: a A Warn = ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR .THE. YEAR .ENDING,. JUNE ..30 1917 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1919 Be ere wales ep Oa f. MOU aM) amr Detwore | LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1917. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, June 30, 1918. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year end- ing June 30,1917. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, Cuarues D. Watcort, Secretary. 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Letter from the Secretary submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to ‘ CELT TIGRE '-roc Se ARI cae rt eee maace aaa re eet ess gece ee aS, OTT PR Me PAIR EL pEae III (2 TDs Spg) Ry RLS S79 30) app ea eae ele Dap pean ee fife ip gE ER Vv ecco ince ice ow ai are ON a a vu eneral BUDIECIA OL Le AnnigAl LEpOrt. oe. ee ee eee cocaine EMH 8 Ix Officials of the Institution, and-its branches. ....----.------..---------------- XI REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Pre ein ri erate wnstitibion.- =< * 25522525 b <2 2 Pe Sesee lee eee ies See 1 pre et ETOYS 2 IAS PAE eee oe ee re eee te ete dats cede ears 1 aie onl OF meerente! 2250.5 22505 120.4. SS a er aera oe Ses it PCC eC et eae hae tee See oe ee SORES ane ele some Saree 2 Peei ehapirernGiars >? 2.22522 biter 2525 Petes cheats reer coke ee 4 Researches and explorations— Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies............--------- 6 eOIse Tea MONE SUHGIER Soc re Soe ooo. Fe Oe See cee ES ave ca eee ns 8 Hunting graptolites in the Appalachian Valley.....-........-------- 8 Explorations in the Ohio Valley for fossil algae and coral reefs. . .... -- 9 Examination of ancient human remains in Florida. ........-.------- 10 Polo eiean Work Art CU MIN WIS. 2+ a ape 2 a hr terenenerercic w= ease 12 Botanical work in the Hawaiian Islands-..-.........----.-.-----:-- 12 Caichons Botditen! mivion- are... bas Wee tote aoc otaeriens yumi 13 Piosical- work tn nana... sch stow ctlateins 0 Seem gee aie alee ayn 13 Me plorvtidad In-pante Donte: : 22.2. tate cna ante 14 PamcdmiomioCelebes......< 041, ...:.Pistet te’ cos. sees cscs 14 CollmasGarmmer Congo.expedition. . ©. i. Mase Ole bsesbel ns 22535 15 EVER C INCOR PORARIOD 39.12 poate ae hs OR ERLE! oka meineedsamainemaaima 15 Deserta enenren CONNCUs uc. SU bois. 2c sin oe iew sew ae oweas eee sen 16 EIETILEST Hn) 05 Re tele ons Os age a eR ek ieee reine ect =: > = 19 area eee ee ee et Ate oe ascites Acasa nee meme ae eae aoe 21 ecepien to Wrench Beleitastal < 25225 2.2.59 2 21st ess Se nea eh ape esoes 21 iibae teenies MN OCNTTA 9 285 oe he ag arse hs aS Ua otal as aie eee ee 22 ree te Oe ARN CMON PiselOP yc oo.) Joe ioe et de hee on is ee ees 23 Ment ta IOaN (EISCHAUBEM o/! occ ie oe rie ne te ea cla mae ee eee Ao ee hen nme s 24 nrietat eeWPICRL EAT 20... etc tise ae wle tes asa ocin set wom eee oe 25 ear reted| (ber vauat 2 22) hes ce ot hosts naieene ose Ste eee eerie 27 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature..........-----.....---------- 28 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum. ...-.--..----.-- 31 2. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology. ...---..--------- 45 3. Report on the International Exchanges..........--..----------- 62 4, Report on the National Zoological Park.........-...----------- 7. 5. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory . ...--...------------- 88 iG. ivepars On tet Orany sv. cox ease a See ee © oe eene Bere sen 96 7. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature... 104 Bo eport oi publbegtOng: joc seme saps cb aes ges ce h re reee een 107 Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian CUNO Sette cee ng es Ss eee ee Se ik das, yd ele sae 111 Proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.....-.-.--- 117 vI CONTENTS. GENERAL APPENDIX. Projectiles containing explosives, by Commandant A. R...........-......---- 131 Gold and silver deposits in North and South America, by Waldemar Lindgren. 147 The composition and structure of meteorites compared with that of terrestrial focks, by George P. Mermill: .. 0.2.2.2. -.2---..- 22sec ee eee 175 Corals and the formation of coral reefs, by Thomas Wayland Vaughan ........ 189 The correlation of the Quaternary deposits of the British Isles with those of the continent of Europe, by Charles .E.-P, Brooks. .. ......<. 4... 4 ae ape bane oo ee 200 Astrophysical, Observatory_:. 2.2" 5 8 3 a eee 200 For the annual report of the American Historical Association__________ 7, 000 MoOtHILI RED yir: “fyi {06 SOLIS S SO eae Shee aN eee 76, 200 Committee on printing and publication—The Smithsonian advis- ory committee on printing and publication considers all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches. During the past year 16 meetings were held, at which 101 manuscripts were considered and acted upon. The membership of the committee was as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr. C. G. Abbot, director of the Astrophysical Observatory; Mr. Ned Hollister, superintendent of the National Zoological Park; Mr. A. Howard Clark, editor of the Institution, sec- retary of the committee; Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist in charge of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 the Bureau of American Ethnology; and Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum. LIBRARY. The main purpose of the library of the Smithsonian Institution has been to assemble a collection of periodicals and publications of © a scientific nature as well as the journals and other publications of the scientific institutions and learned societies of the world, the whole to be a library of reference for research in the broadest sense. In carrying out this*policy an accumulation of over half a million titles has been made, the main part of which is housed in the Library of Congress with the designation of the Smithsonian deposit of the Library of Congress. In addition to this main part of the Smithsonian library there are maintained a number of smaller libraries at the various branches of the Institution, the National Museum lbrary, the Bureau of American Ethnology library, the Astrophysical Observatory library, and the National Zoological Park library. In the various offices of the Institution and the Museum sectional libraries of technical works in all branches of science are maintained for the use of the scientific staff. There are 35 of these sectional technica] libraries. The accessions to the libraries of the Institution and its branches during the year aggregated more than 9,000 volumes, parts of volumes, and pamphlets. Among important gifts during the year was a first consignment of 561 volumes and 293 pamphlets, part of _ the botanical library of Dr. John Donnell Smith, of Baltimore; the whole of which, amounting to 1,500 volumes, he has offered to the Institution. In the Museum library, 1,572 volumes and 3,556 pamphlets were accessioned during the year, among them the scientific library of Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, associate in zoology, who died last fall. This collection is rich in works on mammals, birds, and plants. Through the continued generosity of Dr. William H. Dall, honorary curator of mollusks, the sectional library of the division of mollusks has been enriched by the addition of 307 titles during the year. RECEPTION IN HONOR OF FRENCH SCIENTISTS. On the evening of June 14, under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences, a reception was held in the Smithsonian build- ing for the members of the French Scientific Mission to the United States. Prof. Charles Fabry told of what France is doing in the war; Commander Bridge spoke of Great Britain’s work in submarine warfare; and Sir Ernest Rutherford sketched the situation as Eng- land seesit. President Walcott, of the National Academy of Sciences, 65133°—sm 1917——3 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and Mrs. Walcott were assisted by Lieut. Maurice Paternot, Prof. Charles Fabry, and Prof. Henri Abraham in receiving the guests. NATIONAL MUSEUM. One of the most important features to be recorded in the opera- tions of the National Museum during the year was the actual begin- ning of the building for the Charles L. Freer Art Collections. Excavation was started on October 2, 1916, and by June 30, 1917, the foundations and concrete walls inclosing the subbasement had been complete. The structure, covering 228 by 185 feet, will be of Milford granite and in exterior and interior design best adapted to its purpose. Assistant Secretary Rathbun in the appendix to the present report gives some interesting details regarding this addition to the Smithsonian group of buildings. The construction of this art building is made possible through the most generous gift of $1,000,000 by Mr. Freer for the housing and study of the magnificent collection he has presented to the Nation. His gift of the building and collection is the most valued donation which any individual has ever made to the Government. The accessions to the National Museum collections during the year aggregated about 200,000 specimens pertaining to anthropology, zoology, botany, geology and mineralogy, paleontology, textiles and woods, mineral technology, and objects of art. In his report Assis- tant Secretary Rathbun enumerates the sources and importance of these accessions, so that it is not necessary here to do more than to mention some of the principal items. Interesting collections of _ anthropological objects were received from the island of Celebes, gathered at the expense of Dr. W. L. Abbott, who for many years has most generously contributed toward the growth of the Museum in ethnological and biological material from various parts of the world. Doctor Abbott personally visited the West Indies during the year and met with gratifying success in adding to our knowledge of the early history of man and of the fauna of that region. A large col- lection of stone implements belonging to the ancient town builders of Mexico was received through Captains Wright and Cooper of General Pershing’s expedition, and extensive archeological collec- tions from the Southwestern States were gathered by Doctor Fewkes and others connected with the Bureau of American Ethnology. Hundreds of objects of great value in the study of physical anthro- pology came to the museum as the result of explorations by Doctor Hrdli¢ka and others in Peru. To the division of American history memorials were added per- taining to eminent military and naval men and other prominent Americans and objects commemorative of historic events, besides ¢ REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ' 23 costumes, furniture, and other articles illustrative of colonial and later periods. Although the Museum is without funds for carrying on extended biological explorations, yet through the generosity of friends it has. been greatly enriched by the results of field work in various parts of the world, particularly the work of Dr. W. L. Abbott so often men- tioned heretofore. A large and fine collection of reptiles and batrachians came as a bequest by the late Julius Hurter, sr., of St. Louis. To the botanical collections were added about 25,000 specimens and the remnant of the botanical library saved from the flood which so nearly destroyed the Vanderbilt Herbarium at Biltmore, N. C., in July, 1916. These objects were presented by Mrs. Vanderbilt. Prof. O. F. Cook gave to the Museum about 15,000 specimens of erypto- gams gathered in the United States and Liberia. In geological material, likewise, and in the department of textiles, mineral technology, and other divisions of the Museum, there were important additions described by the assistant secretary. The attendance of visitors to the Natural History building ag- gregated about 400,000 and the Arts and Industries building about 250,000. ie calling attention to the present needs of the Museum, I may mention the fact that on account of the great growth of tthe collec- tions during the last few years there is already presented a lack of exhibition and storage facilities in some of the departments, par- ticularly in connection with the applied arts, the fine arts, and Ameri- can history. It is exceedingly gratifying that the accessions should increase in such great proportions from year to year, but it is like- wise important that there be a corresponding increase in the number of the scientific staff and other employees necessary for the proper care and study of this mass of material made up in great measure through gifts by the people of the Nation. BUREAU OF AEERSICAN, ETHNOLOGY. The Bureau of American Maheeslece: which conducts ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, is under the direction of Mr. F. W. Hodge, whose report is given in Appendix 2. Among the important researches of the year was the excavation and study of Hawikuh, a large reservation on the Zufi Reserva- tion in western New Mexico. This work was carried on by Mr. Hodge in cooperation with the Museum of. the American Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York City. The purpose of the excava- tion of Hawikuh was to study a Zufii pueblo, known to have been oe 24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. inhabited from prehistoric times well into the historic period, to de- termine as far as possible the character and arts of the Zuni people in early times, as well as the effect of Spanish contact during the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries. The results of this important study, which were highly successful, will be published in the near future. In the Mesa Verde National Park Dr. J. Walter Fewkes exca- vated and repaired a large rectangular ruin, 100 by 113 feet, to which he gave the name of Far View House, by reason of its commanding situation on the mesa. The most important result of the study of this structure is the revelation of a new type of Mesa Verde building, the form and character of which throw light on the close relation of pueblos and cliff dwellings. Dr. Fewkes believes that this structure is the only example of a pure type of pueblo ever completely exca- vated, the term “ pure type ” meaning a terraced community building constructed of shaped stones and having circular kivas, or ceremonial rooms, united with surrounding rectangular rooms. This type of pueblo may be considered a stage in architectural development be- tween the older type of structure and the mixed or modern form which shows a retrogression in the art of masonry. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, while conducting studies in Canada relative to the Iroquois League, was selected as an official delegate from the council of the Six Nations to attend a condolence and installation ceremony at Muncietown, in which he took a leading part, requiring the intoning of an address of comforting in the Onondaga language and also in acting the part of the Seneca chiefs in such a council. Among the special researches carried on during the year may be mentioned the completion of the manuscript on the ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians by Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist. Work is nearly completed on the results of the field work on the Salishan language, carried on through the generosity of Mr. Homer E. Sar- gent, of Chicago, by Mr. James Teit. The study of Indian music has been continued by Miss Frances Densmore, sufficient data now being on hand to complete a work on the music of the Ute Indians, among whom Miss Densmore has now spent two field seasons. The bureau has published during the year 1 annual report, 2 bulle- tins, and a list of publications of the bureau. In press or in prepara- tion at the close of the year were 4 reports and 8 bulletins. The library of the bureau accessioned 435 new books and 388 pamphlets. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. The International Exchange Service, for the exchange of govern- mental and scientific publications with other countries, though very much hampered in its operations by war conditions, has nevertheless “REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 handled during the year a total of 268,625 packages, weighing 290,193 pounds. On account of the very high ocean freight rates Congress allowed a small additional appropriation to meet the expense of foreign shipments. Suspension of shipments is still found to be necessary in the case of about 10 countries. It is gratifying to note that since the begin- ning of the war only three shipments sent out by the Institution have been lost through hostile action, two of these being on vessels sunk by hostile warships. Wherever possible duplicate copies of the publica- tions in lost consignments are procured and another shipment made. It has been the custom of the Government of India to refer requests from establishments in this country for Indian official documents to the Exchange Service for indorsement, and this year a request for similar services by the director of the Government press at Cairo, Egypt, has been granted. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, The National Zoological Park is each year becoming more and more recognized as a means of natural history education and as a place of recreation and amusement for the public, and the collection of animals is now one of the most varied and interesting of its kind in the country. In October, 1916, Dr. Frank Baker, superintendent of the park for 26 years, resigned to take effect November 1, and was succeeded by Mr. Ned Hollister, assistant curator of the division of mammals in the National Museum. The total number of animals in the park at the close of the fiscal year was 1,228, including 484 mammals, 683 birds, and 56 reptiles. Among important additions may be mentioned five adult Rocky Mountain sheep received from the Canadian Government; four Bed- ford deer or Manchurian stags, from the Duke of Bedford; and some desirable Australian marsupials presented by Mr. Victor J. Evans, of Washington, District of Columbia. Visitors to the park during the year numbered 1,106,800, a daily average of 3,032. One hundred and fifty-three schools and classes examined the collection for educational purposes. Among recent improvements the superintendent notes that the hospital and laboratory, on which work has been in progress for the past two years, now lacks only the laboratory equipment for the use of pathologists and the outside yards for the animals to be con- fined in the hospital limits. The lake for North American water fowl has been enlarged and reconstructed to show as many as pos- sible of these birds in their natural surroundings. At present no 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. less than 186 American water birds of 24 species are to be seen in the lake. Every effort is being made to make the park a sanctuary for native wild birds. Over 100 nesting boxes have been put in place and dur- ing the cold weather food is provided, resulting in a notable increase in the bird population of the park. As noted in last year’s report, the appropriation made by Congress in 1913 for the acquisition of a frontage for the park on Connecticut Avenue, lapsed owing to delays caused by legal complications, and it is regretted that Congress has not made a new appropriation for this purpose. As the principal entrance to the park will probably be on Connecticut Avenue for all time, it is exceedingly important that the land in question be acquired before it is too late. Among the imperative needs of the park, the superintendent men- tions some provision for the parking of the increasing number of automobiles that visit the Zoo, outdoor dens for carnivorous animals, additional ponds for waterfowl, a bird house, and a reptile house. The most urgent need, however, is a substantial increase in the gen- eral appropriation. Owing to the steady advance in the cost of sup- plies and the increasing expense occasioned by the larger number of visitors, the point has now been reached where the entire appro- priation, which has remained the same for the past seven years, does . not cover actual maintenance expenses. For some years past the National Zoological Park, in common with other similar institutions in the United States, has felt the effect of conditions that operated to hinder more and more the importation of wild animals from abroad and to reduce the supply. At the suggestion of Dr. W. T. Hornaday, director of the New York Zoological Park, a conference was held at the Philadelphia Zoological Garden to consider the question of sending a joint expe- dition, on behalf of the New York, Philadelphia, and National Zo- ological Parks, to South Africa for animals. It was decided to send a man out to look the ground over, see what could be done in the way of arranging for a supply of animals for the future, and bring back anything desirable that could be secured at the time. Mr. J. Alden Loring, who had been successful in bringing animals from Europe for the New York Zoological Park, and had also had experience in Africa as a member of the Smithsonian expedition to East Africa, was selected to make the trip. Mr. Loring sailed from New York July 22, 1916, taking with him hay and grain enough to feed as many antelopes and other herbivora as he was likely to obtain, for one of the conditions necessary to se- cure their entry into the United States was that no forage from Africa should be brought with the animals. He arrived at Port REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97 Elizabeth, South Africa, August 31, and, returning, sailed from Durban November 22. The opportunities for securing animals to bring back were found to be in some respects less favorable than had been anticipated, but fortunately the zoological garden at Pretoria was fairly well stocked, and the director was kind enough to deplete the collection somewhat for the benefit of his distant colleagues. Most of the animals which Mr. Loring brought back were obtained there,an interesting collec- tion of mammals and birds being secured. The mammals obtained include a gemsbuck, a blessbuck, a white-tailed gnu, a nilgai, four springbucks, a pair of duikers, a pair of meerkats, and a few mon- keys and rodents. Among the birds are two secretary vultures, a bateleur eagle, a hornbill, francolins of several species, a few touracous and hawks,anda number of smaller birds. The collection has been divided between the three institutions concerned, accord- ing to their choice, and in proportion to the share of the expenses that was borne by each. Altogether there were secured 28 mammals, representing 13 species; 60 birds, of 25 species; and 55 snakes and tortoises, of 8 species. While in South Africa Mr. Loring visited and made notes on the zoological gardens at Cape Town, Durban, Bloemfontein, Johannes- burg, and Pretoria. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Measurements of solar radiation were continued as usual on Mount Wilson. As stated in connection with the Hodgkins fund, an allot- ment has been made to undertake similar work in South America. Much attention was devoted by Director Abbot to the preparation of the equipment of this expedition. Valuable new instruments were devised and constructed under his direction. Owing to war condi- tions the expedition was located temporarily at Hump Mountain, North Carolina, in May, 1917, and shelters prepared and apparatus set up and adjusted under the care of Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich. The research on the absorption of terrestrial radiation by vapors of the atmosphere, upon which Mr. Fowle has been engaged for several years, has been completed, and the results, which are of great importance to meteorology, have been made ready for pub- lication by the Institution. A paper of uncommon interest by H. Helm Clayton, based upon observations by the Astrophysical Ob- servatory, has been published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections. The author shows that the short-interval solar variations, discovered in Mount Wilson work, affect terrestrial temperatures and pressures the world over in a well-marked and _ predictable manner. It is greatly to be hoped that daily solar-radiation obser- 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. vations at all times of the year may be obtained for use in such meteorological researches. It was for this purpose that the South American expedition was planned, and it will be unfortunate, indeed, if war conditions should long delay the carrying out of this work. POSSIBILITY OF FORECASTING FROM SOLAR OBSERVATIONS. As Doctor Clayton has shown that variations of the sun are fol- lowed a day or two later by correlated variations of temperature, it is of interest to inquire if the fluctuations of temperature thus caused are large enough to be worth predicting. From Clayton’s curves it seems to be shown that in 1913 and 1914 changes of solar radiation of 1 per cent produced changes of maximum temperatures as follows: Pilar, Argentina, +5.2° C. Manila, Philippine Islands, +1.5° C. Winnipeg, Canada, —6.3° C. It may be supposed that the mean temperatures changed half as much, or +2.6°, +0.75°, and —3.15° corresponding to 1 per cent rise of solar radiation. Changes of 3 per cent or even 5 per cent in solar radiation within 10 days are not very uncommon. For instance note the following values of “solar constant” observed on Mount Wilson in 1911: Date, Sept. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1.888 1.906 1.917 1.960 1,938 1.993 1.948 1.908 1.892 The observed range was 5.5 per cent in 8 days. Obviously, the subject presents possibilities that when sufficient observing stations are equipped in various cloudless regions to yield accurate “solar constant” values every day, it may be possible to forecast for one or two days in advance a very considerable part of the now outstanding temperature fluctuations. At present the two stations of the Smithsonian Institution in California and North Carolina are the only ones making the required solar observations, and not in half of the days in the year, especially in midwinter and midsummer, can observations be made on account of cloudiness. A bequest of $500,000 would enable the Institution to equip and maintain indefinitely the required observing stations. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERA- TURE. As the greater part of the countries supporting regional bureaus of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature are now actu- . ally engaged in hostilities, a great deal of difficulty has been encoun- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 tered in preparing and financing the Catalogue. The number of - scientific papers being published has greatly decreased and it has been found practically impossible to obtain the necessary scientific and clerical assistance for the preparation of the Catalogue. How- ever, the Central Bureau at London has succeeded in issuing four volumes, the twelfth annual issue of geology, and the thirteenth annual issue of chemistry, anatomy, and botany. This brings the total number of volumes published since the inception of the Cata- logue in 1901, up to 216 volumes containing about 3,000,000 refer- ences to current scientific periodicals. The organization as a whole is holding together very well under extremely adverse conditions, and when peace is declared it will be necessary only to resume, rather than reorganize the work. It is becoming more and more difficult to draw the line between pure science and applied science, and the present limitation of the Cata- logue to pure science should be broadened to include at least some of the applied sciences which are advancing with such great strides. Although this would increase the size and cost of the Catalogue, yet its enhanced value would by increasing the demand for it and con- sequently its sale, offset any additional cost. Respectfully submitted. Cuartes D. Waxcort, Secretary. - é Pe. - a.t.3 7. om ~~ oa =< “a ote tye a pam, ~ “ ee) oe 4 nsfn.é Parse tii at? .*% 4 2 ~v hy > i < a . a = are — oe ¢ ‘ oupetand joee prune weal «he ring acrioieun abe cpio dt oldieootgsiiig tw of ae a i wit . . | Atiot antiies at ha! : Ht pe ro 2 aad ts stall Soaie , avi , [Vth Scigater o ‘ 2 f rr sc) FAs nm Petrie 7 it (Lover Foe ais ) ai afiac Bb LP di i? het fe he? aaa pote rs ait fet a Haak i) suc baa siost nb et il ? 92 f fia je pa Ls Diinioe *ae, a plinile onirsine same a ab aint : y emiteing f Hage = ‘i ee Tig if a. ie why bhe f4 Rega ashirs APPENDIX 1. REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the op- erations of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917: ' INTRODUCTORY. ‘Tn the Jast report it was stated that Mr. Charles L. Freer had made arrangements for the immediate erection of the building to house the valuable collections of American and oriental art which he has presented to the Nation through the Smithsonian Institution, and also that the preliminary plans had been approved, the site se- lected and the necessary funds, amounting to $1,000,000, transmitted by him to the Institution. It is exceedingly gratifying to announce that the detailed plans having been sufficiently advanced by that time the work of excavating was begun on October 2, 1916, and by the close of the fiscal year the foundations, including the concrete walls inclosing the subbasement, had been completed. This addition to the Smithsonian group of buildings, with a front- age of 228 feet, a depth of 185 feet, and a height of 46 feet, and containing an open central court about 65 feet square, will present’ an exterior of pink granite from quarries at Milford, Massachusetts, a stone which has been employed with good effect for several promi- nent structures in Washington. Above the ground level it will consist only of a basement and main story, the former lighted by windows, the latter almost wholly by skylights, leaving the upper part of the walls essentially unpierced except for the entrances, of which that on the north front comprises three large arched openings. The loca- tion, at the corner of Twelfth and B streets SW., between the build- ings of the Smithsonian Institution and the Department of Agricul- ture, seems to assure favorable surroundings for the future, as there is slight probability of intrusion by any high or otherwise objection- able constructions in that. vicinity. Not only beautiful and effective in general design, but showing in interior plan a thorough adaptation to the requirements of the collections both as to space and to lighting, with such facilities as will make it practically an independent unit of the Smithsonian 31 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. group, the character of the construction work so far as it has been carried leaves nothing to be desired in respect either to enduring quality or to interpretation of the architect’s conception. The subbasement will contain the appliances connected with the heating, lighting, and ventilation of the building, but steam and electric current will be supplied from the central plant of the Mu- seum. In the basement, which will be a well-lighted story, will be located large studios and rooms for the storage of such parts of the collections as are not on exhibition, a capacious lecture hall, an office for the curator, and work and comfort rooms, furnishing, in fact, all necessary conveniences for administration, for serious study, and for popular instruction. The main story will be entirely devoted to exhibition purposes and be divided into 19 rooms, each designed for a particular subject or class of objects, reached by wide corridors. The Whistler collection will occupy 5 of these rooms, in one of which the decorations of the famous peacock room will be installed. The central court, to con- tain a fountain, will be a special feature of this story, large, arched openings lighting the adjoining corridors and loggias. The entire available floor space of the main and basement stories will aggre- gate some 55,000 square feet, about equally divided between the two floors. It will be recalled that this building is designed to accommodate only the Freer collections and to provide for the study and appre- ciation of their varied contents which supply a vast amount of ma- terial for research work by specialists. As an integral part of this specific gift of art, the most important and valued donation which any individual has ever made, freely and unconditionally, to the Nation, it can not be otherwise employed. Its completion, an event anticipated for the fiscal year 1918-19, while insuring an incalculable gain for the Museum and the public, will not, therefore, satisfy any of the needs, set forth in the last report, in respect to additional space for the national collections of both the applied and the fine arts, as also of American history. The valuable materials in these depart- ments, which have long since been seriously overcrowded, can at present be neither properly utilized nor appropriately brought to the attention of the public. In one branch especially, that of the in- dustrial arts, it is unfortunate that such a condition should now exist, particularly as it is coupled with lack of means for securing an adequate staff of practical experts, as the collections ‘are closely as- sociated with many of the vital problems now confronting the coun- try. With its limited facilities, however, an effort is being made to demonstrate the value of Museum work in time of crisis, and con- tributions made since the close of the year but in time to mention REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3a the fact of their publication here, have been recognized as of great national importance by those high in authority. COLLECTIONS, The additions to the collections, received in 1,450 accessions, aggre- gated approximately 195,845 specimens and articles, classified by subjects as follows: Anthropology, 10,775; zoology, 71,761; botany, 79,155 ; geology and mineralogy, 9,800; paleontology, 23,190; textiles and woods, 933; mineral technology, 213; and National Gallery of Art, 18. Many loans were also accepted for exhibition, chiefly in the Gallery of Art and the division of American history; and 906 lots of material, consisting mainly of rocks, ores, minerals, and z0o- logical specimens were received from various parts of the country for examination and report. Anthropology.—A. varied collection from the island of Celebes, made by Mr. H. C. Raven and presented by Dr. W. L. Abbott, and a large number of objects exhibiting every phase of the textile art as practiced among the Indians of British Guiana, assembled by Dr. Walter Roth, constituted the most important accessions in ethnology. Pertaining to aborigines of the North American Continent were rare _ Papago Indian baskets, baskets of interesting weaves and designs, carved and painted house posts, etc., from the Quileute Indians of Washington; articles of ivory, horn, wood, bark, and stone from Eskimo and British Columbian tribes; and many objects pertaining to the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. Other acquisi- tions were from Mexico, Central America, Abyssinia, Japan, China, and the Philippines. Especially noteworthy was a large collection of antiquities made by Capts. John W. Wright and Alexander T. Cooper, United States Army, while with General Pershing’s expedition in the State of Chi- huahua, Mexico, comprising nearly every variety of artifact of stone belonging to the ancient mound builders of that region. Explorations under the Smithsonian Institution resulted in exten- sive archeological collections from the Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, and from old Zufi ruins near Gallup, New Mexico, made by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes; from ancient pit villages in New Mexico and ruins at Awatobi, Arizona, made by Dr. Walter Hough; from sites of prehistoric adobe dwellings in western Utah, made by Mr. Neil M. Judd; and from a cave in the southern wall of Cibollita Valley, New Mexico, made by Mr. F. W. Hodge. Dr. W. L. Abbott presented much valuable archeological material obtained during his investigations in Santo Domingo, and among’ the smaller accessions were many rare specimens from North and Central America. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Hadji Ephraim and Mr. Mordecai Benguiat made important ad- ditions to the rich collection of antique Jewish objects lent by them during previous years. Included in a valuable gift from the estate of the late John Chandler Bancroft Davis were necklaces, scarabs, figurines, and Ptolemaic coins from Egypt, a sculptured brick from the Colosseum at Rome, and marble and terra-cotta vases. From Miss Isobel H. Lenman were received as a loan a collection of ancient glassware, comprising bottles, flasks, bowls, cups, tear bottles, brace- lets, beads, and other articles, displaying the marvelous irridescence characteristic of the ancient glassware of Syria and Phoenicia. The principal accession in physical anthropology consisted of ma- terial obtained in Peru by Dr. AleS Hrdli¢ka in 1915 in connection with the assembling of exhibits for the Panama-California Exposi- tion. It includes hundreds of objects of great value, among which are many specimens representing rare and in some instances unique anatomical features. Besides an excellent series of brains of gorillas and chimpanzees from the Cameroons and casts of the Sivapithecus remains from India, aboriginal skulls and other bones were received from the vicinity of Vero and Fort Myers, Florida, representing the supposedly very ancient man of that region, from ancient mounds in Utah and the Mesa Verde ruins in Colorado, from Tennessee and Illinois, and from Colombia and Hawaii. Among the many acquisitions in the division of mechanical tech- nology were rare watch movements; early pieces of apparatus re- lating to the invention and history of the telegraph, the telephone, the telautograph, the phonograph, and the graphophone; a Howe sewing machine, which sewed the first seam done by machinery; and numerous interesting firearms, some of early make. To his previous munificent donation, illustrating the history and development of the pianoforte and including dulcimers, spinets, clavichords, harpsichords, and organs, Mr. Hugo Worch added 28 pieces, increasing the extent of this remarkable collection to 117 instruments. An instructive addition to the exhibition series in graphic arts was a life-size figure of a Japanese wood-cut printer at work, the outfit, complete in every detail, having been a gift from the Im- perial Government of Japan. A much earlier stage in the develop- ment of graphic methods is illustrated by an original Mexican paint- ing, executed on a sheet of palmetto fiber smoothly surfaced with white clay. Among other interesting acquisitions were one of the earliest forms of the machine for casting linotype slugs; materials of the various kinds employed in miniature painting, with examples of miniature work on ivory, parchment, and porcelain; and a series of specimens illustrating processes in making line-cut and halftone engraving, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 American history—The most notable memorial accession consisted of a large number of relics of Admiral David G. Farragut, United States Navy, including a jeweled sword presented by the Union League Club of New York and a portrait of Farragut by William Swain, which were received as a donation from the estate of the late Loyall Farragut, only son of the Admiral. Other officers of the Navy represented by contributions were Commodore Stephen De- eatur, Commodore John Rodgers, and Rear Admiral C. M. Chester. Among the furniture secured for the collection were pieces which had belonged to Presidents Washington and Jefferson, President and Mrs. Madison, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, American minister to France in 1796-1798. To the large series of medals awarded Com- mander Matthew Fontaine Maury in recognition of his services to science, and placed in the Museum by several of his descendants, was added the ribbon of the Grand Cross of the Order of Our Lady of Guadaloupe, presented by Emperor Maximilian of Mexico in 1866, a gift from Mrs. Mary Maury Werth. For the gift of the wedding dress of Harriet Lane Johnston, niece of President Buchanan, for several years shown in the section of historical costumes, the Museum was indebted to Miss May S. Ken- nedy. Other hostesses of the White House represented by costumes more or less complete, lent during the year for incorporation in the central feature of the hall, were Mrs. Martha Jefferson Randolph, daughter of President Jefferson; Mrs. Martha Johnson Patterson, daughter of President Johnson; and Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt. Among interesting relics were a silk dressing gown of Lafayette, an elderdown quilt used by Jefferson, a beaded bag of Mrs. James Mon- roe, and a handkerchief that had belonged to Queen Anne. . A large number of decorations, medals, and badges of the United States and foreign countries, which had been assembled by the late Lieut. Thomas Kelly Boggs and were presented by Mrs. Boggs, ' formed a very gratifying addition to the numismatic collection. The ‘greater part of these tokens are foreign war decorations of very timely interest, and 23 countries are represented. The philatelic col- lection was augmented to the extent of 3,398 specimens, mainly re- ceived through the Post Office Department, and including 1,893 ex- amples of new issues of stamps from countries in the Univer i Postal Union, Biology.—Through the generosity of friends the department of biology was greatly enriched by the results of field work in different parts of the world, adding new genera and species and many forms not previously represented in the Museum. Mr. H. C. Raven, under a further grant of funds by Dr. W. L. Abbott, continued his collect- ing on the island of Celebes, sending to Washington about 900 mam- mal skins, besides over 1,000 specimens each of birds and mollusks. 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Doctor Abbott personally spent some time in Haiti, where he obtained many birds, including species whose occurrence on that island was unexpected, reptiles, and mollusks, and also a large quantity of bones of mammels from prehistoric kitchenmiddens. The study of simi- lar deposits on this and other islands of the Antilles was an inter- esting feature of the year’s activities, a large collection of bones gathered by Mr. Theodoor de Booy in Cuba, Santo Domingo, and the Virgin Islands, and presented by Mr. George G. Heye, having yielded new genera of rodents, birds, and reptiles, which have ap- parently become extinct within comparatively recent times. As the proceeds of an expedition to Cuba and Haiti by Mr. John B. Henderson, accompanied by Dr. Paul Bartsch, the Museum re- ceived from Mr. Henderson numerous birds, reptiles, and fishes, and over 15,000 land and marine invertebrates, mostly mollusks. Mr. F. J. Dyer, American consul at Ceiba, Honduras, contributed a large number of insects and mollusks from that country; and Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby transmitted mammals, birds, crustaceans, and mol- lusks from northern China and Manchuria. The Bureau of Fisheries deposited, as usual, valuable collections of fishes and marine invertebrates, besides many interesting speci- mens of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Among the fishes were 72 types, cotypes, and paratypes, 40 of which were of species obtained on the Philippine cruise of the steamer Albatross in 1907-1911. The marine invertebrates, numbering -several thousand specimens, in- cluded recently described type collections of annelids and parasitic copepods. Transfers, chiefly of mollusks and crustaceans, aggregat- ing over 400 specimens, were made by the Biological Survey and Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture. Exceptionally noteworthy was a bequest to the Museum by the late Julius Hurter, sr., of St. Louis. An enthusiastic collector, he had gathered one of the largest and finest private collections of reptiles and batrachians in existence. Its principal scientific value lies in its splendid series of Missouri forms which served as the basis for Mr. Hurter’s “ Herpetology of Missouri,” published in 1911. Not solely confined to that region, however, it contains valuable material from various parts of the world, and most of the important sub- divisions of the group are represented. From the Santa Marta Mountains in Colombia were received 149 specimens of birds, which added 6 species new to the Museum, and from Panama, 213 specimens of reptiles and batrachians, the latter collected by the Smithsonian biological survey of the Canal Zone. Mr. James Zetek transmitted 769 specimens of mollusks and other marine invertebrates from Panama, and Prof. G. S. Dodds, of the University of Missouri, presented a large number of Entomostraca, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 representing 55 species, collected in 124 lakes and ponds in Colorado and forming the basis of a paper which he had published. The Bureau of Entomology was the principal contributor of insects, transferring about 3,000 specimens of various orders. The material from American Consul Dyer in Honduras has already been mentioned. The other more important accessions comprised Lepi- doptera from Peru, Mexico, and Alaska; Hymenoptera from western Argentina, and a collection of miscellaneous insects from Mount Kinabalu, British North Borneo. The additions to the botanical collections exceeded 79 ,000 speci- mens, including about 25,000 specimens from the Vanderbilt Her- barium at Biltmore, North Carolina, comprising all that were saved from the disastrous flood of July 15-16, 1916. This valuable her- barium, which was established and maintained for many years by the late George W. Vanderbilt, contained at the time of the flood upward of 100,000 specimens, and was especially noteworthy for its repre- sentation of the plants of the southeastern United States. This ac- cession, which was accompanied by the remnant of the botanical library attached to the herbarium, was a gift from Mrs. Vanderbilt. Another notable accession consisted of about 15,000 specimens of cryptogams, mainly mosses, hepatics, fungi, and myxomycetes, from the northeastern United States and Liberia, presented by Prof. O. F. Cook. The Department of Agriculture deposited over 5,800 speci- mens, resulting principally from field work of the Bureau of Plant Industry and including many tropical American palms and Alaskan and Hawaiian plants. Through exchanges, important collections were obtained from the New York Botanical Garden, the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the British Museum, and the Bureau of Science at Manila. A gift of about 1,000 Venezuelan plants was received from the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington, and about 5,000 specimens were collected in New Mexico for the Museum by Mr. Paul C. Standley, assistant curator. Geology.——The Charles U. Shepard collection of meteorites, the bequest of which was announced in the last report, was formally transferred to the Museum during the year, and constitutes one of the most important accessions ever acquired by the department of geology. It comprises 238 falls and finds. Additional specimens of meteorites to the number of 26 were obtained by gift and exchange, and there were many acquisitions of valuable ores and rocks from various localities. The more prominent accessions of minerals, as also of petrological material, were from the Geological Survey. Among the former, were a fine large series illustrating the occurrence of turquoise, a 65133°—sm 1917—— 4 38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. number of amethyst crystals, many semiprecious stones, and a large number of minerals and rocks collected in connection with studies of the gem deposits of southern California. Among the latter were extensive collections of rocks and ores representing geological re- searches in several districts in the western United States. From other sources were obtained many rare as well as some in- structive series of minerals and a number of showy specimens espe- cially desired for exhibition. Among these were type specimens of stevensite and creedite, material illustrating the genesis of the zeo- lités and their association with glauberite cavities, a remarkable specimen of glendonite from Australia, an exceptionally large crys- tal of iron pyrite and a fine specimen of crystallized anglesite. The principal acquisitions in invertebrate paleontology were a collection of Silurian fossils, transferred by the Geological Survey, which had formed the basis of papers illustrating the geology and paleontology of Maine, the types of nine species of Paleozoic crin- oids, a series of rare and recently described insects from the Tertiary rocks of Colorado, several hundred species of European invertebrates, and about 2,000 specimens of Lower Ordovician fossils from the zinc mines of Arkansas. A collection of Permian vertebrates from Baylor County, Texas, contains the greater part of a skeleton of the large finbacked reptile Dimetrodon, complete enough to mount for exhibition, besides re- mains in less perfect condition of the same form and of Cardiocepha- lus, Lyosorophus, Diplocaulus, Seymouria, and Labidosaurus, and many bones of small reptiles and batrachians. The skull and lower jaw of a fossil horse, the type of a recently described species, from the Pleistocene gravels of the Yukon Territory, and part of the skull of a fossil muskox from the Pleistocene of Miami County, Indiana, were also obtained. About 400 specimens of small mammalian remains of rare forms from cave deposits in the mountains of western Cuba were collected for the Museum by Mr. William Palmer, and a large part of the skeleton of an extinct and probably undescribed species of bird was received from the Geological Survey. Goucher College, of Balti- more, deposited a collection of reptiles and cetacean remains from the Arundel formation of Maryland, bringing together in the National Museum practically all of the known vertebrate material from that formation in Maryland. Secretary Walcott and party spent the summer and early fall on the Continental Divide between Alberta and British Columbia, south of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and besides extensive geo- logical observations collected about 1,000 pounds of Cambrian mate- rial containing fossils, which were shipped to Washington. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 Tcutiles—The accessions in the division of textiles comprised many excellent examples of the present-day productions of American textile industries. The largest group of specimens received consisted of the most important types of cotton threads, arranged to show the various ways in which they are wound and put up for family and factory use. They were accompanied by several beautiful examples of tatting, crochet, embroidery, and cut work, in white and colors, suggesting artistic and practical uses for many of the threads in the series, and supplemented an extensive series of models and ma- chine parts illustrating the manufacture of cotton thread previously received from the same contributor. The hearty cooperation of many American manufacturers has con- tinued to keep the collections supplied with new types and designs of dress goods as soon as these novelties appear on the market. The exhibits illustrating the principal methods used in decorating fabrics were enriched by numerous examples of tied and dyed work and many samples of skein-dyed plaid silks for comparison with piece- dyed and printed fabrics. Fresh samples of the standard types of ribbons commonly used -and many beautiful specimens of novelty and fancy ribbons, show- ing Aztec, Indian, Chinese, and Byzantine designs, augmented the ribbon section. The adaptability of mohair, by reason of its luster and resiliency, to the manufacture of plushes, vélvets, and fur fabrics was shown in an instructive series of specimens comprising up- holstery goods, cloakings, trimmings, and automobile rugs. Ex- amples of household industry in the textile arts of a former period were received in the form of hand-woven coverlets and quilts, while valuable specimens of foreign hand-worked textiles from China, Spain, and Germany were added to the collection through friends of the Museum. Additions were obtained for the collection of implements illustrat- ing the preparation and use of flax and other fibers in former times, including an old wooden rope machine which had seen many years’ service in twisting bed cords and wash lines. The utilization of pine needles in the manufacture of coiled baskets and of split-palm stems for large pack baskets was shown in other accessions. Wood. technology—Although circumstances greatly retarded the progress of work in wood technology, some interesting exhibits were secured. A model measuring 12 by 15 feet and contributed by the Forest Service is designed to show the various important uses of the national forests and their administration. A comprehensive cork exhibit covers every phase of the industry from the raw bark to the many articles made from this substance, and certain modern methods of preserving wood are represented by a model and samples of the materials employed. Examples of 15 species of Argentine woods 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and 49 specimens of wood from Surinam were added to the com- mercial series of timbers, and the series illustrating wood finishing and tanning materials were also increased. Mineral technology—Most important among the additions in min- eral technology was an impressive model of the Bingham Canyon copper property in Utah, measuring 16 by 19 feet, accurately sculp- tured and colored, representing what is probably the most significant mining achievement of the present generation. It was a gift from the Utah Copper Co. The manufacture of white lead is shown in another excellent model presented by the National Lead Co., of New York, while among the models made in the Museum are five visual- izing the mode of occurrence, the recovery, and the preparation, re- spectively, of tin, sulphur, asphalt, lime, and oil. A specimen exhibit illustrative of design and execution in cut glassware, specially pre- pared for the Museum, was contributed by T. G. Hawkes & Co., of Corning, New York, and another series of specimens exemplifying the properties and uses of asphalt came from the Barber Asphalt Paving Co. . Exhibits more or less representative or at least covering some phase of 18 mineral resource types are now available to the public in the halls of the division. Of these, abrasives, asbestos, asphalt, coal and coal products, copper, graphite, lime, mica, petroleum, plaster, Portland cement, and sulphur have been treated with sufficient full- ness to warrant the publication of descriptive accounts of them and of their significance. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. The progress of work in the erection of the building for the Freer collections has already been mentioned. Next. in importance to record in this connection are the terms of the will of Henry W. Ranger, N. A., one of the best-known of contemporary American painters, who died on November 7, 1916, leaving his residuary estate, estimated at over $200,000, to the National Academy of Design to be held as a permanent fund of which the income is to be used for pur- chasing paintings by American artists, the paintings so obtained to be given to art or other institutions in America which maintain a gal- lery open to the public, ipon the express condition that the National Gallery of Art shall have the option and right to take, reclaim, and own any picture for its collection provided such option and right is exercised at any time during the five-year period beginning 10 years after the artist’s death and ending 15 years after his death. This generous provision by Mr. Ranger, which has been most gratifying to all lovers of art in this country and may be expected to have a stimulating influence upon the work of American artists, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41 will result in a much wider circulation than hitherto of good Ameri- can paintings and insure the gradual assembling for perpetual ex- hibition at Washington of some of the best that our painters can produce. The system of selection will, in its working, be not unlike that which has been followed by the French Government in Paris, and it is to be hoped that the fund for so worthy a purpose may in time be greatly increased through corresponding action by other public benefactors. The National Gallery contains five of Mr. Ranger’s paintings, all of which were presented by Mr. William T. Evans. Among the permanent acquisitions by the Gallery during the year were the following oil paintings: “ June,” by John W. Alexander; “On the Lagoon, Venice,” by R. Swain Gifford; “ Portrait of Ben- jamin West,” by himself; “ Portrait of J. J. Shannon, R. A.,” by Orlando Rouland; “The Song of: the Sea,” by William F. Halsall; “Portrait of Ellwood Hendrick,” by Augustus Vincent Tack; “Evening,” by William J. Kaula; “Landscape,” by Chauncey F. Ryder; “A Breton Sunday,” by Eugene Vail; “ The Happy Mother,” by Max Bohm; “ Portrait of Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel, U. S. Volun- teers,” by J. Mortimer Lichtenauer; and “Portrait of Joseph Henry,” first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, by Henry Ulke. Among the sculptures were a bronze “ Statue of Robert Emmet,” by Jerome Connor; a bronze figure, “The Fire Dance,” by Louis Potter; and a rele statue “The Dying Tecumseh,” by Cheyaiier Padaniua Pettrich. An oil portrait of Dr. Charles D. Walcott, recently Whol: by Ossip Perelma, was deposited by the Smithsonian Institutjon, as were also large oil portraits of Washington, Jackson, Henry Clay, and W. W. Corcoran, by the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia.. Through the kindness of Mr. Ralph Cross Johnson, many fine examples from his splendid private collection of paintings were con- tinued on exhibition throughout the year, while the collection of Mr. W. A. Slater remained in the Gallery until in December. Seven- teen paintings from 11 friends of the Gallery were also added to the general loan collection. The Gallery held four special loan exhibitions during the year. The most notable of these, given under the auspices of the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior during January and February, and designed to bring to the attention of American tourists some of the marvelous natural attractions of their own country, consisted of 45 oil paintings illustrating scenes mainly in the National Parks and Monuments of the United States, among the 27 artists represented being Albert Bierstadt and Thomas Moran. Assembled in connection with the meeting of the National Parks 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Conference held in the Museum auditorium from January 2 to 6, this interesting exhibition was opened with a special view on the evening of the second and the majority of the paintings remained on display until March. It was supplemented by series of photo- graphs, studies in oil, and other pictorial matter shown in several rooms. The other special exhibitions were as follows: Twenty oil paint- ings and 1 bronze group, by Edwin Willard Deming, illustrating the old-time Indian, his war, hunting, and religious life and mythol- ogy; a collection of 27 oil portraits and other paintings by Orlando Rouland, which was opened on the evening of April 2, and was es- pecially noteworthy for the number of prominent men represented ; and a collection of 48 paintings, mostly portraits, by the Russian painter, Ossip Perelma, which began on April 28. Mention should also be made of the ceremonies attending the pres- entation to the Gallery by the Emmet Statue Committee of the bronze full-length figure of Robert Emmet by Jerome Connor, which took place in the rotunda of the new building on the afternoon of June 28. A distinguished audience, including the President of the United States and other high officials of the Government, was in attendance and several addresses were made. MEETINGS AND CONGRESSES. The accommodations afforded by the auditorium and committee rooms in the natural history building were utilized on many occa- sions. Three courses of lectures, extending from November to April, were gtven under the auspices of the Washington Society of the Fine Arts, while three other local societies, the Anthropological Society of Washington, the District of Columbia Dental Society, and the So- ciety of Federal Photographers, also made this building their regular meeting place. The National Academy of Sciences had its annual meeting in April, and lectures were delivered under the auspices of the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences, the War College, the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia, the Bureau of Commercial Economics, the Washington Center of the Drama League of America, the Shakespeare Society of Washington, and George Washington Uni- versity. Several bureaus of the Department of Agriculture made use of the auditorium or committee rooms for conferences and hearings, and meetings were held by four societies representing special fields of agricultural subjects. The exhibition halls in the natural history building were opened one evening for the benefit of the Ohio Corn Boys and Domestic Science Girls, then visiting Washington. Other meetings of a governmental character were as follows: By the Na- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 tional Association of Postmasters, holding its nineteenth annual con- vention; by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the Department of Commerce; by the National Parks Conference, under the auspices of the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior, accompanied by an exhibition of paintings; by the Na- tional Research Council; and by the Bureau of Commercial Eco- nomics, which gave an exhibition of lantern slides and motion pic- tures relative to the prevention of contagious diseases, for the bene- fit of the Council of National Defense. Mr. Eugene E. Thompson addressed the employees of the Institution and its branches on the subject of the first Liberty loan, and two rehearsals of the inter- Departmental chorus in preparation for Flag Day exercises were held in the auditorium. Receptions were given, on the invitation of the Regents and Secre- tary of the Institution, on the occasion of a special view of paintings by Mr. Orlando Rouland, and to the Daughters of the American Revolution at the time of their annual congress and the delegates to the eighth annual convention of the American Federation of Arts. The exhibition halls in the natural history building were opened on the evening of June 6 in honor of the visiting Confederate Veterans, Sons of Confederate Veterans, and Daughters of the Confederacy, the receiving party consisting of Secretary and Mrs. Walcott, Miss Mary Lee, and members of the local reception committee. MISCELLANEOUS. Over 6,000 duplicate specimens, included in 16 regular sets of mol- lusks, 19 regular sets of fossils, and a number of special sets, were distributed to schools and colleges. Exchanges for securing addi- tions to the collections involved the use of about 19,500 duplicates, while above 14,000 specimens, chiefly biological and geological, were lent to specialists for study. The attendance of visitors at the natural history building aggre- gated 343,183 persons for week days and 63,842 persons for Sundays, being a daily average of 1,096 for the former and 1,227 for the latter. At the arts and industries building and the Smithsonian building, which are open only on week days, the totals were, respectively, 161,700 and 86,336, and the daily averages, 516 and 275. By the terms of three wills admitted to probate during the year the Museum will be materially: benefited, and in another case the testator’s desires have already been carried out. Attention has been called to two of these bequests in other connections. That of Henry Ward Ranger is destined to have an important bearing on the future welfare of the National Gallery of Art, while the collection of rep- tiles left by Julius Hurter, sr., is especially noteworthy and valuable. To the late Miss Sarah J. Farmer, of Eliot, Maine, the Museum is 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. indebted for the bequest of the models and apparatus left by her father, Moses G. Farmer, a prominent pioneer in the development of the electrical industries, many of whose inventions have for some time been represented in the Museum. Through the wishes of the late Rev. Bruce Hughes, of Lebanon, Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution becomes the recipient of a small sum, the residue of his estate, to found the Hughes Alcove, which will be established in some form in the Museum and be added to perpetually from the interest on principal. The publications of the year consist of one volume of Proceed- ings, two volumes of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, and four Bulletins, besides 76 separate papers, all of which were from the Proceedings, except two from the Contributions and two catalogues of special loan exhibitions in the National Gallery of Art. The total number of copies of publications distributed was about 64,000. The library obtained, by purchase, gift, and exchange, 1,572 vol- umes, 65 parts of volumes and 3,556 pamphlets. The more impor- tant donations were from Capt. John Donnell Smith, the estate of the late Dr. E. A. Mearns, United States Army, and Dr. William H. Dall. Respectfully submitted. Ricuarp Rarueun, Assistant Secretary in Charge, United States National Museum. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. November 10, 1917. APPENDIX 2. REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Sim: Pursuant to your request dated July 3, I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved July 1, 1916, making provisions for the sundry civil expenses of the Govern- . ment, and with a plan of operations submitted by the ethnologist-in- charge and approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- tion. The act referred to contains the following item: American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the Ameri- can Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preserva- tion of archxologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodi- cals, $42,000. In addition to conducting the administrative affairs of the bureau, Mr. F. W. Hodge, ethnologist-in-charge, assisted by Miss Florence M. Poast, continued the preparation of the annotated bibliography of the Pueblo Indians as opportunity offered, adding about 1,000 cards to the 3,800 previously prepared. . SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES. In April Mr. Hodge proceeded to New Mexico for the purpose of making final arrangements with the Zufi Indians for the excava- tion of the ruins of the large pueblo of Hawikuh, situated on their reservation in the western-central part of the State. This having been accomplished, Mr. Hodge returned to Washington and in the latter part of May again proceeded to Zufi and established camp at Hawikuh, where excavations were immediately commenced under the . Joint auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, of New York City, the latter institution bearing most of the expense of the expedition, and assigning Mr. Alanson Skinner and Mr. E. F. Coffin to aid in the work. Authority for conducting the excavations was courteously granted by the Secretary of the Interior. The excavation of Hawikuh has as its chief object the study of a Zuii pueblo known to have been inhabited from prehistoric times well into the historic period, for the purpose of determining, so far 45 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. as possible, the character and arts of the Zuni people in early times, as well as the effect of Spanish contact during the sixteenth and sev- enteenth centuries. Hawikuh was one of the famed “Seven Cities of Cibola” of early Spanish narrative, and its history from the time of its discovery in 1539 until its abandonment in 1670 is quite well known. Consequently the information that the ruins may be ex- pected to yield will in all probability shed considerable light on a phase of the culture of a branch of the Pueblo Indians at an impor- tant period in their life. It is not necessary in this brief report to present the results of the Hawikuh excavations, which were successful beyond anticipation in both a subjective and a objective way. It is expected that a sum- mary report on the work, which was still in progress at the close of the fiscal year, will be presented for publication in the near future. The beginning of the fiscal year found Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, eth- nologist, engaged in an archeological reconnoissance in the vicinity of Gallup, New Mexico. Early in July he proceeded to Mancos, Colo- rado, examining ancient ruins en route and commencing intensive archeological work in the Mesa Verde National Park, where he re- mained until the close of September. These excavations, conducted with the cooperation of the Department of the Interior, were in con- tinuation of the work initiated several years ago, of uncovering and repairing the remains of the more important prehistoric ruins in that great area, thus making them available for study and adding to the park’s many attractions. The scene of Doctor Fewkes’s activities during this season was one of a cluster of 16 ruins known as the Mummy Lake group, situated above Soda Canyon. None of the walls of this large ruin projected above the surface of the mound of fallen building stones and other dé- bris covered with sagebrush, but on excavation the remains were shown to be those of a rectangular pueblo, 100 by 113 feet, with three stories at the north and an annexed court inclosed by a low wall on the south. By reason of its commanding situation, Doctor Fewkes has named this former pueblo Far View House. After clearing the ruin of the great quantity of débris accumulated during centuries, the tops of the walls of the four kivas uncovered were protected with a capping of con- crete, and so far as means would permit the walls of other chambers ~ were similarly treated. As a report on Doctor Fewkes’s work at Far View House will appear shortly, it is not necessary to present the details here; but it may be mentioned that the most important result of the study of this site is the fact that a new type of Mesa Verde structure has been revealed, the form and character of which shed light on the close relation of pueblos and cliff dwellings. Indeed, 1“ A Mesa Verde Pueblo and its People,’ Smithsonian Report for 1916, pp. 461-488, pl. 1-15, figs. 1-7, Washington, 1917. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47 Doctor Fewkes reports that Far View House is the only known ex- ample of a pure type of pueblo ever completely excavated, the term “pure type” signifying a terraced community building constructed of shaped stones and having circular kivas united with surrounding rectangular rooms. Other significant features are the vaulted roofs of the kivas, the supporting beams of which rest on pilasters, and the presence of a ventilator and a deflector in each kiva, as in the case of certain cliff dwellings. As this pure type of pueblo is entirely prehistoric, it may be regarded as representing a stage in architec- tural development between the older stage of pueblo structures and the mixed type or more modern form in which the arrangement of the rooms and the art of the mason exhibits a retrogression. On finishing his work at Far View House, Doctor Fewkes visited Utah primarily for the purpose of determining the geographic dis- tribution of ruins in the northern limits of Pueblo culture. This reconnoissance extended to the Uintah Reservation, where hitherto unknown ruins of Hill Canyon, near Ouray, were examined and where a number of stone towers similar to those along San Juan River were found. These ruins, to which Doctor Fewkes’s attention was called by Mr. Kneale, agent for the Uncompahgre Ute, are espe- cially striking owing to their unusual situation on eroded rocks of mushroom shape. These towers mark the northernmost limit of Pueblo culture in eastern Utah, and some of them are especially in- structive by reason of their relation to prehistoric towers much further south. An illustrated report on these remains, by Doctor Fewkes, has already appeared.* Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, was engaged in field work among the Eastern Cherokee of western North Carolina at the opening of the fiscal year, and on his return to Washington, August 10, resumed the translation and annotation of the Sacred Formulas of the Chero- kee, as well as the identification of the plants, etc., used by the tribe in its medicine and other rites. Mr. Mooney reports this work to be well advanced, but its complicated nature, coupled with the author’s ill health during the year, has made progress somewhat slow. Mr. Mooney also spent considerable time in supplying in- formation on technical subjects for official correspondence. Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was occupied chiefly with two lines of investigation—the one historical, the other philological. In July and August he made a thorough examination of the Woodbury Lowery and Brooks collections of manuscripts in the Library of Con- gress bearing on the early Spanish history of Florida, finding many important items for incorporation in his “History of the Southeast- 1“ Archeological Investigations in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 1-38, May, 1917. 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ern Tribes.” In September Doctor Swanton visited the Newberry Library in Chicago, where other valuable early documents were found in the Edward E. Ayer collection, which subsequently were copied for the bureau’s use by the courtesy of the librarian. These latter manuscripts include a report on the Indians of Louisiana by Bien- ville, a Louisiana memoir with an extended description of the Choc- taw, and a memoir by the French captain Berenger, containing, besides historical and ethnological information, vocabularies of the extinct Karankawa and Akokiska tribes. A Spanish census of the Indians of Florida after the period of the English invasions should also be mentioned. For some months after his return Doctor Swanton was engaged in adding to his monograph the historical notes thus obtained, and in copying and translating the more important parts of the manuscripts mentioned, including all of the Berenger memoir. Although Doctor Swanton’s History of the Southeastern Tribes nad been completed a year ago, so far as the information was then available, the manuscript discoveries described have enabled him to augment and to improve it substantially, and more recently he has obtained some supplementary notes from the Louisiana Historical Society. The preparation of the maps to accompany the monograph, chiefly from early sources, did not progress as satisfactorily as was hoped, owing largely to pressure of other illustration work, but they are now practically finished. Doctor Swanton’s second paper, also referred to in last year’s report remains as then practically complete so far as the available material is concerned, but it awaits further data respecting the social organi- zation of the Chikisaw and the Choctaw. A third paper, on the religious beliefs and medical practices of the Creeks and their con- geners, has been brought to the same stage as the last, namely, with all the available material incorporated and arranged, and the foot- notes added. With a view of furnishing the basis of a general study of the social organization of the tribes north of Mexico, Doctor Swanton spent a few weeks collecting material bearing on Indian economic life, but this has been laid aside temporarily on account of the greater ur- gency of a closer comparative study of the Indian languages of the southeastern part of the United States, particularly as indications of relationship between some of them have already been noted. Asabasis for this work Doctor Swanton has recorded a comparative vocabulary of Creek, Choctaw, Alabama, Hitchiti, Natchez, Tunica, Chitimacha, Atakapa, Tonkawa, Comecrudo, Cotoname, Coahuilteco, and Ka- rankawa. Ofthese languages about 500 words were chosen, but as the lexical material from several of the tribles is scanty, the comparison can never be complete. It was the intention to follow the compila- tion of this table with a closer comparison of Chitimacha and Ata- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 kapa, which show many resemblances, but in the course of the work so many more similarities between Chitimacha and Tunica presented themselves that these were selected instead. In partial furtherance of this research Doctor Swanton proceeded to Louisiana in May, where he remained almost until the close of the fiscal year, visiting, studying, and photographing the mixed Indian population along the Gulf coast in La Fourche and Terra Bonne Parishes, the Chitimacha at Charenton, and the Koasati northeast of Kinder. From the Koa- sati about 150 pages of native text with interlinear translation were recorded, and 134 pages previously procured from an Alabama In- dian in Texas were corrected. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, at the beginning of March went to Canada for the purpose of continuing his Iroquois studies. Estab- lishing headquarters at Brantford, Ontario, he at once undertook the work of revising the extended texts relating to the Iroquois League, recorded during former field trips. Shortly thereafter this work was interrupted when Mr. Hewitt was selected as an official delegate from the council of the Six Nations to attend a condolence and installation ceremony at Muncietown, in which he took a leading part, requiring the intoning of an address of comforting in the Onondaga language and also in acting the part of the Seneca chiefs in such a council. This official recognition gave Mr. Hewitt the rare opportunity of observing how such a ceremony is conducted from an esoteric point of view. On returning to Brantford, March 16, Mr. Hewitt resumed work on the texts pertaining to the league, tli necessitated the reading of the words and the immediate context several times to determine their final form. Moreover, it was desirable to read the texts over with every informant separately in order to obtain a full expression of the informant’s knowledge or criticism of the work of another. In this manner it was possible to study about 70 per cent of the texts, and this led, naturally, to the collection of other corrective or amplifying texts and notes. These aggregate 502 pages, comprising 42 topics, recorded from rituals received by Shaman Joshua Buck and Chief Abram Charles. In addition, Mr. Hewitt recorded in English translation three traditions, comprising 45 pages, purporting to relate events and to express ideas alleged to have led to the found- ing of the League of the Iroquois, showing naively the birth of the idea of human brotherhood and fellowhood in contradistinction to mere local tribalism. Mr. Hewitt also made important discoveries regarding Iroquois social organization, namely, that certain so-called clans do not exist outside of the names used to designate them. For instance, the “Ball” clan is in reality the Hawk clan; the “Hand” clan of the 50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Cayuga is the Gray Wolf clan, and the “Potato” clan of that tribe is in fact a Duck clan or possibly a Wolf clan. This confusion has been due to popular acceptance of a sobriquet for the real name, hence the doubt in the last instance between the Duck and the Wolf, which it is probable will ultimately be removed. Mr. Hewitt was fortunate also in obtaining a set of wooden masks of the various wind gods, and also two masks of food gods—eight in all. He also procured the gourd rattle used by the late Chief John Buck, a medicine flute, and what was probably the last cradle board with a beaded belt on the reservation. On returning from the field early in July, Mr. Hewitt undertook at once the editing and copying of the texts of some of his material relating to the Iroquois League. Among these are the following, chiefly in the Onondaga language: (1) The eulogy of the grandsires and founders, one of the essential chants in the condolence ritual, in the version used by the “ father side” of the league; (2) the laws gov- erning federal chiefs in intertribal relations; (3) the laws relating to murder committed by a federal chief; (4) the charge made to a newly installed federal chief; (5) the important tradition of the Bear-foot episode; (6) the address made at the lodge of a deceased federal chief three days after his burial; and (7) the laws relating to the nomina- tion and election of a candidate for a federal chiefship. Mr. Hewitt also commenced the translation of the extended “ father-side” tra- dition of the founding of the League by the Deganawida and his associates, read the available proofs of “Seneca fiction, legends, and myths” for the thirty-second annual report, and supplied nu- merous technical data for use in responses to inquiries by corre- spondents. Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, when not engaged in field- work, was occupied in assembling his notes on the Osage Indians, the greater portion of which consists of phonographic records taken from men versed in the tribal rituals, which evidently were composed for the preservation and transmission of the religious concepts of the tribe. Three forms are used in their construction, namely, reci- tation, song, and dramatic action. The spoken parts, called “ wigie,” are intoned by the masters of ceremony and by male members of the various gentes of the tribe who have memorized them. These wigie tell of the genesis of the tribe; they recount the stories of the adop- tion of life symbols and explain their significance, and narrate the finding and selection of the materials used in making the ceremonial paraphernalia. The songs used by the master of ceremonies, with the aid of a few chosen assistants, make the emotional appeal to the various symbols employed in the ritual. Ceremonial acts, proces- sions, and dances accompany some of the songs and wigie. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 The theme of these composite rites is the desire of the people for a long, peaceful life and a never-ending line of descendants, and the wigie, songs, and dramatic acts constitute a supplication to the unseen power for aid toward the realization of this desire. The never-ending life so devoutly sought for the tribe seemed to the people to be ex- emplified in the unfailing recurrence of night and day, in the con- stancy of the movements of the heavenly bodies, in the manifestation of a like desire among the living forms upon the earth, and thus to point to an ever-present unseen animating power to which the people must appeal for the granting of their prayers. In this appeal for never-ending life the Osage naturally personified, and to a degree deified, those objects to which, as he thought, the unseen power had granted this form of life. Among these he included the vast space within which the heavenly bodies mysteriously moved and into which all living forms are born and exercise their functions. Thus all as- pects of nature are made to play a part in the great drama of life as presented in these rituals. Early in the year Mr. La Flesche finished transcribing the wigie, as well as his notes on two complete versions and a portion of a third version of the child-naming rituals, comprising 107 typewritten pages. On completing this task he undertook the translation of the Osage personal names in current use and of arranging them by gentes. The Osage generally cling tenaciously to the ancient custom of ceremonially naming their children in the belief that the cere- monies aid the young in attaining old age. In this work Mr. La Flesche was able to determine that many members of the Osage Tribe enrolled as full bloods are in reality of mixed blood. The tabulation of these names by sex and gentes, with their translations, together with a transcription of some characteristic tales, occupies 201 type- written pages. During the last four months of the fiscal year Mr. La Flesche was engaged in assembling his notes on the fasting ritual of the Tsizhu ‘Washtage gens. Most of the songs are quite different from those be- longing to the fasting rituals of the Hénga, while some of the wigie are the same, these being used in common with slight modifications among the different gentes. These fasting rituals cover 139 com- pleted pages, including the music. A wigie was obtained by Mr. La Flesche from an old woman during his visit to the Osage in January, 1917. This wigie, which consists of eight pages, fills a hiatus in the rush-mat ceremony previously recorded. At the opening of the fiscal year Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnol- ogist, was engaged in continuing his studies among the Sauk and Fox Indians of Iowa, the main work accomplished being the phonetic 52, ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. restoration of a long text, written in the current syllabary, on the origin of the white buffalo dance, intended for publicstion as a bul- letin of the bureau. Considerable information pertaining to a number of sacred bundles of the Fox Indians was obtained, as well as various data of a sociological nature. Nearly 300 personal names were re- corded, together with the names of the gentes to which their owners belonged; in this manner about nine-tenths of the population of the Fox Indians has been catalogued. About the middle of August Doctor Michelson proceeded to Okla- homa where, with the cooperation of the Illinois Centennial Commis- sion, he conducted researches among the Peoria. The ethnology of this tribe, properly speaking, has practically vanished, but their lan- guage and folklore still persist, though knowledge thereof is confined to only a few individuals. Contrary to ordinary belief, the Peoria language, phonetically, is extremely complicated. From notes left by the late Dr. A. S. Gatschet, it had been inferred that the Peoria belongs fundamentally with the Chippewa or Ojibwa group of cen- tral Algonquian languages, and this was fully confirmed. It is quite clear, however, that there has been another and more recent associa- tion with the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo group, and Peoria folklore and mythology also point to this double association. The system of consanguinity is clearly that of the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo group, rather than that of the Ojibwa. Doctor Michelson recorded, mostly in English, an almost exhaustive collection of Peoria folk- tales and myths. After devoting about a month’s time to the Peoria Doctor Michelson returned to Iowa and renewed his work among the Sauk and Fox by making a phonetic restoration of a number of texts on minor sacred packs pertaining to the white buffalo dance, as well as by recording about 200 pages of the extremely long myth of the Fox culture hero. Most of the ceremonies in connection with the presentation of a new drum of the so-called religious dance of the Potawatomi of Wisconsin were witnessed, as also were parts of a number of clan feasts. On returning to Washington in November Doctor Michelson com- menced the revision of the English translation of the texts relating to the white buffalo dance, and devoted attention also to paragraph- ing and punctuating the Indian originals for the purpose of making them correspond with the English equivalents. By the close of the year the English translations were typewritten and put in almost final shape, while little work remained to complete the editing of the native texts. Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, spent the entire year in continua- tion of his intensive study of the Chumashan Tribes of California, obtaining a large body of important information which at present is in various stages of elaboration and which will comprise about 1,200 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 typewritten pages. From the beginning of the fiscal year until Sep- tember 15 Mr. Harrington devoted his attention to the Purismefio dialect, the existing vocabularies being corrected by the informant, and many new words and grammatical forms added. The next three weeks were spent on the Obispefio with satisfactory results, inasmuch as the material obtained in former years was more than doubled. The sole informant’s feeble health made the recording of this ma- terial unusually difficult, but it will prove to be of great local as well as of general interest. The remainder of the fiscal year was devoted to Venturefio and Ineseno. While not so nearly lost as Obispefio, it is too late to obtain complete information on these dialects, but in the process of their study many important points have been deter- mined. It is largely from their study that the picture of former Chumashan life must be reconstructed. The study of the material culture of the Chumashan Tribes has not been neglected, and in this work archeological material has been of assistance. Among the important points determined are details concerning the making of the ancient deerskin dress of the women, which consisted of a large back flap and a smaller apron. From the beginning of the fiscal year to the middle of January, 1917, Dr. Leo J. Frachtenberg, special ethnologist, was engaged in field work in the State of Washington, where he devoted special attention to the Quileute Indians and to collecting additional lin- guistic and mythological material. The ethnologic investigations covered the subjects of history and distribution, manufacture, houses and households, clothing and ornaments, subsistence, travel and transportation, warfare, games and pastimes, social organization and festivals, social customs, religion, medicines, charms and current beliefs, and art, and the recorded results consist of 577 manuscript pages. In addition, Doctor Frachtenberg recorded 156 native songs, including words and translations; he also obtained several hundred native drawings illustrating the material culture of the Quileute, and photographed a like number of ethnologic specimens. Further- more, he materially added to his linguistic and ethnologic studies of this people, commenced during the preceding year, by collecting several thousand additional grammatical forms and phrases, and by recording 22 new native traditions with interlinear translations, and 8 stories in English. These texts, in the form of field notes, comprise 176 pages. While engaged in this field work Doctor Frachtenberg was instrumental in inducing Mrs. Martha Washburn, of Neah Bay, Mr. and Mrs. Theo R. Rixon, of Clallam Bay, and Mrs. Fannie Tay- lor, of Moran, to give to the National Museum a part of their collec- tions of Makah and Quileute specimens, including two old totem poles, approximately 100 baskets, and more than 30 other ethnologic speci- mens. In addition to the Quileute studies mentioned, Doctor Fraeh- €5133°—sm 1917——5 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. tenberg collected 88 pages of Makah (Nootka) linguistic data, 57 pages of Quinault (Salish), and 18 pages of Clallam (Lkungen). While in Portland, Oregon, he obtained through the courtesy of the municipal miithotitids a fine collection of photographs representing several hundred archeological objects owned by the city. Doctor Frachtenberg returned to Washington early in February. Subsequently, after conference with Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist of the bureau, it was arranged that Doctor Frachtenberg prepare for the Handbook of American Indian Languages compara- tive sketches of the Kalapuya, Molala, Klamath, and Quileute, and possibly one of the Salish languages. He also engaged in the final preparation of his paper, Alsea Texts and Myths, which is now in process of printing as Bulletin 67. He next proceeded to prepare for publication the results of his earlier investigations of the lan- guage, ethnology, and mythology of the Kalapuya Indians, which will consist of two papers: A Grammatical Sketch of the Kala- puya Languages and Kalapuya Myths and Texts. The Kalapuya grammatical material consists of extended field notes gathered in 1913 and 1914, and of grammatical notes on the Atfalati collected by Doctor Gatschet in 1877. Doctor Gatschet’s material, comprising 421 pages of field notes, is of inestimable value; indeed it is to the efforts of this untiring scholar that we owe the preservation of this most important dialect of the Kalapuya language, since he obtained his-material, which includes also some valuable ethnologic data, from the last full-blood Atfalati. Doctor Frachtenberg’s own material comprises several thousand grammatical forms, phrases, and voca- bles, and 32 native texts with interlinear translation—630 pages in all. The preparation of these linguistic data, as well as the work on the Kalapuya myths and texts, is well under way. Six of the texts, comprising 36 pages, have been prepared for publication; five of these are provided with interlinear translation and with voluminous notes in which attention is directed to the occurrence of similar myths among other tribes. During his studies of the Kalapuya languages Doctor Frachtenberg discovered that there is sufficient reason to be- lieve that the Kalapuya, Takelman, and Chinookan languages are genetically related, the determination being based not only on lexical but also on structural and morphological material. This discovery tends to establish a connecting link between some of the languages of California and most of the languages spoken in Oregon. During the last two weeks of the fiscal year Doctor Frachtenberg was temporarily detailed for special work in the epee of Investi- gation of the Department of Justice. SPECIAL RESEARCHES. Dr. Franz Boas, honorary philologist, completed the preparation of his manuscript on the ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians, about REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 2,700 pages of which was submitted to the bureau and assigned as the accompanying paper of the thirty-fifth annual report, the com- position of which was commenced before the close of the fiscal year. At the same time progress was made on the preparatory work for the second part of the memoir. Under Doctor Boas’s direction Miss Mildred Downs listed the incidents of the Kwakiutl mythology preparatory to a discussion of the subject, and necessary additional information for this purpose was obtained from Mr. George Hunt, of Fort Rupert, Vancouver Island. Mr. Hunt submitted in all 460 pages of manuscript in response to questions, and sent botanical specimens that have been identified through the kindness of Dr. N. L. Britton, director of the New York Botanical Garden. The manuscript for Bulletin 59, Kutenai Tales, has been completed. All the texts having been set up during the preceding year, the ab- stracts and comparative notes, referring to the pages of the bulletin, were written out (32 pages of printed matter), and a vocabulary (140 pages of manuscript) based on the text was prepared. For the second part of the Handbook of American Indian Lan- guages Doctor Frachtenberg submitted his sketch of the Alsea gram- mar, which will be prepared for publication as soon as a sufficient number of texts are available. Considerable progress has been made in the preparation of the Kutenai grammar. Owing to the impossi- bility of communicating with Mr. Bogoras in Russia, no progress has been made in proof reading the Chukchee grammar, which has been in type for more than three years, but which can not be completed without submitting the proof to the author. During the year, how- ever, Doctor Boas revised the Eskimo texts by Mr. Bogoras, for which a brief ethnological introduction has been written by Dr. Ernest Hawkes. The results of the extended field work of Mr. James Teit, made possible through the generosity of Mr. Homer E. Sargent of Chicago, are nearing completion. At the present time two manuscripts are well advanced. One of these, consisting of about 1,000 pages, pre- pared jointly by Doctor Boas and Dr. H. K. Haeberlin, was sub- mitted in May, accompanied with a number of maps showing the distribution of Salishan dialects at various periods. It consists of a discussion of the characteristics of the various dialetic groups, com- parative vocabularies on which the deductions are based, and a few simple texts. The material on which these studies are founded was collected from field expeditions by Doctor Boas between 1886 and 1900, and by additional material gathered by Mr. Teit between the ~ latter date and the present year. Doctor Haeberlin has also undertaken to discuss the Salishan basketry, for which purpose he has made detailed studies of various collections in the United States and Canada. In connection with 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. this and other necessary researches on the Salishan tribes, Doctor Haeberlin visited British Columbia and Washington in 1915, and again in June, 1917, for the purpose of obtaining additional material. These expeditions were also made possible by the generosity of Mr. Sargent. In his investigations Doctor Boas has had the valued help of Miss H. A. Andrews and Miss Mildred Downs. In behalf of the bureau, Mr. W. H. Holmes, of the National Museum, visited New York, Boston, and Cambridge, for the purpose of studying archeological material in the museums of those cities in connection with the completion of Bulletin 60, Handbook of Ameri- can Antiquities, part 1 of which is in type. The proof reading of this publication was well in hand at the close of the fiseal year, and progress was made by Mr. Holmes in the preparation of part 2. The study of Indian music, undertaken by Miss Frances Densmore several years ago under the auspices of the bureau, was successfully continued through the year. The proof reading of Bulletin 61, Teton Sioux Music, was brought to completion. A second season of field work was devoted to the Ute Indians, sufficient data being ob- tained to complete a work on the music of that tribe. Of this mate- rial 73 new songs were transcribed and analyzed, 23 songs previously recorded were likewise analyzed, and 5 songs also previously sub- mitted with analyses were further studied. Five group analyses, to- gether with about 30 pages of manuscript description, were prepared. All except about 15 Ute records are now ready for publication; these cover a considerable variety of songs, analyses of which show impor- tant differences from songs of other tribes, one peculiarity being an added importance-of rhythm. For purposes of comparison, Miss Densmore undertook on her own account a study of primitive Slovak music, 10 songs of which were analyzed by the method employed in connection with Indian songs, and these were found to contain interesting points of differ- ence. Through the courtesy of Dr. Dayton C. Miller, of the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Miss Densmore procured graphic evidence of peculiarities of drum and voice combination noted by ear in Indian music. Doctor Miller made two photographs, about 30 feet in length, each representing about 15 seconds’ duration of sound. It is the intention to utilize part of these as illustrations in the forth- coming bulletin on Ute music, the songs photographed being Ute dance songs with strong rhythmic peculiarities. Early in June Miss Densmore proceeded to the White Earth Res- ervation, Minnesota, for the purpose of conducting a study of the material culture of the Chippewa Indians, and at the close of the year good progress was reported. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. By Mr. D. I. Bushnell, jr., continued the preparation of the manu- script for the Handbook of Aboriginal Remains East of the Mis- sissippi, about 50,000 words being added to the material previously furnished, not including a portion that was rewritten as a result of a discovery of new and valuable information pertaining to certain localities. Introductions to the archeology of various States remain to be written, but it is believed that both the manuscript and the illustrations for the entire bulletin will be completed before the close of the fiscal year 1918. Under the joint auspices of the bureau and the National Museum Dr. A. Hrditka visited in October, 1916, a site at Vero, Florida, at which were found certain human remains reputed to be of great antiquity. As asummary account of Doctor Hrdlicka’s observations - has already appeared in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (vol. 66, no. 17, pp. 24-29, 1917) and an extended report will be published in Bulletin 66 of the bureau, now in press, it need only be mentioned that a thorough inquiry has resulted decisively against the assump- tion of great antiquity of the remains. The pottery and the bone and stone objects found in association with the human burials are identical with similar artifacts of the Florida and other southeastern Indians, while the bones themselves without exception exhibit mod- ern feetures, with numerous characteristics that permit their identi- fication as purely Indian. Owing to the fact that Dr. A. L. Kroeber, of the Univesity of California, found it expedient to elaborate certain portions of his handbook of the Indians of California, it was not practicable to submit the entire manuscript before the close of the fiscal year, but at this writing there is every prospect that the work will be ready for publication within a short time. MANUSCRIPTS. The following manuscripts, exclusive of those submitted for publi- cation, were received by the bureau: Photostat copy of a San Blas vocabulary, recorded by Ensign J. M. Creigh- ton, United States Navy, transmitted to the Smithsonian Institution by the Secretary of the Navy. Phillipine songs presented by Mr. E. H. Hammond, of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Photograph of a picture writing on elk skin by Washakie, the Shoshoni chief, with a key thereto. Reports on prehistoric ruins in Arizona, with numerous photographs, pre- pared by the late S. J. Holsinger, of the General Land Office, and deposited in the bureau by the United States Forest Service. Abnaki hymns from John Tahamont, of Pierreville, Quebec, presented by George G. Heye, Esq. 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. PUBLICATIONS. The editing of the publications of the bureau was continued through the year by Mr. J. G. Gurley, assisted as occasion required by Mrs. Frances S. Nichols. The status of the publications is pre- sented in the following summary: PUBLICATIONS ISSUED. Thirty-first Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Tsimshian Mythology (Boas). Coos, An Illustrative Sketch, separate (Frachtenberg), Bulletin 40, part 2 (Boas). Bulletin 55, Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians (Robbins, Harrington, Freire- Marreco). List of Publications of the Bureau. PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS OR IN PREPARATION. Thirty-second Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Seneca Fiction, Legends, and Myths (Hewitt and Curtin). Thirty-third Annual Report. Accompanying papers: (1) Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Nebraska Region (Gilmore) ; (2) Preliminary Account of the Antiquities of the Region between the Mancos and La Plata Rivers in Southwestern Colorado (Morris): (8) Designs on Prehistoric Hopi Pottery (Fewkes) ; (4) The Hawaiian Romance of Laie-i-ka-wai (Beckwith). Thirty-fourth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians (Roth). Thirty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Ethnology of the Kwakiutl Indians (Hunt, edited by Boas). - ’ Bulletin 59, Kutnai Tales (Boas). Bulletin 60, Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. Part 1. Intro- ductory: The Lithic Industries (Holmes). Bulletin 61, Teton Sioux Music (Densmore). Bulletin 63, Analytical and Critical Bibliography of the Tribes of Tierra del Fuego and Adjacent Territory (Cooper). Bulletin 64, The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras (Gann). , Bulletin 65, Archeological Explorations in Northeastern Arizona (Kidder ahd Guernsey ). Bulletin 66, Recent Discoveries of Remains Attributed to Early Man in America (Hrdliéka). Bulletin 67, Alsea Texts and Myths (Frachtenberg). The distribution of publications has been continued under the immediate charge of Miss Helen Munroe and at times by Mr. E. L. Springer, of the Smithsonian Institution, assisted during the first part of the year by Miss Lana V. Schelski, and latterly by Miss Ora A. Sowersby, stenographer and typewriter. Notwithstanding con- ditions incident to the war and the consequent necessity of withhold- ing the transmission of various foreign shipments, publications were distributed as follows: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 ‘ Copies. Angual renmntia gud senatates.. 238 tn he 5, 954 BulletinsVand*separates: 2 GO. 312s VOR IO ese Oe i OT 5, 804 Contributions to North American Ethnology and separates___________ 28 MOU MChONS =e 29s Pere re Sat en ed 3 Fk A a Ae 7 MES Pes IME OUS PUD IICHET OIG tone a ae Fe A 191 RP RO a ae PA et el OER AE i at pt ll LS a a 11, 984 ILLUSTRATIONS. Mr. DeLancey Gill, with the assistance of Mr. Albert E. Sweeney, continued the preparation of the illustrations required for the pub- lications of the bureau and devoted the usual attention to photo- graphing visiting Indians. The results of this work may be sum- marized as follows: Photographie prints for distribution and office use______-__-_-_-_-____ 578 Negatives of ethnologic and archeologic subjects________________________ 173 Negative films developed from field exposures__________________________ 214 EHOvestat prints, rains DOOKS. ang: MANUSCrIPts. = 2 = as a 950 TD SEP OS TA TOPLIST TTT G (eat Sa aut ad an SD rene NOR ta mae eh 54 Ju EPC Sie 0857S = el A a a Pape a tts tg neler ape nomcing 62 Portrait negatives of visiting Indians (Creek 9, Arapaho 4, Cheyenne 16) _ 29 Me ComterreLnCies ns be rset ee ere the ado 85 Illustration proofs examined at Government Printing Office_____________ 9, 000 Illustrations submitted for reproduction and engraver’s proofs edited____ 781 LIBRARY. The reference library of the bureau continued in the immediate care of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mr. Charles B. New- man. During the year 435 books were accessioned, of which 97 were purchased, 286 acquired by gift or exchange, and 52 by the entry of newly bound volumes of periodicals previously received. In addi- tion the bureau acquired 388 pamphlets. The aggregate number of books in the library at the close of the year was 21,750; of pam- phlets, about 13,848. In addition there are many volumes of un- bound periodicals. Several new periodicals were added to the ex- change list and about 50 defective series were either wholly or partly completed. As might be expected, the publication of various Euro- pean periodicals devoted to anthropology has either been suspended or has ceased entirely. Largely with the assistance of Mrs. Frances S. Nichols many of the older books and pamphlets were newly cata- logued by both subject and author, and thus made more readily available. Of 1383 volumes sent to the bindery about half were re- turned before the close of the year. Books borrowed from the Library of Congress numbered about 400. 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, COLLECTIONS. The following collections were acquired by the bureau, by: mem- bers of its staff, or by those detailed in connection with its reseaches, and have been transferred to the National Museum: Six ethnologic objects from British Guiana, presented by Dr. Walter E. Roth, of Marlborough, Pomeroon River, British Guiana. (60049.) A small collection of archeological objects of earthenware, jadeite, etc., from the Kiché district of Totonicopan, Guatemala. (61097.) A collection of archeological objects, including human bones, gathered by Mr. Neil M. Judd in Utah. (60194.) Seven specimens found by Mr. Joseph Dame in Millard County, Utah, and purchased from him through Mr. Neil M. Judd. (60105.) : A collection of archeological objects and skeletal material gathered by Dr. Walter Hough at the Luna pit village in western New Mexico. (60196.) Ten baskets of the Guiana Indians of South America, presented to the bureau by Dr. Walter E. Roth, of Marlborough, Pomeroon River, British Guiana. (60452. ) Seventeen prehistoric pottery vessels, one piece of matting, and a few small objects collected by F. W: Hodge in a cist in a cave in a southern wall of Cibol- lita Valley, Valencia County, New Mexico. (60453.) Twenty-five archeological specimens gathered by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from ancient ruins near Gallup, New Mexico. (60502.) A small black-ware vase from Santa Clara pueblo, New Mexico, presented by Robert H. Chapman, of Washington, District of Columbia. (60826.) Twelve stone artifacts from Reeves Mill, near Pitman, Gloucester County, New Jersey, presented by Mrs. M. B. C. Shuman. (60836.) Archeological material collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from excavations conducted at Mummy Lake Ruins, | [esa Verde National Park, Colorado. (60880.) Archeological material collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from excavations conducted at Oak Tree House, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. (60901.) An Assiniboine headdress from Alberta, Canada, presented by Mr. Robert H. Chapman, Washington, District of Columbia. (61007.) Skulls, skeletons, and parts of skeletons, an Indian ornament embedded in stone, and pottery fragments, collected in the vicinity of Vero and Fort Myers, Florida, by Dr. A. Hrdlitka. (61291.) Seven baskets made by the Koasati Indians of Louisiana, collected by Dr. John R. Swanton. (613815.) PROPERTY. Furniture. was purchased to the amount of $196.25; the cost of typewriting machines was $206, and of a camera $10.50, making’ a total of $412.75 expended for furniture and apparatus. On the whole the furniture of the bureau is in good condition, but there are a few unserviceable pieces that should be replaced, while need of a few filing cases for current notes and manuscripts is felt. MISCELLANEOUS. Quarters.—One of the rooms on the third floor of the north tower of the Smithsonian building, occupied by the bureau, was painted, and the electric lighting of three rooms improved. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 Personnel.—The only change in the personnel of the bureau was the appointment of Miss Ora A. Sowersby, stenographer and type- writer, on February 14, 1917, to succeed Miss Lena V. Schelski, trans- ferred. A temporary laborer was employed from time to time when required. Clerical—tThe correspondence and other clerical work of the office, including the copying of manuscripts, has been conducted with the aid of Miss Florence M. Poast, clerk to the ethnologist-in-charge; Miss May S. Clark, and Mrs. Frances §. Nichols. Miss Sowersby was assigned to the division of publications of the Smithsonian Insti- tution for duty in connection with correspondence arising from the distribution of the bureau’s publications. Respectfully submitted, F. W. Hopes, Ethnologist-in-Charge. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917. The regular congressional appropriation for the support of the service during the year, including the allotment for printing and binding, was $32,200, but in order to enable the Institution to meet the very high ocean freight rates on foreign shipments Congress granted an additional appropriation of $3,500. The repayments from departmental and other establishments aggregated $3,687.58, making the total available resources for carrying on the system of exchanges $39,387.58. During the year 1917 the total number of packages handled was 268,625, which weighed 290,193 pounds. The number and weight of the packages of different classes are in- dicated in the following table: | Packages. | Weight (pounds). Sent, |Received.|- Sent. | Received. United States parliamentary documents sent abroad..........-. 139; 8631. 245 Is Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) —--- Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) — Porto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) _— Yellow-winged parrot (Amazgona bar- badenstsy SACS UPS ae ee Festive parrot (Amazona festiva) ___~ Yellow-fronted parrot (Amazona och- rocephala) Yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auro- palliata) Yellow-headed parrot (Amazona ora- tiny a=) 5. Ses ee eS a Quaker parrot (Myiopsitta monachus) —- Red-and-blue macaw (Ara _ chlorop- REVO) Sie Sees Pie Sie ey ye Ee eh Red-and-yellow-and-blue macaw (Ara PICHON) 8 eta Yellow-and-blue macaw (Ara arara- UO ie eS Se se ee eS 79 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. BIRDS—continued. CUCULIFORMES—continued. PASSERIFORMES—continued. Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Cacatoes American magpie (Pica pica hudson- DONO ee Se 3 fed) = 22 2 See eee eee Great red-crested cockatoo (Cacatoes Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) ________ Malu Gon eta Ste Ler iS 1 | American crow (Corvus brachyrhyn- White cockatoo (Cacatoes alba) __--~_-~- 3 €ho0s) 222... [Dee a eee eee Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatoes lead- Australian crow (Corvus coronoides) — CRT) a ee 1 | European raven (Corvus coragr)----_~_ Bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatoes gym- Glossy starling (Lamprotornis cauda- ORG) SE Se che 3 tt 9 apa stots! et tryin alate by: me 2 Roseate cockatoo (Cacatoes roseica- Malabar starling (Spodiopsar mala- DUI Tee ee eee 12 DONOUS) a5. ee ee ee eee Scaly-breasted lorikeet (Psitteuteles Napolean weaver (Pyromelana afra) —- CRIGTOLEDIAOTIS ) on = ae ae 1 | Crimson-crowned weaver (Pyromelana ep — oe ee “ CORACIIFORMES. Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- CORNY ne eee Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)__--_~ 2 | Paradise weaver (Steganura para- Concave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros oe ne ees ey Nell ett leet te af reg 1 | Cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata) -_ Barred owl (Striv varia)_-._-__---- 5 | Black-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila Screech owl (Otus asio)_______-__--- 1 POT 7 ie iinet Nplate el cao ta Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) ~ 14 | Black-headed finch (Munia atricapilla) — Three-colored finch (Munia malacca) __ PASSERIFORMBS, Nutmeg finch (Munia punctularia) __-~ Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora)__--- Yellow tyrant (Pitangus = sulphur- White Java sparrow (Munia oryzi- 7 7 pease tata net fil opel dap Miele 1 BON) 3x Re ee eee Japanese robin (Liothrig luteus) _---- 4 | Cowbird (Molothrus ater) __-------_-- Laughing thrush (Garrulav leucolo- Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) __-~~~ RMS? = eee ees ee ee 2 | Nonpareil (Passerina ciris)__------~~-~ Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos)_-____- 1 | Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola)—~----~-- Brown thrasher (Towvostoma rufum) —- 1 | Canary (Serinus canarius)—__-__----- Australian gray jumper (Struthidea Green singing finch (Serinus icterus) — cinerea) 2UOe LL i _ Gaeael beiisi>.3 1 | Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- Red-billed magpie (Urocissa occipi- late). qaaSen eee 2 LO taths) R22 eS e2 heb. ees se 1 | Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis) ~---_- REPTILES. Gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphe- Horned toad (Phrynosoma cornutum) — oo) ee ee ee ee ee ee 1 | Rock python (Python molurus)__----~ Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip- Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)_ ~~~ OSU hn test orcs hE eeeee 1 | Boa constrictor (Constrictor constric- Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo COP) ted cette at onetiinss — tesa Be ric) | i ae oe ae Seo Pe 1 | Water snake (Natrig sipedon) ______-- Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)_ 30 | Black snake (Coluber constrictor) __-~- Mona Island iguana (Cyclura stejne- Coach-whip snake (Coluber flagellum) — Crop a oe eS 1 | Chicken snake (Elaphe obsoleta quad- Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) — 4 { TWAS.) oe ee ee tow Ln on r i to co to OPN KE RRO Rh bt & to REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. ACCESSIONS DURING THE YEAR. Presented : Transferred from other Gov- MSM aS) ee eres 28 ernment departments: Birds). DSsiery Basen” 44 Mammnvalst Seite oe ryee hs? a Reptiles .s!_-11t od ees 27 STE — 99 Born and hatched in the Na- tional Zoological Park: Captured in National Zoologi- Manmirsig y s+ Ose 4 52 cal Park: erie celts ae See 41 Birds____---____-- ---- 1 112 ny OF Repsilesia ee pier. Lie 1 Received in exchange: . — 2 Vig nana ligyeese ia oe 5 es pe ag se 12 i 2 a nae ra p 74 Deposited : Mammalag . "eer ti 6. 2k. 52 Purchased : Birds 1 Mammals 2 ee 2S60l Bina Ms Wm Sit Bary ieaaeneer the Harv: 23 rae Reptiles. he Crise hearts 22 55500 — 71 Total uaccessions + _-=-= - 4 397 SUMMARY. Ammais Gnuohandtyalpiay) 1916 2bIL7 Spinto VI Reese Hel Vito. Bay 1, 383 Accessions}G@uring thenyer ria? fn zee oye soe en eerie Ae 397 1, 780 Deduct loss (by exchange, death, return of animals, and animals lib- Grated) ees a wh Vee” hy “eee esis 8 Foie otparei gegen oxet el nod 557 OnMhand’ aune7 30, TO pes I Ak AA ea Ae SS AVIIY et dr e3 Class. Species. ost ge NESTING oe ilar tee ascac “PRR SER AT Gites co ae we Wietieacinetan fefa w stage cere epee ate 159 484 Birds DAote. Notley. DAL. ATHe ADIL OF MATIAIeTOIeL 1961) 182 683 TRODH GS snares re mrens Svoerere © ate eA recente asset. tt 3 eyrer el aa id: dco ae 14 56 TotMOd &. {MOOT | hieies FUORI OW Voda VIE 355 1, 223 VISITORS. The number of visitors to the park during the year, as determined by count and estimate, was 1,106,800, a daily average of 3,032. The greatest number in any one month was 171,400, in April, 1917, an average per day of 5,713. The attendance by months was as follows: 1916: July, 78,800; August, 80,500; September, 122,550; October, 92,200; November, 48,250; December, 44,625. 1917: January, 87,750; February, 55,675; March, 108,400; April, 171,400; May, 110,550; June, 161,100. 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Excepting 1916, this was the largest attendance in the history of the park. The number of visitors was only 50,310 less than in 1916, and doubtless would have exceeded that record year but for the unseasonable weather on Easter Monday. One hundred and fifty-three schools and classes visited the park, with a total of 8,492 individuals. In addition to the local schools and those from near-by States, these included schools from Alabama, Arkansas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Vermont. A number of officials from other zoo- logical gardens visited the park. The exceptionally favorable weather made the skating pond an attractive feature during the past winter and for a much longer period than usual. The ice was kept clean of snow throughout the season and the appreciation of the public would seem to warrant the construction of additional lakes to be used for exhibits of water- fowl during the summer and skating in winter. IMPROVEMENTS. The hospital and laboratory, which has been mentioned in the reports for the last two years, is still unfinished, but a considerable amount of work was done on the interior cages so that the building now lacks only the necessary outside yards and the laboratory equip- ment. The hospital cages are designed for the care and special comfort of indisposed or quarantined animals, and accommoda- tions are provided for two mammals of lion size, three of leopard size, three large ruminants, and a number of smaller animals. In addition, there is a large, well lighted, central room for laboratory use. The completion of this building will greatly facilitate the work of the pathologists from the Department of Agriculture who visit the park. The largest waterfowl lake, in the southeastern part of the park, was enlarged and reconstructed to provide safe and retired breeding and resting places for the birds. It had formerly been inclosed by a fence of ordinary poultry wire without special protection from pre- dacious animals, and there had been frequent loss from the depreda- tions of rats and the smaller native carnivores. In order to increase sufficiently the land area it was necessary to construct a stone wall along Rock Creek at the rear of the inclosure. By lowering the grade of the hill bordering the lake, sufficient earth was produced to fill up.to the level of the wall on the inner side. A rat-proof fence was woven in the machine shop and further provided with guards against cats and raccoons. The level of the water was raised about 12 inches, greatly increasing the size of the lake, and the new fence was constructed on a concrete coping considerably outside the former REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83 boundary. Numerous shrubs, small trees, canes, and grasses were planted to supplement the fine growth of larger trees already on the area. Visitors walk along one side of the lake only and as the thick vegetation virtually hides the fence on the opposite side at all points the effect is that of a wilderness breeding lake for ducks and geese. As completed, the inclosure provides almost natural conditions for the waterfowl of numerous species and forms a very attractive ex- hibit. It has been given over entirely to North American species, and it is hoped that a large representation of the ducks, geese, and other aquatic birds commonly associated with them native to our continent may be kept here. On June 30, no less than 136 North American waterfowl, of 24 species, were to be seen on the lake. The natural surroundings and the fact that only American species are shown here makes this waterfowl lake of special interest to school classes, sportsmen, and bird lovers, and it has become one of the popular features of the park. A cement walk was extended from the bridge near the Harvard Street entrance along the south side of the road to the crossroads, to connect with the cinder path bordering the lake. The work of grading and filling around the old buffalo house and the remodeling of the building for other uses, which was commenced last year, has been completed. As reconstructed the building makes an ideal shelter of pleasing design and furnishes house space for the animals occupying the six large paddocks that surround it. The Canadian Rocky Mountain sheep, the elands, and the Kashmir deer are provided for in this group of yards. An outdoor cage and shelter, summer quarters for the chimpanzee, were built near the north entrance to the lion house. This provides not only for the better health of this interesting trained ape, but makes it possible for larger crowds to gather about at the time his meals are served. New paddocks were provided for ungulate mammals on the piece of ground recently leveled by grading northwest of the llama yards. Much-needed repairs were made on the wolf dens and to the lion house roof. A considerable portion of the pasture land near the office was plowed. as an addition to the garden, in an effort to decrease the cost of feed for the animals. For the same reason horseflesh has been substituted for beef as food for the carnivorous animals, with the prospect of saving at least $6,000 on this item alone during the next fiscal year. A portion of the nursery was fenced and breeding pens for quail and other game birds were installed within the inclosure. It is hoped that most of the quail of various species needed for park purposes may be reared in this place and that important experiments in the breeding of game birds may at the same time be conducted without additional expense. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. THE PARK AS A BIRD SANCTUARY. The entire 169 acres of the National Zoological Park constitutes a carefully preserved sanctuary for native wild birds. Every effort is being made to increase the bird population within this area and to give better protection to the resident species. During the past year over 100 nesting boxes were provided for those species which com- monly nest in holes in trees. These were made in the carpenter shop at odd times during the winter months from trunks and limbs of fallen trees with the bark in place. Attached to trees of the same kind or with bark of the same color these nesting boxes are much less conspicuous and unsightly in the park trees than square boxes made from planed boards. Many of the boxes were occupied during the summer by bluebirds, chickadees, nuthatches, wrens, and flickers, and additional nests will be provided from year to year. During the colder months food is provided for the winter residents in various parts of the park. Of all the native wild birds within the park perhaps none attract so much attention as the turkey vultures, or “buzzards,” which con- gregate here in great number during the fall and winter months. Food, at practically no expense, is provided for the vultures, and they become very tame and confiding. Many visitors from the Northern States, to whom the birds are a novel sight, greatly admire the grace- ful flight of these interesting creatures. During the summer months the vultures scatter out over the surrounding country to nest, and only a few appear within the boundaries of the park, but the security afforded for winter roosts brings them back in great numbers with the approach of autumn. Bobwhite quail appear to be increasing in numbers within the park and are now fairly abundant. A considerable number of these birds much help stock the surrounding country from year to year. Numerous bird classes from the schools and parties of Audubon Society members find the wilder parts of the park ideal alo for observation of the birds. ALTERATION OF WESTERN BOUNDARY. It again appears desirable to recapitulate for future reference the various stages through which the matter of the adjustment of the western boundary, near the Connecticut Avenue entrance, has passed. The following appropriation was made by the act approved June 23, 1913: Readjustment of boundaries: For acquiring, by condemnation, all the lots, pieces, or parcels of land, other than the one hereinafter excepted, that lie between the present western boundary of the National Zoological Park and Connecticut Avenue from Cathedral Avenue to Klingle Road, $107,200, or such portion thereof as may be necessary, said land when acquired, together with REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 the included highways, to be added to and become a part of the National Zoological Park. The proceedings for the condemnation of said land shall be instituted by the Secretary of the Treasury under and in accordance with the terms and provisions of subchapter one of chapter fifteen of the Code of Law for the District of Columbia. As the act required that the proceedings be instituted by the Secre- tary of the Treasury, the attention of that official was called to the matter in a letter from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, dated June 28, 1913. A special survey and plat of the land required was necessary, but this plat was not forwarded to the Department of Justice until November 5, 1913. Other delays ensued; the title of the various owners of the land had to be investigated, and it was not until March 11, 1914, that the district court ordered a jury to be summoned. A hearing was set for April 10, 1914, and a final hearing of the case was heard by the jury on July 2 following. The verdict of the jury was not filed until December 11, 1914. The hearing of objections to the verdict much delayed a final conclusion, especially as the time of the court was almost wholly occupied by a contest in an important will case. It was not until June 28, 1915, over two years from the passage of the appropriation act, that the court con- firmed the verdict as regards the awards for damages for the land to be taken. The benefits assessed against the neighboring property were set aside by this and by a subsequent decision of January 28, 1916. The decree of the court fixed the amount required for the purchase of the land at $194,488.08. The cost of the proceedings for condemnation was $2,203.35. The great delay caused by these legal proceedings occasioned an- other complication. The appropriation made by the act of June 23, 1913, was not a continuing one, but lapsed at the end of one year. Consequently after June 30, 1915, there was nothing available to de- fray the purchase of the land. An item for an additional appropriation and for a reappropria- tion of the original sum appropriated by the act of June. 23, 1913, was submitted to the first and second sessions of the Sixty-fourth Congress, but was not favorably considered. It is,greatly to be regretted that this appropriation failed, as it is exceedingly desirable that the land in question be obtained for park purposes before it is too late. A frontage on Connecticut Ave- nue at this point is most important, because the principal entrance to the park will probably be here for all time, and it is essential that the control of the land be in the hands of park authorities. ‘ IMPORTANT NEEDS. Grading and filling —The work of grading and fillir last year, should be continued. The further en a commenced 65133°—sM 19177 pitied Pisr 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. irregular hill in the center of the western part of the park and the filling in of a nearby ravine will level nearly 70,000 square feet of ground which is now of little use and make available about 25,000 square feet of ground at the ravine, besides straightening out the automobile road at this point. More inclosures are seriously needed for deer and similar animals, and this grading would provide for a number of these yards on flat ground. Public-comfort building and restawrant.—The need of a suitable structure for a rest house and refreshment room is strongly felt. This rest house should provide toilet facilities for both women and men. It is probably true that the present restaurant occasions more unfavorable comment from visitors than any other one feature in the park. It is only a rude wooden platform with cover, but with open sides; the kitchen and other facilities are inadequate, and the entire structure is in a bad state of repair. Roads, bridle paths, and automobile parking—The question of providing space for the parking of automobiles near the main build- ings in the center of the park is becoming serious. The available space is entirely insufficient on nearly every Sunday and on all holi- days. In order to provide suitable accommodations for the con- stantly increasing number of cars it will be necessary to make some change in the roads and lawns at the central point. It will be neces- sary to make extensive repairs to the roads during the coming year, which will involve a considerable expenditure. The roads need repair now, but under the stringent economy that is compelled during 1918 it will not be possible to make even the repairs already needed, nor to provide proper upkeep of the roads. The greatly increased auto traffic (sometimes 2,500 cars in a day) makes necessary each year greater expenditures to keep the roads in order. Some change should be made in the bridle paths in order that equestrians would not be forced to use the bridge and the main road from the Harvard Street gate to the crossroads. Numerous complaints have been made as to the danger at these points, not only to children, but to the riders themselves. The bridle path could, at some expense, be carried up the west side of the creek from the crossroads, and a ford constructed to connect with the bridle path on the east side of the creek. Outdoor dens for carnivorous mammals.—Recent experiments have shown that many kinds of animals usually kept in heated houses are much better off in outdoor yards, with warm, but unheated sleeping quarters. Such accommodations should be provided for the Siberian tiger, some of the lions, and other animals now occupying quarters in crowded heated houses. The health of these animals would unques- tionably be improved and their lives prolonged under such condi- tions, and the space they now occupy in heated houses would become available for other animals really needing such accommodations. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 A series of outdoor, unheated cages and shelters should also be pro- vided to replace the series of unsightly old wooden cages along the hilltop north of the bird house. Additional ponds for waterfowl—Additional lakes to be used for waterfowl in summer and for skating in winter could be provided at comparatively small expense both in the open flat near the Harvard Street entrance and near the pelican pond across the road. Exhibits of waterfowl are very popular and instructive, and the skating privilege is much appreciated by the public in winter. Aviary building—The park reports have for a number of years urged the appropriation of funds for a new bird house. That such a structure is badly needed is apparent. The building now used for the birds was erected in the cheapest manner possible for temporary use and is now in a bad state of repair. The collection is an im-’ portant one, and a suitable bird house would without doubt prove one of the most attractive and instructive features of the park. Reptile house.—A properly constructed reptile house would, it is certain, prove almost as attractive to the public as a bird house. The comparatively small collection of reptiles now kept in crowded quar- ters in the lion house is very popular. | The most urgent need of the park is a substantial increase in the general appropriation. When the amount provided was raised to the present figure, seven years ago, it was recognized that there was necessity for a considerable sum above the cost of actual maintenance, in order that improvements could be made and the grounds and buildings be kept in a good state of repair. Owing to the steady advance in the price of supplies and to the additional expense neces- sitated by the constantly increasing number of visitors, the point has now been reached where the entire appropriation does not cover actual maintenance expenses. It is only by rigid economy, and by the elimination of some things really necessary, that the cost of operation can be kept within the amount. Respectfully submitted. N. Hotuister, Superintendent. Dr. Cuarites D. WaAtcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 5. REPORT OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Srr: I have the honor to present the following report on the opera- tions of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1917. EQUIPMENT. The equipment of the observatory is as follows: (a) At Washington there is an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet, containing five small frame buildings used for observing and computing purposes, three movable frame shelters covering several out-of-door pieces of apparatus, and also one small brick building containing a storage battery and electrical distribution apparatus. (2) At Mount Wilson, California, upon a leased plat of ground 100 feet square, in horizontal projection, are located a one-story ce- ment observing structure, designed especially for solar-constant meas- urements, and also a little frame cottage, 21 feet by 25 feet, for ob- server’s quarters. Upon the observing shelter at Mount Wilson there is a tower 40 feet high above the 12-foot piers which had been pre- pared in the original construction of the building. This tower is equipped with a tower telescope for use when observing (with the spectrobolometer) the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk. During the year apparatus for research has been purchased or constructed at the observatory shop. The value of these additions to the instrumental equipment is estimated at $1,000. WORK OF THE YEAR. 1. AT WASHINGTON. Three copies of the pyranometer, our new instrument for measur- ing sky radiation, have been prepared by the Institution, respectively, for the United States Weather Bureau, the University of Wisconsin, and for the proposed expedition to South America mentioned in my report for 1916. These instruments were finished and standardized by Mr. Aldrich. The tests made led to long investigations and im- provements, which greatly increased the sensitiveness of the pyrano- meter. All three instruments are now in use and, so far as known, with satisfaction, 88 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 Two silver-disk pyrheliometers were standardized for the proposed South American expedition. Considerable work was done on the apparatus mentioned last year, designed to measure the constant of the fourth power radiation formula. Owing to trouble found in maintaining a vacuum in the apparatus no actual determinations were made. Much attention was devoted to the preparation of the equipment of a solar-constant expedition for South America. The purpose of the expedition, as stated last year, is by cooperation with Mount Wilson to secure daily values as far as possible throughout the year for several years, and thus to investigate the influence of solar vari- ation on terrestrial temperature. Many improved devices were in- vented and constructed for the expedition. Among them is a new vacuum bolometer of very high sensitiveness and in every way exem- plary behavior. This instrument is constructed in such a way as to be sealed off when highly exhausted, like an X-ray tube. Having no cocks or windows it requires no further attention to maintain a vacuum indefinitely. The construction of the sensitive strip follows the indications of mathematical analysis covering the whole theory of the bolometer, so that a maximum sensitiveness is obtained. A similar instrument was prepared also for Mount Wilson work. The high sensitiveness of the new bolometer is indicated by the statement that when used with the same spectroscope and galvanometer em- ployed in our Algerian expedition of 1912 more than tenfold de- flections on the solar spectrum were observed with similar conditions. Another new instrument is a special machine designed to aid in reducing spectrobolometry, in solar-constant work. Heretofore we have plotted, on large cross-section paper, logarithms of observed radiation against the air masses traversed by the solar beam. Nearly 40 such plots, each of six points, are required to represent a morning’s spectrobolometry. The plotted points fall in approximately straight lines, whose projection to the zero of air mass yields logarithms of intensities as they would be observed outside our atmosphere. The inclinations of the representative straight lines give the logarithms of the atmospheric transmission coefficients. What I desire to point out is that the process requires taking out about 300 logarithms, besides plotting and extrapolating. In the new instrument as shown in the illustration six 16-inch slide rules are arranged to be set at chosen places and at right angles to a horizontal linear scale of air masses. The observations are set up by reading the crossline of the sliders against the central movable slide-rule scales, these latter being set with respect to the fixed scales on the sides so as to apply a small correction for sensitiveness of the bolometric apparatus. A stretched wire is then adjusted to fit the six points as thus plotted. On another slide rule fixed at zero air 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. mass one reading of the crossing point of the wire over the fixed scale gives the intensity as it would be outside the atmosphere, and a second reading on the movable scale gives the atmosphere transmis- sion coefficient. No logarithms or computing are required. The equipment of the expedition was all boxed ready for ship- ment to South America when circumstances connected with the war with Germany led to a postponement. Under these circumstances it was deemed best to send the expedition to Hump Mountain in North Carolina, a station at 4,800 feet elevation, where it is now located. This location was chosen with a view to its being at a great distance from Mount Wilson, in a region where Weather Bureau observers reported uncommonly little cloudiness, and easily accessible from the railroad and from Washington, The expedition with over 3 tons of equipment went forward in May, 1917. It is in charge of Mr. A. F. Moore, who is assisted by Mr. L. H. Abbot. Two small frame buildings were erected for the observing and living quarters. The apparatus was set up and ad- justed by Messrs. C. G. Abbot, L. B. Aldrich, and A. F. Moore, and gotten ready for observing about June 15. Unfortunately the most cloudy and rainy summer in the recollection of old residents had been experienced up to August 1. Otherwise, everything is highly favorable to excellent solar-constant work. If war conditions war- rant, the Institution still hopes to send the expedition to South America later, where a station is selected at which 300 cloudless forenoons for observing per year are to be expected. Before leaving this subject I desire to call attention to the remark- able paper by Dr. Helm Clayton (Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 68, No. 8) on the “ Effect of Short Period Variations of Solar Radia- tion on the Earth’s Atmosphere.” Doctor Clayton shows by the mathe- matical method of correlations, free from all influence of personal judgment, that variations of solar radiation observed by us at Mount Wilson in 1913 and 1914 were reflected in variations of terrestrial temperatures all over the world. The correlations were positive in and near the Tropics, negative in Temperate Zones, and positive near the poles. A lag of from 1 to 5 days occurred, the lag being less for Tropical Zones. The barometric pressure also appeared to join in the correlations. By an ingenious application of his method Doctor Clayton shows that the short interval fluctuations of solar radiation are not altogether without periodicity, for the changes tend to repeat themselves after 11 and 22 days, respectively. The same tendency is found in the temperature records of Buenos Aires. We are now en- gaged in testing this conclusion by computations for other years. Computations of Mount Wilson solar observations went on in the hands of Miss Graves as usual at Washington, and the computing is practically up to date. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91 Mr. Fowle’s research on the effect of water vapor and carbon dioxide of the atmosphere to absorb long-wave rays, such as the earth sends out, is now ready for publication. Many of the best observa- tions were made by him during the past year. Some observations made in February, 1917, at a time when the humidity of the atmos- phere was very small, proved of special value. Opportunity was taken of using some of the apparatus prepared for the South Amer- ican expedition to aid in making bolographic observations on the solar spectrum at very great wave lengths, reaching to 17 microns. By means of the spectrobolometer prepared for South America it was possible to determine accurately the quantities of water vapor in the path of the solar beam. Certain conclusions stated in Volume II of the Annals of the Astro- physical Observatory may now be corrected to correspond with the new information. We stated: We can by no means admit that the radiation from the solid and liquid sur- face of the earth passes unhindered to space. * * * ‘The clouds, whose average presence includes 52 per cent of the time, * * * are even more efficient screens to the radiation of the earth than they are to the radiation of the sun, so during 52 per cent of the time we may regard the radiation of the solid and liquid earth to space as zero. During the remainder of the time water vapor presents almost as effective a screen * * *, From the com- bined work of Rubens and Aschkinass, Langley, Keeler and Very, and Nichols, we * * * conclude that a tenth part of the average amount of water vapor in the vertical column of atmosphere above sea level is enough to absorb more than half of the radiation of the earth to space, and it is highly probable that, considering the greater air mass attending the oblique passage of many of the rays to space, nine-tenths of the radiation of the solid and liquid surface of the earth is absorbed by the water vapor of the atmosphere even on clear days. On cloudy days none is transmitted, so that the average escape of radiation from the earth’s surface to space probably does not exceed 5 per cent. Some writers have attributed a large share of the absorption of the atmos- phere to the carbonic-acid gas which it contains, but * * * in atmospheric conditions the absorption of carbonic-acid gas in the spectrum of the earth appears to be confined to two bands extending from wave lengths 3.6 to 5.4, and from 13.0 to 16.0u, respectively. In these bands its absorption is nearly total from 4.0 to 4.84 and from 14.0 to 15.64 even when carbonic-acid gas is present in much less quantities than the atmosphere contains. * * * In the absence of water vapor the total absorption possible by carbonic-acid gas would be 14 per cent. In all the lower regions of the atmosphere, however, water vapor is present in such quantities as almost completely to extinguish the radi- ation of the earth’s surface in these two special regions. * * * It therefore does not appear possible that the presence or absence, or increase or decrease, of the carbonic acid contents of the air is likely to appreciably influence the temperature of the earth’s surface. It seems certain, in view of what has been said that the earth’s solid and liquid surfaces, and the lower parts of the atmosphere, contribute directly almost nothing to the amount of radiation which the earth as a planet sends to space. The earth’s surface and the lower atmosphere, of course, exchange radiation together, and by this process and by convection the heat of these 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. regions ascends toward space. But convection grows less and less as the air becomes rarer, and must at length cease to be an appreciable factor. It is the water vapor and carbonic-acid gas far above the earth’s surface, where the absorption of the rays by the water vapor and carbonic-acid gas lying still higher becomes small, that form the true radiating surface of the earth con- sidered as a planet. * * * With the scanty material at hand, and in con- sideration of the distribution of water vapor in the free air, it seems safe to put the effective position of the radiating surface at fully 4,000 meters above sea level * * * at a probable mean temperature of 263° absolute centi- grade or —10° centrigrade. Some writers have misinterpreted these remarks and understood us as supposing that there is a special layer at 4,000 meters elevation above sea level which prevents radiation escaping from below and whose own radiation passes unhindered to space. Our meaning was quite different. -Every layer from sea level to the limit of the atmos- phere contributes something to the total radiation output of the earth. But, because of the great absorption of superposed water vapor and clouds, the lower solid and liquid and atmospheric layers contribute little, while because of their dryness the higher atmospheric layers contribute little. Roughly estimating the various factors, we con- cluded that the center of activity of the radiation of the earth as a planet could be set at about 4,000 meters elevation. How far are these conclusions now to be altered? As to the effect of cloudiness, not at all. As to water vapor Mr. Fowle finds the following results on the percentages of absorption of rays from a perfect radiator at the earth’s mean temperature in atmospheric columns containing besides carbon dioxide sufficient to produce maxi- mum absorption, water vapor which if precipitated would produce certain depths of liquid water: Ppt. water ““____ 0. 003 0. 03 0.3 3.0 Absorption_______ 49 57 66 75 In order to apply these data I give figures for the average quantities of terrestrial water vapor which, according to Hann, exist in vertical columns from sea level to the limit of the atmosphere over different zones of the earth. Latitudes...2.-. 0-20° 20°-30° 30°-40° 40°-50° 50°-60° 60°-90° Ppt. water™___. 4.3 al 2.2 1.6 1.0 0.6 From these figures it may be seen that the statement, “a tenth part of the average amount of water vapor in the vertical column above sea level is enough to absorb more than half of the radiation of the earth to space,” is confirmed. But the conclusion therefrom that “nine-tenths of the radiation of the solid and liquid surface of the earth is absorbed by the water vapor of the atmosphere on clear days” is not confirmed. Mr. Fowle has computed the absorption of the at- mosphere in a state of humidity corresponding to 1.0 cm. ppt. water, and finds it 72 per cent, Considering that the ppt. water in a vertical REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 93 column over most of the earth exceeds 3.0 cm., it now seems probable that the proper figure should be eight-tenths instead of nine-tenths. As regards the absorption of carbonic-acid gas Mr. Fowle finds that one-fortieth part of the amount of this gas found in a vertical atmospheric column produces the maximum possible effect. This does not lead to any modification of our conclusions as to the effect of atmospheric carbonic-acid gas as stated above. With ordinary humidity, at sea level a layer of air 10 meters long, according to Fowle, will absorb 50 per cent of the radiation of a perfect radiator at terrestrial temperatures. Similarly the layer of air above 11 kilometers, or 6 miles, altitude contains enough water vapor to absorb 50 per cent of such radiation. In view of what has been said and remembering the presence of clouds, only about one-tenth of the radiation of the solid and liquid surface of the earth escapes directly to space. The atmosphere above 11 kilometers apparently contributes more than half of the radiation of the earth viewed as a planet and prevents half of the radiation of lower layers from escaping. Nearly the entire output of radiation of the earth to space, certainly more than three-fourths, arises from the atmosphere and its clouds as its source. The “effective radiat- ing layer,” meaning a layer which if perfectly radiating to space would equal in radiation the actual earth viewed as a planet, may still be thought of as at several kilometers altitude and at a temperature well below freezing. The subject of atmospheric absorption is so difficult both theoreti- cally and experimentally that much more investigation ought still to be done on it. Mr. Fowle’s long experience has well fitted-him for making further advances. It is hoped to put at his disposal soon the necessary means to make new researches. These include bolo- metric apparatus of greatly increased sensitiveness, such as recent studies now enable us to construct. The one obstacle to complete success which now seems insuperable is the lack of any means to form an intense unabsorbed spectrum free from stray light, extend- ing from 15 to 50 microns in wave length. 2. AT MOUNT WILSON. The expedition of 1916 continued solar-constant and other observa- tions at Mount Wilson until late in October. The expedition was renewed late in June, 1917. Improvements in the supply of electric- ity and water to the station were completed in June, 1917. In 1916 many observations of the sky by day and by night were made at Mount Wilson with the pyranometer. The plan was fol- lowed from August to October of measuring with this instrument the total solar radiation at a fixed zenith distance of the sun, and almost 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. simultaneously the total sky radiation over a fixed small area imme- diately surrounding the sun. It seems probable that as the bright- ness of the sky depends on the prevailing humidity and dust, and as the radiation of the sun is diminished by presence of humidity and dust, a method of combination of the two measurements may be found, adapted to give approximately the solar constant. When com- putations are further advanced the matter will be tested. Restandardization of secondary pyrheliometers in 1916 against our standard water-flow pyrheliometer indicated no change in their constants. A vacuum bolometer was employed during a large part of the ob- serving season. The sensitiveness was so much greater that consider- able improvement in the work on the investigation of the distribution of radiation over the sun’s disk was possible. Redeterminations were made with great care on the form of dis- tribution of the solar energy curve outside the atmosphere. New mirrors of stellite, a very hard nontarnishing alloy, were substituted for the silvered mirrors of the spectrobolometer. It is hoped that the work of 1916 will indicate conclusively how the sun’s variations affect the distribution of energy in the solar spectrum. SUMMARY. Preparation of apparatus and equipment for a new solar-constant station of the Smithsonian Institution, now located at Hump Moun- tain, North Carolina, led to valuable improvements in the bolometer and the pyranometer, and to the invention and construction of a new instrument for avoiding computation in reduction of spectrobolo- metric observations. | A long research on the transmission of long-wave rays by atmos- pheric columns of known humidity and carbon dioxide contents, has been completed and prepared for publication by Mr. Fowle. In expeditions to Mount Wilson the observation of the amount and distribution of solar radiation has been continued. In cooperation with the new station above mentioned it is hoped to obtain much more complete records of the variation of the sun, now shown by Clayton to be of great meteorological significance. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Apsor, Director Astrophysical Observatory. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, APPENDIX 6. REPORT ON THE LIBRARY. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities of the library of the Smithsonian Institution during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917: The Smithsonian library was founded with the definite plan that it should contain publications of the scientific institutions and learned societies of the world, together with a collection of periodicals and publications of a scientific nature. The most important function contemplated was that of reference for research in the broadest sense, and in this connection a complete collection of the catalogues of the libraries of the world was also contemplated. This policy has been continued with the result that the vast series of scientific publi- cations in the Smithsonian library, now numbering a half million of titles, has been brought together. As early as 1865 Secretary Henry realized that it would not be possible to adequately care for the entire collection in the Smith- sonian building, even if the entire building were devoted to the purpose; and a special act of Congress authorized the Library of Congress to assume the care of the main library of the Smithsonian Institution, the Institution to retain ownership of the publications and to have the same use of the books as if they were in its own building, and in addition to have the same privileges in the use of the Library of Congress as Members of Congress. While the main collection is in the Library of Congress, there are smaller collections here in the Institution, i. e., the books for office reference, dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc., the Government branch libraries of the Astro- physical Observatory, Bureau of American Ethnology, and the United States National Museum. All of these are confined to special publications relating to the subjects covered by the bureaus, and supplement rather than duplicate books in other libraries. The library of the Smithsonian Institution is augmented in two ways, i. e., by gift, and through the exchange of the Institution’s publications for those of similar institutions. JOHN DONNELL SMITH LIBRARY. Tn 1905 Dr. John Donnell Smith, of Baltimore, Maryland, offered to the Smithsonian Institution his botanical library, consisting of 95 96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. over 1,500 volumes, to accompany his herbarium, to which it is closely related. The proposed gift was the most valuable of its kind that had been offered to the Institution, and it will be of great assist- ance in the development of botanical research in the Museum. The conditions were that Doctor Smith should retain possession of the books as long as he desired, and that when his library should come to the Institution it should be kept separately and each book should have a bookplate indicating that he was the donor. A plate was im- mediately designed and engraved, and the ex-libris labels were printed and sent to Doctor Smith, who had them placed in each one of the books. In January of the present year the first consignment of these books for the library was received, and they were at once placed in a separate stack in the Smithsonian building and kept to- gether. The number gent amounted to 461 bound volumes, 100 unbound volumes, some incomplete, and 293 pamphlets. EXCHANGES. Special efforts have been made to meet the conditions coexistent with the third year of war in the matter of preserving and pro- moting foreign exchange relations, and the generous response met with has been very gratifying. On the other hand, a number of important publications have been suspended owing to the death or absence of collaborators; and still others will be withheld pending termination of the war, while the uncertainties of transportation have resulted in the loss of a number of valuable publications from abroad. The policy of broadening exchange relations with South and Central America has been inaugurated. ACCESSIONS. Additions to the library, consisting mainly of gifts and exchanges, were received in 24,292 packages. Of these, 23,307 were received by mail and 985 through the International Exchange Service. Corre- spondence in connection therewith amounted to about 1,245 letters and 2,126 acknowledgments on the regular printed forms. The cataloguing, not including publications for the Bureau of American Ethnology and the National Museum, reported elsewhere, covered 3,546 volumes and 47 charts. Of these, 698 were new titles added to the author catalogue and 59 new periodicals. In addition to 1,500 printed cards received from the Library of Congress, 1,855 new typewritten cards were prepared. There were 976 volumes recatalogued. SMITHSONIAN MAIN LIBRARY. Publications for the Smithsonian main library have been for- warded to the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress as REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97 received, after being duly entered on the records. During the fiscal year 2,886 of these were catalogued and accessioned, consisting of 1,736 volumes, 301 parts of volumes, 805 pamphlets, and 44 charts, thereby extending the accession numbers from 525,256 to 527,150. Several thousand publications remained unaccessioned at the close of the year, owing to a position of cataloguer being vacant for over nine months. The existing practice of transferring to the Library of Congress, without stamping or recording, public documents re- ceived in exchange for Smithsonian publications, mainly of a sta- tistical character, has been continued, with the result that 2,349 were forwarded in this manner. During the year the titles of 757 new publications were added to the catalogue. Want cards to the number of 535 for series in the Smithsonian division at the Library of Congress were considered, with the result that 154 volumes, 571 parts of volumes, and 51 title- pages were secured, thus completing 44 sets to date. There were re- ceived from the periodical division 105 cards, action on which re- sulted in securing 9 volumes, 79 parts of volumes, and 32 title-pages; and in response to 32 cards from the order division, 28 volumes and 12 parts were obtained. The number of dissertations and technological publications re- ceived showed a marked decrease over previous years. They were contributed by the following: 4 Kejserliga Alexanders-Universitet i Finland. Technische Hochschule, Breslau. Kongliga Tekniska Hégskolan, Stockholm. University of Wurzburg. University of Breslau. K6niglich Sachsische Technische Hochschule, Dresden. Office reference library—The accessions for the office library, which includes the Astrophysical Observatory and the National Zoo- logical Park, amounted to 1,025 publications, distributed as follows: Office library, 899 volumes and pamphlets; Astrophysical Observa- tory, 55 volumes, 18 parts of volumes, and 39 pamphlets; National Zoological Park, 11 volumes and: 3 pamphlets. Reading room.—The reading room has now about 311 foreign and domestic periodicals, which have been in constant use by the staff and members of the scientific bureaus of the Government. During the year 3,701 publications from the reading and reference rooms were in circulation, of which 3,367 were single numbers of periodicals and 334 were bound volumes. The aeronautical ibrary—tThe aeronautical library is probably one of the most complete series on the subject in the United States, and the policy has been to maintain it as such. 98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Before Doctor Langley came to the Smithsonian Institution as As- sistant Secretary he had made a collection of what had been pub- lished relating to aeronautics. Later, when he became Secretary and published his epoch-making works “ Experiments in Aerodynamics” and “Internal Work of the Wind,” the number of publications was gradually growing, so that when his successful experiments were made with the heavier-than-air models the Institution had the most | complete library of aeronautical literature in the United States. With this collection of books as a basis, a bibliography was prepared by me to cover all existing literature up to 1909. Since that time the securing of publications has continued, and every possible effort has been made to have it complete. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, a Regent of the Institution, has also shown an interest in this collec- tion by contributing his entire working library of books and news- paper clippings relating to aeronautics, arranged and mounted, which is a valuable addition in supplementing the series already in the Institution. There are now on hand 1,009 volumes and 83 titles of periodicals. With the close of the year a second part of the bibliography of aeronautics is in preparation by me for the National Advisory Com- mittee for Aeronautics, at the suggestion of the Secretary, which will complete the references from 1909 to the end of 1916. Art room.—No additions have been made to the collection of pub- lications relating to art in the art room, in view of the fact that allt of those relating to the fine arts have been placed in the sectional library of administration for use in connection with the National Gallery of Art, and those relating to the reproductive processes for engraving have been placed in the sectional library of the division of graphic arts in the Museum. Employees’ library.—The condition of the employees’ library has remained practically the same as last year, with no additions. If money were available it could be used to great advantage in adding some of the latest literature in fiction and other classes. The library has been in constant use, and 304 volumes were circulated during the year. John Watts de Peyster collection—This collection of Napoleona is probably the most unique collection of publications relating to Napoleon in the United States, and was brought together by Gen. John Watts de Peyster to include works relating to Napoleon asa gen- eral. It covers the period from the end of the Napoleonic wars to the present great struggle. There are many calls for these publications, and some means must be found to make them available. So far it has not been possible to do this with the present staff, and a cata- loguer with a knowledge of French history should be employed for the special purpose of cataloguing this collection. Every effort is REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99 being made now to make the books available, but without an adequate catalogue they can not be used to the fullest extent. NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY. The value of the library of the National Museum is largely due to the systematic collecting of works relating to the subjects covered by the collections in the Museum and at the same time supplementing as far as possible series in other libraries of Washington. The books are consulted by persons carrying on research work in almost every branch of the Government service, including those who are doing scientific work along similar lines. The publications for the library come to the Museum by gift, by exchange of publications, and by purchase. Many important gifts have been received from specialists, and those received during the year are given in detail. The ex- changes, as is the case with the Smithsonian library, have met with many difficulties raised by war conditions in the matter of securing foreign publications, which have been but partially overcome. The situation in this respect has, on the whole, shown no appreciable amelioration over the preceding year. Special effort, however, has been directed toward maintaining the foreign exchanges at the maxi- mum compatible with existing conditions. In connection with this work 271 letters were written in securing a number of new titles and in filling “wants” in many of the incomplete sets on hand. The appropriation for the.purchase of books is very small and has been the same for a number of years, and it is only by judicious spending that the urgent needs of the Museum can be secured. The library was fortunate enough to secure by purchase the fol- lowing three rare books, the editions of which are not represented in the United States: Boddaert, P.: Elenchus animalium, I Roterdami, 1784. Forster, J. R.: Afrikanischen Végel, Halle, 1798. Vroeg, A.: Catalogus . . . Vogelen, etc., s’Gravenhage, 1764, with separately paged ‘ adumbratiunculae.” Mearns collection—One collaborator who had taken a special in- terest in the library was Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, the announcement of whose death was received with deep regret last fall. Doctor Mearns contributed publications to the library each year as well as a collec- tion of Korans, and after his demise his widow carried out his ex- pressed wish in presenting the remainder of his scientific library to the Museum. This collection is especially rich in works on mammals, birds, and plants. Dall collection.—The continued interest of Dr. William Healey Dall in the books relating to mollusks, which form the sectional library of the division of mollusks, has resulted in the further addi- tion of 307 titles during the past year. 100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Other members of the scientific staff who have contributed to the collection in the library are: Dr. C. D. Walcott, Dr. O. P. Hay, Dr. C. W. Richmond, Mr. W. R. Maxon, Mr. W H Holmes, Dr J. C. Crawford. Accessions.—There are now in the Museum library 132,203 publi- cations, consisting of 49,285 volumes, 82,794 pamphlets and unbound papers, and 124 manuscripts. Of these, 1,572 volumes, including 949 completed volumes of periodicals, 3,556 pamphlets, and 65 parts.of volumes, were accessioned during the past year. Cataloguing.—As in the past, new material has been promptly entered and placed on the shelves or assigned to the sectional libra- ries. The cataloguing covered 623 books, 949 completed volumes of periodicals, and 373 pamphlets; in addition, 10,142 periodicals were entered. There were also 4,522 section cards made out covering pub- lications assigned to sectional libraries. Loans.—The loans from the general library during the year coy- ered by this report totaled 12,869 publications, in which are included 3,035 books borrowed from the Library of Congress, including the Smithsonian deposit, and 496 books borrowed from other libraries. In addition, 5,580 books were consulted in the reading room of the library. : Binding. —The serious situation with regard to publications re- maining unbound is being gradually relieved, but much remains to be done. During the past year 1,377 such publications were prepared for binding and sent to the Government binder. Of these 685 were returned within the year. Technological series —Additions to the technological library were composed of 374 volumes, 3,826 parts of volumes, 802 pamphlets, and 5 maps. There were filed 352 cards for books catalogued. A file of approximately 2,500 printed cards covering Smithsonian publica- tions was received and incorporated in the catalogue. In the scien- tific depository catalogue 1,507 author cards were filed, and to 4,515 additional cards subject headings were added, increasing the cata- logue by 6,022 cards. Books and periodicals loaned during the year numbered 133 vol- umes and 297 parts of volumes and pamphlets, making a total circu- lation of 430 publications. About 620 volumes were consulted in the reading room of the library. Several sets have been rearranged and more logically classified. In addition, a set of duplicates has been gone over, sorted, and ar- ranged by class number. Of the duplicates received 89 were volumes and 1,328 parts of volumes and pamphlets. Sectional libraries—The series of publications in the sectional libraries were dormant until a few years ago, and no effort was made to add to the collection of books in these libraries, the whole REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101 matter being held in abeyance until the work on the collections had been resumed. Books on the various subjects covered have, there- fore, been sought and the number augmented. During the interval, however, the future need of publications for working up the collec- tions was never lost sight of and there was a number of the serials bound and ready for use. Toward the end of the year two cata- loguers were employed in the division of mineral technology to put the books on hand in the very best of order and for the making of a special author and subject catalogue, so that with the close of the year the work has been completed and this sectional library is in excellent condition. It is hoped that during the present year it will be possible to do the same thing for the division of textiles. This will, however, not be possible with the present force, which is too small. With the death of Mr. Thomas W. Smillie, who was for many years custodian of the section of photography in the division of graphic arts, it was necessary that all books in the section should be checked up. A special cataloguer was employed for the purpose and the books and pamphlets were put in order and catalogued, periodical series arranged on the shelves and lacking numbers indicated in order that sets could be completed. The work was finished by June 30. The following is a complete list of the sectional libraries: Administration. Graphic arts. Mollusks. Administrative assist- History. Oriental archeology. ant’s office. Insects. Paleobotany. Anthropology. Invertebrate paleon- Parasites. Biology. tology. Photography, Birds. Mammals, Physical anthropology. Botany. Marine invertebrates. Prehistoric archeology. Comparative anatomy. Materia medica. Property clerk, Editor’s office. Organic industries. Reptiles and batrachians. Ethnology. Mechanical technology. Superintendent’s office. Fishes. Mesozoic fossils. Taxidermy. Forestry. Mineral technology. Textiles. Geology. Minerals. Vertebrate paleontology. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY LIBRARY. This library is administered under the direct care of the ethnologist in charge, and a report on its operations will be found in the report of that bureau. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY LIBRARY. The collection of reference works relating to astrophysics has been in constant use. During the year 55 volumes, 18 parts of volumes, and 39 pamphlets were added to this library. 65133°—sm 1917——_S 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK LIBRARY. This collection contains publications relating to the work of the park, and while not large is a strictly working library. During the_ past year 11 volumes and 3 pamphlets were added to the series. SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS. The accessions during the year, with the exception of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, may be summarized as follows: To the Smithsonian depesit in the Library of Congress, including parts ne complete »sets toh tt tt ee Eee eh ee 2, 886 To the Smithsonian office, Astrophysical Observatory, and National Zoo- AGpiGal Parks = SE ee) Ee & be ee ee ee eee ee ee 1, 025 Toathe ‘Vnited ‘States ‘National Muse tym so oe 2 se 5, 193 pLobels 21) . 200 eer ee ee Ze Se ee ee 9, 104 Respectfully submitted. Paut Brockett, Assistant Librarian. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, APPENDIX. 7. REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE. Sir:_I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1917: This international enterprise was, at the beginning of the present war, being carried on through the cooperation of the 34 following- named countries: Argentine Republic, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chili, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, India and Ceylon, Italy, Japan, Mexico, New South Wales, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Queensland, Russia, South Africa, South Australia, Spain, Straits Settlements, Sweden, Switzerland, United States of America, Victoria and Tas- mania, and Western Australia. Each of these countries supported a regional bureau whose duty it was to furnish to the central bureau in London classified index citations to all the scientific literature published within their several regions. As the greater part of these countries are now actually engaged in hostilities it is natural that scientific research and publication would be much affected, and that such an international cooperative enterprise as the International Catalogue would find itself in many difficulties. Not only have the number of scientific papers being published greatly decreased but the difficulty of preparing and pub- lishing a regular index has increased owing to the impossibility of obtaining necessary scientific and clerical assistance to aid in the preparation and publication of the Catalogue. The London central bureau was, however, able to publish four volumes of the Catalogue during the fiscal year; these volumes were the twelfth annual issue of geology and the thirteenth annual issue of chemistry, anatomy, and botany. All of the eleventh annual issue has now been pub- lished, together with 15 volumes of the twelfth annual issue, 13 vol- umes of the thirteenth annual issue, and 1 volume of the fourteenth annual issue, making a total of 216 regular volumes published since the beginning of the enterprise in 1901. In addition to these regular volumes several special volumes of schedules, lists of journals, etc., have been published. 103 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Almost 38,000,000 references to current scientific publications are contained in these 216 volumes, about 12 per cent of which have been supplied by this bureau. Owing to the dangers and difficulties of transportation much of the material prepared by this bureau for incorporation in the Catalogue during the present year has been held until such time as it can be safely forwarded to London. It is not to be expected that the publication of the Catalogue can be regularly carried on until after the return of peace, but it appears that the organization is holding together better than might be expected under existing conditions and that when peace is declared it will only be necessary to resume, rather than reorganize, the work. When it is possible for all the regional bureaus to fully resume the preparation of the Catalogue it is to be hoped that every effort will then be made to carry out one of the most important resolutions adopted at the last convention of the International Catalogue, held in London in 1910. This resolution was: (1) To take all possible steps to prevent reduplication by the publication of several annual and similar Catalogues and indexes on the same subject, by making arrangements such as those now in force with the Zoological Society of London. (2) To obtain further assistance and cooperation in the preparation of the material of the Catalogue from the principal scientific societies and academies and the organizations which collect material for indexing scientific literature. Scientific bibliographic work is seldom if ever self-supporting, and after the war it will undoubtedly be more than ever necessary to exercise every possible economy in the preparation and publica- tion of scientific indexes and yearbooks, so that the editors and publishers of all such publications will find it greatly to their ad- yantage to cooperate with the International Catalogue to the fullest possible extent and thus prevent the reduplication referred to in the resolution quoted above. This will benefit not only the Inter- national Catalogue and the publishers of the other bibliographies, but will greatly lessen the labors of librarians and scientific investi- gators who have occasion to use such works of reference. More than ever before the line of demarcation between the re- searches of pure science and the practical application of such re- searches is being eliminated, and laboratory experiments of to-day may to-morrow be in actual use in ways vitally affecting the welfare of man. It is becoming more than ever difficult to define what is pure science and what is applied science and the heretofore arbitrary, though at the time necessary, limitation of the scope of the Inter- national Catalogue to include papers on pure science only should now be so broadened as to include at least some of the applied REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105 sciences, which have in the last few years advanced with such un- precedented strides. The inclusion of papers dealing with the ap- plication of scientific discoveries would undoubtedly greatly increase the size and cost of the Catalogue, but on the other hand its value and use would be so increased that the demand and consequent sales of the Catalogue would more than offset any additional cost. Very respectfully, yours, Lronarp C. GUNNELL, Assistant in Charge. Mr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8. REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS. Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the pub- lications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the year ending June 30, 1917: The Institution proper published during the year 1 memoir in the series of Contributions to Knowledge, 19 papers in the series of Miscellaneous Collections, and 6 special publications. The Bureau of American Ethnology published 1 annual report, 2 bulletins, and a list of publications of the bureau. The United States National Museum issued 1 volume of the Proceedings, 73 papers forming parts of this and other volumes, and 6 Bulletins. The total number of copies of publications distributed by the Institution and its branches was 158,797, which includes 2,673 vol- umes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 53,615 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 21,865 volumes and separate pamphlets of Smithsonian Annual Reports, 64,365 volumes and separates of National Museum publications, 11,984 publications of the Bureau of American Eth- nology, 4,182 special publications, 23 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 29 reports of the Harriman Alaska Ex- pedition, and 53 reports of the American Historical Association. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. QUARTO. VOLUME 35. No. 3. A contribution to the comparative histology of the femur. By J. S. Foote. February 6, 1917. ix+242 pp., 38 pls. (Publ. 2382.) Title-page and table of contents. April 4, 1917. (Publ. 1740.) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. OCTAVO. Of the Miscellaneous Collections, volume 63, 1 paper was pub- lished ; of volume 64, 1 paper; of volume 66, 11 papers; of volume 67, 2 papers; of volume 68, 4 papers; in all, 19 papers, as follows: 106 No. No. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 107 VOLUME 63. . 6. Smithsonian Physical Tables. Second reprint of sixth revised edition. By F. E. Fowle. January 12, 1917. xxxvi+355 pp. (Publ. 2269.) VOLUME 64, 5. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. III, No. 5. Cambrian trilobites. By Charles D. Walcott. September 29, 1916. Pp. 303-456, pls. 45-67. (Publ. 2420.) VOLUME 66, . 6. Phoenetie transcription of Indian languages. Report of Committee of American Anthropological Association. 15 pp. (Publ. 2415.) . 9. Maxonia, a new genus of tropical American ferns. By Carl Christensen. September 30, 1916. 4 pp. (Publ. 2424.) . 10. Three new murine rodents from Africa. By N. Hollister. October 26, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 2426.) . 11. On the use of the pyranometer. By C. G. Abbot and L. B. Aldrich. November 6, 1916. 9 pp. (Publ. 2427.) . 12. Bones of mammals from Indian sites in Cuba and Santo Domingo. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. December 7, 1916. 10 pp., 1 pl. (Publ. 2429.) ; 13. The teeth of a monkey found in Cuba. By Gerrit S. Miller, jr. Decem- ber 8, 1916. 3 pp.,1 pl. (Publ. 2430.) . 14. Preliminary survey of the remains of the Chippewa settlements on La Pointe Island, Wisconsin. By Philip Ainsworth Means. January 4, 1917. 15 pp., 2 maps. (Publ. 2483.) . 15. Three remarkable new species of birds from Santo Domingo. By J. H. Riley. December 1, 1916. 2 pp. (Publ. 2435.) . 16. The determination of meteor orbits in the solar system. G. von Niessl. April 23, 1917. 35 pp. (Publ. 2436.) . 17. Explorations and field work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1916. April 26, 1917. 184 pp. (illustrated.) (Publ. 2438.) . 18. On the occurrence of Benthodesmus atlanticus Goode and Bean on the coast of British Columbia. By C. H. Gilbert. February 21, 1917. 2 pp. (Publ. 2489.) VOLUME 67. 1. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. IV, No. 1. Nomenclature of some Cambrian Cordilleran formations. By Charles D. Walcott. May 9, 1917. pp. 1-8. (Publ. 2444.) . 2. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. IV, No. 2. The Albertella fauna in British Columbia and Montana. By Charles D. Walcott. May 9, 1917. pp. 9-59, pls. 1-7. (Publ. 2445.) VOLUME 68. . 1. Archeological investigations in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah. By J. Walter Fewkes. May 15, 1917. 38 pp., 14 pls. (Publ. 2442.) . 2. Recognition among insects. By N. E. McIndoo. April 30, 1917. 78 pp. (Publ, 2443.) 108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. No. 8. Effect of short period variations of solar radiation on the earth’s atmos- phere. By H. Helm Clayton. May 21, 1917. 18 pp., 8 charts. (Publ. 2446.) No. 4. Preliminary diagnosis of new mammals obtained by the Yale-National Geographic Society Peruvian Expedition. By Oldfield Thomas. April 10, 1917. 3 pp. (Publ. 2447.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. Owing to the congestion of work at the Government Printing Office on account of the war, the Smithsonian Report for 1916, which was ready for printing in April, was not yet off the press at the «lose of the fiscal year. SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS. The following special publications were issued during the year: Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and June 30, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 2422.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and September 30, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 2425.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and December 31, 1916. 3 pp. (Publ. 24387.) Publications of the Smithsonian Institution issued between January 1 and March 31, 1917. 1p. (Publ. 2448.) Classified list of Smithsonian publications available for distribution December 15,1916. vi-+32 pp. (Publ. 2434. ) The Smithsonian Institution (descriptive folder). 17 pp. (Publ. AQ.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report to Congress; (0) the Proceedings of the United States Na- tional Museum; and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr Marcus Benjamin. During the year the Museum published 1 volume of the Proceed- ings and 73 separate papers forming parts of this and other volumes, and 6 Bulletins. The issues of the Proceedings were as follows: Volume 50; volume 51, papers 2139-2172; volume 52, papers 2173-2193; volume 53, papers 2194-2206, 2208, and 2210-2212. The Bulletins were as follows: Bulletin 71, A monograph of the foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean, Part VI, Miliolidae, by Joseph A, Cushman. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109 Bulletin 93, The sessile barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collections of the U. S. National Museum; including a monograph of the American species, by Henry A. Pilsbry. Bulletin 96, A synopsis of American early Tertiary Cheilostome Bryozoa, by Ferdinand Canu and Ray S. Bassler. Bulletin 98, The birds of the Anamba Islands, by Harry C. Oberholser. Volume 16, Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, entitled “Sys- tematic investigations in Phanerogams; ferns, and mosses,” by various authors. ; Volume 17, Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium entitled ‘“Sys- tematic investigations in lichens and ferns, grasses, and other Phanerogams,” by various authcrs. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. The publications of the bureau are discussed in Appendix 2 of the Secretary’s report. The editorial work of the bureau has continued in charge of Mr. J. G. Gurley, editor. During the year, 1 annual report, 2 bulletins, and a list of publica- tions were issued, as follows: Thirty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (containing an accompanying paper “Tsimshian Mythology” (Boas) ). Bulletin 40, part 2 (edited by Boas), ‘Coos, an illustrative sketch,” by Leo J. Frachtenberg. Bulletin 55, Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians, by Robbins, Harrington, and Freire-Marreco. List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology. At the close of the fiscal year there were in press or in preparation 4 annual reports and 7 bulletins. REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION. The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated to Congress under the provisions of the act of incorporation of the association. Volume 1 of the annual report for 1914 was issued during the year, and volume 2 of this report and the report for 1915 were in press at the close of the year. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. The manuscript of the Nineteenth Annual Report of the National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution for the year ending October 11, 1916, was communicated to Congress on Feb- ruary 5, 1917. 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION. The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. This committee passes on all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institution or its branches, and considers forms of routine, blanks, and various other matters pertaining to printing and publication. Sixteen meet- ings were held during the year and 101 manuscripts were acted upon. Respectfully submitted. A. Howarp Crarx, 'ditor. Dr. Cuartes D, Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1917. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following re- port in relation ‘to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution, and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi- cal Observatory, and the International Catalogue of Scientific Liter- ature for the year ending June 30, 1917, together with balances of previous appropriations: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 1917. Section 5591, Revised Statutes, reads as follows: The Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, from time to time, see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest, the sum of one million dollars. On July 18, 1916, and on January 11, 1917, two amounts of $2,000 each, consisting of savings from income, were deposited in the Treas- ury of the United States and completed the total deposit of $1,000,000 allowed by law. The amount of each fund so deposited and drawing interest at the rate of 6 per cent per annum is given below: SUDA HATS CTay aA TU UTS | MLNS Se Sed RY WS Ee as Oat ee Cee ee LONE SSeS T2 73640200 TSS ovell aire oy Le ES Wes oy SP OD 6 ey Ds St is 2 Sd ee eee 500. 00 EL aner COMP GURIC 2d teens we Sede ak CRD ede eer SR A Le ee 2, 500. 00 EiGdelsins tng see 2. ERM IVEY Uppal he ed Te ee ee 216, 000. 00 UICeSMenume: = Set eS Ee _ Pee ee eens a Se 590. 00 ENVIR VEUN ae en ee er ee ee 14, 000. 00 PNUCISOM Retr. fun. -2 4.2 = ee ee ee ee ee 11, 000. 00 vey Trang ccorse:.. LOOre Lindale = _ See ee 26, 670. 00 Gr COnS Rakes Sono rel of mya 8 eS es ee ee 1, 100. 00 Tot Fund tO nite: States DreasUlyon senses oon aeo se 1, 000, 000. 00 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. OTHER RESOURCES. - Registered and guaranteed 4 per cent bonds of the West Shore Railroad Co., part of legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins (par USPC) See ge ae rem i os $42, 000. 00 Coupon 5 per cent bonds of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co., due ROTEL. Sse! SOS Ue) ec ee ee ee 5, 040. 63 Coupon 6 per cent bonds of the Argentine Nation, due Dec. 15, OUT WC CORb me 4589 ot ert ee Pee) ee ee tere eet ete eye 5, 093. 75 1, 052, 134. 38 Also three small pieces of real estate, two of which are improved, located in the District of Columbia and bequeathed by the late Robert Stanton Avery, of Washington, District of Columbia. Statement of receipts and disbursements from July 1, 1916, to June 80, 1917. RECEIPTS. Gash’on' deposit’and in'safeJuly “1 TO162 ae ee eee eee ee $44, 711. 02 Interest on fund deposited in United States Treasury aque July; A, 1916; andi dana sh” LOU. 24 ase te Ee a b $59, 810. 59 Interest on West Shore Railroad bonds due July 1, UA SERGE ETC a iy in lh SAR NE SESS A a 1, 680. 00 Repayments, rentals, publications, ete_________________- 10, 528. 93 Oongriputions: for specific purposes=—=- =. ~—- -==—-= = 16, 630. 00 ————_ 88, 649. 52 133, 360. 54 DISBURSEMENTS. Boldings: (care Bnd repairsouies! Lonikiie ot Be SUE See eee $6, 892. 23 eniture and fictires 22 1/5 Fe ite td. eis Ts Ce Se 1, 594. 45 General expenses: SEEN at (ee) a ee 2S ee eS, ee eae! See $19, 257. 45 i tb gt tsp Se ee ne OS aa aay EY Sea SE Aa aay eee eee we ee 68. 00 SHED ROT TS oh [ecnetanceate Sir ie Sa a Seta aan eh a Ad 1, 244. 77 Postage, telegraph, and telephone_________________ 559. 33 MOPGlSHES 2091 ewe hs ee Pest pi FO SOE 56. 64 Incidentals; fuel, and lightss2: 242. ess See, See TER 1, 217. 51 Ts te Se ee ee ee a 2, 487. 44 —————_ 24, 891. 14 EU SE SIS IOS OL TE NL ASAT L RE ELSI ERT EE I VRE 2, 446. 64 Publications and their distribution : Miscellaneous Collections—_— =~ = ee ey 5, 100. 95 ConeIDuUtIOns Lo KeOWwledee =~ — == =e eee 551. 00 HEUOLIS 2 oa Se eee eee 188. 57 SHecla | PUDIMER TIONS. == oe. ee ee ee 420. 03 PD CAT ON: SUPDICS <= = Seen nse ee 132. 47 ASE CSc lp, i el Nr a 7, 588. 33 18, 981. 35 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, as Hxploratvions., researches: andveolleehions <= 8-8 se $5, 094. 19 Hodgkins specific fund, researches, and publications_______________ 6, 498. 24 International Exchanges ___________ ‘sping, Rib rane aeads oe eee Oa OOM oles Goltlery for Art OF SFR SHQO6) ath JOEL ise t MIRE IMATE 2 190. 05 Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory _-_-_-------- ates er) So 8 D032 60 Depositto credit of permanent, funds... se ys et 2 2 LL, 4,,000,, 00 Advances for field expenses, ‘ete-2222= 22s es sek Do. GIO VAT: Billsineceivable; certifieates of deposit... -_ 2 = 25, 000. 00 124, 127. 98 Deposited with the Treasurer of the United States and HTN Wa Ld cee Pe a es Bee Ao ee eee hn th lt 9 SOVOBQNSGS (SUS. DVDR) NERDS La eS Ae See Le 2 ae epee pen ee 200. 00 $9, 232. 56 : , 133, 360. 54 The itemized report of the auditor confirms the foregoing state- ment of the balances, receipts, and expenditures, and is approved. A summary of the report follows: CapiTaL AupiT Co., METROPOLITAN BANK BUILDING, Washington, D. C., August 24, 1917. Haecutive Committee, Board of Regents, Smithsonian Institution. Sir: We have examined the accounts and vouchers of the Smithsonian In- stitution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1917, and certify the following to be a correct statement: Morale GIsMtT Semen ES: 22 8eh tx aes os vate 2 Benes Sens Winey te nee OER ARO ee $124, 127. 98 Monee CCl pices een ne ee es Te eee RS ee ee eh OO LO a y Excess of disbursements over receipts___________-____ 35, 478. 46 PENNOUNG BOM NULY Pl, AOIGs 2.2 eee eS sae ee he, Al Bawnceonvhand suner oo, COiio st se eee 9, 232. 56 Balance as shown by Treasury statement as of June 30, 1917______ 12 OTe TL Mes ROULStANUNIIE CHEUIICS 2. acre ttt Bie east ea rh ee eee eee ee 4,110. 67 VETILIFITIY GBs ke per ed ele in tw let a ine te ip a aR Meee nin rated Ole 7, 947. 04 alancesAmerncan National: Bank. =<) 302 ee fe Te ee 1, 085. 52 CSEISUN, OUNEUAG TAY a Sian: BES ES Ss ae A ee a op aa ae 200. 00 Layali Gyoverey Ae) fy aes) 0 yeas to Ly ea ee ee ener eo ey ee 9, 232. 56 The vouchers representing payments from the Smithsonian income during the year, each of which bears the approval of the Secretary, or in his absence, of the Acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution, have been examined in connection with the books of the Institution and agree with them. CAPITAL AUDIT Co., By Wirr1AmM L. Yarcrr, President. All payments are made by check signed by the Secretary on the Treasurer of the United States and all revenues are deposited to the credit of the same account, except in some instances small deposits are now made in bank for convenience of collection, 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Your committee has approved of the deposit on time in strong Washington banks and trust companies of a part of its cash re- sources not immediately required, and has been able to obtain inter- est thereon at the rate of 3 per cent per annum. It is believed that approximately $1,000 can be added each year to the revenues of the Institution by this procedure. Your committee also presents the following summary of appro- priations for the fiscal year 1917, intrusted by Congress to the care of the Smithsonian Institution, balances of previous appropriations at the beginning of the fiscal year, and amounts unexpended on June 30, 1917. . : Available | Balance after June 30, July 1,1916.| 1917. international exchanges, (OG... ~ io. sancnqeanetaecee < ne seep ceweeseadpansnseas $0. 20 1 $0. 20 vers GLONe I XONAUEES! LONG 26. oS deces ccceee once ee vers se aueme ace teas seeks 3; 084. 1 eecneeesere Tnternational Pixchanpes WOW: e255 ese sec Ste. . es eee ees}... 32, 000. 00 4,957.76 ‘Ameripads Miphivinlomy, 16 45 e 5 oe bo AO. oe os conan alae. 1, 119. 04 1819. 84 Amienican TMihnolopy JOG dense sap hmeseeete oak See = Jencks a= < nce 2,897.78 334.97 RRO E Ee CEN AO et cn sang oes nnne= paren =p ass pncne=s- as oke* Soneer vem 42, 000. 00 1, 523. 28 Lorin ONAN A OPTIO SE OLD. icin non poms ane nninas= neg ~oCengn tees esccee seen cee AIO tecsomseneces repairs to pan Lusonian (MGing 101... . .. ccacwawees cee onckereuctocboeeweben ce 176.88 1176.88 National Museum: AEMUTS ANG XLS, WUlie ts ects oce sone eee ss nate ateee sent aue concerts - 13.34 113.34 Marmitaure and fixtures; 1916. 52. ae sock Ss. pep bm 'cpe seme ee: cs ta tmemeee sce 1, 941.95 11.36 GREPRRLUEIEO CEL EER GUNES LOL Giain a0 ce via= = pare avinim Bra om a . > | : BR, oad 754 fe 4 er init} th} MOLI orl, cleat! ates ‘aah phe fae Shr aGeL. oth Kote Cuesen ak ty wall _ ‘Sitti 1 AFC hGorit Ont eTHy 7 ¥ eiindiigy blow niidasa arta. doit: tit Ibieannt these 5! a | i : ecy Ste i“ EP anit: obit adden nich on ati ) he Broce thar iveriedatrbacinaneleer Peobsaad oil t Brith iireuurisver) j /Nyamaobani tity Botiveas | Ofna arene male To. xisniet wel it aeingiownt rf ti We taauerfti nF ork hot “Ss —— ‘ _ ° 3 Pi d6 ont bRacr wtkhAo e ng jive t ib yoo wh ral ei ie ny j e én* i. ‘Bidet there = c+ tethe @hoiesn » Patan (09 | Wiigeererts peae(te’ io a eh hetebiatias hageyne anc: sh tc = henna mots ossbii amd ail prerkcp vax! liven noitadd mili 2o ots I Mildn p79 onitiue 192 eoken -= Fiaee 4 * ,2a>J 4 4 oi? O77 rT. é ¥ ral et an Yehval Abe eK aaicdhon sae, bie TAP mia Fh on J oem : ay - in a wastestioaat) + dni hyn of yiivotedh aoa a we2olo ad at ore oe inatn-eid Rs cd (ti deat asi win « iot wT ge dtas ' we . eats imine Be iit ot, solisttiie Serie c tt behisghianw oh thineiog bra nis invite MJ id ist soit Hod BS vied i. 7 aT he ald: of -gaitel hy ecminoid is i” ae of ‘oft ie GHNERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR. 1917. ADVERTISEMENT. The object of the GrenrraLt Aprenpix to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual summary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geol- ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not alto- gether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1917. 130 PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES. By CoMMANDANT A. R. Translated from Revue générale des Sciences pures et appliquées, volume 27, pages 2138-221, April 15, 1916, by Charles EH. Munroe. The idea of employing powerful explosives as interior charges for projectiles dates from the discovery of guncotton by Schénbein. On the appearance of this substance its explosive power and its insolu- bility in water immediately attracted the attention of the military services of the different countries to it. Up to then black powder only furnished the interior charges for shells and bombs. In France the pyroxylin commission, presided over by the Duke de Montpensier, carried out numerous tests for the purpose of determin- ing the practicability of this material, but repeated explosions, in the bore, of projectiles charged with guncotton caused the abandonment of the researches. It was not until 1886, following the work of Turpin on the priming of picric acid, that the question of charging projectiles with high ex- plosives was taken up again in France, and this led to definite results. I. STATE OF THE QUESTION. The number of explosive substances which have been prepared up to the present time is very considerable. However, in spite of the fact that many of them are employed in the industries, only a very small number of them can be utilized in charging projectiles. Such use is subject to imperative conditions which markedly limit the domain from which one may select an explosive for artillery. A projectile exerts destructive effects on an obstacle either because of the kinetic energy which it possesses at the moment it strikes upon it or because of the energy liberated by the detonation of the interior charge of explosive which it carries. Finally, and if the obstacle is very resistant (such for example as plates of armor protecting the sides of ships) , experience shows that the effect produced by the detonation of a charge exploded in contact is, in general, insufficient to cause the 1 Reprinted by permission from the United States Naval Institute Proceedings, Vol. 43, No. 4, Whole No. 170, April, 1917. 131 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. rupture of the obstacle. This can not be accomplished except by the passage of the projectile itself through the armor plate. If it is sought to sweep away obstructions, the potential energy of the ex- plosive charge carried by the projectile should be exercised at this point. Inasmuch as a charge of explosive can not be projected to a great distance without its being inclosed in a highly resistant metallic en- velope,’ it follows that in practice they will always produce simultane- ously the destructive effects of the characters considered above. Finally, one may consider the destruction of the personnel as a prin- cipal purpose in the employment of shells charged with an explosive. In this case one will seek to effect the rupture of the body of the shell into a large number of fragments animated with the highest possible initial velocity. In addition are the notable destructive effects pro- duced by the shock of the explosion wave on the persons who are in close proximity to the center of explosion. It is evident that endeavors will be made to produce the one or the other of these effects, 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLOSIVES. In order to secure the results of the study we propose it is expedient to study these in detail. We recall at the outset certain elementary views concerning the characteristics essential to explosives. In this regard an explosive is theoretically defined by certain data the chief of which are its force, /, its potential, Y, and its rate of _ detonation. The force is represented by the following expression. DoVol 273 rc in which p, represents the atmospheric pressure (which is 1.033 kilos per sq. cm.), V the volume, in liters at 0° C. and 760 millimeters of pressure, of the gaseous products resulting from the explosion of 1 kilogram of the explosive, and 7’ the absolute temperature of the explosion. The potential, Y, represents the work corresponding to the in- definite expansion of the above mass of gas. If & designates the mechanical equivalent of heat and g, the heat liberated by the ex- plosion then Q=LFq. The rate of detonation is that of the propagation of the phenome- non of explosion in traveling through a lead or tin tube filled with the explosive under consideration. 1It will be otherwise if it be attempted to project the explosive charge by means of rockets analogous to the old-fashioned war rocket. PROJECTILES. CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 133 Finally, the definition of an explosive from the point of view under consideration is completed by a knowledge of its aptitude for deto- nation which is evidenced by its sensitiveness to the blow of a ham- mer of given mass (20 to 80 kilos) falling from a determined height, or by its sensitiveness to detonation by a detonator containing a given weight of mercury fulminate. The following table gives the values for the force and potential pertaining to commonly occurring explosives: Be. Q. \ Ton meters. UR CHITETID WiC Oliaras as es aa mete ee ee ae wire pat ke Dae Sgn i eee eae 3, 250 270 Ra) Mercury tina LSree aes ee ee. ee hn Seen yee. Se neee ae eee Se Gee 5, 020 173 (3) Agumoninzaumitrate te bs ecb? ee 295515. _ LY P AL Selb: 5,100 267 (SPAT OMT DICTA DO A. Sie Se donee caress ppb as at Later operat eel at 7, 940 323 tify) LEAR CHECK AN Se ne nt a aie Le REA Ser ne ae Sear ER ese 9,010 250 (6) Celluloseendecanitrate' (guncottor)!. 222. Plaster eee S 10, 230 457 (7) Cellulose octonitrate (collodion cotton) .... 2.222.222.2222... 2 22 eee ee eee 8,360 313 CQ Miele Canin: oe oe ee ee tl ee ook ecee ter 10, 560 669 It may be said concerning the velocity of detonation that it attains its maximum value with crystalline bodies such as picric acid and nitromannite where it is of the order of 7,000 meters per second and falls to about 2,500 meters in liquid and plastic substances such as ‘nitroglycerin and dynamite. If we designate by A the value of the ratio 6/C’ where 6 represents the weight of explosive contained in volume C and «@ the covolume? of the mass of gas produced in the explosion (that is to say, the volume limit occupied by this gas under an infinite pressure), Noble and Abel have shown that the pressure, P (in kilos per sq. cm.), developed under these conditions on the walls of a receptacle G was defined by the formula teri: doidg P l—aAdA eiihcs As When the density of loading A becomes equal or superior to 1/z, the denominator of P becomes zero, and the pressure is infinite. Re- sistant as the envelope containing the explosive may be, it is then ruptured and the débris projected. The interior of a projectile being supposedly filled with the ex- plosive constituting the charge if its density is greater than 1/a the preceding conditions are evidently fulfilled. . *Sarrau has shown that the value of a@ is for all gases very nearly V/1000. 65133°—sm 191710 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Noble and Abel’s formula supposes implicity that the composition of the gaseous products, and as a consequence the covolume of the entire mass, remain invariable whatever the pressure is. As a fact it is not so in most cases because of the operation of the principle of the displacement of the equilibrium. In virtue of this principle the increase of the pressure of the mass of gas causes, when the change is possible, the formation of more and more condensed compounds and, in consequence, the diminution of the covolume. It follows that the limit value of 1/A can be such that it will always remain less than «. Hence the pressure can not become infinite. This is the case for guncotton. The increase in the proportion of the condensed products is, on the other hand, generally explained by the correlative augmentation of the quantity of heat disengaged, g,, and of the temperature, 7’, of the explosion. The force will then increase with the density of the charge. This is that which takes place in the case of picric acid. From the standpoint of variations in the phenomena of detonation it may be said generally that the ability of an explosive to effect the rupture of its envelope is above all determined by an elevated value for its force and for its rate of detonation. Its destructive effect is chiefly a function of the magnitude of its heat, g, or contra, of its potential. 2. EFFECTS OF THE DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES. This summary of the theoretical views being disposed of we take up the description of the effects of detonation. We will suppose at the outset that the explosive is subjected to detonation in free air or when contained in a feebly resistant envelope. On explosion the gaseous mass which is produced expands in the direction of least resistance; that is to say, from below upward. This projection of the gas is accompanied with a violent aspiration of the layers of air in the vicinity of the ground, which aspiration is indicated by a brusque depression of the barometer whose intensity diminishes rapidly as the distance from the explosion center increases. Under the influence of this depression the air confined in near-by inclosures tends to es- cape outward and projects in that direction weakly resistant sides such as doors, windows, roofs and the like. The effect appears much as if a charge had been exploded within the inclosure. Under the action of this movement of masses of air animated with a high horizontal velocity the layers near the periphery of the gase- ous mass produced by the explosion, and which are animated with a verticalymovement, acquire at times a most complete vortex motion. At the same time that this gaseous flow, which is often in a vertical direction, is set up, the detonation engenders a shock wave whose ve- PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 135 locity of propagation is at first much greater than that of sound, but which rapidly diminishes until it becomes the same as sound. There is thus produced an interruption of continuity and we know that in this case the difference in pressure existing at the front of the wave and the medium in which the latter is propagated may attain to a very notable value. Numerous researches have been made on this subject in France and elsewhere. The more recent have been carried out by the commission on explosives' which has recognized that the limiting radius, 7, of dangerous effects by the wave could be represented by the formula 1=KVC in which 7 represents a length expressed in meters, C the weight of the charge in kilograms, and A a constant dependent on the nature of the explosive and the degree of security sought. It follows from this that for different charges the distances at which corresponding mechanical effects are produced are proportional to the square roots of the weights of the charges. The detonation of 100 kilograms of melinite, for example, gave rise to a shock wave at whose surface there existed a pressure greater than 10 kilograms per square centimeter for a distance of 7 meters about the center of explosion. At 10 meters the pressure was between 2 and 3 kilograms, and at 15 meters it had fallen to less than one-half kilogram. Regarding the velocity of propagation of this wave we find it to have been 800 meters per second in the vicinity of the center of explosion, 635 meters at 5 meters farther away, 360 meters at a distance of 50. meters, and then down to 250 meters per second, which is the velocity of sound. It follows from the preceding that a person located at some meters from the explosive charge will first be struck by the pressure from the shock wave, which will be followed by a sharp and sudden depression and movement of the air at high velocity toward the center of the explosion. A fortuitous circumstance, recorded by M. Arnoux, has enabled us quite recently to elucidate the order of magnitude of this depression and to explain by the same the probable mechanism in numerous cases of dead bearing no apparent wounds which have been observed on the battlefield. ' Last January M. Arnoux received from a superior officer at the front a pocket aneroid barometer which had been put out of service by the explosion of a German shell at a distance of about three meters from the instrument. On examination its parts were found intact but it could not register because the two transmission levers con- 1 Memorial des Poudres et Salpétres, 1905-6. Etude des effets a distance des explo- sions. M. Lheure, rapporteur. 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. nected with the indicating needle no longer rested on the other lever but had passed below. It was immediately apparent that this con- dition could have been caused only by an abnormal dilation of the aneroid system due to a considerable barometric depression. Under these circumstances the instrument had registered a pressure much below the minimum pressure inscribed on its graduated arc. After having put the two levers in place the instrument was placed under the bell of an air pump and exposed to the vacuum. It was found that the two levers changed positions when the pressure on the interior had fallen to 410 millimeters of mercury. It was concluded that the explosion of the shell produced in its vicinity a static de- pression of 760—410=350 millimeters of mercury. From the aerodynamic formulas it appears that the immediate production of this depression ,will give birth to a wind having a ve- locity of 276 meters per second and which will produce a dynamic pressure of 10,360 kilograms per square meter on a plane surface normal to the direction of its propagation. Such a rush of air would overturn and crush to earth persons ex- posed to it. Those escaping would nevertheless suffer from the brusque depression, reckoned above, which would follow. Owing to this the air and carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood will be imme- diately set free in small bubbles, and, if their diameters are larger than those of the small arteries, they will form gaseous plugs which will instantly arrest the circulation of the blood in these arteries and death will occur before the re-solution in the blood on the res- toration of the pressure to normal. The passage of the sound wave at the outset of its formation can also rupture the eardrum, but its duration is extremely brief as compared with that of the following depression. In all of the foregoing there has been only the single question of the mechanical effects due to the passage of the explosive from the solid to the gaseous state. The occurrences of the war have thrown light on the pathological réle which the gases produced or liberated in detonation have come to play. Without wishing to enter on the study of projectiles designed for asphyxiation of the enemy we may remark that most of the nitro explosives employed in charging shell disengage notable proportions of carbon monoxid. Although the toxic power of this gas is relatively great, it may be observed here ' that it is not freed except when the explosion occurs out of contact with the air. This will, for example, be the case where a projectile is buried and exploded in the earth or a shell is exploded in a habi- tation of small size. In all other cases the carbon monoxid is imme- diately burned by the oxygen of the air in such manner that in reality only carbon dioxid is observed. It is known that man can PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. Tot continue to live in an atmosphere containing a very large proportion of this latter gas. Let us now examine the nature of the phenomena produced by the rupture of the metallic envelop constituting the body of the shell. Different cases are distinguished according as to whether the body consists of cast iron or of steel. In the first case the metal is, as it were, pulverized by the explosive. The metallic powder produced by the explosion is projected with a great velocity; but, as the mass of the pieces is extremely small, they rapidly lose their velocity; in fact they have no efficiency after a course of a few meters. By reducing the ratio of the weight of the charge to that of the projectile one can, it is true, somewhat improve the fragmentation. They can not, however, obtain a satisfactory result except by reduc- ing the weight of the charge to such an extent that the effects of the blast and the momentum of the fragments become in themselves insufficient. In addition to secure the necessary conditions of safety the walls of the cast-iron shell must be thicker than those of the steel shell, from which it results that the former is inferior to the latter from all points of view. The rupture of the steel envelop is effected from the beginning in a totally different manner from cast iron. If the body of the shell is thin, it is torn into strips of relatively light weight. The destructive effect from the action of the gas on loose soil manifests itself in the production of a cavity having the form of an elongated ellipsoid whose longer axis will be perpendicular to the horizontal projection-of the trajectory. The difference in length of the two axes diminishes, other things being equal, the greater the depth to which the projectile has penetrated the ground before its explosion. When the walls of the projectile are thicker the fragmentation changes in character and they note the production in place of the preceding chamfer strips, of fragments of irregular form, the aver- age weight of which increases with the ratio of the weight of the projectile to that of its charge. For a given projectile the size of the pieces furnished by any part of it varies with the thickness of the walls at that point. The velocity of these pieces naturally varies inversely as their weight. This may be measured with the wire screens and the chronographs. The results obtained will be but average indications and often will be very inexact on account of the fact that the wires of the screen targets are sometimes broken by the shock wave before they can be cut by the fragments. Accepting this necessary condition it has been observed that the velocity of the fragments reaches and may surpass 1,200 meters per second when using a shell with thin walls. 1388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The fragments of the ogival and base will be thrown with less velocity but nevertheless they will have a velocity greater than the residual velocity of the projectile. II. ARRANGEMENTS OF THE EXPLOSIVE PROJECTILE. The arrangement and proportioning of the parts of the explosive- containing projectile determine the functions it is to play. It may be required for the demolition and dispersion of weak defenses situated close at hand, and then thin-walled projectiles carrying large charges of explosives would be made use of, and as their re-' sistance to the effects in firing is not great they would be discharged under low pressures. In order to augment their range and penetration they would be fired at high angles near to or greater than 45°. It is advantageous to use for this short caliber pieces such as obuses or mortars. If it is desired to produce destructive effects at great distances, the weight of the projectile and consequently the caliber will be increased. In case of unusually great distances, such as 20 kilometers or more, quite long cannon and high initial velocities must be em- ployed. These guns are fired under high pressures and it is necessary to reinforce the walls of the projectiles to an equal caliber and reduce the interior explosive charge. The considerations of a general nature relative to shell having been treated of, it remains to discuss those relative to the choosing of the explosive and the fixing of the charge. 1. CONDITIONS OF LOADING. Industrial explosives are generally used in cartridges or sticks which are placed in bore holes in the interior of the material that is to be blown up. They are not, therefore, exposed to any violence. The explosive charge of a shell must, on the contrary, endure the forces of inertia, translation, and rotation due to accelerations origi- nating in the chamber of the piece. For the purpose of showing the magnitude of these forces we will take as an example the shell of a cannon of 75. This projectile is subjected during firing to a minimum acceleration of the order of 200,000 meters per second. Its ratio to g (acceleration due to its weight) being about 20,000, it results that the particular material contained in the shell develops at the moment of firing under inertia an effect directed toward the base of the shell equal to about 20,000 times its weight. The height of the shell cavity occupied by the charge being on the average about 20 centimeters, it follows, if we designate the specific FROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 139 gravity of the explosive by 8, that the pressure in kilograms per square centimeter exerted by the charge on the base of the projectile 20X 8X20, 000 © is equal to ————_—_—_ whicli is 4008. Taking 8 as equal to 1.5, it 1,000 results that the effort tending to crush the column of explosive as the projectile starts from rest proceeds in increasing progression from the point toward the base where in contact with the latter it amounts to 600 kilograms per square centimeter. On the other hand, under the influence of the iene: the projectile acquires a motion of rotation whose maximum velocity at the instant of leaving the bore is about 300 revolutions per second, and this angu- lar velocity corresponds to a circumferential velocity of the inside walls of about 50 meters per second. These figures show the magnitude of the forces to which the ex- plosive material of the charge is subjected depending on the duration of the blow from the cannon. It by this becomes obvious that a powerful explosive which has been used on a large scale in the mining industry and in rock work is nevertheless unfit for use in charging projectiles. However, we now know the precise conditions that an artillery explosive must satisfy. Regarding these characteristics, the most important is that the force and rate of detonation shall be as large as possible. It has been observed that this last requirement implies the use of crystalline substances, but it should be stated that the realization of this de- sideratum is, notwithstanding, secondary, since experience has shown that a satisfactory detonation can be obtained with plastic substances if a detonator capable of imparting a sufficiently high velocity is used. In order to insure safety in firing, the explosive should be capable of resisting the effects of inertia which are developed in the chamber of the piece. If it be a solid—and this is generally the case—it should be absolutely compact in structure and should adhere strongly to the walls of the shell. The meeting of this last condition is necessary in order to prevent the friction of the charge resulting from a difference in speed of rotation between the shell and its explosive due to the inertia of the latter. The compactness of loading tends to prevent compression and shock on the interior of the explosive mass following the travel of the projectile through the bore. The adhesion of the explosive to the walls of the shell can be determined at the outset by following the method used in loading cartridges in which the explosive, instead of being placed directly in the cavity in the shell, is first enveloped in thin sheet metal or cardboard and, thus surrounded, is introduced into the chamber of the shell after the walls have been coated with 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. a layer of vaseline or paraffin. If the interior of the cartridge is firmly partitioned off by resistant diaphragms, these will also tend to protect the charge from the friction due to its inertia to rotation. The use of a simple cartridge in metal or cardboard appears to be advisable in all cases, but particularly for base-loading shells of large capacity. It is possible to build up the charge by the aid of several separate cartridges and by this means avoid the difficulties encountered in seeking to obtain, through fusion, a long column of perfectly homo- geneous explosive. In all cases this rids one of the serious incon- venience which results from the fused explosive running into the space between the projectile and its base plug. It also prevents dust from the explosive getting into the threads of the plug or into the fuse device. If the explosive be formed by mixing a solid and a liquid, these will be found evidently the best conditions from the point of view of safety, since under these circumstances abnormal heating of an. isolated point will be much less likely to occur and all friction of solid on solid will be avoided. But, on the other hand, another in- convenience presents itself, viz, J, the acceleration of translation to which the charge is subjected at the instant the projectile starts on its travel of the bore. It follows as a result of this acceleration that the difference between the apparent specific gravities of the solid and liquid components of the explosive is multiplied by J. There is then shown a tendency of the explosive to separate into its two compo- nents, following the axis of the projectile, at the moment of departure from the gun. In order for such an explosive to be acceptable it is necessary that the difference in the specific gravities of its compo- nents shall be as small as possible. One may theoretically consider the uses of liquid explosives such as Sprengel’s (dinitrobenzene and nitric acid, F=9949) or one of the panclastites of Turpin (nitrobenzene and hyponitrous acid; F=10,860; naphthalene and hyponitrous acid; ¥=11,700). In this case the question of safety on departure appears completely assured ; but the intimate mixing of the components of the mixture will not be effected unless they are miscible. 2. PRINCIPAL EXPLOSIVES UTILIZED. As a rule, up to the present, only those solid explosives composed of nitrated derivatives of the aromatic series have been used as charges for artillery projectiles.1 It is expedient now to study the properties +The Austrian artillery appears to have tentatively used the mixture of ammonium nitrate and aluminum known as ammonal, but the sensitiveness to percussion and fric- tion of explosives having an Al base appears to have led to its discontinuance. PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 141 of those bodies that are utilized to-day, which are picric acid, tri- nitrocresol, trinitrotoluene, trinitronaphthalene, and the mixture of ammonium nitrate and dinitronaphthalene known as Favier’s explo- ive. There will be added also some bodies of the same series which appear susceptible of use, but of which we have no example. 1. Picrie acid—Picric acid or trinitrophenol (melinite, lyddite, schimose) occurs in small yellow crystals which possess a strong coloring power. It is but slightly soluble in water at ordinary tem- perature, but this solubility increases as the temperature is raised. It is readily soluble in acetone. Melinite is fused at about 122° C. Its reactions are acid and it forms with metals (save tin) crystalline salts of marked color. Speaking generally the picrates are markedly explosive and they are the more unstable the heavier the metal which enters into their constitution. Lead picrate is especially dangerous. Tron picrate is much less so and its explosion in use can not occur if the explosive is moist. In order to prevent its formation the walls of the projectiles are so varnished or coated with plating as to pre- vent their direct contact with the explosive. Tt follows that because of the dangerous character of the lead picrate the tin used with which to coat the walls of the shell should be extremely pure. The care to be taken in avoiding, in the course of charging, the production of picrates is of the first importance and it is not to be overlooked as a factor in deciding against picric acid in comparison with those which follow it. Picric acid may be detonated in several ways. That:detonation of it which is called “ complete” is characterized by the production of dense black fumes holding free carbon in suspension in them. In the detonation styled “incomplete” the explosion gases have a greenish-yellow color and at the same time they deposit a layer of undecomposed explosive on the surrounding objects. The energy set free in the complete is greater than in the incomplete detonation. The reactions attending these two methods of detonation are approximately as follows: y Complete detonation 2C,H,(NO,),0H—-8CO+3C0,+3H,+3N,+C. Incomplete detonation 2C,H,(NO,);0H—11C0+C0,+H,0+2H,+3No9. Tt is evident that in the case of a reaction effected by detonation in an extremely resistant envelope the consideration of the products will, in virtue of the displacement of the equilibrium, give prin- cipally those shown in the first equation. Admitting there is obtained under an infinite pressure the maxi- mum condensation represented by the equation 40,H.(NO,);0H->14C0,.4+3CH,+7C 142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, the corresponding potential equals 573™ which is much in excess of that characterizing the first reaction given above. These reactions correspond in effect to the following: Complete detonation. Incomplete detonation. VY =328 liters. 877 liters. t==2,883° (. 2,634° C. F=9,780. 9,682. d=0.837. 0.877. Potential=371 ton meters. 323 ton meters. The velocity of detonation of cores of melinite inclosed in lead or tin envelopes is about 7,000 meters per second. Dautriche, with very powerful primers, has obtained a velocity of 7,645 meters per second. Although the properties of fused picric acid were known before the time of Turpin, yet it is to this inventor we owe its utilization as a military explosive. Turpin has devised that form and dis- position of detonator which has insured its complete detonation. His process consists essentially in causing the mercury fulminate de- tonator to act on pulverulent picric acid. The detonation of this last brings about the detonation of the fused explosive. We have seen that the strong adhesion of the charge of explosive to the walls of the projectile is an essential condition to security in firing. From this standpoint melinite is above all most satisfactory. It is estimated that more than 20 kilograms per square centimeter of effort is necessary to effect the separation of a mass of melinite from the metallic walls to which it has been fused. This adhesion appears to increase markedly for some days after fusion. It is always greater than the cohesion of the explosive. The fusing of the explosive in order to run it into the projectile is generally effected in a water bath which is a thermosiphon. Since melinite increases in volume at the moment of solidification, experience shows that, as a consequence, cavities may be formed in the interior of the charge of the projectiles. Practice has supplied suggestions by which this serious defect may be overcome. An essential precaution consists in preventing the presence of the melin- ite in the thread of the nose fuse. Its presence on the outside of the fuse or in its threads may cause a premature explosion. Picric acid is obtained by nitrating phenol. To obtain a uniform product, the crystalline phenol should fuse at 39° C. This sub- stance is obtained in the distillation, between 150° and 200° C., of gas tar. It can be obtained synthetically through the oxidation of benzene, the series of operations being as follows: The benzene is treated at first with concentrated sulphuric acid. Milk of lime - is added in excess to neutralize the acid. The solution is then treated with sodium carbonate to form the sodium-benzene-sulpho- nate (NaSO,C,H,). This is evaporated to a sirup with addition of PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 143 soda and fused, when sodium phenolate is formed which is decom- posed with sulphuric acid to set the phenol (carbolic acid) free, which is separated by ether and purified by distillation. This purified phenol is treated with 66° B. sulphuric acid and then with 37° B. nitric acid. The picric acid formed is purified by repeatedly washing it with water and draining. - 2. Trinitrotoluene (tolite, trotyl).—This body appears in the form of small yellow erystals which fuse about 81°. Though insoluble in water, it is very soluble in benzene and toluene. While melinite reacts markedly, acid trinitrotoluene is completely neutral. It does not therefore act upon the metals in which it is put. It is more agreeable than melinite to handle since its dust is- not irritating. It is less sensitive to shock but is also a little less . powerful than picric acid (/=8,680). When fused it adheres strongly to the walls of the vessel in which it is contained. But tolite presents the disadvantage of “piping” markedly at the © moment of solidification. Its rate of detonation is about 10 per cent less than that of picric acid. Tolite is usually prepared by trinitrating toluene directly with a concentrated sulphuric-nitric acid mixture. The reaction begins at 40° and ends at 105°; it being heated from five to six hours. Tolite is primed in the same manner as melinite, but it detonates violently in the open air under the influence of a mercury fulminate detonator only. It is employed in the manufacture of cordeaux detonants by inclosing in lead tubes. It is the explosive most com- monly employed by the Germans in charging their projectiles. 3. Nitrocresols (cresylites or cresylol commercial).—Cresol is a product of tar distillation which is obtained between 185° and 210°. It is a mixture of three isomers, the proportions of which are very variable. Cresol is nitrated just as phenol is but the trinitrocresol only is used, and this is really the trinitrometacresol which possesses properties analogous to those of picric acid. It is a yellow substance which in all regards is more disagreeable to handle than picric acid, for its dust is more irritating and its vapors more suffocating. Its process of manufacture is similar to that of picric acid. As an explosive it is a little less powerful than melinite. This is easily understood when we recall that it contains a large excess of carbon and hydrogen and that its combustion is consequently less complete. Mixed with pure melinite in the proportions of 60 per cent trinitrocresol to 40 per cent picric acid, there is obtained the explosive known in France as cresylite 60/40. This mixture, which is obtained by fusion under water, melts at about 85°, but at 65° it is sufficiently plastic to permit of its being compressed into charges which, on cooling, are compact, amorphous, and very homo- 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. geneous. Charges are thus obtained which are free from piping. It is this valuable property which justifies the use of the nitrocresols in charging projectiles. In spite of the fact that cresylite 60/40 has less force (8,380) than picric acid, its rate of detonation (7,485 meters per second) is practically the same as the latter. . Like the trinitrophenol the trinitrocresol has an acid function. It forms salts analogous to the picrates and these are explosive. The ammonium cresylate only is sufficiently insensitive to shock to permit of its military use. In Austria it has been used in charging shell under the name of ecrasite and its power, though inferior to that of melinite or cresylite, is superior to that of dynamite No. 1. 4. Trinitronaphthalene or naphtite (C,H,(NO.),).—Trinitro- naphthalene is a clear yellow substance which is only slightly soluble in water, but is soluble in acetic acid and chloroform. Its sensitive- ness to shock is very much less than that of melinite but it re- quires a very powerful detonator with which to effect its detonation. When ignited it burns, without explosions, with a smoky flame, and it resists the shock of impact of small-arm projectiles. It is prepared by nitrating the mononitro or dinitronaphthalenes as a mixture of three isomeric trinitronaphthalenes which fuse about 110°. At present naphtite is but little used as shell charges because of the difficulty of detonating it as mentioned above. It, however, is a powerful explosive, which, exploded in a bomb under the density of loading of A=0.3, gives a pressure of 3,275 kilograms per square centimeter. 5. Favier explosives and schneiderite——The Favier explosives have an ammonium nitrate base to which a slightly nitrated hydrocarbon (which is therefore but slightly explosive) is added. The ammonium nitrate itself being an explosive which is quite insensitive, the mix- ture obtained is remarkably insensitive, but its ignition temperature is relatively quite low. This union of properties explains its employ- ment in coal mines as a safety explosive. The mixture of ammonium nitrate 90 per cent with mononitronaphthalene 10 per cent, con- stitutes schneiderite employed at Creusot for filling shell. It is a powerful explosive which is characterized by a force of 8,400 units and a potential of 415 ton meters. Its normal rate of detonation, as determined by M. Dautriche, was 3,585 meters per second for the pulverulent explosive. It has been said above that Favier explosives are but very slightly sensitive to shock and thus schneiderite has been found to resist the impact of a projectile or the blow from a very heavy weight and, when placed on the rail, a cartridge of this substance was not ex- PROJECTILES CONTAINING EXPLOSIVES—A. R. 145 ploded by the passage of a train. These properties imply the neces- sity of using a very powerful detonator with which to provoke its detonation. 6. Benzite (C,H,(NO,),).—Benzite or trinitrobenzene is a white erystalline body which, when pure, fuses at 121°-122°. Although as powerful as melinite*? it is very: much less sensitive to shock than the latter. Moreover, it does not attack metals and, when compressed, it acquires a density of 1.67. Finally its rate of detonation, of the order of 7,000 meters per second, is equal to that of picric acid. Trinitrobenzene is an extremely interesting body because of its various properties. Unfortunately its price is so high as to limit its use. Thus far it has not been employed except to lower the melt- ing point and increase the plasticity of tolite. It is prepared by oxidizing trinitrotoluene with potassium di- chromate in sulphuric acid solution by which trinitrobenzoic acid is formed, and this on treatment with boiling water splits off the CO, group yielding the trinitrobenzene. The chrome alum formed, and which remains in the sulphuric acid liquor, is recovered by con- centration and crystallization and is again converted into the di- chromate. 7. Nitro derivatives of aniline—Aniline (C,H,NH,) is capable of furnishing a series of explosives that may be employed in charg- ing projectiles. We will examine some of the more interesting of them. The tetranitraniline appears as a crystalline body very similar to picric acid. It is prepared by heating the metanitraniline at 80° with concentrated mixed acids. It is an extremely powerful explo- sive, very stable and contains 25.6 per cent of nitrogen. Its abso- lute density, 1.867, is relatively very high. It is partially decom- posed on heating at a temperature which depends on the manner in which the increase in temperature in a given time has been effected. Thus, if the rate of increase is 5° per minute the decomposition be- gins at 216°-217°. This does not give rise to explosion. While in- soluble in water at ordinary temperatures, it is very soluble in ace- tone. It does not attack metals. By reason of this assemblage of properties tetranitraniline appears to be most advantageous for use. Another nitro derivative of aniline which is equally interesting from our standpoint is tetryl. This body which is tetranitromethyl- aniline (C,H,(NO,),NNO,CH,) contains 24.2 per cent of nitrogen. More powerful than guncotton or melinite it is less so than tetra- nitraniline. According to Lieutenant Colonel Koehler its heat of 1 According to M. Dautriche, the power of benzite is 5 per cent greater than that of picric acid. ‘ 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. formation is—40.8 cals. Hence tetryl is an endothermic compound and this explains in part the power of this explosive. It is easily prepared by acting on methylaniline sulphate with mixed acids. It appears at present to be used only in the manufacture of cordeaux detonants. Many of the properties it exhibits tend to show it to be well fitted for use in shell charges. We may note, however, that its price, as well as that of the preceding explosive, is greater than that ; of picric acid. GOLD AND SILVER DEPOSITS IN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. By WALDEMAR LINDGREN, Boston, Massachusetts. I, INTRODUCTION. Ar the time of the discovery of America the Old World had a scant supply of the precious metals. Both the northern and the southern parts of the new continent proved wonderfully rich in gold Arctlo Circle Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Capricorn DISTRIBUTION F Co) GOLD AND SILVER Seal Antarctic Circle | snbenb igesclb em Longitude West from 0° Greenwich 5 Fie 1. and silver, and its treasures were eagerly looted; though the looting has lasted four centuries, the mines of its mountain chains are far from being exhausted. Even the later discoveries in Australasia and 1 Read at the Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, Washington, District of Colum- bia, Jan. 3, 1916, and at the Arizona meeting, September, 1916, of the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers. Reprinted by permission from transactions of the Institute, Vol. 55, pp. 883-909 (1917). 147 148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. eastern Siberia could not rob the Western Hemisphere of its posi- tion as the greatest gold and silver producing region of the world, though finally the developments in a narrow and circumscribed area in South Africa wrested from the Americas their supremacy in the production of gold. Nevertheless, the history of the two parts of the great western continent has been strikingly different. At first the Spaniards ex- tracted vast treasures of silver from Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, while Colombia and some placer deposits in Peru yielded a smaller quan- tity of gold. A couple of centuries later a stream of gold began to flow from Brazil, the silver production from the countries mentioned above continuing strong in the meanwhile. Later on, the yield of South America diminished, but to offset this there began a wonder- ful series of discoveries in North America. The gold fields of Cali- fornia astonished the world; and when the cream of these had been skimmed off there began a no less amazing development of the cen- tral cordilleran gold and silver districts, which soon made the United States the greatest producer of the precious metals. Aided by ever improving technique, extensive exploration, and a system of rail- roads, the yield was maintained and increased. Still later followed the discoveries of the gold fields of the arctic region and silenced those who had maintained that the zenith in gold production had passed. Recently the Province of Ontario in eastern Canada rose unexpectedly with offerings of the richest silver ores the world has known, and with new and at first doubtfully accepted gold fields. Chile and Bolivia in the middle of the last century added some rich silver mines to their long list of mining districts, and later placer gold began to be extracted in large quantities from the Guianas, but on the whole no such sensational finds were made in the southern continent as had marked the recent history of the northern part, and in many regions the mining of the precious metals fell into a rut, the production being barely maintained or diminished slowly. The latest events indicate an awakening, and a stimulus under the influ- ence of which the production of South America is gradually increas- ing. Large amounts of silver are extracted from copper ores by operations on a large scale, and dredges dig up the gold of Colombia and Tierra del Fuego. Tt can not be doubted that the total yield of the northern continent of gold and silver is larger than that of the southern part. } ed 7) Ww = < 7) kL ° Ww 2 _! 7) a Ww zc 2 a fe) a I N S L FiG. 1.—PALLASITE, MOUNT VERNON, KY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Merrill. PLATE 4. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Merrill. 1.—STONY METEORITE, Mopoc, KANS. FIG. FiG. 2.—POLISHED SLICE OF BASALT SHOWING METALLIC GRANULES IN SILICATE BASE. STRUCTURE OF METEORITES—MERRILL. 177 sory, including under the first term those constituting any essential part and the presence or absence of which affects them fundamentally ; while the accessory minerals include those occurring in smaller and usually inconsequential quantities. The essential minerals then are: Nickel-iron, olivine, orthorhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes, plagio- clase feldspar, maskelynite, and iron sulphides. The accessories are: Carbon, either amorphous or as graphite and the diamond; chrom- ite, cohenite, daubreelite; the gases carbon monoxide and dioxide, hydrogen and nitrogen; lawrencite, magnetite, oldhamite, osbornite, schreibersite, a calcium phosphate to which the name of merrillite has been given, and tridymite. In addition there is occasionally a small amount of undifferentiated glass. Concerning these minerals a few explanatory remarks seem necessary, since several of the com- pounds are little or quite unknown among terrestrial rocks. The metallic iron of meteorites invariably carries nickel and cobalt in amounts varying from 4 to 20 per cent of the former and 0.5 to 2 per cent of the latter. The nearest approach to this composition in terrestrial irons is found in the awaruite of New Zealand, which con- tains 67.63 per cent of nickel and 31.02 per cent of iron, and joseph- inite of Oregon which carries theoretically 72.42 per cent of nickel and 27.58 per cent of iron. The Ovifak, Greenland, iron, a constituent of basalt, carries at the maximum only between 6 and 7 per cent nickel. Perhaps the most interesting feature on the part of most meteoric irons is an apparent tendency to separate on crystallizing into alloys of more or less definite composition which owing to their varying solubility give rise to well-defined and characteristic mark- ings known as Widmanstitten figures when a polished surface is treated with dilute acid. These alloys were studied by Reichenbach’ in 1861, who gave to them the name balkenseisen or kamacite, band- eisen or taenite and /vlleisen or plessite, the last named being prob- ably a mixture of the other two. The following analyses of kamacite and taenite from the iron of Welland, Canada, were made by Prof. Davison, of Rochester : Constituents. Kamacite.| Taenite. | | Percent. | Per cent. TrOHRee aes eee ee ee ee ee een ea met away... er. tpl yd. omifce 93. 09 74.78 INDGROIE cierto ee ERs ae en Oe vo bas eee E eRe Lek le. pepe Be 6.69 24, 32 Cobalt RONG. Os. ee Bok = uke ne oat. EOE EE EG. LL. oY 33 Wanborn. o-2.0. 5. J eed sarees fst wes feecel bh seecseeccee guia. cveed 02 50 It should be stated, however, that analyses made by various workers are found not to agree at all closely, a fact doubtless due in large part to the difficulty of separating them perfectly one from another, The etched slice of the Casas Grandes iron on plate 2, fig. 2 178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. well shows the characteristic Widmanstitten figures on an octahedral iron of medium texture. The smaller, more highly magnified section here reproduced (fig. 2) shows more plainly the portions to which the various names are given. It has been shown by Berwerth, of Vienna, and some corroborative tests made in the laboratory of the National Museum, that the octa- hedral structure can be changed by heating for a more or less pro- longed period at temperatures far below that of fusion, and it seems not improbable that the granular Fig.) 2.—-MAGNIvIED section of Ww Structure characteristic of irons of MANSTATTEN FIGURES ON Casas the ataxite group may, in some GRANDES IRON. ‘ cases at least, be of a secondary nature. It is evident that the full significance of the crystallization of meteoric irons is to be learned only by synthetic studies such as it is to be hoped may be undertaken in the laboratories of some of our more modern institutions. Associated with the nickel-iron is almost invariably an iron-nickel phosphide of a somewhat variable formula named “ schreibersite ” by Haidinger in 1847. A dendritic form of this occurring in the Arispe, Mexico, iron is shown in figure 3. Sulphide of iron, often in the form of rounded nodules, is also a com- mon constituent as shown in the etched section of the Casas Grandes iron (fig. 2, pl. 2). This appears to be a monosul- phide and was named “ troilite” by Haidinger. Meunier, how- ever, thinks to have shown it to be pyrrhotite. As the min- eral is without crystalline form and rarely pure, there is Ss 1S ea room for doubt in the matter. Fic. 3—Arispr, Mexico, IRON, SHOWING Carbon is a common con- a iy. stituent. The appearance of a cubic form of graphite in the Magura iron was noted by Haidinger in 1846. Such forms were suggested by Rose to be pseudomorphs after the diamond, but no satisfactory evidence was offered in proof. In 1888 Messrs. Jerofeieff and Latschinoff, in studying the carbonaceous meteorite of Novo-Urei, Russia, found a graphitic mineral having STRUCTURE OF METEORITES—MERRILL. 179 the hardness and shape of the diamond. In 1889 E. Weinschenk separated from the Magura iron a minute quantity of transparent crystals which were hard enough to scratch ruby, and burned in oxygen, forming carbonic acid. In 1891 A. E. Foote, in cutting the Canyon Diablo meteoric iron, found a black, vitreous mineral having a hardness above that of sapphire, and which he announced to be diamond. Later, O. W. Huntington, by dissolving a considerable quantity of this iron, was able to isolate a considerable number of minute, colorless particles which had not merely the hardness of diamonds, but the crystal outlines as well. The crystals found by Huntington were, it should be stated, minute—but about a hundredth of an inch in diameter. Since Huntington’s work, diamonds have been separated from the Canyon Diablo and other irons by several workers. Under the name of Cliftonite, Fletcher in 1887 described a form of carbon occurring in minute cubical crystals with dodecahedral and tetra-kis-hexahedral modifications which he found in the iron meteorite of Youndegin, West Australia. The crystals were of pure carbon, easily frangible, with a hardness of 2.5 and specific gravity of 2.12. After a full consideration of their crystalline form and physical condition with especial reference to their possible pseudo- morphous nature, Fletcher concluded that they represented “an allo- tropic condition of crystallized carbon distinct from both diamond and graphite,” and gave the name, as above. Carbon in the form of graphite, both crystalline and amorphous, is a common constituent of meteorites, particularly the iron-rich varieties, where it occurs in disseminated scales and nodular masses often of considerable size. The percentage amount by weight is al- ways small owing to the relative lightness of the carbon, but in the Novo-Urei, Orvinio, and some other stones, it is sufficiently abundant to impart to them a decided dark gray to nearly black color. The Novo-Urei stone was estimated to contain some 1.26 per cent of amorphous carbon, and 1 per cent in the form of diamond. Cohenite is the name given to a carbide containing some 90 per cent of iron, 3.5 per cent of nickel and cobalt, and 6.5 per cent of carbon. Daubreelite is a sulphide of iron and chromite of the formula, FeS, CrS,, which was isolated, analyzed, and named by J. Lawrence Smith in 1876. Lawrencite is a green, semisolid ferrous chloride almost invariably present in meteorites, but which undergoes such ready oxidation as to shortly disappear on the immediate sur- face. The mineral is a sore trial to all keepers of meteorite collec- tions. Oldhamite is the name given by Maskelyne in 1862 to a cal- cium sulphide found in the meteorite of Busti, India. It occurs in microscopic proportions in rounded granular forms of a chestnut brown color. Under atmospheric influences it passes by oxidation into gypsum. The same investigator gave the name “osbornite” to 180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. a mineral occurring in small, golden yellow octahedra in this same meteorite, and judged from partial analysis to be an oxysulphide of calcium and titanium. Free silica in meteorites is extremely rare. Maskelyne described what he considered a rhombic form of quartz as constituting nearly one-third of the siliceous portion of the Brei- tenbach pallasite. The association of free silica in such proportions with olivine and native iron is quite unusual. From what is known regarding terrestrial basic igneous rocks, the feldspars of meteorites would naturally be assumed to belong to the more basic varieties, as labradorite and anorthite. Few actual and complete analyses are available owing to the difficulty of securing a sufficient quantity of material in a fair degree of purity. Those given below from the meteorites of Hvittis, Hessle, and Shergotty show that in at least two instances the feldspar is approximately oligo- clase, a form characteristie of rocks of intermediate acidity, as the diorites. The third analysis represents a completely isotropic, color- less minerak forming, together with augite, the essential constituents of the meteorite of Shergotty, and which is regarded by Tschermak, who described it in 1872, as a re-fused feldspar, near labradorite in composition. To this he gave the name “maskelynite.” It should be stated that Groth was inclined to regard it as an independent species and allied to leucite. Sources. Constituents. _ bs Iivittis. Hessle. | Shergotty. BIHORSTSEEE AUIS IISLES SINISE. EPSPS. Sist FRA Eee te tte 63.5 64. 97 56.3 Alfimina..isissa22k oged. -255 sep ee-9 3558 A es rsa a 22. 2 22. 06 25.7 Ns ie i ep la a Rn 0 sk i ee 4.0 3. 01 11.6 a a a al oe a 9.2 9. 96 5.1 PotamsU.05. eID Se ALS, oc OSE, SRI Re . Me. ated 1.3 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 The feldspars, it may be said as a general statement, are not promi- nent constituents of meteorites and are limited mainly to those of a basaltic type. In these they occur in the characteristic, lath-shaped forms, polysynthetically twinned. In the chondritic types they oc- cur in the form of sporadic granules, sometimes showing twin strie, and in the nearly isotropic maskelynite forms occupying the inter- spaces of other silicates. Concerning the other silicates present, it may be said that the olivines, excepting in the barred chrondritic forms, apparently differ in no essential particulars from those of ter- restrial rocks. The pyroxenes, however, show interesting pecu- liarities. We find, as among terrestrial rocks, both orthorhombic and monoclinic forms, but the first named are the more common. These occur in colorless to grayish—rarely greenish—forms, and in STRUCTURE OF METEORITES—MERRILL. 181 several of the known instances prevail to the almost entire exclusion of other constituents. The more common varieties, as will be noted from the accompanying table, are enstatite and bronzite, though hypersthene has been reported in the stone from Shalka, The min- eral, however, is not as pleochroic as is its terrestrial counterpart. Many of these have been identified crystallographically, and agree in form and faces with those of terrestrial rock, although the crystal outlines and cleavages are, as a rule, very poorly developed. Analyses of meteoric orthorhombic pyroxenes. Locality. SiO2. Mgo. FeO. Na,O. K,0. Cad. Al,O3. Bigeopyilie.s.2..020: "37060... 59.97] 39.34 OA cece! |. see atah een Ne. seas Busi SiA8 ABI! | 58.44] 38.94 1.18 0.36 0.33 A eee Lotteeny eclalil babies. 55.35} 8285] 12.13 |.-.....2..]-..2.-.0 ee .58 0.60 accion ae 56. 05 30. 85 3B, 64 eae ons oR ob pabn ks acka detest cle dae nn thas Bannon see... Kant Oh | ehS es way. eck eect 2.73 3.19 Hivlttig 092, £0 OFhig 10 .59.05| 3% 10 .90 Méd TDO az .98 1.09 Gopipieras 4 3isi04 Wie. PROBA) MOO elacccceacl.seeceebad Iyscxoe ase Bil... Atie. Meee es eee as 57.8 39. 22 ag petite (Ps en lee fet es 2.07 Sion mtd a lina aaa eae 55.55] 27.73] 16.53 Fs somata fs (OE suehetors Rittersgriin.__................-. 57.49] 25.78] 10.59 1.45 |... .0222. 2.12 2.08 In addition to these terrestrial forms there are others radically different. Especially characteristic are eccentric and radiated forms some of which are shown in the photomicrographs (pls. 8 and 9). The monoclinic pyroxenes are less abundant than the ortho- rhombic, and but for inclined extinctions of clinopinacoidal sections are often difficult to distinguish. The most striking peculiarity of this form is a decided tendency to polysynthetic twinning. This mani- fests itself in fine, parallel striations traversing the section and has caused the mineral on casual inspection to be mistaken for a plagio- clase feldspar. Most of the analyses given in the literature are of materials separated from other constituents by the use of acids, but I have here limited myself to two analyses of such as have been separated mechanically. Source. Constituents, ii die Busti. Shergotty. Sica CSO Rte ec ever ce = a- a sae seas eae te ei ee eon S eons wl dan ads 55.49 52.34 APIA CASO) eee aos ce cree cs ence aes some tect a amEh oe aete cee oe = heres ub sites cette ete ciomee mire JO5 Ferri¢'oxide (Hes§) 21:7 sQe bist: Pek ei IIL SBM Bob ek ON. Se st ERrrOUs, OxEd6 (HOO) 05 basic ayee BS == ees oy senna tga tsar see peepee secs sealed oaaaae ees 23.19 MARSTON aC MERON) = itso ni2'e og op wlan ogre sin ees ate sige SBS = < o's bis ros eeemnngeaice = a oe 23.33 14, 29 Gopi 61s )y ( Cid Se ear pe ie eal Aig ne tre ar alee het Se a 19.98 10. 49 Suda-CNasO)ior® . [LRISM9R..072.O20L.-LSt.. clea. aortete..s PSHE FIA CLOSS 99.90 100. 56 Speriiiceravyitys ..OLL1S1205 -20. -ACLV i120. -Dees, OTP.
  • eae soc 2-5 te: SOE oe 210 Rete of erowth op corals. 202 Jah2 Sees APPEAL ANSE Die TE tate AM ORD) Pe On 210 Summary ofstatements on corals.....-......-.- everest Ll se -eetepce ag. sed olaetheyehyeee - epee; 214 PRO TOME IONION CON LOOMS. << ois qn gin oa sos phn ce cape cabs cieckanse ee cps eee eee ee ask oo Be peccoses 215 Denitition'o: the term coralyéer? .J2:22 2.0 Sis Wy Ae SOE IE GG TO) 215 Some kinds of limestone that have been confused with coral-reefrock...............---.---.----- 216 CCOPTATIOIG CISEEDU GION OL COLA TCORS . saa.cina cs pico Sain ae ous mrempcags ae einpiie= aoe ease iso axe Sock 220 ‘Theoriés'of the formation Ofdoralreefs.< ! li 18)s.. 233. AIPA cm) EN) ROT 222 Critical examination of the different theories of the formation of coral reefs.............-..--.--- 225 WOIIGIIS ODN ernte ater ye tae aicia sneer elae aie aia ae a) Seen EAS SOE A Ee NG 237 INTRODUCTION. Corals have long attracted the attention and excited the interest of scientific men, observant laymen, and poets. For some hundreds of years they were thought to be marine plants and were termed ‘Zoophytes,” a name said to have been given them in the sixth century by Sextus Empiricus and Isodore of Seville. Notwithstand- ing that Ferrante Imperato in 1599 advocated that corals were ani- mals, naturalists persisted in believing that they were plants until 1In the present *article only a few specific references to the literature on corals and coral reefs have been introduced. However, in my memoir entitled ‘‘ Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Porto Rico, with an account of the American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent coral reefs,’ in press as a part of U. S. National Museum Bulletin 103, I have given fairly fuJl bibliographic citations and have called attention to certain publications, particularly those by W. M. Davis and R. A. Daly, in which there are elaborate reviews of the literature on coral reefs. 189 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Peysonnel announced the results of his laborious investigations in the West Indies, and even after his observations were published in 1753, a few perverse individuals continued to adhere to the old views. It now seems strange that Peysonnel’s researches constituted one of the important advances in our knowledge of the animal kingdom. _ Of the early savants, Patrick Brown in his “Civil and Natural History of Jamaica,” 1756, Seba in his “ Locupletissimi rerum natu- ralium Thesauri accurata deseriptio,” 1758, Knorr in his “Deliciae selectae naturae,” 1771, and many others described and figured many corals; and much pleasure may be derived from the text and the care- fully executed figures of these authors. One of the most delightful of story-tellers and lyric poets, Adelbert de Chamisso, exiled from France as a result of the French Revolution and a refugee in Ger- many, was one of the early contributors to coral-reef theories. He described one species of stony coral and published exquisite figures of it based on his own drawings. Though the enthusiasm of many of the early writers on this subject is inspiring and their charm is great and though the temptation is strong to yield to their spell and con- sider the subject only as they so fascinatingly present it, attention must be diverted from them and directed toward the objects them- selves. WHAT ARE CORALS? Since the days of Peysonnel all informed students, except the few perverse individuals to whom allusion has been made, have believed that corals are not merely animals but that they are animals closely akin to the sea anemones. Like sea anemones, they are, at least while young, more or less cylindrical in form; the lower end, called the foot, is attached to some object; around the margin of the flattish upper end there are tentacles that can be extended or retracted; and near the middle of a flattish area within the tentacles there is a slit- like mouth that can be widely opened or closely shut. Below the fleshy floor between the tentacles and the mouth there are folds of soft tissue, known as mesenteries, that are attached to the wall on their outer ends, but on their inner ends they are free below a rather short tube, called the gullet or esophagus. On the edges of the mes- enteries there are often curled filaments, called mesenterial fila- ments. Figures 1 and 2 on plate 1 are illustrations of two Blaschka glass models of sea anemones. One of the peculiarities of corals and related animals is that the outer surface of the animal tissue, including the tentacles and the mesenterial filaments, are beset with lasso stinging-cells (see text fig. 4, p. 207), each of which may shoot out a small dartlike object that at one end is attached by athread. Another peculiarity is that their outer surface secretes slimy mucus; and a third attribute is that their sur- CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 191 faces are covered with small short processes, termed cilia, which un- der certain conditions beat so as to move the mucus and whatever may be embedded in it toward the mouth, while under other condi- tions they beat so as to move things away from the mouth. Sea anemones and corals are alike in the characters so far con- sidered. They differ in that sea anemones have only soft tissues, while the lower surface of corals secretes a skeleton, called the coral- lum, composed mostly of carbonate of lime. Coral larvae, called planulae, are small, pear-shaped or cylindrical objects, about half a millimeter in diameter and about a millimeter long, and their outer surface is covered with cilia by means of which they can move rapidly. After a time, ranging from a day or two to two or three weeks, the larval corals settle and attach themselves to some object. Fig. 1.—LARVAE OF THE CORAL. Favia fragum (HSPER), MUCH ENLARGED. AFTER DUERDEN., THE VARIOUS FORMS OF THE LARVAE IMMEDIATELY AFTER EXTRUSION ARE REPRESENTED. A IS VIEWED AS A TRANSPARENT OBJECT; B TO FE} ARE REPRESENTED AS SEEN BY REFLECTED LIGHT. THE EXTRUSION OF CELL DEBRIS THROUGH THE ORAL APERTURE OF A IS SHOWN. At first a flat basal plate is secreted by the bottom end, and on this are laid down radial plates that grow upward within or between the mesenterial folds. Above each of the radiately arranged plates, known — as septa, there is a tentacle. At their outer ends the septa are joined together by a wall, differing in character according to the kind of coral, and at the inner ends of the septa there is usually, but not always, a central columella, which likewise differs in character ac- cording to the kind of coral. In the spaces between the septa pecul- jar structures that are of much value in classifying corals* may develop. Some corals remain simple, that is solitary, throughout their lives (some of these are shown on ‘pls. 3 and 12 to 14); while others multiply asexually and form colonies. There are two kinds or methods of asexual reproduction recognized by students of these organisms, One of these methods, termed budding or gemmation,’ 192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. is by a bud appearing on the surface of the soft tissues outside the circle of tentacles (pl. 2, fig. 1) ; the other method, known as fission, is by a mother coral polyp dividing equally or unequally and form- ing two or more polyps (pl. 2, fig. 2). Budding or fission may be repeated until from an initial polyp only 1 or 2, or perhaps 5 milli- meters in diameter, a colony, a compound coral, many feet in diam- eter may result, with thousands of individual polyps, each having its own more or less clearly recognizable mouth, but all joined together by communal soft tissue known as coenosare. Corals that remain simple may be small, 5 or 6 millimeters (about one-fifth inch) in diameter, or they may be rather large, up to as much as 250 millimeters, nearly a foot, in diameter, as in some species of the genus Fungia (pl. 3, figs. 1,1a). The range in size of the individual polyps in compound corals is from Jess than 1 millimeter (0.039 inch) in diameter up to as much as 2 or 3 centimeters (0.78 or 1.18 inch), and perhaps more: Coral colonies are very di- verse in form—they may be low, flat plates, closely adher- ent to the basal support; they may be cushion-shaped; they may form more or less perfect hemispheres or Fic. ree e i t LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF spheres; or the outer surface ASTREOIDES CALYCULARIS (PALLAS). AFTER . Lacaze-DUTHIERS. te, TENTACLES; oe, onso- May be variously lobed. PHAGUS; mec, MESENTERY; loc, MBSENTERIC Some corals form simple or POUCHES ; coe, COENOSARC; spt, SEPTUM; col, erg ee COLUMELLA, divided columns; others form elongate, round branches, which range from only a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter; the branches of other corals are more or less com- pressed and platelike. Other growth-forms are erect or subhori- zontal, thick or thin plates and vases, which may be small and shal- low or large and deep. Some colonies are tuftlike. In colonies that are formed by budding, the individual corallites and polyps are usually subcircular in outline and are separated from one another by interspaces that range in width from mere dividing walls up to several centimeters across. But in colonies formed by fission, the corallites often occur in series which may contain two or three, or very many corallites in rows; when the series are long they may wind and twist so as to warrant bestowing such names as M/aeandra \\ Mi CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 193 and Meandrina on certain genera. One genus of corals in which the corallum forms tall, more or less divided columns, has long, winding series and is appropriately named Dendrogyra. In such series the polyp mouths occur along longitudinal depressions, called valleys, which may be narrow or wide, shallow or deep, and adjacent valleys may be close together with very narrow interspaces or they may be relatively far apart. It will be shown in remarks to follow that the growth-form is of much importance in considering the relations of corals to the physi- cal conditions under which they live. The flattish, cushion-shaped, and hemispherical corals, that are attached by wide bases, have the strongest structures; those corals composed of thick plates or thick platelike branches rank next in strength; while those that form thin, erect lamine and slender, long branches are the weakest. Some corals that have rather strong skeletons need to be classed with the corals with weak skeletons, so far as their habitats are con- cerned, for they live either free on the sea bottom or are very weakly attached. The corals so far considered are those known as the Madreporaria. Their soft tissues secrete nearly pure white skeletons composed almost entirely of carbonate of lime; there are pitlike calices or valleys in the skeleton; and more or less distinctly radial septa are present. The hard skeleton is called “coral” and this is the kind of “ coral” from which coral reefs derive their name. Before speaking of an- other kind of coral, it will be stated that the tentacles of the Madre- porarian corals are either simple (see pl. 17 and text fig. 2) or are bifurcate or trifurcate—they are never pinnate; and it will also be said that in the Madreporarian corals now living, the septa and mesenteries are arranged on a plan of six or in multiples of six, ex- cept where the plan has been obscured by fission. Because of this arrangement of septa and mesenteries, this group of corals is called Hexacoralla. Ages ago, geologically speaking, the predominant corals had their septa arranged on a basal plan of four or multiples of four and these have been called Tetracoralla, the other highest subdivision of the Madreporaria. The Alcyonaria, constituting a group of corals of thé same rank | as the Madreporaria, comprise the precious coral, Corallium rubrum, and other species from which jewelry is made, the sea fans, sea feathers, and sea whips, some of which are among the most beauti- ful objects in the ocean. The tentacles of these corals are pinnately fringed or plumose, and, because their mesenteries and tentacles are . arranged on a plan of eight, they have been called Octocoralla. The skeleton of the Alcyonaria is unlike that of the Madreporaria, in that it usually consists of a horny axis, more or less completely cal- cified, surrounded by horny material in which spicules are embedded. 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The skeletons of Aleyonaria of this kind further differ from those of the Madreporaria in possessing, according to F. W. Clarke and -W. C. Wheeler, from 6.18 to 15.73 per cent of carbonate of magnesia. In the red organ-pipe coral, genus 7ubipora (pl. 4, figs. 1, 1a), the spicules are sufficiently cemented together to form tubes. The skele- ton of the blue coral, Helio- pora coerulea (pl. 4, figs. 2, 2a), looks very much like one of the Madreporaria, and it is composed of almost pure carbonate of lime, but the polyps have the anatomical characteristics of the Alcyo- naria. One of the hydroids, M/ille- pora (pl. 2, figs. 3, 3a), is usually considered with the Fic. 3.—Corallium rubrum Lamarck. AFTER corals, although zooloes cally LACAzE-DUTHIERS. it is not one of-them. The figures of the skeleton show that it has no distinct septa, and that there are two kinds of pores corresponding to two kinds of polyps, also called zooids. The larger pores, the gastropores, lodge the larger nutritive polyps; while the smaller pores, dactylopores, lodge the smaller, the food-capturing, zooids.. The skeleton of Aftillepora, according to Clarke and Wheeler, is composed of almost pure carbonate of lime. DIFFERENCES IN THE CORALS ON THE LAGOON (THE QUIET WATER) AND ON THE EXPOSED (THE ROUGH WATER) SIDES OF A CORAL REEF. Darwin in his Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, + gave an excellent description of the difference between the corals in the lagoon of Keeling atoll and those on the exposed reef. A few years ago Dr. F. Wood Jones spent 15 months in the Cocos-Keeling Islands, and in his book, Coral and Atolls, produced a far more de- tailed account of the relations of the corals in those islands to their ‘environmental conditions than that of Darwin, but what. Darwin said is correct. Dr. Wood Jones sent me his collection, which is now the property of the United States National Museum, and I have been able to publish a detailed account of it.2, The Cocos-Keeling Islands are classic ground for the students of reef corals and coral reefs, and it seems appropriate to begin the consideration of the relations of. 1See 3d ed., pp. 1-19, 1889. 2 Vaughan, T. W., Some shoal-water corals from Murray Island (Australia), Cocos- Keeling Islands, and Fanning Island: Carnegie Institution, Washington, Publ. 213, pp. 49-234, pls. 20-93, 1918. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 195 corals to their environment with an account of conditions there. The following table shows the relations: Relations of growth-form of Cocos-Keeling corals to habitat. Stout a Growth- Habitat. F a Fragile branches or folia. hea on form 5 8) columns ESSN NGA POON see Sones eee on ic sia eee, gE Doerr oie ee re Pi a nin aS 5 5 Barrier pools and barrier flat... -..-- 2 | 6 (mostly on lagoon edge of flat)... - 4 8 Wxposed side of barriers. 25262. - 22 ib. ses): sre -- -. See - 3- 59ers -b 3 13 Within the lagoon free corals or corals that form fragile branches or folia are predominant; on the barrier flat and in the barrier pools the forms with stronger skeletons are more numerous; while on the exposed barrier there are only corals that have a massive growth- form or are composed of stout branches. One of the species, Pocillo- pora elegans Dana, which forms compressed branches, occurs within lagoons and on barriers. The branches of the specimens in the lagoon are tall and rather weak, while specimens on the barrier have the branches aborted into slightly protuberant nodules. Plate 6 illus- trates a corallum of the lagoon kind, and plate 5, figure 2, illustrates a specimen Dr. Wood Jones collected on the Cocos-Keeling barrier. Six specimens of Pocillopora bulbosa Ehrenberg taken by Dr. Wood Jones from a floating log are very interesting in this connec- tion (pl. 5, fig. 1). He says regarding these specimens: In the lagoon, a large portion of a tree trunk was floated, and made fast to an anchor and chain; the wood was used to float a ship’s moorings, and re- mained just two years in the water. When it was removed in 1906, several colonies of Pocillopora had started growths upon it, and they had taken up different positions around its circumference. The colonies growing above were flattened bosses; those on the sloping sides showed more tendency to branch; and those below its convexity were delicate branched forms. Now the environments of these colonies were very different, and they were absolutely constant. At all stages of the tide waves broke upon its upper sur- face, whilst the sides were in gently moving unbroken water, and the bottom was in comparative calm. * * * Dr. A. G. Mayer made a very interesting collection of corals at Murray Island, Australia, and I have described them in my paper above cited. Preceding my paper, Doctor Mayer has given in the same volume an account of the ecology of the Murray Island reef, in which he presents a statistical statement of the number of coral colonies according to species in successive squares across the reef. I based the following table on Doctor Mayer’s collection: 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Table showing distance from shore, depth of water, character of bottom, num- ber of species, and growth form of the colonies, for each station on line I, southeast reef, Murray Island. Number of species accord- Depth — ing to growth form. Pua feat) shore i aor Character of bottom. ous Frapile Massi tide (in at each brane Heat “oh inches). station. and free | branches. |incrust- ‘disks. ing. ROD ee. « eee seeds 5 a Ree 2 -4)| Hard limestone mud over lava a ee 1 rock. C11 a ac hh on ete 4.5- 5 | Firm limestone mud.......... 7 Bi)... 2088... 4 BOO IEN: aoe ye torestiRere 6 -12 | Sand and mud, rock.......... 10 Bx |woe draaees 7 eae ee oe, Be SUNS O cl ke oe 18 excl Cykd-t-sseehd ll 71) Ay, | a ae a 10) 411) | Emer COTAlee se... - = enon 1 20 6 1 12 1, 000-1, 020............... 14 DA RGekey tA IR TN 21 10 1 10 1, O-1,:250 4! 5 shew. sais 12; ,+16;} Ropkzyzi. ste. -201ctedie.: 18 6 2 10 TES ye ener 14 -15 | Rocky, broken coral........... 24 10 2 12 1, OOS iia see eeas S58 10 -16 | Hard, rocky, broken coral. .... 32 | 4 2 2€ ESTAOSTPWTOL. CS 24 EAE oS 2.5- 3 | Hard, rocky, with crevice like 1 bas aa 6 a tide pools. | 1 Acropora pectinala (Brook), w) .chis of diseoid corymbose growth form, is not counted in the tabulation. Comparison of this with the preceding table reveals precisely the same principles. The collection made by Doctor Mayer at Murray Island contains an excellent illustration of the variation of Stylophora pistillata (Esper) according to environment. The branches of a specimen from a depth of 18 fathoms, northwest of Murray Island, where the water is not violently agitated, afe slender, elongate, and fragile (pl. 7, fig. 1), while a specimen from the exposed reef has very short, stumpy branches (pl. 7, fig. 2). Plate 8, figure 2, illustrates Porites porites from the exposed reef at Tortugas, Florida, while plate 8, figure 1, illustrates the growth form assumed by a fragment broken from the exposed reef and then attached to a terra-cotta disk and planted within Tortugas lagoon. In shallow water, corals which have fragile skeletons or which are weakly attached to the bottom predominate in lagoons, where the water is not violently disturbed; and usually conditions favorable for the life of corals having these kinds of growth habits are present outside lagoons in depths between 18 and 25 fathoms. But on the exposed sea-sides of reefs, where the surf is strong and storm waves break, all the corals have strong skeletons, mostly of massive growth form. If the same species of branching coral occurs both in places protected from the beat of the surf and in those exposed to the breakers, the colonies in the exposed situations adjust themselves to their environment by strengthening their skeletons. The preceding paragraphs show that these adjustments take place in the Cocos- Keeling Islands, on the Great Barrier of Australia, and in Florida, and warrant the conclusion that the phenomena are of general occur- CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 197 rence. As there are, particularly along the sides of channels through which water flows into and out of lagoons, situations intermediate in condition between those in the lagoons and those on the exposed sea- sides of reefs, there are areas in which there is more or less com- mingling of the two kinds of corals, and in them both massive reetf- building forms and fragile lagoon forms live side by side. RELATION OF CORALS TO DEPTH OF WATER. A great deal of information has been accumulated on the relation of corals to depth of water. Among those who have particularly studied this subject are Darwin, Dana, Pourtalés, Quelch, Moseley, Stanley Gardiner, and myself. Usually massive reef builders are mostly found in water 27 meters or less in depth, but some species extend to depths between 37 and 48 meters, and a few reach depths as great as 74 meters. The available evidence indicates a depth between 37 and 46 meters as the maximum at which a true coral reef will form. At depths slightly greater than 46 meters, between 46 and 74 meters, there are in coral-reef areas corals that differ somewhat from the shoal-water fauna and from the true deep-sea corals. ‘These corals naturally resemble more closely those found in the deep water of the lagoons than those on the exposed sides of reefs or the flats just behind exposed reefs. Stanley Gardiner appears to have been the first clearly to recognize this bathymetric faunal zone, and in his work on the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes very properly emphasized its importance. In my own work on the living corals of the Hawaiian Islands, I recognized the presence of a rather dis- tinctive fauna at these depths. Illustrations of it are given on plates 9-11. Between 74 and 183 meters in depth corals of deep-sea facies com- mingle in the Hawaiian Islands with the fauna found principally between 46 and 74 meters in depth. Deep-sea corals, those found in water 183 meters or more in depth, are mostly simple, cup corals, and many have very delicate, fragile, even lacelike skeletons. Several species from the Hawaiian Islands are illustrated by plates 12-15. A species that closely resembles the one illustrated by plate 14, figures 3, 3a, was dredged off Callao, Peru, in water 3,209 fathoms (=19,254 feet=5,892 meters) deep. Other deep-sea corals are compound forms that have delicate, elongate, attenuate branches. Three species with this kind of growth habit are illustrated by plate 15. The following tables present the results of a study of the distribu- tion of Hawaiian corals according to depth. Similar relations pre- vail in the Indian Ocean, the Central Pacific, and in the Gulf of Mex- ico and the Caribbean Sea. Although these tables apply specifically to the Hawaiian Islands, they really illustrate certain of the broad principles underlying the relation of coral faunas to depth of water. 65133°—sm 1917——14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, 198 ae eS on ere 0 Sok = = ogy ote 0 rtttetttttre|seseeteeeee: wien 0? WS. sl 9 0 0 |retetttterte|seeer erst ees T T 0 Ow" = Cae ee SP oe, I z 0 T 0 0 SOT ‘Z-L#9 ‘I | 29 ‘T-F9F ‘T| FOF ‘I-182 ‘T| 18% ‘T-R60‘T| 860‘T-ST6 | ST6-cEZ 0 I a T £ 8 b G 0 £ ¢ P ¢ 9 PI & 8 &T 1% Z ZEL-6FS 6FS-99E 99E-E8T §8T-h2 0 Gen cee ee et ee 10384 1adeep pus zo9MoT[eys qjoq Ur SulIN000 suIIOJ JO JOqUINN POPU | me eS Bes ge nal aera = 5 JOMOT[VYS Xou UT Suiin900 sulioy JO JequinN z L ~streeees=**9da0p 4xou oY} 0} Uy SUIZHBI SULIOJ JO IEqUINN ¢ OL woe scree "ear sser (depyeny ° 0} peuyUod suLOJ Jo JEquUInN I LL par Pe etm ae Op eens qv punoy surioy jo JoqumN PL-OF 9F-0 rnaer °° °ite*" STOR OTE UT. Idec, (‘suajam ur syadaq) *yidap 07 burpsoson swsof fo woyngrysip poorwaunu oy) buumoys aq], —spunps— unvwomogy ay} Ut s7vi09 fo woynqiysrp dijauhyog 199 CORALS. AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. “sryoeAT eg, Pte - Biel COL‘Z-LE9'T “eT Aydodieg “TaN [eq el L¥9‘T-F9F'T or ‘VUANAD JO UAAWOAN IVLOL “eu0 NT P9F‘T-180'T “TANT T9qell “auON 18Z‘T-860‘T | 860‘T-ST6 “eTuuesdosiuy gessnyy “elodeipeyy *snqo01307%109 “sere00q}eAg “el[Aqdosre9 “aUON | ‘tanj[Aqdouseq ST6-ZEL GEL-BFS “eruuesdosiuy *sliesojdo'T *slovIpPeL *se1000q 1849 *eq[Aqdosrep *snyyeAo0qooLy, “snyyesovieg ‘tm [Aydomseq “*BLIeUIpIey) “TaN [SQV 6FS-99E (‘suagawm ur syzdacz) €I ¢ ] &T “el0dooaly el Aydoipueq *S0qLIOg “eq Aqdourl[eg “Bl0d iy UO PL *sfyovdopuy “ell ey[Aqdoueydayg -[Aqdoipueg *sti9sojdo'yT “e1ODOMIMIeS J *sloeIpeyy “elivueydeig ‘er Aqdrmeqjuy *szasoydor'T *se1e00q}eAQ "CUOABT ‘empAqdodreg | ‘ey[Aqdourleg *soqLI0 gf “eIsUnT *snyyesoojfoq |et[Aqdouerydeys | “eiodmu0y, “Bol]SsBleog “snyqyeAovIe *suiosojdey | ‘stosojdey | ‘“eorjseydfg *snqo01}008| { *eIsun iT "BUOACT *eoryseydoryT “TNS qe Lr *stoeipeyy | ‘viodoy[Mog | ‘“eiodo[[mog 998-€8T €8I-FL bL-9F 9F-0 “spunjsyT unuomney ay} ur diauab pn109 fo woyngrysip oiujawmhywg 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. RELATION OF CORALS TO TEMPERATURE. * In the foregoing pages the relations of corals to violently agitated or relatively quiet water and to depth of water have been particularly discussed. The relations of corals to the temperature of the water will now be considered, and it will be introduced by a table showing the distribution of the genera of Hawaiian corals according to tem- perature. The surface temperatures in this table are for the period between March 27 and August 29, 1902, and, therefore, do not repre- sent the minimum temperature for the year. The temperature rela- tions of reef-corals will be considered later. If this table is com- pared with the table showing the bathymetric distribution of coral genera in the Hawaiian Islands, it will be evident that the names in the first column of each table are the same. A further examination of the table showing the distribution of genera according to tem- perature will reveal that a temperature of about 22.8° C. is the bound- ary between the shoal-water and the deep-water faunas. The names of the genera that were obtained at temperatures above 15.6° C., but not so high as 22.8° C. and above 4.5° C., are those that appear in the columns 183 to 732 meters in depth; the genera dredged between tem- peratures of 4.5° and —1.12° C. were those collected between 1,464 and 2,105 meters in depth. The temperature of the deep-sea fauna ranges between somewhat less than 22.8° C. (about 15.6° C.) and —1.12° C., with the maximum development between 10° C. and 4.5° C. Distribution of genera of corals according to temperature in the Hawatian Islands. 25.6° to 22.8° C, 22.8° to 15.6° C. 15.6° to 10° C, 10° to 4.5° C, 4.5° to —1.12° C, Pocillopora. Flabellum.! Flabellum. Flabellum., Flabellum. Leptastrea. Placotrochus.} Cyathoceras. Gardineria, Caryophyllia. Cyphastrea. Paracyathus.! Madracis. Desmophyllum. Bathyactis. Coelastrea. Caryophyliia.! Stephanophyllia. Paracyathus. Fungia. Cyathoceras.! Balanophyllia. Deltocyathus. Pavona. Anthemiphyllia.! Trochocyathus. Leptoseris. Madracis.} Caryophyllia. Stephanaria. Fungia.3 Cyathoceras. Psammocora. Leptoseris. Ceratotrochus. Dendrophyllia. Stephanophyliia.1 Madrepora. Montipora. Balanophyllia.® Madracis. Porites. Dendropbyliia.! Mussa? sp. juv. Alveopora. Leptoseris. Stephanophyllia. Endopachys. Balanophyllia. Dendrophyllia. Anisopsammia. Total number of genera. 13 12 5 18 3 1 Not obtained at a temperature so high as 21° C.=70° F, 2 Not obtained at a temperature so low as 21° C.=70° F. § Temperature range doubtful. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 201 North and south of coral reef areas it seems that the deep-sea corals live in shallower water, because the temperature of the water at and near the surface in higher latitudes is colder than at the sur- face in the Tropics. For instance, some years ago a species of Caryo- phyllia, one of the cup corals, which was collected along the shore in Alaska, was submitted to me by the United States Bureau of Fish- eries. It is an unnamed species, but in its general aspect it resembles the deep-sea forms of the Tropics. There is much scattered evidence of this kind, for example, the corals living on the shores of southern California, but it has never been assembled and systematically pre- sented. There is in the United States National Museum a large amount of material, for which there are records of the depth and temperature of the water and the character of the bottom, that could serve as the basis for such a study. It is my belief that the great gap in present information on coral faunas is the dearth of information on the relations between the deep-sea faunas of the Tropics and the shoal-water faunas of the colder parts of the ocean, both northward and southward from the Tropics. For a long time it has been my de- sire to make a special study of this important problem, and, unless some one else undertakes it, I still hope to be able to give it the atten- tion that, in my opinion, it deserves. With regard to the temperature relations of reef-forming corals, it will be said that, except on very shallow fiats where the water is stagnant at times and the temperature at such times may range be- tween 33° and 38° C., the upper limit of the temperature endurance of such corals is rarely reached. It is therefore rather to the lower limit of temperature that reef-corals can withstand, that attention should be directed. A series of experiments, conducted by A. G. Mayer to ascertain the higher and lower limits of temperature the common corals around the Tortugas can endure, indicate that a lowering of the temperature to 18.9° C. would exterminate the principal Florida reef corals, while the most important inner flat corals would survive. He obtained similar results on the corals around Murray Island, Australia. But, actual reef records show that reef corals do not naturally withstand so much cooling as in the laboratory experiments. Temperature records made at lighthouses along the Florida reef, communicated to me by Dr. H. F. Moore of the United States Bu- reau of Fisheries show that vigorous reefs will endure a temperature as low as 18.15° C., the minimum at Carysfort Light between the years 1879 and 1899; but at Fowey Rocks, where the minimum drops to 15.6° C., although there are some corals, there is no thriving reef. The species found at the north end of the reef line are those which Mayer’s experiments showed capable of withstanding the lowest temperature. The temperature records for the reef line 202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. indicate 18.15° C. as the minimum temperature which a reef will survive—this is 1.85° C. lower than the figure given by Dana. It is not probable that a reef could withstand a continuous temperature so low as this. Wherever the depth of water is great enough to lower the bottom temperature below 18.15° C., more probably about 22° C., reef corals will not live. This temperature appears to be attained around the Hawaiian Islands within a depth of 183 meters. According to Agassiz’s “Three Cruises of the Blake” the bottom temperature in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea is usually too low for the growth of reef corals at a depth of 183 meters, and in places it is too low at a depth of 87 meters. Recent records of temperature near Bermuda, the Bahamas, and Florida, show that in those areas the temperature at 300 meters is uniformly too low for the life of reef corals; it is usually too low at 200 meters; and occasionally too low at 100 meters, in an area where the surface tem- perature is high enough for the life of reef-forming corals. RELATION OF CORALS TO SEDIMENT. One of the important factors affecting the life of corals is their relation to sediment. Of course any coral permanently buried in sediment would be killed, but nearly all corals can remove some sedi- ment from their surfaces, and some can rid themselves of considerable quantities. The outer-reef corals proper have their surfaces kept clean by the movement of the water, that is, by waves, surf, and cur- rents; but as the species living on the inner flats and in the lagoons have not sufficient assistance of that kind, they require special adapta- tions for keeping their surfaces clean. One of these adaptations is for the colony to be divided into upward-pointing branches, which present very small or no flat areas on which sediment can lodge. Other corals, Maeandra arcolata for example, has greatly developed cilia, which move the sediment toward the periphery of the colony and cause it to drop off. Some species, Szderastrea radians for in- stance, can stand temporary burial. A. G. Mayer discovered that those corals that can withstand the highest temperatures can endure the longest burial. The capacity to resist the effects of high tempera- ture and that to resist the effects of burial are, therefore, brought into relation, and one seems to be the correlative of the other. eee: ae ae 16 B; (13585. NO in oh 14. 5r ees a IG ea. 22 ee ee ee 13 ER er ee ie | eanmaace a anecsp ch acmienie ates See = dom con ates oa ae 9 2.5 | 19 7 20 9 21 1E4* [aztec 15 10%) ccc, ree fet eee 10 2. Sit) a7. 10 BB iyi i-be-easeemee bc sbe Re bsese - te ae See ee ee eee oye ie ke oC See 23.5 9 27.5 12 31 15 39 16 AO. RS. ee 1k Gy -aadiny te pe tese gin 25 9 27.5 11 32 14 36 16 py ete S waiten aisles MOPS" Pee 16 1 a eS ee ee ie | ee ee Oe ee heb: «Sedat» obere On fF: cscs 11.5 6 17 IOs writ- sd geslez. -pegetepg-. lar re} - Sees. a4. Fe ee | Med beeewsse 16.5 5 19 | See Gree ee eee eee eee oe USS SERN eG cman «4 | ent Proms Fes | a) ee eee es eae ||P ret rte }ee ae MS. . BETS). C3 - TBH ILE. cl 18 BLLE PALA ea becee seiecd. oc SER SAA eye eee ep Lee eeek RSTO ORES ene ee a al Fae ee IB t Ross tel, ~ siaca yp aedeced ey beis-- ok eS. -Gulree ase kits beet « 2 ae ee er O° Ne ado a de 19.5 10 23 Ree ee ee ae Skee ate eae cn eer gy Ret ge nom a No cbeasun gay) Ol. ee = 27.5 12 26 pS) (eet! be ae 17 Jt Ss ie waaay ea ee ee 21.5 9 25 12 27 16 SUT AA eee y.: RATERS 1B Le Se (ee Saaoae 5s 16. divested 19... deius «45 BO ovlesesesi sleek. aes. fo... 7 ie es ee eae a ee 22.5 6 0 RR oe Pe Se eet) are 3 eee. on aoe Boras. oe. eee a. Wes oeere 18 7 yee Reese 2. A Tt |e BOD, Wess ana<> We OLS TOs .IRi 177 CNOA. FES 23 7 yi 1 S| Oe EER OL Atapsss. Sass 33 18 Oe eee Wee 7 ae deg otis sag~ =i 13 Ces | inca Sameslee onpladal sop Waite tse Sew w= | SEU Eas - 0D ceeds « Average....... 11. 93 4 20.01 7.9 25.14] 11.46] 30.13] 13.77] 34.71 17.21 (+8.08) |(+3.90)|(+5.13) |(+3.56) |(+-4.99) | (+2.31)|(+4.58) | (+3.44) 1 As Nos. 7 and 8 fused, separate measurements of the diameters became impracticable. Favia fragum is a species that never attains a large size, between 60 and 75 millimeters being about the usual maximum diameter. The size of colonies of Porites astreoides, according to age is given in the following table: CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. t3 Size of colonies of Porites astreoides—averages according to age. 1 year old. 2 years old. 3 years old. 4 years old. 5 years old. MO COl ly US Rae eRe ts eps sap ia sie apie ahi Tey ep ou Diame} yreignt. | Piame- | wreignt.| Plame | Height. | Piame | Height.| P{3m* | Height. Mm Mm Mm. Mm Mm. Mm. Mm Mm Mm Mm | BSSa eee Bg and - 35 12 43.5 20 59.5 39 75 54.4 } a Diniaesese rsa cs ea a [es a OF Bd lane ee nce 4105) Uses acess [yp ly ee eer St. 9 2or3 23 6 29 10 46.75 18 54 21 eg Sap BNC 18.75 3 38. 5 10 53.5 12 89.5 23 99.75} 31 Wrese sa cios pet ee Rae $4023 |p a ada Argel Ber es aaoe FF alee (Se eee: 66. 75 |...-.--- ie See eee DOF OF he seca ete = OL Dieses eh So) Bh aeaeee aes AL Vo |s.P2eene 48.5 |e. 6--e5- WH. 16:57 cers se8: Skt) SPE e. ABU ARIAT Socee B0e She te GS. 2a esse Sich. 4.5. SURV Ey| ebe Stree PAL 5m ib. .eae 25 10 28 17 35.5 21 Pp epeeee ee 6.204) eo apa ss 1b gg eel ee 26.5 7 35. 5 13.5 53 21 TOsc2 52240 Sno hilckasaccct bee | pea ss 24.5 Se seaeesbte 9 2 pall ESBS po es Se EES Wa7G [tL eke c. 3 pt) ae ee QE WBE stat Gant ecgss[acatecden|peesainocals noe acd 1203.5. LR | § eee re 42 7 52. 50 8 62.5 13 75.5 18 iki ear ae MONTD ee oseaeda A i Ate SNF ve ees 51,75 |. sssd.0.- Gono Meacce- 1, ian te srl Fates Mee os OU fe isssose st S05 TiLe- ease AA DW tacadans Dos Oia eae aes Perr eeC BT et TiAeyl ce ec Oe ALESSI Ole DPT AE 2) MO ED AG 2 Se Sk i el Average.| 12.38 3 28. 41 8.75 36. 89 10. 28 50. 21 18. 92 61. 21 27.75 (+16. 04) | (+5. 75) | (+8. 48) | (41.53) | (+13. 32) | (+8. 64) |(+11. 00)) (+8. 83) Tables giving the summaries of my work on the growth-rate of the Floridian and Bahaman corals have been published in the papers cited in the footnote. The growth-rate of 25 species was investigated, and a total of some thousands of measurements were made. Of course, as no such mass of data can be presented in this place, a few general statements must suffice. The size of the colonies of all species of corals seems limited, but some attain large dimensions, 2 to 3 meters or even more in diameter, and nearly as much in height, while other species are adult when a diameter of 35 to 50 millimeters has been reached. The records of Favia fragum and Maeandra areolata illustrate relatively rapid growth for the first two to four years, after which it decreases. Other species, for instance, Orbicella annularis and Maeandra strigosa, are not so limited in size. Ramose corals increase in dimensions more rapidly than massive species; while of the former, the growth-rate of species with perforate, loose-textured skeletons is more rapid than that of those with dense skeletons. In general the more massive and the denser the corallum, the slower the growth; while the more ramose and the more porous the skeleton, the more rapid theg rowth. 1 Vaughan, T. W., The geologic significance of the growth-rate of the Floridian and Bahaman shoal-water corals: Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., vol. 5, pp. 591-600, 1915; On Recent Madreporaria of Florida, the Bahamas, and the West Indies, and on collections from Murray Island, Australia: Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook No. 14, pp. 220-231, 1916. - 65133°—sm 1917——15 914 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Some species of Acropora under favorable conditions on an average grow in height from 40 to 45 millimeters per year. There is no average growth rate for corals generally speaking, because growth-rate varies from species to species and varies for the same species according to loca] environmental conditions. A colony of a species of reef coral in a lagoon, if protected from sediment, may grow more rapidly than a colony of the same species does on the reef. The limitation of reef corals so largely to the outer edges of platforms, is determined primarily by the freedom of the water from silt and by the more uniform temperature. In order to estimate the rate at which a reef will grow, the upward growth-rate of the true reef-forming species must be taken. The up- ward growth-rate of Orbicella annularis, the principal builder of the Pleistocene and living reefs in Florida and the West Indies, is from ~ 5 to 7 millimeters per year, according to station. At 6 millimeters per year, it would form a reef 150 feet (=46 meters) thick in 7,620 years; at 7 millimeters per year it would build the same thickness of rock in 6,531 years. Acropora palmata, which grows more rapidly might build a similar thickness in 1,800 years. The growth of corals in the Pacific appears to be more rapid and according to Stanley Gardiner they might build a reef 150 feet thick in 1,000 years. Growth-rate is one of the important factors in the battle between corals and some of their natural enemies. For instance, if corals grow less rapidly than sediment is being deposited on the bottom, although other conditions may be favorable for their life, they will surely be killed by smothering. In the competition between attached and incrusting organisms, growth-rate is one of the most important factors in determining which shall survive. Corals, as my experi- ments showed, may grow with great rapidity in locations where they cannot survive, or are only poorly represented, because the habitat is suited to other organisms of a more rapid rate of growth. Among these inimical organisms are various marine algae, including the calcareous Halimeda and incrusting nulliperes; other such Sep btas are sponges, tunicates, Bryozoa, and pelecypods. A study of the growth-rate of corals has an interest not only in understanding the rate at which they may form rock, but also in understanding their struggle for life against enemies, both organic and inorganic. SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS ON CORALS. The preceding pages show that in the ocean there are: 1. The deep-sea corals at. depths of 180 meters or more, where the light is weak or where there is perpetual darkness, and where the. temperature ranges from 1° to 15.6° C., although they thrive best, CORALS AND CORAL REEFS-—VAUGHAN. 915 where the temperature is between 4.5° and 10° C.; these are mostly cup-corals or delicately branching forms. It seems that this fauna lives in shallower water in higher latitudes than it does in the Tropics. 2. Between depths of 46 and 74 meters in the Tropics, there is a moderately distinctive fauna that is more closely related to the shallow-water than to the deep-water fauna. 3. In the shallow waters of the warm parts of the tropical oceans there is another fauna, the one that forms coral reefs, and its local adaptations to the character of motion of the water, sediment, and other factors have been described. The conditions necessary for the vigorous growth of reef-forming corals are as follows: (a) Depth of water, maximum, about 46 meters (25 fathoms); (b) bottom firm or rocky, without silty deposits; (c) water circulating, at times strongly agitated; (d) an abundant supply of small animal plankton ; (e) strong light; (f) temperature, annual minimum not below 18° C.; minimum average temperature for the coldest month in the year not lower than about 22° C.; (g) salinity between about 27 and about 38 parts per thousand. 4, According to conservative estimates, reef corals can build a reef 46 meters (150 feet) thick within a period ranging from 1,800 years to 7,500 years; but, in places, a reef of such a thickness might be formed within 1,000 years, according to Gardiner. THE FORMATION OF CORAL REEFS. DEFINITION OF THE TERM “CORAL REEF.” The preceding pages are devoted to a general account of corals and the conditions under which they live, and no definition of “coral reef” has as yet been given, although the term has been used. In order to give some idea of a coral reef several illustrations are intro- duced. Plate 26, figures A, B, represent the reef off the west face of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, as exposed at very low tide on June 6,1910. The heads projecting above the water are Orbicella annularis, the principal reef-building coral of the Floridian and West Indian region; the fanshaped objects are the alcyonarian coral, Gorgonia flabellum; while the rod or whip like objects are other Alcyonaria that belong mostly to the genus Plexaura. Plate 26, figure C, is from an undersea photograph taken at Carysfort Reef, south of Miami, Florida. This illustration shows the beautiful, waving gorgonians, especially the fan coral, and large heads of Orbicella annularis, as well as some other stony corals; but it does not show the highly colored fishes that dart in and out among the coral heads and constitute one of the enchanting sights to be seen on coral 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. reefs. Plates 27 and 28 are reproductions of two of Saville-Kent’s photographic illustrations of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. These three plates illustrate true coral reefs, which in my opinion should be defined as follows: Coral reefs are ridges or mounds of limestone, the upper surfaces of which lie, or lay at the time of their formation, near the level of the sea, and are predominantly composed of calcium carbonate secreted by organisms, of which the most important are corals.t The composition of what I consider true coral reefs is very com- plex. The main framework of the reef is formed by coral heads and stout coral branches, while the interspaces are filled by small corals, and the skeletons of other organisms, some of which in the course of time are more or less broken up by the waves. In many cases it is difficult to decide whether or no to apply the designation “coral reef ” to richly coralliferous deposits that are obviously bedded. However, it seems to me that it should be applied wherever corals of reef facies seem sufficiently abundant to have formed appreciable rugosities on the sea bottom, although the deposits are bedded. Reefs predominantly composed of the remains of calcareous algae should be designated “nullipore” or “ Lithothamnion reefs.” But, where the proportion of these organisms to corals is so nearly the same that only exact computation will decide between the two, such a reef may be designated “ coral.” SOME KINDS OF LIMESTONE THAT HAVE BEEN CONFUSED WITH CORAL- REEF ROCK. To many it may seem superfluous in a definition of coral reefs to say that the remains of corals should be an important constituent of the rock; but the term “coral rock” or “coral-reef rock” has been repeatedly applied to limestone with the making of which corals have had either nothing, or practically nothing, to do. An excellent instance of such a popular, and until recently scientific, misconception is supplied by the Bahama Islands. According to Alexander Agassiz the Bahamas are composed of wind-blown coral-sand. The sand composing the ridges in the Ba- hamas, at least those I have seen on New Providence and Andros Islands, has certainly been wind-blown. Plate 30 illustrates an exposure along East Street in Nassau, and plate 29, figure B, rep- resents the face of a small cliff at the south end of Morgan Bluff, Andros Island, both in the Bahamas; while figure A of plate 29 is from a photograph of a section of a sand dune at Cape Henry, Virginia. These illustrations show the essential similarity of the 1 Vaughan, T. W., Physical conditions under which Paleozoic coral reefs were formed: Bull. Geol. Soc. America, vol. 22, p. 238, 1911. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 217 arrangement of the material in the Bahamian ridges and of that in a sand dune at Cape Henry. The sand at Cape Henry is siliceous (quartz) sand; while that composing the hills and ridges in the Bahamas is calcareous, almost pure, more than 99 per cent, car- bonate of lime. Limestone composed of grains similar to the grains in the wind-formed hills underlies the surface of the low, flat areas in the Bahamas, but its grains have not been wind-blown. They were formed in the sea and were later uplifted so that they now stand above sea-level. As this kind of limestone has been improp- erly called coral rock, a short account of the mode of its formation will be given. A close inspection of a piece of this rock, even with the naked eye, reveals that it is composed of minute balls and ovoid or ellip- soid bodies, from 0.2 to about 1 millimeter in diameter, set into a cementing groundmass. Plate 31, figrre A, illustrates the surface of a specimen natural size, and figure B represents a part of the same surface enlarged 10 times. Because the ball-like bodies com- posing the rock give it an appearance similar to fish roe, it is known as oolite, which means egg rock. Plate 32, figure 1 illus- trates a thin slice of a single grain magnified 100 times. It is en- tirely obvious that these bodies are composed of concentric coats, and that they were formed by some process that caused outer coats to be successively laid down on the inner ones. It was stated in the preceding paragraph that this rock contains more than 99 per cent calcium carbonate, and that the egglike granules originated in the sea. How was the carbonate of lime taken out of the sea? Recent investigations have very clearly shown that there is in the shallow waters of the tropical and subtropical parts of the ocean as much carbonate of lime in solution as it is possible for the water to hold—in other words, the water is saturated with carbonate of lime. It is therefore clear that any agency that will reduce the capacity of such water already saturated to hold calcium carbonate in solu- tion will cause that substance to be precipitated. The principal solvent of calcium carbonate in sea water is carbon dioxide (CO,), popularly known as carbonic-acid gas, and the reduction of the amount of it in the sea water will produce precipitation. Raising the temperature of the water, whether naturally or artificially, re- duces its capacity to hold CO,, and agitation, if there is too little CO, in the air, will hasten the process. Evaporation, leading to a greater concentration of salts in the water, will also cause precipi- tation of calcium carbonate. Besides the inorganic agencies mentioned, there are organic agencies that cause the precipitation of calcium carbonate in the sea. It has been known for a long time that the addition of a strong alkali, such as ammonia, to sea water will produce precipitation of 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, carbonate of lime. There are several kinds of bacteria that cause the formation of ammonia in the ocean. One of these kinds is known as denitrifying bacteria, because they break up nitrate salts in the sea, converting nitrates into nitrites and these into ammonia, and they are to a considerable degree responsible for the limited develop- ment of green plants in tropical seas, as they rob such plants of an important part of their food. G. H. Drew found as many as 160,000,000 of these bacteria in 1 cubic centimeter of mud off the west side of Andros Island, Bahamas, opposite the mouth of South Bight. A figure (reproduced from one by Kellerman) is here given of this very minute organism, which is known as Pseudomonas calcis (Drew) Kellerman. ees Fic. 8.—ReEpropucTion or J. B. JUKES’S SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT BarRigER REEF OF AUSTRALIA. @. SEA OUTSIDE THE BARRIER, GEN- ERALLY UNFATHOMABLE., 6. THB ACTUAL BARRIER. c. CLEAR CHANNEL INSIDE THE BARRIER, GENERALLY AbotT 15 or 20 FATHOMS DEEP. d. THE INNER REEF, ¢€. SHOAL CHANNEL BETWEEN THE INNER REEF AND THE SHORE. F’. THE GREAT BUTTRESS OF CALCAREOUS ROCK, FORMED OF CORAL AND THE DETRITUS OF CORALS AND SHELLS. G. THE MAIN- LAND, FORMED OF GRANITES AND OTHER SIMILAR ROCKS. 3a. The validity of the theory next to be considered, the Glacial Control theory, is dependent on the soundness of the conclusions ex- pressed in the preceding paragraph. This theory, as is the case with most theories, grew gradually, and ultimately found one chief ex- ponent, who is R. A. Daly.*, Of course taking water from the ocean to form the continental glaciers of Pleistocene time would lower the level of the surface of the sea during that time to an amount equal to the quantity of water abstracted from the ocean, if there were no crustal movements, such as down-bending due to the weight of the ice caps in high latitudes, that would counteract the effects produced by removal of water from the ocean to form the great ice caps. During Pleistocene time, because of the cold climate of that time, the rate of formation of coral reefs was probably reduced, and, as the protection they afforded shores was thereby lessened, the waves of the sea would then cut extensive submarine plains. With the return of warmer 1Preliminary note on the geology of the Queensland coast with reference to the geography of the Queensland and N. 8S. Wales plateau: Linn. Soc. New South Wales, pt. 2, pp. 146-185, 1902. 2The Glacial-Control theory of coral reefs: Amer. Acad, Arts and Sci. Proc., vol. 51, pp. 157-248, 1915. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—-VAUGHAN. 925 climatic conditions the great ice caps melted, and the water, thus re- leased, flowed back to the sea, raising its level by an amount equal to the quantity of water returned to it. The warmer waters were favor- able for the growth of reef corals, and coral reefs grew luxuriantly on flats, partly formed by Pleistocene wave-cutting, during the pe- riod of moderate and gradual submergence following deglaciation. CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF THE FORMATION OF CORAL REEFS. The Semper-Murray theory will be discussed first, for it can be eliminated from further consideration. By referring back to page 217 of this article, it will be seen that present evidence is con- vineing that neither a lagoon channel nor the lagoon of an atoll can be formed by the solvent effect of sea water in coral reef areas, and as lagoons in general are areas where the deposition of sediment pre- dominates over its removal, they must be explained by an inclosing and not by an excavating process. However, in small areas local destruction may predominate over construction, but such localized destruction will not explain the phenomena presented by lagoons. Both of the other two explanations are in agreement as regards the part played by submergence in the formation of offshore coral reefs, which include those of the barrier kind, but differ in that ac- cording to the Darwin-Dana hypothesis the flat lying shoreward of a barrier is due to infilling and leveling behind the reef, while ac- cording to the other explanation the reef has grown upon the sur- face, usually the outer edge, of a flattish area that antedates the presence of the reef. The evidence bearing on submergence will be briefly reviewed, be- ginning with some of the criteria used in inferring such a change in position of land with reference to sea level. One of the first recog- nized kinds of evidence indicating submergence of the land is the presence of arms of the sea extending into the land area and oc- cupying the lower parts of valleys to be accounted for only by stream erosion operating at altitudes above present sea level. Plate 35, figures D, C, illustrates submerged lower courses of valleys in the islands of Antigua and St. Thomas, West Indies; text figure 9 illus- trates a part of the shore of Antigua, where it is deeply indented by arms of the sea that as a result of submergence of the land extend up valleys eroded when the land stood higher above the sea level than it does at the present time. Figure B, of plate 35, illustrates a view looking toward the head of Santiago Harbor, Cuba, and figure A of the same plate is a view looking seaward through the harbor mouth. Text figure 10 illustrates a cross section of Habana Harbor, showing that within the harbor there is a filled channel, which must 226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. have been cut when the land was at least 100 feet higher with reference to sea level than at present. The Cuban harbors are pouch- shaped drainage basins into which the sea has been admitted by submergence of the land. Plate 36 illustrates the basin of Yumuri River and the gorge through which it flows into the sea near Matanzas, Cuba. et SABA ‘BANK Y _ 6,000" [ PRESSE ad 3 eee DASE TEE 13222 miles > PEDRO BANK 0 rlagAelis ob elk Ne oe oe Tt \. 4000- Uy 2000 Vy 3,000 3 YY / LE Yi). — 65 m/les —————> <——— 42 miles ———> ROSALIND BANK EUNAFUTI ATOLL Fig. 14.—Typres or Wust INDIAN SUBLITTORAL PROFILES AND PROFILE or FUNAFUTI ATOLL. group, Murea, Huaheine, Raiatea, Bora-Bora, etc., is inadequate for a definite statement, and there is controversy as to whether the reefs are growing on previously formed flats or whether the flats are due to infilling behind the reefs. West Indian Islands sublittoral profiles are interesting in this con- nection, and are represented by text figure 14. There are no offshore reefs where no platforms have been developed, as off the young vol- 234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. canic island Saba, and the steep shore along the north side of St. Croix. The presence of a flat seems necessary to initiate vigorous coral growth. Only a few paragraphs will be devoted to atolls, of which there are two kinds. Those of the first kind are ring-shaped segments of long reefs that rise above shallow platforms, such as the atolls of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the Tortugas atoll of Florida. These are shaped by currents that are mostly wind-in- duced. The convex sides of such atolls are toward the wind and the open sides are to the leeward. The accompanying diagram, copied from Hedley and Griffith Taylor, illustrates the principles of their formation. That there never was any central land area in such atolls aeons is obvious. The other kind of atolls is those whose rims more or less completely margin the flat summit areas of cet eee submarine moun- | tains or plateaus that almost reach the surface of the’ sea. This kind of atolls was the subject of special study by Admi- Fig, 15—D1agRaM 10 SHOW HOW A LINEAR REEF LxINo across Tal Wharton,’ of THE WIND IS FORMED INTO A HORSESHOE, AFTER HEDLEY AND the British Navy, GRIFFITH TAYLOR. “ who pointed out the uniformity of the depth of the lagoon floors, and stated, as Chamisso years previously had done, that the margining reefs are only more or less continuous. He also laid special stress on the fact that the flat floors of the lagoons did not accord with Darwin’s hypothesis, according to which they should be concave, more or less bowl-shaped, and expressed the opinion that the summits had been leveled by marine erosion previous to the formation of the atoll rims. It appears to me that the most plausible explanation of atolls is that they have formed on flat summit areas during moderate submergence. In reply to a criticism of my interpretation of the relations of offshore reefs to the platforms above which they stand because I have not attempted to explain the origin of the platforms,? I may say that 1 Wharton, W. J. L., Foundations of coral atolls: Nature, vol. 65, pp. 390-393, 1897. 2 Davis, W. M., The origin of coral reefs: Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc., vol. 1, pp. 146-152. March, 1915. CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—VAUGHAN. 235 the recognition of the fact that books, papers, inkstands, etc., are on the top of a desk does not require knowledge of the process of manu- facture of the desk or even of the material out of which it is made; and that one geologic formation overlies another may be ascertained without having complete knowledge of the geologic history of either the overlying or the underlying formation. That the origin of the submarine flats on which offshore reefs stand should be understood is important in the advancement of our knowledge of geologic history, and I have acquired as much in- formation on the subject as I could. I am convinced that there is no one explanation that can be applied to all of them. The fol- lowing kinds of flats have already been recognized: (1) Slightly tilted bedded tuffs, as in the fossil reefs of Antigua; (2) slightly tilted bedded limestones, as off the south coasts of St. Croix and Cuba; (3) submerged coastal flats, as in the Fiji Islands; (4) sub- merged peneplained surfaces, as in the fossil reefs of Porto Rico; (5) submarine plains due to uplift of considerable areas of the ocean bottom and to the deposition of organic deposits on such a surface, as the Floridian Plateau prior to the formation of the middle and upper Oligocene reefs of Florida and southern Georgia; (6) flats of complex and not definitely known origin, such as those of the Antigua-Barbuda Bank, the Virgin Bank, and the continental shelves of tropical America and Australia.t Plains suitable for the growth of corals have been formed by subaerial and submarine depo- sition, and by both subaerial base-leveling and submarine planation. Nearly every, if not every, plain-producing process operative in tropical and subtropical regions has taken part in the formation of plains on which coral have grown or are growing where the plains have been brought below sea level and where the other ecologic con- ditions for offshore reef formation obtain. Although, as regards coral reefs, I wish to emphasize the independence of those platforms concerning which information is available, I wish also to make it clear that I recognize that in-filling does take place behind reefs, but that such in-filing is not sufficient in amount to account for the flats above the surfaces of which the reefs stand. The Glacial Control theory will now be considered in more detail. If this theory is true the following conditions should now prevail: 1 Professor Davis, in an article entitled ‘‘ The Great Barrier Reef of Australia,” pub- lished in the Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 44, pp. 339-350, November, 1917, proposes the hypothesis that the platform on which the living Great Barrier Reef is growing resulted trom in-filling behind a barrier until a “mature reef-plain,’” according to his terminology, was formed. Although this is an interesting hypothesis, it is at present not possible to procure decisive information on the processes whereby the Australian continental shelf was produced. 236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. (a) There should be evidence of geologically Recent submergence of most of the shore lines of the earth; (b) the average amount of the submergence should be equal to the amount of lowering of the ocean level during Pleistocene glaciation: (c) the position of the shore line during Pleistocene glaciation should be indicated by scarps separating flats, and the amount of submergence indicated by their present position below sea level should agree with the amount of the raising of ocean level due to deglaciation; (d) the rate of growth. corals should be such that since the disappearance of the continental ice sheets coral reefs could grow to a thickness equal to the amount sea level was raised as a result of deglaciation; (ce) living barrier coral reefs and atoll reefs should be superposed on antecedent basement flats or platforms. It should here be stated that the fact that there has been local differential crustal movements does not at all in- validate the importance of the Glacial Control theory in its applica- tion to the explanation of modern coral reef development. In the foregoing discussion it has been shown that within coral- reef regions there has been geologically Recent submergence. The shore lines of the earth can not be reviewed in this place, but it may be said that the available evidence indicates that the sea has recently, geologically speaking, overflowed the seaward margins of the land. According to estimates by W. J. Humphreys? and by Daly the maxi- mum amount of the lowering of sea level because of the abstraction of water from the ocean to form the continental ice sheets was of the order of magnitude of 67 meters (about 36 fathoms). Daly has made elaborate compilations of the depths of lagoons, lagoon channels. and drowned valleys, in the coral reef areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans; and the lowering of sea level, between 55 and slightly more than 37 meters, indicated by the compilations agrees with the computations about as closely as should be expected. I obtained similar results in the West Indies. The accompanying text figure 16 indicated a raising of sea level in excess of 37 meters (20 fathoms), on the basis of interpreting the steeper slope at a depth below 20 fathoms as a marginal sea-cut scarp that has been submerged. A similar steeply sloping facet is shown in the profile of the Australian platform, text figure 12. The statement on the growth-rate of corals shows that any known living coral reef could have grown to its estimated thickness since the disappearance of the continental ice sheets, calculated to have been between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago; and finally, so far as definite information has been procured, living offshore coral reefs are superposed on basement platforms that have been recently submerged. I am entirely convinced that glacial control is one of the most important factors in bringing about the 1 Changes of sea level due to changes of ocean yolume; Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., vol. 5, pp. 445-446, 1915, CORALS AND CORAL REEFS—-VAUGHAN. 237 great development of coral reefs at the present time. However, I am not in agreement with Daly in attributing so much work to marine abrasion while the level of the sea was lowered during Pleis- tocene time. It seems to me that most of the platforms are of pre- Pleistocene age, and were wave-cut and remodeled around their edges during Pleistocene time; but this is a subject that needs much more investigation. It should be stated that the raising of ocean level because of de- glaciation will not explain the formation of all coral reefs, for in places, as in some | pf the Fiji Islands, according to W. G. '° Sra ses Ty Foye, the submer- 395 F gence of the reef basements is due to the tilting of pre- viously flat-lying areas, on the sub- oa merged part of EAST COAST OF ANGUILLA which reefs have | formed after the 9 Sea leve/ Seatlevel _ Soot Y 7 Pe a tilting. In other "YH = V7 Y.- ype areas there is clear 300 i ae Upp g Sea /eve/ Sea /eve/ EOS % miles ——— —__ 44% ae SOUTHEAST COAST OF ANTIGUA a o ‘ Sea /eve/ ie — 64 mi-——> —_/070 ft ——> <— 63 i = o NORTH COAST OF HAVANA HARBOR MOSQUITO BANK evidence of tilting ST. THOMAS showing depth of filled and warping as in channel in harbor the Bahamas and F!¢. 16—SvuBMariInE PROFILES Orr WistT INDIAN ISLANDS Florida. Ceneral AND AcROosS Mosguiro BANK. submergence because of deglaciation is concomitant with local crustal deformation. How the submergence produced is, as regards corals, unimportant, provided there be gradual submergence of moderate amount. CONCLUSIONS. The following are my conclusions on the formation of coral reefs: (1) Fringing reefs seem uniformly to have uncomformable basal contacts; they may form after submergence that is not followed by uplift or they may form during intermittent uplift that follows submergence—that is, they may form during either emergence or submergence. | (2) Offshore coral reefs, barriers and atolls, form on antecedent flattish basements during and after submergence in areas where the general ecologic conditions suitable for reef-coral growth prevail, as stated on page 215. This generalization applies to fossil as well as to living reefs. +The geology of the Fiji Islands: Acad. Nat. Sci. Proc., vol. 3, pp. 305-310, April, 1917. i 238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. (3) Recent rise of sea level because of deglaciation has made con- ditions favorable for coral reef formation over enormous areas, and it is one of the important factors in causing the great development of coral reefs at the present time. But in some areas, as in the Fijis, the flats on which the reefs are growing are coastal flats that have been brought below sea level by tilting, as described by Andrews and Foye. (4) The theoretic possibility of the progressive change of a fringing reef into a barrier and later into an atoll, according to the Darwin-Dana hypothesis, may not be denied, but no instance of such a transformation has as yet been discovered. (5) The results of the investigation of coral reefs are valuable to geology not so much because of discoveries immediately concerning corals as because of the additions to knowledge obtained through a study of great complexes of geologic phenomena among which corals and coral reefs are only incidents. Further investigations of the phenomena associated with coral reefs are among the pressing desiderata of geologic research. ‘eal | i The % if ee ~ M4 ey : ' moe ; | BUPAAT AO AAG MATZ Cece bm | = Ns ARIA n° watt ine ‘ i Une aees ROT) pyols ar Adapies') bot (tabaaslo# Lae alitt) wilind Asus =f. ‘9 a ‘ Poe j i ERASCISK ? wy ¥ Pad, : EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES. PLATE 1. Illustrations from photographs, natural size, of two Blaschka models of sea- anemones. Fic. 1. Cerianthus loydi Gosse. 2. Heliactis bellis (Ellis and Solander). 240 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I. BLASCHKA GLASS MODELS OF SEA ANEMONES. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 2. |. LEPTASTREA PURPUREA (DANA). 2. GONIASTREA PECTINATA (EHRENBERG). 3, 3A. MILLEPORA TRUNCATA (DANA). PLATE 2. Fia. 1. Leptastrea purpurea (Dana). Calices, X 4, to show the formation of new calices by budding between the older ones. 2. Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg). Calices, < 4, to show the formation of new calices by the division of the older ones. 3, 3a. Millepora truncata Dana. Fig. 3, the skeleton, natural size; fig. 3a, part of the surface, X 8, to show the larger gastropores and smaller dactylopores. 241 «| us) ba e xed " cisahd iexnad none toh sly Reet! git Bc re } . i ora nal SRA an? Pre, ms Tita nittmcs: f. 4a, one surface, both RRS Uj Sas Smithsonian Report, 1917,—Vaughan. PLATE 3. a Oe FUNGIA SCUTARIA LAMARCK, PLATE 4. Vaughan. Smithsonian Report, 1917. BLUE CORAL, HELIOPORA 2A. 2 CAERULEA (PALLAS). 1A. ORGAN-PIPE CORAL, TUBIPORA SP. PLATE 4, Figs. 1, 1a. Organ-pipe coral, Twbipora sp. Fig. 1, upper surface; fig. la, side view, both natural size. 2,2a. Blue coral, Heliopora coerulea (Pallas). Fig. 2, corallum, natural size; fig. 2a, surface, X 6. 243 PLATE 5. Fie. 1. Specimen of Pocillopora bulbosa Ehrenberg, as attached to a log in Cocos-Keeling Islands. From a photograph kindly supplied by Dr. F. Wood Jones. A specimen from the outer 2. Pocillopora elegans Dana, natural size. barrier, Cocos-Keeling Islands. The rough water facies of the species. 244 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan, PLATE 5. |. POCILLOPORA BULBOSA (EHRENBERG). 2. POCILLOPORA ELEGANS (DANA.) “(YNVQ) SNVSSIS VWHOd011100d ‘9 ALW1d "uBYysNeA—'ZI6L ‘Wodey uvjuOsYyIWS PEA G: Pocillopora elegans Dana. A part, natural size, of Dana's type from the Fiji Islands. This is the same as the quieter-water facies of the species found in Cocos-Keeling Islands. 245 65133°—sm 1917——17 PLATE 7%, Stylophora pistillata (Esper), from Murray Island, Australia. Fic. 1. From quiet, rather deep water, depth 18 fathoms. 2. From the exposed seaweed edge of the reef, Both figures natural size. : 246 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Va STYLOPHORA PISTILLATA (ESPER). Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 8. PORITES PORITES (PALLAS). Puate 8. Porites porites (Pallas), from Tortugas, Florida. Fia. 1. Quiet water, lagoon facies. 2. Hxposed reef facies. Figure about one-half natural size. 24 PLATE 9. Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Fics. 1, 1a. Fungia patella (Ellis and Solander), two views, natural size, of the same specimen. Fig. 1, upper surface; fig. la, lower surface. 2,2a. Fungia (Diaseris) fragilis (Alcock), two views, about twice nat- ural size, of the same specimen, Fig. 2, upper surface; fig. 2a, lower surface. 3. Leptoseris digitata Vaughan, X 2. 248 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 9. HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. Smithsonian Report, 1917.— Vaughan. PLATE 10. HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. Prate 10. Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Leptoseris hawatiensis Vaughan. Fie. 1. Upper surface; fig. la, side view, each natural size. 249 PLATE 11. ° Hawaiian corals obtained between 25 and 40 fathoms (46 and 74 meters) in depth. Fic. 1. Leptoseris scabra Vaughan. Upper surface, natural size. 2. Leptoseris tubulifera Vaughan. General view, X 2. 250 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE Il. ye ye HAWAIIAN CORALS OBTAINED BETWEEN 25 AND 40 FATHOMS (46 AND 74 METERS) IN DEPTH. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 12. HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Prarey 12: Hawaiian deep-sea corals. Fies. 1, 1a. Gardineria hawaiiensis Vaughan. Wig. 1, side view; fig. 1a, calice, of the same specimen, each X 2. 2,2a. Flabellum paripavoninum Alcock. Tig. 2, side view; fig. 2a, calice of the same specimen, both natural size. 3, 3a. Flabellum deludens von Marenzeller. Fig. 3, side view; fig. 3a, calice of the same specimen, both natural size. 251 PLATE 13. Hawaiian deep-sea corals. Fires. 1, 1a. Desmophyllum cristagalli Milne Edwards and Haime. Fig. 1, side view, natural size; fig. 1a, calice, X 2, of the same specimen. 2,2a. Cyathoceras diomedeae Vaughan. Fig. 2, side view, natural size; fig. 2a, calice, X about 2, of the same specimen. 3,3a. Caryophyllia alecocki Vaughan. Fig. 8, side view, natural size; fig. —. 3a, calice, X 21/2, of the same specimen. 252 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 13. HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 14. HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Prate 14, Hawaiian deep-sea corals, Ites. 1, 1a. Paracyathus gardineri Vaughan. Fig. 1, calice; fig. la, side view, of the same specimen, both X about 2. 2,2a. Anthemiphyllia pacifica Vaughan. Fig. 2, calice; fig. 2a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. 8, 3a. Bathyactis hawatiensis Vaughan. Fig. 8, calice; fig. 3a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. é 4,4a, Stephanophyllia formosissima Mosely. Fig. 4, calice; fig. 4a, base, of the same specimen, both X 2. 253 PrLatTe 15. Hawaiian deep-sea corals. Fig. 1, corrallum, natural size; Fies.1, 1a. Madrepora kauaiensis Vaughan. fig. la, part of a branch, X 43, of the same specimen. 2. Madracis kauaiensis Vaughan, corallum, natural size. 3. Anisopsammia amphelioides (Alcock), part of a corallum, natura) size. : 254 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I5. HAWAIIAN DEEP-SEA CORALS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I6 VIEWS AT FORT JEFFERSON, TORTUGAS, FLA. PLATE 16, Fort Jefferson, Tortugas, Florida. Fig. A. Wharf. Many corals are growing on the perivheral piers. B. The moat and sallyport. Corals of lagoon facies live in the moat. C. Outside of the moat wall and the flood-gate, the northwest side of the fort. Many corals were planted near the wall, north of the flood- gate. 255 PLATE 17. Maeandra areolata (Linnaeus). The tentacles are fully distended, following stimulation by a small amount of food. The figure is about 1.4 natural size. 256 Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE I7. MAEANDRA AREOLATA (LINNAEUS), WITH ITS TENTACLES FULLY DISTENDED. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Vaughan. PLATE 18. ot... x = oN AD eg * oe Si ES MAEANDRA AREOLATA (LINNAEUS), WITH THE POLYPS PARTIALLY CONTRACTED. Prate 18. Maeandra areolata (Linnaeus). The same colony represented by plate 17, as it appeared during the digestion of food. The figure is about 1.4 natural size. 257 %% PLATE 19. Fre. A. Aquarium at the laboratory, Tortugas, Florida. The jars on the lowest shelf contained coral planulae that were being reared; the jars on the next higher shelf contained clean seawater that was siphoned to the jars below; the jars cn the top shelf contained coral colonies from which the planulae for the rearing experiments were obtained. B. Apparatus for planting corals. Leverect, 3 vegreties «! AH Aioeters ape a clade De petite, ha. Cinttatese, -Oatinw sea >” gee P12) Oalendn.- a P. As ree Berta acti emt siaiei hate anid tn North Ameriow.. tet. 22 Denar Daten tect, Cemeete, C eeae (1a; Clevinpeclin, TC) Fete nett. Reklekees Bate nine aay - ee interval ; bottromnthe giaclke epochs Trade. Wien dred. Deo ae iit) ise@ivbtraus, 4), Dros of Fic. 26.—ALLIGATOR GAR, Lepisosteus tristoechus, FROM A FIELD SKETCH BY STEWART LOVELAND OF SPECIMEN SPHARED BY HIM NEAR PARADISE Kuy, OND-SIXTH NAT. SIZE, low. Fossil species of the genus, however, are found in the Eocene of Europe as well as in that of America. THE MUDFISH, OR DOGFISH, AMIA CALVA. This species is found in swamps, lakes, and rivers bordering the Gulf of Mexico, extending up the Mississippi and its tributaries as far north as the Great Lake region. It is especially abundant in swamps and sluggish waters abounding in aquatic vegetation, prefer- ring rather shallow water, and feeding principally at night. Gamy and voracious, it is “one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook.” It frequently comes to the surface to breathe, especially in stagnant water; and can be kept in a rain barrel for a long time without change of water. It is said to survive periods of drought by burying itself in the mud. The male builds the nest and guards it after the eggs are laid; he is a good father, even accompanying and protecting the, schools of young after they leave the nest. It is not highly esteemed for food, but is often eaten in the South. The mudfish is chiefly interesting on account of its close resemblance to ancient types of ganoid fishes. It is the only surviving relative 412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. of a once large family represented by numerous fossils from the Jurassic of France and Bavaria and the Eocene of Europe and North America. OTHER FISHES OF THE EVERGLADES. The catfish caught in the slough near Paradise Key is in all prob- ability Amezurus nebulosus, a species which has been collected in Little River, a short distance north of Miami. Among the Cyprin- idae are the golden shiner, Abramis roseus, a tiny species, only 23 inches long when fully grown, which takes its name from the rosy color of the fins, iris, and snout of the male. Among the killifishes (Poeciliidae) of southern Florida, which are to be expected from the vicinity of Royal Palm State Park, are several species of Fundulus, some of which do not exceed 2 inches in length when fully grown; the viviparous “top minnow,” Gambusia affinis, which lives mostly on surface insects; the “least fish,” Heterandria formosa, abundant in swamps and ditches near Miami and Little River, the adult female of which is only an inch long, and the male three-quarters of an inch; Jordanella floridae, also commor in the swamps of Florida; and perhaps Mollienisia ongipinna, the male of which is remarkable for his handsome dorsal fin. Among the sunfishes (Centrarchidae) which certainly occur in the Royal Palm State Park, are the so- called blue bream, or bluegill, Lepomés incisor (Lepomis pallidus Jordan), and Lepomis holbrooki (Eupomotis holbrooki Jord. and Everm.). A beautiful illustration in colors of the former is pub- lished in the Fishes of North Carolina, by Dr. Hugh M. Smith, Tnited States Commissioner of Fisheries, who pays it the following tribute : This is the largest and finest of the sunfishes. It attains a length of 12 to 14 inches and a weight of a pound and a half, and when full grown is a magnificent species. As a game and food fish it stands high. * * * This fish has for many years been called Lepomis pallidus in the belief that Mitchill’s name of Labrus pallidus applied to it; but a close examination of Mitchill’s description shows that it could not have been intended for this species, and furthermore the bluegill is unknown in the locality from which the type of pallidus came. The earliest available name is incisor of Cuvier and Valen- ciennes.* Drawings of both Lepomis incisor and L. holbrooki were made for the writer by Master Stewart Loveland of Homestead, who caught them in the slough near Paradise Key. BIG-MOUTHED BASS, OR TROUT. This species, known scientifically as Micropterus salmoides, is the largest and most important of the fresh-water basses, and is a fine 1See North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, vol. 2, p. 242, pl. 9. 1907. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 413 food and game fish. According to Dr. Hugh M. Smith, who figures it in the work above cited— It inhabits more sluggish and warmer waters than the other species, and thrives under more extreme conditions of environment and temperature. * %* * Jt reaches its maximum weight in Florida, where examples weigh- ing as much as 20 to 25 pounds have been taken in lakes. After describing its nesting habits and the solicitous care of the newly hatched young by the parents, Doctor Smith continues: The food of the young fish consists of minute animals—crustacea, insects, ete. At a very early period, however, they begin to prey on their smaller brothers, and this cannibalism continues after they become adults. The larger fish are very voracious and aggressive feeders, taking all kinds of fish as well as small mammals, frogs, tadpoles, snakes, worms, insects, and also vegetable matter.* FROGS AND TOADS. In the forest of Paradise Key two little tree frogs abound; and the neighboring sloughs and marshes are inhabited by a beautiful, spotted leopard frog and a green bullfrog. TREE FROGS. While sitting on the screened veranda of the park lodge, besieged by clouds of mosquitoes, the attention of the writer was attracted by a number of diminutive tree frogs, some of them green, others brownish, on the outside of the copper-wire gauze. One of the smallest, whose body was scarcely bigger than a dime, made a sudden spring and caught a mosquito. Against the bright sky his little body was al- f j Fig. 27.—TRED FROG, most diaphanous and a dark speck could be — yyta squiretia, wuicx seen in his stomach; it was the mosquito he had = W4¢®S_INcessan'r_ WaR- just swallowed. After another successful catch a, etait feed eA there were two specks, and continuing his good = TH® COROLLAS or FLOW- . . ERS. ~ NAT. SIZE. work the little creature soon had his stomach comfortably full. Then he folded his little arms close to his body and went to sleep. Closer examination showed that there were two species of these little frogs, the second distinguished from the one first noticed by lateral metallic bands. Alcoholic specimens were identified by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger as Hyla squirrela (fig. 27) and Hyla cinerea, respectively. In the woods these little creatures were commonly seen clinging to leaves from which they could scarcely be distinguished, and at Homestead, while awaiting transportation to the park, the writer +See North Carolina Geological and Hconomic Survey, vol. 2, p. 247. 1907. 414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. noticed a number of them on flowering Datura, in a funnel-shaped corolla of which one of them had established itself as a desirable sta- tion for securing his insect food. MARSH FROGS. The leopard frog of Royal Palm State Park, Rana sphenocephala Cope, regarded by Doctor Stejneger as a variety of our well-known Rana pipiens, is beautifully figured by Miss Dickerson in her Frog Book. To this species Miss Dickerson pays the following tribute: The southern leopard frog is perhaps the most beautiful frog in North America. It has not the delicate modest beauty of the wood frog, but it has distinction of form, richness of coloring, and intricacy of color patterns. It has not, like the wood frog, an expression indicating gentleness and tameness. In- stead, a creature extremely alert and wild, possessing great powers of activity, is seen in the unusually large eyes and in the attentive pose of the slender body. * * * The male, Rana sphenocephala, has large vocal pouches, one at each side, above the arm, These frogs are wild and active. They leap long distances, and are difficult to catch. The species is evidently a very distinct one, not intergrading with Rana pipiens, but holding its own with the latter frog in the same localities in the southern part of the United States. The Florida bullfrog, Rana grylio Stejneger, is also described and figured by Miss Dickerson, who designates it as “a beautiful frog, very retiring and thoroughly aquatic in habit.” It is usually of a vivid metallic green on the head and shoulders and olive on the pos- terior portion of its body, with a pointed head, bulging eyes, the ears of the male remarkably large and conspicuous, spheroid in shape, and of an orange-brown color with a green center, and the throat a bright yellow. It is probably this species which is common in the slough near Paradise Key, living among the dense aquatic vegetation among which it seeks refuge when disturbed. Miss Dick- erson compares the sounds which it produces to “the grunting of a herd of pigs,” thus differing from the familiar bass notes of the common bullfrog.* REPTILES. TURTLES. Among the turtles of Royal Palm State Park is a large terrestrial box tortoise, a living specimen of which was received from the park warden. This was determined as Terrapene major (Cistudo major Agassiz), by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, of the United States National Museum, to whom the writer is indebted for much information re- garding the batrachians and reptiles of the region here considered. 1 See Dickerson, Mary C., The Frog Book, pp. 186-188. 1906. 2 Dickerson, op. cit., 226 to 228, pls. 85 and 86. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 415 An aquatic turtle, collected by Mr. Arthur H. Howell, proved to be Pseudemys floridana, belonging to the group of river turtles. In addition to these Mr. Mosier reports the following species from the park: A snapping turtle, a soft-shelled or leather-backed turtle, a small water turtle with conspicuous red markings beneath, and a large, hard-shelled, water turtle, which is very good to eat. The well-known gopher of Florida, Gopherus polyphemus, so common on sand dunes near the coast, does not occur in the park. ALLIGATORS. Alligator mississippiensis is not uncommon in the slough at the eastern entrance to the park. During the writer’s visit its bellowing « could be distinctly heard from the lodge, especially in the early morning. These huge animals are not at all dangerous, but will flee at the sight of a man and will not show fight unless brought to bay. Young alligators feed mostly on fishes, frogs, and insects; the older ones also catch waterfowl and unwary mammals which come within reach. They drown their prey by holding it under water, but in order to swallow it they must raise their head above the sur- face. Alligators’ eggs, which are about as large as those of a hen, but oblong in shape, are eaten in many parts of the South. They are nutritious and are as good as turtles’ eggs- The young when hatched are about 8 inches long. Though they do not appear to thrive in captivity when brought north, they develop rapidly in their native surroundings. In addition to the alligator there is a true crocodile in southern Florida, but it does not occur near the park. This animal, called by zoologists Crocodilus acutus, is closely related to C. vulgaris, the man-eating crocodile of Africa which was worshipped by the ancient Egyptians and took part in their religious pageants and processions. It is easily distinguished from the alligator by its narrower head and pointed snout. Specimens 11 or 12 feet long are not rare, and it sometimes reaches the length of 14 feet. Its range extends from Lake Worth to Cape Sable. South of the United States it ranges from central Mexico to Ecuador and the West Indies. Though showing Vicious propensities in captivity it is naturally timid in its wild state. The sight of a child will send a 12-foot specimen rushing from its basking place for the water, and a man may even bathe with safety in rivers frequented by the species.’ LIZARDS. Sharply contrasted with the giant saurian of the swamps are the little terrestial lizards commonly called skinks and chameleons. The 1See Ditmars, R. L., The Reptile Book, pp. 89-91. 1907. < 416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Florida skink, Plestiodon egregius, is only 34 or 4 inches when fully grown. Its body is cylindrical and slender, almost wormlike, with small, weak limbs. It is of an olive or reddish brown color with four, equidistant, longitudinal stripes margined with obscure dotted lines. The so-called chameleon, Anolis carolinensis, takes its common name from its changing color. It is not related to the true chameleons of the Old World so often celebrated in fabulous stories, but belongs to the iguana family and bears a.superficial resemblance to a miniature alligator. Specimens of this little animal were seen on the screened veranda of the park lodge running about with ease upon the vertical walls and even on the ceiling, to which it adhered by means of its peculiar, padded toes, while it was busily engaged in catching mosquitoes and other insects. In its habits it reminded the writer of the geckos so common in dwellings on the island of Guam. Mr. Snyder states that they are very active in the woods when the termites swarm, devouring them in great quantities. Sometimes it assumes a dull, brown color, at other times a vivid green. The males have a throat pouch which they inflate, while uttering a peculiar sound very much like that of a baby alligator, and they have a way of nodding their head that is odd and comical. Unlike the little tree frogs frequenting the veranda, these little animals were very timid, and quickly escaped when attempts were made to capture them. SNAKES. Among the harmless snakes of the park are two garter snakes; Thanmophis sirtalis, with three, yellow, longitudinal stripes and the more slender 7hamnophis sackeni, with two, long, lateral stripes and the beginning of a short median stripe on the back of the neck. Both of these species are semiaquatic, subsisting upon frogs and fishes as well as earthworms and toads; and they bring forth their young alive. Two water snakes are found in the sloughs and pools of the Everglades: the “spotted belly ” Natria# fasciata, sometimes erroneously called a moccasin, but easily distinguished from the poisonous water moccasin by its yellowish white abdomen spotted with bright red blotches and clouded spots of black and gray; and the so-called green water snake, Natrix cyclopion, with an unspotted, yellowish abdomen and yellow lips. Both of these species are harm- less, but they simulate poisonous species by flattening themselves out and assuming a threatening attitude when cornered. Among the racers or black snakes is the well-known gopher snake, Drymarchon corais cowpert, a variety of the large tropical American D. corais, sometimes 8 or 10 feet long, with a highly polished, blue- black body, which has given it the name of indigo snake in certain localities, It has a gentle disposition and often lives about houses PARADISE KEY——SAFFORD. 41% in a semidomesticated state, subsisting principally on rats and mice. Children sometimes pick it up, and it seems to enjoy being petted. A fine, large specimen of this snake greeted the writer at the door of the lodge, when he alighted from the automobile which conveyed him to the park. The park warden gave a vivid description of the mating of a pair, in which both the male and female strutted in front of each other, as though trying to show off to the best ad- vantage. Closely allied to this species is the black racer, Coluber constrictor, which does not kill its prey by squeezing, as commonly believed, but is a constrictor only in name. Both of these snakes are oviparous, the shell of the egg of the latter being white and tough and sprinkled with grains resembling coarse salt. Both species have the reputation of charming birds and small rodents, but this power is quite imaginary. The two species are easily distinguished, the gopher snake by its glossy body and reddish brown throat, chin, and upper lip plates, and the black racer by its dull slaty luster and milky white throat and chin. The closely allied coachwhip, or whip snake, Coluber flagellum, differs from the two preceding species in having a nasty, irritable disposition, and will not submit to being handled. Its body is slender, of a black or brown color above, be- coming lighter toward the tail, and the under surface white, with the plates of the throat clouded along the edges. It is very swift, often climbing trees in quest of eggs and young birds, but it can not be called arboreal. The green tree snake, or magnolia snake, Opheodrys aestivus (Cy- clophis aestivus), is a gentle creature of a uniform leaf-green above and bright yellow beneath. It lives among the branches of bushes and low trees, feeding upon grasshoppers, crickets, the larve of insects, and, according to Mr. Mosier, on small tree toads. In de- scribing the vegetation of southern Florida hammocks, Dr. Small refers to this species as follows: Orchids, air plants, and ferns completely clothe the limbs of the larger trees. However, plants do not have a monopoly of the trees. There are also epiphytic lizards and epiphytic snakes. There is everywhere present a beautiful green snake. It inhabits the hammocks and it is especially abundant in those of the Everglades. It lies outstretched on the branches of shrubs and trees and glides along the branches from one tree to another with surprising ease. One has usually to be careful to look before laying hold of the limb of a tree for sup- port, or he may grasp something of quite different consistency from that of wood. One reason why this little creature is so much at ease among shrubbery is the peculiar nature of its scales, each of which is distinctly keeled, so that the general surface of the body is roughened and thus able to hold on more securely to the branches along which it glides. 1See Ditmars, R. L., The Reptile Book, pp. 286-287. 1907. 418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. HOG-NOSE, OR PUFF ADDER, Heterodon contortrir (H. platyrhinus). Concerning this species, which he kept in captivity, Dr. Hiram Byrd writes as follows: Among the snakes of my pit the puff adder acts the part of clown. He is all bluff. If you come upon him suddenly he spreads his hood like a cobra, and tries to frighten you with his looks. Failing, he blows like a rattlesnake. If you are still undaunted, he takes to flight. If you do not permit that, and pro- ceed to tease him, he then resorts to camouflage, which is to turn over on his back and, possumlike, play dead. He will even try to creep away on his back. I can’t imagine the rattlesnake associating with the puff adder on terms of social equality.* This snake is easily recognized by its turned-up nose and its mot- tled brown body. THE COTTONMOUTH, OR WATER MOCCASIN, Ancistrodon piscivorus. This species, so much dreaded by travelers in the Everglades, is closely allied to our copperhead, Ancistrodon mokasen (A, contor- trix), which is sometimes called the highland moccasin. The top of its head is very dark, usually black, the chin and lower lips yellow, with three dark bars on the lip plates on each side of the mouth, and the abdomen is yellow blotched with dark brown or black, while the under portion of the tail is black. This coloration of the abdomen serves to distinguish it from its harmless associates, with which it is sometimes confused, Vatrix fasciata, which has a yellowish white ab- domen spotted with red and black; and Natrix cyclopion, which has a uniform yellowish abdomen. When surprised it has the habit of opening its jaws widely, disclosing its white mouth parts, from which it takes its name of cottonmouth. In addition to fish, frogs, and other snakes, it feeds upon birds and small animals. It brings forth its young alive, usually seven to twelve. RATTLESNAKES, The pigmy rattlesnake, or ground rattler, Sistrurus miliarius, may be recognized at once by its small size and minute rattle. The adults scarcely reach a length of 18 inches. Their warning rattle is so faint that it can be heard from the distance of only a few feet. The dia- mond-back, Crotalus adamanteus, is the largest of all the rattlesnakes, sometimes staan a length of 6 to 8 feet. It is recognized at once "itd its rattle and its broad, flat head and distinctly narrowed neck. It is of an olive or grayish green color with a longitudinal chain of large, diamond-shaped patches outlined with bright yellow. With its long fangs and large poison glands it may be regarded as one of the most deadly poisonous snakes in the world. Doctor Byrd has made 1 Byrd, Hiram, Letter to writer dated Homestead, Fla., Nov. 15, 1917. PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 419 some interesting observations on the life history of the species, from their earliest stages to maturity. He was bitten on the finger by a specimen 12 days old while trying to feed it. He stopped cir- culation immediately by the use of an improvised tourniquet, and though experiencing certain odd sensations of chilliness, escaped se- rious injury. Unlike the solicitous mudfishes and basses of the neighboring Everglades, who protect their young for some time after they are hatched, rattlesnakes let their little ones shift for themselves as soon as they come into the world. Dr. Byrd could discover no evidence of parental affection among them; yet in admiration of their innate dignity, courage, and their disdain to strike without warning, he composed an ode in their honor, which ends with the following stanzas: Yet all thy virtues wrest from man no lays, Who sings of war and love, of bird and bee, " And e’en of rusty toad, but not of thee. To thee he yields but hate or fear, not praise. Indifferent thou to hatred, fear, or wrong, ‘Content in jungle drear to seek thy food And make thy home and launch thy royal brood In solitude,—I grudge thee not a song. BIRDS. The bird fauna of southern Florida is especially rich, not only on account of the mild climate, favorable to many subtropical species, but also because Florida is a highway for migratory species which spend their winters in the West Indies. Mrs. Kirk Munroe, president of the Cocoanut Grove Audubon Society, and Mrs, Hiram Byrd, who resides at Princeton, not far from Paradise Key, have interested themselves in observing the birds of this vicinity and making a census of its bird fauna. It is impossible within the scope of this paper to give a detailed account of the birds, but the reader’s attention is called to some of the most interesting.t Since the writer’s visit sys- tematic studies of the birds and mammals of the park have been made by Mr. A. H. Howell, of the United States Biological Survey, who visited the region twice during the year 1918. The results of his investigations will be published later by the Survey. In southern Florida many well-known birds, as well as mammals, are represented by varieties or subspecies quite distinct from the typical forms occurring farther north. In some cases the differences are in the relative proportions of certain parts; in others it may be in the coloration of one or both of the sexes. Thus we have a Florida 1 Illustrations, descriptions, and scientific names of many of the birds here considered will be found in the admirable little pocket bird guides of Chester A. Reed, published by Doubleday, Page & Co. 420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. quail, Florida crow, Florida wren, and the Florida cardinal, all of which are essentially Floridian, and the Florida wild turkey, which is fast disappearing. Other forms called Floridian, because they were first described from Florida, but which have a wider geographi- cal range, are the Florida gallinule, several Florida hawks, the Florida screech owl and barred owl, and the Florida blue jay. One of the most beautiful birds, a tropical species now fast disappearing from Florida and occurring nowhere else in the United States except in Texas, is the roseate spoonbill. Of this species, known scientifically as Ajata ajaja (pl. 54) Mrs. Kirk Munroe has written a most charming description, which the writer hoped to embody in the present paper, but which, on account of limited space, can not be here presented in full. Once the roseate spoonbill inhabited the neighborhood of Paradise Key in great flocks, but it is becoming rarer and rarer. * * * They are sociable birds, always traveling and nesting in communities. The nests, usually built among picturesque mangrove branches, look like a pile of rubbish, except in the very center, where three or four whitish, brown-spotted eggs are placed. Young spoonbills are covered with snowy down while they are nestlings. In teeding they push their bill, indeed the entire head, down the parent’s throat as far as possible to secure food, each greedy little fledgling taking its turn. The spoonbill is sometimes called the shoveler on account of the peculiar shape of its beak, which it uses with wonderful skill in catching aquatic insects and crustaceans in the mud along the water’s edge. Quantities of its beautiful, rose-colored feathers were sold to tourists a few years ago. In certain localities exploring naturalists came upon great piles of carcasses from which the beau- iiful wings had been torn. No wonder that this unfortunate bird, whose beau- tiful plumage like that of the egret has been its curse, has become almost extinct in Florida. Thanks to the influence of the Audubon societies, the feathers of wild birds are becoming more and more unfashionable, and it is hoped that the roseate spoonbill may thus escape extermination. The white ibis, another bird belonging, like the spoonbill, to the heron order, is quite common in the vicinity of Royal Palm State Park. It is easily recognized by its white body plumage, black- tipped wings, and decurved, orange-red beak, with which it is most adept in extracting crawfish and aquatic insects from the mud of the marshes. To the same order also belong the American bittern, a brownish bird with greenish-yellow legs; the Ward heron, stately “lady of the waters,” with slate-colored back, mostly white under parts, and whitish crest; the little blue heron, not always blue, but sometimes pure white, also common about Paradise Key; and the black-crowned and the yellow-crowned night herons, whose “ day begins after sunset,” when they leave their roosts in the forests and fly forth to feed in the marshes. Among the diving birds are the pied-billed grebe, also known as the water witch or hell-diver, a bird easily recognized by its lobed feet. The darters are represented by the uncanny water turkey, or PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 421 snake bird (Anhinga anhinga), quite common in trees near the slough of the park. This bird, like a submarine, dives with the greatest ease and pursues its prey beneath the surface of the water. There is little open water to attract ducks, but the park warden has every year observed, in the vicinity of the park, a few blue-winged teal, mallard, and Florida ducks (Anas fulvigula), the latter remain- ing throughout the entire year. The turkey vulture commonly seen sailing in the sky above Para- dise Key is Cathartes aura that ranges over North and South Amer- ica, called Tzopilotl by the Aztecs and Gallinazo by Spanish Ameri- cans. Specimens of it were caught by Mr. A. H. Howell in traps set on the marshes for raccoons. Among the birds of prey are the Everglade kite (Rostrhamus sociabi- lis), which feeds upon the large marsh snail already described and is known locally as the snail hawk; the swallow-tailed kite (Hlanoides forfi- catus), with a deeply forked tail, white under parts and head and blu- ish black back, a bird quite common near the park and ranging to Central and South America; and the Missis- sippi kite (Jctinia mississtppiensis). The hawks include the marsh hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, red-tailed hawk. FT ELON cat eal oie a rey Fig. 28.—Ospruy, Pandion haliaetus (fig. 28), and the Florida red-shoul- earolinenaks, WHICH CATCHES FISH dered hawk. Many ospreys (Pandion, _ 1% TH# FLOODED EVERGLADES. haliaetus carolinensis) were observed by the writer flying over the Everglades between Paradise Key and Camp Jackson, occa- sionally darting down into the flooded grassy prairie and emerg- ing with a good-sized fish in their talons. This species also occurs in Porto Rico, where it frequents both the coast and inland swampy lagoons.?, On that island it is sometimes called aguila (eagle) on ac- count of its noble eagle-like appearance. A magnificent specimen of the handsome red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus alleni) perched habitually on the limb of a tree in front of the lodge during the visit of the writer to the park. From its station it pounced upon its prey, principally insects, lizards, and frogs, in the clearing before the building. It also catches snakes. The park warden 1The writer is greatly indebted to Mr, Francis Harper, of the U. S. Biological Survey, for notes on the water birds of Florida. 2See the interesting report of Mr. Alexander Wetmore on the birds of Porto Rico, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 326. 1914. 65133°—smM 1917 28 4292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. took this bird as an illustration of the conditions of life on Para- dise Key, using the following parody on the well-known. House- that-Jack-built. “ This is the hawk that caught the snake, that swal- lowed the rat, that ate the fruit, that fell from the palm, that grew from the seed that the bird dropped.” Among the swamp dwellers are the limpkin (Aramus vociferus), an odd bird intermediate between the cranes and rails, with olive- brown plumage streaked with white; and the Carolina rail, or sora (Porzana carolina), a modest-colored, shy bird, which remains con- cealed in the vegetation of the marshes during the day and does not reveal its presence until the late afternoon, when it begins to utter its whistling note, and continues it long after night has fallen. A chorus of these birds has been compared to that of piping Hylas in the early spring.’ To this group also belong the purple gallinule and the Florida gallinule, the former with resplendent plumage, a blue shield on its forehead and a carmine bill tipped with yellow, the latter with brownish plumage, a red frontal shield and a broad red band above its knee. Another allied bird is the coot, or mud hen (Fulica americana), distinguished by its whitish frontal shield and especially by its lobed or scalloped toes, which are not unlike those of a grebe. Kildeers (Oxyechus vociferus) are very common, filling the air with their shrill cries, as though in a perpetual state of alarm. In addition to the well-known mourning dove, there is a beautiful, little ground dove (Chaemepelia passerina) on Paradise Key. A closely allied variety of the latter collected in Porto Rico by Mr. Alexander Wetmore, of the United States Biological Survey, was found to have swallowed a number of ground pearls, or margarodes, already described, which Mr. Wetmore thinks may have been picked up by mistake for gravel to aid digestion.? Other birds recorded from this region are the yellow-billed cuckoo; several woodpeckers, including the rare ivorybill; a screech owl, already mentioned, which offers a pleasant contrast to some of the unspeakable spiders and insects mentioned in this paper by its conjugal fidelity and parental affection, for it remains mated for life and defends its young most courageously; the whippoorwill, which is a winter resident, the allied Chuck-will’s-widow and the Florida nighthawk; our own little ruby-throated hummingbird; the kingbird; the crested flycatcher; the pheebe; purple martin; barn swallow; tree swallow; mockingbird; catbird; long-billed marsh wren; and the Florida wren already mentioned. To the last-named 1See Chapman, Birds of Eastern America, 3d ed., p. 143. 1896. 2Many other birds of this region occur: also in the West Indies, or are there repre- sented by closely allied varieties or subspecies. The reader’s attention is called to Mr. Wetmore’s monograph on the Birds of Porto Rico already quoted, issued as U. S, Dept. Agr. Bull. No. 326. 1914, PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 423 bird (Thryothorus ludovicianus miamensis) Mrs. Kirk Munroe has paid a well-deserved tribute. Following these in the bird census of the park come the ruby- crowned kinglet; the wood thrush; Wilson thrush, Hermit thrush, American robin (Planesticus migratorius) and bluebird (Sialia sialis) ; the Florida blue jay, Florida crow, and the fish crow; a number of wood warblers, including the beautiful little ovenbird (Seturus aurocapillus), which comes daily to the door of the park lodge to be fed with scraps from the table; the Florida yellowthroat ; and the American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla). During the writer’s visit to the park several individuals of this beautiful bird were frequent visitors to a blooming marlberry tree (/cacorea panicu- lata) in quest of insects attracted by its fragrant, elderlike blossoms. The list of birds terminates with the names of several vireos, the scarlet tanager, summer tanager; the American goldfinch; the Savan- nah sparrow, which is a pest in the seed beds of neighboring truck farmers; the Florida cardinal, the female of which is more deeply colored than in our own variety; the blue grosbeak; the indigo bunt- ing; and the many-colored painted bunting, or nonpareil. One would think that the last-named bird (Passerina ciris) would be highly conspicuous in its natural habitat; but Doctor Oberholser, who is a keen observer, says that it is often difficult to detect in the dense undergrowth which it frequents, for the bright colors of its varied plumage act as a kind of camouflage or disguise. MAMMALS. Among the strange animals which early explorers encountered in the New World the two which excited most wonder were the opossum and the strange, aquatic manatee, both of which were unlike any- thing ever before seen. The imperfect descriptions of the manatee gave rise to tales of sirens, and the exaggerated accounts of the animal which carried its young in pouches made of its own skin resulted in various fanciful pictures. In southern Florida several of our familiar animals are repre- sented by varieties slightly different from northern forms, varying either in color, size, or relative proportion of the parts. Thus the mammal fauna of the Royal Palm State Park includes the Florida opossum, Didelphis virginiana pigra, very similar to our northern type but somewhat smaller and with a longer and more slender tail; the cotton rat of south Florida, Sigmodon hispidus spadicipygus,; the south Florida rice rat, Oryzomys palustris coloratus, aquatic in its habits and an excellent swimmer; the Florida cotton mouse, Pero- myscus gossypinus palmarius, very abundant in the forest; the Flor- 424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ida marsh hare, Sylvilagus palustris paludicola; the Florida wild- cat, Lynx ruffus floridanus, still very common in Paradise Key and in the hammocks between Royal Palm State Park and Miami, and even within the city limits of Miami; the Florida panther, Felis coryi, now nearly extinct, but said to be an occasional visitor to Paradise Key; the Florida otter, Lutra canadensis vaga, not uncom- mon in the sloughs of the park; the Florida raccoon, Procyon lotor elucus, of a more yellowish color than our northern type; the Florida bear, Ursus americanus floridanus, an occasional visitor to the park; the Florida deer, Odocoileus virginianus osceola, a dark colored, little animal, about one-quarter smaller than our Virginia deer. In addition to the above mammals, the manatee, 77ichechus lati- rostris, already mentioned, should be included; for, although it does not occur in the immediate vicinity of the park, it is not uncommon in the Miami and other streams close by, into which it enters to feed upon the aquatic vegetation. Its favorite food is the so-called mana- tee grass, Cymodocea manatorum, to which it gives the specific name. During the writer’s visit to Miami he saw a fine specimen of this strange animal in captivity, which was fed daily with great quan- tities of this succulent weed. For a résumé of the work which has thus far been done in this branch of zoology, the reader is referred to a paper on “The land mammals of peninsular Florida and the coast region of Georgia,” by Outram Bangs,! in which it is pointed out that the chief cause of the occurrence of so many well-defined subspecies of animals is the isolated position of southern Florida which, like that of an island, has resulted in the segregation of groups and the development of special breeds or distinct forms. INDIANS OF SOUTHERN FLORIDA. Many of those who have visited southern Florida have had their attention called to the shell mounds and other prehistoric vestiges of human habitation found in many places along the coast. Some of the most remarkable of these, situated at Marco, or San Marcos, on the Gulf coast of southern Florida, were investigated in 1896 by the late Frank Hamilton Cushing, who, among other things, found the remains of remarkable terraces constructed almost entirely of the shells of conchs, Fulgur perversum, a species which takes its specific name from the perverse, or left-handed twist of its spiral shell.’ Among the objects unearthed were many made wholly or in part of these shells: Mattocks or hoes (fig. 29), war clubs, ladles for baling canoes, drinking cups, spoons, and even boat anchors, the latter 1 Proceedings Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 28: 157 to 235. 1898. 2 See Cushing’s report in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 35, pp. 329-448. 1896. : PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 425 made by securing several of the largest shells together, with cordage made of agave or yucca fiber, which also served as the cable. An interesting fact connected with these objects is that similar utensils made of this same shell, easily recognizable by its “ perverse” spiral, have been unearthed in the mounds of the valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries, which tend to connect the Florida mound builders with those of our great inner basin. Objects made from the shells of Fulgur perversum taken from the mounds of Florida, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohic, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri may be seen in the collections of the United States National Museum. Plate 55 is a photograph by Cushing of a terrace faced with these shells; plate 56 shows a ladle made of one of the shells with the inner whorls removed ; and figure 380 shows a spoon unearthed in Florida com- pared with a similar one found in a mound in eastern Ten- nessee.? Fie. 29.—Marrock OR Nearl all WAR-CLUB MADE FROM y SHELL OF Fulgur (Bu- accounts of sycon) perversum, SIMI- a ET LAR TO SPECIMENS FOUND the aborigi 5 5 IN GRAVES OF THE nal inhabit- MOoUND-BUILDERS OF THE ants of Flor- MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. ida refer to utensils made of these shells, especially in connet- tion with the celebrated “black Fic. 30.—UTENSILS MADE OF SHELLS OF ° 39 s ¥ iW peeaiel(Busnpodey Mia oltveranal > 'ah tee drink ” ritual, in which the shells IN THE UniTep States NatronaL Mu- were used as dippers and drink- suo pow ute weg coast SOPE ing” cups for serving. this care FROM MOUND IN EasterN Tennessee. monial decoction. The earliest og illustrations,? however, evidently drawn from memory, erroneously represented these utensils as being made of a shell shaped lke that of a nautilus instead of the species actually used. +See MacCurdy, in Proceedings of the Nineteenth International Congress of Ameri- canists, p. 70, fig. 27. 1915. 2See Lemoine’s illustration (1564) reproduced in the writer’s paper on the Narcotic plants and stimulants of the ancient Americans, in the Smithsonian Report for 1916, pl. 14. 1917. 426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ABORIGINAL TRIBES. Very little is known about the aboriginal Indians of southern Florida. The Seminoles, as every one knows, are comparatively recent intruders in this region. At the time of the discovery the most important tribe was known as the Calusas, or Caloosas, from whom the Caloosahatchee River takes its name. Their territory extended from Tampa Bay southward to Cape Sable, eastward to Cape Florida, including the outlying cayos, or keys, and inland to Lake Okeechobee. They claimed authority over the east coast tribes as far north as Cape Canaveral. It was they who, in 1513, repelled Ponce de Leon and kept him from landing on their coast. They were cruel and piratical, killing shipwrecked mariners, and enrich- ing themselves by robbing stranded vessels. The most authentic ac- count of them is given by Fontaneda, who lived among them as a captive. According to him, they ate bread made of certain roots the greater part of the year, but sometimes the roots could not be gatherered on account of floods to which the country was subject. They also had an abundance of fish and of roots resembling truffles, as well as many other kinds, and when they went hunting deer or birds they ate venison or fowl’s flesh. These Indians did not wear clothing; the men went naked, except for tanned deerskins or mats woven of straw of which they made breechcloths; the women wore moss “ which grows from the trees, resembling oakum or wool, which is not white but gray, and with these weeds they covered themselves around the waist.”? Their weapons were bows and arrows and throw- ing sticks or spears. In the sixteenth century a tribe known as the Tequestas occupied the coast of southeastern Florida within the present limits of Dade and Monroe counties. Like the Caloosas, they were savage and piratical. About the year 1600 they carried on a regular trade with Habana in fish, skins, and ambergris, a grayish, waxlike sub- stance secreted in the liver or intestines of the spermaceti whale (Catodon macrocephalus). This is lighter than water and some- times occurs in great masses floating on the surface of the ocean. Formerly it was collected in considerable quantities on the shores of the Bahama Islands and the east coast of Florida. When heated it emanates a delightful fragrance, on which account it was at one time much used in perfumery. It was also used in medicine and be- lieved to have aphrodisiac properties. 1 Estos Indios no visten Ropa, ni menos las Mujeres; andan desnudos los Hombres, si no es unos Pellejos de Venado curtidos, con que hacen unos Bragueros y se cubren solamente sus Verguenzas, y las Mujeres, unas Pajuelas que nacen de los Arboles, 4 manera de Estopa 6 Lana, y no es blanca, sino parda, y con aquellas Yerbas se cubren dellas 4 la redonda de la Cinta.” PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 427 The most complete account available of the Indians who preceded the Seminoles in southern Florida is that of Jonathan Dickenson, who in 1699 while on a vessel bound from Jamaica to Philadelphia, with his wife and infant child, was wrecked on the southeast coast of Florida. : Several editions of his narrative have been published, the first one appearing in Philadelphia in 1699. It is a pathetic story of suffer- ing. He, his wife, and his companions were stripped of their clothing and all ree possessions and most cruelly treated by the Indians, but the Indian women, taking pity on his infant child, suckled it when its mother’s milk was exhausted! From his account, which agrees essentially with that of Fontaneda, an accurate idea may be gleaned of the appearance of the Indians, their food, domestic economy, weapons, etc. They were of fine physique. The men went naked except for a triangular breechcloth plaited of straw and wrought with divers colors, with a belt of the same material about four fingers wide. A string from the lower corner passed between the legs and was tied to the two ends of the belt which met behind the back, and from the knot hung a bunch of silk grass (fiber of Yucca fila- mentosa) of a flaxen color resembling a horse’s tail. They also had deerskin cloaks. Their long hair yy. 31,— Azortet- was coiled in a knot into which were stuck two NAL INDIAN OF bones, one shaped like a broad arrow, the other [pagers Vat ss like a spearhead (fig. 31). SPARES ais Their wigwams were made of small poles stuck in the ground, with the upper ends arched together, and thatched with palmetto leaves. The wigwam of the “ cassekey ” (cacique) was “ about a man’s height to the top,” and within it was a “cabin,” or platform, about a foot high, made with sticks and covered with a mat, which served as a set- tee and couch. At one village the cacique’s house was about 40 feet long and 20 feet wide, covered with palmetto leaves, and within it on one side and at the two ends there was “a range of cabins or barbe- cue.” In some places the houses were built upon mounds artificially constructed of shells. Dickenson describes a flood caused by a violent ° gale from the northeast, which caused the water to rise in the chief’s house and obliged him to seek refuge in a house on a higher mound. The household utensils consisted of mats, bags of woven straw used for storing dried berries, baskets, gourds, and drinking cups made of sea shells. Though he does not describe their earthenware he men- tions pots in which they brewed their ceremonial drink called cas- sine. Palmetto leaves were used as trays in serving food 428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Concerning their food Dickenson says: These people neither sow nor reap nor plant any manner of thing whatsoever, nor care for anything but what the barren sands produce. Fish they have as plenty as they please, but sometimes they would make it scarce for us, so that a meal a week was most commonly our portion, and three meals a rarity. Oysters, clams, and other shellfish were also included in their menus, and they must have had venison and other game occasionally, for Dickenson mentions the use of deerskins for clothing. In fish- ing, torches were sometimes used at night, and Dickenson noticed a young Indian spearing fish with great dexterity by means of a “striking staff,” which he threw at the fish and brought them to shore on the end of his staff. In two hours he got as many fish as would serve 20 men. This striking staff or spear must have been similar to a harpoon, with a foreshaft. Among the objects from southern Florida in the United States National Museum there are wooden spears hav- ing the foreshaft pointed with sharks’ teeth. In addition to the spears, they are armed with bows and arrows, and many of them carried Spanish knives. They also had other objects of Euro- pean origin which they had obtained from wrecks, and one of them had a supply of ambergris which he had collected along the shore and which he expected to sell to the Spaniards Fig. 82.—Coco pLuM, Chrysobalanus at a good price. GEN hie aaa an Among the wild fruits eaten by the Indians, Dickenson mentions * seaside coco plums” (Chrysobalanus Ieaco) (fig. 32), “seaside grapes” (Coccolobis uvifera) (pl. 57), and palmetto berries, great stores of which were kept in their houses. The latter, which were undoubtedly the drupes of the saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata) (pl. 58), may be considered the principal vege- table food staple of the Indians south of Jupiter Inlet. Dickenson found the coco plums and seaside grapes refreshing, but of the pal- metto berries he says: Not one amongst us could suffer them to stay in our mouths, for we could compare them to nothing else than rotten cheese steeped in tobacco juice.” Notwithstanding his dislike of these berries when he first en- countered them, Dickenson and his companions became accustomed 1That this comparison is most apt was proved by the writer, who tested some dried drupes of Serrenoa serrulata in the collection of the Bureau of Plant Industry. They are not unlike small dates in appearance, with a seed resembling a browr bean, surrounded by scant pulp. The latter tasted very much like rancid cheese, with a slightly sweetish taste like that of certain kinds of chewing tobacco. (See pl. 28.) PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 429 to them, even stealing a bag of them for provisions on starting out for the north, and deploring the loss of a small quantity which was accidentally burned at night. Large supplies of palmetto berries were paid as tribute to the “King, or young Cassekey,” of a town near the present site of Palm Beach, by the Indians of Santa Lucia, who were his vassals. On reaching St. Augustine, Dickenson says, his palate had become so changed by a diet of these berries that he could not endure the taste of salt. The Indians were very fond of cassine (an infusion of Jlew vome- toria), which they used not only ceremonially, but also as a refresh- ing beverage. This plant (pl. 59) does not grow in southern Florida. Dickenson describes the joy with which the Indians re- ceived from the north a supply of its leaves, together with some vege- table product which they used as a tobacco substitute. Of tobacco they were immoderately fond. The Spanish officials in Florida, like those on the island of Guam in early days, used tobacco leaves in paying the Indians for supplies and for labor. At the time of which Dickenson wrote, the use of Zlex vomitoria tea was as common among the Spaniards of Florida as that of Jlex paraguariensis among the colonists of Paraguay and Uruguay. Like the latter it contains caffeine and is a pleasant stimulant. When very strong and taken immoderately it acts as an emetic. From an ethnological point of view Dickenson’s description of a ceremony accompanied by drinking cassine is the most interesting part of his narrative. His account follows: The Indians were seated as aforesaid, the Cassekey at the upper end oz them, and the range of cabins was filled with men, women and children, be- holding us. At length we heard._a woman or two cry, according to their man- ner, and that very sorrowfully, one of which I took to be the Cassekey’s wife; which occasioned some of us to think that something extraoidinary was to be done to us; we also heard a strange sort of a noise, which was not like the noise made by a man, but: we could not understand what, nor where it was; for sometimes it sounded to be in one part of the house, sometimes in another, to which we had an ear. And indeed our ears and eyes could perceive or hear nothing but what was strange and dismal, and death seemed to surround us; but time discovered this noise to us—the occasion of it was thus: In one part of this house, where a fire was kept, was an Indian man, having a pot on the fire, wherein he was making a drink of a shrub (which we under- stood afterwards by the Spaniards, is called Casseena) boiling the said leaves, after they had parched them in a pot; then with a gourd, having a long neck, and at the top of it a small hole, which the top of one’s finger could cover, and. at the side of it a round hole of two inches diameter. They take the liquor out of the pot and put it into a deep round bowl, which, being almost filled, con- tains nigh three gallons; with this gourd they brew the liquor, and make it froth very much; it looks of a deep brown color. In the brewing of this liquor was this noise made, which we thought strange; for the pressing of the gourd gently down into the liquor, and the air which it contained, being forced out of the little hole at the top, occasioned a sound, and according to the time 430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. and motion given, would be various. This drink when made and cool to sup, was in a Shell first carried to the Cassekey, who threw part of it on the ground, and the rest he drank up, and then would make a loud hem; and afterwards the cup passed to the rest of the Cassekey’s associates, as aforesaid; but no other man, woman or child must touch or taste of this sort of drink; of which they sat sipping, chattering, and smoking tobacco, or some other herb in- stead thereof, for the most part of the day. * * * * * * * In the evening, we being laid on the place aforesaid, the Indians made a drum of a skin, covering therewith the deep bowl in which they brewed their drink, beating thereon with a stick, and having a couple of rattles made of a small gourd, put on a stick with small stones in it, shaking it; they began to set up a most hideous howling, very irksome to us; and sometime after came many of their young women, some singing, some dancing. This was continued till midnight, after which they went to sleep. Of another ceremony he writes as follows: It now being the time of the moon’s entering the first quarter the Indians had a ceremonious dance which they began about 8 o’clock in the morning. In the first place came in an old man and took a staff about 8 feet long, having a broad arrow on the head thereof, and thence half way painted red and white like a barber’s pole. In the middle of this staff was fixed a piece of wood, shaped like unto a thigh, leg, and foot of a man, and the lower part of it was painted black. This staff being carried out of the Cassekey’s house was set fast in the ground, standing upright; which being done, he brought out a basket, containing rattles, which were taken out thereof and placed at the foot of the staff. Another old man came in and set up an howling like unto a mighty dog, but beyond him for length of breadth, withal making a proclama- tion. This being done, and most of them having painted themselves, some red, some black, some with black and red, with their belkies girt up tight as well as they could girt themselves with ropes, having their sheath of arrows at their backs, and their bows in their hands; being gathered together about the staff, six of the chiefest men in esteem amongst them, especially one who is their doctor, took up the rattles and began an hideous noise, standing round the staff with their rattles, and bowing without ceasing to it for about half an hour. Whilst these 6 were thus employed, all the rest were staring and scratching, pointing upwards and downwards, on this and the other side, every way, looking like men frightened or more like furies. Thus they behaved till the 6 had done shaking their rattles; then they all began to dance, violently stamping on the ground for the space of an hour or more, without ceasing; in which time they sweat in a most excessive manner, so that by the time the dance was over, by their sweat, and the violent stamping of their feet, the ground was trodden into furrows; and by morning the place where they danced was covered with maggots; thus often repeating the manner, they continu’d till about 3 or 4 in the afternoon, by which time many were sick and faint. Being gathered into the Cassekey’s house they sat down, having some hot casseena ready, which they drank plentifully of, and gave greater quantities thereof to the sick and faint than to others; then they eat berries. On these days they eat not any food till night. The next day, about the same time, they began their dance as the day before ; also the third day they began at the usual time, when many Indians came from other towns, and fell to dancing, without taking any notice one of an- PARADISE KEY—SAFFORD. 431 other. This day they were stricter than the other two days, for no woman must look upon them; but if any of their women went out of their houses they went veiled with a mat.” The Indians had narrow canoes in which they crossed inlets and rivers. When they visited outlying keys or wrecks they lashed two canoes together by transverse poles upon which they made platforms for carrying their effects. In this way they sometimes navigated as far as the island of Cuba. They appeared to be under the sway of the Spanish and showed hostility to all Englishmen or castaways whom they suspected of being English. Dickenson tells of the ar- rival of Spanish soldiers from St. Augustine, and describes the cha- grin of the Indians when, instead of ill treatment, the Englishmen met with kindness at the hands of their rescuers, by whom they were taken to St. Augustine. It may be of interest here to note the use of the acorns of the live oak (pl. 60) by the Florida Indians, who, after removing the bitter tannic acid by soaking the kernels in water, ground them up and made them into cakes or mush. The early Spaniards, when their supply of Mexican chocolate was exhausted, used these acorns as a substitute for cacao in preparing a chocolatelike drink, not, however, altogether satisfactory as a substitute, with which they regaled their guests. In the wars between the Spanish and the English the Indians above described were loyal to the Spaniards, while the Creeks and several other more northerly tribes were allies of the English. Finally, in 1763, when Florida was ceded by Spain to England the “ Spanish Indians” sought refuge on the outlying keys and many of them removed to Cuba. Among those that remained in Florida were the Muspahs, who maintained their individuality until the close of the Second Seminole War. Unfortunately nothing is known of the languages of these south Florida tribes, so that their linguistic rela- tionship to other tribes can not be determined. SEMINOLES. As already stated, the Seminoles are comparatively recent in- truders. They belong to the Muskhogean stock, and are therefore related to the Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks, but not to the Timucuas encountered by the French Hugenots at the mouth of the St. Johns River. They are the descendants of immigrants from lower Creek towns who retreated to southern Florida in the eight- eenth century.2. The name by which they are now known, signify- ae Narrative of a Shipwreck in the Gulph of Florida, 6th ed., pp. 47-49. 2 Much misinformation has been published regarding the origin of the Seminoles. One recent writer refers to them as descendants of the Aztecs, and at the same time connects 432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. ing “runaways,” was first applied to them about the year 1775. It is often stated that they are a mixed race, owing to intermarriage with refugee negroes; but it is quite certain that those now living in southern Florida (see pls. 61 and 62) are of pure blood, of fine physique, and dignified mien, speaking a language allied to the Choc- taw uncorrupted by English. It is not within the scope of this paper to relate their history or to trace the causes which led to the Seminole wars, and the removal of a large proportion of the tribe west of the Mississippi. Those now living in Oklahoma have been organized into what is called the Seminole Nation. Concerning those remain- ing in Florida, much interesting information is given by Clay Mac- Cauley in the Fifth Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The reader is also referred to Mrs. Minnie Moore-Wilson’s sympa- thetic account of these Indians in her work entitled “ The Seminoles of Florida”; and to the various works of Anthony Weston Dimock, dealing with Florida adventure, especially “ Florida Enchantments ” and “ Dick Among the Seminoles.” To Mr. Dimock the writer is indebted for the accompanying illustrations (pls. 61 and 62). Unlike the Indians described by Dickenson, the Seminoles prac- tice agriculture, cultivating maize, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, | squashes, introduced melons, peanuts, sugar cane, guavas, pineapples, and various citrus fruits. Among the wild fruits eaten by them are seaside grapes (Coccolobis uvifera) (pl. 57) and coco plums (CArys- balanus Icaco and C. pellocarpus) (fig. 32); but in MacCauley’s list the berries of the saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata) ‘are conspicuous for their absence. On the other hand, the Seminoles have an impor- tant food staple not mentioned by Dickenson, though the plant yield- ing it was very abundant in the region through which he passed. This is the koonti or coontie, a kind of cornstarch prepared from the roots of Zamia floridana (pl. 63), already described in this paper. So highly do the Seminoles esteem the koonti that they declare it to be a special gift from God. An Indian named Ko-nip-ha-too re- lated to MacCauley a legend in which it was declared that long ago the “ Great Spirit” sent Jesus Christ to the earth with the precious plant from which it is prepared, and the place of his descent was at Cape Florida, where he gave the koonti to the red men.* them with the ancient Egyptians and the Hebrews. The evidence offered to establish their relationship with the last named is that of a certain bishop, who heard a Seminole choir repeat the name Jah-vey, and identified it with that of Jehovah. The Indians confirmed “the wonderful, yes, startling observation’? made by the bishop; and from the use of this name, chanted in the depth of the Everglade, ‘one may work back to the prehistoric ruined temples of Mexico and Yucatan, so similar to those of Hgypt; and thus may find in Seminole speech a language link to connect the new world with the old.” It is scarcely necessary to state that there is no linguistic relationship between the Moskhogean stock to which the Seminoles belong and the Aztecs of Mexico or the Mayas of Yucatan. 1See Fifth Annual Report Bur. Am. Ethn., p. 513. 1888. PARADISE KEY——SAFFORD. 433 Another coontie starch was obtained by the Florida Indians from the roots of certain species of smilax, commonly called China brier, but not specifically identical with the species described by Linneus under the name Smélax pseudo-china. Three species were in all prob- ability used for this purpose: Smilaw laurifolia, growing in swampy places; the very similar Smilax lanceolata, growing in drier situa- tions, and Smilaa auriculata (pl. 64), growing in hammocks and on coastal sand dunes. William Bartram has given the following de- scription of the preparation of red koonti from the roots of smilax: They chop the roots in pieces, which are afterwards well pounded in a wooden mortar, then, being mixed with clean water in a tray or trough, they sivain it through baskets; the sediment, which settles to the bottom of the second vessel, is afterwards dried in the open air, and is then a very fine, reddish flour or meal; a small quantity of this mixed with warm water and sweetened with honey, when cool, becomes a beautiful, delicious jelly, very nourishing and wholesome; they also mix it with fine corn flour, which being fried in fresh bear’s oil makes very good hot cakes or fritters.t Dr. John R. Swanton, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, has called attention to the fact that the name “ koonti,” “ coonti,” or “conte,” is etomologically identical with “kanta” of the Ala- bama Indians now residing in Texas. His account follows: In the course of my investigations among the Alabama (Alibamu) of Texas, I heard much of this plant, called by them ka’ nia, and obtained a specimen of it, which Mr. Paul Standley of the National Museum has identified as Smilax lanceolata. It is evidently identical with a smilax that had been pre- viously described to me as coonti by an old Creek Indian born in Alabama before the removal of the Creeks, “a brier that climbed up on trees like a vine.” After repeating Bartram’s account of the preparation of smilax coontie as quoted above, he continues: Hawkins also says the China brier ‘is called coonte,” and he describes the way in which flour was extracted from it. It is therefore evident that at least two species of smilax were known as coonti by the ancient Creeks, and since the cycadaceous plant which now bears that name among the Florida Seminole is confined to southern Florida, it is evident that it could have been used only after the Seminole reached that country from the north. Originally it is evident that the term must have been applied to several species of smilax having large reddish roots.” The roots of three species of smilax were tested for starch, at the writer’s request, by Dr. Henry Hasselbring, of the Bureau of Plant Industry: Smilax laurifolia, S. lanceolata, and S. auriculata. The first showed no vestiges of starch, though this may have been because the rootstocks were old and woody. The second contained starch, but 1 Bartram, William, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, etc., p. 241. 1791. ? American Anthropologist, vol. 15, pp. 141, 142. 1913. 434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. this could not be extracted from the powdered rootstock in sufficient quantities to make a jelly. The third, figured on plate 64, which contained an abundance of starch, was subjected to a process like that described by Bartram, and yielded a delicate flesh-colored jelly, slightly acidulous and somewhat astringent. This jelly was quite equal to arrowroot when sweetened with sugar, for which it could be used as an excellent substitute. It has been impossible within the limits of this paper to give a complete list of the plants thus far collected in the region here con- sidered. It is hoped that such a list may be published later. 434-1 E * 5 F ' I f \ 7 FI Fy =| re mS \e Ie & i | bet ke fer | £ gece be EF = | e|t EFele $ & 4 £ e ee < e . & > 2 = ‘3 lr f | f& C ie mBeE™MOonN ot) its Cape Florida F = F Tye it i Scale of Miles mi iJ : Per Of iy i a aa Bakes “tall an"26 90 CAAA vaDWT male . ‘ aeRRO DIR JAIIIAIO esmee| é ahs ». * s .. . & _ «= f - & a a tae a am F ™s " >... a f “ _s. & ve fs a * re} z / * bw a. = a as ee - i * de a ae ix & & tad pl ye ae ; we ; ay TES 2 ’ — Phy. : 7 7 ; a «a ‘s s, a . % Se) ene S a 4 are te z Sy fs : nm © PAS a te VW a” be Mm . — a..if | he . , = - ~ 2» : ‘Ae ir I = ‘ * | Ss ‘ v= K. » ine Ve by e Px ie ie e i 7 er S45, ‘ 2 : S. oe a = fe Rie = Sarg “2c ‘ she’ trp ee ew a ae ’ Cab sedi YAS ay oS 5 o. % “8 4 ? $ rl : 5 ‘ % "7 » g A a ‘ ac . : ) a. { wtoshoo\ | - : hogan arco sons 22s Sach. 2 Poorre sees HY sth a : Pe agv) ~ $8 _ a % Son movollstzol'¢ % a a> . 44) is i yg * id 4 4al CAPE ROMANO SOUTHERN EXTREMITY OF FLORIDA 4g lag dq “ig 94 Fda Td 4 4g beat dag A 3, 4944 gal Vas 4M tig 1g dG V4 N.LAT. AND 26° ay COMPILED FROM OFFICIAL RECORDS ta Ba Af ator Bay ght mp S Blackwater 9 Mo. Bight By st Pp 7Joe'Ke g R.E.GAMBLE. Cam, t F Pines + FreshwaterManshes 1 Buttonwood Sound 2 Madera Ba 5 Little Made 4Al JS AND OTHER SOURCES bSn BETWEEN PARALLELS OF 25° Eni uitoe Point Scale of Miles Middle Cape olitan Lake lm Hammock ghwoy mock ock Term mock ovse Pount dise Key Jackson 2, vA u Porp 12 oe Wase rb, “3 4 15 I 4 7 Pa, ¢ Lake rakam Hi ma Vista wis Nixon Ham lvex mms Ham Pulm mp $9) 10 Shark Point Pox 8 Ca = 19 Le ee at 22 Costello Py *% ay oe whe sy2o Quan 22 Aool ox 3 of ABUTS ¢ ze 4 , 3h 4 a a O° ee : e a - E : . Bi. 4) ; ap | om see Tt —_ A 4 f ‘ AY . 3" ang Bas ba» 3 e" & : c i # *e ig i \ . Or} +3 aaah a PRN he atin ed Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE I. |. VIEW OF PARADISE KEY FROM THE NORTHEAST, DRY SEASON, SHOWING ROYAL PALMS. 2. SAME VIEW AS ABOVE; EVERGLADES FLOODED. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 2. OOLITIC LIMESTONE FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK, SHOWING CRUSTACEAN TUBE AND ANNELID CASTS ORIGINALLY FORMED IN CALCAREOUS MuD DEPOSITED IN A SHALLOW SEA. Naturalsize. Photographed from specimens in United States National Museum. ‘souedog osm Aq yYdeiz0,04q "SLNVI1d ‘ : 1V1aY ATESO19 V YO ‘VNSAGV VaVHdWAN) S374 ANY ‘SGVSHMOUNY ‘SdaaM TYANIId ‘(SaloadS as nave MOH 26 HLMOHD 3SN3q V HLIM GATTI ‘MYVd ALVLS Wivd IVAOY OL SONVYLNA NYSLSVa SHL Ly HDNOTS ‘6 aLlVd "plojyyeS—"Z 16 ‘Hodey ueluosyyWsS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 4. SS | 4 ASE Say sank Diy igen BE 5 inn 2a YELLOW WATER LILIES, OR BONNETS (NYMPHAEA ADVENA). Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 5. SEDGES FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. (1) Rhynchospora corniculata; (2) Rhynchospora tracyi; (3) Cyperus speciosus; (4) Cyperus haspan; (5) Fuirena breviseta; (6) Dichromena colorata. Naturalsize. PLATE 6. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. GRASSES FROM ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. (8) Panicum nitidum. Natural size. , yum; (3) Panicum virgatum; (4) Panicum condensum; (5) ) Chloris glauca; 2) Paspalum monostacht (6) Phleum pratense “HCG, Sil; (1) Manisuris rugosa; ( Andropogon cabanisi Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 7. MARISCUS JAMAICENSIS (CLADIUM EFFUSUM TORR.), THE DREADED “‘SSAW GRASS”’ OF THE EVERGLADES. Natural size. nian Report, 1917.—Safford. Smithso PLATE 8. LEAVES OF SAW GRASS (MARISCUS JAMAICENSIS) ENLARGED SO AS TO SHOW CUTTING TEETH OF MARGINS AND KEEL. Smithsonian Report, 1917.,—Safford. PLATE 9. ALLIGATOR APPLE (ANNONA GLABRA). Very abundant on Everglade Keys. Its remarkably light wood is used for corks and for floats of fishing nets. Naturalsize. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 10 BACCHARIS GLOMERULIFERA, A SHRUBBY COMPOSITE VERY COMMON IN MARSHES AND THE MARGINS OF EVERGLADE KEYS. The male and the female flowers are borne on separate plants. Natural size. PLATE II. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. BUTTON MANGROVE (CONOCARPUS ERECTA), SHOWING CLUSTERS OF FRUIT AND NECTARIES ON EACH SIDE OF THE PETIOLES. . tk ghborhood of Royal Palm State Pa i Mosier from the ne Natural size. EK. lected by C mens Co. graph of speci Photo PLATE 12. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. SWAMP CYPRESS (TAXODIUM DISTICHUM), SHOWING BUDDING BRANCH AND MATURE FRUIT. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE |3. ROYAL PALM STATE PARK. TENT OF WARDEN NEAR EASTERN ENTRANCE. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 1/4. wy Ns y x x \ \ ‘e 2 SATIN-LEAF (CHRYSOPHYLLUM OLIVAEFORME), SHOWING FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND SATIN LINED LEAVES. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 15. ROOTS OF STRANGLING FIG (FICUS AUREA) EMBRACING CABBAGE PALM. Photograph by Wilson Popenoe. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 16. ERYTHRINA ARBOREA, USUALLY A SCRAMBLING SHRUB OF MODERATE SIZE BUT HERE GROWING IN THE FORM OF A LIANA. Specimen growing near the eastern entrance to the park. Photograph by Roy D. Goodrich. PLATE IT. USUALLY A SCRAMBLING SHRUB. A PLANT OF WIDE TROPICAL DISTRIBUTION n W cs oO i¢p) Qa i) > co =) oO Ld x oa cc < SE ep) 1/2) E LL fe) kK z 2 [o} oO oO < ce ° o >) oa 7) x Oo je) O (a) Wu - - < O < - < W =! 2 oO < = = oe) 2 O. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. HERE A GIANT LIANA OF THE FOREST. Showing C. E. Mosier, the park warden, at the base of the plant. Photograph by Roy D. Goodrich. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Safford. PLATE 18. Swamp BAMBOO-BRIER (SMILAX LAURIFOLIA), SHOWING JOINTED TUBEROUS ROOTSTOCK. The globose elastic seeds were sometimes strung into necklaces by the aboriginal Indians. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917 — Safford. PLATE 19 BREUKER & KESSLER CO. PHILA. ORCHIDS OF PARADISE KEY PLATE 20. Smithsonian Report, 1917.— Safford. SPANISH Moss (DENDROPOGON USNEOIDES), AN EPIPHYTE BELONGING TO THE PINE= APPLE FAMILY, USED BY THE ABORIGINAL INDIANS FOR MAKING SKIRTS AND APRONS. Jennings. 8. W ived from Mrs. Photograph rece Photographed by Wilson Popenoe. WW _ Ou a < Lu 2 OW WW c= = ie} FE o = o z ° pa uu jaa} : I = a. W o ° is : Oo ' cc Snow goose ( Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus) ....-.-.----|----|----|----- Blue goose ( Chen caerulescens). ...-2+0+-0+---0++---++--|---- Glossy ibis (Plegadis autumnalis) ......--------------++|----|---- American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus)........------|- at Loees|- anales + tase das ai aeeeinee Ward’s heron (Ardea herodias wardi).........-+--------|---- 0d eee * Bees ees Pees ees ees es eee wees ees ee ee eee eee eer rey es ee ee es ee ee ee eee eee rrr) Green heron (Butorides virescens virescens) ......-.-----|---- * Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorar nycticorar Limpkin (Aramus vociferus) .....---0----+-++-00erereee lene Virginia rail (Rallus virginianus)........-.------+--+----|---- Sora rail (Porzana carolina) .........-----------+-------- Black rail ( Creciscus jamaicensis).....----------++-++-|2--- Purple gallinule (Jonornis martinicus)..........-.------|----| * |-----| * |----|----|----|----]----|----|---- Florida gallinule (Gallinula chloropus cachinnans)......|..--|-.--|----- See ey SO oc Heewate cee meee pase Wilson’s snipe (Gallinago delicata)............---------|-.--|----|----- : eS. Least sandpiper (Pisobia minutilla).....-...---------+-|.--- Semipalmated sandpiper ( Hreunetes pusillus)..........|-..-|----|-----|----|----|---- HanGerlnONC CMUlIs G10) - ~~~ 5 ~~ no eee nweuneateanas| cee] dele == ahem ote Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmaius semipalmatus)... . _ Upland plover (Bartramia longicauda).......------.--- Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia)........-..------- Black-bellied plover (Squatarola squatarola).......----- Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus)....--. Belted piping plover (Charadrius melodus)......-.----- Wilson’s plover (Pagolla wilsonia wilsonia)......------- Ruddy turnstone (Arenaria interpres morinella).......-\.-.-|----|-----|---- oot White-headed dove (Patagienas leucocephala).....-..-.| * |.--.|-----]---- an Ground dove (Chzmepelia passerina passerina)....-----|.---|----|-----|---- Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura septentrionalis)... Marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus hudsonius)......-.--.-----|.-+-|----|-----|----|----]---- Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter velor).........-.-------|----|---- eee, eee eee Florida red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus alleni)....|....|.-.-|-.---|----|----| * | * |----|----]----|---- Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus platypterus)...-.|...-|.---|-----|----|----]----| * |----|----|----]---- Duck hawk (Rhynchodon peregrinus anatum)....--.----|----|----|-----|----|+---] * |2---|----]----]----|--- Pigeon hawk (Tinnunculus columbarius columbarius) ..|...-|-..-|-----|----|---- F Little sparrow hawk (Cerchneis sparveria paula). .-.....|..--|--.-|-----|----]----| * |---- eles cls ele Osprey (Pandion halixtus carolinensis)........-..------|.---|----|-----]----|---- * ANE CTOODINIOe UNS. pach c ~~ soe ockeae tone chan eene ee it BRP Pon See pee eee eer aan Ress Mee) pet Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzws americanus americanus) .}....|---- : Black-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus erythropthalmus).....---\..--).---].----l----!----le--2! F dene ete w wale ee elene = BIRD ROOKERIES OF TORTUGAS—BARTSCH. 499 1357}1859| 5°" |1860| 1864|1890|1913| 1914 faietiads 1917 Belted kingfisher (Sireptoceryle alcyon alcyon).....-----|---- Sa Posceeheen [oelst sgl Fear eb ® Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis). . ..|----|----]-----| * |----|----|----|----|----|---- 2e Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius varius). -.|----|----|-----|----|----| * |----|----]----|---- se Chuck-will’s-widow (A ntrostomus carolinensis)......---|----|----|----- 5 Sk SN ia eee ee ae nes. Night hawk (Cliordeiles minor minor)......-..-..------|----]----|---=<|----|----] * |----|----|---- a et Night hawk (subspecies) (Chordeiles minor chapmant)?.}..--|----]-----]----]----|----|----|----]---- Seeks Ruby-throated hummer (Archilochus colubris).......--|---- 6 ree eee a (oak Recs es Gear Gee Eee Kingbird (7 yrannis tyrennus) svecc roman 2c nce sacs =|-a5-[eoes|a----|--e6}e=e= i | ae) Se ee Gray kingbird (Tyrannus dominicensis dominicensis) ..-|...-|--.-]-----|---- “oo ery mca eer Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) . . 22 occ e nn ons e cc een se aee-[a-e-|ane-|-oon-]-a0-] .*. fosee|~=e-|=> 4-|-5--|-=-— oe 45 Wood pewee ( Myiochanes virens). ...---.-------- 22 20-|snesfemeaf-=a5-}>05-| 0%) |-Ls-[acen}es [est aa ts Florida crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos pascuus)..-...----|----|----|-----|----|----] * |.---]----|----]----|---- Bobolink: (DolNchonys O1Y21g0Fls) os neon eee seen c < Ww Ze Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE I6. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. Noppy. TERNS ABOUT THEIR NESTS, SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC ATTITUDES. THE YOUNG BIRD IN THE MIDDLE PICTURE IS ALMOST READY TO FLY. : Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE I7. EaGGs OF THE NODDY TERN SHOWING RANGE OF VARIATION IN MARKINGS. Natural size. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 18. A, YouNG Noppy, PROBABLY A WEEK OLD; B, BIRD APPROXIMATELY 18 DAYS OLD. Note development that has taken place in the interim, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 19. A, Noppby ABouT 22 Days OLD; B, Noppy AsBouT 28 Days OLD. Note progress made in growth and feathering. PLATE 20. Bartsch, Smithsonian Report, 1917. ADULT BIRD. B Note difference between fledged bird and parent at the time the young begin to fly. Noppy TERN AsBouT 40 DAyYs OLD; A Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 2l. é es SOs ea hae een Group OF NODDY TERNS FISHING; FOLLOWING A SCHOOL OF JUMPING MINNows. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsc PLATE 22. Pee ie Je a “s > AS ae ie, “ ; hee: ‘ate ns oe can . wets oy ere 2 ae A LEAST TERN, HER NEST AND EGGS, SOUTH END OF LOGGERHEAD KEY, I9I6. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 23. THREE YOUNG LEAST TERNS FROM COLONY ON SOUTH END OF LONG KEY, SHOWING DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND PROTECTIVE COLORATION. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 24. Two VIEWS OF YOUNG LEAST TERNS ILLUSTRATING PROTECTIVE COLORATION. In the upper picture the bird is flattened against flotsam of the high tideline. Theeye, alittle to the left of the median line, will give a cue to the rest of the body. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 25. YOUNG LEAST TERNS. A, Able to fly for a short distance; B, with wing clipped off by ghost crab. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 26 GHOST CRAB (OCYPODE ALBICANS Bosc), ONE OF THE DESTRUCTIVE AGENCIES ON THE TERN ROOKERIES. "*ANOI0O SIHL JO SYSEWAY OSIV SdYIq DONIAIA ‘AZM ONO AO GN HLYON NO NYSL NOWWOD SHL AO SdNCYH ONIGaauq "16 ALW1d "yoslueg—'J 1G] ‘Wodey uvluosy}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 28 YouNG ComMMON TERNS. A, ABouT 5 Days OLD; B, ABouT 10 DAyYs OLD. Smithsonian Report, 1917,—Bartsch. PLATE 29. A. Two YOUNG COMMON TERNS HIDING UNDER A DEAD CORAL BLOCK. B. THE SAME BIRDS WITH THE BLOCK REMOVED. They are probably 8 and 12 days old, respectively. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch, PLATE 30. YOUNG COMMON TERNS. A, ABOUT 2 WEEKS OLD; B, ABOUT 3 WEEKS OLD. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 8l. YOUNG COMMON TERNS. A, ABOUT 28 Days OLD; B, ALMOST READY TO FLY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 32 A. YOUNG COMMON TERNS SWIMMING OFF SHORE. B. YOUNG BIRD SWIMMING AWAY FROM SHORE. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 33. MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS HUNTING IN KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 34. INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHS SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC POSES OF THE MAN-O’-WAR BIRD ON WING, KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 35. MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS FISHING IN KEY WEST HARBOR. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 36. SHORE LINE OF BIRD KEY, SHOWING GREAT NUMBER OF MAN-O’-WAR BIRDS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 37. A. PAIR OF LAUGHING GULLS ON THE NORTHEAST END OF LONG KEY. B. ROYAL TERNS SUNNING ON THE SANDSPIT, NORTH END OF LOGGERHEAD KEY. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Bartsch. PLATE 38. BooBYS PHOTOGRAPHED OFF BIRD KEY, TORTUGAS. CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE? By P. ScHmipT. In the spring of 1912 the author obtained eggs of Carausius (Dixip- pus) morosus Br. v. W. which was imported from abroad and bred by amateurs in Petrograd nurseries. After hatching, he fed the growing material mainly on parsley. During the rearing he has made some observations and experiments which led him to conclude that these insects are subject to catalepsy. Never very active, the young of Carausivs are the most mobile. The adults, on the other hand, spend nine-tenths of their lives in a state of perfect stillness, as if transfixed. When at rest the four hind legs are extended, while the front legs are extended forward where their tarsi meet the ends of the antennex, which are also extended forward. The abdomen is also perfectly straight, the end alone being occasionally raised upward. This is the pose the adult insect maintains for hours, frequently a whole day without stirring leg or antenna. Only after long intervals of such quiescence, particularly at night, do some of them stir in search of food. The transition from the state of rest into activity is accompanied by very rapid lateral swinging on its legs. Its active existence is always preceded by such vibration. This swinging frequently pre- cedes also the transition into the resting state. The swinging, he be- lieves, is for the purpose of starting circulation in its limbs which “go to sleep ” during the extended quiescence. A very few experiments sufficed to convince the author that the state of rest in Carausius is a state of catalepsy. Following are some of the observations the author records. By carefully placing a forceps under the head of a resting speci- men and raising it so that the portion composed of the head, pro and mesothorax forms an angle of 40° to 45° with the metathorax and then removing the forceps the insect remains in this position for hours. By aid of the forceps the folded front legs may be pried apart and placed at any angle to the body. Carausius retains this Mantis- like pose of prayer for hours. A specimen resting on the side of the jar may be flung to the bottom without provoking a change of the posture of rest. However, on falling, it often assumes another pose; 1 Abstract from Rev. Russ, d’ Ent., Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 44-60 (1913), 65183°—sm 1917——-33* 501 502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. it extends the anterior forelegs straight forward and the hind legs backward, all clinging close to the body, except the tibie of the last, which are set at a slight angle. This position represents a state of most perfect catalepsy and at the same time of perfect mimicry, be- cause the insects retain it longest and in it most resemble inanimate objects, like sticks. The insect thus lying still can be raised onto its legs without dis- turbing the cataleptic state. To do this one need but carefully bend its legs by means of forceps and they will retain the position given them; then it must be turned over and placed on its legs. During this operation some reflex stirring is observed occasionally, but. it afterwards remains rigid in the given pose. Standing on its legs the insect may be given any desired pose, not excepting most unnatural and difficult ones. It may thus be made to stand on three legs, by raising one of the middle ones. It may be made to stand on the four front legs and hold the hind ones raised. He sometimes succeeded in making it stand on three legs on one side, the end of the abdomen serving as support for the other side. The antenne, too, may be extended forward, put back or placed at right angles to the body—and they will retain the position given them. Finally, the abdomen may, for instance, have: its end bent upward almost to the vertical, a position never assumed by the adult insect. Under a highly cataleptic state the insects can be stood on their heads, supported by the first two pairs of legs, or even the first alone, and the antenne pointing the other way. One insect remained in this position for 44 hours. These simple experiments show that the phasmid’s state of rest is different from the usual state of rest of animals. It differs radi- cally from its state of activity which should be the normal but which in fact is more rare and of shorter duration. The resting insect passes into the active state after strong provocation as, for in- stance, when the end of its abdomen is pinched with the forceps or struck with it, etc. Sometimes the insect wakes also when an antenna or leg is pinched or it is simply breathed on, when it jumps up, takes several swings and runs. But sometimes it stirs, makes reflex motions, and returns to quiescence. When awake Carausius reacts to all strong stimuli with energetic running. Thrown on its back, it immediately turns over and jumps to its long legs. Caught by the tail it strains with all six legs to ex- tricate itself and run forward; caught by the antenne it pulls back- ward. Any of its appendages raised are forthwith lowered and run- ning away is induced. Thus no trace is left of the plasticity of the appendages observed in the resting insect. It reacts like a normal living animal, CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE—SCHMIDT. 503 But while these superficial observations show a strong similarity between the quiescent state of Carausius with the symptoms of catalepsy in man and higher vertebrates, greater study of details proves complete identity between the two categories of phenomena. Closer examination shows first that the muscles of the resting insect are shortened and taut; femora and tibie, for instance, are at a certain angle to each other, to change which force must be applied, when again a definite angle is formed which is retained for a long time. This changing of angles, however, must not exceed the limits of the elasticity of muscles and ligaments. But the muscles are not as set as they are in tetanus. The muscles are plastic and yielding. | These properties of the muscles exactly characterize the cataleptic state of man and vertebrates (hare, hen, and frog). The eminent French physiologist, Ch. Richet, thus describes the cataleptic state of the muscle: “ A muscle in catalepsy is slightly elastic, so that little strain takes it out of the original position; at the same time it is not quite elastic enough so that, taken out of the original position, it does not return to it and retains the new position indefinitely. Just as a piece of wax or butter retains impressions made in it, so the cataleptic muscle is changed by the mechanical influences to which it is subjected.” A contracted muscle differs from the cataleptic in that the latter “is incomplete contraction. A tetanic muscle is very similar to a cataleptic. In both, voluntary shortening of the muscle is impossible, and of its own accord the muscle does not weaken ; the difference is only that in catalepsy the shortening of the muscle is moderate and can be overcome by slight mechanical force, while in tetanus no force can overcome it.” Thus the difference between con- traction and catalepsy is quantitative only, catalepsy is incomplete contraction. As a further characterization of catalepsy Richet gives “ absence of fatigue; the contraction of the muscles, however taut and pro- tracted, produces no sensations of fatigue, so that a muscle contracted remains so for many hours, days, and months even, producing no ex- haustion or fatigue in the subject.” This is true of the phasmids. It can not be said they do not feel tired, but this is established by the fact that they retain most difficult poses during long stretches of time. They also are as active at the end of a cataleptic fit as before it. Catalepsy is also characterized by the absence of feeling—* an- aesthesia ”—the subject may be pricked, cut, scorched without react- ing. Experiment proves this also true of cataleptic phasmids. The author snipped one-quarter of the antenna of a resting phas- mid. Sometimes there is slight shiver, due to shock, probably, but otherwise the insect remains motionless without even changing pose. Several minutes later another one-fourth antenna was cut; result 504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. the same. Little by little he cut off the antenne and began to cut off pieces of the forelegs; the insect is bleeding, but remains unmoved. He even cut off bits of the abdomen and still it remained unmoved. But let it be pinched on the cut end of the abdomen, i. e., given pro- tracted excitement of the nervous system, it wakes from the trance and runs away. No doubt, therefore, this is catalepsy. An experiment similar to hypnotism, may be performed with the insect by placing the ends of the extended legs and antenne on one book, end of abdomen on another. Strips of paper may now be placed on the middle and the body thus weighted down, but the insect does not stir. To ascertain the parts of the body with which catalepsy in Carau- sius is associated, what produces it and what is its biological sig- nificance and genesis, the author took a resting specimen and snipped it in two in front of the mesothoracic legs. The body re- mained standing on the four legs as if nothing had happened and the front part fell, also without changing pose. Several minutes later, however, the legs weakened apparently, and no longer supported the weight of the body, which sank to the surface of the table, but the legs retained their former position. But when the leg muscles were examined it was found their waxen flexibility had vanished. The body became very sensitive, reflex action is manifest. When a leg is touched it contracts and often the other legs also. Other tests showed that no trace of catalepsy was left in this part of the body. Some muscles, on the other hand, showed signs of a tetanus state, the seized legs breaking at the joints. He notes, by the way, the great vitality of this half of the insect; ligatured and protected from excessive desiccation it lived in one instance 12 days. The head end has less vitality, lives only two or three days, but otherwise behaves as if it were attached to the body, the brittleness of the legs in the coxal joint being the only difference. Catalepsy is still there, if not so pronounced as normally. For hours the legs and antenne remain extended cephalad, and can be placed in any de- sired position. By excitation it can be brought into activity. The difference in behavior between the two halves of the body is explained by the fact that catalepsy depends on the head ganglia (the prothoracic, he found, does not count) and is induced by some special internal conditions surrounding muscles and nerves (like special composition of blood, excess of carbonic acid in it, etc.) and in all probability is a special form of nerve excitation. This specific excitation is produced by unknown processes in the central organ of the nervous system, and, permeating the entire nervous system, produces depression of reflex action, of sensation and a special state of muscle shortening bordering on contraction. The results of these a CATALEPSY IN PHASMIDAE—SCHMIDT. 505 phenomena taken together, represent what we call catalepsy. With the severance of the connection between the nervous system and the head ganglia the possibility of this phenomena vanishes. As to the causes producing this specific excitation of the nervous system the author can not say. All his attempts at producing it in active insects failed. They entered it more readily when left alone, showing the causes are internal and the author therefore calls it “ autocatalepsy.” The author believes that the “death feigning” phenomenon is intimately associated with catalepsy and hopes soon to compare that of Ranatra with Carausius. He thinks it will be found that the im- mobility of caterpillars mimicking twigs and of J/antis in awaiting prey are similar phenomena. Finally, even hibernation may be related to it. From the biological standpoint, the cataleptic quiescence of phas- mids is only a specific adaptation of the muscular and nervous sys- tems for the purpose of mimicking still portions of plants. Compared with usual animal immobility, catalepsy is at an ad- vantage: First, economy of energy, no fatigue developing; second, suppression of reflex action which might expose the insect. This adaptation is most interesting and remarkable. It is not morphological, but physiological, and consists, moreover, in the de- velopment of a specific action of the nervous system which up to now was observed only in man-produced, artificial conditions—hypnotism of man and catalepsy of animals. Catalepsy in phasmids, the author believes, is the first instance of normal, regular, internally produced catalepsy in the animal kingdom. al!" ana) a cu ’ ih rus a . Ay > illo ieee easosponelt wore Fi ccaals day tec perenne or "8 fi tiniochowh ils atqgmeste abl Aveta dosrttst e ot nrpli diol eedw yliharr ovat ti berets yodT boliat 3 di Hag metonadtcmliaiads harm dseryode?. oun: igen sels Wy pai “on. Tye perk ornued with the hayswek: by fh Bhc8 is to Geuaianka ‘gainginhs diaah?* silt tpihborareisads tc ~. dadhasecrrane ot. nope, goqad doar adhere manbrt epitinaslt t0d), band oc Ling di, ceases DL tian aevborn' . Rarthar, a6 een Xi to baw eid, galdaiasignemlliqnaigo tay i Vo. * pduxnog., stan ho ity valle aaraangort, nella gua eiie me ~ nefeorie a eet 6 i Sal>. B remiss to; eomeneain, subcalatay ont. acti hureie lugigoloid 3 4 ie Who #40 Pas bee salerrenusn, otto. sotlaigek oitivede.s. gba ai, abian a Xs fons ace Rage quptivog Hae -aailoiasion 1g 4d 10 yeas hg, si Si tartan ..vikidouos! Leming Ags, ddize borage: : havo sunigols oh omgdad ot cpgreas ty Larges, oi penes ‘oe con, oonlkpOROe Oth) o20qx9 Sate solide aeisom, zoho tte & dor al A... aide rng Ata BAGestatat Patel te ee ad + tb, ont rg wroroetom, tinea dit. hyainplpiegdg dud, beer hg — Hostot rire doidys, NSA AUOY 19h axl? to neil>s pitipegs 4 ; oar su itoncpyd-—esotihaos Lsioitive, beouborugatenyy gicylans xeeSO°8 = sorkasar agh ebisuesila a yeqoigie’). electing, ss cceteiaten bas pact; ) 1 Sa} HG 52 Spare} STi ‘Hee Sarvs. \o eee bank, Aet od. + 2i ,Ho7as ns » epeae-Witadiey OF CH Malt of as ohyeved Tnayiiea,. OMA att mi ~- 3 frirh excesses deaccetion it lived In one Instance? dupe, os Tir nd has leas Vilelity, ves only tro se Shiner ‘ane s ‘a her raves wa Tf 3} waee cttachedtoe His tex, th 18 brittleness ;: OF i joint being thaaaily differency, tale pey 4 ? Lil if rok § “pronevmnined ag GT! cally. For hsivrs the are adel sephaind wd cal be placed iawmny der: cation. By excttahon tt aa nt roufh? into activity. gE ' Ppa diilee UH 4 atior betwreats the 6 ‘em ren Ot the bey pexplah the fact that ottale pay dependy dg the Read goaglia - 2 tha nie, he found. a wk. Count) and 4 ee: by sores. erik) cdmditious Surrounding ‘sioselen sid nary es {like iy Pechal 4 MmpOmi hot plot, seedes of ez ~arbonig ned i im i t, ete.) ‘and - ; + ral Dy at iit Pine oy teh yor" rr Pervs excitation; This specific. : exctiation is prodeced by inknown pretéeses im thie central rn” a ¥ the norcdes svete, and, pernerting the entire nar ret pysteah, | wotudes Gomression of reflex wcbien, of ronaation and & spdciay- erate ; . rtening herdering oh cont traction. Bad tes hee 9 A a AN ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION OF ORTHOPTERA DI- RECTLY AFFECTING MAN.t By A. N. CaupbEt1, Division of Insects, U. S. National Museum. Orthoptera directly concerning man, either beneficially or in- juriously, affect him either physically or psychically, that is his physical person, externally or internally, or his spiritual or emo- tional nature. Orthoptera may, to the uninitiated, appear scarcely worth mentioning as directly affecting man injuriously but litera- ture contains a number of incidents of sufficient interest to merit brief reference. Forms injuriously affecting man’s person exter- nally is a subject dealing mostly with injuries inflicted by biting. In dealing with this and allied subjects it is not easy-to separate popular superstitions from actualities and when the evidence rests upon the observations of laymen it is often more or less faulty. Actual inci- dents are evidently sometimes exaggerated by recognized observers and more popular and less scrupulous writers often go still further. Inexperienced or ignorant people misconstrue facts and thus our literature teems with questionable statements. This was especially true in times far past but continues true, unfortunately, to a consider- able extent even yet. A superstition long prevailed in Maryland that if a black beetle, that is a cockroach, enters your room, or flies against you, severe illness, or perhaps even death, follows.? As a recent example of evident error in observation I may mention a letter from a physician in New Mexico relating how a boy was bitten on the toe by a Steno- pelmatus and, though the toe was immediately incised by a doctor, severe results followed, the boy being in a critical condition for some days and nearly losing his life. While it is very doubtful if the insect was the real cause of the boy’s ailment, it is undoubtedly true that at least quite severe mechanical injury and pain may be caused by the bite of orthopterous insects. I have myself been bitten in the palm of the hand by a native Orchelimum, an insect scarcely exceeding an inch in length, so severely as to almost draw blood, and +Reprinted from Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 84-92, 1916, ?Cowan’s Curious Facts, p. 82 (1865). : 507 508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. similar bites on the finger or back of the hand by some of our larger and more powerful Orthoptera would easily pierce the skin. Davis states that Belocephalus bites severely * and Bernard records natives sleeping in vineyards in France as being bitten by E'phippigera.? Brunner lost a piece of flesh, bitten out by the powerful jaws of Saga,’ and Wellman writes that Brachytrupes, a large cricket, can draw blood with its strong jaws.* Cockroaches are known to bite off the eyelashes and nibble the toenails of children in South America,’ and in addition they scratch the faces of men, bite the greasy fingers of sleeping children * and even eat the toenails of sailors.’. And not only do roaches bite man but they annoy him in other ways. Thus, Reverend Laock, an early Swedish clergyman in Pennsylvania, had a roach enter his ear, causing intense pain until drowned out with water like a rat from its hole.’ There are other similar incidents recorded and the name “earwig” was given the Forficulidae by reason of the widespread belief that they habitually enter the ears of man. Orthoptera directly injuring man’s person internally is a subject pertaining mostly to their causing disease and the dissemination of the.same. This phase of orthopterous economy is closely connected with that dealing with external injuries by the entrance of the ear by roaches, etc., as mentioned above, and especially by injuries to the skin by secretions given off by certain species. Thus an African katydid exudes a clear yellowish fluid from pores in the side of the body near the junction of the thorax and abdomen which causes a quite severe eruption if it comes into direct contact with the skin. The natives appreciate and fear this property and its potency was verified experimentally by Dr. H. Stannus,® who thinks extensive ulceration of various parts of the body may sometimes result from this cause when proper medical advice is lacking. Certain earwigs are reported by Dr. Wellman to be considered poisonous by the natives of Angola, and Wellman himself thinks it possible that septic matter may be introduced by a “bite” from the powerful forceps of the forficulid in question.*? Hasselt has written on an affection of ’ the lips of persons to whose mouths roaches are attracted for food or drink." 1Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., vol. 20, p. 305 (1912). 2Tech, trait. Vigne (1914). * Burr. Proc. S. Lond. Ent. Soc., 1899, p. (11) (1900). *Ent. News, vol. 19, p. 29 (1908). 5H. H. Smith, in circular, 2 ser., No. 51, Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agric., p. 6 footnote otek tes Nat. Hist. Carolina, vol. 2, p. 10 (1748). 7 Gates, U. S. Naval Med. Bull., vol. 6, p. 212-214 (1912). ® Cowan's Curious Facts, p. 79 (1865). ® Bull. Ent. Research, Lond., vol. 2, p. 180 (1911). 10 Ent. News, vol. 19, p. 32 (1908). 1 Tidschr. yoor Ent., vol. 8, p. 98-99 (1865). ORTHOPTERA AFFECTING MAN—CAUDELL. 509 There are few Orthoptera recorded as the direct cause of disease in man. In 1872 there was published in Philadelphia an eight- paged pamphlet which reads like a production of pre-Plinyan days.’ The writer contends that locusts and grasshoppers are the prime cause of the eruptive diseases of living things. He proves his asser- tions by biblical quotations and qualifies as a learned scientist by various interesting statements, such as that house flies originate from the intestinal worms of man. na od RS ome ea ae a nan oO od 2 oo < ls @ BS o 2% 8 g 8 2 8 — © oe 9 3° o 9° B 2 nan od 2 f-) B® B B i=] a 5 . re) Be iS ° 2 p oO 5 aed 2 ma n Bit 2 n Ae g wn “po s 4&8 as 3 e 3 o 2 Ae 8 - . - Genin «/ sa Sey er} OuTDOOR CAGE FOR MACAWS AND COCKATOOS. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hollister. PLATE 43. LEADBEATER’S COCKATOO. YELLOW-HEAD PARROT. GREAT RED-CRESTED COCKATOO. BLUE-AND-YELLOW MACAW. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—HOLLISTER, 583 rived from Labrador. He is everybody’s pet, but on account of his quarrelsome disposition he can not be placed in inclosures with any but the larger birds. During the summer season Billy lives in the pelican pond, and although he lords it over the white pelicans, storks, and swans, he is unable to do them serious damage. PIGEONS. Numerous species of doves and pigeons are kept in the larger cages of the bird house. These include representatives of the group from many parts of the world, and form a very attractive exhibit. The soft colors and beautiful forms of the various species, as well as their pleasing notes, make them great favorites with all. Among the larger and more showy forms are the snow pigeon (Colwnba leu- conota) of the mountains of central Asia, which has the neck, lower back, and breast. white; the band-tailed pigeon (Chlora@nas fasciata) of western North America, frequently confused with the probably ex- tinct passenger pigeon but which may be recognized from that bird by, its short, even tail; and the great, plump wonga-wonga (Leucosarcia picata) of Australia, curiously marked with white forehead and pec- toral bands. Opposed to these larger species are some groups of small doves, found in both the Old World and in the warmer parts of America which are particularly noticeable on account of their diminutive size. These include the Australian and East Indian members of the genus Geopelia known as the peaceful and zebra doves, and the little ground doves (Chaemepelia) and Inca doves (Scardafella) of the southern United States and tropical America. An interesting American dove, called the blue-headed quail dove (Starnenas cyanocephala), is a handsome species confined to the Florida Keys and Cuba, where it is said to be rapidly decreasing in numbers. It has a large black throat patch, extending down to the upper breast and bordered by whitish, a white stripe under the eye, and a rich blue crown. Its habits are said to be decidedly quail-like and it is known to the Cubans by the name of “Perdiz.” The Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) has a long black crest which it frequently erects, at the same time elevating the tail until the two almost meet. CUCKOOS AND PARROTS. The cuckoos and plantain eaters and the great tribe of parrots, macaws, and cockatoos form the order Cuculiformes. The first group is poorly represented in the average zoological park collec- tion but the parrots and their kindred usually form not a small pro- portion of any exhibition, and certain species are almost as familiar to the average person as is the common canary. 584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The plantain eaters are confined to Africa. One species, the crested touraco (Z’uracus corythaix) may be seen in the bird house. In this species the outer toe is completely reversible; at one moment the bird may be perched with three toes forward, the next moment one is startled to note but two, the outer toe having been quickly turned behind. The plumage of the anterior half of the body is of a beautiful green, the bill, eye ring, and some of the wing feathers red, and the erect crest is tipped with white. PARROTS. Parrots, including macaws, cockatoos, lories, paroquets, ete., form one of the inost strongly marked groups of birds, as easily recognized by their peculiar external aspect as defined by anatomical structure. * * * The tongue is thick and fleshy, in some genera peculiarly brushy; it has a horny nail on the under side at the end, like a human finger, and with this and its papille or fringe on the other side forms a delicate tactile organ. * * * Ability to articulate human speech is one of the most notorious faculties of certain par- rots. * * * Finally, it may be noted in this connection that the bill is used in climbing, like a hand, the upper mandible being much more freely movable upon the skull than is usual among birds. This mobility is secured by the articulation instead of suture of the maxille, premaxille, and nasals with the frontal, palatals, and jugals. The mandibular symphysis is strong, short, and obtuse; the lower jaw is like a thumb as opposed to the fingerlike upper jaw, and the jaws as a prehensile organ may be likened to the claw of a lobster. (Coues. ) Over 500 species of parrots and their allies are recognized and these are distributed throughout the tropical countries of both the Old World and America. Parrots are not confined to the Tropics, however, since Australia and New Zealand support many species, and in North America the Carolina parakeet formerly ranged north- ward to Wisconsin. Australia, New Guinea, and South America are especially rich in members of the parrot tribe. There is always a good representation of these birds in the National Zoological Park. With the exception of the species kept in the outdoor macaw cage near the west gate, all are exhibited in the bird house. In the outdoor cage may be seen several hardy species—the bare-eyed cockatoo (Cacatoes gymnopis), the beautiful roseate cockatoo (C. rosetcapilla), the red-and-blue macaw (Ara chloroptera), and the red-and-yellow-and-blue macaw (A. macao). The cockatoos are native to the Australian region and the Philippine Islands. They are handsome birds, but their shrill shrieks are unpleasant to hear. Several other species are shown in the bird house, including the sulphur-crested (C. galerita), a white species with yellowish head tufts native to Australia and Tasmania; the white (C. alba); the great red-crested (C. moluccensis); and the beautiful rosy-tinted Leadbeater’s cockatoo (C. leadbeatert). The macaws are tropical American birds, mostly of large size and gaudy plumage. In addition to those in the outside cage, other NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—-HOLLISTER. 585 species, including the yellow-and-blue ‘(Ava ararawna) and the Brazilian green macaw (A. severa) may be seen in the bird house. The thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) is the only member of the parrot group, excepting the almost extinct Carolina parakeet, known to occur in the United States. At intervals a num- ber of years apart, flights of these birds arrive in the mountains of southern Arizona, coming out of Mexico. The specimens shown were captured in January, 1918, in the pine-forested Chiracahua Moun- tains, when the ground in the higher altitudes where the birds feed on the pine seeds was covered with snow and the temperature stood at 10 above zero. The thick-bills are exceedingly noisy birds and, as they visited the Chiracahuas in flocks of 150 to 200 individuals, must have presented a spectacular appearance in this wintry environment. A group of parrots known as the Amazons occur in tropical Amer- ica. There are about 50 species known, the greater part of which are green with red markings in some part of the plumage. They are common cage species and include some of the best of “ talkers.” Unlike the macaws, all have short tails. The collection now con- tains the following species of this group: Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala). Santo Domingo parrot (A. ventralis). Festive parrot (A. festiva). Plain-colored parrot (A. farinosa inornata). Yellow-fronted parrot (A. ochrocephala). Yellow-winged parrot (A. barbadensis). Yellow-naped parrot (A. awropalliata). Yellow-headed parrot (A. oratriz). Orange-winged parrot (A. amazonica). Yellow-cheeked parrot (A. autumnalis). White-fronted parrot (A. albifrons). An African species which is considered to be fully equal to some of the Amazons as a talker is the gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus). It is an ashy gray in color, with black wing feathers and red tail. A very attractive group of parrots, many species of which are popu- lar as cage birds, is the group known as the parakeets. These are all small birds, some of them actually diminutive. One of the com- monest forms kept as a pet is the shell parakeet, or Australian grass parakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus). This species breeds in cap- tivity, nesting in a small box placed within its inclosure. In a wild state it is said to flock by thousands and spends a considerable por- tion of the time on the ground, feeding upon the seeds of grasses. The love bird (Agapornis pullaria) belongs to an African section of the parakeet tribe and is also popular as a cage pet. The park is fortunate in the possession of a splendid specimen of the black- tailed parakeet (Polytelis melanura), a handsome Australian species now very rare. 586 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. The Australian region is inhabited by another group of beautiful parrots known as lories, several species of which are usually ex- hibited. One of the most remarkable of all the parrot tribe is the kea, or mountain parrot (Nestor notabilis), confined to the South Island of New Zealand. This bird was formerly abundant in the mountainous parts of this region but owing to its acquired habit of killing sheep has been so reduced in numbers that specimens are now very difficult to obtain. The flock exhibited in an outdoor aviary near the bird house was received as a gift from the New Zealand Government. It was more than 10 years after the kea was first discovered in 1856 be- fore it was suspected that this bird had developed the habit of killing sheep, and there was considerable doubt expressed for a number of years. It has been definitely proved since that although all the in- dividuals of the species have not acquired this remarkable change of habit, many of the birds do really kill full-grown sheep. ,The kea lights on the rump of the sheep, clinging to the wool, and drives his sharp beak into the unfortunate animal’s back. The fat, flesh, and intestines of the sheep are eaten by the birds, who frequently go in large flocks. KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND OWLS. The kingfishers, hornbills, and owls are members of an order of birds (Coraciiformes) which includes other seemingly unrelated families—as the woodpeckers, humming birds, goat-suckers, and swifts. It is what Coues calls a “miscellaneous assortment, grouped together more because they differ from other birds in one way or another, than on account of their resemblance to one another.” Re- cent anatomical studies have, however, shown the actual relationships in many cases. Passing through the bird house one may be suddenly startled by a loud, rapidly executed, and prolonged cackling laugh. This is from the throat of the giant kingfisher, or laughing jackass (Dacelo gigas) an Australian bird related to our common American king- fisher, but of a decidedly greater size. Near by is a representative of the hornbill family, the concave-casqued hornbill (Dichoceros bi- cornis), a native of the Malay region. Hornbills are found in the forests of Africa, India, and many of the eastern islands, and are hunted for food by the natives of some districts. In many regions, however, these grotesque birds are regarded with considerable super- stition and are rarely molested. These remarkable birds have a most curious nesting habit. A large cavity in a tree is selected for the nest and the female hornbill is confined therein by a plaster wall, both birds apparently taking part in the process of masonry, which makes her a prisoner until the young are hatched. During the in- Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hollister. PLATE 44. SCREECH OWL. CONCAVE-CASQUED HORNBILL. BARRED OWL. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hbollister. ALLIGATORS, ALBEMARLE ISLAND TORTOISE. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—HOLLISTER. 587 cubation period she is fed by the male through a small hole left in the wall, but is said to come forth in a much emaciated and dung- bespattered condition. In an inclosure near the big flight cage are some 15 specimens of the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), one of the largest of the American birds of prey, as well as one of the most destructive to smaller birds. Other owls, including the highly beneficial species known as the screech owl (Otus asio) and the barred owl (Strix varia), are kept in the bird house. THE PERCHING BIRDS. More than half of all the species of birds known in the world belong to the order Passeriformes, frequently called the “perching birds,” and typified by the sparrows. There are numerous families and the vast majority of species are small or medium sized birds; the largest North American species are the crow and raven. In some of the larger cages of the bird house numerous species of this order of birds are shown. There will be seen many of the more familiar native species as well as rare and beautiful exotics. In near-by cages are some of the larger representatives of the order, including ravens, crows, magpies, and starlings from various corners of the earth. Among the most attractive of the smaller birds are the numerous species of the finch or sparrow family of which the com- mon canary (Serinus canarius) is a familiar member. The weaver birds, native to Australia, India, and Africa, attract a great deal of attention; this is especially true of the species known as the paradise weaver (Steganura paradisea) which grows tail feathers of great length in the breeding season. REPTILES. Reptiles (class Reptilia), as distinguished from mammals and birds, are “ cold-blooded.” The temperature of the animal is greatly influenced or even regulated by that of the surrounding air, or of the water in which it lives. There is considerable popular confusion as to the distinction between reptiles and amphibians, sometimes called batrachians (class Amphibia), including the frogs, toads, and sala- manders. From Batrachians, Reptiles differ in breathing by lungs during the whole of their existence, and not by gills as do the former during at least part of their life, and by the fact that the skull, which in Batrachians, as in Mammals, ar- ticulates with the vertebral column by two rounded knobs or condyles, is in Reptiles attached as in Birds by a single condyle. Unlike Batrachians, they undergo no metamorphosis, being born in the condition which they will retain for the whole of their life. In the majority of Reptiles the skin is covered with scales or shields, while in Batrachians it is, with a few exceptions, naked. (Boulenger.} 588 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Three orders of reptiles are represented in the park collections. These are the turtles and tortoises (Testudinata), alligators and crocodiles (Loricata), and the lizards and snakes (Squamata). One of the urgent requirements of the National Zoological Park is a suit- able reptile house, where larger collections of these interesting creatures may be exhibited. At present the reptiles are kept in quarters in the lion house. TURTLES. Those turtles living entirely on land are often arbitrarily dis- tinguished from the aquatic species (true turtles) and the semi aquatic forms (terrapins) under the name tortoise. Some of the tortoises are small in size, like our common box turtle of the Eastern States; while others, particularly some of the island species, grow to an immense size and are supposed to live to a greater age than_ any other animals. These giant tortoises are now known only from a few islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, on some of which they were excessively abundant up to comparatively recent years. Visiting ships have now so greatly reduced their numbers that on most of the islands they are completely or almost exterminated. On certain of the Galapagos Islands, some 500 miles off the coast of Ecuador, giant tortoises were found in great numbers within the last century, and on certain of the islands were fairly common less than 20 years ago. In addition to the thousands carried away by vessels as food for the crews, great numbers have been killed for the oil alone. A number of species of giant tortoises have been described from the Galapagos, and it is believed that most of the islands of the archipelago have developed separate forms; and on at least one island two distinct species were found, separated by a natural bar- rier. The food of these curious creatures is chiefly grass, although at certain seasons a great quantity of cactus is eaten. Mr. Edmund Heller, who visited the Galapagos Islands in 1898 and 1899, col- lected one specimen which had the whole palate and pharynx bristling with cactus spines, and noted that the tortoises eagerly de- voured the stems and fruit of the cactus quite unmindful of the spines and apparently without suffering. Heller states that the tortoises are quite active, and though slow are so persistent in their journeys that they cover several miles a day. Specimens of two species of Galapagos tortoises were obtained for the park collection from the material collected by the Rothschild expedition to the islands in 1897. The Albermarle Island tortoise (Testudo vicina) is perhaps the largest living tortoise, and speci- mens have been known which were over 4 feet in length and prob- NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—HOLLISTER. 589 ably weighed nearly 400 pounds. The Duncan Island tortoise (7. ephippium) is somewhat smaller. In the pine barrens of the Southern States, a comparatively large tortoise, curious for its burrowing habits, is known as the gopher. This species (Gopherus polyphemus) grows to a length of 15 inches and a specimen almost of that size from peninsular Florida is on exhibition. Like the giant tortoises this species is herbivorous and is particularly fond of fruits of various kinds. Related species are found in the arid regions of the Southwest, and in other parts of the world. The common eastern tortoise or box turtle (Zerrapene carolina) is found wild within the park. It it a smaller species than the gopher and the plastron or lower shell is so hinged as to permit the animal when alarmed to close itself completely within its armor. A western species (7. ornata) is also shown. Specimens of the common native snapping turtle are sometimes captured within the park. One of these reptiles caused considerable damage among the waterfowl in the beaver pond before he was finally caught by the keepers. ALLIGATORS. The common alligator of the Southern States (Alligator missis- sippiensis) is well known to a large proportion of our people; thou- sands of the young have been carried by tourists from Florida to all parts of the United States. The species formerly was abundant in fresh-water streams and swamps throughout its range—north to North Carolina and west through the humid portions of Texas. In all of the more accessible and settled portions this reptile has suffered greatly from hunters, professional and amateur; and in most parts of its former range it is now a rare thing to see an alli- gator of any size. In some of the streams and swamps of the wilder places within the Gulf States, however, it is still possible to find alligators from 6 to 8 or 9 feet in length; but the 10 to 16 foot rep- tiles are practically gone. The nest of the alligator has frequently been described to me by old residents in Florida as resembling the nests made by the wild “razorback” hogs of that country. It is a great mound of muck, grass, moss, and sticks; placed in a retired spot, and is said some- times to be carefully guarded by the female. The numerous eggs are hatched by heat generated by the rotting vegetation. On very good authority it is stated that the Florida alligator deposits its eggs in the sand where they are hatched by the heat of the sun. In some portions of the State this is doubtless the case, but the building of the nest of vegetation is the common habit in localities with which 590 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. I am familiar. The roar or bellow of the larger alligators may be heard for a considerable distance and while hunting in the cane- brake region of northeastern Louisiana in early spring I have lain awake in my blankets far into the night listening to this strange, wierd call. Along the Mississippi River below New Orleans where the muskrats have caused such serious losses through damage to the levees, the alligators, recognized as the principal natural enemy of these burrowers, are protected by local laws. The alligator pool in the Zoological Park contains about 25 speci- mens of various sizes; but the smaller individuals, some under a foot in length, have special quarters. The larger alligators are can- nibals and when hungry do not hesitate to swallow the young of their own species. THE LIZARDS. Most of the American lizards are graceful and innocent creatures and many are beautifully colored. They are as much a delight to students of reptiles as our warblers are to the ornithologists. There are, however, two large species, found in the Southwest and in Mexico, which are dangerous reptiles.. They are known as the beaded or tuberculated lizards, are sluggish creatures inhabiting arid situa- tions, and are the only known poisonous lizards. The Gila monster (eloderma suspectum) is known only from por- tions of Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora, and southern Nevada. It isa comparatively large species, growing to 20 inches or more in length. In color it is brown or blackish, marked with numerous rings and blotches of yellow or orange. The upper parts are heavily beaded or tuberculated; the tail is fat and stumpy, and the reptile presents altogether a dangerous and terrifying appearance. On account of his notorious disposition and because of his poisonous bite, the Gila monster is much dreaded by residents of the region in which he lives; and the several specimens on exhibition attract great attention. The poison glands are situated on the outer side of the lower jaw near the tip. When biting the Gila monster holds on like a bulldog so that the poison may have time to become absorbed in the wound. No specific antidote is known. The iguanas, large lizards of tropical America, are represented in the collection by the rock iguana of Mona Island, near Porto Rico. This species (Cyclura stejnegeri) sometimes reaches a length of over 3 feet. It is a ground-inhabiting reptile and is chiefly vegetarian in diet. Iguanas are much sought by the natives for food. Several species of the commoner lizards of small size, native to the Southeastern States, are shown. The glossy blue-tailed skink (Humeces quinquelineatus) is one of the most handsome of the east- ern forms. It is common in pine woods, especially in the South. The Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Hollister. 4 PLATE 46. GILA MONSTER. STUMP-TAILED LIZARDS. > eat lant ese re f : rs ; eX 307s, wi 7 é NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—HOLLISTER. 591 rough-scaled species, known as the swift (Sceloporus undulatus) , and the little lizard, called the “chameleon” (Anolis carolinensis), are both abundant in favorable localities in many parts of our Southern States. The latter species has the habit of changing color and may be at times gray, green, or its normal shade of dull brown. Two interesting species of Australian lizards on exhibition are the blue-tongued lizard (7%liqua scincoides) and the stump-tail (7rachy- saurus rugosus). The blue-tongue grows to a length of nearly 2 feet and, as its name implies, is provided with a large fleshy tongue of a brilliant blue in color. It is sluggish in habit and is particularly fond of bananas and other fruits and milk. The stump-tailed lizard is another sluggish species, reaching 14 inches in length. The tail is broad and flattened and the reptile has the habit of giving it quick jerks, so that at first sight it is puzzling to distinguish the head from the tail. It is said to kill snakes. SNAKES. While it is probably true that the great majority of people dislike snakes it is also true that a collection of these reptiles attracts ex- traordinary attention and adds greatly to the interest in a zoological park. The larger snakes in particular are a never-ceasing source of wonder to visitors, and the more spectacular of the lesser species, like the rattlesnakes, are almost as popular an exhibit. The prize specimen in the snake department of the National Zoo- logical Park is a fine example of the anaconda (Hunectes murinus), or water boa, of South America. The anaconda is the largest of the American snakes and sometimes attains a length of over 20 feet. In color it is a yellowish green, marked with blackish spots. Ana- condas are essentially aquatic and spend much time in the water, al- though they are perfectly at home in trees and are expert climbers. The numerous young are born alive. The largest specimen in the park collection has been here since August 17, 1899, and was a gift from the governor of the State of Para, Brazil. In a near-by cage are three specimens of the Indian python (Python molurus), native to India, the Malay Peninsula, and Java. The largest snakes known are of a related species (P. reticulatus) ; there are apparently reliable records of individuals over 30 feet in length. Pythons, like the boas, are constrictors, and kill their prey by crushing. The pythons lay eggs, which are hatched by the mother who coils around them. The eggs number from 50 to 100. These snakes are particularly fond of climbing and the specimens in the park collection spend much time coiled in the tops of the small trees within their inclosure. The diamond snake (Python spilotes), found only near the east coast of Australia, is blackish with a yellow spot 592 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, in the center of each scale. It is one of the most attractive of the py- thons in captivity and the specimens in the collection are much more active than is usual with large snakes. A closely related form known as the carpet snake has a much wider distribution in Australia. The common boa, or boa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor) is a tropical American species of large size, but considerably smaller than the Anaconda and the larger pythons. It is said rarely to reach a length of 12 feet. Several examples are shown, the largest of which came from Trinidad and is about 10 feet in length. A small speci- men of the boa was found in the Washington Market packed with a bunch of bananas, and was sent to the park. This involuntary stow- away is doing nicely in his new home. Other species of boas are found in South America, the West Indies, and, strangely enough, in Madagascar. The tree boa from Trinidad (Boa enydris), in a near- by case, is of a smaller species, yellow in color, and with a head much larger in proportion to the size of the serpent. Although an ill- tempered snake, it is, like the boa constrictor, a nonpoisonous species. It sometimes grows to a length of 6 or 7 feet. Many species of North American snakes are usually on exhibition. Most of these are of comparatively small size but some of them are of great beauty and others are interesting because of their terrible appearance and deadly poison. In the latter class may be men- tioned the rattlesnakes and copperheads. The rattlesnakes are confined to America where many species are known, the majority of which are found in the western United States. The common or banded rattler (Crotalus horridus) was formerly found in many parts of the Eastern States, north into Maine, but has now disappeared from much of its former range. It sometimes grows to 5 feet or more in length. The largest rattler is the dia- mond-back (C@. adamanteus) which in its typical form in the Southern States reaches an immense size. Many specimens are on record from Florida which measured over 6 feet in length and there are apparently authentic accounts of diamond-backs of between 8 and 9 feet. The bite of one of these large rattlers is very likely to prove fatal. Closely related to the rattlesnakes are the moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus) and the copperhead (A. mokasen). Both are poisonous species. The copperhead is one of the most dangerous snakes in the Eastern and Southern States because he holds his own in thickly settled communities; they are not uncommon about Washing- ton, especially along the upper Potomac above the city. Adult specimens are commonly from 24 to 30 inches long. In color, the copperhead is hazel brown, with a series of hourglass-shaped darker blotches along the back. Equally venomous is the moccasin, or NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK—HOLLISTER. 593 cottonmouth, but he is an aquatic species and does not range so far to the north as does the copperhead. The common water snake (Natrix sipedon) and the southern water snake (JV. tawispilotus) are often mistaken for the moccasin; they are ill-tempered snakes but harmless, and on close examination may be distinguished from the moccasin and copperhead by the absence of the deep “pit” between the eye and nostril, a characteristic fea- ture of those venomous species and the rattlesnakes. The specimens shown of a related species, known as the water coral snake (Helicops angulatus), were captured in Trinidad and were sent to the park with other reptiles from that island by Hon. Henry D. Baker, American consul at Port of Spain. Other harmless American snakes kept in the collection are the black snake (Coluber constrictor) sometimes called the “blue racer,” and his near relative, the coachwhip snake (C. flagelium), both of which sometimes attain a length of 5 feet. Several species of the pretty little garter snakes, as well as the king snake, the pine snake, chicken snake, bull snake, gopher snake, and others are commonly shown. 7 18; ae ya ee =i ant ee ee eT ae ee ee eee eo a ee ..--— = , { ee salir ai minhnhirty ek ined Bet eo or + pth pa ES tunes of banszp ue, pti was heat : Cit ou THT SONTAG” by Sa? toying ele aay atitiietiioe (% hu rostibcnge . a ‘yl Rie Ab See b bape: Yanik hoings dotdy vataeee ii nemironiet 1 aba bag MTT WaaiG piutocsint os ah ety dlto’ jaa ‘yout tiqpg (eAdad rit oe iaTaS apmmelimes utvows to.a lanstth O76 or Many. se x Of Nuch Ameren ana lyer: ate usally. mm a6 Ty Moat of these’ we-of Comp arntively pital) dine bait ore ok at ae ; f ertas es et’ others act Lheere stag that f tilt: tenga” FY aphearance.and deadly poison —En- tie: tater a winy. he mun- . ' 7 Ave) > “one, (fie t att loAruiRe rst) my prerke re as, 1 ¥ ike The ratileenalme are copiieed to Ame 5- where many : angen lenown the : wa jor ity of which are fon nas aD ore pps, Tnited Sites) = ‘Dre common: of baeheel ratte? (dee Altus Ae rnin) was focment found indany paris< { ti Pas astern States, north inte Maine. but Siete. soe disappeared from amok of. fa formar range. Eb, vsernetioel : " arings da i feat oF sage it lenietl: The larvest. nattier i this dia* | adaimentede). hick in ia apa tome im a Srnisern. Statas (eados « wena size... Mf etry oe are Wh “ond from Flea + be n > 4 < zm Z ° iba | Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. ft a “w fe) Z Z < cS > a a _ =] < = 3 ae Son Ss LT LEONHARD FUCHS, PHYSICIAN AND BOTANIST, 1501- 1566.1 . By Frrrx NEUMANN. (With 7 plates.) if One of the most wonderful chapters in the history of mankind and in the development of the human mind is that period of the late Middle Ages, particularly the fifteenth century, which we call the Renaissance, or the time of the humanists. Literary in its aspect, it gave birth to the revival of learning and paved the way for the modern spirit of Europe. The study of classical antiquity as dis- closed in literature, art, philosophy, and science of ancient Greece and Rome became the object of all scientists of that epoch and infused new life into the spiritual stagnation of former centuries.? The in- vention of printing in the middle of the fifteenth century revolu- tionized and facilitated the dissemination of knowledge; the discovery of a new continent near the close of that century enlarged the geographical and spiritual horizon and opened unlimited perspectives to the human mind. This was the foundation on which learning in the sixteenth century was built, and with this begins our modern history. Humanism originated in Italy and spread slowly over Europe. In Germany it took root about the end of the fifteenth century, and it reached its zenith in the first two decades of the sixteenth century so that Ulrich von Hutten enthusiastically exclaimed: The mind is awakening, arts and science are flourishing. Oh, century, what pleasure to live in thee! * The study of classical antiquity naturally manifested itself in the prevalence of philological studies, and stamped all investigations in the various branches of science of that epoch. No other branches 1 Read before the Society of Medical History of Chicago, Jan. 15, 1917. 2 Voigt, Georg. Die Weiderbelebung des klassischen Altertums oder das erste Jahr- hundert des Humanismus. 2 Bde. 3. Aufl., besorgt von M. Lehnerdt. Berlin, G. Reimer, 1893. 3*“seculum! O literae! Juvat vivere ... Vigent studia, florent ingenia.’’—Ulrichs von Hutten Schriften, hrsg. von Eduard Boécking. Epistola ad Bilibaldum Pirckheymer, 25 Oct. 1518. Bd. I, p. 217. Leipzig, B. G. Teubner, 1859. 635 636 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. showed this influence of humanism more than medicine and natural science, and it is no exaggeration when the philosopher Windelband * says in his history of philosophy: Natural science is the daughter of humanism. The history of medicine in the thirteenth and first part of the four- teenth century covers that period which has been called the Arabic era; a period which gave a new impetus to the scientific evolution in medicine and enriched medical science in many fields. But while the Arabic influence is not to be underrated, it became evident upon the revival of learning and under the growing influence of classical studies, especially of Greek, that the Arabic medical writers, includ- ing Avicenna, had never had access to the originals of the great medical writers of antiquity and therefore had either misinterpreted or misunderstood their doctrines. It was felt necessary to go back to the original source of information, to study the great writers in their original language, to examine critically their writings, to com- pare the different texts, and to annotate them for better understand- ing. This was the origin of that tendency in medicine during the latter part of the fifteenth and the first part of the sixteenth century which stimulated the scientific endeavors of many medical writers, who formed what Haeser? so appropriately terms “ The philological medical school.” II. The most prominent of these writers, equally distinguished for his learning both in philology and in medicine, and also as one of the founders of scientific botany, is Leonhard Fuchs, whose name is commemorated by the genus Fuchsia named in his honor. While in the histories of botany Fuchs is treated with that thoroughness which he deserves, the historiographers of medicine have paid less attention to him with the exception of Kurt Sprengel.* Haeser, in the short chapter devoted to the philological medical school, mentions him among the other writers who belong to this circle. The character of Pagel-Sudhoff’s introduction to the history of medicine * precludes a detailed sketch of his life and work. Leonhard Fuchs, born in 1501, at Wemding, Bavaria, was the son of Johann Fuchs, a councilor of the same town, and of Anna Denton, whose father was also a councilor. Since his father died when he was 1 Windelband, W. Geschichte der neueren Philosophie, 5 Aufl. 2 Bde. Leipzig, Breit- kopf & Hirtel, 1911. } 2 Haeser, Heinrich. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medizin. 3. Bearbeitung. 3 Bde. Jena, H. Dufft, 1875-82. ® Sprengel, Kurt P. J. Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde. 3 Aufl. 5 Bde. Halle, J. J. Gebauer, 1821-28. 4Pagel, J. L. LEinfiihrung in die Geschichte der Medizin. 2. Aufl. Durchgeschen von Karl Sudhoff. Berlin, S. Karger, 1915. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 637 only 5 years of age, the credit for his education belongs to his mother. He first attended school in the town of his birth, and must have manifested exceptional ability and zeal for learning even at that early age, for he was only 10 years old when his mother, who evidently was in good circumstances, sent him to Heilbronn, in Wiirtemberg, to a school which had won a great reputation under a certain Conrad as head master, who instructed in Latin and read with his pupils the comedies of Terence and the odes of Horace. Here he made such rapid progress within a year that it was thought advisable to send him to the St. Maria School at Erfurt in Thuringia. There he re- mained a year and a half and distinguished himself to such a degree that he was able to enter the University at Erfurt when in his thir- teenth year. He pursued his studies with the same eagerness and suc- cess as before, and the baccalaureate degree was conferred upon him. He was also given an appointment as instructor in the same institu- tion. He returned to his home town for a short interval and, al- though very young, conducted a school with great success. But his ambition and zeal for learning was not satisfied, and in 1519 he be- took himself to the University at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, where he studied philology and philosophy. The University of Ingolstadt since its foundation in 1472 had taken a prominent part in the dis- semination of humanism! and had counted among its teachers scholars of the highest scientific reputation, among them none more famous than Johann Reuchlin, perhaps the greatest of the humanists, the resuscitator of Hebrew and Greek learning, and who is rightly called “the Father of the Reformation.” This great man was one of the chief teachers of Leonhard Fuchs, with whom he studied Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and philosophy. Another teacher of high standing was Jacobus Ceporinus, who was also his instructor in these three languages. In 1521, when 20 years of age, Fuchs finished his studies, after having received his master’s degree. During this period he acquainted himself with the writings of Martin Luther and accepted his doctrines, a fact which had great influence on his life. Indeed, it is not impossible that the acceptance of the new creed led him to the study of medicine. His critical mind was awakened and sharpened; he was essentially a man of facts, al- though still very young. For three years he studied medicine at the University of Ingolstadt, but he did not neglect his classical studies, which enabled him to read fluently and to understand thoroughly the noted Greek writers and made him one of the best Latin writers of the sixteenth century. On March 1, 1524, he acquired the degree of doctor of medicine, then moved to Munich where he practiced his profession successfully. His residence in Munich, where he married 1 Bauch, Gustav. Die Anfinge des Humanismus in Ingolstadt, Miinchen, R. Olden- bourg, 1901. 638 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Anna Friedberger of the same place, covered little more than two years, for in May, 1526, he returned to Ingolstadt to become a lecturer of medicine at the university, and also to practice his profession. He must already have won some distinction in this direction, for other- wise Margrave George of Ansbach would not have appointed him his court physician. He entered upon his new duties in May, 1528, and soon gained the confidence and friendship of the margrave, who also had accepted Luther’s doctrines. He became known as a successful physician, especially through his treatment of the English sweating disease, which in 1529 spread over a large part of Europe. I can not find any publication of his, either in Latin or in German, which deals with this subject, but I find in the Catalogue of Printed Books in the British Museum the following entry: ” A most worthy practise of * * * L. Fuchsius * * * moste neces- sary in this needful tyme of our visitation * * * both for the sicke and for them that would avoyde the daunger of the contagion. Rouland Hall for M. [ichael] Lobley, London, n. d. This copy is the only one in existence, so far as I am able to trace; it evidently refers to Fuch’s treatment and cure of the English sweating sickness. Added to the entry, in brackets, is the date 1575, with a query; but this date is without question a mistake. The sweating sickness? visited England first in 1486, again in 1507, 1518, and 1529 (in which latter year it spread over a large part of Europe), and the last time in 1551. . The book must have been printed at an earlier date than 1575, for we know that Michael Lobley flour- ished in London as a bookseller between 1531 and 1567, and that the printer Rouland Hall died in 1563.? In connection with this book, I wish to mention another work, the authorship of which is attributed to Fuchs, and which, while dealing with a different subject, may be characterized as an undertaking of similar character. Albrecht von Haller quotes in his Bibliotheca medicine practice (Vol. I, 1776), among other writings by Fuchs: Tabula oculorum morbus comprehendens, Tubing, 1538, folio, which entry Wilhelm Gottfried Ploucquet, 20 years later, copied in his Initia bibliothecse medico-practice et chirurgice, vol. vi. These are the only two bibliographers who mention this work; in the history of ophthalmology it was not known. In 1899 Dr. Edward Pergens, of Brussels, a well-known oculist, and greatly interested in the history of his specialty as well as in the history of medicine, 1 Hecker, J. F. C. Der englische Schweiss, ein Arztlicher Beitrag zur Geschichte des 15 and 16. Jahrhunderts. Berlin, T. C. F. Enslin, 1834. 2 As the service of the British Museum is limited during the present war, I will com- municate with the librarian after the war and will ask for a photostat copy, which may enable me to give some more information as to whether the book was really written by Fuchs or whether it was the undertaking of an enterprising bookseller who took advantage of an illustrious name to stimulate the sale. LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 639 published in volume 23 of the Centralblatt fiir praktische Augen- heilkunde?! an exact reprint of what seems to be a German transla- tion of the Latin edition of 1538. The book is entitled: Alle Kranck- heyt/der Augen durch den hochge/lerten Doctor Leonhard fuchsen zu Onoltz/bach zusammen gezogen allen augen/artzten hochndottig zu/wissen. Getruckt zu Strassburg durch Heinrich Vogtherren Anno/MDXX XTX. The reprint is preceded by a brief historical introduction , in which _ Doctor Pergens quotes the Latin edition, according to Ploucquet (that Haller had mentioned it first had escaped him), and then presents a history and description of the German copy. Doctor Pergens had found the work in the Bibliothéque Royale at Brussels. The book contains an illustration on the reverse of the title-page, reproducing a figure of the eye with a part of the chiasm. (Plate 2.) Whether this illustration is an original one, Doctor Pergens does not decide; three years later this illustration was reproduced by Jakob Ryff in his Kleinere Chirurgie, Strassburg, 1542. The copy found in Brussels by Doctor Pergens is not the only one. Prof. Julius Hirschberg, of Berlin, found another copy in the Koenigliche Bibliothek in Berlin, and I myself was so fortunate as to find still another copy enumerated in catalogue No. 319 of KX. F. Kohler’s Antiquarium, Leipzig, 1879, No. 28. Perhaps this copy is identical with one of the copies in the libraries mentioned. Doubt of the authorship and criticism of the scientific value of the German edition are not expressed by Doctor Pergens. The question of the authorship of the German edition and the question of the ex- istence of the Latin edition is taken up by Professor Hirschberg? in his Geschichte der Augenheilkunde. Stimulated by Doctor Pergens’ - article and by the reprint of the German edition, he made a thorough search for the Latin edition in all the German libraries, but without success. Not discouraged, Hirschberg carefully examined the chief medical work by Leonhard Fuchs, Institutiones medicinae, and his labor was not in vain. He found in Liber III, sectio I, capitulum xii: “ Vitiorum oculi succincta explicatio,” the original of the so-called German edition, “but,” he adds, “ without the ridiculous mistakes and without the ill-fitting therapeutic interpolations, and, of course, without the supplement which consists of prescriptions.” Hirsch- berg is completely convinced that the German edition was not written by Fuchs. From internal evidence he takes it for granted that Jorg Vogtherren, and Conrad and Bartholomaeus Vogtherren, relatives of the printer Heinrich Vogtherren, are responsible for the book, 1 Leonhard Fuchs’ alle Kranckheydt der augen (1539), neu herausgegeben von Dr. Ed. Pergens (Briissel), p. 197-203; 231-238. 2 Hirschberg, Julius. Geschichte der Augenheilkunde. 2, Aufl, II. Bd. 8. 3816-819. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1908. 7 640 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. having used the name of Leonhard Fuchs without authority. This theory is very plausible, as the same printer issued anonymously in 1538, and again in 1539, a book, which deals also with the eye. The title is as follows: Eyn Newes hochnutzlichs Buechlin/und Anothomi eynes auffgethonen augs auch seiner/erklaerung bewerten purgation Pflaster Colliri/en Silblin puluern vnnd wassern wie/mans machen vnd brauchen sol. Getruckt zur Strassburg durch Heinrichen/Vogt- herren. Anno MDXXXIX. (Plate 3.) The Surgeon General’s library has a copy each of the editions of . 1538 and 1539, but unfortunately the former lacks the title-page. The edition of 1539 has on the title-page, below the title, an illustra- tion; “Anatomia oculi,” which does not differ materially from that reprinted in the so-called German edition by Leonhard Fuchs. I now resume the narrative of Fuchs’ life. The time spent by him at Ansbach, which lasted five years, or until 1533, was not entirely consumed by his duties as court physician and by his general practice. A born student, by temperament and habit a scholar, he here laid the foundation of his career as medical writer and man of science. As a complete bibliography of Fuchs has not yet been com- piled, a want already expressed by Ernst H. F. Meyer, the historian of botany, it is not an easy matter to harmonize the many contradic- tory statements in regard to the dates and the number of his numerous writings. Some authors attribute to him, as written in Ansbach, three books, some four, and others even more. As I shall give a de- scription of his writings later on, it is here sufficient to state that they gained for him the reputation of a very learned writer, who possessed original ideas, and who had the courage of his convictions. This caused the famous jurist and chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt, Leonhard von Eck, to request Fuchs in 1533 to rejoin the teaching staff of that university by tendering an assistant professorship of medicine, which Fuchs accepted. I have already stated that, while a student in Ingolstadt, Fuchs had familiarized himself with the writings of Luther and had become a strict adherent of his doctrines. In Ansbach, where the margrave and the court were also followers of the new creed, Fuchs found mutual under- standing and was accustomed to express his religious convictions with candor and frankness. In Ingolstadt, however, conditions were different, and especially in the university; here Fuchs met very strong opposition, particularly as he did not suppress his opinions. Under these circumstances Fuchs’ position at the university became untenable, and in August of the same year he left Ingolstadt to return to Ansbach at the invitation of the margrave. But as Ansbach became infested with the plague, he accompanied the margrave to 1 Meyer, Ernst H. F. Geschichte der Botanik. 4 Bde. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Born- triiger, 1854-57. 9 LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 641 Culmbach, where the court resided for some time, returning in 15384 to Ansbach. In the same year Fuchs published his Parodoxorum medicine libri tres and dedicated it to Ulrich, Duke of Wurttem- berg, which was evidently the reason why the duke, who was just beginning to reform and to rejuvenate the University of Tiibingen, appointed Fuchs as professor of medicine in 1535 to replace Prof. Rudolf Unger, who was more than 70 years of age and no longer able to adapt himself to the reforms contemplated by the duke. On August 14, 1535, Fuchs entered upon his duties in Tiibingen, where he lived and labored until his death, 31 years later. In his dedi- cation to the duke, Fuchs states that the medical school of Tiibingen, which had once given to the medical profession such excellent schol- ars, had greatly deteriorated and had lost its prestige. To modernize this school and to make it regain its once illustrious name as a seat of learning was Fuchs’ chief aim, and in this he had the full sup- port of the duke. In an order,’ dated November 3, 1536, con- cerning the reform of the university, Duke Ulrich stipulated that two ordinary professors of medicine should lecture daily and read with the students those books necessary for the understanding of their science, especially Hippocrates and Galen, in Greek. The two ordi- nary professors were Leonhard Fuchs and Michael Rucker.? The appointment of the latter was unfortunate. He still belonged to the old school of medicine, and Duke Christopher, Ulrich’s successor, said of him that he had peculiar opinions and bad habits. Fuchs was not only the leading spirit in the medical faculty but unquestionably was the most important teacher in the university. Twice he was elected rector, from 1536 to 1537 and from 1540 to 1541, and the stat- utes of the medical faculty, issued in 1539, were written by him. These statutes are important to the history of the study of medicine at German universities in the sixteenth century and show that Fuchs was inspired with the modern spirit of the time—a true humanist. The keynote of the statutes is his opposition to Arabism in medicine. “Those who study medicine from the Arabic writers,” he says, “ will draw water from turbid rivers.”* The Greek writers, as Hippoc- rates, Galen, and Dioscorides, should be studied in their own lan- 1Urkunden zur Geschichte der Universitit Tiibingen aus den Jahren 1476-1550, Tiibingen, H. Laupp’sche Buchhandlung, 1877. S. 189: “ Zum fiinfften zwen Medicj ordentlich zum wenigsten vnd teglichen lesen und leeren, die Biecher zu verstand der kunst, vnd dem gebruch dienstlich, fiirnemlich Hippocratis vnd Galeni, mit behilff der griechischen sprach, die dann dise in iren schrifften gefiert hatben.” 2“Michael Rucker von Wiesenstaig inser. 1521, Mag. 1526, Med. D. 1529. Er war kein Freund der neuen Lehre. Noch 1556 sagt eine Instruction H. Christophs von ihm, er sei nit allein ein Papist, sondern habe noch mehr besondere opiniones und Untugenden. Stirbt 1561.”—Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Universitit Tiibingen, S. 166. 3“Ht quum nemo sit, qui nesciat Arabes omnia ferme sua e Graecis transcripsisse, parcissime deinceps ad doctrinam studii hujus adhibebuntur, quod consultius sit artis praecepta a fontibus, quam turbidis riwulis haurire.’—Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Uni- versitit Ttibingen, S. 311. 642 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. guage, and he enumerates the works of Hippocrates and Galen which should be read and explained during the lectures. Then comes an innovation in the study plan of universities: During the summer months the students of medicine should often go to the coun- try and to the mountains, and with intelligence collect and study the plants;* this study should become a part of the curriculum in medical schools. As Fuchs, himself, paid special attention to the study of anatomy, he took the reform of this important branch of medicine very much to heart. While the old statutes of the medical faculty, issued in 1497, ordered a dissection only every three or four years, he dissected twice a year whenever possible. He also discon- tinued the use of Mundinus’s anatomy in his lectures on anatomy, and himself subsequently wrote the handbook Libri quatuor de fabrica corporis humani, which was used a great deal in German uni- versities during the sixteenth century. While he still had great ad- miration for Galen as an anatomist, Fuchs also extolled the great work of Vesalius, for whom he entertained the friendliest feelings, calling him “Summus noster amicus,” a friendship that Vesalius reciprocated. The two had met when Vesalius came with the impe- rial troops to Tiibingen. An interesting account of their first meeting is given by Crusius in his Annals.? Vesalius visited incognito the anatomical lectures given by Fuchs. One day Fuchs made some derogatory remarks concerning Vesalius’ anatomy. At the close of the lecture, Vesalius approached Fuchs: “Why,” he courteously inquired, “do you find fault with me? In what way did I do you any harm?” “Are you Vesalius?” asked Fuchs. ‘“ You see Vesalius himself,” replied the latter. Then fol- lowed the expression of mutual pleasure, a friendly meeting and an invitation to Vesalius to be Fuchs’ guest. That his reputation as anatomist, physician, and medical teacher was recognized, not only in Germany but in foreign countries as well, is evident from the fact that Duke Cosmo de Medici of Tuscany asked Fuchs to become Vesalius’ successor at the University of Pisa. Hitherto Germany had called to its universities scientists from Italy, but this offer to Fuchs was the first instance that a German scholar was called 1“Aetatis denique tempore cum medicinae studiosis rura montesque salpius petat ac plantarum wultum diligenter obseruet illisque uiuas eorundem imagines demonstret, neque ut hactenus consueuere multi, simplicium notitiam seplasiariis illis hominibus rudibus et stultis mulierculis committat. Haec itaque docendi ratio posthac in scholis medicis obseruator.””’ Urkunden z. Geschichte d. Universitiit Tiibingen, S. 312. 2Crusius, Martinus. Annales Suevici. 4 pts. Francoforti, 1595-96.—Pt. III, 728: “TInviserunt Hispanorum docti, quando in praesidiis hujus Ducatus erant, lectiones quoque frequentarunt ejus et curatione ejusdem usi sunt fideli. Quedam die carpsit, nescio quid, in Anatomicis Vesalii auscultante peregrino viro. Lectione finita, is ad Fuchsium accedens cur me, comiter inquit, reprebendisti? Qua in re te laesi?—Esne tu Vesalius, inquit Fuchsius. Vides ipsum Vesalium, refert hic—-Tum inter eos gratulatio, amica collatio et ad convivium invitatio.”’ LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 643 to fill a chair in an Italian university. Much earlier, in 1537, Duke Albrecht of Prussia had endeavored to persuade Fuchs to become court physician to his brother-in-law, King Christian III of Den- mark, and also professor of the medical school of Copenhagen.* These two offers, which were distinct honors for Fuchs, Haller evidently had in mind when he said in his Bibliotheca medicinae practicae that Fuchs was the first German physician whose fame reached beyond the borders of his own country. (‘¢ Primus inter Germanos ad magnam celebritatem apud exteros pervenit.”) Another medical subject in which Fuchs took special interest next to anatomy was his lectures on the practice of medicine. In these, as in his writings, his chief aim was to exclude as much as possible the Arabic writers from the medical curriculum, but instead to read and explain the Greek medical writers. This leads us to Fuchs’ activity as a medical writer, which is very comprehensive. His writ- ings on this subject may be divided into three sections: (1) Transla- tions of and commentaries on Greek writers; (2) his own contribu- tions; and (3) his polemic writings. There are nine translations and commentaries, of which five deal with Galen, three with Hippocrates, and one entitled Nicolai Myrepsi Alexandrini medicamentorum * * * Hactenus in Germania non visum * * * e Graeco in Latinam recens conversum lucullentis- simisque annotationibus illustratum, Basilaae, 1549 (Plate 4); and several times reprinted. This translation of a Greek manuscript has an interesting literary history. The author of this collection of pre- scriptions is really Nicodemus Myrepsus” Alexandrinus,* who flour- ished from the middle to the end of the thirteenth century. Fuchs supposed him to be identical with Nicolaus Prepositi,t whom he con- founded with Nicolaus Salernitanus, who lived at Salerno at the beginning of the twelfth century, a mistake committed also by other medical writers and bibliographers. We are indebted to Ernest Wickersheimer, librarian of the Académie de médecine in Paris, for correcting this bibliographical blunder. In an instructive article® published in 1911 (Archiv fiir Geschichte der Medizin, Bd. V, 302- 310) he was able to prove that Nicolaus Salernitanus, wrongly called Prepositus and Nicolaus Prepositi are two distinct writers; the latter was a student at the University of Paris in 1472, and evidently flourished until the early years of the sixteenth century. 1 Voigt, Joh. Briefwechsel der beriihmtesten Gelehrten des Zeitalters der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht yon Preussen. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Borntrager, 1841. 3 Mupéyos, apothecary. 3 After the city of his birth, Alexandria. *“ Quod certo comperiet, qui fragmentum hoc quod passim sub Nicolai Praepositi nomine cireumfertur”’. . . . Nicolai Myrepsi Alexandrini Medicaméntorum opus. ...a_ Leon- harto Fuchsio . ..e graeco in latinum vecens conuersum. .. . Basileae, 1549. Prae- fatio, A%, recto. 5 Nicolaus Prepositi, ein franzroesischer Arzt ums Jahr 1500; von Er. Wickersheimer (Paris). 644 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. Fuchs’ original writings, not including the various editions and reprints, are about 20 in number, most of them dealing with the method and practice of medicine, and with materia medica. The three most important are: (1) Libri quatuor de fabrica corporis humani, Tubing, 1551, which I have already mentioned. Next to Vesalius’ great work this was considered the best handbook of anat- omy in the sixteenth century, and was much used and frequently con- sulted, as it best represented the various anatomical doctrines of the time. (2) Paradoxorum medicinae libri tres, Basilae, 1535. The first book deals only with pharmacology; the second treats questions of general and special pathology and therapy, and the third contains anatomical and physiological criticisms. This work and (3) Institu- tionum medicinae libri quinque, form Fuchs’ chief weapons against Arabism in medicine. Only a writer of such learning and reputation as Fuchs could risk saying that Avicenna, who, though he copied the Greek writers, did not understand them, should not be considered as the greatest physician. Two books are to be mentioned which have as their subject materia medica and therapy: Annotationes de simplicibus a medicis hacte- nus perperam intellectis et aestimatis, Argentorati, 1532, and De componendorum medicamentorum ratione, Basileae, 1549. Sche- lenz,: in his Geschichte der Pharmazie, says that the Annotationes were still in use in Cologne in apothecary shops in 1627. The De componendorum medicamentorum ratione was used as a handbook in the pharmaceutical lectures of many universities as well as in pharmaceutical practice. Fuchs’ polemic writings are numerous; some are controversies of a scientific character, others are caused by piratical undertakings of publishers. The most important one, famous in the history of medi- cine, is: Apologiae tres, adversus Guilelmum Pateanum, Sebastianum Montuam et Triverum Brachelium, Basileae, 1529. Its inspiration was Peter Brissot’s famous work, Apologetica discertatio de vena secanda in pleuritide, Basileae, 1529. The question of venesection (blood letting) divided the physicians of the sixteenth century into two hostile factions.?, One, the Arabic school, asserted that venesec- tion should be undertaken, in case of inflammations, as far as possible from the seat of the disease, and then very slowly; while the Hippo- cratic school, based on Brissot’s doctrine of revulsion, recommended the venesection near the diseased part and then very copiously. Jere- mias Drivere (Triverus Brachelius), Sebastian Montuus, and Wil- helm Puteanus defended the Arabic theory, while Fuchs sided with Brissot. Fuchs was without question the best informed and most 1Schelenz, Hermann. Geschichte der Pharmazie, Berlin, J. Springer, 1904. 2 Bauer, Jos. Geschichte der Aderlisse. Miinchen, Beck, 1870. EEE LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 645 persistent defender of the Hippocratic school. The controversy lasted almost throughout the sixteenth century and ended with the victory of the Hippocratic school. This is what Fuchs has accom- plished for medicine. Here may be the place to speak of him as an academic teacher. Regarding the spirit in which he presented his lectures and the method which he employed, we have the testimony of his contem- porary and colleague, Georg Hizler, professor of Greek in the Uni- versity of Tiibingen, who delivered the obituary at the memorial meeting held for Fuchs at the university. It is significant that a philologist was selected for this honor and not a member of the medi- cal faculty. This oration was published in separate form and was reprinted in volume I of Fuchs’ opera,? issued in Frankfurt the year of his death. (Plate 5.) Hizler? says: In the discharge of his office as academic teacher, what diligence, persever- ance, and devotion! Here his enviable reputation was based on two vital con- siderations, to wit, sound method, and pure, perspicuous speech. In the dis- cussion of medical authors he took the most useful and expeditious road; he never mixed in anything that was not to the point; he diligently explained the words in their true sense; he did not spend more time than the topic in ques- tion required; he did not, however, omit anything that could facilitate the ex- planation. Then he gave his instruction in such a clear and simple way that all could follow him with ease. Add to this the elegance of his discourse and it is plain that all listened to him with pleasure. Thus his teaching of anatomy was conspicuous for ability and clearness. He showed and illustrated all the parts of the human body and the functions of the several parts; he explained the nature of all bones and cartilages; he pointed out the various muscles, veins, arteries, nerves, and the like, and demonstrated all this ‘ad oculos.’ I come now to another field of Fuchs’ scientific activity, in which he achieved so much and which contributed so largely to the spread- ing of his fame throughout Europe. 1 Oratio de vita et morte clarissimi viri, medici et philosophi praestantissimi, D. Leon- harti Fuchsii, artis medendi in Academia Tubingensi professoris doctissimi; a doctissimo viro Georgio Hizlero, Graecarum & Latinarum literarum in eadem professore habita & seripta. 2“In docendi munere quanta sedulitas, fides, diligentia? Duabus autem maxime rebus in docendo necessariis, summam consequebatur laudem: tum illa artium via, quae pévdodos a Graecis dicitur: tum sermone puro, perspicuo & aperto. Nam in explanandis medi- corum scriptis, primum expeditissiman & utilissimam viam cognoscere & inire: nihil a re alilnum asserre: verba sensumque, genuinum diligentissime explicare: non diutius haerere & immorari, quam res, quae ad cognoscendum exponebatur, requirere videretur : eorum, quae necessaria ad explicandum erant, nihil omittere. Deinde tam pure, tam aperie, tam simpliciter omnia tradere, ut facilime omnes assequerentur. Itaque, non tam ordine & modo, quem seruabat, optimo, quam orationis elegantia animos auditorum conciliare, ita ut cum fastidio ipsium audiret nemo. Hujus rei inter multa alia, exem- plum potest esse anatome: quam docuit dexteritate & perspicuitate singulari. Humani enim corporis partes, & singularum partium actiones & figuras ostendebat: omnium ossium, cartilaginumque, naturam, musculos, venas, arterias, nervos & caetera indicabat, & oculis subjiciebat.” 65133°—sm 1917——42 646 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. III. At the outset I called attention to the influence of humanism on the revival of learning and how humanism in its immediate consequences caused and created a new phase in the evolution of medicine and natural science. One event of entirely different character enlarged and enriched these two branches of science in another direction—the geographical discoveries at the end of the fifteenth century, and especially the discovery of America. Until then the contemplation of nature was entirely neglected. From the time Pliny had written his encyclopedic “ Naturalis Historia ” natural science had been prac- tically at a standstill. The discovery of America opened an entirely new field for observation of objects of natural science. The study of plant life was the first field to profit by it, and under the stimulating influence of the revival of learning botany became a science. In this movement Germany took a leading part. Three names will always be connected with the history of botany in Germany, and it is not by chance that all three were followers of humanism; Otto Brun- fels, 1484-1534; Hieronymus Bock, 1498-1554; and Leonhard Fuchs. Each of these wrote his own herbal; but Fuchs was the most promi- nent and the most learned of these three herbalists. In Brunfels’ Herbarum vivae eicones, published in three parts in 1530-1536 by Schott in Strassburg, we admire the illustrations which are drawn true to nature, though the descriptive text is of no scientific value. The first edition of Bock’s work, New Kreutter Buch von under- scheydt, wiirckung und namen der Kreutter, so in Teutschen Landen wachsen, Strassburg, 1539, was not illustrated; the second and the subsequent editions, from which the word “new” is dropped, con- tain about 470 illustrations. But the chief merit of Bock’s book is the text, which describes only that which he actually observed; it appeals at once to the reader on account of its popular style, and yet is full of power and vivacity. The famous book by Fuchs, De historia stirpium commentarii, Basileae, 1542 (Plate 6), surpasses the two previous herbals in text as well as in illustrations. He is the first botanical writer to attempt a botanical nomenclature. The arrange- ment of the work is alphabetical. In his plant description he applied the following method, which was used as a pattern by succeeding botanists: (1) The name of the plant in Greek, Latin, and German; (2) the form; (8) locality; (4) time of blossoming. The illustra- tions are of the highest order. Heinrich Fiillmaurer and Albert Meyer drew the plants, and Rudolph Speklein, all three of Strass- burg, engraved the woodcuts. To show his gratitude to these three artists, Fuchs reproduced their portraits on the last leaf of the book (Plate 7), while his own portrait (Plate 1) is found on the reverse of the title-page. The work met with the greatest success, having larger LEONHARD FUCHS—NEUMANN. 647 circulation than any similar scientific work of its day. There exist in all, including translations and abridgments, 35 editions. It was Fuchs’ intention to continue and to reissue the work in three volumes. From 1556 he had been collecting material and had assembled 1,500 plates, but he could not find a publisher on account of the heavy ex- pense. He petitioned several princes, amongst others Duke Albrecht of Prussia, for support, but without avail. It is uncertain what be- came of the manuscript; the plates unfortunately became scattered. Part of them remained in Tiibingen, and part of them found their way into the Gessner collection in Ziirich.' There remain to be added a few facts about the later years of Fuchs’ life. Three years before his death he had the misfortune to lose his wife, with whom he had lived in the happiest union. As he was obliged to support a large family, and as the care of his domestic affairs absorbed much of the time so greatly needed for his studies and lectures, he married again, this time the widow of minister Graeter of Schwabisch-Hall. But he only had a few years more to live, for, although he had previously enjoyed good health, his continuous application to work brought on insomnia, and he died May 10, 1566. But even while confined to his room Fuchs’ interest in his studies continued. Hizler, in the panegyric style of his time, compares him to Socrates, - but those of more sober judgment will hardly go so far. Fuchs’ modesty, which prevented him from assuming the rank of nobility which Charles V bestowed upon him in recognition of his services to mankind as physician and scientist, would have protested against such comparison. I myself would compare him with Nicola Leoniceno, who was born in 1428 in Vincenza and died in 1524 in Ferrara. Both were humanists; one in Italy, the other in Germany. Each was a reformer of medicine in his country, with the same aim and purpose—the study of the Greek writers of medicine in their own language; and the liberation of medicine and natural science from the influence of the Arabic writers. 1 Sprengel, Kurt. Geschichte der Botanik. Neu Bearbeitet. 2 Teile. Altenburg und Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1817-18.—Meyer, Ernst H. F. Geschichte der Botanik. 4 Bde. Koenigsberg, Gebriider Borntriiger, 1854—-57.—Sachs, Julius. Geschichte der Botanik vom 16. Jahrhundert bis 1860. Miinchen, R. Oldenbourg, 1875.—Roth, F. W. FE. Leonhard Fuchs, ein deutscher Botaniker, 1501-1566. In Beihefte zum Botanischen Centralblatt, Bd. VIII, Heft 3, p. 161-191. Cassel, Gebriider Gotthelft, 1898.—Greeno, Edward Lee. Landmarks of botanical history. Part 1—prior to 1562. Washington, Smithsonian Institution, 1909. a ide: tas } : is a y . Bot bitzals Oo Tike pry SBF We ent 2rd rye ik te PS 3 Gtr, t- heidisea Hm bas fet nif uifhalios® ag Got it HEE 4 a . ; q ’ Pd ae - “ ’ =) “£9 Grbod Ol! 19 JipoooR to. Feder king * ani ‘yan Bh: 105-4) 1. Sing dt2. a Aa4 Leathe jay frou Soe wy art ce auf Shier, ator iond Bf 4d ip ys Pant i ie ait ei Siatditehe oirexsd 7 iatss itso pe stig af Naqhiocapbar - aja Sated “Godt? to Fn that eeanideT a (idiocy? mei Pebton gh ig OeIN nu gokjant tog Teo @ to wi9t al ocd bir 44 Dia? W9) * fio, ies ats “Ts f & 5 7 “ay ‘ Qaerietere Gilg, ie : HR. BET sibel iy Sart Roma s TS 6 Ai ra Tet Len hon liste oatel aA trode he ol ‘banilde ‘Baw nN Pate * ur We * 9 *4 4 ‘ > P ’ af wat WOD(W Ott SO Bi? AE 4 TA rg rISt DA eB FLOM . ’. ’ , cs . +” ¢ : i P } ae eS | Wor Vim of IPG ‘ ED - £5 JEDER AG FE ESC bie) bee. Rix : > : ; P ; » as ; i ' « fy OU Doyo clesie rit) ¢ Me teisccval %. 40% aa oy Rank its a * oa - s pdega } RMU ft it, AIS MOD BIAG i byte gah ie hi: ais Os 479 Ti Sari -ik Prins rm MST 19108, 9% oi 70. yitiidos jo Ade od intivess gira betas 7o1g ik fe. a et , , Me SP ’ OPK ‘ | Heard a a at! , . ts a a ist) UP Poet > BAN ORY Oso ae ROOK. Sy fo OLE HOS . Dino" me: A . “aan. dito rietgo L af Meh or beth been as monty | at eeey terirto be iw fogs tamtid«) ai ratio alt viet at 709 + achat Leen y ° « 7 . : »? ia. 2) 903—99 Hie big. oF Re div, .Ngiico wid ae On EDeEe hy Dae 7a F ' say : r aint: w Post nda? Le VE Pee ; ae ‘ \ +5 oe 2 tt) O9faitii oT (ia Lye 1 U'TTRE REL EES oftiot hous be ue cast at yas all Age i. : sHnioa Tabet ‘id * Locltusae : nee eit doole aban sae 1. jarfertaoeb Cae ages ds Pe e 4 ; 3 eth HST SY i: be Sabi sana) . ' Pe - CT0 q iin re hareier tr. rat fork \ ar ae i > c ate weoltatl ent raat a P b . ae | a Bas Eat. 2 ‘ Y a! oe ad oman ln rc Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 2. meus. Enqosces - S/ Aquexs~wy . All Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 3: Fyn Mewes hoGnuslids BiGlin/ nd Anorhomi cynes auffgcchonen angs / auch feincr crEldrung/bewerters purgation/Pflaftcr/Collirs cn / GAlblin pulvern vind wafferns/wie inans machen vndbraudchers fol. \\\ ANATOMIA OCVLI cors__ Nea Geernce $i Serafburg durch Neinriders : Vogtherzet, Anno Gd. D. pyviv. Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 4. NICOLAI MYREPSI ALEXANDRINI MEDICAMEN FO- RVM OPVS, IN SECTIONES QVADRAGINTAOCTO DIGESTYM, hactenus in Germanianon uifum, omnibustum Medicis,tum Se- plafiarijs mirum in modum utile, a1 LEONHART® FVCHSIO medico, & Schola Tubingentis profeflore publico,¢ graco inlatinum recens conuerfum,lu- culentifsimisq; Annotationi- bus illuftracum. _Accefitnon folum rerum ¢7 uerborum , fed ¢ medicaminurn fingulis morbis desStinatorum locupletifs- mus Index. Cum CefMaieft. gratia & privilegioad ; quinquennium, ; BASILEcAE, PER 10. OPORT nun,-_Anno 1s 49. Lenfe Martio, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 5 crum : ee LEONHARTI EVCHSII MEDICI ET PHILOSOPHI EXCELLENTISSIMI TomusPnmus: Medicamentorum omnium componendi, mifcendig rationem ac modum, Li- bris Quatuor,omnibus cum Medicis tdm Pharmacopaxis longe vuilifsimis & fumme neceffars,complectens. -Q@ VVM OLIM TRES DVNTAXAT, ET EOS Q2VIDEM BREVES admodum de componendis ac mifcendis medicamentis libros ediderimus, nunc illis-vnus adhuc, qua ordine fecundus eft, when Riera vel, ve valgus medicorum loquitur,Difpenfatorinm di citur,accefsit. Praparandorum quog, medicamentorum ratio, que in prioribus editionibus omnind defiderabatur,adietta eft, Compofitrones denig, hodie vfitata, cr que m officinis medicorum venae les proflant,omnes é fontibus fisis perita,er ab errgxibus multis ac pernictofis purgata, acluculentifiimis annotationibus paimelluftrate, hoc rh in Opere exhibentur. ADDITA EST APPENDIX AVT APOLOGIA, IN qua criminationibus ac calumnijs loannis Placotomilibros hos arrodentis,obiter refpondetur, Item oratio de Vita & Morte autoris,omnium quoq; operum ipfius Catalogum continens. Accefsit locuples rerum & verboruminijs memorabilium INDEX, /dr 499 ty oe te Cum gratia & priwilegioad Decennium. FRANCOFVRTI AD MOENV™M, Ann M.D. LXV L Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 6 WE HISTORIA STIR PIVM COMMENTARII INSIGNES, MA "XIMESEPMP EN SIS ET -VIGILIIS ELA BORATL ADIECTIS EARVNDEM VIVIS PLVYSQVAM quingentis imaginibus, riunquam antea adnature imitationem artificiofius effi- : dtis Kexprelsis, LEONHARTO FVCHS{O medicohac ~ - noftra atate longe darifsimo,autore, Regiones peregrinas plerig, ali alias,fumpm ingenti,ftudio indefeflo,nec fine difcrimine uit non- ‘nunguam,adierunt, utfimplicium materie cognofcende facultarem compararent fibi: am ribi materiam uniuerfam fummo & impenfarum & remporis compendio, procul difcrimineomni,tanquam in uino incundifsimo( uiridario, ’ magna cumuoluptate,hinc cognofcerelicebit. —. Acceitijs faccinétaadmodum uocum difficilium & ob{curarum - pafsimin hocopere occurrentium explicatio, ‘ Vuadcum quadruplici Indice,quorum primus quidem ftirpium nomencla- » + ‘turas graxcas, alter latinas, tertius officinis feplafiariorum herbarijsufitatas, quartas germanicas continebit, ss pe 4 ~ i * ‘ y > aie 1 et : ENA a CAR O11 Imperatoris decreto,nequis ~~ alius impund ufquamlocorum hos de flirpium historia com= mentarios excudat, iuxtatenorempriuilegii ant? « nobis euulgati, ie ne y * Cautum preterede BASILEAE, £N OFFICINA ISINGRINIANA, Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Neumann. PLATE 7 i. 2 Pe Cat OR ES ORE RLS Geinricus Lullmaucer. PMlbertus Meer. SOV OR Ditus Rovolph: Spectle. Atay oe , 4 é Pig. y ) OF Smithsonian Report, 1917.—Richmond. PLATE I. IN MEMORIAM—EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS, 1856-1916. By CuHarrires W. RICHMOND, [With 1 plate.] In the death of Doctor Mearns the American Ornithologists’ Union has lost one of its founders and most active members, and ornithology one of its most enthusiastic disciples. Friendly and genial in disposition, with an all-consuming interest in the study of nature, he craved the society of men of similar tastes, and looked forward with keen anticipation to the rare occasions when he was permitted to attend the annual sessions of the Union. As an Army surgeon, he was subject to the vicissitudes and uncertainties of that calling, and during the greater part of his 26 years of active mili- tary service was far removed from museums and libraries, both indis- pensable adjuncts to the working naturalist. While this cireum- stance greatly interfered with his systematic studies, and prevented him from publishing any extended results of his discoveries, which he was well equipped by training and experience to perform, it undoubtedly contributed largely to his development as a field natur- alist, in which field he was without an equal in this country, and enabled him to amass collections that are probably unrivaled as the efforts of a single individual. His activities of over 40 years cov- ered a wide range, of which but little, aside from his ornithological achievements, can receive mention in the present notice.? Edgar Alexander Mearns, son of Alexander and Nancy Reliance (Carswell) Mearns, was born at the home of his grandfather (Alex- ander Mearns), at Highland Falls, near West Point, N. Y., Sep- temper 11,1856. His grandfather, born a few miles from Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1786, came to New York in 1805, after making several 1 Reprinted by permission from The Auk, January, 1918. 2The War Department was asked for a copy of Doctor Mearns’s military record, but the request was refused, owing to the great amount of extra work now placed on the department. 649 650 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917. perilous voyages at sea. He settled at Highland Falls about the year 1815, where Alexander, his son, one of seven children, was born in 1823. Doctor Mearns’s father died in 1873, but his mother, who comes of New England stock, is still living. Edgar Mearns manifested a remarkable interest in birds and ani- mals at a very early age, and this taste was fostered by his father, who bought him a large illustrated book on the native birds. He took great pleasure in looking at the pictures—he was only 3 years old at this time—and his mother spent hours in teaching him their names and histories, and he soon developed a wonderful knowledge of the subject for one of his years. As he grew older, his father gave him a gun, and they would shoulder their arms and wander through the fields together, close companions. He was taught to set box traps in these early years, and if there was no one at hand to go with him to inspect them, he would steal out alone to see what the traps contained. As a schoolboy he was often tardy as a result of lingering in the woods in search of specimens. Every natural object interested and attracted him. Young Mearns was educated at Donald Highland Institute, at Highland Falls, and subsequently entered the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York, from which he graduated in 1881. At the outset of his medical course he became personally acquainted with several of the young naturalists of the time, E. P. Bicknell, A. K. Fisher, C. Hart Merriam, and others, some of whom were attending the same routine of studies. He and Doctor Fisher chanced to share the same room at a boarding house at this time, and it was here that the budding young Linnean Society held its early meetings. When he was about 10 years old he began to write out and preserve his observations on birds, and some of these, written in a very youth- ful hand, are still extant ; but it was not until 1872, when a boy of 16, that his efforts had crystallized into a plan to prepare a report on the vertebrate fauna of his region, and he set to work with all the energy and enthusiasm of youth to gather material and information for this purpose. It was in the spring of this year that he seriously began a collection, and he then formed the habit of carefully labeling his specimens, noting any important items connected with each ob- ject, such as its dimensions in the flesh, the color of its eyes, and other facts of interest. This habit was faithfully followed in after years, and in birds alone it is estimated that over 60,000 measurements were recorded in his various field catalogues. He did not confine his atten- tions to zoology, but devoted himself to the flora as well, and unlike many young students he was ambitious to learn something of foreign species, for as early as 1875 he was in correspondence with one or EDGAR ALEXANDER MEARNS—RICHMOND. 651 more European collectors, from whom he obtained many specimens in exchange. His first published paper, on “ The Capture of several Rare Birds near West Point, N. Y.” + appeared in January, 1878, and it is worthy of comment that under the first species mentioned in this paper he acknowledged some information received from his “friend, Mr. Theodore Roosevelt,” inasmuch as almost the last field work he ever undertook was with this same leader of men. Three other notes followed shortly, while a paper on “ The White- headed Eagles in the Hudson Highlands,” ? presented at the meeting of the Linnean Society of New York, on April 6, 1878, was the first communication read before that newly formed society, and was ap- propriately published on July 4. Toward the end of the year he had made suflicient progress with his big undertaking to look forward to a suitable medium of publication, and he wrote to Dr. J. A. Allen for advice. This letter, a copy of which was found among his manu- scripts, is here reproduced, as it emphasizes the importance he at- tached to specific, as opposed to vague general records, and illustrates the serious and painstaking method with which he handled his sub- ject, a method of precision that he adhered to throughout his scien- tific work. 117 W. 22np St., N. Y., Nov. 17, 1878. Mr. J. A. ALLEN, Drar Sir: I have wanted to ask you several questions with regard to publish- ing a list of the Bds. of the Hudson River, and take the present opportunity to do so. Singularly enough, there is no medium of publication for such an article in this State. The “ New York Academy” has recently changed very much in its character, and Mr. Geo. N. Lawrence tells me it would be impossible to get them to publish any lengthy paper on zoology, aS he has much difficulty in get- ting them to take even brief articles of his own. I am writing quite a bulky list of the Hudson Valley Bds., with which I am taking the greatest pains; particularly regarding dates of migration, breeding, life-habits, ete. One of the more important points is the northern extension of the “ Caro- linian Fauna” up the Hudson. I think the whole number of species that have been taken in the Hudson Valley (none others will be included), will amount to about 215. I have been compiling the data of this list for several years. And now my object in writing to you, is to enquire whether there are any available facilities for getting the list published during the coming winter or spring. Would the “Boston Society Natural Hist.,” or “ Bulletin Essex Institute” do it? If you will be kind enough to advise me I shall be extremely grateful. I have tabulated all of the specimens I have taken (1800) in Hudson region, and have formulated tables of measurements of all of the specimens taken. I think that these tables contain matter of sufficient interest and importance to warrant publication, in the case of the rarer species especially. As time pro- gresses, we all know that very considerable changes take place, respecting the RNG re ti 5k eR NR AT IRIS LEIS ge OP ERE eg Ieee ger a Sa at se apg 1 Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, III, No. 1, January, 1878, 45, 46. ’ Forest and Stream, X, No. 111, July 4, 1878, 421; No. 113, July 18, 1878, 462, 463. 652 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1917, geog. distribution of the Bds. Very many ornithologists of the present day receive with incredulity many statements of the old naturalists, which may be worthy of perfect credence. Now, if De Kay and Giraud, who are about our only N. Y. State authorities had made specific instead of general statements regarding such species as Euspiza Americana, Lophophanes bicolor, Thryo- thorus ludovicianus, Parus Carolinensis and Corvus ossifragus, their observa- tions would be of the greatest value; but many persons now doubt the accuracy of these observations. I think the tables of specimens captured and their meas- urements would be useful in this way if in no other. However I am quite willing to be advised in this matter. This paper, “A List of the Birds of the Hudson Highlands, with annotations,” was begun shortly in the “ Bulletin of the Essex In- stitute,”? seven installments appearing between 1879 and 1881, with an “Addendum” issued in “ The Auk,” in 1890. ) tet het on ae Se eee 13; 1270 Clark. A. Howard, editor of the Institution..2.- =. 2) eS ee x, 20, 106 lack. William: (Bullodk: - 2525 =. ee Le ee, eee 663 Olayton; Elelma sss. 20 246 ee. nites) oe AUS ee ey pene tier poevigee 19, 27, 90 Sofi tsb RS hk SA IS NE ee a Ee ee ee ee SE 45 @ollins-GarnerConzos Expedition. 220 “xis eee 15, 126 Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ~------_--__________ a Committee on printing and: publication.<_3>=*. = 3). See BST a 20 Composition and structure of meteorites compared with that of terres- trial rocks (George P, Merrill) _______..—. . +._._ tenis pel Yo seeps 175 Congo; the Collins-Garner ‘expedition to________»____._.__35 swt) _ 15, 126 Conners erpme = 12h sss Ee av ee ene ee 42 Contributions to Knowledge, Smithsonian__ 22s 40 ooo ees 19 MOOS Oy RY otk te ee ee 37 OOO S.C yt es a 22. Coral reefs, exploration in the Ohio Valley for fossil algae and___-____-~ 9 Corals and the formation of coral reefs (Vaughan) —~~---------___-_=-+- 1898 Correlation of the Quaternary deposits of the British Isles with those of the Continent of Europe (Brooks) ~..--------_________- PITS A Hes 277 INDEX. 669 Page ROE REND eh ESSN se Sa ae ef SO ae ENE eI ee 15 ( CEE NERS) see )\ (oe a at ae iea pach atin anne e este BS Aah Li nde ite ld A ee xi Na ROT Us alr Ca em et rents Se a em res bene te cn ot wl mere ye ee ee xi GubaandEaitibiologzical>work ine 2+ 2 Be SEA A eee eee 12 D. Pee ce a ee ee ee ee Ea ee xi, 21, 44 Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution) —_ Be Daughters of the American Revolution, Report of___________-______-_-_~ 20, 109 Davis Onn Ohanglor EsatlChOlt co c= ee met ere ee en 34 JO etme rh a2) O16 yg Ue ERB UN ESD 6 cep ieee me oe ae Re ee obs 19. geass ew ieee eee aoc ee eee et ee 42 LEYS RCTYEG el' aie Le BO eee XA Lane, Franklin Knight, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institu- GONG) Sa ce. ee seb ate 9 ae Bt ee eee 8 x Maneley. Seeeitaks 4. wp Veni pes 08 Spe, Arti pees we eerie So eS te + Langley Aerodynamical Laboratory___-__-------~- ye ee ee a 124 Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State (member of the Institution) —_______ x Tye Sng eS Se Se St aie Soe: Pe ch n= ee ee eS EN OTE 2 SPS xi Henman, Isobel io eet et a, see hegre Se ere ee 34 mewton,, Mrederick, Wistert Germ se Sahoopelin p checneh Deyn hienes SV Pe rere, xi TST SEIT S20 NS eR ame aA ny Be A needy a i i A kd ie aed 21 TiS] OY P09 el RE SRI. ce SB Ne et pa a 95 Lindgren, Waldemar (gold and silver deposits in North and South Amer- TRS) Yt SOD SS PEN Sa IE Oe PN es Ne BY ates ROE Fee Are ieee, a eee ee 147 MOV Anes WR OSes) 5 ee See a Se ee ee x ance: Henrys Capotia Gees emt, ) as sere a eee ee x: MCT OG; Vig NUCL OTD oer ee ce ne eel et ne 26 M. McAdoo, William Gibbs, Secretary of the Treasury (member of the In- SUT MUS LEMAR ) ea ee ee 5:4 Marshall, Thomas R., Vice President of the United States (member of the Sn UGEON:) ee gee ee wee ee ee oe ae ee x UIST cE UV eo cane ne Ce aes ear Se St ES AS Ae Ae xi Mu MenncnGeQre Ge. ©2202 uk eee ee ee eee es an eens eee xi Megrnis, mocar Alexander 2 22a eee ee es oe Se ee 21, 44 in memoriam (Richmond) _————__~_ late gee a een 649 Merrill, George, P. ) Sessa a eee 31 National Research -Coun¢il 222-25 52522 See en en ae see 16 PUP EL ORE MEMO OTC NP EU TS Pa re ae ee Pees os ee a Sa 123 SICCESSTON Se one ee ee eee ee re. alteration of western boundary_________-______ 84 UTOVEMICIIGS = oe ee §2 horing expeditions: Cuties isi heres 26 NCCUS-s.2a2e5 as ese ee a ee 85 popular account of its collections (Hollister)_-_ 5438 report—0ONsxn.22. 2s eee) iments 71 Natural history of Paradise Key and the near-by Everglades of Florida Fe ee ee ag angen on OE RTT! 377 Navy, Secretary of (member of the Institution) __-_____-______-_-_____- x Neumann, Felix (Leonhard Fuchs, physician and botanist) --_--_-__-___ 635 oO. Ohio Valley, explorations in the, for fossil alge and coral reefs_________ 9 Ojibway habitations and other structures (David I. Bushnell) ---_---__- 609 Outline of the relation of animals to their inland environments (Charles [Aes 5 65 08 Sp peeling eee tl peta atic ng ap eet te ac Ea gE ANS 515 Pp gr) aa 5: a ee a el ET SE LES SE BON) OIE SS AEOS TN Yr 38 Paradise Key and near-by Everglades of Florida, natural history of (Saf- i 70) meget te eek ea ec i lh eg ess 3877 5 SETI 0) ages Sy 0 ed 6 Sel ana i MOE AN ge Ta oink My PBT S11 OE bad Pecan, notes on the early history of, in America (True) ——-~-_--__--____ 435 PEP ry Toe SND aaa aa a ae 42 (GLO eRe rk peat oe se erm en Af ppd ence eg me I A 45 Postmaster General (member of the Institution) ___-__----__-_________=- x PTEEIPIEATIONS “LORS sa ne FR ee ee 125 President of the United States (member of the Institution) ~-__-----___ = Printing and’ publication; ‘committee on22_ 22Gb) tu) cee hea) 20 Proceedings. of the -Board. of "Regente222 112) So lt abi os ee 117 Projectiles containing explosives -(¢A.-R.)2s.2.-.. +. ae 131 ERR UE IE Sh ESR pee wr a a a, ee 19 POPOL ONe= Sees 2 gue neaesoee neces Sees ee ee eee ee 106 Q. Quaternary deposits of the British Isles, correlation with those of the Continent of “Hurope™ (Brooks )i2222222=22s2=2s2=55-5-=s5 es eee ee 277 R. Ranger” Henry W- >. PRES ORR eae a NNN aN BIER LS 40, 121 Rathbun, Richard (assistant secretary of the Institution) -____-_---____-_ Xm lee helt eis & SK @ SL Lac Sepia aeeemadl nwt ate ieee ree eet rally YA Le TARY days EMME 14, 38, 35 mavenel,: Wi. de Cn .2 eet es a ee ee xi INDEX. 673 Page Reception in honer of the Hrench: scientists..2<. - = 21 Redfield, William Cox, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institu- (iO Oe ee er LS Pe ls lies nL ic eect Bop eh ia eed dell he x: ASCP CHISRO MLITe RLS PECILLO RE ee A eere see ee ee oie Seay ere arc eee 5. | PREP OL bry SHALE NSO MAI = eee et ae Ie a We AL EN 22 19 Research Corporation__________ Sop ee ey Ca Oe I ee ae teh Pescara G oun cite Na bl Onan ser ete = arene eee 16 mescorcnegsandwexlOorationset: =e tee co See Pee — 6 To 2S ES 0 a Sea ay lr a a etl ex ioe Mf ; 8 Richmond, Charles W. (in memoriam, Edgar Alexander Mearns)_______ 649 DRED NRE ROE ba ee eet ener Aone ne ee a er ee eee atl TE TESCORTT ? WUBIN SL ong Bk RD ae a hs Sa le a Rnd eh Bead Re LS pons 52 ee eerie Vin ere tibiae se Ss SO os en See ee eee ae Rockies, Canadian, geological explorations in-__________ patel Aaa ep oe og 6 | SGU TG ig Fc 7 1 a seh si a a Sa RR ee uy 42 Obhive WiallGbe =< meme ot TS ea eee pen aoe eee Cea el apres 33 EPH CELOR Gm Sia DNC Sunes on. a aoe eure ee, rena See eee 21 S. Safford, W. E. (natural history of Paradise Key and near-by Everglades DIE LRA Se KG 02) ee ee ee eS ee ee ees ee eee eres. De a Bil Santo Domineco, explorations in=-2 = 2 Ia nen Set ne ae ET 14, 126 Schimidinee. eatalepsy.: in} Phasmidae)/ 2s 7 ee eee se 501 SUGAR UG CSTE eli SS 1B a ea ci ae Ry OR ee TUL SE Sted eae xi Sea as a conservator of wastes and a reservoir of food, the (Mocre)_____ 595 SECrCt cy Ol the~ IN SLreUbLOn ss. xs ee ee ee iba Myb ay. del AS Pts a Here On. uated, Os 2 ee a 37 PLY oh CE eG Hae! | lee Seah, ar ee ey oe er es ME OND RE So. DEN xi, 62 skinner, Alanson. 22-5 ee SU Se eee ak tia eer AES Coa ER ey 3 ee See 45 SRM WV gt Nees ee ee See SIE Sethe SS 41 Syitnh cGy POMNeNS We eat ee eee Social, educational, and scientific value of botanic gardens (Coulter)____ 463 Sodihn America, eos, ol. (anderen) 2202s. eee 157 SO VELL Mee pee tah URI Cl Cis Oe ee ee nee ote ee Pee A 13, 36 UDR TNS MLCT 7 0 AES es ee eee ol ae en RR ge cata 19 Bere mnie ee Peseta le oes ee | see ee eee 52 Re 37 State, Secretary of (member of the Institution) _._____________________ x Sicite sors connate =o = eee een ed ree) NE ee xi, 20 SLone William: J, (Regent), 22-5 0 2c AEE os EO Sele NS Uy: a: SSPE ACO) ae C0] gL BA ew i oe es eae eee ape eed Dh) xi, 47 Abe ATS VAL OT sp Vite eee 8 2 ne een ee Oe ee ee De DUNES itr gare MAE oy eee ee ne ee Re ee Sk a a eee ee 24, 55 Torwugas, WOImde LOOKETICS Ofs the. (Bartsch) o.oo ee 469 Treasury, Secretary of (member of the Institution) _____________-_______ x True, Rodney H. (notes on the early history of the pecan in America)__._ 485 Utah COD BCIIG Gem mnrmmmnnneen es wie a es ee 40 674 INDEX. Ve Page. Wanderbilt, Mrs. (George sW 2 ee Se ere ee 23h Vaughan, Thomas Wayland (corals and the formation of coral reefs)____ 189 Vice President of the United States (member of the Institution) ________ x W. Whateott, Oieries . Disoxt ign ce pe i iii, x, xi, 1, 6, 21, 119 War, Secretary of (member of the Institution) ~-_-_______-_____________ x WashbarnveMins Morthe 22.2 oe ee ee a eee 53 A) alt POO ba ee te a a ae en ere we eS 35 Waite, Dayvid_.._ +... aestiie e ee e e xi White, Edward Douglass, Chief Justice of the United States (member of the ANStitotion )ts 25 Sct oe Se i ee ae eh Be Wrinite; berry (Regent ) aS er % Wilson, William Bauchop, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institu- HOW) ons a a ee ee ee & Wilson, Woodrow, President of the United States (member of the In- SH DEO 0 RE ES SIRES SS SE Se a ee 5 ae Wionchs gait e— 8) taht Se. ee ee, te a ee 34 WW4u ei ee (OP 0) ee ee ae 2 ee Gere Oe ae neee ere week ewe eee Sr noee es o 22 Z. OAS ERP aN ATTN OS sate os Sh wat apne oe re en ee 36 Ee aM es eee eS * me hertoe + dine: ‘reiiliac. eerie oe Whe, Haoratery at Wasisnyr Ma, bea ‘ We apt hi, Sips. WIS, Da, 4B —e w _ Wevrded G 1 [245 BOS, Re at Twat), Cages, Megs Macey # ed Sagi nee gat ae as ne aaah tives teat bed pty me ging dy cy aera ire Use PURER CORY « arene mst Cnctic’.. Hone go ate Hee ae 1 ta ee ete ete eh a nee er ee Chiet . Pe tad hemp Me , - — + 2 trend = dias ween Fusttoo at test er ney ee hgtntte e Al 0 Yorn tentle wry « oan rs wee : ‘iyttod. States ‘tpeswon 4 x0 yor ee ed yi \ yee eaenina eee o ee | = scan sp tecrogery..at Laber. cee! aa ‘ Pp the Lorian, Cee Fs 71 Fiates :{ hn i 90 pamatig ALU tile ; Peps ~~ upt ribet of aed bees and i : s & ¢ = ¥ a ee —- a 1ae at Asi AM 3 9088 0 “WL Uae aEe yretitaeaiies