ee he Gal eee Sipser, oe ae Aiea gee pe tiers ey as, naa Ph Pear Aguelas tiers. Bgey oo ae aah: . a ae a alek start ae ree pe anjeeee (ate es x sth: J : a eat : a THE RELATION OF PURE SCIENCE TO INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH. By J. J. Canty. It is not strange that many years ago Huxley, with his remark- able precision of thought and his admirable command of language, should have indicated his dissatisfaction with the terms “ pure science” and “applied science,” pointing out at the same time that what people call “applied science” is nothing but the application of pure science to particular classes of problems. The terms are still employed, possibly because, after all, they may be the best ones to use, or perhaps our ideas, to which these expressions are supposed to conform, have not yet become sufficiently definite to have called forth the right words. It is not the purpose of this address, however, to suggest better words or expressions, but rather to direct attention to certain im- portant relations between purely scientific research and industrial scientific research which are not yet sufficiently understood. Because of the stupendous upheaval of the Eurepean war with its startling agencies of destruction—the product of both science and the industries—and because of the deplorable unpreparedness of our own country to defend itself against attack, there has begun a great awakening of our people. By bringing to their minds the brilliant achievements of the membership of this institute in electric lighting and power and communications and by calling their attention to the manifold achievements of the members of our sister societies in mechanical and mining and civil engineering, and the accomplish- ments of our fellow workers, the industrial chemists, they are being aroused to the vital importance of the products of science in the national defense. Arising out of this agitation comes a growing appreciation of the importance of industrial scientific research, not only as an aid to military defense but as an essential part of every industry in time of peace. 1 President’s address at the Thirty-Third Annual Convention of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Cleveland, Ohio, June 27, 1916. Copyright, 1916, by American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Reprinted by permission, 523 524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Industrial research, conducted in accordance with the principles of science, is no new thing in America. The department which is under my charge, founded nearly 40 years ago to develop, with the aid of scientific men, the telephone art, has grown from small be- ginnings with but a few workers to a great institution employing hundreds of scientists and engineers, and it is generally acknowl- edged that it is largely owing to the industrial research thus con- ducted that the telephone achievements and development in America have so greatly exceeded those of other countries. With the development of electric lighting and electric power and electric traction, which came after the invention of the telephone, industrial scientific research laboratories were founded by some of the larger electrical manufacturing concerns, and these have at- tained a world-wide reputation. While vast sums are spent annually upon industrial research in these laboratories, I can say with au- thority that they return to the industries each year improvements in the art which, taken all together, have a value many time greater than the total cost of their production. Money expended in properly directed industrial research, conducted on scientific principles, is sure to bring to the industries a most generous return. While many concerns in America now have well-organized indus- trial research laboratories, particularly those engaged in metallurgy and dependent upon chemical processes, the manufacturers of our country as a whole have not yet learned of the benefits of industrial scientific research and how to avail themselves of it. T consider that it is the high duty of our institute and of every member composing it, and that a similar duty rests upon all other engineeering and scientific bodies in America, to impress upon the manufacturers of the United States the wonderful possibilities of economies in their processes and improvements in their products which are opened up by the discoveries in science. The way to real- ize these possibilities is through the medium of industrial research conducted in accordance with scientific principles. Once it is made clear to our manufacturers that industrial research pays they will be sure to call to their aid men of scientific training to investigate their technical problems and to improve their processes. Those who are the first to avail themselves of the benefits of industrial research will obtain such a lead over their competitors that we may look forward to the time when the advantages of industrial research will be recognized by all. Industrial scientific research departments can reach their highest development in those concerns doing the largest amount of business. While instances are not wanting where the large growth of the insti- tution is the direct result of the care which is bestowed upon indus- trial research at a time when it was but a small concern, nevertheless SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY. 525 conditions to-day are such that without cooperation among them- selves the small concerns can not have the full benefits of industrial research, for no one among them is sufficiently strong to maintain the necessary staff and laboratories. Once the vital importance of this subject is appreciated by the small manufacturers many solutions of the problem will promptly appear. One of these is for the manufac- turer to take his problem to one of the industrial research laboratories already established for the purpose of serving those who can not afford a laboratory of their own. Other manufacturers doing the same, the financial encouragement received would enable the labora- tories to extend and improve their facilities so that each of the small manufacturers who patronizes them would in course of time have the benefit of an institution similar to those maintained by our largest industrial concerns. Thus, in accordance with the law of supply and demand, the small manufacturer may obtain the benefits of industrial research in the highest degree, and the burden upon each manufacturer would be only in accordance with the use he made of it, and the entire cost of the Jaboratories would thus be borne by the industries as a whole, where the charge properly belongs. Many other projects are now being considered for the establishment of industrial research laboratories for those concerns which can not afford laboratories of their own, and in some of these cases the possible relation of these laboratories to our technical and engineering schools is being earnestly studied. Until the manufacturers themselves are aroused to the necessity of action in the matter of industrial research there is no plan which can be devised that will result in the general establishment of research laboratories for the industries. But once their need is felt and their value appreciated and the demand for research facilities is put forth by the manufacturers themselves, research laboratories will spring up in all our great centers of industrial activity. Their number and character and size and their method of operation and their relation to the technical and engineering schools and the method of their working with the different industries are all matters which involve many interesting problems—problems which IT am sure will be solved as they present themselves and when their nature has been clearly apprehended. In the present state of the world’s development there is nothing which can do more to advance American industries than the adop- tion by our manufacturers generally of industrial research conducted on scientific principles. Iam sure that if they can be made to appre- ciate the force of this statement, our manufacturers will rise to the occasion with all that energy and enterprise so characteristic of America. 526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. So much has already been said and so. much remains to be said urging upon us the importance of scientific research conducted for the sake of utility and for increasing the convenience and comfort of mankind that there is danger of losing sight of another form of re- search which has for its primary object none of these things. I refer to pure scientific research. In the minds of many there is confusion between industrial scien- tific research and this purely scientific research, particularly as the industrial research involves the use of advanced scientific methods and calis for the highest degree of scientific attainment. The con- fusion is worse because the same scientific principles and methods of investigation are frequently employed in each case and even the sub- ject matter under investigation may sometimes be identical. The misunderstanding arises from considering only the subject matter of the two classes of research. The distinction is to be found not in the subject matter of the research, but in the motive. The electrical engineer, let us say, finding a new and unexplained difficulty in the working of electric lamps, subjects the phenomenon observed to a process of inquiry employing scientific methods, with a view to removing from the lamps an objectionable characteristic. The pure scientist at the same time investigates in precisely the same manner the same phenomenon, but with the purpose of obtaining an explanation of a physical occurrence, the nature of which can not be explained by known facts. Although these two researches are con- ducted in exactly the same manner, the one nevertheless comes under the head of industrial research and the other belongs to the domain of pure science. In the last analysis the distinction between pure scientific research and industrial scientific research is one of motive. Industrial research is always conducted with the purpose of accom- plishing some utilitarian end. Pure scientific research is conducted with a philosophic purpose, for the discovery of truth, and for the advancement of the boundaries of human knowledge. The investigator in pure science may be likened to the explorer who discovers new continents or islands or hitherto unknown ter- ritory. He is continually seeking to extend the boundaries of knowledge. The investigator in industrial research may be compared to the pioneers who survey the newly discovered territory in the endeavor to locate its mineral resources, determine the extent of its forests, and the location of its arable land, and who in other ways precede the settlers and prepare for their occupation of the new country. The work of the pure scientists is conducted without any utili- tarian motive, for, as Huxley says, “that which stirs their pulses is the love of knowledge and the joy of discovery of the causes of things sung by the old poet—the supreme delight of extending the SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY. 527 realm of law and order ever further toward the unattainable goals of the infinitely great and infinitely small, between which our little race of life is run.” While a single discovery in pure science when considered with reference to any particular branch of industry may not appear to be of appreciable benefit, yet when interpreted by the industrial scientist, with whom I class the engineer and the industrial chemist, and when adapted to practical uses by them, the contributions of pure science as a whole become of incalculable value to all the industries. I do not say this because a new incentive is necessary for the pure scientist, for in him there must be some of the divine spark and for him there is no higher motive than the search for the truth itself. But surely this motive must be intensified by the knowledge that when the search is rewarded there is sure to be found, sooner or later, in the truth which has been discovered, the seeds of future great inventions which will increase the comfort and convenience and alleviate the sufferings of mankind. By all who study the subject, it will be found that while the dis- coveries of the pure scientist are of the greatest importance to the higher interests of mankind, their practical benefits, though certain, are usually indirect, intangible, or remote. Pure scientific research unlike industrial scientific research can not support itself by direct pecuniary returns from its discoveries. The practical benefits which may be immediately and directly traced to industrial research, when it is properly conducted, are so great that when their importance is more generally recognized indus- trial research will not lack the most generous encouragement and support. Indeed, unless industrial research abundantly supports itself it will have failed of its purpose. But who is to support the researches of the pure scientist, and who is to furnish him with encouragement and assistance to pursue his self-sacrificing and arduous quest for that truth which is certain as time goes on to bring in its train so many blessings to mankind? Who is to furnish the laboratories, the funds for apparatus and for traveling and for foreign study? Because of the extraordinary practical results which have been attained by scientifically trained men working in the industrial laboratories and because of the limited and narrow conditions under which many scientific investigators have sometimes been compelled to work in universities, it has been suggested that perhaps the theater of scientific research might be shifted from the university to the great industrial laboratories which have already grown up or to the even greater ones which the future is bound to bring forth. But we can dismiss this suggestion as being unworthy. 528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. Organizations and institutions of many kinds are engaged in pure scientific research, and they should receive every encouragement, but the natural home of pure science and of pure scientific research is to be found in the university, from which it can not pass. It is a high function of the universities to make advances in science, to test new scientific discoveries, and to place their stamp of truth upon those which are found to be pure. In this way only can they determine what shall be taught as scientific truth to those who, relying upon their authority, come to them for knowledge and believe what they teach. Instead of abdicating in their favor, may not our universities, stimulated by the wonderful achievements of these industrial labora- tories, find a way to advance the conduct of their own pure scientific research, the grand responsibility for which rests upon them? This responsibility should now be felt more heavily than ever by our American universities, not only because the tragedy of the great war has caused the destruction of European institutions of learning, but because even a worse thing has happened. So great have been the fatalities of the war that the universities of the Old World hardly dare to count their dead. But what can the American universities do, for they, like the pure scientists, are not engaged in a lucrative occupation? Universities are not money-making institutions, and what can be done without money ? There is much that can be done without money. The most im- portant and most fundamental factor in scientific research is the mind of a man suitably endowed by nature. Unless the scientific in- vestigator has the proper genius for his work, no amount of financial assistance, no apparatus or laboratories, however complete, and no foreign travel and study, however extensive, will enable such a mind to discover new truths or to inspire others to do so. Judgment and appreciation and insight into character on the part of the responsible university authorities must be applied to the problem, so that when the man with the required mental attributes does appear he may be appreciated as early in his career as possible. This isa very difficult thing to do indeed. Anyone can recognize such a man after his great achievements have become known to all the world, but I some- times think that one who can select early a man who has within him the making of the scientific discoverer must have been himself fired with a little of the divine spark. Such surely was the case with Sir Humphrey Davy, himself a great discoverer, who, realizing the fun- damental importance of the man in scientific discovery, once said that Michael Faraday, whose genius he was prompt to recognize, constituted his greatest discovery. SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY. 529 I can furnish no formula for the identification of budding genius and I have no ready-made plan to lay before the universities for the advancement of pure scientific research. But as a representative of engineering and industrial research, having testified to the great value of pure scientific research, I venture to suggest that the uni- versity authorities themselves might well consider the immense debt which engineering and the industries and transportation and com- munications and commerce owe to pure science, and to express the hope that the importance of pure scientific research will be more fully appreciated both within the university and without, for then will come—and then only—that sympathetic appreciation and generous financial support so much needed for the advancement of pure scientific research in America. While there are many things, and most important things, which the universities can do to aid pure science without the employment of large sums of money, there are nevertheless a great many things required in the conduct of pure scientific research which can be done only with the aid of money. The first of these, I think, is this: When a master scientist does appear and has made himself known by his discoveries, then he should be provided with all of the re- sources and facilities and assistants that he can effectively employ, so that the range of his genius will in no way be restricted for the want of anything which money can provide. Every reasonable and even generous provision should be made for all workers in pure science, even though their reputations have not yet become great by their discoveries, for it should be remembered that the road to great discoveries is long and discouraging and that for one great achievement in science we must expect numberless failures. T would not restrict these workers in pure science to our great uni- versities, for I believe that they should be located also at our tech- nical schools, even at those with the most practical aims. In such schools the influence of a discoverer in science would serve as a bal- ance to the practical curriculum and familiarize the student with the high ideals of the pure scientist and with his rigorous methods of investigation. Furthermore, the time has come when our technical schools must supply, in largely increasing numbers, men thoroughly grounded in the scientific method of investigation for the work of industrial research. Even the engineering student, who has no thoughts of industrial research, will profit by his association with the work of the pure scientist, for if he expects ever to tread the higher walks of the engi- neering profession he must be qualified to investigate new problems in engineering and devise methods for their solution and for such 530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. work a knowledge of the logical processes of the pure scientist and his rigorous methods of analyzing and weighing evidence in his scrupulous search for the truth will be of the greatest value. Furthermore, the engineering student should be taught to appreci- ate the ultimate great practical importance of the results of pure scientific investigation and to realize that pure science furnishes to engineering the raw material, so to speak, which he must work into useful forms. He should be taught that after graduation it will be most helpful to him and even necessary, if he is to be a leader, to watch with care the work of the pure scientist and to scrutinize the reports of new scientific discoveries to see what they may contain that can be applied to useful purposes and more particularly to prob- lems of his own which require solution. There are many unsolved problems in applied science to-day which are insoluble in the present state of our knowledge, but I am sure that in the future, as has so often happened in the past, these problems will find a ready solution in the light of pure scientific discoveries yet to be made. When thus regarded the work of the pure scientist should be followed with most intense interest by all of those engaged in the application of science to industrial purposes. Acquaintance, therefore, with the pure scientist, with his methods and results, is of great importance to the student of applied science. I believe that there is need of a better understanding of the relations between the pure scientist and the applied scientist and that this understanding would be greatly helped by a closer association between the pure scientist and the students in the technical schools. While I have drawn a valid distinction between the work of the two, they nevertheless have much in common. Both are concerned with the truth of things, one to discover new truths and the other to apply these truths to the uses of man. While the object of the engi- neer is to produce from scientific discoveries useful results, these results are for the benefit of others. They are dedicated to the use of mankind and, as is the case with the pure scientist, they should not be confused with the pecuniary compensation which the engineer himself may receive for his work, for this compensation is slight, often infinitesimally so, compared with the great benefits received by others. Like the worker in pure science, the engineer finds in- spiration in the desire for achievement and his real reward is found in the knowledge of the benefits which others receive from his work. There are many other things which might be discussed concerning the conduct of pure scientific research in our universities and tech- nical schools, but enough has been said to make it plain that I believe such work should be greatly extended in all of our American universities and technical institutions. But where are the uni- versities to obtain the money necessary for the carrying out of a SCIENCE AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—CARTY. 581 grand scheme of scientific research? It should come from those generous and public spirited men and women who desire to dispose of their wealth in a manner well calculated to advance the welfare of mankind, and it should come from the industries themselves, which owe such a heavy debt to science. While it can not be shown that the contribution of any one manufacturer or corporation to a particular purely scientific research will bring any return to the contributor or to others, it is certain that contributions by the manufacturers in general and by the industrial corporations to pure scientific research as a whole will in the long run bring manifold returns through the medium of industrial research conducted in the rich and virgin territory discovered by the scientific explorer. Jt was Michael Faraday, one of the greatest of the workers in pure science, who in the last century discovered the principle of the dynamo electric machine. Without a knowledge of this principle discovered by Faraday the whole art of electrical engineering as we know it to-day could not exist and civilization would have been deprived of those inestimable benefits which have resulted from the work of the members of this institute. Not only Faraday in England, but Joseph Henry in our own country and scores of other workers in pure science have laid the foundations upon which the electrical engineer has reared such a magnificent structure. What is true of the electrical art is also true of all of the other arts and applied sciences. They are all based upon fundamental discoveries made by workers in pure science, who were seeking only to discover the laws of nature and extend the realm of human knowledge. By every means in our power, therefore, let us show our apprecia- tion of pure science, and let us forward the work of the pure scientists, for they are the advance guard of civilization. They point the way which we must follow. Let us arouse the people of our country to the wonderful possibilities of scientific discovery and. to the responsibility to support it which rests upon them, and I am sure that they will respond generously and effectively. Then I am confident that in the future the members of this institute, together with their colleagues in all of the other branches of en- gineering and applied science, as well as the physician and surgeon, by utilizing the discoveries of pure science yet to be made, will develop without number marvelous new agencies for the comfort ana convenience of man, and for the alleviation of human suffering. These, gentlemen, are some of the considerations which have led me here in my presidential address to urge upon you the importance of a proper understanding of the relations between pure science and industrial research. oe aia Se Bere = a VEDaMLG LEH Te 3 seed nek; onan, File a dvanenaise Miaginins: ae aseniiloay pee y Mogeih- ot oviesh orl abgiog: bene: dont Dgtigtinaildmp bow amma a ypraiion: ot) eommthexds. holthwokey lave entainnd incanilildau, Teme te, oe asrhozsmudla woimRE NOE ackds spots domdon’ Ioleotliet Dis. beth) acest aa es dareids orl aoe ngs dh elene eiipioe et aded yi severe whi dang fend Gotteuorcerwii rasiyenkvemito aschudithees ait atts . 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Penn pegs serrl crates heal aah aliviatite: stanepiy ahoitohatnot | Se as Sth ND GOW Ge Ve Lonrebonerthay rteyiyi Vii aidie tout: Dothan teva cals ras dem lasitiooke: alt tecbiish ak ele ioe bbadash) ining ebeeathitie: cra ceed cginion. botligegt daa aorta, 4 léompniden ena ould einen. ana ai eiobow 7 absapestoreme . We Tovunisssodt Daag Hing indore 20% a7enll sc ranecneth eh) Bee SP) Ge fot ties mah, an tenet - eet ee onbetrrodal . ging itio Worle aad aba’? shadt yo mary iru Uri wander ra mnebe oa iiig odie Loudon, of vlenveinbien Joh bins ®aonbion saa tetas ied ky Gaditer ido Chandi aeadbandeivar ashes cet) ae See Himibigqoey cl) eycenuttetod. «eoHot Mase aw dotlaeigh nc piibebmeony eyeronei hy. oAttoige :33-eobbaltd eeag fyi whoo w sdbctt Syaniensier tsk0,, Sobre cadd, acqs non Mishel horpgimeaby tienes edd onaee Hoan Le. atloritealis Bas yeuse red tandgent: cme Me ee, Puidiincti: Ailir te eradeson, ack otdhd Cad Hers ald ated Heep ae \ ca bed reap sane rt ppieparmaainensoi : iow betfpeapribme yD | PAs $i anbth fy the, motley s2recaany Lop Algal P.M . “ MINE SAFETY DEVICES DEVELOPED BY THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF MINES. By Van. H. Mannine, Director. [With 7 plates. ] The present article outlines the character and the method of use of some of the more important devices developed by the Bureau of Mines in its investigations looking to greater safety in mining, and discusses the bureau’s work in educating and training miners to pro- tect themselves from harm and in furthering the use of safer ex- plosives and equipment in mines. Although the Bureau of Mines is investigating conditions, methods, and equipment in the quarrying, metallurgical, and other mineral industries as well as in mining, this article deals particularly with appliances used in coal mining. MINE RESCUE AND FIRST-AID WORK OF THE BUREAU OF MINES. In its mine safety and first-aid work the Bureau of Mines has four main objectives, as follows: First. To investigate and report on mine accidents to the end that their causes may be more thoroughly understood and the mine oper- ators advised as to the best means of avoiding them. Second. To teach the use of oxygen mine-rescue apparatus and the methods of performing first aid to the injured. Third. To send trained rescue crews to the scenes of explosions, fires, or other accidents in order to save life and property. Fourth. To acquaint mining men with safe and unsafe mining prac- tices through lectures, conferences, motion pictures, and the wide but judicious distribution of its publications. During the fiscal year 1916, 89 accidents were investigated and a thorough report made on each. If a given report indicated that electricity had been a contributory cause of the accident the matter was referred to the bureau’s electrical engineers for consideration and recommendations as to ways of preventing similar accidents. Simi- larly problems concerning explosives, mine gases, and the coal dust and other hazards are referred to the bureau’s experts. It is, of course, well understood that mining is a hazardous occu- pation and that injuries more or less severe are of daily occurrence in large mines. From the very nature of the work, practically all 533 73839 ° —sm_ 1916-35 534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, men injured underground have to be transported a considerable dis- tance before a doctor sees them, and frequently one to two hours may elapse between the time of injury and the time when the doctor first sees the patient. Consequently it is highly desirable that each miner should understand proper first-aid methods. Stationed at various mining centers throughout the country the bureau has first-aid miners, men with wide mining and first-aid ex- perience, who have been instructed in standardized first-aid methods by the bureau’s mine surgeon. These men either work from the bureau headquarters in their district or are attached to the bureau’s mine rescue cars or automobile rescue trucks, on which they travel from town to town, giving without charge a complete course in first aid. The bureau maintains eight such cars and three automobile rescue trucks. The miner is taught how to give artificial respiration, treat shock, control hemorrhage, and bandage any part of the body for fracture, dislocation, wound, or burn, and is shown the best method of transporting an injured person. Mine rescue methods have been taught in conjunction with the first-aid training. Bureau employees, designated foreman miners, accompany its rescue cars and trucks and teach the miners how to use the principal types of self-contained oxygen rescue apparatus. This apparatus consists of a steel cylinder containing oxygen at a pressure of approximately 2,000 pounds per square inch, with a reduc- ing valve which allows the flow of a definite quantity of oxygen per minute, at a pressure slightly above atmospheric, to pass from the cylinder to a reservoir from which it is breathed by the wearer. The exhaled air flows to a compartment containing regenerat- ing material, usually sodium hydroxide, by which the carbon dioxide of the exhaled air is removed. The regenerated air joins the stream of oxygen from the reducing valve, and the cycle is repeated. The foreman miners of the bureau give instruction in recovery methods, laying especial emphasis on the use of none but fully manned crews and on the need of the crews having such adjuncts as safety lamps, canary birds (for detecting poisonous gases), life lines, and telephones. It is gratifying to note that but few lives have been lost in the past year through heroic but misdirected and unorganized recovery work. Before the organization of the bureau the loss of lives from this cause was high. Experiments looking toward a more thorough understanding of rescue apparatus and resuscitators have been carried on at the bureau’s Pittsburgh experiment station. Owing to the European war, apparatus formerly made in Germany and England are now made in this country, and it has been necessary to thoroughly inspect and test this American-made material. As a result of these tests MINE SAFETY DEVICES—MANNING. 535 some serious defects were pointed out and these have been remedied by the manufacturers. A new and improved type of apparatus, sub- sequently described, has been developed by the bureau. In their training work the bureau’s field men observe many in- stances of safe and unsafe practice, and the knowledge thus gained they utilize through their district in conferences with the miners and the operators. When it is felt that one or more of the bureau’s publications will be helpful to a particular miner or operator, the publications are forwarded. When the bureau’s field men find gaseous or dusty conditions in mines and these conditions are dan- gerous or not well understood, they take samples of the air or dust and forward these to the bureau’s laboratory for analysis. The infor- mation obtained is then available for the operator concerned. The operators of mines in which adequate consideration is given to safety features are being given reduced rates for workmen’s com- pensation insurance. The benefits to the miners are even greater in that accidental deaths and injuries are being materially reduced. USE OF MOTION PICTURES IN MINE SAFETY WORK. In its general mine safety work the Bureau of Mines makes effec- tive use of motion pictures to illustrate (1) safe and unsafe methods and practices and (2) Bureau of Mines standard methods of mine rescue and first aid. Most of these films are taken by bureau photographers in coopera- tion with various mining companies; some are purchased, and others are presented to the bureau. They are shown to the mining public by bureau representatives on every possible occasion, largely in con- uection with mine-rescue and first-aid training. A chronological loan record is kept of past, present, and prospective loans of films. It is estimated that during the past fiscal year films were shown to 160,000 mining people, not including the thousands of visitors to the Govern- ment safety-first train. As these &lms are for a specific vital educational purpose—to in- struct mine workers, many of whom know little of the English lan- guage or the work in which they are engaged—the scenarios are, so far as possible, criticized by expert engineers and surgeons. Stationary photographs, taken with the same educational object, are used to illustrate bureau reports and for lantern slides. That they may be intelligible to non-English-speaking miners, the titles to many of these slides are in four languages. When the interest of the miners in rescue, first-aid, and general safety work can not otherwise be aroused, a lecture by bureau engi- neers, with motion pictures or lantern slides of safe practices as con- trasted with dangerous practiees, enables the lecturer to organize first- 536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. aid and rescue classes, thus starting a safety propaganda where it otherwise would not be received. NEW FORM OF OXYGEN MINE RESCUE APPARATUS. After a long period of experiment the Bureau of Mines has devel- oped a new form of oxygen breathing apparatus for use in poisonous or irrespirable atmospheres in mines after fires or explosions. It is ealled the Gibbs apparatus, after its chief designer, W. E. Gibbs, engineer of mine-safety investigations, of the bureau. In such apparatus, as it is impracticable to compress into a portable tank enough air to supply the breathing needs of the wearer for the hour or two during which he remains in poisonous atmospheres, pure oxygen is used. In general, an oxygen rescue apparatus consists of a small tank of compressed oxygen, a reducing valve through which the oxygen flows to a mouthpiece connected to the breathing bag by flexible tubes, and a receptacle containing caustic soda for absorbing the carbon dioxide from the exhaled air. Valves that open and close at each breath prevent expired air from returning to the lungs before it has passed through the purifier. To construct an apparatus of this kind would be relatively simple if it were not for the conditions under which the apparatus is worn. As rescue crews work in the unmapped wreckage following mine accidents, in a presumably irrespirable atmosphere and often in smoke so dense that their electric lamps are of small help, any failure of an oxygen rescue apparatus may mean death to the wearer. Moreover, the labor of exploration and rescue is often arduous, and the apparatus worn must be as light as is consistent with strength and yet strong enough to withstand the hard knocks it is sure to receive. It must be mechanically so perfect that it will not fail to function, and yet be so simple that it can be manipulated with safety in the dark and in surroundings that exhaust the wearer both physically and mentally. The Gibbs apparatus, developed by the Bureau of Mines, differs from others in the following particulars: By means of a new form of reducing valve the oxygen is supplied to the user at a variable rate which constantly adjusts itself to his immediate demands. A new form of carbon dioxide absorber keeps the inspired air pure and prevents it from reaching an uncomfortably high temperature during the two-hour standard period of use. The pressure gauge, which indicates the available supply of oxy- gen, is read by touch. Thirty minutes before the supply is exhausted it rings an alarm. MINE SAFETY DEVICES—MANNING. 537 The apparatus, a self-contained unit, is carried wholly on the back of the wearer, so that his arms are unimpeded by the customary front breathing bag and its connections. An aluminum cover incloses the whole apparatus and protects it from injury. A pump within the mouthpiece permits the removal of saliva as fast as it is formed. The weight of the apparatus is only 30 pounds. Its general appearance is shown in plate 1. The apparatus has satisfactorily passed severe tests. In use it is expected to prove more satisfactory than any such device hitherto available. Consequently, the United States will be independent of foreign makers of breathing apparatus for its future supply. DEVELOPMENT OF PERMISSIBLE COAL-MINE EXPLOSIVES. CHARACTER AND INCREASED USE OF PERMISSIBLE EXPLOSIVES. The risks arising in the handling, transportation, and use of ex- plosives have been lessened by the introduction of improved explo- sives for coal mines. In the past black powder was generally used in mines that were gaseous or contained dry coal dust, and many great mine disasters resulted. The Bureau of Mines seeks to have safer explosives used in dangerous mines, and to this end is testing explosives to determine their permissibility for such use. Those pass- ing the tests are termed permissible explosives, and their use is urged in all mines containing gas and large quantities of bituminous coal dust. In the year 1908 only 2,000,000 pounds of these permissible explosives was used in such mines, whereas in 1915 the amount of permissible explosives had grown to nearly 22,000,000 pounds. On October 1, 1916, 148 explosives had passed the required tests and had been placed on the Bureau of Mines list of permissible explosives. MISCELLANEOUS TESTS OF PERMISSIBLE EXPLOSIVES. Other tests to which permissible explosives are subjected are as follows: Samples of the explosives on the permissible list are frequently collected for a chemical examination to determine whether they are similar in all respects to the samples originally tested by the bureau. The products of combustion of explosives submitted for permis- sibility are examined for poisonous gases, and no explosive is ad- mitted to the permissible list which gives more than 158 liters (5.5 cubic feet) of poisonous gases from 14 pounds of explosive. All explosives are examined for liability of the ingredients to exude from the containers. 538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. The relative strength of detonators is determined by the sand test as perfected by the bureau. TESTS OF DETONATORS AND ELECTRIC DETONATORS. The Bureau of Mines not only tests explosives to determine their permissibility, but also prescribes the conditions under which they are to be used. One of these conditions is that permissible explosives shall be fired by a detonator, preferably an electric detonator, havy- ing a charge equivalent to that of the standard detonator used at the bureau’s Pittsburgh experiment station. The grade of electric de- tonator is recommended by the manufacturer for use with a par- ticular brand of permissible explosive; and should the explosive pass the required tests with the grade recommended, the same grade is prescribed by the bureau, but in no case can it be of less efficiency than a No. 6 electric detonator. A further requirement is that the charge of the detonator or electric detonator shall consist by weight of 90 parts of mercury fulminate and 10 parts of potassium chlorate or their equivalents. The importance of these prescribed conditions may be realized by considering the means whereby permissible explosives are fired in practice. Detonators or electric detonators are required for firing all permissible explosives now on the bureau’s list. Although the explosives might, in many cases, be partly exploded by the aid of squibs or fuse or by means of black-powder primers, yet the ex- plosion so produced would not be complete; the explosives would not be used to their best advantage, and the gases produced would usually be dangerous. Therefore it is safer to fire detonating ex- plosives with detonators or electric detonators strong enough to cause complete detonation. The results of experiments made by the bureau show that the average percentage of explosives failing to detonate was increased more than 20 per cent when the lower grades of electric detonators were used instead of No. 6 electric detonators and was increased more than 50 per cent when these lower grades were used instead of No. 8 electric detonators. DEVELOPMENT OF SAFER MINE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. For several years past the bureau has been working to bring about the retirement from mines of dangerous open-flame lamps and the substitution of the relatively safe electric lamp operated by a battery carried on the miner’s belt. The individual electric lamp, if generally adopted, will be a long step toward safety, as it cannot start fires or explosions as open-flame lamps may. Moreover, electric lamps give more light and distribute "SNLVYUVddV ANOSSAY SNIN N3SDSAXO Sdal5 ‘GaAOWAY ONINSAOD AAILOALOYd WANINATY HLIM ‘MalA HOVE ‘'S "M3IA LNOY4 *] “| aLV1d *Bujuue|-—'916| ‘Wodey ueiuosyziws Smithsonian Report, 1916,—Manning. PLATE 2. 1. TROUGH BARRIER IN PLACE IN A MINE ENTRY. 2. CONCENTRATED BARRIER AFTER A LIGHT, SLOW-MOVING EXPLOSION. MINE SAFETY DEVICES—MANNING. 539 the light better than flame safety lamps, and thus the miner obtains the added safety attendant upon good illumination. The bureau’s method of procedure is to examine and test lamps submitted to it and to issue approval labels to such lamps as meet the requirements prescribed by the bureau as a minimum standard. Seven types of electric lamps have thus been approved. When the work was first undertaken there were few portable elec- tric lamps in use in mines and these were not entirely satisfactory. At the present time there are between 75,000 and 100,000 portable electric lamps in use in the mines of this country, and the lamps approved by the bureau are being adopted at an average rate of about 2,000 per week. Several years ago the bureau approved the first explosion-proof electric motor. These motors are designed to prevent any explosion or flash within the motor casing from igniting gas in the mine air sur- rounding the motor. The type of motor brought out by the bureau’s approval was not only permissible for use in gaseous mines, but rep- resented a standard of construction considerably superior to anything previously in use. One other motor has recently received the bureau’s approval. These motors have met with considerable favor and at the present time are being adopted at the rate of about 1,000 a year. The bureau has applications for the test of 16 other machines, the development of which is being carried on by the manufacturers as rapidly as the present congested condition of their factories will permit. For the past. two years engineers of the bureau have been develop- ing a set of suggested safety rules for the installation and use of electrical equipment in bituminous coal mines. These rules which are now in course of publication, were developed in cooperation with outside mining engineers and mine operators, and are the result of many conferences and revisions. No practical requirement has been omitted that will make safer the installation and use of elec- tricity in mines, and it is therefore believed that the adoption of the rules will greatly further the cause of safety. The approval system of the bureau is to be extended to the me- chanical equipment of mines when the laboratory facilities now being provided are completed. GASOLINE LOCOMOTIVES FOR MINES. To determine the conditions under which gasoline locomotives might be used in mines without detriment to the health of miners an investigation was made of the maximum amount of carbon monoxide which may be produced by gasoline engines. This maximum amount determines the desirable size and the manner of use of such locomo- tives in a mine and the amount of ventilation necessary. 540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. PREVENTION OF MINE EXPLOSIONS. For the past six years experimental explosion tests have been con- ducted at the experimental mine of the Bureau of Mines near Bruce- ton, Pa., in connection with the investigation of coal-mine explosions and their prevention. As a result of these tests two recommenda- tions are now being strongly made by the Bureau of Mines in con- nection with the prevention of mine explosions—first, that under con- ditions prevailing in the majority of the mines of the United States rock dust be used for rendering mine road dust noninflammable and, second, that rock-dust barriers be used at various points in the mine for limiting any explosions that may occur. USE OF ROCK DUST TO PREVENT COAL-MINE EXPLOSIONS. Another method of rendering coal dust inert is by watering, but unless the water is frequently applied it often happens that for con- siderable periods the road dust of mines using this method is not in satisfactory condition, because the water rapidly evaporates and leaves the dust dry; consequently the rock-dust method is strongly advocated, inasmuch as rock dust will give protection for much longer periods of time than will the application of water. In the use of the rock-dust method the coal dust is removed from the mine roads as completely as possible and all the surfaces through- out the mine are then coated with dry pulverized rock dust. As the road dust will be gradually coated with an accumulation of coal dust it is desirable when the percentage of combustible dust reaches a certain figure that more rock dust be distributed. This is usually done by a so-called “ rock-dusting machine.” In the event of an explosion the pressure wave that travels ahead of the explosion raises the road dust in a cloud and if this cloud is largely composed of incombustible material it tends to blanket the flame of the explosion and limit its travel. The rock-dust method has been tried in one mine in Colorado for a period of about five years and in three mines in Pennsylvania for periods of one to two years. It is believed that the method will be extensively used in the future. ROCK-DUST BARRIERS. A rock-dust barrier consists of a number of boxes or shelves filled with rock dust, which in the event of an explosion is automatically dumped, resulting in the formation of a thick cloud of rock dust and the blanketing of the flame. The plan of using the barriers is to place them at the entrances of panels or sections of the mine, so that if an explosion occurs in a panel or section so protected, it can not travel beyond, or if the explosion occurs in another part of the ‘YuaIMYVG HONOYL 49) SU /ake| ‘Suluuepj—'916| ‘Wodey ueiuosyyiws Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Manning. Plate 4. 1. CLOUD oF DuST CAUSED BY THE DISCHARGE OF ONE OF THE TROUGHS OF A TROUGH BARRIER IN A MINE ENTRY. 2. SAME CLOUD FROM A DIFFERENT POINT OF VIEW. MINE SAFETY DEVICES—MANNING. 54] mine it can not travel into a protected panel or section. The use of the barriers should be supplementary to rock dusting or to the water- ing method of rendering the coal dust inert. If the watering or reck-dusting method fails and an explosion is propagated beyond its origin, then the barriers should be effective in limiting the explosion to the particular section of the mine in which it originates. The original barrier, invented by J. Taffanel, of France, con- sisted of 10 to 15 shelves placed across the entry just beneath the roof, spaced about 10 feet apart, and loaded with rock dust. This barrier had two disadvantages: (1) If the explosion was light and slow moving it might pass under the barrier without discharging enough dust to quench the flame; and (2) the dust was exposed to the mine atmosphere, and under some conditions would become wet and packed, so that it was no longer in condition to be efficient in case of an explosion. Accordingly, a number of different types of rock-dust barriers were invented by George S. Rice, chief mining engineer of the Bureau of Mines, which did not have these disadvantages. All of these barriers are operated by the explosion itself through a leverage system sensitive to low pressures; the dust compartments are totally inclosed so that the dust is not exposed to the air current. The bureau has tested and found satisfactory four different types of rock-dust barriers, namely, the trough barrier, the concentrated barrier, the door barrier, and the rock-dust stopping. Thetrough bar- rier and the concentrated barrier can be placed at any point in a mine entry high enough to permit their erection. Each type has a swing- ing board vane 100 feet beyond the barrier in each direction, these vanes being connected by a wire to the operating mechanism. When the explosion swings the vane it causes the barrier to dump the dust into the air current. ach type retains a certain amount of dust near the roof so that in case there is an interval of some seconds between the operation of the barrier and the passage of the flame, there will still be dust in the barrier to be dislodged by the pressure accompanying the flame and to quench the flame. Plate 2, figure 1, shows a trough barrier in place in a mine entry. The wires connecting the barrier troughs with the vane can be seen on either side of the entry near the roof. When the barrier operates, the bottom boards drop as shown in plate 3, and a thick shower of dust falls into the entry. Plate 4, figure 1, shows a cloud of dust caused by the discharge of the dust from one of the troughs. Plate 4, figure 2, shows the same cloud from a different point of view. Plate 2, figure 2, shows a concentrated barrier after a light, slow-moving explosion. Before an explosion the shelves of this 542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916, barrier are all held in position near the roof. When the explosion operates the barrier, however, the shelves fall to the positions shown, and much of the dust is discharged into the entry. The door barrier consists of rock-dust compartments on both sides and above a mine door, the barrier being held in place by the frame of the door. If an explosion blows the frame out of position the entire barrier collapses and a large amount of dust is discharged into the air. The rock-dust stopping consists of two vertical rows of shelves, one on each side of a stopping or wall, loaded with rock dust. In the event of an explosion the overturning of these sets of shelves, or the force of the explosion through the shelves causes the forma- tion of a dense dust cloud that cools the flame. ROCK-DUST BLOWER. Plate 5, figure 1, shows a rather crude type of rock-dust blower, with a chamber into which the dust can be fed from a hopper. Plate 5, figure 2, shows the dust being discharged through a hose. This blower is used to blow a thick cloud of dust into the air current, by which it is carried for considerable distances, when it settles down as a mantle over whatever coal dust there may be in the mine road or entry, and renders the coal dust much less likely to assist the propa- gation of an explosion. The machine is particularly useful in carry- ing the dust into entries that are accessible only with difficulty. IMPROVED MINE-GAS DETECTOR. Although the electric safety lamp, as compared with flame safety lamps, is much safer in gaseous mines, not alone because it will not under any conditions ignite the gas present, but because it gives a better illumination than the flame safety lamps, it does not take the place of the flame safety lamp in one of the latter’s most important functions, namely, that of testing for the presence of dangerous gases. There has long been a-demand for some sort of an indicator or detector with which the presence of inflammable gas could be deter- mined more accurately than with a safety lamp. Such an indicator, called the Burrell gas detector, has been developed by one of the chemists of the bureau. For determining the presence of inflammable gases it has an advantage over a flame safety lamp because its use eliminates any error due to defects of vision, and anyone can easily determine the exact amount of gas present. ‘Thus the detector not only makes unnecessary the use of the flame safety lamp but enables the proportion of gas present to be determined to within 0.1 per cent. The flame safety lamp enables the miner to estimate only roughly the amount of gas present. Smithsonian Report, 1916.—Manning. PLATE 5. 1. Rock-DUST BLOWER. 2. Dust BEING DISCHARGED THROUGH A HOSE. PLATE 6. [24 S , 1916.—Mannin Smithsonian Report BURRELL GAS DETECTOR. MINE SAFETY DEVICES—MANNING, 5438 Moreover, the use of the detector is not limited to mines or to detecting fire damp, but it can be used for proving the presence of any combustible gas, such as gasoline vapor, hydrogen, natural gas, or coal gas. Essentially, the detector consists of a U-tube, one branch of which is inclosed in a metal case, as shown in the accompanying photograph (pl. 6). To make the device ready for use the top @ is unscrewed and water is poured in until it fills the two branches and rises to the zero point 6 on the scale. To make a determination of combustible gas, say methane, in mine air, the valve ¢ is opened, and by blowing gently into the reservoir the operator depresses the water column along the scale and forces it up to the top on the other side. A slight click when the water strikes the valve ¢ tells the operator that it has risen to the required height. Then the operator pinches the rubber tube d and takes the instru- ment to the place where the sample is to be collected. When the pressure on the rubber tube d is released, the water immediately comes back to its original position, and on falling sucks through the valve ec a sample of the air to be tested. . This sample rests in the combustion chamber e in contact with a platinum spiral. The valve is closed and the spiral is electrically heated by use of the binding posts f. Any combustible gas in the sample immediately begins to burn and at the end of a minute and a half is completely consumed. The electric current is then turned off and the instrument is shaken, thus forcing the water into the com- bustion space e and cooling the gases. Immediately the water column on the open-tube side falls to some point on the graduated scale as x, the exact point depending on the percentage of methane present. The scale reading opposite the water level shows the percentage. The platinum wire can be heated by means of the storage battery of a miner’s electric cap lamp, the battery being carried on a man’s belt, and the current being switched from the lamp to the detector, as the tests are made. The device is 10 to 20 times as accurate as the safety lamp, weighs less, and has fewer and more durable parts. PORTABLE APPARATUS FOR RAPID DETERMINATION OF INCOMBUS- TIBLE MATTER IN ROAD AND RIB DUSTS FROM COAL MINES. In applying rock dust in mines it is necessary to determine quickly and on the spot the approximate percentage of noncombustible matter in the road and rib dust in order to determine how much ad- ditional limestone or shale dust is required to prevent the propaga- tion of dust explosions. For this purpose the Taffanel volumeter has been modified and combined with a convenient portable field equipment. The complete 544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. outfit is shown in plate 7. It weighs approximately 20 pounds. The carrying case is made of 2-inch poplar, dovetailed at the corners and brass bound, and is provided with a cover and a handle. The outside dimensions are 7 by 18 by 14 inches high, which is large enough to furnish ample room for all the required apparatus, cans of alcohol, extra supply containers, etc. The outfit consists of the volumeter a, the pipette 4, the balance c, the funnel d, the alcohol can é, the sampling scoop f, the sampling cloth g, ete. A determination of the percentage of combustible matter in a given sample of dust. is made as follows: Twenty-five cubic centimeters of alcohol is measured into the volumeter fiask with the pipette; 20 grams of the dust to be tested is then poured in. The graduated tube is inserted in the flask, and the dust and alcohol are thoroughly mixed by shaking, after which 25 ec. more of alcohol is added from the pipette through the stem of the volumeter, all adhering particles of dust being carefully washed down. After one minute the scale reading of the meniscus is taken, and by reference to tables the percentage of noncombustible is obtained. The placing of this apparatus at the disposal of the employees of the bureau will enable them to determine whether the dust hazard in any mine in their district is such as to warrant treatment to prevent a dust explosion. It is further expected that when this apparatus becomes available for general use it may result in calling the attention of mine oper- ators to dangerous dust conditions that might otherwise eventually cause disastrous explosions. “SANII) 1VOOD WOYS SLSNG BIY GNV GVOY NI YSLLVIA] FISILSNANOON| SO NOILVNINYS LAG GldVY YOs SNLVYVddY AIGVLYOd *Z ALVId “‘Buluuej—'9 1 6| ‘Hoday ueiuosyyiws NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES: Review of Recent Progress and Present Tendencies. By Lt. Col. Wu. W. Harts, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. [With 9 plates.] PROBLEMS PRESENTED. In all countries where interior waterways are used for navigation to any marked extent, there arise many complex problems, of which the most important are: First, the physical, based on the character- istics of the river, such as its discharge, slope, the permanency of its bed and banks, and the feasibility of treatment so as to make it suitable for navigation; second, the economic, based on the charac- ter and expense of the work necessary for such a purpose, together with the return on the investment that can be obtained. These two classes of problems appeal in a more or less forcible way to different interests; the first more properly to the river engi- neer, and the second to those responsible for supplying funds—in the case of Government work, to Congress. Within comparatively recent years, the work of building channels has been more and more carefully studied in order to combine the best practicable solutions of all these problems, so that now no plan for a proposed river work is complete until the subject has been practically exhausted, on both the physical and economic sides, by the engineers proposing the plan. STAGES OF INLAND-WATERWAY DEVELOPMENT. Interior navigation in all countries has passed through several well-defined stages. The first stage antedates the use of steam as a propelling power, commencing with the time when the only means of transportation was by animals or animal-drawn vehicles, either wagons ald carriages, canal boats, or pack animals. This limited source of power restricted transportation lines to highways and canals. It was not until the use of steam was successfully applied to iPaper presented at a meeting of the International Engineering Congress, 1915, at San Francisco, September 20-25, 1915. Reprinted by permission of the author from the Transactions of that Congress. 545 546 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1916. the shallow-draft river steamboat that the development of interior- river channels really began. This occurred early in the nineteenth century, and afforded an enormous stimulus to the construction of new and larger canals and the improvement of natural river channels. The second period in the history of interior navigation began with the development of the steam railways, which expanded at a sur- prising rate immediately after they were found practicable, par- ticularly in those parts of the United States where ordinary roads and other means of communication were still largely undeveloped and unreliable. These railways soon entered into a vigorous com- petition with the rivers, canals, and highways, and before long took over a large part of their commerce. The third period in the history of interior waterways began dur- ing the latter part of the nineteenth century, when the industrial development of the areas adjacent to streams and the increase in population had provided more than sufficient commerce for the ex- isting railways, and had left a large volume of freight which could be more cheaply handled by water than by rail. In the United States during the first period above mentioned, the well-known canals, such as the Erie, Morris, Chesapeake and Ohio, and Delaware Canals were built, and with the advent of the steamboat a feverish eagerness to develop the river channels was felt throughout the large part of the United States extending from the Atlantic coast over the interior of the country as far west as the Mississippi River. In the succeeding years this movement increased until but few streams of any importance were without some improvement of their facilities. Notwithstanding the enormous increase in railway mile- age of this country, this impulse in river development has also gone on increasing, but in many cases without much relation to the amount of commerce carried. It is only recently that this river work has begun to feel the checking effect of the railway competition, which has little by little taken from some of our streams the bulk of their commerce. Improvements in rail facilities and reduction of cost of ton-mileage have of late given the railroads an enormous advantage. For this reason, the third stage in this country in which the river resumes its former value can not be said to have begun except in certain localities where population is much congested, such as on tidal rivers like those in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Providence, or New York City, and perhaps in a few other similar regions accessible from the ocean for comparatively deep-draft ships. DISTRIBUTION OF WATERWAYS. In describing the present status and recent tendencies in river engi- neering in this country, and in giving a general view of progress in NATURAL WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES—HARTS. 547 this important branch of the Nation’s activities, only the more con- spicuous instances can be referred to in a paper of this kind and only a brief general analysis given. The work of deepening and regulating river channels in the United States has been much more extensive than is generally sup- posed. The amount spent on rivers, up to 1913, exclusive of harbors and canals, has amounted to $402,792,000, and there is at present river work under construction amounting to $187,064,000. New work recommended by the engineers but not yet adopted by Congress amounts to $130,315,000. The interior natural waterways of the United States may be divided into four general divisions, corresponding to the main geographical divisions of the country. Foremost of these is the lake system along our northern border. The other divisions are the portions separated by the two main mountain ranges—the Appalachians on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west. These divide the United States into three main portions, the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific Slope, and the Great Mississippi River Basin. With the exception of the Hudson and the Delaware, there are but few large rivers on the Atlantic slope, and these are largely tidal. On the Pacific slope, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers form a system of navigation reaching both north and south in the State of California; and the Columbia River, farther north, offers a transportation line into the wonderfully rich and fertile Northwest. Tt is in the central portion of the country, however, that the great- est opportunities for channel construction exist, for the great Mis- sissippi Valley is traversed by one of the longest streams in the world, which, with its tributaries, offers many thousands of miles of navigable waterways. The distribution of streams in this country and their total navi- gable lengths are shown in the following table: Tributary to the Atlantic Ocean................... Eeence cbr eSbrigh sade ae Gee nee acre 148 5,360 Tributary tothe Gulf of Mexico, exclusive of the Mississippi River and tributaries... . 53 5, 212 Mississippi River and tributaries. .......--.------------ceeececeeee ene ee een e cence eens | 54 13,912 HMOWANG ITCOCADA DO cate amine ca crsepiclemicic cisie cisisioee se Siae nesta alelee = oininia inte) syaialnic)ajesaiciereiainye 2 315 Tributary tamhovbacitic Oceans: ter ea-ebe ss = oer Reese adore wass seems ee eeeeem 38 1, 606 Alotalict ween: oe Seep sitotoonod, gvode, 2 2a] Ailigslq eliotn! shameisabsoqaeriae pishenirenpnirn | te = Guodmée'w E+,bat'osocqsg Semboth pena eam” of Biivsolyzieot torrsiobvord dpald, sodhtiake. roth dsasai bod UR, Wins. Javizso-ydiakewhisbjcn okile te olqats: ite, zashraot dul soled x bo yonsilliad od 1 abo fale sh EF terete jit Dame Re ee Tiod Mewar Reap as ue! Gi Bey ete ey hy or icXe] divided ean HY at a OS Sh Pie See ay aes nina Oats nop ey ake er ee ee swe peta lrehetan ethah toe peter eae “atebatint a SL) air haat Bet ly DNS WEYS, ay { anti sete ® Be aera A a is) Dips ee Aone +) Yparke chhby, cty Piety, eee er ia Ke Nahas ne aay Be a eer Lites, eee itis, OTE ak SaNekt nite ei ne donnie ey eens nalts ented inet: Basan’ ape cate Ajuabad | et ot yea 1), bes ea spi Ayers Ley hin) HURTS Avan: ie oe bi ve eereeyas tar he Ne Ahien: «: ey vee tira, ie Meri Fa “eu aa Picea > tages chy ut ba tee Peder ep) 2H aT MGs ak @ telat, Bt eal iii tiie ion scien e honk Bthioit AEP ing: fis: Galas Sygieb : ae ati: PADRE NG (0K Liens: Licata zany si MEe ties MMR. Vines teehee: cage a . nad at bulehe hina proe bae pee epterk Civ Seite orice? ui aie eae a | . ec. Stic cin* 14 iPsteTs > Wie ERA tre Kip Peles ee Ma NS ak Peete A Te RE Te’ ‘ait he: AGEL Sat welt poate ts i pa iia hae rh eye oot myctoande hye anh DUBE Wer 7 a i ee nko ea ert Wiis baw eteeedd hg 5 i see eit ny Spee. Dswha s prelicoy i Ube hi phest skies Oop 7 oo ie gtBheriod nn etre epeenal cna int Pan bid ud. Gedhcarsts ie the tingle of Led eple, ghee ea oe. oe ae Alice ee a eocak i ate hast BE | INDEX. A. Page. Abbot, C.G........-2- 20.220. eee xii, 21, 22, 101, 102, 103, 113, 114, 130 Cl ewarirortihesstang) 9-09.25 cee ss sce encour oe ae nea ee 157 LONECInG UL MESES SSS See Sea ee ee oe ae eee ae ee 10, 27, 37, 39, 132 LMM oso asi isa a Asay He binds bed ead c2 afc lS sie DEERE WE xi Administration and activities of the Smithsonian Institution (Clark).......... 37 Advisory committee on printing and publication, Smithsonian................ 118 Merodynamical Laboratory, the Langley... ..-2 2/0020... 520.505 55eeceesecace 18, 127 Aeronautics, National Advisory Committee for.................2.-..----.---- 127 Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution).......................- xi Belenich wlonaaimen Pull OOF. YriadsIGe) Se bee bee xii, 101, 102, 114, 130 2 SORTED, a ee eee ee ee ee ee ce ee eer. S| Foe 8, 132 SPRL RRP eS PELIGING) + a's cnr we nee Ree SNialersle see aaas tb ete Uae EE 20 Amertean Hastorical Association, report Of...........2+---s2c..ce-ceec-seees 20, 117 Americanists, nineteenth international congress of........--..--..----------- 23 PRMOGVRUO PLE Ibs! 252 ola: 2 22 oe -eheseeh ee -lnesa- os aeewaseciaia 10, 40, 132 Ancient Americans, narcotic plants and stimulants of the (Safford). .......-- 387 PART OWS eNUISSeL: UAC. 2 o.o.s synachdesact: Mealees asty-io ete te teecsns deh el: 208 63 Angell, James Burrill. ..-.-.-.------- +--+ +++ - eee eee eee eee es sees eee 33 REM CAREOR ETO ANGCTS 8. oo se econ sd ein aaiececnm=tAeeetere: ane ese 14, 113 Beeimenandu bird TelUZeS:. 2 =< ons toe anne oe Bed) des | aes eet 128 Archeological lights, new, on the origins of civilization in Europe (Evans)..-. 425 Argentina, Brazil and, cactus investigations in......-.....----+-----+---+++-- 11 Arnold, Ralph (The petroleum resources of the United States). ....-.-------- 273 Art, National Gallery of......-.-----------------ee erect ee recede eeciente se 44, 129 Art of the great earthwork builders of Ohio, the (Willoughby). .--.------------ 489 Asia, eastern, proposed expedition to........-.-----+---+---+-+-++e+++-+--- 133, 134 Assistant Secretary of the Institution....-..--.----------- “ew -pbaniaadse xi, xii, 48 Astrophysical Observatory...---.--------------222e reece ence terete teeeee 31, 130 report ON... ..---- +--+ --- 2 one seen eee eee seees 99 Attorney General (member of the Institution)... .-----.--+--+--++-+-++++--- xi Avery, Robert Stanton (bequest)....-...--+------+-+eeeteeee creer ect eeeee ee 2,119 B. Beanen-Powell, Major... ...------<---p---- 22202 - 2s cn net e een n nn Bim origins 2 22,105 RNG Eos oc te cas sap o tc ccs cee eden sos San aien we ecine tn sins r= eae xii PeseereHranke © 2.2 pases - 2 on 2S sais tiene De eons amma xii, 21, 98 Baker, Newton Diehl, Secretary of War (member of the Institution).......... _ x Lei Cn 5 AT ee CME rt aksie: abes i xil, 11% (Pirates of the deep—stories of the squid and octopus)...-.------ = 347 “soya ee SiO AR oe Pi ena i ities te: xii, 117 ates, Mrs: Caroline B: ..222--.----------syeskoarrr npn eee 37 Bertie Rent pee nie dac ens ypu tee esha nines ani oney td Vee tea eee 71 Bell, Alexander Graham (Regent). .....-----+---+-+-+2++°+ xi, 2, 22, 38, 105, 123, 124 Benedict, Jaties BW... -.0..000c- + -cenngeaynnsn-spgsetsatessersnsssnse shone xii 600 INDEX. Page. Benjamin, Marcus. secon ase ccs cieicloieeis #)ets ayelora rain wigtelcte teat ic eipwinin\ooe iain ofeiole xe Ny, Berwerth, Friedrich (On the origin of meteorites). ....-.----.-----+-------+- 311 1evogel paave bvowbn ae axe Ae egces sooo BOO GacoOn Fam as noc oeaersescsaeecace 128 Birds, some considerations on sight in (Lewis)......----.-------------------- 337 [3Y0} eel D110) Ae One Ae Me eRe eo anc oo a9 4 ACRES On senna Sons conse e xii, 29, 63 Bormeoand Celebes: expedition. tOn. -cc- < hhonid: G) (DEQUCEL). a5 4.9- 04 Soe a kt ee ee 2.119. 125 ideeeclenry Fronch (Repent). {se es RARE) xi, 2,124 2PETE ES TRE TNS ACER gS arg al, BS Te eR td er ps 113, 114 eameemvillinn Hes: eet eo ae nee eee ee xii, 13, 22, 23, 29, 64 (The great dragon of Quirigua, Guatemala)............... 447 Honduras, Guatemala and, exploration of ancient Maya cities in. ............ 13 LE STEREOS ANTICS 2s a ee ene ana ee a an ae ee eee xii, 24, 65, 107 Houston, David Franklin, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institu- tion) TRIPS EL Lae RIS et eI a Ra ieee haere py ery Ye) si TPLTET ENED, Ja UTS) Se eta ep a lee ay he el eee ne a eer Ay xii, 23, 117, 133 EIR A Dol 3 DS Spee eee SE GaSe Tees ete eee es ee a 113 IF TEED Ea a ArT a aa ge ee NN EN ae ee Soe 19,113 I. Watney GSE pith ceca ate sce cae ene sete. s sane cyae oe eee mee co eee oe 4] Ideals of chemical investigations (Richards). ...........-......2-.------00-- 213 Industrial research, the relation of pure science to (Carty)................----- 523 Interior of the earth, bearing of variations of latitude on our knowledge of oe WIS Sen on eeme rene crite isaac pasa s selectins oe doces ee fetes eo ceaiaeee 248 Interior of the earth, constitution of, as indicated by seismological investi- Ie N PMOL) ere eee iene eine cain cre be Aen ans sont ecm ease me sete 234 Interior of the earth from the viewpoint of geology (Chamberlin). ........-.-- 225 Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)................-.------ xl Fnternational Catalogue of Scientific Literature..................---....-.-- 32, 109 International Congress of Americanists, Nineteenth...........-..--.-------- 23 Pnoterational congresses and expositions: =... 2... 2. 2 eee eee 22 aL pnrONACCKCHANUCH a. ee ace ec ae 2 ee ay cons cee ae gee 30 TOD OO ee ps al aac atates Sein ce = oe ot i a 73 Interparliamentary exchange of official journals....-...-...----------------- 79 Prone the outlook tor (Kemp): > 225.222.2222. 22-22 ose oso ee omen == 289 J. Johnston Mapow s L -0. BESL YD. POE 8S 2 DOL TL es SUD Se nea n ven nena 37 nde. Neer Mink Se se ec ice these ot ee te ee eee 37, 66, 71 K. Keltie, J. Scott (A half century of geographical progress).-...-.------------- 501 Kemp, James Furman (The outlook for iron)......-------+-----+-+--+++++7-- 289 “Weis Oa 3 oe pee ee eee eRe ae eee rari. 2 oP etait 39 MiG We Ne Oe te elec econ es = encase eerie wae =e nem Sia sm amr xii Koren expedition to Siberia.....--....---2--------2e-ce eet rse eer ccte eters 8 Tonys be cayy. Dineen ye Bene annie Treiman act ry poae 68 L. Labor, Secretary of (member of the Institution)...---------------++++++++-+* xi Maklesche, Prancis...-.---.-+-:+<»-----s---+2-->--speptepang” .n 7" se+2+ xii, 59,71 Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution). - xi Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory, the...------------- Bo era ; Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution). - weeeeececeee bal Latitude, variations of: Their bearing on our knowledge of the interior of the earth (Schlesinger)......--0-+----+++--eperiarisriresetenpape cst sssssnet se: 604. INDEX, Page. awtonwtar) Gor Vent yw coseccsccn ec clmrs ior eyeiste resem micee alelemetsiorte mieten cine 39 Gales EU La = Saree eis asics taerra ioe ale Di /oloiatein a lala rare latmrte locate ieta aietnlarainieie ie aioe retetataierevele xii, 70 Lewis, J. C. (Some considerations on sight in birds)...............--..2.--6- 337 rewion ye TOUCriCk Ws sctG soccer ee otis eee oleae ce selene e eemae seiaaaes xii Tp Saby ago oa UASONIAM o. cys oem ete eek ereloiae ana comeecmncn eee e ee emeEEer 21, 104 ice molecular eiructire and) (Pictel) jac. eeinacmee a sericneeneesiee seers 199 Weloy.d. James, Ps (CRevent). i. nc. sate he oss incre ee gue clamelc cole Dampier xi, 2 odres tHenry / Cabot. (eSENt) 25 ajc: sie eccivie wictaraia wieieselatsaresesiorre nlemlorerene xi, 2, 124 M. McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution). Xl NeDermott, Dro. Alexanders 2 e-220 52 Sos ce seins ie calcein Sateen 107 INICIMU GORING Bret ce cee oes oe ee ee SES EE SER DEED oe SURE Rea Se aE eo emonieerer 113 Manchuria ex ploravions in’ China and *2s2sss- s-aent- 6 nee cigs ee ence eee emeee 10, 133 Mann, Albert (The economic importance of the diatoms)... .............--.- 377 Manning, Van H. (Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau OM MINCE) Host set a case ees ce ache Sree eee rein © enone eee eae eee 533 Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the In- AitttON) 23243555 Lets nd Ss eee tae as seater ease see coe meee xa Mestodon tron 1 nGiana-: ta- 27 os.5 sce ses ace cee Cee te cers a clare ols atte 7! Maxim, Hiram, Percy (Gun report noise) :\.7= 22% = «cc ~ = sce acl elacl= en ceinee = 193 IMEGR OTE AN Viney as Scite ata tech-c Ses eas ar ea a PS Eh fe re ne xii, 107 Maya cities, ancient, exploration of, in Guatemala and Honduras............. 13 Wemard, George Cre. satan ieee aon nae Nels acs 2h ace Sta ep xii Wea alae DF ge Dia fees. Wa a Ree aa oe el SE a barons Iain Me desninooccs.s 107, 113 MIGCIAEPTOENIN S Wie cisc'sc aS S5S58 5 See ee ee sane e cae ee eee 40 Meetings and congresses in the National Museum.................-....----0- 45 Morciam) Dr, Grilarts.xeccacr ot sac kone oad eee ese eee ee ober 16, 132 WMioprills arb Sh koe sok eo Noe 2s Beek a peaean| Ca Ware Sa rae xii, 21, 117 Mesa Verde Pueblo, a prehistoric, and its people (Fewkes)..........--..-.-.-- 461 WMesler-eRe 1) 28: os dante ck ek osc s oe Se eet et see Gee eccn ne. Ce ease nee 8 Meteorites, onthe origin of (Berwerth) =<... 4 o-2 285 222 saeeer eect arenes 311 INEIGH EASON Ure ATS S599 4 2 5o ink od oe eee ee Be SY ny oe eee we ene xii, 61 Wier AGerriyS 5 ab. sce ee ccicis sae oe oa SEE ck oe cate coe amar er rere eee xs Mine safety devices developed by the United States Bureau of Mines (Man- BURA ast ee ete ee Seg arn hag eeieh ne Mistogie cio asic ate tee Ose a ae ee 533 Miscellaneous collections, Smithsonian. - 2.222.225.4222... 0.222.-c0hescees 19, 112 Molecular structure and life (Pictet) 0.2 -setecces os aeons se eee enon sete 199 Mooney, JUINOS. 2. ne con 2 ~ Qekeces epee pees oars oa eee ee ere eile xli, 54 Moore; ClATeEN Ce: Boe oc anita cine Area lon ors wc ico pec renee arae lacie Se aca ranean 23, 37 Money, Ol VaOUS Gis. ceiste ccs wise seiejee ete cieis aisle wearsinl aie ole wi oktet armor te aCe teennonre 117 UVa ROR BN 12's Slap eri egies tA Mie RAR Rant ema AHA PUA Ae os Bathe Aah a 68 N. Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans (Safford)............ 387 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics...............---+------+----<- 127 National Gallery OL Art: ce. coe sree os tian mn iain ceterai = mista cialn olareiaio eniatoree 44,129 National Museum, the.....-......-- NT De mene earner ane Sree eae ee 26 CONSE ETO TIE era Ee Sere eee ere eee 36 Library oes tes ere eee ee eee P eB Ae aceif Glen hcaaphises shes et 106 meetings and conpresses Ini f/000 SY St oe ce as 45 PUHCHUONE: oo cccaces seme seen oa eco aas ome eincine celee ee 20, 116 PODOlL: fee crise cece aie ce mista eis ain Wee ieee etalateins eet 35-48 National Research Council................. PRES National Zoological Pantene hes Cite has las Sy Keine ea vinbael oe obec ga x Set ermioue.in rtp onc ul yee alteration of western boundary.................... 91. 129 animals in the collection........................... "86 CEQ SYA Batik Sma e254 a tp ies Se 2 cer hea ae ae 92 TEPONNONS 52-58 oe oo 5 aaa ot oe Se ee 83 Natural waterways in the United States (Harts)..................... 545 Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution).......................... ba “Se ROLES. co ES ere Dah te LE rs 33 Newedrom tho stars (Abbot)..-....-.:.-..-.¢-s----s.cec0..ene.s eee 157 Nichols, Mrs. Frances Soo nc vet O: Pron act) apenas aie ce aa 69 Nocturnal radiation, study Gin Coin. bcueee se moR eae, tate te ea 14 re CEU MINE oom sem Secon aaa ns en cco ond thee ace 71 PEACE CALCIO CED cor ase vies cote ela’ Soa <.cis's «ce < ca’ Sac acer ee ae ae 23 O: Octopus; stories ofthe squid ‘and (Bartsch) ---./2. 2.02222... 2.22. tocol cece 347 Official journals, interparliamentary exchange of.........-........22..2.20008- 79 eealuter MAO RE emer ee area ere wicca neo sic wa%s oo wiae acc eae Grades cokes ace By Ohio, art of the great earthwork builders of (Willoughby) --.................. 489 ecm nemcteorites,- whe (Berwerth).*../. 22)... Wa. eee ea Sade tee eee 311 Origins of civilization in Europe, new archeological lights on the (Evans)...... 425 Sea Lama tOr eran. blier (ICOM) sc 5 cre cteoic,s cinic:- u's 0)0's 1's = a'e/c'e wole's)clarela'» e’alotes wie meas 289 Lee Ealeozmicroc kes mtlGlesal Pen. saccoa/sjiccat- <= o's cle «isi sass woee vule oulcie ame 7 Panama-Caltioria Expositiomat, can Diego: ..........---.02++-c-ceccnsae cae 26 Panama-Pacine International Hxposition:.-...5..2-..--s-2+---cs-sen=sesenees 24 EanwAnierican ocientiiic Congress, ‘second :----.'0.. i. e a- ee e e 22 ete ae eee Fela mcs Dacre. reece sss e rina es a mea cles ans wala 113 Pop ty Sy ip ee ee ene at mc ne eS cer rier 9 Peete Ceca) Coca ccleecis os s2 soos eos eee ae nes nes esr age net emaner 107 Perer Walter Go. --- 2... 0. oe ese eee heen eee nen eens mare eeennenen 38 Petroleum resources of the United States (Arnold)..............-------+------- 273 Pickering, Prof. BE. C..........--------- 2-2 eee eee ete eter cere eneeeeees 31 Pictet, Amé (Molecular structure and life).......-.------+---+-++++++++-+++-- 199 Pirates of the deep—stories of the squid and octopus (Bartsch)........-..----- 347 Went Chiatles Ao. -<-c.--cecee a= --- sence cer erer reno eecesntcsserersenaaesns 44 Poore, Lucy T. and George W. (bequest).....--------+-+-++-+2++2eee+ e+: 3, 119, 125 Postmaster General (member of the Institution).......---------+---+-++++++---- xi Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its people, a (Fewkes).......------------- 461 President of the United States (member of the nistib ton) Seecse eee eter xi Printing and publication, committee on......------------++++2eerertrrrsteee 21,118 PTI ARTONIG on ok ree we soe bea ts ones tone senna aaa mens = Sone arene nes 19, 112 Pueblo, a prehistoric Mesa Verde, and its people (Fewkes)...-----------+--+-- 461 Pure science, the relation of, to industrial research (Carty)... 5202-22 eesee 523 Q. 447 Quirigua, Guatemala, the great dragon of (Holmes)...-.---++++s+eeeeereeerees 606 INDEX. Page Radiation MoceUrmal BUY Ole. s 82.06 hs eee ae ee eee ee eee renee 14 Radin» DrisPauls <2 sess soc t cece oe ce oe Soe co ee eee Sone se eee seeiee 64 Rathbun, Richard, assistant secretary of the Institution...............-- Xi, xii, 48 RESTS hs BR GPRM a A eae SAS ke cis i ir aa ae adele et gem ee Na 10, 37, 39, 132 CMe: Wi ONO Bas coer ae Ae Sine erect tats etek etre Peete eye ae eee xii, 24 Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution). - - xi i EWSOPSS TH ESTRON chi oe fol WaNS} A HU LO ceva p eae Ae hg el a ae ol a hy, lp ARID APART eo al , Payee 7 ve a" Par ee a ar Psat the om Noe | er: 4(' pa i ye i oe hie Ao a Pah j Oss, tea LA “i IIIT 3 9088 01421 7087 INL ” Ww x < x @ ) z ° be =) = - o z z < z fe) 7) = = = 7) = a om,