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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF

THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND
CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30

L928

(Publication 2724)

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1924

TT A240OTPARSIO

i LIT@uL ART AO YOULGAGD 4
0 YU) DATGHA BAY SAT AOF ee.

ADDITIONAL COPIES ;
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM ae’:
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS Mi
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

$1.50. PER COPY

{ THAMAARIVOO

LETTER

FROM THE

ACTING SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

SUBMITTING

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1922.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, July 15, 1923.
To the Congress of the United States:

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1922. I have the honor to be,

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
C. G. Apsor,
Acting Secretary.

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Letter from the acting secretary, submitting the annual report of the
PEO PONTS TCOU CUAL ERGs Mere ence ee ee fg en iii
Do POSTS Pua ow 2] 2 1) y Rea ia eee amie a Osh, Re ANE Ne DIRE EA Vv
PiStaO ts DIOS 2 ee ee ee SEN oe A SE en ee baie eka A vii
General subjects of the annual report___--___--_-----------~-_- pane iD ae ix
Onicials*or the institution and its, branches--- xi

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ihe: Smithsonian, Unstituisones<2 2 eek gg a al

APES ESTED aD HICH ATH PES 0 POU ROAST SORE HERE Re ae SP Ee Re ore seve
aNWEV Oa OTOL HROGE I Tsien! fe es eg ee eh 2
General GOnSiG@eralons so ee ek So eh ae ee 2
LOST RTI TY CECT E a aE ADF PSE ORE EDN LIES STEN ae EL 3
Researches: ang explorations: _=— 222-2. 22.8 ge erie 6
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies______________~ 6
Paleontological field work in the United States______________-_-_ 7
Botanical. expedition, fo,the,Orient.......-—- 4 =— 4-42 pin #9 Xe 9
EXE) THT PUY Bf 8 V) 0 ee ae a ET HIN A PRES RE ee OR NE 9
Biological exploration in the Dominican Republic_________ _-___ 10
Hntomolosical expedition. to, Alaskan 10
The Institute for research in tropical America_________--___--____- iat
Wioraiomtne ehilippineislandss) 2 ee 12
BairasvViemorials Committee ee eens hk ae eee ee ee 12
Development of multiple-charge rocket______-_-__________________-__ 12
PETE SEC 6 Ease Sr A EE PE TS a ARN AR eR AAP Re Cre NH 13
Ferd RTE pyaar tege)ere k e ae h ie e eh eee e 14
FEY AEST (Gey 86 STE 0 0 ee eee el ca wy TON ae a ey ea LS
NECROTIC CIV ON ATG re ete ee Se ee ee ee 1
LOYD Srere (GATT Perea a Gy RN Ie DE ME aa Ree AS eels ee Se eee 18
IBGrenurGeramerican Ttnnolog y= 225 ee ee 19
ARRAS NK SAECO 0n SAIN eC TN Ce eo al a et le te og ee dg a a a 20
PVE OM Sle OOLOR ICH Oran ie ate ee Ee ee he a eee 21
EE PMC URICHIL ADDROKVNEORY 2.20 cos od ee he 22
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature__.______________________ 23
VR EXEN ETT EGY ES ES NY se Ue POR Oe Pe a cepa ne nl Ue Ya Peers Feb meee 24
Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum_____________ 26
2, -Report‘on. the: National Gallery of Art 2220 es 42
3. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art.) ss 53
4. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology_____________- 55
5. Report on the International Exchanges____________________ 76
6; Reportven the. National Zoological Park ==. -— 2 88
7. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory___________---_-_-- 104

8. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera-
RTs os a ae NE I ee ee 109
OM enortronrnneniprany. 2 ce ween Ie to a ee ATR Ais,
LO REpOLE ONS DUUIICHTIONS 35 res ose NY ee ee aot aS

Vv

VI CONTENTS.

GHNERAL APPENDIX.

Who will promote science? by C. G. Abbot__---------------------------
Recent discoveries and theories relating to the structure of matter, by

Bean a vier (COM DEON se ae
The architecture of atoms and a universe built of atoms, by C. G. Abbot_-
Aeronautic research, by Joseph S. Ames___-----__--__________-_____-_ aie
Photosynthesis and the possible use of sqlar energy, by H. ie Spoehr____
Fors and clouds, by W. J. Humphreya_-___--..______._ nee
Some aspects of the use of the annual rings of trees in climatic study,

By ueror, (A. TO. Dome ae a a ae ee ee ee
The age of the earth, by T. C. Chamberlin and others__________________
inowsdeenis the ocean? by C.-G: -ADDOi= = Ss 2 ee ee
Two decades of genetic progress, by E. M. Hast__----__-_---_-_-----_---
Observations on a Montana beaver canal, by S. Stillman Berry_-------~--
The Republic of Salvador, by Paul C. Standley__----------------_-____
The tent caterpillar, by RoW, Shodsriss= 2 ees
The life history and habits of the solitary wasp, Philanthus gibbosus,

by Hdward. G: Reinhatd.223352 5. 3322 0 ee ee eee
‘The use of idols in Hopi worship, by J. Walter Fewkes____--_------_-_-
Two Chaco Canyon pit houses, by Neil M. Judd_________-________-______
Collections of Old World archeology in the United States National Mu-

geum: ‘by J, ‘M. Casemowitn ono eae
The “ Shake Religion” of Puget Sound, by T. T. Waterman___-__---__-
Excavations at Askalon> Dy Error. vo. Garsceite so ee
National efforts at home making, by F. H. Newell__-_____--__---_______-
Ideals of the telephone service; by"John J. Carty---_---

LIST OF PLATES.

Aeronautic Research (Ames) : Facing page.

UE IE tye Let a te hs are Zest Tay aN i AO SE a a a a a 174
Fogs and Clouds (Humphreys) :

TRATES aS IgE 2S ONS aie DO ee US lh ES Nl ak Fp ee eee eel 222
Montana Beaver Canal (Berry):

ERG Wel eye eet ee a Oe een Mery oane epee eee 2 9 UP Pe ae ee ee 308
Republic of Salvador (Standley) : P

TSH) PETS LHS eRe Wt eS BRE Ss Ae ee ek ee de te 328
Tent Caterpillar (Snodgrass) :

Re ae lee Or Ee SE Rey: Yo SEN TED SR ae 329
Solitary Wasp (Reinhard) :

TEL Ti PrEISE ol be Dag cues ha Ps a aia rien a ia ENN CPR RNAS DEE OS EAE PT yea ES 376
Tdols in Hopi Worship (Fewkes) :

TEE yea Lee A Ras SS ERNE a Se eles 2 © eee ee & eee «eae Sew Zee 5 TE 382

LET PET ihe (ate ps Soot ts TS Datla Leal Dee eS eed Oink TS RN Roh Re Ph ER ERNE Nea a! 392

Polite Geese A Cree RELIES AUR AE! eet ARC MeL Ee ASE ae eee “Ae 394
Pit Houses (Judd) :

TET ASS joc Le ata a peg empanadas agate ROMANE SPI ON Rey RR” |e NS IR TS 402

[EGRESS et CALL ah AINE Oy TR eae Re RS Ys Se ee 408
Old World Archeology (Casanowicz) :

TEs) EY 24a Sa U6 ett ee hee Ae al EE a SRA NS MERIDA OL ET SLE 448

TEES ASA If (527 ES ete ld ac Se ees Ah ete Sal Lae eee es, eee BSS 460

12 Ee EXON a3 fe aR LIT SO A A LOE NCS, Dna pcy aa Pe eRe wn cy 466

(ETS LOSS SEG hg etary ity Leary AER rn Hain RL Pea INS eR CRY USF 478

ee eae 2 RAS LOS tee, I) eR A a oe 490
Shake Religion (Waterman):

TENS REIS A LL OL sk iad uN RR SE. ttl POP ARS a AR Pe of ERAN Ae ODES ig GS EE, 506
Askalon (Garstang):

EES Gy Ta N I AL 7T R CTD e ed LRRD RENN PEST ate i ope A 509

1 ESTES BS Je oka Tee lla En ag WU PE cAI APL SE OMAN Be ly SEM DISD D 510
Home Making (Newell) :

Pred fas ede ha nen le De ere Leh DER heen S21 oe WI ed Oe 520

EV SAEs ees Ne emesis 526

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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1922.

SUBJECTS.

1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1922, with statistics of exchanges, etc.

2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents,
exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state-
ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the
year ending June 30, 1922.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1922.

4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous me-
moirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Insti-
tution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge.
These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1922.

Ix

ROAUTIME MT 40 OTARGMS 40 MsROU AAT 40 ritoo: rr
| (ATL OKIGHY MARY AUT 109 AOVPUTITARL

MLatia

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Se sthh Gearhie teoy att tot Aohiietitent sith to iol ibiiao beta’
ie aa meh 2) autores. to goitgid ute 2 sidian,

Jat, SETI aril To TaPOL9OR 77h MALU Peat OE |e a ba ¢

: ¥ t , qe ahs om
phase TO Piweeti ani Oo Sitio sv lluesks wilt tO F100 1e4

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inte w aniboiont «wolliwstiteal oft fo sult: latonent orld git oe

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j oCer OF enn gat

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ABER E
ait Hvosmallescinn To coijoelse ‘2 garerqnatos xibasqas Layton 2
Henk aig te BINS IMIOESTIOD ban erotetodellos of deatainl to

-gobulwornl to moijorotd olt at boeeans eradio her ete stfonod y

: iy E ge p
697 TAMA SHY. OT titers GIntS'E eriomsiy

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

June 80, 1922.

Presiding officer ex officio—WarrEN G. Harpine, President of the United States.
Chancellor.—Catvin Cootiper, Vice President of the United States.
Members of the Institution:
WakgREN G. Harpine, President of the United States.
Cavin Cootiper, Vice President of the United States.
Witt1am Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States.
CHARLES Evans Hueues, Secretary of State.
ANDREW W. MELLON, Secretary of the Treasury.
JOHN WINGATE WEEKS, Secretary of War.
Harry M. DaugHerty, Attorney General.
Husert Work, Postmaster General.
Epwin Densy, Secretary of the Navy.
ALBERT Bacon Fatt, Secretary of the Interior.
Henry CANTWELL WALLACE, Secretary of Agriculture.
HERBERT CLARK Hoover, Secretary of Commerce.
JAMES JOHN Davis, Secretary of Labor.
Regents of the Institution:
Cavin CooLiper, Vice President of the United States, Chancellor.
Wittiam Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States.
Henry Casot Loner, Member of the Senate.
A. OwsLEy STANLEY, Member of the Senate.
Mepirt McCormick, Member of the Senate.
LEMUEL P. PApcETT, Member of the House of Representatives.
FRANK L. GREENE, Member of the House of Representatives.
ALBERT JOHNSON, Member of the House of Representatives.
GEORGE GRAy, citizen of Delaware.
CHARLES F. CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts.
JOHN B. HENDERSON, citizen of Washington, D. C.
Henry WHITE, citizen of Maryland.
Rosert 8S. Brookines, citizen of Missouri.
Executive committee—GEorGE GRAY, HENRY WHITE, JOHN B. HENDERSON.
Secretary of the Institution—CHaARLEs D. WALcort.
Assistant Secretary.—C. G. ABBOT.
Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsey.
Accounting and disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS.
Hditor.—W. P. TRuE.
Assistant librarian.—PavuL BRoOcKET?T
Property clerk.—J. H. Hitt.

XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

>

THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Keeper ex officio —Cuarites D. Watcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian In-
stitution.

Administrative assistant to the Secretary, in charge.—W. DE C. RAVENEL.

Head curators——Wattrr Hoven (Acting), LronHARD STEJNEGER, G. P.
MERRILL.

Curators.—PavuL BartscH, R. 8S. BAsster, T. T. BELoTE, AUSTIN H. CLARK,
IF’. W. CLarkKE, F. V. Covitte, W. H. DALL, WALTER HoueH, L. O. Howarp, ALES
HRDLIcKA, Nem M. Jupp, FREDERICK L. LEwTon, GrorGe P. MERRILL, GERRIT S.
MILter, Jr., CARL W. Mirman, Rosert Ringway, WALDO L. ScHmiTtT, LEONHARD
STEJNEGER.

Associate curators.—J. M. AupricH, C. W. Gi~MorE, W. R. Maxon, CHARLES
W. RicHMmonp, J. N. Rosr, Davin WHITE.

Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. S. Bryant.

Disbursing agent.—W. I. ADAMS.

Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. S. GOLDSMITH,

Hditor—Marcus BENJAMIN.

Assistant librarian.—N. P. ScuppeEr.

Photographer.—AxrtHuR J. OLMSTED.

Property clerk—W. A. KNOWLES.

Engineer.—C. R. DENMARE,.

Shipper.—L. H. PErry.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART.
Director.—WILLIaAM H. HoLMEs.
FREER GALLERY OF ART.

Curator.—JOHN ELLERTON LODGE.

Associate curator.—CarL WHITING BISHOP.
Assistant curator—GRACE DUNHAM GUEST.
Associate.—KATHARINE NASH RHOADES.
Superintendent.—JoHN Bunpy.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

Chief.—J. WALTER FEWKES.

Ethnologists—JoHN P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewitt, FRANcIs LA FLESCHE,
TRUMAN MICHELSON, JOHN R. SWANTON.

Editor.— STANLEY SEARLES.

Librarian.—HLis LEARY.

Illustrator —Der LANcEY GILL.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
Chief Clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

Superintendent.—NEpD HOLLISTER.
Assistant Superintendent—A. B. BAKER.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

Director.—C. G. ABBOT.
Aid.—F. E. Fow te, Jr.
Assistant.—L. B. ALDRICH.

REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAI,
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

Assistant in charge.—Lronagp C. GUNNELL.

REPORT

OF THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

Cuarves D. Wa corr,
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1922.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the annual
report of the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution
and its branches during the year ending June 30, 1922. The affairs
of the Institution proper (together with brief summaries of the
operations of the various branches) are given on pages 1 to 20
of this report, and the appendixes contain somewhat detailed
accounts of the year’s work, written by the head of each of the
branches. These include reports on the United States National
Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the Freer Gallery of Art,
the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges,
the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the
United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature, the Smithsonian Library, and the publica-
tions of the Institution and its branches.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE ESTABLISHMENT.

The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in
1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of
England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States
of America “ to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith-
sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accept-
ing the trust Congress determined that the Federal Government was
without authority to administer the trust directly, and therefore
constituted an “establishment ” whose statutory members are “ the
President. the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the
executive departments.”

if

2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

The affairs of the Institution are administered by a Board of
Regents whose membership consists of “the Vice President, the
Chief Justice, three Members of the Senate, and three Members of
the House of Representatives, together with six other persons other
than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the
city of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some
State, but no two of them of the same State.” One of the Regents
is elected chancellor by the board; in the past the selection has
fallen upon the Vice President or the Chief Justice; and a suit-
able person is chosen by them as secretary of the Institution, who
is also secretary of the Board of Regents and the executive officer
directly in charge of the Institution’s activities.

In regard to the personnel of the board, the following changes
occurred during the year: Chief Justice William H. Taft became a
member of the board by virtue of his office; Representative Albert
Johnson, of the State of Washington, was appointed to succeed
Representative John A. Elston, who died during the year; and Dr.
Alexander Graham Bell retired from the board at the expiration
of his term.

The roll of the Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows:
Calvin Coolidge, Vice President of the United States, chancellor;
Chief Justice William H. Taft; Henry Cabot Lodge, Member of
the Senate; A. Owsley Stanley, Member of the Senate; Medill Mc-
Cormick, Member of the Senate; Lemuel P. Padgett, Member of
the House of Representatives; Frank L. Greene, Member of the
House of Representatives; Albert Johnson, Member of the House
of Representatives; George Gray, citizen of Delaware; Charles F.
Choate, jr., citizen of Massachusetts; John B. Henderson, citizen of
Washington, D. C.; Henry White, citizen of Washington, D. C., and
Robert S. Brookings, citizen of Missouri.

The board held its annual meeting on December 8, 1921. The
proceedings of that meeting, as well as the annual financial report
of the executive committee, have been printed as usual for the use
of the Regents, while such important matters acted upon as are
of public interest are reviewed under appropriate heads in the
present report of the secretary. A detailed description of dis-
bursements from the Government appropriations under the direction
of the Institution for the maintenance of the National Museum,
the National Zoological Park, and other branches will be submitted
to Congress by the secretary in the usual manner in accordance
with the law.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Desiring to increase the research output of the Institution, your
secretary called a meeting in May of this year of the scientific
staff of the Institution and its branches to consider ways and means

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3

of inaugurating and carrying out a program of more extensive
original research. At this meeting a committee on research was
named, with Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, as
chairman, which will consider the subject this summer and it is
expected will be prepared in the fall to offer a definite program.

The great need of the Institution is for a larger endowment to
enable it to extend the scope of its activities in the “increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men.” During the 76 years of its
existence, except for several generous contributions for specific
objects, the income of the Institution has not been materially in-
creased. With the great increase in its scientific activities and
output of publications, it becomes more and more difficult to make
the limited income cover the mounting expense, and many oppor-
tunities to carry on valuable scientific investigations must be passed
by every year. It is hoped that some one, recognizing the ad-
vantageous position of the Institution for promoting scientific work
in America, will provide a suitable endowment.

FINANCES.
The permanent investments of the Institution consist of the

following:
Deposited in the Treasury of the United States____._--_______-_-_-__ $1, 000, 000

CONSOLIDATED FUND.

Miscellaneous securities carried at a cost of $177,965.28, either
purchased or acquired by gift, and constituting the consolidated
fund, namely:

West Shore Railroad Co. guaranteed 4 per cent first mortgage bonds,

TROT EMT a, IPR SY MRE OL ORE Sa i ak ER A LR SREP NEE CE cae? $42, 000
Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co. first mortgage 5 per cent gold

VECO FRYG FCO Pea THUR IS 49 ll a i Nl hms ad AMA Uetapd 2 aL oc 10, 000
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. 4 per cent general mortgage

DOUGSs ducsane LOO! oiigetamer be Ae eee a OeN ee eae ese 2, 000
Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad Co. first consolidated mortgage 5 per cent

MOMAS SCONE IN OS Oh Pitt es Sn ook ke Se Ege 2, 000
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co. 5 per cent refunding general mortgage

Ee! LOU aR NRL LLCS iy al gd tia cA lle NOB Ppl PAD dt el. ons 5, 000
P. Lorillard Co. 7 per cent gold bonds, due in 1944, gift__-_-_-________- 6, 000

Liggett & Myers Tobacco Co. 7 per cent gold bonds, due in 1944, gift_._ 6,000
New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Co., 4 per cent gold de-

MENTUEC DONO Sr Hee AM ORE io UN ee i le ek oe 4, 000
City of Youngstown, Ohio, 6 per cent municipal bonds, due in 1928____ 3,000
Real estate 7 per cent trust notes on improved property in the District

OF *Colnmpin CUS in On De ee Soe See Te MEAIB bie es RES 5, 000
Northern Pacific—Great Northern joint convertible 64 per cent gold

LOU ACD is pyc UICC yas Deb 2 16 pe mean erp mara de Ras Jay eager Nn re ge dee apr 41, 500

New York Central Railroad Co. refunding and improvement 5 per cent
POMOC Ser lem cet ewiou cee Oe aCe et tee ee SR OL 10, 000

4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co.* 5 per cent secured gold notes due in 1918_ $3, 500
Dnited,, States first d.iberty; loan: 222+ =. 44. SA eee TG 200
Dnited, States; second, Liberty \lonn<2:2> 22) ate eee, ee ee 100
lnited states third Wiberty. loans... 2 2 ah Soe eee 10, 150
United (States; LOUrtR SULOCrLY LO gee 9 ef ee ee eee ae ee 50
United States war-savings stamps, series of 1918_____________________ 100
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. 5 per cent preferred stock,

(bi pase ees a ee Be ee eee ee ee ee Spee Meee ere, shares__ 125
American Smelting & Refining Co. 7 per cent preferred stock,

13) | el, SE TAR ES es See eT) ee ee A doL=2 60
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Co. 4 per cent preferred stock,

peek ee es OEE LRA eS Oe 2 dos s2 125
California Electric Generating Co. 6 per cent preferred ‘stock,

GAPb oo le, ee ie ok Sa et ee ee ee Bey do--2— 100
Electric Bond & Share Co. 6 per cent preferred stock, gift___.do____ 20

The sums invested for each specific fund or securities acquired by
gift are described as follows:

Fund. ‘States | OT meee
Treasury. .

Siniphignn fans sec nc aces donee gcse sian towdunsecuesce coceee: $727, 640.00 $1,429.14} $729,069.14
PPR DOUNG eee casa sa seat crete rcaaseas cust cencamscdnn sess DOOUO) | Seoweeeanccaes 500. 00
FEOC PANS PENCKAI LUNG. 5). cc ons nnicecioetscsicsacacsavensmancces 116, 000. 00 37, 275. 00 153, 275. 00
Hedekins spaciio fONG Se scene scthscck curd ep eemnc’ipemeacaa esd TOO} OD07004 S ctcecaveesnne 100, 060. 00
LED CW eG eae ee i pas Ry el st ee Maes Sere ie 590. 00 199. 00 789.00
PEE RAIA oc nee les csc as whale srlaoasctcraaieaadaas ong a a a ea 14,900. 00 20, 489. 80 34,489. 80
EAT EET yA RS Mg TG Uc ee pe aaa al ee mee ys Se a 11, 000. 00 3,679, 00 14, 679. 00
Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund..............---seeeeeeee 26,670.00 8, 444.00 35, 114. 00
Genrseic, Sanford ANd. 5.08 tea. ee cere neta «ctuatiensecss 1, 100. 00 374.00 1,474.00
(OHAIDSK MMV CONG acces on Medan eae cetnaes cot amec es mecidee | daemcimeeaman 35, 000. 00 35, 000. 00
EPTOEEHOS TI oer canta aoe ccea.cenwtwdascwncannioepaealasetasinis demesne 9, 894. 76 9, 894. 76
La (oil & gel Sts hy gyre ola ey ae Se ge Eo SE 8 2 ee ceraedcccr ne | 1, 260. 58 1, 260. 58
Virginia Purdy Bacon fund......--......--ceeeseeeceeateceees eLeve feuteer Sy | 46, 900. 00 46, 900. 00
PIMRINUGH RUNG cesses eaten ee es othe ene asasene saan 2, 500. 00 500. 00 3,000. 00
Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund............ eee 11, 520.00 11, 520. 00
Paroline Honry, (NG o.d-apsehewn son tenieta kes Mubinain cemses|slesisaaseeae <me 1,000. 00 1,000. 00

PLOUA ceria ce eet aeeed caicn earn tnvcweb asec easels swine 1,000, 000. 00 177,965.28 | 1,177,965.28

Mr. B. H. Swales, custodian, section of birds’ eggs, continues to
favor the Institution with his valuable assistance in the form of con-
tributions for the purchase of specimens for the division of birds.
This year his contributions have amounted to $400.

Dr. William L. Abbott has contributed $2,000 for the purpose
of continuing the collecting of natural history specimens. The
Australian expedition, the expense of which was maintained en-
tirely by Doctor Abbott for three years, has been successfully con-
cluded, and work in new fields is contemplated in the near future.

1The traction problem in New York is still unsolved, and the Brooklyn Rapid Transit
Co.’s finances remain in the hands of receivers.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5

Mr. John A. Roebling has made further gifts to the Institution
to the extent of $15,771.38, to aid in the maintenance of astrophysical
stations in Chile and in Arizona and for the publication of scien-
tific papers.

The executors of the Freer estate have transferred to the Insti-
tution 6,546 shares of Parke, Davis & Co., to apply to the Freer
residuary fund. The shares of this corporation now received for
the several specific purposes provided by Mr. Freer are as follows:

Shares

Curators funda reer Callery of Art= gue 2. miresbor Ty Peeve nett They 1, 742
Court and grounds fund, Freer Gallery of Art_--_----_--_-__-______ 1, 742
Court and grounds, maintenance. fund, Freer Gallery of Art___-----__ 435
reer residpanyg fonds. => ee es Paininetl a Tes aie eeees 16, 546
4 ERO EFT Rp at a A A PUNE IES EE EL ie i eres 20, 465

To pay inheritance and Federal taxes, it became necessary, with
the approval of the Board of Regents, to place a loan with a local
trust company for that purpose. The loan is being gradually re-
duced and now amounts to $170,000.

Dividends and interest on securities acquired from the Freer
estate have amounted to $83,127.36. Thirty thousand dollars have
been expended to liquidate the above-mentioned obligation, and
$55,034.48 for purposes prescribed by the testator, including the
purchase of art objects.

The sum of $55,823.44, constituting the balance of the building
fund, was transferred to the books of the Institution, and $32,122.78
has been expended. With the addition of a credit transferred from
another Freer fund, the balance available for completion and equip-
ment of the building is $32,074.97.

The Institution’s income for general expenses is received period-
ically and at times is in excess of immediate requirements. A part
of this income is deposited on time at the rate of 3 per cent per
annum. This year interest acquired principally in this manner
amounted to $2,033.93.

The income during the year for current expenses, consisting of
interest on permanent investments and other miscellaneous re-
sources, was $61,872.14, receipts from Freer bequest $138,950.80.
other revenues for specific purposes, $50,850.04; which, with cash
on hand and subject to check on July 1, 1921, amounting to
$11,229.34, constituted a total of $262,902.32.

The disbursements, described more fully in the annual report
of the executive committee, were classed as follows: General ob-
jects of the Institution, $62,749.17; investments and expenditures
for specific purposes, $33,553.24; temporary advances in excess of
repayments, $2,578.50; cash deposited on time, $40,500; disbursed

553879—24——2

6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

from revenues of Freer bequest, $117,157.26; and $6,864.15 in cash
and deposited subject to check.

The Institution was charged by Congress with the disbursement
of the following appropriations for the year ending June 30, 1922:

NTILETMALLONE HOR eg 2 $50, 000. 00
Joa TVS) TST eT a CH TANG LT: ge Al S Se aN Al ln els Spl ame eS Ops rors a 46, 000. 00
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_____-____________ 7, 500. 00
Astrophysical, Observatory «lf sii neluweid_so2o ities aihinege 15, 500. 00
National Museum:
Murniturec and. fixtures... 2.5.2.3. 18. eee $20, 000. 00
Heating and) lighting’ Js. /o_te :vrotipil serie 70, 000. 00
Heating and lighting (deficiency) —---___ DOSUIOALR 4, 000. 00
Preservation. of ‘collections #220222 ee ee 312, 620. 00
Preservation of collections (deficiency )--__________ 15. 84
La RUN (Ou aE YSAg6 of 2) C20 a 5 ert 8 ode ar el oe om ee crv sun pcraimnigpentey 10, 000. 00
BOOKS osha n aaeanad 4: aie} leyoheH. prea an 2, 000, 00
Books, :(deficiency),. 28 22.5" 28.4. Bebe St 3. 02
i Ee ea ale ee eC 8c 500. 00
419, 138. 86
Natonsl .Gallery uote Amte = oe aja Se eee eee eee 15, 000. 00
National(Zoological Parkioos. 23. ucuLis2_ 420 dente it | DER 2 __ 125, 000. 00
Additional land for Zoological Park______--_.-_-_-u-_ a 2, 500. 00
lt 0 | ga eS RNG Serer re rte st ene Meee ek Leh eae 680, 638. 86

There was also appropriated for printing and binding $91,000, to
cover the cost of printing and binding the Smithsonian annual re-
port and reports and miscellaneous printing for Government branches
of the Institution.

RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS.

Each year the Institution sends out, as far as its limited funds
permit, expeditions for the purpose of exploring scientifically little-
known regions of the earth, or to conduct needed field work in more
familiar localities, thus furthering one of its principal objects,
the “increase of knowledge.” It is also able to cooperate advan-
tageously with other institutions by contributing members of its
scientific staff to expeditions already organized and financed. The
results of the more noteworthy of these expeditions are here de-
scribed briefly, and the field work of the various branches of the
Institution will be found in the appendixes to this report.

GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES.

During the summer and early fall of 1921 your secretary carried
on geological field work in the Canadian Rocky Mountains in con-
tinuation of previous years’ work in this region. His objects were
to secure data on the pre-Devonian strata of the Sawback Range

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. t

in Ranger Brook Canyon and to conduct a reconnaissance of the
pre-Devonian formations to the Northwest as far as the headwaters
of the North Fork of the Saskatchewan River, Alberta.

The field season was an unusually unfavorable one for geological
work. During the three months in the field 35 days were stormy,
28 cloudy and cold, and snow fell on 20 days in August and Sep-
tember. As a result, not more than one-third of the work planned
was accomplished before the party was driven back to the railroad
by heavy snows.

On our way north we crossed over Pipestone Pass and down the
Siffeur River. Clearwater River heads in glacial gravels on the
east side of the Siffleur about 2 miles north of Pipestone Pass.
Twenty-five miles farther to the northwest at the point where the
south branch (Mistaya Creek), the middle branch (Howse River),
and the north branch unite to form the Saskatchewan River there
are some beautiful and instructive views of the surrounding moun-
tains. The Mount Forbes massif on the left is a superb mountain
mass and in the distant center is Division Mountain at the head of
Glacier Lake Canyon which we visited in 1919, on the right Survey
Peak and beyond two unnamed points. The Glacier Lake section
of the pre-Devonian and Upper Cambrian formations was studied
on the northern slopes of the Mount Forbes massif.

Twelve miles northeast of Mount Forbes the cliffs of Mount
Murchison rise high above the dark forested slopes and present a
view of the Devonian and pre-Devonian formations that is un-
equaled in all this region of peaks, cliffs, and broad canyon valleys.

Opposite Mount Murchison on the north side of the Saskatchewan,
Mount Wilson presents another section of the pre-Devonian forma-
tions, the upper end of which is a massive white quartzite formed
of the sands of the beaches over which the Devonian Sea deposited
a thick layer of calcareous sediments abounding in the remains of
corals and various invertebrates of the time. On the west, Mount
Wilson rises directly above the North Fork of the Saskatchewan,
which here flows through a narrow picturesque inner canyon.

PALEONTOLOGICAL FIELD WORK IN THE UNITED STATES.

Dr. R. 8. Bassler, curator of the division of paleontology in the
National Museum, was occupied during the field season in collecting
geologic material and in mapping and studying the economic re-
sources of the Franklin quadrangle in Williamson County, Tenn.,
in cooperation with the Geological Survey of that State. This region
is of considerable economic interest on account of the phosphate
and oil shale possibilities. The numerous outcrops of Ordovician
and later Paleozoic formations contain a great number of fossils,

8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and Doctor Bassler was able to make a considerable collection of
these needed for the Museum study series. He also secured several
large exhibition specimens illustrating various geological phe-
nomena, among these being a large mass of limestone composed en-
tirely of the dismembered calices and columns of a large species of
rrinoid or sea lily in which the individual fragments are perfectly
preserved and admirably illustrate the formation of a limestone
through the accumulation of this type of animal remains.

An interesting stratigraphic observation was made on the efficacy
of the coral reefs of the Ordovician in rock formation. A massive
limestone bed about 15 feet thick, representing a middle Ordovician
formation, here contains but a single coral reef, but within 10 miles
the number of intercalated coral reefs has so increased that the for-
mation attains a thickness of over 250 feet.

In April Mr. C. W. Gilmore, associate curator of vertebrate pale-
ontology, was authorized to undertake a trip into New Mexico “ for
the purpose of making collections of geological material for the Na-
tional Museum and determining the advisability of preserving cer-
tain lands in northern New Mexico for national monumental pur-
poses.” ‘Mr. Gilmore was obliged to report that—

Since the many square miles of “ bad lands” surrounding the reserved area
are equally fossiliferous and in places present much more favorable territory
for the recovery of fossil remains than any observed within the boundaries of
the monument, and also since the greater part of these surrounding areas lie
within Pueblo grants, over which Federal control has been relinquished, there
would be no advantage in retaining governmental control of so small a part
of the area as is represented in the proposed monument.

Mr. Gilmore did, however, find a contiguous fossiliferous area in
the Santa Clara Pueblo grant and secured for the Museum a well-
preserved skull and other bones of a small rhinoceros, and, in an
adjoining Pojoaque Pueblo area, remains of an extinct camel. The
most promising area for collecting would appear to lie within land
grants over which the Government has at present no control.

In January, this same year, Mr. J. W. Gidley, assistant curator of
this division, was authorized, in cooperation with the United States
Geological Survey, to conduct field explorations in the San Pedro
and Sulphur Springs Valleys of southern Arizona, and on the com-
pletion of this work to visit the La Brea asphalt deposits of southern
California, and from there go to Agate, in Nebraska, for the pur-
pose of securing other exhibition material. The work in Arizona
was eminently successful, Mr. Gidley shipping some 24 boxes having
an aggregate weight of 5,000 pounds. The bulk of this collection,
he reports, represents “a practically new Pliocene fauna containing
about 60 vertebrate species, most of which are mammalian,”

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9g

BOTANICAL EXPEDITION TO THE ORIENT.

As noted in last year’s report, Dr. A. S. Hitchcock, custodian of
the section of grasses of the National Museum, visited the Orient
under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture for the purpose
of collecting and studying grasses, especially the bamboos. As the
specimens collected come to the National Museum, it will not be out
of place to here mention briefly Doctor Hitchcock’s work. The trip
occupied about eight months, ending in December, 1921, and the
regions visited included the Philippines, Japan, China, and Indo-
China.

Japan is not very favorable for the collecting of grasses, as it is
mostly a forested region and there is comparatively little open coun-
try. The bamboos were of interest, as there are many species. In
the Lake Hakone region the hills were covered for miles with a
single species of bamboo (Arundinaria chino), 4 to 8 feet high, often
to the exclusion of everything else.

China, on the other hand, was very rich in grasses. One of the
surprises of the trip was to find so much open grass land in a country
that is said to be very thickly populated. The cities of China are
very much crowded and the valley lands are intensively cultivated,
but the hills are unoccupied and almost unused. This is in striking
contrast to our own western regions where, except in national forests
and other protected areas, the grass lands are extensively grazed.
The basic reason for this condition in China appears to be the risk
from bandits. The valley lands can be protected but the hills are
open to the attack of robbers.

The expendition was very successful, and a large and valuable col-
lection of grasses was brought back. The technical results of the
work will be published later by the Department of Agriculture or the
National Herbarium of the National Museum.

AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION.

Through the generosity of Dr. W, L. Abbott, Mr. Charles M. Hoy
continued his work of collecting for the Museum specimens of the
very interesting fauna of Australia. The work was terminated dur-
ing the winter and Mr. Hoy returned to the United States in May,
1922. The results of this expedition are of especial value for two
reasons: First, the Australian fauna has heretofore been but scantily
represented in the Museum, and, second, the remarkable fauna of
that continent is rapidly being exterminated through various causes.
The specimens received during the year bring the total up to 1,179
mammals, including series of skeletal and embryological material ;
928 birds, with 41 additional examples in alcohol; and smaller collec-
tions of reptiles, amphibians, insects, marine specimens, etc.

10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

For assistance and courtesies extended to Mr. Hoy while in Aus-
tralia the Smithsonian Institution wishes to make grateful acknowl-
edgment to the authorities of the Australian Museum, Sydney; the
Queensland Museum, Brisbane; the South Australian Museum, Ade-
laide; the West Australian Museum and Art Gallery, Perth; and
the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart; also and particu-
larly to Dr. Charles Hedley and Dr. Charles Anderson, of Sydney;
Harry Burrell, Esq., of Kensington, New South Wales; and Capt.
S. W. White of Fulham, South Australia.

BIOLOGIOAL EXPLORATION IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIO.

Dr. W. L. Abbott, whose generosity in years past has enabled the
Institution to take advantage of many opportunities in biological and
other explorations, himself visited during the year the Dominican
Republic, working in both the Samana Peninsula and the region
lying between Sanchez (at the head of Samana Bay) and Puerto
Plata, on the north coast. Having visited this region before, he was
able to select new and interesting localities for collecting.

Doctor Abbott’s work included botanical, zoological, and ethnologi-
cal collecting, and the specimens sent in to the National Museum will
go far toward completing the various series representing this region.
Some 4,000 plants were collected, of which about 20 per cent were
ferns. The ethnological material, including aboriginal Indian pot-
tery and idols, is of great interest and has been described and figured
in the annual pamphlet on the explorations and field work of the
Institution.

ENTOMOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ALASKA,

Dr. J. M. Aldrich, associate curator of insects in the National
Museum, spent several weeks during the field season collecting in-
sects in Alaska. The Government railroad from the southern coast
to Fairbanks, now nearing completion, offered an opportunity for
travel not heretofore existing, and it was felt that it was important
to know more about the insect fauna of this great region in view
of the fact that the population will undoubtedly increase with the
completion of the railroad. Regarding his work, Doctor Aldrich
says:

The expedition resulted in the accession of about 10,000 specimens of
Alaska insects, nearly all from the interior region. As far as they have
been studied up to the present time they indicate three somewhat distinct
faunal regions in the territory covered.

First, the maritime fauna consisting of the insects living upon the sea-
shore and depending upon the ocean for necessary conditions of existence.
Insects of this group extend down the coast, in many cases as far as the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11

State of Washington and some even so far as San Francisco, while it is
presumed that they would also be found more or less in the Asiatic side of
Bering Sea.

The second element is that of the humid mountain region along the coast;
a considerable part of this fauna extends to Puget Sound, Mount Rainier,
and in less degree to other mountains of the Pacific Northwest. The relation
of this element to the Asiatie fauna is very little known.

The third element of the Alaska fauna, as far as observed, is that of the
dry interior and especially of the Yukon Valley, which has many elements
in common with northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, Ontario, the
Adirondack Mountains of New York, and the White Mountains of New
Hampshire. Many of the insects of this group also occur in the Rocky
Mountains of Colorado and no doubt further exploration will show that they
occur in other mountains of the western United States. Those which repre-
sent a more northern range also reappear in Labrador collections and pre-
sumably extend across North America, although we have no collections from
intermediate points. This element contains many species known from Fin-
land and the Scandinavian Peninsula in Europe, presumably extending in
their distribution across Russia and Siberia.

In most orders of insects Alaska has a comparatively large fauna. There
are very numerous species of the two-winged flies, or Diptera; and from
Doctor Aldrich’s long experienve with this group he naturally paid special atten-
tion to collecting in this order.

Bumblebees and wasps are conspicuous insects everywhere on flowers; and
in the absence of darkness bumblebees were observed to work as late as 10:30
at night in Fairbanks. Grasshoppers were strikingly scarce, only two species
being found and in all but half a dozen specimens. Mosquitoes in the interior
are exceedingly abundant, as is well known. Hspecial attention was given to
them in collecting, and two species previously undescribed were among the
material brought back. It appears, however, that the most troublesome species
are the same ones which occur in somewhat less numbers in the Pacific North-
west in occasional favorable localities. Horseflies are very numerous in the
region at Wairbanks, where they are commonly called moosefiies, since the moose
is more common than the horse.

The exploration of Alaska, especially the interior, from an entomological
point of view, is important in itself and also forms a link in the study of a
much broader problem—that of the entire Holarctic fauna which extends almost
continuously around the globe in the vicinity of the Arctic Circle. It is a
matter of great scientific interest to determine how much of this northern
fauna is the same in the New World as in the Old, and also to determine how
much of the fauna farther south, as, for instance, in the United States, has been
derived from this northern region. It is hoped that opportunity will arise to
carry this exploration much farther, not only in Alaska, where as yet only a
beginning has been made, but also in other northern regions, as, for instance,
Labrador, Greenland, and Siberia.

THE INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH IN TROPICAL AMERICA,

The recently organized Institute for Research in Tropical America,
of which the Smithsonian Institution is a member, is hoping to
establish a research station in Panama. Such a station when prop-
erly equipped will serve as a center for the prosecution of research
upon problems in tropical biology and agriculture, and as a center
from which biological explorations can be made.

12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

PLORA OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

At the request of Gen. Leonard Wood, Governor General of the
Philippine Islands, a plan for the preparation of a flora of the
Philippine Islands was drawn up by the Institution, together with
an estimate of the cost. This work, which it is proposed will be
accomplished through cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution
with the Philippine Government, will be of the greatest importance
to the agricultural interests, and, since the prosperity of the Phil-
ippines is primarily dependent on agriculture, to the islands them-
selves. In addition to these material benefits, such a flora would be
of great value to science, and a large number of specimens of rare
and valuable plants from the Philippines would come to the National
Herbarium as a result of its preparation.

At the close of the fiscal year funds had not been appropriated
for beginning the work.

BAIRD MEMORIAL COMMITTEE.

To celebrate the centenary of the birth of Spencer Fullerton
Baird, second secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, February
3, 1923, there was formed early in 1922 the Baird Memorial Com-
mittee. It was decided at a preliminary meeting that a public
meeting should be held in Washington on February 3, 1923, at which
addresses would be delivered and announcements made of the form
of memorial or memorials that had been decided upon, and that
wreaths should be placed on the grave of Baird in Oak Hill Ceme-
tery, the bust of Baird in the American Museum of Natural History
in New York City, the Baird memorial bowlder of the American
Fisheries Society at Woods Hole, and the Baird memorial tablet
at the Bureau of Fisheries in Washington.

The form which the memorial to Professor Baird should take was
not definitely decided upon, several plans having been considered.
Among these were a bust or tablet to be erected in the Smithsonian
grounds, the establishment of a Baird memorial medal to be awarded
for specially meritorious work in science, the publication of a memo-
rial volume of original scientific papers by Baird’s associates or fol-
lowers, and a fisheries exhibit, preferably a museum.

DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIPLE-CHARGE ROCKET.

The development of a model multiple-charge rocket, mentioned
in previous reports, for the purpose of demonstrating the principle,
is being continued by Prof. Robert H. Goddard, of Clark University,
under a grant from the Hodgkins fund.

The specific work of the past year has been the development and
test of certain new features which will increase considerably the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. fo

effectiveness of the apparatus. A discussion of these, in detail, is
deferred for a later report. Additional financial support has been
granted for the work by Clark University.

PUBLICATIONS.

A total of 164 volumes and pamphlets were issued during the
year by the Institution and its branches. Of these publications,
there were distributed a total of 165,196 copies, including 251
volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl-
edge, 20,777 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections, 27,268 volumes and separates of the Smith-
sonian annual reports, 97,806 volumes and separates of the publica-
tions of the National Museum, 14,215 publications of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, 3,159 special publications, 706 volumes of
the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 64 reports on the
Harriman Alaska expedition, and 812 reports of the American His-
torical Association.

The Institution carries out one of its chief functions, the “ dif-
fusion of knowledge,” by means of its various series of publications.
They embrace the results of investigations and systematic studies
in nearly every branch of natural science, and are distributed, in
most cases free of charge, to important libraries, educational in-
stitutions, and scientific establishments throughout the world. In
order to assist in creating a greater popular interest in scientific
matters, the annual report of the Institution has always contained
a general appendix consisting of a large selection of authentic,
semipopular articles reviewing recent advances in every branch of
scientific activity. There is a widespread and growing demand
for this publication, showing an increased appreciation of the value
of science and scientific investigations.

Besides the annual report, the Institution issues two series of
publications, the Contributions to Knowledge and the Miscellaneous
Collections. The publications of the National Museum and the
Bureau of American Ethnology are mentioned in the reports of
those branches appended hereto.

Of the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 9 papers
were issued during the year, among them one paper by your sec-
retary in the series on Cambrian Geology and Paleontology, and
the usual annual pamphlet describing and illustrating the various
scientific expeditions sent out or cooperated in by the Smithsonian
Institution.

Allotments for printing—The congressional allotments for the
printing of the Smithsonian reports and the various publications
of the branches of the Institution were practically used up at the

14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

close of the year. The allotments for the coming year ending June
30, 1923, are as follows:

For printing and binding the Annual Reports of the Board of Regents,
with general appendixes, the editions of which shall not exceed
TOO" "copies: = ee ee py espe reg eee eet eee $10, 000
Under the Smithsonian Institution: For the annual reports of the
National Museum, with general appendixes, and for printing labels
and blanks, and for the bulletins and proceedings of the National
Museum, the editions of which shall not exceed 4,000 copies, and
binding, in half morocco or material not more expensive, scientific
books and pamphlets presented to or acquired by the National
Mtiseum' Hhibrany 20 SO) Oe Ue A Be ee ee ee eee eae 37, 500
For the annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of American
Hthnology, and for miscellaneous printing and binding for the

PNG a a ee 2 ge ee Se a le pt a ae ee 21, 000

For the annual report of the National Gallery of Art and for printing
Catalogues, labels, and Planks. 222 SS seek ees te ee Se eee 1, 000

For miscellaneous printing and binding:

They internafionali Eixchanges:: © le. lias. wovlpsarcss edonl fst: 200
The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature____.._._____ 100
The National: Zoolorical: Park. 2. 2. 2282 ee 2 a 300
The AStrophysical- “ODservaLrory._ > -— i oe eee ee 300
For the annual report of the American Historical Association______ 7, 000
77, 400

Provided, 'That the expenditure of this sum shall not be restricted
to a pro rata amount in any period of the fiscal year.

Committee on printing and publication—The purpose of the
Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication is to
make recommendations regarding the merit and suitability of all
manuscripts submitted for publication by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion or its branches and also to consider all other matters relating to
printing and binding under the Institution. During the past year
eight meetings were held and 100 manuscripts acted upon. The
membership of the committee is as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger,
head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr. George
P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum; Dr. J. Walter
Fewkes, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology; Mr. N. Hollister,
superintendent, National Zoological Park; and Mr. W. P. True,
editor of the Smithsonian Institution, secretary.

LIBRARY.

The facilities of the library have been taxed to the utmost. The
number of loans for the fiscal year amounted to 14,436, and as many
more books and periodicals were consulted without being taken from
the buildings. Interlibrary loans to accredited libraries, where
distance permits, are being continued, and in a number of instances
arrangements have been made for the photostating of pages from
rare volumes not permitted to leave the library.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

Each day typewritten lists of original articles appearing in scien-
tific periodicals received for the Smithsonian deposit in the Library
of Congress are prepared and circulated among the heads of scien-
tific bureaus under the Institution. These daily bibliographical lists,
begun last November at the request of Secretary Walcott, have been
well received from the start. Requests have come in for copies from
other Government bureaus and research organizations, which it has
not been possible to comply with, owing to lack of necessary equip-
ment for the preparation of additional copies. The library now
possesses more than a million volumes, pamphlets, manuscripts, and
charts, there being 888,128 publications deposited in the Library of
Congress, 156,275 belonging to the National Museum, and 35,000
belonging to other branches of the Institution. The number of
additions for the fiscal year was 15,796.

As noteworthy additions to the various branch libraries might
be mentioned that of the Géttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen for 1758,
1760, 1808, 1813, and 1814 to the Smithsonian deposit, by gift of the
Gesellschaft fiir Wissenschaften zu Gdéttingen; Serindia, by Sir
Aurel Stein, to the office library, at present deposited in the Freer
Building, the gift of the Secretary of State for India; and the
second and third volumes of Beebe’s Monograph of the Pheasants,
added to the library of the National Zoological Park.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The year has been an unusually busy one for the Museum, but
although of late years its activities have greatly increased and its
scope widely extended, the appropriation for its maintenance has
remained practically the same for the past 11 years. Much credit
is due the members of the Museum’s staff for the fine results recorded
from year to year. Undoubtedly the most important event of the
year was the receipt and installation of the Herbert Ward collection
of African ethnologica and sculptures. This collection, one of the
most important ethnological units in the world, was brought together
by Herbert Ward, an Englishman, who was with Stanley on his
famous exploring expedition through Africa. It consists of 2,700
ethnological specimens and 19 superb sculptures in bronze of African
natives by Mr. Ward.

An actual beginning was made during the year toward establish-
ing the Loeb collection of chemical types, noted in the 1920 report.
Two specially constructed cabinets were received from the Chemists’
Club of New York, and a portion of each of seven new chemical
compounds discovered in the Department of Agriculture were de-
posited in the collection. It is planned to solicit all available new
chemical material, with the view of eventually making of the Loeb
collection a complete series for the use of investigators in chemistry.

16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The Museum acquired during the year a total of 359,677 speci-
mens. These are described somewhat in detail in the report on the
Museum, appended hereto, but it will be of interest to mention here
a few of the more important accessions. In anthropology the most
important addition was the Herbert Ward African collection men-
tioned above. A large collection of the brilliant ancient pottery from
the ruins of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico, was received through
the Archeological Society of Washington, and a remarkable series
of aboriginal pottery collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in the
neighboring Mimbres Valley, N. Mex., was also placed on exhibition.
A number of pianos were added by Mr. Hugo Worch to his notable
collection, among them a magnificent gilt harpsichord made by
Pleyel, Paris.

In the department of biology the outstanding feature of the year’s
accessions is the collection of about 100,000 insects collected by Dr.
William Mann in South America, especially eastern Bolivia. An-
other important collection of insects was that made by Dr. J. M.
Aldrich in Alaska, which numbered around 10,000 specimens. A
considerable consignment of biological material, mostly vertebrates,
was received from Mr. Hoy, who has been working in Australia
under the auspices of Dr. W. L. Abbott. This material brings the
important Australian expedition to a most successful termination.

In geology a number of valuable additions were made to the
collections, among them specimens of Bolivian tin and tungsten
ores from Mr. F. L. Hess; rich examples of carnotite and hewettite
presented by the Standard Chemical Co., Naturita, Colo.; eight gold
nuggets donated by Mr. Frank Springer; a large mass of meteoric
iron from Owen Valley, Calif., the gift of Mr. Lincoln Ellsworth,
of New York; a number of beautiful and valuable gems purchased
for the Isaac Lea collection through its endowment fund; and a con-
siderable amount of paleontological material, both vertebrate and
invertebrate.

The divisions of mineral and mechanical technology have devoted
their time largely to a more perfect and permanent arrangement of
the great amount of exhibition material already on hand, while the
divisions of history, textiles, and graphic arts report many valuable
and interesting additions to their collections.

In addition to the explorations and field work mentioned earlier
in this report, the Museum sent out or cooperated in various other
expeditions. Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby continued his work in
China under the auspices of Mr. Robert Sterling Clark, who gen-
erously contributed all the material collected to the Museum. A
shipment of vertebrates and other biological material was received
from this expedition during the year. Mr. Paul C. Standley.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

through the cooperation of various agencies, spent five months in
botanical collecting in El Salvador and Guatemala, bringing back
over 6,000 specimens. Another botanical expedition, consisting of
Dr. F. W. Pennell and Mr. E. P. Killip, was in western Colombia
at the close of the year under the auspices of various scientific or-
ganizations. The purpose of the exploration was to study the flora
and secure botanical specimens in this region, as one of a series lead-
ing up to a complete study of the flora of northern South America.

The auditorium and adjacent rooms of the Museum were used by
numerous societies and organizations for meetings, congresses, and
lectures. The Museum published during the year 9 volumes and 78
separate papers. These are described somewhat in detail in the
“ Report on publications,” Appendix 10 of this report. The number
of visitors to the National History Building during the year was
441,604; to the Arts and Industries Building, 262,151; and to the
Aircraft Building, 46,380.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART.

Although the number of art works accessioned by the National
Gallery during the year falls short of the average of recent years.
nevertheless progress in the gallery’s activities has been satisfactory.
The greatest handicap to its work continues to be lack of exhibition
space. It is believed that the falling off in number of accessions
noted above is in part due to this shortage of space, as owners of
valuable art works very naturally desire to see them adequately
housed and exhibited. The urgent need of a suitable gallery for
the national collections, already valued in the millions, will be readily
understood when it is considered that until the past year the acces-
sions to the collections were estimated at hundreds of thousands
annually. If accessions are turned elsewhere on account of the lack
of space to exhibit them, it is evident that in a few years the loss will
amount to more than the cost of a building.

Among the accessions received during the year was a portrait of
President Grant, by Thomas Le Clear, presented by Mrs. U. S.
Grant, jr.; an oil painting entitled “The Signing of the Treaty of
Ghent,” by Sir A. Forestier, presented to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion by the Sulgrave Institution; a painting entitled “ Tohickon,”
by Daniel Garber, provided through the Henry Ward Ranger be-
quest; and a portrait of Edwin H. Harriman, an artist’s proot etch-
ing, one of 21 from the copper. A number of interesting art works
were loaned to the gallery during the year, among them being 71
portraits in pastel, in a series of 22 life-size groups of Union and Con-
federate veterans of the Civil War, painted from life by Walter
Beck, of Brooklyn, N. Y.. 50 years after the Battle of Appomattox,

18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

loaned by the artist through Mr. Walter M. Grant, of New York
City.

Preliminary steps had been taken at the end of the year toward
the acceptance of a rich collection of British masterpieces brought
together by the late John H. McFadden, of Philadelphia. The col-
lection comprises 44 notable examples of the work of nineteen British
artists, and the acceptance of this valuable loan is regarded with
much favor.

A number of paintings were acquired from the income of the
Henry Ward Ranger bequest and assigned to various art institutions
throughout the country. The terms of this bequest stipulate that
any of the art works so acquired may be claimed during a certain
period after the artist’s death by the National Gallery of Art,
remaining thereafter the property of the National Gallery. The
selection and distribution of these purchases is entrusted to the
National Academy of Design.

The income from the Bruce Hughes bequest is to be used to estab-
lish and maintain a section of the library of the National Gallery
for reference works of art, to be known as the Hughes alcove. Dur-
ing the year the first purchases were made from this fund. An
illustrated catalogue of the art works of the gallery was prepared
and submitted to the printer during the year, but on June 30, 1922,
had not been published. A lecture on the National Gallery, illus-
trated by 75 slides mostly in color, was prepared, and is to be placed
at the disposal of persons throughout the country who desire to
present it.
| The first annual meeting of the National Gallery of Art Com-
mission was held on December 6, 1921. Reports of the committees
were presented and many important matters relating to the gallery
were discussed, among them the urgent need of a National Gallery
Building and the problem of the acceptance of proffered works of art.

FREER GALLERY OF ART.

Work during the year on the collections of the Freer Gallery
of Art included chiefly the classification and cataloguing of Chinese,
Japanese, and Tibetan paintings, Chinese tapestries, and Chinese and
Japanese pottery; the preliminary classification of Korean pottery
and Chinese and Japanese stone sculptures and jades; and the
cataloguing of American paintings, drawings, and prints.

Progress has been made also on completing certain portions of the
interior of the building and on the installation of the collections.
Miss Grace Dunham Guest was appointed assistant curator on Janu-
ary 1, 1922, and Mr. Carl W. Bishop associate curator, April 9, 1922.
Miss Guest sailed for Europe on June 24, 1922, to represent the
Freer Gallery at the double centennial meeting of the Société Asia-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

tique de Paris, and to study European collections of oriental art,
especially ceramics.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

The material culture and ceremonials of the American Indian
are being modified so rapidly through contact with the white race
that it is imperative for the bureau to make every effort to record
all possible data bearing on the aboriginal Indian culture. The de-
sirability of preserving this material so that accurate knowledge
of this interesting and vanishing race may be available for future
generations is evident. Another important line of endeavor is the
excavating and repairing of prehistoric Indian dwellings. These
ancient ruins are the object of great popular as well as scientific
interest, and it is the aim of the chief of the bureau to continue
this archeological phase of the work in so far as funds will permit.

A new line of investigation has opened up for the bureau dur-
ing the year, namely, the study of the material culture, and espe-
cially the architecture of the houses, of the aborigines of Alaska.
The early villages of the Alaskan Indians have in many cases been
deserted in the exodus to the canning factories, and the totem poles
and villages which are rapidly being destroyed by the elements
should be preserved in the immediate future so that they will not be
Jost forever. During the spring of 1922, Dr. T. T. Waterman con-
ducted for the bureau an extended reconnaissance of the situation,
bringing back many interesting data and photographs. It is in-
tended to continue the work next year with a larger appropriation.

The work in the field and in the office of the individual members
of the staff is reviewed somewhat in detail in Appendix 4 of this
report, so that it will be necessary here only to give an idea of the
scope of the work. The chief continued his successful archeo-
logical field work on the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., bring-
ing to light a most interesting and instructive ruin which he has
named “ Pipe Shrine House” on account of the numerous tobacco
pipes found on a shrine in the kiva of this ruin. He also excavated
and repaired Far View Tower, a round structure 10 feet high,
which was probably used for observations of the position of the
sun on the horizon at sunrise and sunset, in order to determine the
time for planting and other dates important for an agricultural
people.

The chief also visited the three groups of towers in Utah which
he has recommended for the Hovenweep National Monument, and
determined the exact situation of these ruins as a preliminary to
a presidential proclamation setting aside this area as a national
monument.

20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Dr. John R. Swanton continued work on his dictionaries of the
Hitchiti and Alabama languages. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt devoted
his time to a number of Chippewa and Ottawa texts, and in con-
tinuing the preparation of the second part of his work on Iro-
quoian Cosmology, the first part of which has already been pub-
lished by the bureau. Mr. Francis La Flesche completed and
turned in during the year the manuscript of the second volume of
his publication on The Osage Tribe. Dr. Truman Michelson car-
ried on field work among the Fox Indians of Iowa, paying special
attention to the linguistic relations of this and neighboring tribes.
Mr. J. P. Harrington completed his bulletin on the Kiowa language
and conducted field work among the Indians of the Chumashan
area of California, laying special emphasis on the place names,
material culture, and language.

Under the head of special researches, the chief of the bureau
describes the work of Miss Frances Densmore on Indian music.
During the year she recorded songs among the Yuma, Cocopa, and
Yaqui tribes, making a total of nine tribes among whom this work
has been done. Mr. W. E. Myer investigated Indian sites in South
Dakota and western Missouri known to have been occupied by the
Omahas and Osages in early historic times after they had come
in contact with the whites but before they had been changed thereby
to any considerable extent.

Several other interesting special researches are reviewed in the
appendix on the bureau, among them field work by Mr. D. lI.
Bushnell, Jr., on the Cahokia mounds in Illinois; by Mr. B. S. Guha,
among the Utes and the Navaho at Towoac, Colo., and Shiprock,
N. Mex.; and by Mr. John L. Baer on pictographic rocks in the
Susquehanna River.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

During the year the number of packages of scientific and gov-
ernmental publications sent abroad and received from foreign coun-
tries totaled 592,600 pounds. Although these figures show a de-
crease from the previous year, on account of the fact that ship-
ments to Germany were resumed during that year and most of the
material accumulated during the war was sent out, nevertheless
there is an increase of 41,490 packages over the number sent out
in 1914, the last year before the World War, showing that there
is a steady growth in the work of the International Exchange
service.

Exchange relations were reopened during the year with Ru-
mania and Yugoslavia, the agencies in these countries being, re-
spectively, the Institutul Meteorological Central at Bukharest, and
the Académie Royale Serbe des Sciences et des Arts, Belgrade.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. o1

Relations were established also with the newly formed Governments
of Esthonia, Far Eastern Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukrainia.
Conditions in Russia and Turkey are not yet sufficiently settled to
warrant the exchange of publications previously carried on between
the United States and these countries.

The number of boxes shipped abroad during the year was larger
than ever before, due largely to the opening of exchange relations
with Yugoslovia and certain of the independent Russian States,
the material for these countries having accumulated here for sev-
eral years.

The regular schedule of shipments to foreign countries was re-
sumed during the year. To Great Britain and Germany, shipments
are made weekly; to France and Italy, semimonthly; and to other
countries, monthly.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

The past year has been one of the most successful since the estab-
lishment of the park. The number of visitors exceeded 2,000,000;
the collection of animals is larger and more important than ever
before; a number of minor improvements have been completed and
progress made on certain larger projects; and the reservation itself
has been maintained in excellent condition. That the popularity
of the park as a source of recreation and instruction continues
unabated is shown by the fact that for the third consecutive year
the attendance has exceeded 2,000,000, and its increasing value as
a supplement to school-room instruction in natural history is demon-
strated by the 205 schools and classes visiting the park during the
year, with a total of 18,585 individuals.

The total number of animals on exhibition at the close of the year
was 1,681, representing 482 species of mammals, birds, and reptiles.
This is not only a larger number of individual animals than ever
shown before, but also a larger number of different species. Among
the 656 accessions received during the year, 217 were gifts. Among
these may be mentioned two important collections from South
America, one made by Dr. William M. Mann on the Mulford Bio-
logical Explorations of the Amazon Basin and presented by the
H. K. Mulford Co. of Philadelphia, the other made by Mr. W. J.
La Varre, jr., and presented by him. These two collections con-
tain several species of South American monkeys and birds never
before shown at the park. One hundred and fifty mammals, birds,
and reptiles were born in the park during the year.

Under the heading of improvements the report of the superin-
tendent mentions a large project of grading, leveling, and filling in

553879 —24——3

22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the west central part of the park, which was practically completed
during the year. This work makes available for the exhibition of
hoofed animals a large area of comparatively level ground. Also it
will be possible to greatly improve the main automobile road through
the park. Extensive repairs were completed on the antelope house
and the older bear dens. Three large outdoor cages were built for
certain birds, and many minor repairs were completed during the
year. The most urgent need of the park is now a suitable restaurant
building to accommodate the greatly increased crowds of visitors.
The present small building is in bad condition and is entirely in-
adequate to meet the needs of the public. A suitable building could
be erected, using lumber in the possession of the park and employing
the regular park force, for about $20,000. Another urgent need is
for a new bird house, the old building, erected many years ago as a
temporary relief, being in a very bad state of repair. Moreover, there
is not sufficient space for the very valuable and interesting collection
of birds and there is far too little room for visitors in the public
aisles.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

The outstanding feature of the year’s work was the publication
of Volume IV of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, a
quarto volume of 390 pages, which covers in detail the work of the
years 1912 to 1920. New instruments and methods of observing are
described and a mass of solar observations is presented and dis-
cussed. Many kinds of evidence are given to show the solar vari-
ability, and reference is made to applications of the results which
have been made by several meteorologists.

The observing station erected on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz.,
through the generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling, has been much
improved, owing to the zeal of Mr. A. F. Moore, in charge of the
station. Solar constant observations were made on upward of 70 per
cent of the days of the year. Comparisons made during and after
a visit by the director show no change in the scale of pyrheliometry,
so that the results from this station are comparable with those at
Montezuma, Chile. Earlier in the year the director visited the
station at Montezuma, where he revised all the adjustments of appa-
ratus and some of the methods employed there.

In June the director and Mr. L. B. Aldrich proceeded to the
Smithsonian station on Mount Wilson, Calif., where a beginning
was made toward installing new “solar constant” apparatus to re-
place that removed to the new Arizona station in 1920. By antici-
pation it may be said that later results were secured on the dis-
tribution of energy in the spectra of 11 of the brighter stars by
bolometric work in connection with the hundred-inch telescope, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

also that the solar-energy curve was traced bolometrically with both
glass and rock-salt prisms. The solar cooking apparatus on Mount
Wilson referred to in previous reports suffered the loss of the cover
of the oil reservoir through a high wind, and snow having gotten
in, much water had leaked into the oil reservoir. It proved im-
possible to remedy this condition soon enough to undertake the
proposed new experiments before the expedition returned to Wash-
ington in September.

In order to get the opinions of competent critics as to the value
of the Smithsonian solar radiation measurements, the director wrote
to the American representatives of the International Astronomical
Union as follows:

It is the intention of the Smithsonian Institution to continue daily observa-
tions at Mount Harqua Hala and Montezuma certainly until July, 1923, at
which time it is proposed to consider the state of the work and the results
reached with a view to deciding whether it is worth while to continue daily
observations of the variability of the sun indefinitely or whether the usefulness
of that work is unequal to the trouble and expense involved.

An expression of opinion on the part of those interested in the subject
would be of great value to the Smithsonian Institution in making this decision.

At a meeting in Washington the American representatives unani-
mously indorsed the work of the observatory, and later at Rome
the international representatives passed a resolution expressing the
same opinion. In view of these impartial indorsements of the
work, it is a pleasure to announce that Mr. John A. Roebling has
made it possible to assure the continuation of the solar constant
stations at Harqua Hala and Montezuma until July, 1925. By that
time it will doubtless be evident from the data obtained whether they
should be continued longer.

A movement is under way in Australia to establish a solar observ-
ing station there similar to the Smithsonian stations. The Meteoro-
logical Service of Argentina is also proposing to equip its station
at La Quiaca for solar observations, and it is expected that during
the next fiscal year two sets of solar constant apparatus will be pre-
pared for the Australian and Argentine stations.

INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC
LITERATURE.

In the statement last year regarding the International Catalogue
of Scientific Literature reference was made to the very apparent
need of cooperation between organizations publishing abstracts to
scientific literature and the International Catalogue. This year in
the annual report of the United States regional bureau suggestions
are made for an even greater consolidation of bibliographical inter-

24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ests. Although the combination of interests suggested would make
a very large organization, there is nothing new or radical in the pro-
posed move; it is simply an attempt to harmonize numerous plans
and suggestions, all of which aim to supply aids to investigators
and students in the at present difficult task of finding the published
records of what has been done in the various fields of research.

The need of prompt and reliable aid is keenly apparent, and while
in some subjects satisfactory aids are available in others they do
not exist.

It now appears that the organization of the International Cata-
logue of Scientific Literature may be kept in working condition,
although it is not yet possible to resume publication on account of
financial conditions. Pending the resumption of publication it is
felt that through the large number of regional agencies much con-
structive work may be done by using their influence and efforts in
bringing about cooperation among similar organizations dealing with
any of the subjects embraced within the scope of the International
Catalogue.

NECROLOGY. *
JOHN A. ELSTON.

John A. Elston, Representative in the Congress from California
and Regent of the Smithsonian Institution since January 9, 1920,
died in December, 1921. Although a member of the Board of
Regents for such a brief period, Mr. Elston took a real and active
interest in the affairs of the Institution.

JOSEPH B. LEAVY.

Joseph B. Leavy, philatelist in the National Museum since 1913,
died July 25, 1921, after a lingering illness. Mr. Leavy was edu-
cated at Columbia University, and later entered into business, in
which he continued for several years. He served in the Army during
the Spanish War.

To him is due the credit for the excellent installation of the large
collection of stamps in the Museum, which includes specimens of all
new issues sent to the Post Office Department from various foreign
Governments.

JAMES MOONEY.

James Mooney, ethnologist in the Bureau of American Ethnology,
died on December 22, 1921. Mr. Mooney was born in Indiana in
1861, and became associated with the bureau in 1885, shortly after
its organization by Major Powell. He remained a member of the
staff from that time until his death.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

Mr. Mooney was very widely read regarding the history of the
aborigines north of Mexico, being equaled by few perhaps in this
particular field. His information was most extensive, however, re-
garding the Indians of the southeastern woodlands and the Great
Plains, and he was the leading authority on one tribe in each area,
the Cherokee and the Kiowa. Several of Mr. Mooney’s investigations
published by the bureau are standard works in their special field.

He was one of the founders of the American Anthropological As-
sociation, a member and ex-president of the Anthropological Society
of Washington, and a member of the Mississippi Valley Historical
Association. Mr. Mooney’s death brings to a premature close a not-
able scientific career.

THOMAS F, HANEY.

Thomas F. Haney, preparator in the National Museum for over
28 years, died October 8, 1921. During his service for the Museum,
Mr. Haney constructed many difficult large-size models illustrating
the occurrence, mining, and manufacture of various mineral re-
sources. His skill and minutely detailed work in this field of educa-
tional exhibits will be greatly missed.

ANDREW L, FANT.

Andrew L. Fant, watchman, a faithful and efficient employee in
the National Museum since 1893 and lieutenant of the watch force
since 1903, died on October 6, 1921.

Respectfully submitted.

Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary.

APPENDIX 1.
REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1922.

The year, a busy one, was marked by the multiplicity of activities,
and advancement is shown in a number of directions. As set forth
in the last report, the Museum is receiving practically the same ap-
propriation that it did 11 years ago, in spite of increased scope, addi-
tional collections, and advanced cost of all material and labor neces-
sary to its maintenance. That the Museum attains the fine results
recorded from year to year is owing, in large measure, to the personal
qualities of the members of its staff, to whom much credit is due.

The organization and staff of the Museum have undergone no note-
worthy changes; policy and plans have remained opportunistic in
the absence of funds to enable them to be considered in advance.

Of prime importance this year was the receipt and installation
of the Herbert Ward collection of sculptures of African natives
and of African ethnological specimens. Like the bequest of James
Smithson to the United States, this gift from a British subject to
the American people is unique and deserves mention also as a won-
derful representation of the native dignity of an aborginal race,
typical of all aborigines. Its installation is noteworthy as marking
an advance in the display of such objects.

A beginning was made under the terms of the will of Dr. Morris
Loeb for the establishment of the Loeb collection of chemical types
in the National Museum. This collection forms a separate entity in
the department of arts and industries. An advisory committee
cooperates in its management, consisting of Dr. C. L. Alsberg, chair-
man; Dr. Victor Lenher, Mr. James K. Senior, Dr. G. C. Spencer,
representing the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agri-
culture; and Mr. F. L. Lewton, representing the Museum and in
charge of the collection.

The two specially constructed storage cabinets were received from
the Chemists’ Club of New York City, and a portion of the original
material of each of seven new chemical compounds, discovered and
prepared in the Department of Agriculture, were transferred to the

26

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

Loeb collection. The members of the committee have offered to
solicit additional original chemical material for the series. Ar-
rangements were made with trade journals for advance notice of the
publication of new chemical compounds, in order to facilitate prompt
solicitation.

Steps were taken to have greater use made of the facilities af-
forded Washington by the National Museum. Through arrange-
ments with the authorities of the public schools of the District of
Columbia the Museum, when notified in advance, furnishes expert
guidance by a member of its staff to scholars and teachers visiting
its halls. In some instances such visits have resulted in further
work along similar lines after the return to their school buildings
and on several occasions have been followed by talks to the students
in their classrooms by members of the staff of the Museum. Through
cooperation with the Wild Flower Preservation Society of America,
the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia, and the American
Forestry Association, the Museum arranged a series of six Saturday
morning lectures in the auditorium of the Museum for honor pupils
of the seventh and eighth grades of the public schools, and the
American Forestry Association awarded blue ribbons for the best
bird houses submitted by the pupils.

The schools of Washington, in common with the higher educa-
tional establishments of the country, have long shared the benefits
of the duplicate specimens distributed by the Museum for educa-
tional purposes, and this year was no exception.

The value of the Museum to the commercial interests of the Na-
tional Capital, as well as to its educational interests, was demon:
strated by a series of lectures by the curator of textiles given to
several groups of employees handling textiles in one of the large
department stores of the city, who, at the solicitation of their firm,
came to the Museum during business hours for the purpose.

The influence of the Museum in education is being felt outside
its immediate vicinity, through the large delegations of students
visiting it annually, often as part of their courses of instruction, and
also through its assistance in the preparation of textbooks. Photo-
graphs and essential data of the exhibits pertaining to the mineral}
industries were supplied to the Pennsylvania State Board of Edu-
cation, and to other inquirers.

President Harding, on October 24, 1921, under authority of the
legislative, executive, and judicial appropriation bill for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1913, directed the Bureau of Efficiency to pre-
scribe a uniform system of employee ratings for all departments,
and requested the heads of the departments to put the system into
effect. Ratings were first to be established for employees engaged

28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

in clerical or routine work, such as clerks, stenographers, book-
keepers, messengers, and skilled laborers, and afterwards to be ex-
tended to employees engaged in professional, scientific, technical,
administrative, or executive work, or any other work involving
for the most part original or constructive effort. This was inaugu-
rated by a survey of all the positions existing in the Museum on
November 15, 1921, carefully prepared and submitted to the Bureau
of Efficiency. An initial report on the efficiency of each employee
was made dating May 15, 1922, and similar reports are to be made
every six months hereafter. The installation of this system added
considerably to the duties of the officials of the Museum.

The changing of the system of keeping Government accounts, to
make the items of expenditure identical in all Government offices,
whether large or small, likewise, temporarily at least, added to the
work this year in the administrative office. Efforts were also made
toward unifying other business methods of the Government offices
generally, as to the handling of supplies, traffic matters, etc.

BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT.

The National Museum completely occupies two large and two small
buildings, besides considerable space in two other structures. The
combined floor space is approximately 670,000 square feet. To keep
these buildings in repair requires all the available appropriation,
so that radical changes in arrangements, however much needed, are
almost impossible. This year by the removal of one partition and
the erection of another, two small exhibition halls were added to the
floor space for the display of specimens in the Arts and Industries
Building, though the storage space was correspondingly diminished.
Other repairs consisted, as usual, of repainting of walls and ceilings
in places where most needed, the replacing of certain worn-out floors,
and repairs to roofs, gutters, etc. The hot-water heating system was
extended to the concrete building in the east court of the Natural
History Building, replacing the temporary heating arrangements
installed there when the structure was erected during the World War.

In the Natural History Building a thorough investigation was
made of the dome and the great piers supporting it. The slight
displacement of the stone arches which span the piers, the opening
of joints at the end of the balustrades under these arches and in the
fourth-story floor at the ends of the piers, have been brought about
by a movement at the upper end of the piers, doubtless caused by the
eccentric application of the weight of the dome. The piers are
fully braced by a large number of steel beams to the walls of the
building and, since the walls are successfully resisting the pressure

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 29

from the piers, the movement of the latter, it is believed, will
probably not proceed much farther. Careful observations and
measurements will, however, be made at intervals of a few months
to determine if any further displacement occurs.

By the acquisition of 37 exhibition cases and 116 pieces of storage,
laboratory, and office furniture, there were on hand at the close of
the year 3,679 exhibition cases and 11,572 pieces of storage, labora-
tory, office, and other furniture, besides 83,500 drawers, trays, boxes,
and wing frames.

COLLECTIONS.

The total number of specimens acquired by the Museum during
the year was approximately 359,676. Additional material to the
extent of 995 lots, chiefly geological, was received for special exam-
ination and report. Nearly 20,000 specimens were lent to special-
ists for study, mainly on behalf of the Museum, and about 33,000
specimens were sent out in exchange, for which the Museum re-
ceived valuable material. Over 10,000 duplicate specimens were
used as gifts to educational establishments. Of these nearly half
were contained in regular sets of labeled material previously pre-
pared for shipment, and the remainder comprised specially selected
lots to meet particular cases. The duplicates were chiefly fossil
invertebrates, minerals, and ores, material illustrating rock weather-
ing and soil formation, miscellaneous geological material, mollusks,
and marine invertebrates, with smaller lots of specimens from the
collections of insects, mammals, fishes, birds, archeology, ethnology,
textiles, physical anthropology, and wood technology.

Anthropology.—Collections in unusual number and of scientific
value were received by the department. of anthropology. Especially
worthy of praise is the Herbert Ward African collection, hereto-
fore mentioned, given to the Museum by Mrs. Herbert Ward.
This collection, forming one of the most important ethnological
units in the world, was begun by Herbert Ward in Africa during
the first great period of exploitation by Livingstone and Stanley.
It consists of 2,700 specimens of African ethnologica and is illus-
trated by 19 superb sculptures in bronze by Mr. Ward. The whole
collection is displayed to advantage in the halls of ethnology in
the Natural History Building.

Through the friendly offices of the Archeological Society of
Washington, the division of American archeology received a large
collection of the brilliant ancient pottery from the ruins of Casas
Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico. The remarkable aboriginal ceramics
collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes in the neighboring region, the
Mimbres Valley, N. Mex., were placed on public view. From the

30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

National Geographic Society’s expedition in Chaco Canyon, N.
Mex., conducted by Mr. Neil M. Judd, considerable material was
forwarded.

An ornate gilt bronze statue of Buddha from the Imperial Palace
at Peking, containing rolls of inscribed prayers, was received by
the division of Old World archeology from Maj. Murray Warner
through Mrs. Gertrude Bass Warner, of Eugene, Oreg.

Mr. Hugo Worch has added a number of pianos to his collection,
and especially noteworthy is a magnificent gilt harpischord made
by Pleyel, Paris, France. The collection of violins bequeathed to
the Museum under the terms of the will of Dwight J. Partello
was lost to the Museum, as it was found that through a previous
bill of sale the collection belonged to one of his daughters.

In art textiles mention should be made of a collection of speci-
mens of lace of high class, a permanent deposit by Miss Emily
G. Storrow. In ceramics a selection of American art pottery was
supplied for the exhibit of the National Gallery of Art.

A special exhibit of tiles made in the United States and assem-
bled by the Associated Tile Manufacturers to illustrate the result
of 44 years’ development of an American industry was shown
from May 16 to June 20, 1922, in two rooms off the foyer in the
Natural History Building.

Biology—From the numerical standpoint the collections of the
department of biology show less uniform and healthy growth than
during the fiscal year 1921. The actual number of specimens re-
veived, 318,950, represents, it is true, an increase over the previous
year, but this increase is only 67,437, while the year 1921 showed
an increase of no less than 114,720 over its predecessor.

Together with the decrease in relative increment has gone a gen-
eral decrease in the scientific importance of the new accessions.
Three curators regard this importance as increased over that of
the previous year’s accessions, but only one of these (insects) feels
called upon to express enthusiasm. Of the six others five report
essentially stationary conditions and one (fishes) a falling off.

The great outstanding feature among this year’s accessions is
the collection of about 100,000 insects of all orders, made by Dr.
William M. Mann in South America, chiefly in eastern Bolivia.
In Alaska another unusually important collection of insects was
obtained by Dr. John M. Aldrich. The final consignment of Mr.
Hoy’s Australian material (mostly vertebrates) presented by Dr.
William L. Abbott, brings the important and successful Australian
expedition to a close.

The National Herbarium through cooperation with the Depart-
ment of Agriculture acquired the very large private herbarium of
Dr. Otto Buchtien of over 45,000 specimens, rich in material from

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. $i

Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay, the Bolivian flora being particularly
well represented.

Many other smaller collections were received, including mammals
from Alberta and plants from British Columbia collected by Sec-
retary and Mrs.: Walcott.

The work of remedying defects in the biological exhibition has
been practically confined to the mammal halls. Good progress has
been made in routine curatorial and preparatorial work in the
various collections, but everywhere this work is suffering from the
insufficiency of space and of personnel.

Geology.—A satisfactory increase in the geological collections is
noted, although the accessions number slightly less than last year,
217, with an aggregate of 23,504 specimens being recorded.

Valuable additions were made to the collections of Bolivian tin
and tungsten ores by Mr. F. L. Hess; rich examples of carnotite and
hewettite, the best thus far found in the United States, were acquired
through the generosity of the Standard Chemical Co., Naturita,
Colo.; and large uranophane-bearing sandstone specimens were pre-
sented by Mr. John J. Bonner, Lusk, Wyo. Gold nuggets, eight in
number, the largest weighing 44 ounces, from the Maxwell Land
Grant, N. Mex., were donated by Dr. Frank Springer, and Hon.
Holm O. Bursum presented examples of torbernite, a radium-bearing
mineral from White Signal, N. Mex. Other gifts to the economic
collections include examples of diamond-bearing rock from Pike
County, Ark., and slabs of building stones supplied by various
dealers.

The most notable addition to the meteorite collection is the mag-
nificent mass of iron from Owens Valley, Calif., gift of Mr. Lincoln
Ellsworth, New York City. Examples of other falls and finds, 10
in number, either new to the collection or hitherto poorly represented,
were acquired chiefly through exchanges.

The mineral collections were benefited through gifts which in-
clude at least three exhibition specimens. Large fine crystals of
colemanite, donated by Mr. W. S. Russell, Los Angeles, an attractive
specimen of cuprite showing deep red crystals on native copper, by
Dr. R. O. Hall, San Jose, Calif., and a zoned rhodenite of unusual
form, by Col. Washington A. Roebling, Trenton, N. J., are notable
among these. Valuable foreign minerals were acquired through
exchange; type materials were transferred by the United States
Geological Survey; a series showing the effect of radium rays on
the color of minerals, beryl crystals from Brazil, and examples of
nesquehonite, demantoid garnet, and other forms from Italy were
acquired by purchase; and interesting collections were made in the
field by the assistant curator. Gems of beauty and value have
been added to the Isaac Lea collection through its endowment fund,

32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

including a series of uncut diamonds from the mines of the Arkansas
Diamond Corporation, Murfreesboro, Ark.; a unique cut gem of
orthoclase from Madagascar; a blue zircon from Australia; and a
series of fresh-water pearls from the rivers of the Mississippi Valley.
A number of individual gifts are also recorded.

Paleontological material was received from Mexico, Central and
South America, India, and several European localities, these being
chiefly Mesozoic and Cenozoic, while numerous collections from
Paleozoic rocks of the United States and Canada were made by the
curator or presented by interested friends. Unusually well pre-
served cetacean remains obtained in the Miocene deposits along
Chesapeake Bay; valuable reptilian material acquired by exchanges;
skulls and bones of extinct buffaloes, presented by the John A.
Savage Co., Crosby, Minn.; and remains of the Beresovka mam-
moth, are among the notable accessions of vertebrate material.

Mineral and mechanical technology.—tin the division of mineral
technology attention was confined entirely to a more permanent
and complete arrangement of the exhibits already on hand, and
new material consisted chiefly of photographic transparencies which
were installed in the respective exhibits to which they referred.
Apart from this work, the division was chiefly engaged in coopera-
tive educational work with the Pennsylvania State Board of Edu-
cation through Mr. Samuel S. Wyer, of Columbus, Ohio. The
plans of the State Educational Board call for revision of the sev-
enth-grade geography course to include the study of the State’s
mineral resources. The extent of the division’s cooperation may
be judged from the fact that it has supplied a considerable amount
of the data for text and illustrations from the models of the many
mineral industries exhibited in the Museum.

The division of mechanical technology was extremely busy, pri-
marily, in regrouping its collections and rearranging objects in the
collections so as to tell a story rather than merely represent a
period in development, in an endeavor to impress the student with
the significance of the material rather than its mere existence;
and, secondarily, through the receipt of over 100 per cent more
objects than were received the preceding year. In the line of
special investigations, those inaugurated last year, particularly with
regard to the developments in aeronautical engineering, were con-
tinued.

Textiles, wood technology, foods, and medicine.—The collections
under the supervision of the curator of textiles, which, besides
textiles, embrace wood technology, food, medicine, and miscellaneous
organic products, were increased by many gifts and by transfer
and loan of property from other Government bureaus amounting
to nearly 3,000 objects. The most important of these are as follows:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

From the Department of Commerce, several hundred specimens
of industrial raw materials not heretofore represented in the col-
lections, which had been sent to the department by American con-
sular offices and trade commissioners for the purpose of encourag-
ing foreign commerce. There were added by gift beautiful speci-
mens of silks, fur fabrics, and drapery textiles contributed by
American manufacturers to show the progress of textile industries
in this country.

To the collections arranged to show the importance of wood and
the industries based upon the use of that raw material, there were
added two series of specimens illustrating the manufacture and use
of sulphite wood pulp for writing papers, one showing in detail
the steps in the process, and the other the exact quantities of each
ingredient entering into 100 pounds of finished paper; also exhibits
showing the importance and uses of American walnut, many ex-
amples of articles turned from wood, and specimens of laminated
wood wheels for motor vehicles.

The collections in the division of medicine were enlarged by ex-
tensive series of specimens showing the manufacture of surgical
dressings, pills, plasters, surgical ligatures, and clinical thermome-
ters; specimens of essential oils and related aromatic substances;
important alkaloids and alkaloidal salts used in medicine; and a
series of charts showing the treatment of rabies, typhoid fever, and
whooping cough.

Graphic arts—The specimens acquired in the division, while less
than half in number, are still fully as important, artistically and
technically, as the 1920-21 specimens. The most important indi-
vidual gift was that of the sixteenth century methods of making
type, in which all the specimens were made by or prepared by Mr.
Dard Hunter, Chillicothe, Ohio. Mr. Hunter himself made the
punches, struck the matrices, and cast the type. This is one of a
series consisting of printer’s ink, paper, and type making, which,
with the promised modern methods of type making, will be about
complete. Several gifts combined have greatly improved both the
technical and historical series of collotype. The Campbell Art Co.,
of Elizabeth, N. J., gave a valuable and instructive technical exhibit
of color printing, and beautiful examples of the process were also
furnished by Foster Bros., of Boston, the Medici Society of America
(Inc.), and by Rudolf Lesch, of New York City. These are ex-
amples of the finest collotype work being produced to-day, and
make an excellent showing of this process of photomechanical re-
production. A new process for reprinting books has been developed
by the Polygraphic Co., of Berne, Switzerland, who donated a com-
plete exhibit. In this so-called Manul process the negative is ob-

34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

tained upon a sheet of very thin paper without the use of a camera
or lens.

The series of pictorial photographs collected this year, over 100
in number, is a very important collection of artistic photography
representing 17 of the foremost pictorial photographers of the
world. The successful collection of this material was largely due
to efforts and suggestions of Mr. Floyd Vail, of the New York
Camera Club. The gift by Maj. Murray Warner through Mrs.
Gertrude Bass Warner of 42 autochromes, the work of Major
Warner, deserves mention, as they preserve the wonderful color
schemes of the Panama-Pacific Exposition, as well as being fine
specimens. A loan from Mr. Earle W. Huckel, of Philadelphia, of
several printed books contains one dated 1497, Theology, by Lock-
mayer, which is the earliest book in the division; also a beautiful
book from the famous Moretus Press dated 1696. The most beau-
tiful example of presswork and typography shown is a copy of The
Well at the World’s End, printed by William Morris at the Kelm-
scott Press in 1896.

Many small and individual objects have augmented various
series, adding to their extent and beauty, as, for example, two beau-
tiful water colors by Mr. W. H. Holmes, Director of the National
Gallery of Art, and a black and white original, loaned by Franklin
Booth.

One hundred photographs of snow crystals, by Mr. W. A. Bent-
ley, form a valuable addition to the technical collections. A
notable loan exhibit of artistic photography, the work of Mr.
Floyd Vail, was shown for two months and attracted much at-
tention.

History.—During the past fiscal year, the historical collections
have received a number of additions of more than usual interest
and importance. These include the following: The American flag,
which, after receiving military honors in the Sorbonne in the
presence of President Poincaré, was flown with a French flag at
the summit of the Eiffel Tower and saluted with 101 guns, April
22, 1917, in celebration of the entry of the United States into the
World War on the side of the Allies. This flag was presented by
the French ambassador, M. Jusserand, to President Harding at
the White House on Decoration Day, May 30, 1922, and deposited
in the Museum by the President. A series of very handsome silk
American flags, presented to Gen. John J. Pershing in recognition
of his services as commander-in-chief of the American Expedition-
ary Forces in France during the World War and loaned to the
Museum by him. Two sectional relief maps of northern France,
one made of papier-maché and one of plaster, presented by Mar-
shal Haig and Marshal Petain, respectively, to the Hon. Medill

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

McCormick, and by him presented to the Museum. The first of
these consists of eight sections, 22 by 27 inches in size, showing
when united the territory bordering the British battle front from
Dunkirk to Amiens. The second consists of 111 sections, each 19
by 25 inches, and shows the region of the French front from
Vermand to Courgenay, in great detail. Another relief map of
much importance is one received from the United States Marine
Corps, showing the region about Belleau Wood. The numismatic
collections relative to the World War have been increased by a
number of examples of the medals and decorations issued in the
United States and European countries during the war.

The original historical collections have been increased by a sword
carried during the War of the Revolution by General Washington, a
cane bequeathed to him by Benjamin Franklin, and a sword owned
by Gen. Andrew Jackson. These three objects were transferred to
the Museum from the Department of State by joint resolution of
Congress approved February 28, 1922. From the same department
by transfer was received the small writing desk used by Thomas
Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence in Phil-
adelphia in 1776, which bears a memorandum in his own hand at-
testing to its history. A single addition was made during the year
to the collection of costumes worn by the mistresses of the White
House. This was the dress worn by Mrs. Andrew Jackson, jr., on
the occasion of a reception given at the White House in her honor
in 1831, and lent to the Museum by Mrs. Rachel Jackson Lawrence,
of the Hermitage Association.

Work on the collections.—The care and preservation of the collec-
tions require a large proportion of the energies and time of the
scientific staff and present many difficulties to be surmounted. In
ethnology, the installation of the Herbert Ward collection led to a
recasting of the African collection generally. The conditions ham-
pering the development of the biological exhibition since the later
years of the World War have continued, making it impossible to
do more than remedy special defects as opportunity presented. A
general overhauling of the unmounted larger cetacean material has
placed this series in a condition to be used for the first time in many
years. Commendable progress is reported in the care of the geologi-
cal collections, though comparatively few new exhibits were in-
stalled.

The assignment of the entire east gallery of the Arts and In-
dustries Building for the use of the division of medicine necessi-
tated a complete rearrangement of all the cases and the installation
of a number of new exhibits. In the division of mechanical tech-
nology a complete inventory was made of the collections, the Museum
catalogues as far back as 1876 being carefully examined and checked

36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

with the specimens. The collections of graphic arts on display in
the Smithsonian Building were rearranged so that exhibits of a
kind, both historical and technical, are located near together for easy
examination.

The classification of the collections by members of the staff has
produced the usual amount of research work on the materia! in-
trusted to their care; and the usual generous cooperation of out-
siders has been of the utmost assistance in enhancing the scientific
value of the collections. The total number of papers by members
of the staff, or based partly or wholly on National Museum material
by outsiders, published during the year is 332.

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK.

From the standpoint of exploration and expeditions, the year just
completed shows very little improvement over 1920-21. The work
carried on by various other governmental agencies, particularly by
the United States Geological Survey, the Bureau of Fisheries, the
Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture, and the Bureau
of American Ethnology has, as usual, resulted in important material
for the national collections.

The number of expeditions contributing material to the depart-
ment of biology, according to the reports of curators, was 18, of
which no less than 10 were both financed and directed by outside
friends and correspondents, 7 were financed by others and partly
or wholly directed by members of the staff of the Museum, while
only 1 was entirely controlled by the Museum. In the department
of geology, extensive field work was confined entirely to the division
of paleontology.

Besides the field work described here, a number of other expedi-
tions in which the Museum was interested are mentioned in the first
part of this report under the heading “ Explorations and researches.”

The work of Mr. Arthur de C. Sowerby in China, interrupted by
the World War, was resumed, a shipment of specimens from the
Province of Fukien being received. The expenses of this work are
met by Mr. Robert Sterling Clark, who generously contributes all
the material to the Museum. Special effort is being directed to
securing vertebrates from southern and other parts of China not
hitherto represented in the national collections.

Dr. William M. Mann, while attached to the Mulford Biological
Exploration of the Amazon Basin, collected a large number of insects
and some miscellaneous material of other kinds. This expedition
was organized by the H. K. Mulford Co., of Philadelphia, under the
direction of Dr. H. H. Rusby, chiefly for the purpose of studying
drug plants, but also for making general biological collections. By
invitation, Doctor Mann was attached as entomologist and assistant

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ai

director and during the last 3 of the 10 months of the expedition
was in charge, on account of the illness of Doctor Rusby.

Dr. Paul Bartsch continued his experiments in heredity on iand
mollusks. of the genus Cerion, under the joint auspices of the Smith-
sonian Institution and the Carnegie Institution, of Washington. He
has been working upon a survey of the distribution of the native
species in the Florida Keys. By the use of a seaplane, detailed for
the purpose by the Navy Department, Doctor Bartsch was able in
four days to fly at low altitude over the entire region and note on
charts all the visible grass plots—the habitat of the Cerions. It will
now be possible by means of the charts to examine the native colonies
without loss of time in locating them. Mr. John B. Henderson,
Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, made a rather hurried trip
to Jamaica +o personally collect living specimens of the Helicid
genus Thysanophora for anatomical study toward a proposed mono-
graph of the group. This little expedition proved unusually success-
ful and of great benefit to the work in hand, as well as to the mollusk
collections.

Mr. Paul C. Standley carried on botanical exploration in Central
America, through cooperation with the Gray Herbarium, the New
York Botanical Garden, the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and Mr. Oakes Ames, the latter being interested
in the orchids of this region. About five months were spent in E]
Salvador, and nearly a month in Guatemala. The collections, over
6,000 botanical specimens, will be divided among the contributing
institutions.

Another botanical expedition was in the field at the close of the
vear. Dr. F. W. Pennell, of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences, accompanied by Mrs. Pennell, and Mr. KE. P. Killip. of the
Museum, is conducting a six months’ exploration of western Colombia,
on behalf of the Gray Herbarium, the New York Botanical Garden,
the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and the Museum.
Mr. Oakes Ames is contributing also to the expense of the expedition.
This is one of a series toward a complete study of the flora of north-
ern South America.

The biological expedition alluded to as the only one under the
exclusive control of the Museum was a trip to the interior of Alaska
undertaken by Dr. John M. Aldrich, associate curator of insects.
The Alaska Engineering Commission of the Department of the In-
terior furnished Doctor Aldrich with horses and their subsistence and
with transportation on the Alaskan Railroad. About 10,000 speci-
mens were collected, consisting mainly of Diptera and Hymenoptera.
with a fair number of Hemiptera.

The expedition of the Museum of the American Indian (Heye
Foundation) to New Mexico under Mr. F. W. Hodge furnished

58379—24—_4

38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

valuable skeletal material, as has been the case for several years
past. The exploration of Pueblo Bonito in the Chaco Canyon,
N. Mex., by the National Geographic Society under the direction of
Mr. Neil M. Judd during the summer of 1921 was largely prelimi-
nary. The exploration will be continued through a number of sea-
sons and the collections are to become the property of the National
Museum.

Early in the year Mr. F. W. Foshag collected minerals from
interesting cave deposits in the Grand Canyon, near Supai, Ariz.,
a project made possible through the courtesy of Mr. C. A. Heber-
lein, operating in the region. Mr. Foshag also made field trips to
southern California and Nevada in connection with research work
at the University of California, the results of which were likewise
added to the national collections.

Doctor Bassler spent his vacation in July, 1921, in geological field-
work in the central basin of Tennessee, under the auspices of the
Geological Survey of that State. The field offered such opportunities
that arrangements were made for another summer’s work in the
same general area. During the greater part of June, 1922, there-
fore Doctor Bassler, in company with Dr. E. O. Ulrich and Mr.
R. D. Messler, of the United States Geological Survey, was occupied
in making stratigraphic sections and collecting fossils over the en-
tire central basin, an area of about 8,000 square miles. The ultimate
object of this work is the preparation of a monograph on the
stratigraphy and paleontology of Tennessee. On the completion
of his work in Tennessee, in 1921, Doctor Bassler proceeded to
Springfield, Il., where casts of type specimens in the State museum
collections were made, in accordance with the department’s plan
to complete so far as possible the representation of type specimens
in the national collections. Through the courtesy of Mr. E. J.
Armstrong, of Erie, Pa., Doctor Bassler visited all the classical
Silurian and Devonian localities in northwestern Pennsylvania and
western New York during the latter part of September to obtain
field knowledge of the detailed geology and to collect carefully se-
lected sets of fossils illustrating the numerous formations of the
region. The work was highly successful, and the large collections
of Devonian fossils in the Museum concerning which exact strati-
graphic data have been lacking can now be determined and arranged
in necessary detail.

Dr. E. O. Ulrich, of the United States Geological Survey, spent
the summer of 1921 in continuation of his field researches on the
early Paleozoic rocks of eastern North America, and previous to
joining Doctor Bassler in Tennessee, as noted above, studied the
Silurian stratigraphy of Pennsylvania and Maryland. Mr. N. H.
Boss made several short trips collecting in the Miocene deposits

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

along the Chesapeake Bay, all of which were under the auspices of
the National Museum. These trips were unusually productive in
the recovery of well-preserved cetacean remains.

___ Dr. George P. Merrill did a little work on his own initiative while
in Maine on a vacation, and Mr. Shannon on a two-day trip to
Port Deposit and Conowingo, Md., and Peach Bottom, Pa., visited
a number of commercial granite, feldspar, talc, and slate mines and
quarries.

MEETINGS, CONGRESSES, AND RECEPTIONS.

The Museum is seldom able to arrange regular lecture courses, but
it does diffuse much knowledge through the lectures and proceedings
of the various governmental, scientific, and educational agencies
using its meeting facilities. The auditorium and adjacent council
rooms afforded accommodations during the year for about 150 meet-
ings, covering a wide range of subjects.

The governmental agencies availing themselves of these opportuni-
ties included the State Department, the War Department, the Treas-
ury Department, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of
Labor, the Interdepartmental Social Hygiene Board, and the Federal
Power Commission. The scientific and technical groups included
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Research Council,
the American Relief Administration, the International Association
for Identification, the American Surgical Association, the American
Federation of Arts, the Wild Flower Preservation Society of
America, the National Association of Postmasters of the United
States, the National Association of Office Managers, the Liberty
Calendar Association of America, the George Washington Memorial
Association, the Committee on the Baird Memorial, the Organizing
Committee of the Nineteenth International Congress of Ameri-
canists, the Anthropological Society of Washington, the Archzo-
logical Society of Washington, the Audubon Society of the District
of Columbia, the Biological Society of Washington, the Chemical
Society of Washington, the Entomological Society of Washington,
the Federal Photographic Society, the Organization of Appointment
Clerks, the Philosophical Society of Washington, the Shakespeare
Society of Washington, and the Washington Academy of Sciences.
The educational and miscellaneous agencies included the American
University ; the School of Foreign Service and the School of Medi-
cine of the Georgetown University; the Federation of Citizens Asso-
ciations; the General Federation of Women’s Clubs; the Potomac
Garden Club; the George Washington Post No. 1, American Legion;
the Matrons and Patrons Association of 1922, Order Eastern Star;
the Smithsonian branch of the Federal Employees Union No. 2; the

40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Smithsonian Auxiliary of the District of Columbia Chapter of the
American Red Cross; and the Smithsonian Relief Association.

The Museum was the scene of several receptions, the first being
probably the largest, the most elaborate, and the most successful
affair of its kind ever held in the Museum. This was the reception
on November 28, 1921, by the city of Washington, through the Com-
missioners of the District of Columbia and a committee of citizens,
to the delegates to the International Conference for the Limitation
of Armament, when some 5,000 persons representing the official,
social, and business life of Washington showed respect to the dele-
gates to that conference.

On the evening of February 18, 1922, an informal reception and
private view of the collection of Chihuahua pottery, loaned to the
Museum by the Archeological Society of Washington was held in
the public exhibition halls on the first floor. This was preceded by
a lecture in the hall below by Dr. Hamilton Bell, on the Sculpture
of Japan, under the auspices of the Archeological Society.

Another reception, on April 24, formed part of the program of the
annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences. This was in
honor of Dr. and Mrs. H. A. Lorentz, of Leiden, and followed a
lecture in the auditorium by Doctor Lorentz on Problems of Modern
Physics.

A function which brought to the Museum representatives of the
diplomatic corps and others was the formal presentation to the
American Nation, on March 1, of the Herbert Ward collection of
sculptures and African ethnology. In the northeast corner, first
story, of the Natural History Building, surrounded by the works of
her gifted husband and his unrivaled collection illustrating the
handicrafts of the native African, the presentation was made by
Mrs. Ward, and the donation accepted by Vice President Coolidge
as chancellor of the Institution.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The publications issued by the Museum comprised 9 volumes and
78 separate papers. The Museum distribution of volumes and sepa-
rates to libraries and individuals aggregated 97,806 copies. This,
however, by no means indicates the number of its publications put in
circulation during the year, for one of the separates of the Proceed-
ings, on the Mosquitoes of the United States, issued in June, proved
so popular that the War and Navy Departments arranged through
the Superintendent of Documents for liberal distributions of the
paper, and the Bureau of Public Health reprinted it.

The library received 2,023 volumes and 4,185 pamphlets, mainly
through gifts and exchanges, bringing the Museum collection up to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4]

60,681 books and 95,594 pamphlets. Typewritten lists of original
articles appearing in scientific periodicals reaching the Institution

“for the Smithsonian deposit at the Library of Congress have been
circulated among the head curators of the Museum for their informa-
tion and dissemination among the staff generally. There is a demand
from other Government departments and research organizations for
zopies of these lists which the Museum is unable to supply, through
lack of mechanical equipment and assistants.

The number of visitors to the Natural History Building was
441,604; to the Arts and Industries Building, 262,151; to the Smith-
sonian Building, 83,384; and to the Aircraft Building, 46,380. All
the Museum exhibition halls are open free to the public every week-
day in the year. In addition those in the Natural History Building
are open every Sunday afternoon, and this year those in the Smith-
sonian Building were open on Sunday afternoons in April. All the
Museum offices and exhibition halls were closed, however, on Novem-
ber 11, 1921, on account of the burial of America’s unknown soldier.

Respectfully submitted.

W. ve C. Ravenzt,
Administrative Assistant to the Secretary, in charge
United States National Museum.
Dr. Cuartres D. Watcort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 2.
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART.

Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the af-
fairs of the National Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30,
1922.

The second year of the existence of the National Gallery as a
separate administrative unit of the Smithsonian Institution closed
with substantial reasons for satisfaction with the progress made,
notwithstanding the fact that the accessions of art works fall short
of the average for a number of previous years. The activities of
the gallery continued in all essential respects in directions identical
with those of the preceding year, the personnel being limited to a
director and a secretary with clerical assistance, a guard, three
watchmen, two laborers, and two charwomen.

Full information regarding the inception and growth of the gal-
lery within the Institution and as a subsection of the department of
anthropology of the National Museum may be found in the report
of the secretary of the Institution for the preceding year, and more
especially in an earlier publication (Bulletin 70, U. S. National
Museum) prepared by former assistant secretary, Dr. Richard
Rathbun. |

Although art was recognized as a legitimate field of activity in
the organization of the Institution, and on equal terms with science,
and although numerous paintings and other works were acquired as
the years passed, no special provision was made for their accommoda-
tion, space being assigned them in various places as the years passed,
and no special provision was made for adding to the collection by
purchase. Since the completion of the Natural History Building the
collections have found space in that building, finally occupying the
large central hall which was subdivided by screen partitions for
their accommodation. This resource has, however, reached its limit,
and additions accepted can find exhibition space only by storing
the less important works previously acquired. This condition is
most unfortunate since the inflow of gifts and bequests, upon which
the gallery depends for accessions, is governed largely by the char-
acter of the accommodations afforded. The vital importance of this
shortage of space will be appreciated when it is stated that the in-

42

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 43

crease of art works by means of gifts and bequests to the Institu-
tion for the 10 years since appropriate exhibition space became
available in the new Natural History Building, ending June 30, 1921,

~—and aside from the rich accessions of the Freer gift, has averaged
in estimated money value upward of $500,000 per year. The year
just closed has fallen far short of that valuation, not exceeding
$10,000, a result due in part, at least, to a knowledge of the real con-
ditions on the part of such owners of collections as have reached the
stage where the future of their accumulations has become a matter
of great concern.

The urgent need of a gallery building is thus strongly emphasized,
for it is apparent that should 10 years elapse before a building for
this purpose is erected, the loss due to delay will amount to several
times the cost of a building. Another consideration of great im-
portance is that the National Gallery is not limited in scope to paint-
ing and sculpture, but has confined its activities mainly to this nar-
row field because no space is available for assembling and displaying
the full range of art products. It is thus most important that Amer-
icans should begin to realize, as have all other civilized nations, the
great importance, the inestimable value, of art as an agency in the
advancement to higher accomplishment in each and every branch of
activity in which taste is an essential feature. We are the only civil-
ized nation that has not risen to a realization of the real value of art
and of the important functions of a National Gallery and that has
not, save in the limited appropriations granted in 1921 and 1922 to
the gallery fostered by the Smithsonian Institution, recognized art
save as the handmaid of history or as an essential of architectural
embellishment or landscape gardening. No important art work has,
for art’s sake pure and simple, ever been purchased with the approval
of the United States Government. The Nation has received as gifts
and bequests, art works amounting to more than ten millions in
money value, and has expended on their acquirement and care possi-
bly one two-hundredth part of that amount. The American people
should at once arise to a realization of the fact that unless gallery
space is provided for the accommodation of prospective additions,
this inflow of art works must practically cease. This would be a
national misfortune and a disaster to the Capital of the Nation.

ART WORKS ACQUIRED DURING THE YEAR.
GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.

Portrait of President Ulysses S. Grant (three-quarter length) by
Thomas Le Clear, N. A. (1818-1882), painted in 1880 or 1881. Gift

of Mrs. U.S. Grant, jr., of San Diego, Calif.

t+ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

A large gravure reproduction of a portrait of Abraham Lincoln,
taken from Douglas Volk’s portrait of Lincoln painted from mem-
ory. Gift of Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution.

An oil painting entitled “The Signing of the Treaty of Ghent,”
by Sir A. Forestier, 1914. Presented to the Smithsonian Institution
for the American people by the Sulgrave Institution of Great Brit-
ain and the United States, through Mr. Barron Collier, and accepted
on behalf of the United States by Chief Justice William Howard
Taft. Deposited by the Smithsonian Institution.

A painting by Daniel Garber, N. A., entitled “ Tohickon,” pro-
vided by the Henry Ward Ranger bequest through the council of
the National Academy of Design, trustees of the fund.

Portrait of Edwin H. Harriman, being an artist’s proof etching,
one of 21 from the copper. Gift of Mrs. E. H. Harriman, New
York City, through Dr. Charles D. Walcott.

Portrait bust (bronze) of Maj. Gen. George Owen Squier, Chief
Signal Officer, United States Army, by M. W. Daikaar. Gift of
General Squier.

. LOANS,

Salutation (copy) by Albertinelli, and Holy Family (copy), by
Andrea del Sarto, and an erba or painting in vegetable colors en-
titled St. Anthony and the Lions,” by and old monastic painter of
the time of Fra Angelica and Fra Bartolommeo. Lent by the Rey.
F. Ward Denys, of Washington, D. C. Doctor Denys lent also a
Minton shield, two bronze reliefs of sacred subjects, and a small
landscape in oil, which he withdrew before the close of the year.

Mother and Children (Early Morning), by A. W. Bougereau
(1825-1905), and Sheep, by F. Brissot. Lent by Mr. and Mrs.
Walter Tuckerman, Edgemoor, Md.

Deer, by J. A. Oertel, signed 1856. Lent by Mr. Charles Town-
send Abercrombie Miller, of New York City.

Portrait of Abraham Lincoln, painted in 1865 by M. 8S. Nach-
trieb (1835-1913). Lent by Mr. Anton Heitmuller, of Washing-
ton, D. C.

A series of 10 architectural drawings by Rossel Edward Mitchell,
showing the artist’s plan for furthering the International Historica!
Museum. Lent by Rossel Edward Mitchell, Washington, D. C.,
and withdrawn at the close of the special exhibition during Janu-
ary, 1922.

Forty-six paintings, comprising kakemonos and framed pictures
by Shunko Sugiura, of Tokyo, Japan. Lent by the artist and with-
drawn at the close of the special exhibition, from January 18 to 27,
1922.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 45

Series of 150 enlarged portraits in sepia, of Washington children,

by Underwood & Underwood, of Washington, D. C. Lent by Under-

~~ wood & Underwood and withdrawn at the close of the special exhi-
bition, February 20 to March 5, 1922.

Plaster bas-relief portrait of Prof. Francis James Child, Scholar
(1825-1896), of Cambridge, Mass., executed in 1891 by Miss Leila
Usher. Lent by Miss Leila Usher, of Boston, Mass.

A collection of 100 etchings and water-color drawings by Fran-
cisco Gonzales Gamarra, of Lima, Peru, illustrating ancient Peru-
vian art, recent historical art, and current subjects. Lent by Mr.
Gamarra and withdrawn at the close of the special exhibition which
was open to the public during June, 1922.

Bronze bust of Enrico Caruso (1873-1921), by Joseph Anthony
Atchison; presented to the city of Washington for the Washington
Opera House. Lent by the sculptor on behalf of the Washington
Opera House.

Two old masters, Baptism of Christ by J. B. Tiepolo and a small
landscape by R. Wilson, were added to his loan collection by Mr.
Ralph Cross Johnson, of Washington, D. C.

A Moment’s Rest, a large painting by William E. Norton (1843-
1916), a realistic rendering of a team of four horses in charge of
two men and a boy resting a moment in the shadow of a boat’s hull
by the water’s edge while one of the men lights his pipe. Lent by
the artist’s daughters, Miss Gertrude M. Norton and Miss Florence
IK. Norton, of New York City.

Twenty-two portraits in pastel, being a series of life-size groups
of Union and Confederate veterans of the Civil War, painted from
life by Walter Beck, of Brooklyn, N. Y., 50 years after the battle
of Appomattox; lent to the Smithsonian Institution by the artist
through Mr. Walter M. Grant, of New York City. Deposited by the
Institution. They are as follows:

MOSBY TRIPTYCH.

1. Left panel:
1. Seated, left, Lieut. Fountain Beatty, Alexandria, Va.
2. Seated right, John Russel, scout, Berryville, Va.
3. Standing, Frank H. Rahm, Richmond, Va.
2. Central painting:
4, Left, Charles Grogan, Baltimore, Md.
5. Center, Col. John S. Mosby.
6. Right, Dr. W. L. Dunn, Glade Springs, Va.
3. Right panel:
7. Seated, Lieut. A. R. Richards, Louisville, Ky.
8. Standing, Dr. James G. Wiltshire, Baltimore, Md.

46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

FEDERAL FORCES.

4, Fifty Years After the Battle. Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry, First
Duryée Zouaves, known as “ The Fighting Fifth.”
Left to right—
1. Trumpeter Robert Fofar, Brooklyn, N. Y.
2. Trumpeter Robert F. Daly (once the drummer boy), New York City.
3. John F., Connell, New York City.
4, Gilbert Boyd, Brooklyn, N. Y.
5. John Hefferman, Flushing, Long Island.
5. Map of the Peninsular Campaign, Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry.
First Duryée Zouaves, known as “ The Fighting Fifth.”
. Left upper, John C. L. Hamilton, Elmsford, N. Y.
. Second, Edward Whiteside, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Seated, left, James Collins (address not given).
. Seated, George F. Wilson, Mount Vernon, N. Y.
. Seated, George A. Mitchell (address not given).
. Standing, right, Samuel H. Tucker (with rifle), Ridgefield Park, N. J.
6. Sheathing the Sword.
1. Standing at left, Peter G. Wagner, New York City.
2. Seated, Lieut. William H. Uekele, New York City.
8. Second, standing, Alfred Atkins, Rosells Park, N. Y.
4. With sword and gun, Harry Jones, Long Island City, N. Y.
5. Extreme right, George H. Myers, New York City.
7. Comrades of the Fighting Fifth.
1. Left, Daniel J. Meagher, New York City.
2. Right, Albert Shellworth, Jersey City, N. J.
8. Drummer Boy of the Fighting Fifth After Gaines Mills.

Robert F. Daly, New York City, was a drummer boy before he was
13 and had seen 17 battles. He endeared himself to his regiment, the
First Duryée Zouaves, especially at Gaines Mills, where he carried
water to the men fighting, from a spring more than a mile to the
rear. On the 7-day retreat to the ships the men carried the boy on
their shoulders. When the regiment returned to New York, the boy’s
father discovered him in line, snatched him from the march, and sent
him back to school.

9. The Signal. After the Battle of Big Bethel. John Tregaskis, Brooklyn,
N. Y., Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry, Duryée Zouaves.

After the Battle of Big Bethel the Union forces were marching by
parallel roads in pursuit of the enemy. During the night at the cross-
roads they fired at each other. To avoid a repetition of the error
they used the white of their turbans around their arm as a signal.

10. The First Sharps Rifle. Homer D. Jennings, St. Cloud, Fla.

The Sharps rifle was used for the first time before Gaines Mills, Va.
It was a repeating rifle and was used by the Fifth New York Volunteer
Infantry, Duryée Zouaves. There were just enough of the rifles to arm
the end men of companies, but the effect upon the opposing forces was
bewildering and disastrous. General Sykes was in command.

11. Adelaide Smith. One of the first Army nurses.

She volunteered at Brooklyn, was with Grant’s army through the

Peninsular campaign, especially during the last years of the Civil War.

anh eh

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 47

The silver cup at her left is the cup which she carried all through the
war and with which she gave water to thousands of wounded men,
~The One hundred and sixty-fifth New York, or Second Duryée Zouaves, Vol-
unteer Infantry.
12. The left panel, four figures with the flags.
13. Center panel, five figures, Capt. Mathias Johnston, leader.
14. Third, or right, panel, five figures, with guns.
15. Doctor Beyea, chaplain, and noted as a singer at camp fires, Lafayette Post,
New York. Painted in 1914.
16. Fisher of the Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry, Duryée Zouaves.
17. The Beecher Regiment Returning Its Flag to Plymouth Church.
. Seated, left, William Pink, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Standing, left, Henry Metcalf, Brooklyn, N. Y.
. Standing, Richard Conlon, Brooklyn, N. Y.
. Standing, Charles Balogh, Brooklyn, N. Y.
. Center, Capt. Miles O. Reilly, Brooklyn, N. Y.
. Standing, Maj. M. K. Mille, Westfield, N. Y.
. Standing, George O. Fowler, Whitestone, L. I.
. Seated, right, Gen. Louis M. Peck, Brooklyn, N. Y.

BNAarwnd

THE OLD GUARD OF NEW YORK.

18. Capt. H. Cole Smith, Highth Connecticut Volunteer Infantry.
Willis White, Second Regiment New York Cavalry.
Capt. Frank Huntoon, Vermont Cavalry.
19. Judge Blanchard, Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry.
Col. G. K. Grismer, One hundred and ninety-second New York Volunteer
Infantry.
Maj. Charles H. Heustis, Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.
20. Col. A. E. Dick, Twenty-second New York Volunteer Infantry.
Admiral Charles D. Sigsbee, Fort Fisher, afterwards on the U. 8S. 8S. Maine,
seated.
Capt. James F. Wenman, who brought the obelisk from Hgypt to Central
Park, New York City.
Brig. Gen. Albert F’. Davis, Spanish War Veterans.
21. Capt. L. F. Barry, Seventy-first New York Volunteer Infantry.
O. M. Chace, Seventh New York Volunteer Infantry.
Maj. William R. Mitchell, Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry.
Capt. L. A. Newcome, Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.
22. Capt. Arthur Jacobson, Seventy-first Regiment New York National Guard,
and One hundred and seventy-sixth New York Volunteer Infantry.
T. A. O’Mara, drummer boy, Fifty-ninth New York Volunteer Infantry.

THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT COLLECTION.

As announced in last year’s report, a number of influential citizens
desiring to preserve some pictorial record of the World War, organ-
ized a National Portrait Committee and arranged with a number
of our leading portrait painters to paint portraits of certain distin-
guished leaders of America and other allied nations in the war with
Germany. The members of the committee as organized are: Hon,

48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Henry White (chairman), Herbert L. Pratt (secretary and treas-
urer), Mrs. W. H. Crocker, Robert W. de Forest, Abram Garfield,
Mrs. E. H. Harriman, Arthur W. Meeker, J. Pierpont Morgan,
Charles P. Taft, Charles D. Walcott, and Henry Frick (since de-
ceased ).

Under this arrangement 20 portraits were painted and assembled
in the National Gallery during the month of May, 1921. Later these
were turned over to the American Federation of Arts for purposes of
public exhibition, and at the close of the year they had been shown in
the following cities: Princeton, N. J.; New Haven, Conn.; Boston,
Mass.; Rochester, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio; Williamstown, Mass.;
Amherst, Mass.; Buffalo, N. Y.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis,
Ind.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; Detroit, Mich.; Youngstown, Ohio; and Mem-
phis, Tenn.

The portrait of Herbert Clark Hoover, by Edmund C. Tarbell, has
since been added to the number.

THE McFADDEN COLLECTION.

At the close of the year preliminary steps had been taken toward
the acceptance by the gallery of the loan of the McFadden collection
of British masterpieces, comprising 44 notable examples of the work
of Richard Parkes Bonington; John Constable, R. A.; Davis Cox;
John Crome; Thomas Gainsborough, R. A.; George Henry Harlow;
William Hogarth; John Hoppner, R. A.; Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.
R. A.; John Linnell, sr.; George Morland; Sir Henry Raeburn, R. A.;
Sir Joshua Reynolds, P. R. A.; George Romney; James Stark;
George Stubbs, R. A.; Sir John Watson Gordon, R. A.; J. M. W.
Turner, R. A.; and Richard Wilson, R. A. ‘These paintings were ac-
quired by John H. McFadden, Esq., of Philadelphia, Pa., recently
deceased, during his lifetime, and by his will left in trust to the city
of Philadelphia and to be intrusted to its custodianship when the
Municipal Museum now in course of construction is completed. Not-
withstanding the fact that there is much shortage of storage space in
the halls occupied by the national collections, the acceptance of this
rich collection for a limited period is regarded with much favor.

DISTRIBUTIONS.

Loans have been withdrawn by owners as follows: Portrait of
Arthur Spicer, and portrait of Mary Brockerbrough Spicer, his wife,
by Sir Peter Lely, lent by Miss Lucy Stuart Fitzhugh, were with-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

drawn by Mrs. Daisy Fitzhugh Ayers, executrix. Genevra dei Benci,
attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, withdrawn by the Misses Janet R. and
Mary Buttles. Christ in the Temple, by J. P. Tiepolo; The Doctor’s
Visit, by Jan Steen; Dedham Vale, by John Constable; and A Young
Dutch Girl, by N. Drost, were withdrawn by Mr. Ralph Cross John-
son, but returned to the gallery before the close of the year with the
exception of the last named. Five portraits: Col. Mark Hopkins in
Continental Uniform (copy by Robert Hinckley) ; Dr. Mark Hopkins,
Educator, by Sarony; Hon. Edward Everett, by Asher Brown Du-
rand; Mrs. Edward Everett, by Gambardella; and Charlotte Brooks
Everett, by George P. A. Healy; withdrawn by Mrs. Charlotte
Everett Wise Hopkins (Mrs. Archibald Hopkins). Clearing Up, in
the Berkshires, by James Henry Moser, was acquired by the Cosmos
Club from Mrs. J. H. Moser, the owner, and withdrawn by the club.
The Finding of Moses, attributed to the period of Paul Veronese,
withdrawn by Mrs. F.S. Bloss. Sea, Sand and Solitude, by Edward
Trenchard, withdrawn by the artist. Seven paintings: Portrait of
Mr. Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire; Portrait of Mrs. Levi Wood-
bury, of New Hampshire; Portrait of an Old Gentleman, and St.
Dominic and the Christ Child, artists not given ; Landscape, attributed
to Berghem; Parrot and Fruit, and Flowers, attributed to Zuccarelli ;
from the collection lent by the Duchess de Arcos (Virginia Wood-
bury Lowery Brunetti), withdrawn by Mr. Woodbury Blair, attor-
ney in fact for the duchess. Four paintings from the loan collection
of the American Federation of Arts were distributed for the federa-
tion as follows: Ducks on the Bank, by Franz Grassel, sent to E. O.
Summer at Brooklyn, N. Y.; Memory of the Tyrol, by J. P. Jung-
hanns, and The Garden, by Max Clarenbach, to the Art Institute of
Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; and Portrait of Mrs. Penelope Wheeler, by
George Sauter, to Messrs Budworth & Sons, New York City.

Caresse Enfantine, a painting by Mary Cassatt, belonging to the
Evans collection, the property of the gallery, was lent to the American
Federation of Arts to be included in an exhibition of pictures of
children under the auspices of the federation, to be shown in six
southern cities: Louisville, Ky.; Roanoke, Va.; Savannah, Ga.;
Charleston, S. C.; Richmond and Norfolk, Va. The work elicited
much favorable comment, and was returned to its place in the gallery
at the close of the exhibition.

THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND.

The purchases made by the council of the National Academy of
Design from the fund provided by the income from the Henry Ward

50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Ranger bequest, with the names of the institutions to which they have
been assigned, are as follows:

Date pur-
Title. Artist. chmaed. Assigned.
11. Fall Round-Up...... Carl Rungius, N. A...| Dec. 20, 1921 | Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C.
12, Repose of Evening...| Ben Foster, N. A.....|....- Mos. 3c 2 San Francisco Museum of Art (offered
to).
13. Forest Primeval..... Chas. 8. Chapman, A. |.....do....... Cleveland Museum of Art.
N.A.
14, The Figurine......... Wm. M. Paxton, A. |..... Gon ssss.. Wadsworth Atheneum and Morgan
N.A. Memorial, Hartford, Conn.
15. Wilton Hills......... Roy Brown, A.N. A..|..... oh ae Hackley Gallery of Fine Arts, Muske-
gon, Mich.
16, Gleam on Hilltops....) Gardner Symons, N. | Apr. 18,1922 | Montclair Art Association, Montclair,
A. N.J.
17, White and Silver....| Dines Carlsen.........|....- CORES Portland Society of Art, of Portland,
Me.
18, Tohickon............ Daniel Garber, N. A...|....- do. 2253. National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C.
9. East Coast, Domin- | Fredk. J. Waugh, N. |..... Mian oees Museum of History, Science, and Art,
ica, British West A. Los Angeles, Calif.
Indies,

THE REV. BRUCE HUGHES ALCOVE.

Two publications have been purchased from the funds received
from the income of the Rev. Bruce Hughes bequest, and placed in
the gallery library as a separate unit thereof. They are:

Zoffany, R. A., John: His Life and Works. 1735-1810. By Lady Victoria Man-
ners and Dr. G. C. Williamson. London: 1920. (No. 1.)

Life and Works of Ozias Humphrey, R. A. By George C. Williamson, Litt. D.
London: 1918. (No. 2.)

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS.

Holmes, W. H. Report on the National Gallery of Art for the year ending June
80, 1921. From the Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
for 1921, pp. 45-55.

The report of the director for the first year of the gallery as a separate
unit under the Smithsonian Institution, the art collectiongy having been
associated previously with the department of anthropology in the United
States National Museum.

Rose, George B. The Ralph Cross Johnson collection in the National Gallery
at Washington. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1920
(1922), pp. 679-690, pls. 1-24. Reprinted from Art and Archeology, Vol. X,
No. 3, September, 1920. (Smithsonian Publication No. 2649).

A Catalogue of the Art Works of the Gallery embodying intro-
ductory matter and brief biographies of the painters and sculptors
represented, with full-page illustrations of 25 of the works, was
prepared and sent to the printer in October, 1921. At the end of the
fiscal year, June 30, 1922, it has not appeared.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 51
ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON THE GALLERY.

As a means of promoting the development of the gallery by mak-
ing its existence and collections known to the people, a lecture has
been prepared by the director, the step being due largely to the
urgent request of Mrs. Summers, wife of the Hon. J. W. Summers,
Representative in Congress from Washington State, who has pre-
sented it a number of times in his home State. A brief introduction
is followed by the presentation of 75 slides, mostly in color, repre-
senting the Smithsonian buildings and their surroundings and the
more noteworthy works of painting and sculpture preserved in the
gallery, with brief biographies of the artists. The lecture is to be
placed at the disposal of such persons throughout the country as may
desire to present it.

THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART COMMISSION,

The National Gallery Commission, organized in accordance with
plans formulated by the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,
held its first or organizing meeting on June 25, 1921, and its first
annual meeting on December 6 of that year. The proceedings of
the organizing meeting are outlined in the annual report for that
year, and the proceedings of the meeting of December 6 may be
here briefly outlined.

The meeting was held in the Regents’ Room of the Smithsonian
Institution, members present being: Daniel Chester French (chair-
man), Herbert Adams, Edwin H. Blashfield, Joseph H. Gest,
William H. Holmes (secretary ex-officio), John E. Lodge, Frank
Jewett Mather, jr. (vice chairman), Gari Melchers, Charles Moore,
James Parmelee, Herbert L. Pratt, Edward W. Redfield, Charles
D. Walcott (ex-officio).

The report of the executive committee, which met at the Cosmos
Club on the evening of the 5th of December, was submitted and
reports of the 11 subcommittees were received. These commit-
tees are as follows:

. American painting, Edward W. Redfield, chairman.

. Modern European painting, Gari Melchers, chairman.

. Ancient European painting, Frank Jewett Mather, jr., chairman.
. Oriental art, John E. Lodge, chairman.

. Sculpture, Herbert Adams, chairman.

. Architecture, , chairman.

. Mural painting, Edwin H. Blashfield, chairman.

. Ceramics, Joseph H. Gest, chairman.

. Textiles, , chairman.

10. Prints, James Parmelee, chairman.

11. Portrait gallery, Herbert L. Pratt, chairman.

The reports of the chairmen were received with interest, and
numerous additions to the membership were made.

HSBMBNAAR WN SH

52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Consideration was given to the proposed exhibit of early Ameri-
van, paintings and sculptures, to be held in the Louvre, Paris, in the
near future, and the advisability of holding a special loan exhibit
of American portraits in the National Gallery in Washington
received attention.

The feasibility of arranging in Washington a plan for the further
development of the art interests, corresponding with that existing
between the Louvre and the Luxemburg Galleries, Paris, was con-
sidered and steps were taken to determine the attitude of other gal-
leries with respect to the suggestion.

The urgent need of a National Gallery building to accommodate
the collections now occupying the very limited space allowed them
in the Natural History Museum, and for future accessions, was con-
sidered, and a resolution enumerating at some length the unfortu-
nate conditions existing and appealing to Congress for the limited
fund required for the preparation of plans for a building was
adopted.

The very serious problems of the acceptance and rejection of prof-
fered works of art of all classes was discussed at length, and at the
close of the meeting the advisory committee on acceptance of works
took necessary action with regard to such offerings for the year as
awaited consideration.

Respectfully submitted.

W. H. Hotes,
Director, National Gallery of Art.
Dr. Cuarues D. Watcorr.
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 3.
REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the second annual report on the
Freer Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30, 1922.

THE COLLECTION.

Work carried on during the year includes the classification and
cataloguing of Chinese, Japanese, and Tibetan paintings, Chinese
tapestries, and Chinese and Japanese pottery; the preliminary classi-
fication of Korean pottery and Chinese and Japanese stone sculp-
tures and jades; and the cataloguing of American paintings, draw-
ings, and prints (inclusive of both etchings and lithographs). Im-
portant progress has been made also in the indispensable preservation
work on oil paintings.

BUILDING AND INSTALLATION.

Owing to a temporary lack of applicable funds, work on the build-
ing and installation was discontinued in July and was not resumed
until December. The work accomplished, however, includes the con-
tinuation—and in some instances the completion—of undertakings
mentioned in the first annual report: The dais in gallery 18 has been
rebuilt and stained, the walls of 15 galleries and 2 corridors have been
recolored, all of the storage bags and 27 of the storage boxes for
Japanese screens have been completed, the Chinese and Japanese
panel storage has been finished and the panels themselves placed in
their permanent storage racks. The more important items of the
new work undertaken are as follows: The dais in gallery 8 has been
removed, terrazzo floor has been laid in the areas thus exposed, and
the walls have been covered with canvas. The two large Chinese
stone slabs purchased during the previous fiscal year were set in the
wall of gallery 9 and repaired, practically all of the Whistler oil
painting frames have been repaired and regilded, and 16 storage
racks for oil paintings have been constructed. The installation of
fly screens has been effected, as has also the correction of defective
doors and the reenforcing of the meeting rails of the double-hung
windows throughout the basement floor. Bronze light standards
have been erected outside of the north and south entrances, the

553879—24—_5 53

54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

offices have been carpeted and furnished, oiling of the gallery floors
has been begun, electric meters have been installed, cheesecloth
screens have been provided for the ventilators in all the storage
rooms, and necessary drains have been set in the lower floor at
various places.

PERSONNEL,

Grace Dunham Guest was appointed assistant curator on January
1, 1922.

Ruth W. Helsley resigned, her resignation taking effect March 1,
1922.

Ruth L. Walker was appointed to fill Mrs. Helsley’s post as stenog-
rapher on February 15, 1922.

Carl W. Bishop was appointed associate curator on April 9, 1922.

Miss Guest was given a two months’ leave, and she sailed for
Europe on June 24, 1922, to act as delegate from the Freer Gallery
of Art to the double centennial meeting of the Société Asiatique de
Paris, and also to study collections of oriental art—especially ce-
ramics—in England, France, and Germany.

Respectfully submitted.

J. E. Loner,
Curator, Freer Gallery of Art.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 4,
REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

Str: In response to your request I have the honor to submit the
following report on the field researches, office work, and other
operations of the Bureau of American Ethnology during the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1922, conducted in accordance with the act of
Congress approved March 4, 1921. The act referred to contains
the following item:

American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the
American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and
preservation of archeologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution, including the necessary employees and the purchase of necessary
books and periodicals, $46,000.

The Indians of the United States are undergoing cultural changes
which will in a short time so modify their material culture that little
will be left in that line for the ethnologist to study. It is impera-
tive that the bureau exert itself in every way to record the material
culture and cult objects before the final change occurs. The objects
illustrating this culture are now mainly preserved as heirlooms in
ceremonies, and it is particularly desirable that these be described
and their meanings interpreted before they pass out of use com-
pletely.

In 1904 the bureau inaugurated at Casa Grande a method of
archeological work which has now been adopted by most of the
institutions working in the southwestern part of the United States.
Previous to this time archeologists rarely paid attention to the preser-
vation of walls of ruins, but sacrificed these in their zeal to make
as large collections of artifacts as possible.

The bureau method of preserving the buildings for future students
has now been adopted by other institutions, and work of this nature is
being carried on at Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, by the National
Geographic Society; at Chettro Kettle, in the same canyon, by the
School of American Research, Santa Fe, N. Mex.; at Pecos, N. Mex,
by the Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.; and at Aztec by the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History of New York. This method of arch-
eological work has created a great interest in archeological problems,
as indicated by the increased number of visitors to these ruins, and

55

56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

has a great practical value as an asset to the communities in which
these ruins are situated. It is the intention of the chief of the bureau
to keep abreast of the other institutions in this regard.

In the past year the bureau has entered upon two new lines of work
which it is believed will not only increase its scientific output by
intensive research but also appeal strongly to the popular interest and
to the diffusion of knowledge already acquired. For many years it
has not been found practical to continue work on the Hawaiian
Islands, which is mentioned as one of the important items of ethno-
logical research in the above act of Congress. A meeting of the
Pan Pacific Convention in Honolulu shows an increased interest in
the study of the Polynesian islanders and their relation to the ques-
tion of the peopling of America from the South Seas. Mr. Gerard
Fowke, a collaborator of the bureau, was commissioned to attend this
convention in the interest of the Smithsonian Institution, and he was
instructed to gather whatever information he could in relation to the
archeology of the people, if any, that preceded the Hawaiian race of
the present day. Although his results were negative, it is gratifying
that the bureau took part in this convention,’as it opened up several
lines of work in other islands which it may later be advantageous to
follow. The Sandwich Islands lie practically on the periphery of
the sphere of influence of the Polynesian culture, and local investi-
gators have the Hawaiians well in hand. There is considerable to do
in mapping the distribution of temples and ancient buildings, but this
work is being rapidly done by local archeologists. It is desirable,
however, that the bureau take up archeological work in Samoa or
some island nearer the center of distribution of the race which has
occupied almost all the land in the Pacific Ocean. The imperfect
facilities for transportation from one island to another and the loss
of time in transit is a serious handicap in this work.

A second line of research which promises even more to the scientific
investigator and the tourist is a study of the material culture, espe-
cially the architecture, of the houses of the aborigines of Alaska. In
the growth of the canning industry the Indians who formerly inhab-
ited southern Alaska have been drawn away from their aboriginal
villages, leaving them deserted and their totem poles and buildings
to the mercy of fire and decay. The monuments are rapidly going to
destruction, and it is very desirable that steps be immediately taken to
preserve these buildings or a typical example of them before they are
utterly destroyed.

One of these settlements, Kasaan, has already been made a national
monument. Steps should be taken to preserve others.

Dr. T. T. Waterman was sent by the bureau to investigate the whole
question—primarily to secure whatever vanishing ethnological data
is still extant. He was instructed to gather information on the sym-

ja REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5

bolism of the totem poles, the character of the houses, distribution
of clans, and whatever scientific data can be obtained from those still
living who once inhabited these villages. This line of investigation
appeals very strongly to the chief from his knowledge of the growth
in interest of the Mesa Verde National Park. In 1908, when he began
work on this park, only 25 tourists visited the Mesa Verde; this year,
1922, the number will reach 4,500. This shows a great growth of
interest in the work being done there; and, as many tourists now seek
Alaska in their summer vacation, one of these villages repaired would
attract many visitors. It is proposed to continue this work next
summer with an enlarged appropriation.

The work of the bureau in other lines has gone on with customary
vigor. The chief has repeatedly emphasized the necessity of rescu-
ing the linguistic and sociological data of those Indian stocks that
ate rapidly disappearing. It would be culpable if any of these
languages should vanish completely without some record. Interest
in the aborigines of this continent has greatly increased in the last
years, especially on account of the stimulus of the movement called
“See America First.”

In addition to his purely administrative duties, considerable time
has been devoted by the chief to researches in the field. This work
was archeological in nature and a continuation of that of previous
years, and was carried on in cooperation with the National Park
Service of the Department of the Interior.

Two months were spent in the neighborhood of Far View House,
the first pueblo discovered on the Mesa Verde National Park, six
years ago. In the course of the work this fine ruin was thoroughly
repaired and put in such condition that it will now resist the wear
of the elements for several years. Ruins once repaired must be
watched with care. On an average between 3,000 and 4,000 visitors,
mainly tourists, visit the Mesa Verde National Park and examine
the excavated ruins. Fifteen thousand visitors have already passed
through Spruce-tree House and Cliff Palace, and the wear on the soft
rock of which the ruins are made is beginning to show. Unless
constant vigilance is exercised the walls will fall within a short
time. Any deterioration ought to be repaired annually. Tourists
are not now permitted to visit any of the ruins on this park without
@ guide, a regulation that has been strictly enforced during the past
year.

Field work in May and June was devoted to excavating a ruin
called Pipe Shrine House, situated to the south of Far View House.
This was apparently a communal building, or one not inhabited,
which was used by the people of the pueblo for sacred ceremonies.
It would appear that Pipe Shrine House, so called, bears the same
relationship to Far View House that the Lower House of the Yucca

58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

National Monument does to the Upper. The great kiva at Aztec,
in New Mexico, lately excavated, bears a somewhat similar rela-
tionship to the main ruin, and there are several of the Chaco Canyon
ruins where similar conditions prevail.

The site of Pipe Shrine House when work began was a low mound
covered with sagebrush with a saucerlike depression in the center,
not unlike several others in the immediate vicinity of Far View
House. The removal of vegetation and débris and an excavation of
the rooms revealed a rectangular building 70 by 60 feet, with walls
averaging one story high. It had indications of a lofty tower in
the middle of the western side, which must have imparted to the
building somewhat the appearance of a church steeple or the minaret
of a mosque. The large room was situated in the center of the
ruin, its floor being about 20 feet below that of.the other rooms.
This subterranean room is a kiva, but it differs from others of like
type on the park in that it has no fireplace in the center of the
floor, no ventilator or deflector, and has eight mural pilasters in-
stead of six to support the roof. The fallen walls within showed
indications of a great conflagration, the stones and adobe being
turned red and the walls turned bright red by the great heat. On
the floor of the kiva was an inclosure set off by a semicircular wall
where the action of fire was particularly evident. In the inclosure
were found many votive offerings, the most numerous of which
were a dozen clay tobacco pipes of various shapes and sizes, one
or two decorated on their exteriors. These pipes, which are the
first ever found on the Mesa Verde, evidently had been smoked
by the priests and then thrown into the shrine. Besides the
pipes the shrine also contained several fine stone knives, small
decorated clay platters, various fetishes, and other objects. Pipe
Shrine House was entered on the south by two doorways, midway
setween which a large pictograph of a coiled serpent was incised on
a large stone set in the wall. To the south of the building there was
a plaza surrounded by a retaining wall and directly opposite one of
the entrances there are aboriginal steps which lead to a rectangular
shrine 4 feet in size, in which were found a number of water-
worn stones surrounding a large stone image of the mountain lion.
The contents of this shrine were replaced, the mountain lion left
in his original position, and the inclosure covered with a netting
to prevent the possible removing of the objects from their places.
Other shrines and several stone idols of considerable size were
found in the neighborhood. The idols found at Pipe Shrine House
represent the snake, mountain lion, mountain sheep, and bird—an
important discovery, as previously only one stone animal idol had
been found at the Mesa Verde Park.

Peas

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

One of the most instructive experiences of the archeologist is to
see a skeleton centuries old as it lies in the grave. One of the ancient
people of Pipe Shrine House was left in a prepared chamber for
tourists to inspect.

The cemetery lies on the southeast corner of this ruin, and in it
were found several human burials from one of which a good skeleton
was chosen to illustrate the manner of burial and the mortuary
offerings. This skeleton was not removed from the grave but was
surrounded by a stone wall forming a room, rectangular in shape,
protected by a grating and a waterproof roof. Visitors may now
see one of the skeletons of the race of cliff dwellers as he was placed
in his grave more than 500 years ago; not a single bone has been
moved from position. This is the first time in North American
archeology that an effort has been made to protect an Indian skeleton
in situ, and the success of the method is self-evident, judging from
the comments of visitors.

The pipes found in the shrine of the kiva have suggested “ Pipe
Shrine House” as a name for the building. It seems to have been
given up to the rites and ceremonies of the inhabitants of the neigh-
boring Far View House.

The second ruin excavated at Mesa Verde was formerly the habi-
tation of one clan or of one social unit composed of relatives on the
mother’s side, on which account this ruin was given the name “ One
Clan House.” It is situated about one-eighth of a mile south of
Pipe Shrine House and consists of a circular subterranean room or
kiva of fine masonry surrounded by rooms for sleeping, others for
grinding corn, and still others used as bins for corn or storage
rooms. The kiva was the ceremonial or men’s room.

One of the most instructive ruins excavated in 1922 is a round
tower, 15 feet in diameter and 10 feet high, situated about 300 feet
north of Far View House. In front of this tower were found three
subterranean kivas under the fallen débris, in one of which were con-
structed walls of a square building, indicating secondary occupation,
and erected after the abandonment of the kiva. This tower and
accompanying kivas may be called Far View Tower, and the indica-
tions are that it was used for observations, particularly of the sun on
the horizon at sunrise and sunset, in order to determine the time for
planting and other dates important for an agricultural people. These
towers were probably rooms for the worship of the sun and other sky
gods.

Some distance north of Far View Tower there were discovered
in the cedars a number of large stones arranged vertically in rows
projecting 3 feet above the surface of the ground. Excavation showed
that these megaliths were walls of buildings of anomalous character,
indicating a new type of architecture on the Mesa Verde. This

60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ruin, “ Megalithic House,” was not completely excavated, but all the
others were repaired, the tops of the walls being covered with cement
to prevent future erosion.

An important collection made by the chief in the course of the
summer’s work contains many rare and unique specimens, an account
of which will later be published in a report on the excavations.

During his work at the Mesa Verde the chief gave camp-fire
talks in the special amphitheater constructed for that purpose by the
superintendent of the park. The average attendance on these talks
was about 40 each evening, and at times, as on a visit of a convention
of teachers, there were 150 listeners. He also spent considerable time
daily taking parties over the new work which he was doing in the
neighborhood of Far View House.

Ever since 1917 the chief has been attempting to have the sites
of three clusters of towers in Utah withdrawn from private owner-
ship and made into a national monument, to be called Hovenweep
National Monument. Various circumstances have made it impos-
sible to bring this about. During the past summer, however, Mr.
Hatze, a Land Office surveyor, determined the metes and bounds
of these three clusters and later Doctor Fewkes visited them in order
to determine their present condition. He found that a settler had
filed claims on the neighboring land, the adjoining one-quarter mile
section, and erected his cabin. Some of the cabins in the neighbor-
hood have stones remarkably like those of the towers; in other words,
the necessity for immediate action, if these towers are to be pre-
served for posterity, is apparent, and the land on which they are
situated should be withdrawn from settlement and the buildings put
under the care of proper authorities. The three groups are known
as the Square Tower, the Ruin Canyon group; the Holly and Keeley
Towers; and the large ruin at the head of the Cajon Mesa called
Cool Spring House, on account of the fine water which is found in
the cave back of the cliff house.

During the fiscal year Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, was en-
gaged in extracting the words from his Hitchiti texts and adding
them to his dictionary on cards of the Hitchiti language, and in pre-
paring a grammatical sketch of 75 pages based on this material and
that collected by Dr. A. S. Gatschet.

Much time was devoted to transferring words to cards from his
Alabama texts, and from material in Alabama secured through na-
tive informants, into an Alabama-English dictionary. The first 25
pages of a grammatical sketch of this language have also been com-
pleted.

A comparison has been made between the Natchez language on the
one hand and Koasati and Hitchiti on the other, in order to establish
the position of Natchez in the Muskhogean linguistic stock. This

ous

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 61

has not yet been set down in full, but all of the essential points have
been typewritten on cards.

A paper of 44 pages has been prepared in elaboration of some
recent discoveries regarding the Siouan peoples, discoveries which
have an especial bearing on the relationship of the various Siouan
groups to one another.

_ A small amount of work has been done in continuance of Doctor
Swanton’s investigations into the economic basis of American Indian
life, particularly a study of aboriginal trails and trade routes.

The work of collecting stories dealing with the old clan divisions
of the Chickasaw Indians, undertaken by a Chickasaw at Doctor
Swanton’s suggestion, has met with gratifying success, 10 or 12 such
stories having already been sent in.

During the fiscal year Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnologist, was engaged
entirely in office work.

In his report for the fiscal year 1921 it was stated that a number’
of Chippewa and Ottawa texts had been obtained in 1900 from
Mr. John Miscogeon, an Ottawa mixed blood, then in Washington,
D. C., and that Mr. George Gabaoosa, a mixed-blood Chippewa, had
been employed to amend and to supply the Chippewa versions of
these texts. He also amplified the texts by substantial additions.
This material covers 125 pages. Mr. Gabaoosa’s fixed habit of writing
his native language by means of the alphabet employed by the mis-
slonaries made it needful that these texts thus written be translated
into the alphabet devised by Maj. J. W. Powell, founder of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, for recording native Indian languages.
This work of transliteration is one of considerable difficulty, because
the aid of a native Chippewa speaker is not available in the office and
Mr. Hewitt does not speak Chippewa.

In addition, Mr. Hewitt continued work in preparing the Musk-
hogean material detailed in his last report.

Mr. Hewitt also continued his typing of the native Onondaga texts
of the second part of the Iroquoian Cosmology, the first part having
appeared in the twenty-first annual report of the bureau. There are
now 255 pages of text material in final form.

As custodian of manuscripts Mr. Hewitt reports that no new lin-
guistic records were added to the material permanently in his charge.
Collaborators and others make temporary deposits of manuscripts
upon which work is being done, and these are not catalogued as of
permanent deposit.

Mr, Hewitt spent much time and study in the preparation of data
for official replies to correspondents of the bureau and of the Indian
Office also, the latter by reference only. The scope of the inquiries
covers almost the entire range of human interest, often quite outside
of the specific researches properly coming within the activities of the

62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Bureau of American Ethnology, but many are only requests for the
derivation of some alleged native Indian place or proper name, often
greatly Anglicized and mutilated. Some of these inquiries require
more than a day’s work to answer, as it is sometimes necessary to visit
the Congressional Library in search of data. Data for more than
75 such inquiries were prepared.

Immediately following the death of the late Mr. James Mooney,
Mr. Hewitt assisted Mrs. Mooney in assorting and separating the
personal letters and papers of Mr, Mooney, some in advanced stages
of preparation (the accumulation of more than 80 years’ activity in
an official capacity), from those which by their nature are official
documents, and correspondence and photographs. More than a week
was devoted to this work.

Before placing this material in the new store-room a rough classi-
fication was made of it. Five main groups were made, correspond-
-ing roughly with the five chief papers which Mr. Mooney had under
way for a number of years before his demise, namely, (a) A Study of
the Peyote and Its Accompanying Religious Cult; (6) A Monograph
on the Population of the Indian Tribes When First Known; (¢c) A
Paper on Cherokee Medical Formulas Recorded in the Sequoya
Alphabet by Native Priests; (d) Kiowa Heraldry; and (e) A Study
of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Shields. Owing to the peculiar chi-
rography of Mr. Mooney and his excessive use of abbreviations pecu-
lar to himself, this task proved to be a most tedious and difficult one.

Mr. Hewitt, who represents the Smithsonian institution on the
United States Geographic Board, attended all its regular meetings
except one and all the special meetings of the board.

Mr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, continued during the fiscal
year the task of assembling his notes for the second volume of his
work on The Osage Tribe. The manuscript for the second volume,
which embraces two versions of an ancient Osage ritual entitled,
“No®-zhi®-zho® Wa-tho",’ Songs of the Rite of Vigil, was com-
pleted and turned in to the bureau on February 25, 1922, where it
awaits publication.

The first version of this ritual, which is counted as next in im-
portance to the Hearing of the Sayings of the Ancient Men, pub-
lished in the thirty-sixth annual report of the bureau, was given by
Wa-xthi-zhi of the Puma gens of the Osage. This man had learned
the ritual from his father, Wa-thi-ts’aga-zhi, who is said to have
been one of the best informed No*’-ho®-zhi®-ga in the tribal rites.
With some difficulty Mr. Ia Flesche managed to persuade Sho”’-ge-
mo?-i", of the Peacemaker gens, a more conservative man than Wa-
xthi-zhi, to give the second version, which belongs to his gens. As
this ritual pertains to war, old Sho®’-ge-mo”-i" desired it to be clearly

stil

understood that his gens performed the ceremonies of the ritual as
a mere matter of form rather than as an actual owner of the rite.
The office of his gens, he explained, was one that was instituted for
the conservation of life and the maintenance of peace within the
tribe and with other tribes not related to the Osage.

On the completion of the manuscript for the second volume, Mr.
La Flesche began the task of assembling his notes for the third
volume, which will embrace two tribal rituals, the first of which is
entitled “ Wa-x6-be A-wa-tho",” Songs Relating to the Wa-xé-be.
The Wa-x6-be is the sacred hawk, the symbol of the valor of the
Osage warrior. The second ritual is entitled “Ca Tha-dse Ga-xe,”
literally, The Making of the Rush, but meaning the Making of the
Woven Rush Shrine for the Wa-x6-be.

On July 1, 1921, Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, was at Tama,
Towa, continuing his work among the Fox Indians of that State.
He completed gathering data on Fox mortuary customs and beliefs
and restored texts appertaining to these and worked out a vocabu-
lary as far as possible in the field. On the completion of this he re-
stored phonetically a text previously collected on the Fox society
known as “Those who worship the little spotted buffalo.” He also
worked out, as far as practical, the vocabulary to this text. At the
close of August he returned to Washington and elaborated the ma-
terial collected in the field. During the fiscal year Dr. Michelson
submitted two manuscripts for publication, namely, “ Notes on Fox
mortuary customs and beliefs” and “ Notes on the Fox society known
as ‘'Those who worship the little spotted buffalo.’ ”

On May 25 Doctor Michelson left for the West to conduct
researches among the Algonquian Indians of Iowa, Kansas, and
Oklahoma. He stopped at Columbus, Ohio, to consult with Prof.
L. Bloomfield. As a result of this conference it became apparent
that Menomini is very clearly more closely related to Cree than to
any other Algonquian language. He found the work at Shawnee,
Okla., very difficult and expensive, owing to the fact that the Algon-
quian Indians of that State are scattered and distances are very
great. However, during his short stay he secured sufficient informa-
tion to show definitely that not only the Sauk but also the Kickapoo
share many mortuary customs and beliefs with the Fox of Iowa. He
thinks that these correspondences are too detailed and too numerous
to be of independent origin and must be due to dissemination. This
point regarding the Sauk and Fox is not novel, but it is regarding
the Kickapoo. There are, however, some differences in the mortuary
customs of all neighboring tribes. This last fact is not so well known.
A detailed study of all three neighboring tribes, Siouan as well as
Algonquian, on these matters alone can clear up the history of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 63

64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

borrowings. He expects to obtain data on these points regarding the
Shawnee and Potawatomi also.

The beginning of the fiscal year found Mr. J. P. Harrington,
ethnologist, engaged in completing his bulletin on the Kiowa lan-
guage, in several respects one of the most remarkable of the Amer-
ican Indian tongues. Aside from the phonetic system, with its un-
usual frequency of long vowels and diphthongs, we may point to
the noun, several declensions of which form the singular by adding
the same suflixes which other declensions use for forming the plural.
These singulars of plural form are doubtless conceived as collective,
for a personal pronoun in apposition also has the plural form. Thus
pronominal agreement arises many times more complicated than
that in the three-gendered languages of Europe, and is further in-
volved by subjective, objective, and indirective pronouns largely
combining to form a single syllable—a very terse yet involved sys-
tem of speech. A number of Kiowa and Tanoan songs were found
to have the melody following in exaggerated form the intonation of
the spoken language. Thus the song “ agoyopovi navi ha, wimbo
winda ” has the high tones of its words also high pitched in the song.
This has led to the important discovery that certain melodies in in-
toned languages may take their clue from the intonation of the
words. The Kiowa vocabulary secured is quite complete and forms
an interesting contribution to the study of the place names, animal
names, and plant names adopted by a tribe when it leaves its old
home and moves to a new region. Mr. Harrington proceeded at the
close of July to California to continue his studies of the Indians of
the Chumashan area of that State. This expedition proved fruitful
in results beyond all expectation. Special emphasis was laid on the
place names, material culture, and language. More than 300 photo-
graphs of Indian places and historic landmarks were secured, to-
gether with a wealth of highly interesting and important data. The
collecting of Indian place names in the Eastern States was neglected
until too late, so that we have only a few names in distorted spelling
and of uncertain etymology. It is still possible to obtain full data
in many parts of the West, and there is scarcely any work which the
Dureau can undertake which is more important or urgent, either in
popular interest or as a help to the future ethnologist, historian, or
archeologist.

Linguistic study is peculiarly important in this area, since it resur-
rects past culture and records perishing material for comparison with
remote languages. Thirty new Venturefo songs were obtained from
one singer, all with native words. The technique of the split-stick
accompaniment and the dance steps were faithfully studied and the
words were exhaustively compared with the corresponding prose
forms.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 65

Mr. Harrington’s opinion was confirmed that the southern Cal-
ifornia culture has many curious points of resemblance with that of
the Southwest. Even the Pueblo plumed prayer stick, with sand
paintings and the ceremonial use of meal and seeds, have been found
also among the Californians.

Twice during the fiscal year Mr. Harrington was temporarily
transferred to the Department of the Interior for special archive
work. At the close of the fiscal year he returned to Washington.

SPECIAL RESEARCHES.

During the past fiscal year Miss Densmore has extended her
study of Indian music by recording songs among the Yuma, Cocopa,
and Yaqui tribes, making a total of nine tribes among whom this
work has been done. Mohave songs were obtained from two mem-
bers of that tribe living on the Yuma Reservation, and one Maya
song was recorded in the Yaqui village. Four manuscripts on In-
dian music were submitted, the titles being “Songs Concerning
Elder Brother and His People, and Other Papago Songs,” “'The
Rain Ceremony of the Papago,” “A Cocopa Legend and its Songs,”
and “ Deer Dance Songs of the Yuma, Yaqui, and Maya Indians.”
In addition to her work on Indian music Miss Densmore has com-
pleted for publication two books on Chippewa culture with the
titles “ Uses of Plants by the Chippewa,” and “ Chippewa Arts and
Customs.” The former book contains descriptions of the uses of
168 plants in medicine, food, dye, charms, and general utility, the
section on medicine being in tabulated form and showing the uses
of the plant by other tribes, where such use is recorded, and its
use by the white race, if such occurs. This tabulation shows the
ailments for which a plant was used, the part of the plant utilized,
the manner of its preparation, the dosage, and, in some instances,
the time before an improvement in the condition of the patient was
expected. The latter book contains sections on Chippewa nouns
and their structure, on the various industries by which the tribe
maintained itself, and on the care and training of little children.
New material was submitted in the form of two manuscripts, Cer-
tain Customs of the Chippewa in Ontario, Canada, and Chippewa
Nouns and Their Structure, these titles corresponding to the prin-
cipal subjects under consideration. Three brief trips in Minnesota
and Wisconsin were made for this work. Miss Densmore also read
the page proof of her book on Northern Ute Music.

In February, 1922, Miss Densmore went to Yuma, Ariz., where
she remained six weeks. During that time she made a brief trip
to a Cocopa settlement located near the Colorado River and about
6 miles from the Mexican boundary. The older Cocopa living

66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

at this point came from Mexico about 18 years ago and neither
they nor their children had a status in the United States. At this
time, however, they were enrolled under the Yuma Agency, Miss
Densmore assisting in the enrollment by writing their Cocopa names
in simple phonetic spelling. Forty Cocopa songs were recorded,
comprising songs of two representative dances and of a cremation
legend. For this work it was necessary to employ two interpreters.

It is the custom of both Cocopa and Yuma to cremate their dead,
and Miss Densmore witnessed a Yuma cremation soon after her arri-
val. ‘The dead man had been a leading singer at cremations and the
ceremony was given with the elaborateness which would be accorded
a chief. The songs were very old and are seldom used at the pres-
ent time. Miss Densmore obtained phonographic records of these
songs, as well as of the Kurok or Memorial ceremony which is held
each summer for the more important persons who have died during
the year. Images of the deceased persons are carried in the dances
of the Kurok and publicly burned. The history of these ceremonies,
with the songs, was obtained from the oldest man who is an au-
thority on the subject. It is the belief of these people that the spirit
departs from the body in the flame of the cremation.

A new musical form was found among the Yuma and Cocopa, con-
sisting of a “song cycle” which required an entire night for its
rendition and is commonly called a “story.” Each of these stories
has its designated accompaniment. Among the Yuma the accom-
‘ panying instruments are a gourd rattle and an inverted basket struck
with a bundle of arrow-weed, a willow stick, or the palm of the hand.
Sometimes two bundles of arrow-weed or two willow sticks are used,
being held in the same hand. Specimens of these instruments were
obtained, also a bamboo fiute and two bamboo flageolets. The music
of the latter was phonographically recorded. The Yuma songs in-
cluded those of the treatment of the sick, those of games, and three
interesting lullabies.

The work among the Yaqui was conducted at Guadalupe village,
near Tempe, Ariz. The older Yaqui in this village were born in
Mexico. These Indians have received no favors from the United
States Government and support themselves by manual labor. They
seem happy and contented in their little desert village. Miss Dens-
more witnessed their deer dance and later recorded the songs from
one of the leading singers, a native of Mexico. The occasion of the
dance was the celebration of Easter eve. The songs were accom-
panied by playing upon four half gourds. The Yaqui have two dis-
tinct forms of music, one which appears to be entirely native and the
other showing a Mexican or Spanish influence.

A large proportion of the songs transcribed and heard during the
past year were accompanied by a gourd rattle, and are of unusual

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 67

musical value, both in pleasing melody and rhythmic interest. This
suggests an inquiry as to whether the songs accompanied by the rattle
are generally more musical than those accompanied by the drum.
It is interesting to note that the songs of the Yuma and Cocopa
resemble each other but differ entirely from the songs of the Papago
who live adjoining them. The songs of the Yaqui, so far as observed,
differ from both these tribes except in the frequent use of rests. The
rhythm of the rattle in Yuma and Cocopa performances is more
elaborate and contains more frequent changes than that of the ac-
companying instrument in any tribe thus far studied. A correspond-
ence between the words of the song and the progressions of the
melody is particularly evident in these songs.

Early in March, 1922, Dr. T. T. Waterman, ethnologist, proceeded
to Alaska, under temporary appointment in the bureau, with instruc-
tions from the chief to scrutinize certain native towns in southeastern
Alaska. His purpose was to ascertain how many totemic monuments
exist there, and to get information concerning the carvings. The
place of special interest was a former settlement of Alaskan Haida,
known as Kasaan. It was possible during the three months that
Doctor Waterman spent in Alaska to make a rapid survey not only
of Kasaan but of the towns known as Village Island, Tongass, Cape
Fox, Klinkwan, Howkan, Sukwan, Klawak, and Tuxekan. Some ex-
tremely interesting monuments, including many tall and imposing
totem poles, were examined and photographed. Charts or sketch
maps were brought back from the field, which show the number of
monuments still standing in each town and their state of preserva-
tion. The observer was fairly successful in obtaining from the In-
dians an account of the meaning of the carvings on the poles, which
have never been adequately described. In many cases the carvings
refer to mythical tales, which are often of a very interesting type.

In addition to the work on the totemic monuments, the observer
recorded a relatively complete list of the native place names in the
southeastern part of Alaska. Many hundreds of these names were
entered on the map of the region, and translations and explanations
were obtained from the Indians. The work was fairly complete for
the area covered.

Under further instructions from the chief, Doctor Waterman ex-
amined the coast line of the part of Alaska which he visited, with a
view to discovering sites where archeological excavations might
possibly be conducted. The results of this work were largely nega-
tive. Asa matter of fact only one site was found where there seemed
to be archeological remains. This hasty survey seemed to indicate
that archeological remains in this part of Alaska are extremely
scanty.

68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Returning to the bureau on June 15, Doctor Waterman began the
preparation of a report on the Alaskan monuments.

In the fall of 1921, Mr. W. E. Myer investigated sites in South
Dakota and western Missouri, known to have been occupied by the
Omahas and Osages in early historic times, after they had come in
contact with the whites but before they had been changed thereby
to any considerable extent.

Especial attention was paid to any resemblance to the ancient
cultures found in the valleys of the Ohio, Cumberland, and Ten-
nessee Rivers. This line of research was suggested by certain tradi-
tions of both the Omahas and the Osages, and other branches of the
great Siouan linguistic family, that they had at one time lived east
of the Mississippi River, and after many wanderings, stopping here
and there for years, finally reached their present homes in South
Dakota and western Missouri.

Mr. Francis La Flesche reported that the traditions of his people,
the Omahas, were that they had occupied two important villages on
what the Omahas call “ The Big Bend of the Xe,” at some time in the
seventeenth or eighteenth century.

Mr. Myer was enabled to locate these two ancient villages; one,
Split Rock site on the Big Sioux River, at its junction with Split
Rock River; the other where the Rock Island Railroad now crosses
the Big Sioux River, about 10 miles southeast of Sioux Falls. It is
here designated the Rock Island site.

Sometime in the seventeenth century the Omahas and Poncas re-
moved from the Pipestone region in Minnesota and finally, after
some further wanderings, built a fortified town on the Rock Island
site. While living in this fortified place they were attacked and de-
feated by an enemy, most probably the Dakotas, and finally forced
to leave the region. There is a tradition that they buried their dead
from this fight in a mound. This tradition was confirmed by excava-
tions made by Mr. A. G. Risty and Mr. F. W. Pettigrew, who report
finding a considerable amount of human bones. Some glass beads and
small copper bells of white man’s make were also found in one of these
mounds. There is evidence that this site was occupied somewhere
between 1700 and 1725.

After leaving the Rock Island site, the Omahas and Poncas roved
without long permanent settlements for several years, but finally re-
turned to the Xe and built a permanent village at Split Rock at the
junction of the Big Sioux and Split Rock Rivers.

Mr. Myer spent the month of October, 1921, in exploring this Split
Rock site. Many interesting relics of the Omahas were here un-
earthed, which throw new light on the life of these people before they
had been very much changed by contact with the whites.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

The 80 mounds on the ridge between the two rivers mark the site
of that portion of the old town occupied by the Omahas. On a hill
one-half mile to the east was a group of 10 more mounds, occupied
by the Poncas before they split away from the Omahas.

By following the clues furnished by the traditions, three low
mounds were discovered on the tall ridge 14 miles to the west. These
were said to have marked the lookouts for the main village; they
command a view, ranging from 6 to 15 miles, on all sides. The
mounds on the Split Rock site appear to have nearly all been used
for burial.

The exploration of mound No. 1, on the Omaha section of the town,
showed a beautiful little knoll on the edge of the steep, bluff-like bank
of Split Rock River. In its soil the Indians dug a shallow pit, about
12 by 6 feet, and 2 feet deep. Here were placed bones belonging to
five bodies, several of which appeared to have been buried after decay
of the flesh. One body appeared to have been closely flexed before
it was placed in the pit. The position of the skeleton of a horse with
a crushed frontal bone showed that when this body bundle had been
placed in the pit, a large horse, about seven years of age, had been
led to the knoll, and there killed. Then, over all these, a low, round-
topped mound, 60 feet across at the base and 54 feet in height, had
been raised.

Mound No. 2, the largest of the group, was round topped, 110 feet
across at the base, and 10 feet high. A rectangular charnel pit, 12 by
14 feet and 2 feet deep, had been dug in the surface of the soil near
the center of the town. This pit was thoroughly lined or coated with
a white layer about one-eighth inch in thickness, made from calcined
bones. The bottom and sides of the pit were then probably covered
with furs, now indicated by a thin layer of animal matter on the
white coating. Bones representing about 50 human beings had been
laid on the floor of this fur-lined pit.

Traces of the thin fur layer were also found on top of this solid
mass of human bones. Over this fur covering a layer of bark was
placed, and upon this bark earth had been spread to a depth of
from 3 to 6 inches. The earth was then smoothed and pressed down,
and on this surface a white coating, similar to that on the bottom
and sides, had been spread. Only one small, cylindrical copper bead
was found with all this mass of bones, and no object of white man’s
manufacture was found. There is evidence that this portion of the
site was occupied by the Omahas somewhere between 1725 and 1775.

While the Omahas and their kindred, the Poncas, lived together
at the Split Rock site some of the most important events in their
history took place. The united Omahas and Poncas and their old
enemies, the Cheyennes and Arikaras, here made a peace which

5537T9—24—_6

70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

was concluded with great ceremony. At the urgent request of the
Arikara the sacred chant and dance of the calumet was used to ce-
ment this union.

In Vernon and Bates Counties, western Missouri, near the junction
of the Osage and Marmiton Rivers, Mr. Myer found several sites
known to have been occupied by the Osage Indians in early historic
times, shortly after they had come in contact with the whites.

The largest Osage village in Vernon County was situated at Old
Town, on Old Town Creek, about 34 miles south of Pikes village
of the Grand Osage. This site covers about 40 acres and is the best
known of any of the Osage sites. It has yielded a large amount of
iron axes, gun barrels, gunlocks, fragments of brass kettles, glass
beads, and other articles of early white manufacture, as well as
objects of purely aboriginal origin.

The most picturesque Indian site in this Osage region is Halleys
Bluff, on the Osage River, about 14 miles downstream from where
the Marmiton and Marais des Cygnes unite to form the Osage River.
There is evidence showing occupancy of this bluff by Indians long
before the coming of the white man and probably before the coming
of the Osages.

During the month of October, 1921, Mr. David I. Bushnell, jr.,
visited Scott Field, east of Belleville, Ill., for the purpose of getting
airplane pictures of the Cahokia mounds. The commanding officer
of the field, Maj. Frank M. Kennedy, appreciating the interest and
importance of the work, detailed Lieuts. Harold R. Wells and Ashley
C. McKinley, of the Air Service, to make the pictures. They suc-
ceeded in making some very interesting photographs of mounds in
the vicinity of Cahokia, as well as of the great mound itself, but
unfortunately the photographic apparatus at that time available at
Scott Field was not suitable, and although the pictures obtained were
not very clear, nevertheless no better results could have been secured
with the cameras which they were obliged to use. Four of the pic-
tures made by Lieutenants Wells and McKinley were reproduced as
Figures 101, 102, 103, and 104 in Explorations and Field Work of the
Smithsonian Institution in 1921 and should prove of special interest
as the first photographs of American earthworks made from the air.

The article in which the four airplane pictures were used was pre-
pared for the purpose of showing the great importance of the Cahokia
group and of the other related groups to the north, west, and south
of Cahokia. The southern group, although many of the units have
been destroyed, is of special interest. It is situated near the left
bank of the Mississippi, opposite Jefferson Barracks. Bits of pot-
tery, chips of flint, and other traces of a settlement, together with
stone-lined graves in the vicinity of the mounds, may indicate the
position of a village of one of the Illinois tribes two centuries or
more ago.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Qs

Mr. B. S. Guha’s visit among the Utes and the Navaho at Towoac
and Shiprock, respectively, during the summer of 1921 was under-
taken primarily with the object of finding any legends or myths
about the ancient Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde that might still sur-
vive among these people, and incidentally to collect as much material
about their social institutions as possible.

Mr. Guha arrived at Towoac on July 14, 1921, and spent a couple
of weeks visiting the different camps of the Utes. Among the Wimi-
nuche Utes, unfortunately, there does not appear to survive any
legends or myths about the Mesa Verde. All that could be gathered
from the oldest living members of the tribe was that when their an-
cestors first came to the Ute Mountain from the north, the whole
region from the La Plata to the Blue Mountains and from Dolores
to the San Juan was full of ruins such as now may be seen. They
were already abandoned, but there were signs of the cultivation of
corn about them.

After leaving Towoac Mr. Guha went to Shiprock, N. Mex., and
stayed there until September 5, 1921. Unlike the Utes, the Navaho
seem to possess survivals of myths about the ancient Cliff Dwellers
of Mesa Verde. How far these legends have any historical back-
ground it is difficult to say, but they at any rate suggest some earlier
and closer relationhip between them and the people who lived in the
ruins so liberally strewn over the entire region.

In September, 1921, Mr. John L. Baer, acting curator of Amer-
ican archeology in the United States National Museum, made an
investigation for the bureau of pictographic rocks in the Susque-
hanna River. In the middle of the river between Bald Friar and
Conowingo, Md., are a number of huge boulders of serpentine or
gabbro, bearing inscriptions, a few of which have been heretofore
described in the Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology and in Volume CCC (Lancaster County), Second Geo-
logical Survey of Pennsylvania. The largest and most important of
these pictographic rocks were found to be on Miles’ Island at the
head of Gray Rock Falls. Large surfaces of these rocks seem to
have been polished before the figures were pecked upon them. Pits,
grooved lines indicating tally marks, circles with radiating spokes,
concentric circies, faces, and fishlike outlines were the prevailing
figures observed.

Other groups of rocks between this island and Conowingo showed
equally interesting carvings, but not so profusely. A pyramid-
shaped rock standing well out in the rough and dangerous rapids
had several fish outlined near its apex. A slab which had been
broken from its original position and which might have been used
for a shad-dipping stand, was marked with outlines of two slender

72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

fish and two tally marks. A number of interesting photographs and
drawings of these pictographs were secured.

In connection with a reconnoitering trip among the prehistoric
quarries and workshops along the Susquehanna in the spring of
1922, Mr. Baer again visited these pictographic rocks and secured
additional drawings and a number of plaster casts of the more
important figures. Prehistoric steatite quarries were traced from
the west side of the river at this point to Deer Creek in Harford
County, Md. Those showing most work and offering best oppor-
tunities for investigation are near Broad Creek in woodland owned
by James McLaughlin, near Robinson’s mill, and by W. C. Heaps,
Mill Green, Harford County, Md.

At a workshop below Peach Bottom, Lancaster, Pa., a number of
unfinished and broken banner stones of prochlorite were found. The
source of the material was located a short distance east of Bald Friar,
Md. A large number of unfinished banner stones of slate were
found at the workshop on Mount Johnson Island above Peach Bot-
tom where so many specimens had already been found. At Fishing
Creek, Bare Island, and Henry Island evidences were found of con-
siderable camp sites. At New Park, and Fawn Grove in York
County, Pa., have been found large caches of rhyolite blades. At
both of these places and also at Peach Bottom in the same county
were many artifacts and indications of burial grounds. Interesting
specimens were secured from most of these localities.

EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS.

The editing of the publications of the bureau was continued
through the year by Mr. Stanley Searles, assisted by Mrs. Frances 8.
Nichols. The status of the publications is presented in the following

summary :
PUBLICATIONS ISSUED.

Thirty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Ethnology of the Kwakiutl
(Boas). Pts. 1 and 2. 1,481 pp.

Thirty-sixth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Osage Tribe: Rite
of the Chiefs; Sayings of the Ancient Men (LaFlesche). 604 pp., 23 pls.

Bulletin 73. Early History of the Creek Indians and their Neighbors (Swan-
ton). 492 pp., 10 pls.

Bulletin 74. Excavation of a Site at Santiago Ahuitzotla, D. F. Mexico (Toz-
zer). 56 pp., 19 pls.

Bulletin 75. Northern Ute Music (Densmore). 213 pp., 16 pls.

PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS OR IN PREPARATION.

Thirty-fourth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: A Prehistoric Island
Culture Area of America (Fewkes).

Thirty-seventh Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Winnebago Tribe
(Radin).

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, TS

Thirty-eighth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: An introductory Study
of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians (Roth).

Thirty-ninth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Osage Tribe: The
Rite of Vigil (LaFlesche).

Bulletin 76. Archeological Investigations (Fowke).

Bulletin 77. Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes west of
the Mississippi (Bushnell).

Bulletin 78. Handbook of the Indians of California (Kroeber).

Bulletin 79. Blood Revenge, War, and Victory Feasts among the Jibaro Indians
of HKastern Ecuador (Karsten).

Bulletin 80. Mandan and Hidatsa Music (Densmore).

Bulletin 81. Excavations in the Chama Valley, New Mexico (Jeancon).

DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS.
The distribution of publications has been continued under the im-

mediate charge of Miss Helen Munroe, assisted by Miss Emma B.
Powers. Publications were distributed as follows:

Annial reports and’ ‘separates ieee ter rhh peal tae era vine Pty 1,197
MILeLing and Sepa Te tes. Ste td 2 Pee Ve hae 6, 4038
Contributions to North American Ethnology_________________.._-_ 39
LOTS TS TS Se a eS Se Seema peer SA PS ae ay Ween! 2 a 13
SU RINNE AISA SMITH EAN CANDINI nee en ec ee ee Oe 563

14, 215

As compared with the previous year, there was an increase of 1,420
publications distributed. There was a decrease of 57 names in the
mailing list.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Mr. De Lancey Gill, illustrator, with the assistance of Mr. Albert
KE. Sweeney, continued the preparation of the illustrations of the
bureau. A summary of this work follows:

Line and color drawings, including maps, diagrams, etc., intended for use

Se hloatragons| LOrapu pica thon 2 fa See re a a ee 159
Illustrations, including photographs retouched, mounted, and made

Heh eer OPC ET A VAR ee eee eee Bae ae ea Se seals Se a ae OC DEES 1, 282
PiPseeenotet Droge Cnived. -f11- Jone a eee nes eeon el eeeenee er I Ye) 1, 034
Lithographic proof examined at Government Printing Office___________ 36, 000
Photographic work, negatives of ethnologic and archeologie subjects____ 242
Films developed from field exposures______-__-__________-_______ 138
Prints, for Gisiribution, and officeyUse=s 25) se) = ee ee 538
BSE COS E51 GUC LCS Ae oF i a eg ie a ee 1, 987

Mr. Sweeney was detailed for the month of June to prepare 100
or more negatives for the National Zoological Park.

LIBRARY.

The reference library continued in the immediate care of Miss Ella
Leary, librarian, assisted by Miss Julia S. Atkins and Mr. Samuel
H. Miller.

74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

During the year 406 books were accessioned, of which 64 were
acquired by purchase, 120 by binding of periodicals, and 142 by
gift and exchange. The periodicals currently received number about
900, of which 33 are received by subscription, the remainder being
received through exchange. The bureau has also received 159
pamphlets, giving at the close of the year a working library of
24,561 volumes, 14,936 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound
periodicals.

In addition to the regular routine of library work, Miss Leary
has been able, with the assistance of Miss Atkins, to make rapid
progress toward the completion of the new subject catalogue, with
the result that about 18,000 catalogue cards have been filed during the
fiscal year.

The greatest need of the library is for more shelf room for its
publications, due to its growth during the past few years. The
library is greatly hampered by this need.

The posting of the monthly bulletin of new publications was
continued throughout the year.

During the year many students not connected with the Smithsonian
Institution found the library of service in seeking volumes not ob-
tainable in other libraries of the city. The library was used also by
the Library of Congress and officers of the executive departments,
and out-of-town students have called upon the library for loans
during the year. In addition to the use of its own library it was
found necessary to draw on the Library of Congress from time to
time for the loan of about 400 volumes.

There were bound during the year 200 books, pamphlets, and serial
publications.

COLLECTIONS.

The following collections, acquired by members of the bureau or
by those detailed in connection with its researches, have been trans-
ferred to the United States National Museum:

66880. Collection of Alaskan ethnologica made by the late Rev. Sheldon Jack-
son and purchased by the bureau from his daughter, Miss Leslie Jackson.
67105. Shell and pottery specimens from Ten Thousand Islands, Florida, col-
lected during the spring of 1921 by Mr. William Dinwiddie, Metuchen, N. J.

67112. Four stone objects and two pottery fragments from “Bear” and
“Lewis” mounds, near Portsmouth, Ky., collected by Mr. Gerard Fowke dur-
ing the spring of 1921.

67225. Four pieces of pottery and eight pieces of flint, collected by Prof. J. E.
Pearce, of Austin, Tex., in eastern Texas during the summer of 1919.

67258. Collection of shell objects presented to the bureau by Charles T. Earle,
of Palma Sola, Fla., found near Shaws Point, Fla.

67274. Collection of archeological objects secured by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes from
the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo., in the spring of 1920.

67898. Chunkey stone from Rowena, Ky.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 75

67451. Archeological objects collected near Austin and at “Burnt Rock”
mounds, Texas, by Prof. J. E. Pearce and Dr. J. Walter Fewkes.
67572, Collection of skeletal material secured by Mr. William E. Myer in the
vicinity of the junction of Split Rock River and Big Sioux River, S. Dak.
67730. Archeological material collected in 1920 by Mr. W. E. Myer for the
Bureau of American Ethnology in Williamson and Davidson Counties, Tenn.

68254. Collection of archeological objects from Rio Grande Valley, N. Mex.,
turned over to the bureau by Secretary Charles D. Walcott.

68255. Fragments of pottery from Indian burial on the Catawba River, N. C.,
sent to the bureau by J. Albert Holmes, Construction, N. C.

68256. Collection of Indian implements found on the terraces of Upatoi Creek,
and Chattahoochee River, Muscogee County, Ga., sent to the bureau by Mr.
A. T. Sweet, Columbus, Ga.

PROPERTY.

Furniture and office equipment were purchased to the amount of
$134.97.
MISCELLANEOUS.

Clerical——The correspondence and other clerical work of the office
has been conducted by Miss May S. Clark, clerk to the chief. Mrs.
Frances 8. Nichols assisted the editor. Mr. Anthony W. Wilding
served as messenger and typist to the chief.

Personnel.—Miss Julia 8. Atkins received a permanent appoint-
ment as stenographer March 1, 1922.

Dr. T. T. Waterman, who was appointed as temporary ethnologist
March 1, 1922, was detached from the bureau roll July 1 for six
weeks in order to lecture in the summer school of Columbia Univer-
sity, New York City.

Mr. Samuel H. Miller, messenger boy in the library, resigned June
23, 1922.

Mr. James Mooney, ethnologist, died December 22, 1921.

Respectfully submitted.

J. Watrer Fewxes,
Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 5.
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1922:

The appropriation granted by Congress for the support of the
service during the year was $50,000, the same as the amount for the
year 1921. The excess of these appropriations over those formerly
allowed for the system of international exchanges was designed to
meet the extraordinary expenses of forwarding, at the high ocean
and other transportation rates, the accumulations of packages that
were withheld awaiting the resumption of shipments to certain
foreign countries. In addition to the above appropriation, the usual
allotment of $200 for printing and binding was allowed by Congress.
The repayments from departmental and other establishments aggre-
gated $5,510.74, making the total resources available for carrying on
the system of exchanges for the year, $55,710.74.

During the year 1922 the total number of packages handled was
883,157, a decrease from the number for the preceding year of 68,314.
These packages weighed a total of 592,600 pounds, a decrease of
12,712. While in consequence of the return to nearly normal con-
ditions the figures just given show a falling off in the number and
weight of packages passing through the service from those handled
last year, the work during the fiscal year 1922 exceeded by 41,490 the
number of packages handled in 1914, just prior to the World War,
which indicates a steady increase in the work of the office.

The number and weight of the packages of different classes are
given in the following table:

Packages. Weight.

Sent. |Received.| Sent. |Received.

Pounds. | Pounds.

United States parliamentary documents sent abroad....-......- LSBRSOS"|Veves oon ss 82,905 |. .ck. Sees
Publications received in return for parliamentary documents...}......-... 7 7 al Re = 7, 782
United States departmental documents sent abroad...........- 128 755i bs< Saabesin 193) 5Q2 erica ace
Publications received in return for departmental documents....|......-..- 8 A 22,600
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad...| 82,730 |.......... 222; 941 5). .'ee sees
Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from
abroad for distribution in the United States................2-|eeeeeeeees pl bl AP ae 65,070
Matalin scccsk. Lea eRe. Sd cc kt Ra eee 344, 848 38,309 | 497,148 95, 452
Grane total... ost cee estou Ste eee Oa eee temeln. 383, 157 592,600

76

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 77

It should be stated here that the disparity in the above figures be-
tween the number of packages sent and those received is accounted
for in part by the fact that packages transmitted abroad often con-
tain only one publication, while those received in return frequently
comprise many volumes. In some instances, especially in the case of
publications received in exchange for parliamentary documents, the
term “ package” is applied to large boxes containing many separate
publications. Furthermore, many returns for publications sent
abroad reach their destinations in this country through the mails and
not through the exchange service.

I stated last year that the steps taken by the Institution looking to
the reopening of exchanges with Rumania and the establishment of
relations with the newly formed Government of Jugoslavia had not
led to a successful result. The Governments of both those countries
expressed a desire to have the shipment of international exchanges
resumed as soon as conditions would permit, but nothing further was
heard from either of them. An offer made during the latter part of
the year by the Institutul Meteorologic Central, Bukharest, and the
Académie Royale Serbe des Sciences et des Arts, Belgrade, to serve
as agencies for their respective countries was therefore accepted by
the Institution, and a shipment of 26 boxes was made to the former
and 69 to the latter. The exchange agency in Rumania was formerly
the Academia Romana and in Serbia the Ministére des Affaires
Etrangéres.

During the year exchange relations have been established with the
newly formed Governments of Esthonia, Far Eastern Republic,
Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukrainia.

The conditions in Russia and Turkey have not yet improved suffi-
ciently to warrant the Institution in taking steps to renew the ex-
change of publications between those countries and the United States.

The Institution requested several New York forwarding agents to
submit rates for handling and forwarding exchange consignments
abroad, the rates to take effect on July 1, 1922. The proposal sub-
mitted by the present agents, Messrs. Davies, Turner & Co., 39 Pearl
Street, New York City, was found to be the lowest, and shipments
will therefore continue to be sent to foreign countries through that
firm.

There were shipped abroad during the year 3,215 boxes, being an
increase of 463 over the number for the preceding 12 months. This is
the largest number of boxes forwarded through the exchange service
in one year and is due in great measure to the opening of exchange
relations with Jugoslavia and several of the independent Russian
States, the packages for those countries having accumulated at the
Institution for several years. The number of boxes shipped was fur-

78

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ther augmented by the forwarding to Austria of a large number of
United States patent specifications that were held during the war.
Of the total number of boxes sent abroad 394 contained full sets of
United States official documents for foreign depositories, and 2,821
included departmental and other publications for depositories of
partial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents.
It is gratifying to state that during the year the office has been able
to return to its regular schedule of shipments to foreign countries.
Consignments are now being forwarded to Great Britain and Ger-
many weekly, to France and Italy semimonthly, and to all other

countries monthly.

The number of boxes sent to each country is given in the following

Consignments of exchanges for foreign countries.

table:

Country. po ie el

f Jer iManO ei iGg
Aropntinas: * (i442 edule awtewaie- er | 119
PASIGUT IRE 2 aad obits hele bass ie Aig oe" ate p Rts 203
Retoiarns re Pro ae. 7a bon Soc ain = eck ae | 89
Baliwin et. 4024 a- 430. toute Abt eh oee abe 3
Brags sgt te OTE ee ee. ea 49
British COlONIGSssSens nen - sees sah = sos 15

Brimgn Omi. ..2.5 222 ten eancae cen |

EMIRATES occ epee n dels a5 See bk ae
Cinndas..) oki wees Bee hice tae ewes | 30
0) 1 a Na eR aE ret 36
triads SORES, AP RSs SE. 2 ok de ale 164
Ch Osens = ose ste clea na teases ee eteaereee 1
Clones. ocho. 2 tea Ae oan eae | 26
Costa Bite ict te Ss ews arcmh- deus thee saw 18
OTE IAA Ai Re 2D oe OS nee See ee ee 5
Czechoslovakian 3. .5.25;05- 2522 s2cath se | 128
LOT cri l RW RRS Sets AOR ete eee 5
DPNINATIES ct ccs ch ont hepesu caro Sus geet 41
HIGUAUOPS Wek ects chess a-scae es cele ewes 16
Bryne . bea). Ree Se wan eae botnet = 11
Esthonia..... isa SAT Sa heaieee Cp 2. Meee | 1l
Far Eastern Republic. ........-..------- 2
_ Fimland.......---.---------2+2-0+--++++- 20
WranGe ss sis S02 Se ee eee 201
GENMRINY)= smicn cen cheese Gee = omnes 523
Great Britain and Ireland.........-.---- 364
a a et eRe Ea 17
Guatemala. ......22....--2----+-+2---2-- 3
IER Ae ee Ua MEE SE EAE Oa ae BAe | 6
PPONGUTASS oe cnet: oe Secon ceca satan ane 2
DEUTER CR gpg erat tes beatae iy Dawe eosin 54
VLA C4 eee h Mie ER een be ss CSE ee 28 Seas 7

Country.

| NICRTARUS.. - ocbsen csc e~s ooscone See
PNOnWayu.) 22. ck. «chests ae eee ee |
| Paraguay

Portugal
Queensland

Wictoniaccceiie cece e theirs segs ee esas
Western Australia
Yugoslavia

Number
of boxes.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 79

FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL
DOCUMENTS.

The number of sets of governmental documents forwarded abroad
through the International Exchange Service to foreign depositories
has been reduced during the year by one, the partial set formerly
sent to Montenegro having been discontinued as that country is now
a part of the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which
receives a full set. The total number of sets of governmental docu-
ments distributed through the service is therefore 95, 57 full and
38 partial. The set sent to the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and
Slovenes is entered in the following list under Jugoslavia.

The name of the Austrian depository has been changed from the
Statistische Zentral Kommission to the Bundesamt fiir Statistik.

A complete list of the depositories is given below:

DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS.

ARGENTINA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Buenos Aires.

AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne.

AUSTRIA: Bundesamt fiir Statistik, Schwarzenbergstrasse 5, Vienna I.

BADEN: Universitits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the State of Baden.)

Bavaria: Staats-Bibliothek, Munich.

Beteium: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels.

Braziz: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.

Buenos Arres: Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. (Deposi-
tory of the Province of Buenos Aires.)

CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.

CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.

CHINA: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai
Bureau of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai.

CoLoMBiIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José.

CuspA: Secretaria de Estado (Asuntos Generales y Canje Internacional),
Habana.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague.

DENMARK: Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen.

ENGLAND: British Museum, London.

FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.

GERMANY: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin.

Guascow: City Librarian, Mitchell Library, Glasgow.

GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.

Harti: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.

Huneary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest.

InprA: Imperial Library, Calcutta.

TRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin.

Iraty: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.

JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.

Lonpon: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of
the London County Council.)

Mawnirorna: Provincial Library, Winnipeg.

Mexico: Instituto Bibliografico, Biblioteca Nacional, Mexico.

80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

NETHERLANDS: Bibliotheek van de Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, The
Hague.

New SoutH WALEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.

Norway: Storthingets Bibliothek, Christiania.

Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto.

Paris: Préfecture de la Seine.

Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.

PoLAND: Bibliothéque du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Warsaw.

PorTuGaL: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.

Prussia: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7.

QueseEc: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec, Quebec. .

QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.

Russia: Public Library, Petrograd.

Saxony: Oeffentliche Bibliothek, Dresden.

SoutH Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.

Spain: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Faculta
tivo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueélogos, Madrid.

SwEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm.

SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Fédérale Centrale, Berne.

TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.

TuRKEY: Department of Public Instruction, Constantinople.

Union oF SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.

Urnueuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.

VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.

Victorra: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.

WURTTEMBERG: Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart.

Yueostavia: Ministére des Affaires Etrungéres, Belgrade.

DEPOSITORIES OF PARTIAL SETS.

ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton.

ALSACE-LoRRAINE: Bibliothéque Universitaire et Régionale de Strasbourg, Stras-
bourg.

Borivia: Ministerio de Colonizaci6n y Agricultura, La Paz.

Brazi.: Bibliotheca da Assemblea Legislativa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro,
Nictheroy.

BREMEN: Senatskommission fiir Reichs- und Auswirtige Angelegenheiten.

British Cotumsia: Legislative Library, Victoria.

British Guiana: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara.

Burearia: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Sofia.

Crrton: Colonial Secretary’s Office (Record Department of the Library), Co-
lombo.

Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.

Eayrt: Bibliothéque Khédiviale, Cairo.

FINLAND: Central Library of the State, Helsingfors.

GUATEMALA: Secretary of the Government, Guatemala.

HameBure: Senatskommission fiir die Reichs- und Auswiirtigen Angelegen-
heiten.

Hesse: Landesbibliothek, Darmstadt.

Honpuras: Secretary of the Government, Tegucigalpa.

Jamatca: Colonial Secretary, Kingston.

Latvia: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riga.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81

Lrperta: Department of State, Monrovia.

LovrEN¢GO Marquez: Government Library, Lourengo Marquez.

Liprck: President of the Senate.

Mapras, PROVINCE oF: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public
Department, Madras.

Matta: Lieutenant Governor, Veletta.

New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton.

NEWFOUNDLAND: Colonial Secretary, St. John’s.

NicaRAGua: Superintendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua.

Nova Scotta: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.

-Paracuay: Oficina General de Inmigracion, Asuncion.

Prince Epwarp ISLAND: Legislative Library, Charlottetown.

RumMAniA: Academia Romana, Bukharest.

Satvapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.

SASKATCHEWAN: Government Library, Regina.

Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.

Straits SETTLEMENTS: Colonial Secretary, Singapore.

SwirzeRLAND: Library of the League of Nations, Palace of Nations, Quai de
Leman, Geneva.

UNITED Provinces oF AGRA AND OvupH: Undersecretary to Government, Alla-
habad.

Vienna: Biirgermeister-Amt der Stadt Wien.

INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNALS.

The Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, and
the Riigi Raamatukogu, Toompea, Reval, Esthonia, have been added
to the list of those countries receiving the daily Congressional
Record.

Mention was made in my last report of the fact that the Govern-
ment of Poland had entered into the immediate exchange with the
United States, although it had not signified its adherence to the
Brussels convention providing for such exchange. During the year
the Institution was advised through diplomatic channels that the
Polish Government, in the exercise of the privilege granted to non-
signatory States by Article 2 of Exchange Convention B of March
15, 1886, had declared its adherence to that diplomatic instrument.

Following is a complete list of the addresses to which the daily
Congressional Record is now sent:

ARGENTINA: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne.
Austria: Bibliothek des Nationalrates, Wien I.

BavDEN: Universitéits-Bibliothek, Heidelberg.

BELGIUM: Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Représentants, Brussels.
Bottvia: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, La Paz.

BrRazit: Bibliotheca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.
Buenos ArrEes: Biblioteca del Senado de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, La
Plata.
CANADA:
Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa,

82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depédsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José,
CUBA:
Biblioteca de la Camara de Representantes, Habana.
Biblioteca del Senado, Habana.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague.
DENMARK: Rigsdagens Bureau, K¢gbenhayn.
EstHoniA: Riigi Raamatukogu, Toompea, Reval.

FRANCE:
Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés, au Palais Bourbon, Paris.

Bibliothéque du Sénat, au Palais du Luxembourg, Paris.
Great Britain: Library of the Foreign Office, Downing Street, London, 8. W. 1.
GREECE: Library of Parliament, Athens.
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Oficina Internacional Centro-Americana, 8a Calle
Poniente No. 1, Ciudad de Guatemala.
HonpurASs: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
HunGARy: Bibliothek des Abgeordnetenhauses, Budapest.
ITALY:
Biblioteca della Camera dei Deputati, Palazzo di Monte Citorio, Rome.
Biblioteca del Senato del Regno, Palazzo Madama, Rome.
LIBERIA: Department of State, Monrovia.
NEw SoutH WALES: Library of Parliament, Sydney.
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Peru: CAimara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Lima.
PoLtAanp: Monsieur le Ministre des Affaires Etrangéres, Warsaw.
PortuGcAL: Bibliotheca do Congresso da Republica, Lisbon.
Prussia: Bibliothek des Abgeordnetenhauses, Prinz-Albrechtstrasse 5, Berlin,
S. W. 11.
QUEENSLAND: The Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane.
RuMANIA :Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés, Bukharest.
Russia: Sendings temporarily suspended.
SPAIN:
Biblioteca del Congreso de los Diputados, Madrid.
Biblioteca del Senado, Madrid.
SWITZERLAND:
Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Fédérale Suisse, Berne.
Library of the League of Nations, Geneva.
TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria.
Union oF SoutH Arrica: Library of Parliament, Cape Town.
Urnucuay: Bibliotheca de la Camara de Representantes, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Caricas.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth.
YUGOSLAVIA: Library of the Skupshtina, Belgrade.

The total number of copies of the daily Congressional Record set
aside by law for exchange with foreign legislative bodies is 100. It
will be seen from the above that this exchange is conducted with 44
establishments.

FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES.

It will be noted from the following list of exchange agencies that
shipments are now being made to Esthonia, the Far Eastern Re-
public, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Lithuania, Rumania, and Ukrainia.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

The Teachers’ College at Vladivostok is the agency for the Far
Eastern Republic; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at Riga, for
Latvia; the Académie Royale Serbe des Sciences et des Arts at
Belgrade, for Yugoslavia; and the Institutul Meteorologic Central
in Bukharest, for Rumania. Only a few packages have thus far
been received for Lithuania, and, for the present, transmissions to
that country will be made through the mails. Shipments were made
to the university libraries at Dorpat and at Odessa, with the request
that those libraries distribute the consignments and also act as the
agencies for Esthonia and Ukrainia, respectively. As these ship-
ments were not made until near the close of the year, replies have
not yet been received from those establishments. It is anticipated,
however, that both will consent to serve as exchange agencies.

A complete list of the foreign exchange agencies or bureaus is
given below:

ALGERIA, via France.

ANGOLA, via Portugal.

ARGENTINA: Comisién Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Calle Cordoba 931,
Buenos Aires.

AUSTRIA: Bundesamt ftir Statistik, Schwarzenbergstrasse 5, Vienna I.

AZORES, via Portugal.

BELGIUM: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Rue des Longs-Chariots
46, Brussels.

BouiviA: Oficina Nacional de Estadistica, La Paz.

Brazit: Servico de Permutacdes Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de
Janeiro.

BRITISH COLONIES: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.

BRITISH GUIANA: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown.

BriTIsH Honpuras: Colonial Secretary, Belize.

BULGARIA: Institutions Scientifiques de S. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Sofia.

CANARY ISLANDS, via Spain.

CHILE: Servicio de Canjes Internacionales, Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago.

CHINA: American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department, Shanghai Bureau
of Foreign Affairs, Shanghai.

CHOSEN: Government General, Keijo.

CoLoMBIA: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteca Nacional,
Bogota.

Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San
José.

CzECHOSLOVAKIA: Service Tchécoslovaque des Echanges Internationaux, Biblio-
théque de l’ Assemblée Nationale, Prague 1-79.

Dawnzie: Stadtbibliothek, Danzig.

DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.

DutcH GUIANA: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo.

Ecuapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito.

Eeypt: Government Publications Office, Printing Department, Bulaq, Cairo.

HsTHonIA: Negotiations to establish an agency now pending.

Far EASTERN REPUBLIC: Teachers’ College of the Far Eastern Republic, Vladi-
vostok.

FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Helsingfors.

84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

FRANCE: Service Francais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle,
Paris.

GERMANY: Amerika-Institut, Universititstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley, 2, 3, and 4 Arthur St.,
New Oxford St., London, W. C. 2.

GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens.

GREENLAND, via Denmark.

GUADELOUPE, via France.

GUATEMALA: Instituto Nacional de Varones, Guatemala.

GUINEA, via Portugal.

HaltI: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port au Prince.

HonpurAS: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.

Huneary: Dr. Julius Pikler, Févférosi Telekértéknyilvantart6é Hivatal (City
Land Valuation Office), Kiézponti Varoshiz, Budapest III.

ICELAND, via Denmark.

InpIA: Superintendent of Stationery, Bombay.

IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio
Emanuele, Rome.

JAMAICA: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.

JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.

JAVA, via Netherlands.

Latvia :Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Riga.

LIBERIA: Bureau of Exchanges, Department of State, Monrovia.

LITHUANIA: Sent by mail.

LOURENGO MARQUEZ: Government Library, Lourenco Marquez.

LUXEMBURG, via Germany.

MADAGASCAR, via France.

MADEIRA, via Portugal.

MozAMBIQUE, via Portugal.

NETHERLANDS: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Bibliothéque de
VAcadémie technique, Delft.

NEw GuINEA, via Netherlands.

New SoutH WaAtsEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

NEw ZEALAND: Dominion Museum, Wellington.

NICARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.

Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet Bibliotheket, Christiania.

PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.

PaRaGuay: Servicio de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Secci6n Consular
y de Comercio, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Asuncion.

Peru: Oficina de Reparto, Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones,
Ministerio de Fomento, Lima.

PoLAND: Bibliothéque du Ministére des Affaires Htrangéres, Warsaw.

PortuGAL: Seccio de Trocas Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.

QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre-
tary’s Office, Brisbane.

RUMANIA: Institutul Meteorologic Central, Ministerul Becomuret Bukharest.

Russia: Shipments temporarily suspended.

SALVADOR: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.

Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.

SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide.

Spain: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Facultativo
de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueélogos, Madrid.

SUMATRA, via Netherlands.

SWEDEN; Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

SwWITzERLAND: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Fédérale Cen
trale, Berne.

Syrta: American University of Beirut.

TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart.

TRINIDAD: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain.

TunIs, via France.

TuRKEY: Shipments temporarily suspended.

UKRAINIA: Negotiations to establish an agency now pending.

Union oF SoutH Arrica: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal.

Urucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional, Montevideo.

VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.

Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.

Yuceostavia: Académie Royal Serbe des Sciences et des Arts, Belgrade.

RULES GOVERNING THE TRANSMISSION OF EXCHANGES.

A revised edition of the circular containing a brief description of
the service and the rules under which packages are accepted for dis-
tribution, was published at the close of the year and is here repro-
duced for the information of any who may desire to make use
of the service in the forwarding of publications.

In effecting the distribution of its first publications abroad, the Smith-
sonian Institution established relations with many foreign scientific societies
and libraries, by means of which it was enabled to materially assist institu-
tions and individuals of this country in the transmission of their publications
abroad, and also foreign societies and individuals in distributing their publi-
cations in the United States.

In more recent years the Smithsonian Institution has been charged with the
duty of conducting the official exchange bureau of the United States Gov-
ernment, through which the publications authorized by Congress are ex-
changed for those of other Governments; and by a formal treaty it acts as
intermediary between the learned bodies and Scientific and literary societies
of this and other countries for the reception and transmission of their pub-
lications.

Attention is called to the fact that this is an international and not a
domestic exchange service, and that it is designed to facilitate exchanges be-
tween the United States and other countries only. As publications from
domestic sources for addresses in Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico,
and other territory subject to the jurisdiction of the United States do not
come within the designation ‘international,’ they are not accepted by the
Institution for transmission through the service.

Packages prepared in accordance with the rules enumerated below will
be received by the Smithsonian Institution from individuals or institutions
of learning in the United States and forwarded to their destinations abroad
through the various exchange bureaus or agencies in other countries. Many
of these bureaus and agencies will likewise receive from correspondents in
their countries such publications for addresses in the United States and its
dependencies as may be delivered to them under rules similar to those pre-
scribed herein, and will forward them to Washington, after which the Insti-
tution will transmit them te their destinations by mail free of cost to the
recipients.

553879—24—_7

86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

On the receipt of a consignment from a domestic source it is assigned a
“record number,” which number is, for identification purposes, placed on
each package contained therein. After the packages have been recorded
they are packed in boxes with consignments from other senders and are
forwarded by freight to the bureaus or agencies abroad which have under-
taken to distribute exchanges in those countries. To Great Britain and
Germany shipments are made weekly, to France and Italy semimonthly, and
to all other countries consignments are forwarded at intervals not exceeding
one month.

The Institution assumes no responsibility in the transmission of packages
intrusted to its care, but at all times uses its best endeavors to forward ex-
changes to their destinations safely and as promptly as possible. Especial
attention should be called in this connection to the time ordinarily required
for packages sent through the exchange service to reach their destinations.
To Great Britain and Germany, for example, where weekly shipments are made,
the average time for a package to reach its destination is about six weeks. In
some instances the period is much shorter and in no case should it be longer
unless there is some unavoidable delay at the ports of embarkation or debarka-
tion. To those countries to which shipments.are made at semimonthly and
monthly intervals, the time of delivery is of course somewhat longer, depending
on the distance and also whether packages are received at the Institution im-
mediately before or after a shipment. If, therefore, advance notices are
mailed by senders, mention should be made of the above facts in order that
consignees may expect some delay between the receipt of notices and the
arrival of packages. In cases where greater dispatch is desired, publica-
tions should be forwarded by the senders to their foreign destinations direct
by mail,

BULES.

The rules governing the Smithsonian International Exchange Service are as
follows:

1. Consignments from correspondents in the United States containing pack-
ages for transmission abroad should be addressed—“ Smithsonian Institution,
International Exchanges, Washington, D. C.,” and forwarded with carriage
charges to Washington prepaid.

2. In forwarding a consignment the sender should mail a letter to the
Institution, stating by what route it is being shipped, and the number of
boxes or parcels which it comprises. A list giving the name and address of
each consignee should also be furnished. This request should invariably be
complied with for record.

3. Packages should be legibly and fully addressed, using, when practicable,
the language of the country to which they are to be forwarded. In order to
avoid any possible dispute as to ownership, names of individuals should be
omitted from packages intended for societies and other establishments.

4, Packages should be securely wrapped and cardboard used if necessary
to protect plates from crumpling.

5. Letters are not permitted in exchange packages.

6. If donors desire acknowledgments, packages may contain receipt forms
to be signed and returned by the establishment or individual addressed.
Should publications be desired in exchange, a request to that effect may be
printed on the receipt form or on the package.

7. The work carried on by the International Exchange Service is not in any
sense of a commercial nature, but is restricted to the transmission of pub-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 87

lications sent as exchanges or donations. Books sold or ordered through
the trade are, therefore, necessarily excluded.

8. Specimens are not accepted for distribution, except when permission has
been obtained from the Institution.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Axsor,
Assistant Secretary,
In Charge of Library and Exuchanges.
Dr. Cuaries D. Watoort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 6.
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

Sm: I have the honor to present the following report on the
operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1922:

The appropriation allowed by Congress in the sundry civil act
approved March 4, 1921, for the regular maintenance of the park
was the same as for the preceding year, $125,000, with the usual
additional allotment of $200 for printing and binding. The sum of
$2,500, together with an unobligated balance of $2,403.66 left from
the appropriation for alteration of boundaries, 1921, was also made
available, as a continuing appropriation, for the purchase of land
to correct the eastern boundary line near the Adams Mill Road
entrance.

The year has been one of the most successful in the history of the
park. A number of minor permanent improvements have been
completed, progress has been made on some larger undertakings,
and the grounds have been maintained in a condition gratifying
to all who are interested in the great natural beauty of the reserva-
tion. At the close of the year the collection is larger, and of more
importance, than ever before; more different species are on exhibi-
tion, and the actual number of animals is greater than in any previous
year; there are more than the usual number of rare and valuable
specimens; the births have been numerous; and the death rate has
been kept at a low mark. For the third successive year the attend-
ance has exceeded 2,000,000.

ACCESSIONS.

Gifts.—No less than 217 animals, an unusual number, were added
to the collection as gifts, or were placed by friends of the park on
indefinite deposit. Special mention in this connection should be
made of two important collections from South America.

The collections of living animals made by Dr. William M. Mann
on the Mulford Biological Exploration of the Amazon Basin reached
the park on April 15, 1922. Included were 15 mammals, 50 birds,
and 17 reptiles that arrived in perfect condition, and a very few
others lost from the effects of travel. These were all generously
presented to the park by the H. K. Mulford Co., of Philadelphia.

88

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 89

Doctor Mann is to be congratulated on his success in bringing te
the country live representatives of several species from Bolivia and
western Brazil that have never before been shown. The red-faced
spider monkey, black-headed woolly monkey, pale capuchin, choliba
screech owl, Bolivian penelope, short-tailed parrot, Maximilian’s
parrot, blue-headed parrot, Cassin’s macaw, golden-crowned paro-
quet, Weddell’s paroquet, orange-winged paroquet, and golden-
winged paroquet are new to the collection. These and other rarities
are mostly from the Rio Beni, Bolivia, and the upper Rio Madeira,
Brazil, localities from which animals seldom find their way into
collections. Other species, including such rare birds as the festive
parrot, Amazonian caique, and white-backed trumpeter, while not
new to the park records, are unusual. There were also some showy
birds and small mammals from the lower Amazon as well as an
excellent collection of living reptiles. On account of the great pro-
portion of rare species it contained and the unusually good condi-
tion of the specimens on arrival, the Mulford Explorations collection
easily ranks as the most important accession received from tropical
America in some years.

Mr. W. J. La Varre, jr., continuing his donations from personal
exploration of out-of-the-way parts of South America, presented
28 birds and mammals from the interior of British Guiana. Con-
spicuous among these are a cock of the rock, a Hahn’s macaw, and
two dusky parrots, all new to the collection. Mr. La Varre also
succeeded in landing a young red howler monkey. The cock of the
rock, a young bird in immature plumage on arrival, has now de-
veloped into full color and is one of the most showy and attractive
exhibits in the bird house.

Mr. Victor J. Evans, of Washington, D. C., long a regular con-
tributor to the collection, purchased and placed on indefinite de-
posit a Cape great-eared fox and two yellow-billed hornbills, both
species new to the records of the park. The long-eared fox, received
from South Africa, is doubtless the first representative of its species
ever exhibited alive in America.

Sixty-eight individual donors contributed to the collection during
the year. The complete list is as follows:

Mrs. Benjamin E. Abbott, Washington, D. C., Virginia opossum.

Dr. Arthur A. Allen, Ithaca, N. Y., 10 greater scaup ducks.

American Express Co., Washington, D. C., 4 chipmunks.

Mrs, R, P, Andrews, Washington, D. C., Cuban parrot.

Mr. Carl Bandrexler, Washington, D. C., copperhead.

Mr. Murrell Barkley, Washington, D. C., 2 tovi paroquets.

Mrs. A. H. Baum, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Mrs. William R. Bedell, Washington, D. C., blue-fronted parrot.

Mr. John M. Blanton, Washington, D. C., Texas red wolf.
Mrs. Grace Boone, New Midway, Md., American coot.

90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Mr. M. G. Butler, Dillwyn, Va., great horned owl.

Mr. Thomas F, Callahan, Washington, D. C., great horned owl.

Canadian Government, through Hon. J. B. Harkin, yak.

Mr. Madison Clark, Washington, D. C., great horned owl.

Mrs. John L. Clem, Washington, D. C., zebra finch.

Mr. M, Cochrane, La Plata, Md., American barn owl.

Mr. N. B. Davis, Washington, D. C., alligator.

Mr. Harrison H. Dodge, Mount Vernon, Va., red and blue and yellow macaw.

Miss Josephine Duffey, Alexandria, Va., crab-eating macaque.

Mr. J. H. Evans, Washington, D. C., skunk.

Mr. Victor J. Evans, Washington, D. C., great-eared fox and two yellow-
billed hornbills.

Commander Frank Jack Fletcher, United States Navy, Washington, D. C.,
grass paroquet.

Mrs. Kenneth L. Frye, Chevy Chase, Md., sulphur-crested cockatoo.

Mr. H. C. Fuller, Washington, D. C., brown capuchin.

Mrs. E. W. Gibb, Washington, D. C., raccoon.

Gude Bros. Co., Washington, D. C., alligator.

Miss Emma T. Hahn, Washington, D. C., 4 canaries.

Hon. Warren G, Harding, White House, Washington, D. C., coyote.

Mr. Mitchell Harrison, Nokesville, Va., raccoon.

Mr. Caleb R. Hathaway, Chevy Chase, Md., Virginia opossum.

Mr. Odis B. Hinnant, Washington, D. C., banded rattlesnake.

Mr. Allen Hoover, Washington, D. C., two alligators.

Mr. M. A. Horner, Seward, Alaska, Alaskan hald eagle.

Mr. S. F. Howland, Silver Springs, Md., barred owl.

Kazim Temple, A, A. O. N. M. S., Roanoke, Va., bald eagle.

Mr. R. A. Kishpaugh, Fredericksburg, Va., two alligators.

Mr. S. Seibert Knode, Boonsboro, Md., red-tailed hawk and two American
barn owls.

Mr. W. J. La Varre, jr., Washington, D. C., red howler monkey, cock of the
rock, Hahn’s macaw, 2 dusky parrots, 3 orange-winged parrots, and 20 blue-
winged parrotlets.

Mr. Harry L. Light, Washington, D. C., festive parrot.

Mr. Edward Lucas, Silver Springs, Md., jumping mouse.

Dr. C. L. Marlatt, Washington, D. C., yellow-headed parrot.

Dr. C. B. Masson, Washington, D. C., one black snake and five copperheads.

Mr. Richard McCann, Washington, D. C., woodchuck.

Mr. Edward B. McLean, Washington, D. C., kinkajou and brown pelican.

Miss Sara G. Meetze, Washington, D. C., red fox.

Mrs. Charles Middleton, Silver Hill, Md., bald eagle.

Mulford Biological Exploration of the Amazon Basin, through Dr. William M.
Mann, red-faced spider monkey, douroucouli, titi monkey, 2 woolly monkeys,
2 pale capuchins, 2 agoutis, 6 tamarins, toucan, choliba screech owl, guan,
penelope, 2 razor-billed curassows, 2 white-backed trumpeters, short-tailed
parrot, Maximilian’s parrot, mealy parrot, 3 blue-headed parrots, 4 festive
parrots, Cassin’s macaw, white-eyed paroquet, 4 golden-crowned paroquets,
4 Weddell’s paroquets, 7 orange-winged paroquets, 8 golden-winged paroquets,
7 Amazonian caiques, spectacled cayman, and 16 South American turtles.

Mr. C. Bland Payne, Richmond, Va., sparrow hawk.

Miss Dorothy Pickells, Washington, D. C., brown capuchin.

Mr. Marshall Pickett, Brentwood, Md., screech owl.

Mr. Jack Polkinhorn, Washington, D. C., painted turtle.

Mr. J. S. Ritz, Altoona, Pa., two sparrow hawks.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91

Commander John David Robnett, United States Navy, Washington, D. C.,
two Santo Domingo parrots.

Mr. Richard J. Scharf, Washington, D. C., two alligators.

Mr. Edward S. Schmid, Washington, D. C., jackdaw, Canadian porcupine, and
two Virginia opossums.

Mr. Harry Seamon, Takoma Park, Md., barred owl.

Mrs. Albert Semler, Hagerstown, Md., two American barn owls.

Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, Washington, D. C., glass-snake.

Mr. Robert Stabler, Washington, D. C., black snake.

State Game, Fish and Forest Fire Department, Lansing, Mich., through
Hon. John Baird, four coyotes.

Mrs. Anna P. Stewart, Chevy Chase, Md., two canaries.

Mrs. Lucy N. Towson, Washington, D. C., canary.

Mr. J. H. Tyler, Washington, D. C., three moccasins.

Mr. Edward White, Washington, D. C., albino squirrel.

Hon. Arthur H. Wight, Port of Spain, Trinidad, British West Indies, capybara.

Mr. J. Warren Wood, Silver Springs, Md., weasel.

Mrs. Lena D. Woodard, South Washington, Va., barred owl.

Mr. L. T. Zbinden, Washington, D. C., yellow-headed parrot.

Births.—During the year 58 mammals and 28 reptiles were born,
and 64 birds were hatched in the park. These records include only
such as are reared to a reasonable age, no account being made in
these published statistics of young that live only a few days. Mam-
mals born include: Manchurian tiger, 4; dingo, 6; Florida otter, 3;
raccoon, 2; gray wolf, 1; hippopotamus, 1; Rocky Mountain sheep, 1;
tahr, 1; East African eland, 1; American bison, 1; llama, 1; Indian
antelope, 1; Virginia deer, 3; hog deer, 2; Japanese deer, 5; fallow
deer, 2; red deer, 5; barasingha, 1; brush-tailed rock wallaby, 2;
rufous-bellied wallaby, 3; black-tailed wallaby, 1; great red kanga-
roo, 5; wallaroo, 1; Trinidad agouti, 2; rhesus monkey, 2; green
guenon, 1. Reptiles: Ground rattlesnake, 1; copperhead, 27. Birds
hatched were of the following species: Greater snow goose, Canada
goose, wood duck, pintail, black duck, mallard, American coot, black-
crowned night heron, peafowl, ring-necked pheasant, and European
wood pigeon.

The young Manchurian tigers were born August 19, 1921, and at
the close of the year were fine, thrifty animals, of good growth. The
hippopotamus, born April 27, 1922, is the third young successfully
reared in the gardens from the same pair of animals. The success
in rearing a young mountain sheep ram last year makes it seem
probable that the lamb born this spring will also develop into a
perfect animal.

E'xchanges——A number of valuable animals were received in ex-
change for surplus stock. The accessions include 19 mammals, 166
birds, and 8 reptiles. Special mention should be made of a panda,
three yellow-footed rock wallabies, an aard-wolf, and a Hagenbeck’s
mangabey, none of which have before been on exhibition in the

92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

gardens. The panda is the only Old World representative of the
raccoon family and is an animal of striking appearance. It comes
from the high Himalaya Mountains of northern India. The aard-
wolf of South Africa has probably never before been shown alive in
America, It is related to the hyenas but is chiefly insectivorous in
its habits and lacks the powerful dental equipment of most of the
carnivores. Other mammals received in exchange are a lioness,
aoudad, great anteater, cape bushbuck, sable antelope, two Malay
tapirs, a wombat, brown woolly monkey, anubis baboon, vervet
guenon, and two Japanese monkeys.

Among the birds received in exchange special mention should be
made of the following species: Hawaiian goose, bean goose, Euro-
pean pochard, tufted duck, European lapwing, greater vasa parrot,
and African black vulture.

A regal python, 25 feet long, was received in exchange. This is
the largest snake ever exhibited in the park.

Purchases.—A brindled gnu from South Africa, and a young male
American elk, were purchased during the year. In addition to these
a few small common mammals and birds were purchased at low cost.

Transfers.—An especially fine collection of ostriches, 12 birds in
all, were transferred to the park from the United States poultry ex-
periment station, Bureau of Animal Industry, Glendale, Ariz. The
lot includes selected representatives of the Somaliland, Nubian, and
South African species, and comprises probably the finest show of
ostriches in America.

Through the Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, were
received a number of animals collected by field agents of the
bureau. These include a badger from Mr. R. E. Bateman, Billings,
Mont.; 2 gray wolves: from Mr. Charles J. Bayer, Cheyenne,
Wyo.; 7 beavers from Mr. Vernon Bailey, chief field naturalist; a
wood duck and a cardinal from Mr. George A. Lawyer, chief game
warden; a desert tortoise from Mr. M. E. Musgrave, Phoenix,
Ariz.; and 12 Florida gopher tortoises from the survey labora-
tories.

The Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Commerce, contributed
5 specimens of the snapping turtle.

REMOVALS.

Surplus animals to the number of 44 were sent away during the
year in exchange for other stock. Among these were the following
mammals that had been born and reared in the park: Indian water
buffalo, 1; American bison, 1; Rocky Mountain sheep, 1; Indian
antelope, 1; llama, 2; guanaco, 1; red deer, 7; Japanese deer, 3;

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93

barasingha, 1; dingo, 2; gray wolf, 1; European brown bear, 4; red
kangaroo, 2; and rufous-bellied wallaby, 2.

A number of animals on deposit were returned to owners.

While the death rate has been kept low for the collection as a
whole, there have been some serious losses of animals long in the
park. The records of some of these, interesting because of longev-
ity in captivity, are as follows: A black vulture (Coragyps urubu)
received as a bird of the year November 26, 1900, was killed by its
cage mate, a bird of the same species, December 28, 1921, 21 years,
1 month, and 2 days after arrival. A female South American
tapir, received from Demerara August 28, 1901, then about 4 years
of age, died September 7, 1921, after 20 years and 10 days of life
in the National Zoological Park. Nine young were born to this
animal during this period, seven of which were reared. The im-
mediate cause of death was tuberculosis. A male gray wolf (Canis
nubilus), born in the park March 29, 1905, died at an age of 16
years, 3 months, and 5 days, on July 4, 1921. A male llama, born
in the park April 28, 1907, died of pyemia at an age of 14 years, 10
months, and 7 days, on March 7, 1922. A female California sea
lion received May 25, 1907, died 14 years, 2 months, and 5 days
after arrival on July 30, 1921. A cariama (Cariama cristata) re-
ceived from Dr. Clemente Onelli, director of the Municipal Zoologi-
cal Gardens, Buenos Aires, March 14, 1908, died 13 years, 4 months,
and 1 day later, on July 15, 1921. A grizzly bear, male, received
from the Yellowstone National Park July 29, 1908, died March 27,
1922. This bear was about 34 years old on arrival, lived in the park
13 years, 7 months, and 28 days, and its death was clearly due
to advanced age. ‘The female harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), re-
ceived January 19, 1910, died of enteritis on March 9, 1922, after 12
years, 1 month, and 18 days of life in the park. A female wart
hog, presented by Mr. W. N. McMillan, which reached the park
December 19, 1909, died July 29, 1921, 11 years, 7 months, and 10
days after arrival. A female kinkajou (Potos flavus), received
from Panama June 17, 1910, died after 11 years, 1 month, and 5
days of life in the park, on July 22, 1921. A female Woodhouse’s
wolf (Canis frustror), born in the park April 17, 1911, died Janu-
ary 7, 1922, at an age of 10 years, 8 months, and 21 days. A female
gray coatimundi (Nasua narica) received April 2, 1913, died Feb-
ruary 22, 1922, after 8 years, 10 months, and 20 days in the park.
The European badger (J/eles meles) received from the London
Zoological Gardens May 1, 1915, died 6 years, 6 months. and 11
days later, on November 12, 1921.

Other serious losses include the Florida manatee from septic
peritonitis, July 16, 1921; Mongolian wild horse (Hquus przewal-

94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

skit) from inflammation of bladder, November 27, 1921; an Arabian
camel, hemorrhagic cystitis, April 3, 1922; a female Rocky Moun-
tain sheep from metroperitonitis, June 6, 1922; two Count Raggi’s
birds of paradise, enteritis, February 7 and 9, 1922; and the last
trumpeter swan, the property of Mr. R. M. Barnes, Lacon, IL,
which had been on deposit since April 15, 1917. The swan died
of tuberculosis of the liver on June 14, 1922.

Post-mortem examinations were made, in most cases, by the
pathological division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Two
examinations were made by Dr. Adolph H. Schultz, of the Carnegie
Institution, Laboratory of Embryology, and one by Dr. C. W.
Stiles at the Hygienic Laboratory, Bureau of Public Health Serv-
ice. The following list shows the results of autopsies, the cases
being arranged by groups:

CAUSES OF DEATH.
MAMMALS,

Marsupialia: Congestion of lungs, 1; pleurisy and pneumonia, 1; enteritis,
2; septicemia, 1; accident, 1; old age, 1.

Carnivora: Pneumonia, 1; tuberculosis, 2; enteritis, 1; gastroenteritis, 3;
old age, 1; no cause found, 1.

Rodentia: Tuberculosis, 1; septic pleuropneumonia, 1; enteritis, 2.

Primates: Bronchopneumonia, 1; tuberculosis, 1; enteritis, 1; gastroenteri-
tis, 1; colitis, 2; parasitic peritonitis, 2.

Artiodactyla: Pneumonia, 1; verminous bronchopneumonia, 2; pleurisy, 1;
tuberculosis, 1; enteritis, 1; metroperitonitis, 1; hemorrhagic cystitis, 1;
pyemia, 1; anemia, 1; accident, 1; no cause found, 1.

Perissodactyla: Tuberculosis, 1; prolapse of rectum, 1.

Sirenia: Peritonitis, 1.

BIRDS.

Ratite: Pleurisy and peritonitis, 1.

Ciconiiformes: Aspergillosis, 1; enteritis, 1; anemia, 3; no cause found, 5.

Anseriformes: Tuberculosis, 6; aspergillosis, 1; enteritis, 1; abscess of in-
testine, 1; no cause found, 4.

Faleconiformes: Anemia, 1; no cause found, 1.

Galliformes: Enteritis, 4; anemia, 1.

Gruiformes: No cause found, 1.

Charadriiformes: Pneumonia, 2; aspergillosis, 1; no cause found, 2.

Coraciiformes: No cause found, 1.

Passeriformes: Aspergillosis, 1; enteritis, 4; abscess of lung, 1.

REPTILES.

Serpentes: No cause found, 1.

A total of 68 specimens—26 mammals, 25 birds, and 17 reptiles—
of special scientific importance, were transferred after death to
the United States National Museum. Four dead mammals were de-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

95

livered for scientific investigations to the Carnegie Laboratory of
Embryology, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore; two to
the American Museum of Natural History, New York City; and
one to the Hygienic Laboratory, Public Health Service, Washing-
ton, D. C. Four skins of birds were added to the reference collec-
tion of “ dealers’ cage birds” in the office of the National Zoological

Park.

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922.

MAMMALS.

MARSUPIALIA,
Virginia opossum (Didelphis virgini-
TEL en Sie ape flee ligeapeh arene Si, ath eo el epee cage cal
Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harri-
Ny aah Sete natal Reape ha Mit 6 tpt a
Australian opossum (Trichosurus vul-
CULE 2342) oat, ce ape fed Aa Sad pl ep

Flying phalanger (Petaurus breviceps) —
Brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale
CELE TELE LT ATA | gece pea pe herp i DR Se
Yellow-footed rock wallaby (Petrogule
COT LO UTI | cataleptic ts HO
Rufous-bellied wallaby (Macropus bil-
LTC TAS | ee ee eee) SERRE iT
Black-tailed wallaby (Macropus bi-
COMM) eae ee nee ee oe ee a

WEED) Gye nk a are ee hk
Wallaroo (Macropus robustus)_ _____
Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) --___
Wombat (Phascolomys mitchelli) ____-

CARNIVORA,

Kadiak bear (Ursus middendorffl) ____
Alaska Peninsula bear (Ursus gyas) ~~
Yakutat bear (Ursus dalli)__________
Kidder’s bear (Ursus kidderi) ________
European bear (Ursus arctos)______
Grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis)__._____
Apache grizzly (Ursus apache) --___
Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus) —__
Black bear (Ursus americanus) —~-_____
Cinnamon bear (Ursus americanus cin-
RAMON) VPA BOR pw) Bo?
Florida bear (Ursus floridanus) ______
Glacier bear (Ursus emmonsii)_______
Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) —____
Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) -_____
Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus)_—-~
Dingo (Canis dingo) -Ass-22s202 Ls
Eskimo dog (Canis familiaris)____.. ...
Gray wolf (Canis nubilus)__—_ ...-
Southern wolf (Canis floridanus)_____
Woodhouse’s wolf (Canis frustror)—__
Texas red wolf (Canis rufus) ______

me Wo bo

Bee RH & wool bb bo

PRRONWNRFREHW

CARNIVORA—continued.

Coyote (Oanis latrans) ~..-.._....__
Plains coyote (Canis nebracensis) ___~
Red, fox, (Valpes: fulva) 222-22 =
Great-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) —_
Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) —
Cacomistle (Bassariscus astutus) __._~
Panda (Atlurus fulgens) .____--_-__
Raccoon (Pracyon toter) 2
Gray coatimundi (Nasua narica)—-—--~
Kinkajou (Potos flavue)_____________
Mexican kinkajou (Potos flavus azte-

67) age pet ke Gb tate gr _ecrsiytnns, YE
Weasel (Mustela noveboracensis)____~
Tayra*(Tayracoartert)—-- —~ 8S
Skunk (Mephitis nigra) -__-_----~-_-
Florida otter (Lutra canadensis vaga) —
Palm civet (Paradorurus hermaphro-

Gils) == =e aes ee ee ee
Wahiberg’s mongoose (Helogale par-

DUD) oe AES CS ae See ees
Aard-wolf (Proteles cristatus)-------
Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)___~
Striped hyena (Hyena hyena) -_-_--~
African cheetah (Acinonyxv jubatus) —-
AGT (LER £E0,) = =e ee
Bengal tiger (Felis tigris)_.__-___--__
Manchurian tiger (Felis tigris longi-

Leopard (Felis pardus) —---_---~+__-
East African leopard (Felis pardus

sudhetica) Silo Sao Ses Sees See
AE LOE LS OILCCs ae ae ee
Brazilian ocelot (Felis pardalis brasili-

CMBUS). Se ee ee eee creams 2s
Snow leopard (Felis uncia)—-__-_-__-
Mexican puma (Felis azteca) __-__-_
Mountain lion (Felis hippolestes) ____
Canada lynx (Lynw canadensis). __
Northern wild cat (Lyn@ winta)_---~_~
Bay lynx (Lyn@ rufus) 22-22. iu2lz

PINNIPEDIA,

California sea-lion (Zalophus cali-
FOPRIGNUS))- anton e meee

NE OHE RHE OH

Lal e OD Ron RrR Re ee tb woe e Re

=

NWR ON eH

96

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922—Continued.

MAMMALS—continued.

RODENTIA.

Woodchuck (Marmota monag)—-_--~--
Dusky marmot (Marmota flaviventris
IPORERIET NER re oe ro ee ee
Prairie-dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) —-
White-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys
UTS DIR tas el ee ee ee
Antelope squirrel (Ammospermophilus
TOUCUPUA es a= ee te
Arizona antelope squirrel (Ammosper-
mophilus harrisii)
Chipmunk (Hutamias neglectus)—-----
Albino squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) —
Baird’s pocket mouse (Perognathus
BLT 3) 14.3) [SE A Re ag a a ae
Bailey’s pocket mouse (Perognathus
PATE 7 | ees emir pee cn pala Ma we Mi alec
Jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) —-~
Montana white-footed mouse (Peromys-
cus leucopus aridulus)----__-_-_--_-_
Nebraska white-footed mouse (Pero-
myscus maniculatus osgoodi)_____-
African poreupine (Hystriv africéaus-

Malay porcupine (Acanthion brach-
YUU) none ee ae as
Coypu (Myocastor coypus)— _--_-----
Central American paca (Cuniculus paca
PONT CS aa re
Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta megi-

Sooty agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa) —
Speckled agouti (Dasyprocta punc-

ET Wc RN a Si a
Panama agouti (Dasyprocta punctata

aU eT 1) eee 8 DRS SS 2 Ee ee ee
Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azar@)_-_
Trinidad agouti (Dasyprocta rubrata) —
Crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) _
Yellow-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta

PUCK ON) COUCNNIE) ooo neh he
Peruvian guinea pig (Cavia tschudii

pallidor)
Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) _-__--__~-
Capybara (Hydrocherus hydrocheris) —

LAGOMORPHA,

Domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cunicu-

EDENTATA.

Great anteater
dactyla)

(Myrmecophaga tri-

PRIMATES.

Red-faced spider monkey (Ateles pa-
MAB CUB et a pee
feline douroucouli (Aotus infulatus) —~
Brown woolly monkey (Lagothriz infu-
WE ie, SR ee SS eS
Black-headed woolly monkey (Lagothria
ubericola)

ak

=

ee a

- OF

18

PRIMATES—continued.

White-throated capuchin (Cebus capu-

cmus)
Pale capuchin (Cebus unicolor)—--_---~
Brown capuchin (Cebus fatuellus)—_-_
Azara’s capuchin (Cebus azar@)_----~_
Titi monkey (Saimiri sciureus) ----_
Negro tamarin (Cercopithecus ursulus) —
Chacma (Papio porcarius)
Anubis baboon (Papio cynocephalus) __
Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) —
East African baboon (Papio ibeanus) —
Mandrill (Papio sphing) ~_=-—-----_.--
Drill (Papio. leucopheus) ______------
Moor macaque (Cynopithecus maurus) _
Barbary ape (Simia sylvanus) ~--_----_
Brown macaque (Macaca speciosa) —---
Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) --

Pig-tailed monkey (Macaca nemes-
RL ee es ee
Burmese macaque (Macaca andama-
MONEIA) S525 .— NS ee es eee

Rhesus monkey (Macaca rhesus) ~-_---
Bonnet monkey (Macaca sinica) ~----_-
Crab-eating macaque (Macaca irus)-—--
Javan macaque (Macaca mordag) __---
Black mangabey (Cercocebus aterri-

Hagenbeck’s mangabey (Cercocebus

hagenbechi) 222) 2342534: Se2eeees
White-collared mangabey (Cercocebus

fOr ggoarus), 23 2 SES SS eee
Green guenon (Lasiopyga callitrichus) —
Vervet guenon (Lasiopyga pygery-

tRTO)) a ee ee ee
Mona (Lasiopyga mona) -_--_--------
Roloway guenon (Lasiopyga roloway) —
Patas monkey (Hrythrocebus patas)—_
Chimpanzee (Pan satyrus)—_---------
Orang-utan (Pongo pygmeus) —~-----~--

ARTIODACTYLA.

Wild boar,,(Susserofa) ==2+-ss2L2s225
Wart-hog (Phacocherus ethiopicus) —~
Collared peceary (Pecari angulatus) —__
Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus am

phibius) eS cs ee en See
Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) —
Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) —
Guanaco (Lama guanicoe)_-_--------
Liama (Lame glama) —_----~-~-=-+===
Alpaca (Lama pacos)_o2--22-L- 2s =e
Fallow deer (Dama dama)__---------
Axis deer (Ais amis) 2 i224 4 senses
Hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus)—--__--
Sambar (Rusa unicolor) __-__-__-------
Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) ~~
Burmese deer (Rucervus eldti) _------
Japanese deer (Sika nippon) ___------~
Red deer (Cervus elaphus)—---------

ee OR

-

mee OR

ere Re PbO

aa

MOR ONmAwWANR Owe tw

oe

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922—Continued.

MAMMALS—continued.

ARTIODACTYLA—continued.

Kashmir deer (Cervus hanglu)______-
Bedford deer (Cervus ranthopygus) —_~
American elk (Cervus canadensis) __-~
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) —
Panama deer (Odocoileus chiriquensis) —
Mule deer (Odocoileus hemiontus) —-___
Black-tailed deer (Odocoileus colum-

bianus)

Blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons)—_--~-
White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnouw) —
Brindled gnu (Connochetes taurinus) —
Lechwe (Onotragus leche) —~.--_---~-~
Sable antelope (Hgocerus niger) —-----
Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) —
Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) __--
East African eland (Taurotragus ory@

livingstonii)
Cape bushbuck (Tragelaphus sylvati-

cus)
Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) —~-_--~-
Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) —
Aoudad (Ammotragus lervia)_-------

RATITA.

South African ostrich (Struthio aus-
tralis)
Somaliland ostrich (Struthio molybdo-
DILGER), BXeee ees ee oe ee aes oe
Nubian ostrich (Struthio camelus)—_~-
Rhea (Rhea americana) —--_----------
Sclater’s cassowary (Casuarius phi-
Hgt), =... teemane noe go 8s ow won UE)

CICONIIFORMES.
American white pelican (Pelecanus
erythroriynchos)—— 22> 25" === S-=
Evropean white pelican (Pelecanus
Gnooroteigs) = SSeS eS

Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus) __-

Australian pelican (Pelecanus con-
BILE) ase pee
Brown pelican (Pelecanus occiden-
TONAB)) So Sm ee ee

Florida cormorant (Phalacrocorag
auritus floridanus) —.2--_---__
Great white heron (Ardea occiden-

Goliath heron (Ardea goliath) --_-_---
American egret (Casmerodius egretta) _
Snowy egret (Hgretta candidissima) --
Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorag

nycticoram, nevius) 222-2 -s-=55
Boatbill (Oochlearius cochlearius) __~-
White stork (Ciconia ciconia)__----_~
Black stork (Oiconia nigra)___------
Indian jabiru (Xenorhynchus astatti-

ARTIODACTYLA—continued.

Rocky Mountain sheep (Ovis canaden-

828) Lo ers. Se ay ee Rae
Arizona mountain sheep (Ovis cana-

densis' gatilardt)\ 2226 4— 3e4 4 aw ee eae
Barbados sheep (Ovis aries) ~_______
Zebu’ (Bos indicus )j24ea2 ssc ee ees
Yak (Poéphagus grunniens)_~--_-_--_
American bison (Bison bison)____-~~
Indian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)___-~-

PERISSODACTYIA.

Nr OOD tb

~

Malay tapir (Tapirus indicus) ____-~-_
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) _-
Grant’s zebra (Hquus quagga granti)—
Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) ------~-~
Zebra-horse hybrid (Hquus grevyi-ca-

ballus)
Zebra-ass hybrid

nus)

(Hquus grevyi-ast-
PROBOSCIDEA,

1 | Abyssinian elephant (Lozodonta afri-

4 cana oxyotis)

3 | Sumatran elephant (EHlephas sumatra-

2 nus )

NC re ar rear ae

ivy)

BIRDS.

CICONIIFORMES—continued.
ibis (Oarphibis spini-

Straw-necked

6 collis)
Sacred ibis (Threskiornis ethiopicus) —
Australian ibis (Threskiornis stricti-
pennis )
White ibis (Guara alt@)—— 2222 2222
Scarlet ibis (Guara rubra)—-—~_---1---_
1 | Roseate spoonbill (Ajaia ajaja)_----~-

European flamingo (Phenicopterus
WO REL tees Sr ae ee ee ng eee

ANSBDRIFORMES.

7 | Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)—~-—--~
Black duck (Anas rubripes) —-__--_-_-

© | Australian black duck (Anas super-
2 ciliosa)
Gadwall (Chaulelasmus streperus) —--

2 | European widgeon (Mareca penelope) -
Baldpate (Mareca americana) —-__----
Green-winged teal (Nettion carolin-
ense)
5 | European teal (Nettion crecca)—--~-_~
Baikal teal (Nettion formosum) -_-___
Blue-winged teal (Querquedula dis-
cors )
Garganey (Querquedula querquedula) _
Cinnamon teal (Querquedula cyanop-
tera)
Shoveller (Spatula clypeata)-----_-_
Pintaill (Dajfila,acuta)— <2...
Wood duck (Aiw sponsa) --_-_~------
Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galeri-

Nan

10

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97

98

‘

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922-—Continued.

BIRDsS—continued.

ANSERIFORMES—continued.

European pochard (Marila ferina) —-_
Redhead (Marila americana) _--~----~-
Ring-necked duck (Marila collaris) —~~
Tufted duck (Marila fuligula)_--------
Lesser scaup duck (Marila affinis) ___-
Greater secaup duck (Marila marila) —-
White-eyed duck (Marila nyroca) ---~-
Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana pepo-

seca) Oe eee eee oe

Cus) 2 2 ea ee eee ee
(Chloéphaga leucop-
tera) 46) eS Oe ee

RC a ee
Snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) _--___~
Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus

Cot it | es ie oe a
Blue goose (Chen ce@rulescens) _------
White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) —
American white-fronted goose (Anser

albtfrons gambelt)_.-_----_--_--_-
Bean goose (Anser fabalis) _-__------
Bar-headed goose (Hulabeia indica) —_-
Canada goose (Branta canadensis) —_-
Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis

entohtnsti)\S2kf oS tt eee eet
Cackling goose (Branta canadensis

MINN) oe See ee eee ee
Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) —
Barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) —---
Spur-winged goose (Plectropterus gam-

Denne), 24 220 ted ee es
Pied goose (Anseranas semipalmata) _-
Black-bellied tree duck (Dendrocygna

CUTUMNGHS) a eee eae
Eyton’s tree duck (Dendrocygna ey-

On) 2 eo ee ees Se oe ee

pigenta) eee eee
Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus)_.-------
Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) __-
Black swan (Chenopis atrata) --------

FALCONIFORMBES.
South American condor (Vultur gry-
DLL 1 | je pat ah OS te ae aa pea hs a ae le
California condor (Gymnogyps cali-
FRE ah Lf ype a ate hp a a A ag

Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) -----
Black vulture (Coragyps urubu)—-----
King vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) _--
Secretary bird (Sagittarius serpen-

BOTS) se eo ee eee ee
Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)_------
African black vulture (Torgos trache-

HSCS) Sno eee ee eee
Cinereous vulture (Aegypius mona-

Ons) See a oe eee
Caracara (Polyborus cheriway)-—-----
Wedge-tailed eagle (Uroaétus audar)_
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos) ~~~
White-bellied sea eagle (Ouncuma leu-

CODESTEr) Sane ee ee eee

—_
Se ORR Oe

fe

~

nwt

1 alt i )

=

Nrww

rALCONIFORMES—continued,

Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus)_
Alaskan bald eagle (Haliewetus leuco-

cephalus alascanus) —....~-.-----=
Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypte-

TO a sc ss a Sep ee
Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis) ---_
Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) ~~

GALLIFORMBES.

Razor-billed curassow (Mitu mitu)--_
Penelope (Penelope boliviana)_------
Guan (Ortalis albiventris) _-___-----~-
Chachalaca (Ortalis vetula)---------
Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) —----.-~-----
Peacock pheasant (Polyplectron bical-

COP OUPUMD ea ee ht a ede
Silver pheasant (Genneus nyctheme-

A) eee ee ee

U0tUS cso ato 5 treet S
Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus)__----
Gambel’s quail (Lophortyx gambelit) -_
Valley quail (Lophortyx californica

anicola), Lees) eee eee
Sealed quail (Callipepla squamata) —-~

GRUIFORMES.

East Indian gallinule (Porphyrio

WLCUS) Soe ee eo eee
American coot (Fulica americana) ___-
South Island weka rail (Ocydromus

qustratig)it 228 2eu 2 hs Sees
Short-winged weka (Ocydromus brac-

hypteras) es. Ss eee Lee eS
Earl's weka (Ocydromus earli) -------
Whooping crane (Grus americana) ----
Sandhill crane (Grus mewicana) ------
Little brown crane (Grus canadensis) _
White-necked crane (Grus lewcauchen) —
Indian white crane (G@rus leucogera-

MAES Yee ee ea ee re
Lilford’s crane (@rus lilfordi) __-_-----
Sarus crane (Grus collaris) __-_-_------
Australian crane (Grus rubicunda) ___
Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) —
Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) —-
White-backed trumpeter (Psophia leu-

COULON Ue eee
Kagu (Rhynochetos jubatus) ---------

CHARADRIIFORMES.

Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)—-----~--
Yellow-wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus
indicus) 222 See: eee. eee AS
Pacifie gull (Gabianus pacificus)-----
Great black-backed gull (Larus ma-
ritGe Veter ss woth Seela eee
Herring gull (Larus argentatus)—_--
Laughing gull (Larus atricilla) -------
Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps
lophotes) =. eee eee
Bronze-wing pigeon (Phaps chalcop-
tera) sce eee cece ae

13

OA

es)

BHaAanHHN

BRN Ne

weet)

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922—Continued.
BIRDS—continued.

CHARADRIIFORMES—continued.
Wonga-wonga pigeon (Leucosarcia pi-
cata)
Wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) _---
Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) —
Necklaced dove (Spilopelia tigrina) _—~
Zebra dove (Geopelia striata) _--_-----
Bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia humer-
(iB) eae ee aes ee ee ek
Inea dove (Scardafella inca) —~-----~~--
Cuban ground dove (Chemepelia pas-
serina afiavidd)=Uh- -2-2bes

Green-winged dove (Chalcophaps in-
iG) es edad hse So eet
New Guinea green dove (Chalcophaps
Chrysechlora) —oceseet >: eek ae

Ringed turtle-dove (Streptopelia
risoria)

PSITTACIFORMES.

Kea (Nestor notabdilis)~-_----_-_----
Cockateel (Calopsitta novehollandie) —
Roseate cockatoo (Kakatoe roseica-

ming). Seen Se eee Ee
Bare-eyed cockatoo (Kakatoe gym-
MODIS) (Eee Se SSS l Heseese
Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Kakatoe lead-
beatert) tweet) eer ha tees
White cockatoo (Kakatoe alba)----_~-
Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe

gaterntta) 2 en temn _2Gn8_ oOoelyt
Great red-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe
moluccensts) EL Beal wots
Cassin’s macaw (Ara auricollis)____

Mexican green macaw (Ara _ meai-
Cand) Seiens Se oe ee he a as
Blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ara
POUL) ST re

WTO eo a a ke
Hahn’s macaw (Diopsittaca hahni)___
White-eyed paroquet (Aratinga leuco-

PITUDTECR ILLES ete nn ee eee ee Pee
Golden-crowned paroquet (Hupsittula

ATT AT) eae pee oS a a Fe
Weddell’s paroquet (Hupsittula wed-

RLV eat eet EEE hee,

NS CRI) a
CG | EN ee ee ee, Ee ee es ee
Tui paroquet (Brotogeris stthome)___
Golden paroquet (Brotogeris chryso-
ENG FT) Ve fon i Ra ep aed we Boal
Tovi paroquet (Brotogeris jugularis) __
Orange-winged paroquet (Brotogeris
DOTE Lr eee ee es Se ae
Yellow-naped parrot (Amazona auro-
THING LITT AT ol pp See le aa taal pet ual alot Reha eed) Se
Yellow-cheeked parrot (Amazona au-
DULTUTEIELAS Oe a ee
Mealy parrot (Amazona farinosa)____
Orange-winged parrot (Amazona ama-
zonica)

ee

ne

et

11

LT

BH

PSITTTACIFORMDS—continued.

Blue-fronted parrot (Amazona e@stiva) —
Red-crowned parrot (Amazona viridi-
Genalis)... See noe eee ee
Double yellow-head parrot (Amazona
ordtrip) L222) bie. aren ne Tees
Yellow-headed parrot (Amazona ochro-
COURT) te ee re eee
Festive parrot (Amazona festiva)____
Santo Domingo parrot (Amazona ven-
PRTG a ee ea ee ee ee ep
Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) —

Maximilian’s parrot (Pionus mazai-
MGI) a eB
Blue-headed parrot (Pionus men-
SER ie el a
Amazonian caique (Pionites mantho-
MNCTIC) £ a2 een) aaa Sete
Short-tailed parrot (Graydidascalus
Orackhyurus): eo
Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) —
Greater vasa parrot (Coracopsis
VOCE) masse eee
Pennant’s paroquet (Platycercus ele-
OGNS) = Se Ae ed ee eee
Rosella paroquet (Platycercus ea-
EL AIH hfe taptalh l ed fF ane ha nal es AN

r[ ! 48 1 99 pe iy nto evr ae BE Tea ees ee

gus)

Qualys) - 2-62. Se
1) ae oe, eee ee een Ce eee ee ee Ey
Grass paroquet (Melopsittacus wun-
GUTCtUS)\ 2. ate se tee Be ll!
CORACIIFORMBS.
Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas)_______
Yellow-billed hornbill (Lophoceros leu-
COTUELIZG Ne 5a) lee ed
Barred owl (Striz varia) -.-.--._..__
Snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea) __________
Screech owl (Otus asio)--__-_-________
Choliba screech owl (Otus choliba)___
Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus)_
American barn owl (Tyto perlata pra-
tingola) sate seeeR ss laigee ns
Ariel toucan (Ramphastos ariel)
PASSERIFORMES.
Cock of the rock (Rupicola rupicola) _
Silver-eared hill-tit (Mesia argen-
QUT AS ey eee a
Red-billed hill-tit (Liothrig luteus) _—_

Black-gorgeted laughing-thrush (Gar-
rian pectoralis)) ia~ — S222 hth. eee
White-eared bulbul (Otocompsa leu-

European blackbird (J'urdus merula) __
Piping crow-shrike (Gymnorhina tibi-
COMP) bhatt eee he Aty of reyes oy hen

TOGEUB) oe rt

99

a
=

OR Wr BS

-_

= =

oe

100

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1922—Continued.

BIRDS—continued.

PASSERIFORMES—continued.

tls ki As ci sob tifi “laste i Diamond finch (Steganopleura gut-
ackdaw (Corvus monedula)—--------- tata) et cviws olin sobre. b
Yucatan jay (Cissilopha yucatanica)-- 1 | Zebra finch (Teniopygia castanotis) —
Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) -----_- 3 | Cut-throat finch (Amadina fasciata) __-
Green jay (Xanthoura luauosa) ------ 1 | Vera Cruz red-wing (Agelaius phent-
Australian gray jumper (Struthidea ceus richmondi)
CINEV EG) ae So es ies Dy ee are CARRE ince 8. age oe ae
r - Purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) —-
Starling (RMENEY PERIETE) 5 sae 2 ? Yellow-backed cacique (Cacicus cela) —
Crimson tanager (Ramphocelus dimi-

PTO NDT A cides See oe a 1 Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula)——-- ~~
Blue tanager (Thraupis cana)------- 2 Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) ---_ 2 2s
Pin-tailed whydah (Vidua principalis) — 1 Yellowhammer (Hmberiza citrinella) --
Paradise whydah (Steganura para- European goldfinch (Carduelis car-_

Gineelt.= See er. Use Pee 3 ducks) =>2 =
Shaft-tailed whydah (Tetrenura regia)_ 2 | Bramblefinch (Fringilla montifrin-
Napolean weaver (Pyromelana afra) —- a Gilera Di nae SUE te See eeees
Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea) —--~ 1 | European siskin (Spinus spinus)—----
Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- Mexican goldfinch (Astragalinus psal-

cariensia).—~ 22 ee ee eee 3 tria,. mealoanus) = ane sce
Fire finch (Lagonosticta senegala)-__-- 2 | House finch (Oarpodacus mewicanus
Strawberry finch (Amandava aman- frontaiia)wiiedkennce atin ents) teeta

dawva) ~---~~--------~-----~------- 6 | purple finch (Oarpodacus purpureus) -
Cordon bleu (2Hstrilda phenicotis) ~--- af Canary (Serinus canarius)—--------—-
Nutmeg finch (Munia punctulata) ---~ 6 Green singing finch (Serinus icterus) —
White-headed nun (Munia maja) -——~- é Slate-colored junco (Junco hyemalis)
Black-headed nun (Munia atricapilla) — 2 raictaeial (Spizell ticola) iy
Java finch (Munia oryzivora) -~-_-~--- 4 Whit ety 4 ceiibdags siggy its si Jinlites
White Java finch (Munda oryzivora)._ 3 e-throated sparrow (Zonotric ia
Fawn-and-white bengalee (Uroloncha albicollis) -----~----~-------------

PT 1 A allel dn lid eli SA 3 | Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) -__
Brown-and-white bengalee (Uroloncha San Diego song sparrow (Melospiza

griseomaculata) _.___-_--_--------- a melodia coopert) ----------------~-
Masked grassfinch (Poéphila perso- Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca) -_--~~

Nata Se RAO S) . Supe ey or 9 | California towhee (Pipilo crissalis) __
Black-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola)_- ..--

GOMUUG MODAL O05) 38). A I & | Seed-eater (Sporophila gutturalis) -_-
Red-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila Nonpareil (Passerina ciris) ___-----_-~

mirabilis) sess rseio ee 8 ' Blue grosbeak (@uiraca cerulea) -_---

REPTILES.
Spectacled cayman (Caiman sclerops) - 1 | Wood turtle (Olemmys insculpta) -____
Alligator (Alligator mississiptensis)_.__ 41 | Amazon terrapin (Podocnemis ea-
Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum)- 6 DANSE) 22 ee eee ee Sao
Giant zonure (Zonurus giganteus)_._-_ 6 | South American mud turtle (Kinas-
Rock python (Python molurus) -_--~- 2 ternon scorpioides) ___--_-__-_-_-_
Regal python (Python reticulatus) -_- 1 South American terrapin (Nicoria
Anaconda (Hunectes murinus)—_----- 2 HUNG iiarin) see a A oo
an es et cag (Oonstrictor con- J Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)_-_--~

SUINCEOL ae Cooter (Pseudemys scripta)-_-----~-
Blacksnake (Coluber constrictor) —-——- 2 | Central American cooter (Pseudemys
Chicken snake (Hlaphe quadrivittata) —- 1 Ornelay~ cee acco so res A
war 2 a: (Drymarchon corais 1 Box-tortoise (Terrapene carolina) __--
Garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis)__ 2 eset wal as ortoise* (Gophores Roly,
Moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus)_-_ 3 - Rotse’ ( GOGhEMEN acesetaahe..
Copperhead (Agkistrodon mokasen) __ 1 esert tortoise (Gopherus pipette
Western diamond rattler (Crotalus Duncan Island tortoise (Testudo ephip-

airoe) sage. lweind | eyes) 1 pium) ---~-~-------------------~-
Banded rattlesnake (Orotalus horri- Indefatigable Island tortoise (Testudo

dus) (sbesus aeieus ) Dolodioald soogy 1 portert) == =2=<2--===SSs252—--————
Ground rattler (Sistrurus méliarius)—— j Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo
Snapping turtle (Ohelydra serpentina)_ 6 vicina) -~------------------------
Rossignon’s snapping turtle (Chelydra South American tortoise (Testudo den-
rossignoit), << aa ee B | Houlaia ese es eee

PASSERIFORMES—continued.

me AND eS oo

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

STATEMENT OF THE COLLECTION.
Accessions during the year.

Mam- Birds. | Reptiles.| Total.

mals.
PRESCNURGEE MS ce oe aardce oe accCksa sas ceases aeteteccmmere tienes 46 131 40 217
Born and hatched in National Zoological Park................. 58 64 28 150
Received in 6xchanroc.s.. in veh.Useew sate ces seve's come ds eset <8 19 166 8 193
SEED OLSEN they oe lare ict tctns hse eign oes Seis dae Wa chine 8 cmb ss vebl= ince 5 30 le ea ceuae a 44
Transferred from other Government departments. ............. 10 14 18 42
PORPUULBOE - sek LEER dud atte wctctredlne do ee ehh contac ode se skeet Wi sSsike ss EER EAE 1
PPEDORILOU ous Coes Sense aks shin, Sain SSC UE A cae oaeee ees 3 5 1 9
PENG REE tree E PebO Rie tots nk erat eee EFA Og SSSR OU ae 142 419 95 656
SUMMARY.
Zana Ss On hand sa mye h fLODT eo Wel wor, cet ld eles weeny vee os oe op ieee 8 bes Le 1, 545
MEGA niOnscOimNnem ihe Weal si eee a Rete er et 656
otal amimalstiran dl ede. 2 avoir ee ray et ee ete TE ONY POT ee ae 2, 201
Deduct loss (by exchange, death, and return of animals on deposit)__._. 520
Ana SOM DANG eUne sO, Lona! oe Aaee et AF Ik TT CUT edi theliy 1, 681
* Indi-
Class. Species. | viduals.

Mamimals: sees) saben s deh sehen es Sea estan erie Jee wus. soe 187 490
ST ere acme aah Pei eee me ee cca a ke eS We 262 1, 069
PEON eee, ncle man oe ecis sccm soe cc Senses ccanenduascietente sees oSeemece as 33 122
Total June 30, 1922...... Se i a SR eo td 482 1,681

The collection is now larger than ever before. The number of
species on exhibition on June 30 is 4 more, and the total number of
animals is 130 more than in any previous year.

VISITORS.

The total number of visitors to the park, for the fiscal year, as
determined by count and estimate, was 2,164,254. This is the third
year that the attendance has exceeded 2,000,000. The greatest at-
tendance in any one month was 394,703 in April, 1922, an average
per day of 13,156.

The attendance by months was as follows:

1921, 1922.
DU Vp engepierne a ede _ nb. TapS Tess! ns 167,650 Iw hanuersy eo ewe lt 51, 676
FAUT ESTES) oe SUE TS Ok Ie, at Oe SON Tie UO Ce I ae Lg ee ek 77, 541
SEL TTS na) Of Sy ae ee Te TO COOm eMC see es eS 181, 039
CLOVER Sse ee Arey UL Ue fight a ag oh tata 394, 703
Noverber se oe! stoke vl el OD OaOY t May he FEISLAL IRN otk TENE 278, 550
December litech se) ett FONSTOH | TUNE. _ Apis yO fh. Yd ae 180, 000

Schools, classes, and other organizations visiting the park during
the year numbered 205, with a total of 13,585 individuals.

553879—24—8

102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.
IMPROVEMENTS.

The work of grading in the west central part of the park, com-
menced six years ago but discontinued during the war, was again
taken up and the major part of the leveling and filling, as originally
planned, was completed during the year. A large area of ground
is now available for comparatively level paddocks for the exhibition
of hoofed animals, and the way is opened up for decided improve-
ments in the main roadway traversing the park. Many trees re-
moved during this work were cut into logs and, during the winter,
sawed into lumber of suitable grades for regular use.

The entire western wall of the antelope house, involving the cages
and yards, long in a bad state of repair, was entirely rebuilt. The
lower part was extended out, with concrete walls and new roof.
The platform and approach to the eastern entrance were also re-
modeled. The building has been greatly improved in appearance
and the animals have been given much more satisfactory quarters.

The older bear dens near the Harvard Street entrance were thor-
oughly repaired, provided with new concrete floor, tank, and gutter,
and the ironwork painted.

Three large outdoor cages for hawks, owls, and Australian grass
paroquets were constructed; the Henderson outdoor parrot cage was
covered with new wire and painted; the inside quarters for hippo-
potamuses and tapirs repaired and enlarged; a concrete storehouse
for paints and oils was built near the machine shop; the tennis
courts were improved; repairs were made to the heating service in
the monkey and lion houses; an electric pump and motor was in-
stalled at the pelican pond so that water from the creek can be
used; and the gap in the boundary fence along the southern border
of the park was closed by a new wire fence.

At the close of the year considerable progress had been made in
a complete rebuilding of the old wolf yards and fox dens below the
sea-lion pool.

ALTERATIONS OF BOUNDARIES.

There is available for the purchase of a narrow strip of land near
the Adams Mill Road entrance, between the present park boundary
and Adams Mill Road, $4,903.66. On March 24, 1921, the atten-
tion of the Secretary of the Treasury was called to the provisions
of the sundry civil act relating to the purchase of this land. The
matter was referred to the United States attorney’s office, and, the
owners having declined to sell within the limits set by the act for
purchase by agreement, steps were taken toward the institution of
proceedings of condemnation. During the past year no further
progress has been reported,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103
IMPORTANT NEEDS.

Restaurant.—A_ suitable restaurant building remains the most
urgent need of the park. As pointed out in previous reports the
old refreshment stand, originally constructed when the attendance
was very small, is in a bad condition and is wholly inadequate to
serve the needs of the public. Following the acquisition by the park
of a large quantity of valuable chestnut and oak timbers and lumber,
as mentioned in the report for last year, and in consideration of
the fact that much of the work of construction can now be done by
regular park employees, the estimated necessary appropriation for
such a structure as is needed has been reduced to $20,000. The old
refreshment stand at the Connecticut Avenue entrance, on land re-
cently transferred to the Government as an addition to the park,
should also be replaced by a new and more sightly booth. The in-
creased income from rental of these two concessions will well repay
for the construction of buildings adequate for the service of the
constantly increasing number of visitors.

Bird house.—Estimates for a new bird house were submitted
for several years prior to the war, but were never favorably acted
upon by Congress. The need for a new building for the exhibition
of birds is now greater than ever before. The old building was
constructed of the cheapest materials many years ago, as a tempo-
rary relief, and it is now in a very bad state of repair. It also
provides far too little space for the collection and far too little room
for visitors; on days of large attendance the public aisles are greatly
overcrowded. The collection of birds is one of great importance,
containing as it does numerous rare, interesting, and beautiful
species; and new arrangements for its care and exhibition to the
public should not much longer be delayed.

Respectfully submitted.

N. Hotiisrer,
Superintendent.
Dr. Cuarues D. Watcort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 7.
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

Srmr: The Astrophysical Observatory was conducted under the fol-
lowing passage of the sundry civil act, approved March 4, 1921:

Astrophysical Observatory: For maintenance of the Astrophysical Observa-
tory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including assistants,
purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, making necessary
observations in high altitudes, repairs and alterations of buildings, and mis-
cellaneous expenses, $15,500.

The observatory occupies a number of frame structures within an
inclosure of about 16,000 square feet south of the Smithsonian ad-
ministration building at Washington, and also a cement observing
station and frame cottage for observers on a plot of 10,000 square
feet leased from the Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson,
Calif.

A new solar observing station on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., was
erected in July, 1920, at the expense of funds donated for the pur-
pose by Mr. John A. Roebling, of Bernardsville, N. J., and this
station has been occupied as a solar radiation observing station by the
Astrophysical Observatory since October, 1920.

The present value of the buildings and equipment for the Astro-
physical Observatory, owned by the Government, is estimated at
$50,000. This estimate contemplates the cost required to replace
the outfit for the purposes of the investigation.

WORK OF THE YEAR.

At Washington.—The director, with Mr. Fowle and Mrs. Bond,
was engaged much of the year on the preparation and proof reading
of Volume IV of the Annals of the Observatory. This quarto
volume of 390 pages, including 60 illustrations and 118 pages of
numerical tables, covers the work of the years 1912 to 1920, and
was published in June, 1922. New apparatus and methods of ob-
serving are described and illustrated, and a large mass of solar
observations is presented and discussed. Evidence is given of many
kinds which indicates the solar variability. Reference is made to
applications of the results which have been made by several me-
teorologists. .

In preparation for work proposed for the expedition to Mount
Wilson in the summer of 1922, Mr. Aldrich, in consultation with

104

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105

the director, prepared the sensitive parts of a galvanometer and
a vacuum bolometer of usual types for solar work, and also of a
vacuum galvanometer and vacuum bolometer of very unusual design
suited to observing the energy distribution in the spectra of the
stars. These extremely delicate and sensitive instruments required
extraordinary skill and patience for their construction and testing.
Acknowledgments are due the Director of the Bureau of Standards,
the Director of the Nela Research Laboratory, and also Dr. Elihu
Thomson, of Lynn, for aiding these preparations.

The instrument making for these new pieces and others required
in the expedition to Mount Wilson, including a special spectrometer,
plate carrier, and other apparatus, was done by the instrument
maker, Mr. A. Kramer.

A great many of the “ solar constant ” observations made at Mount
Harqua Hala, Ariz., were reduced by Mr. Fowle and Mrs. Bond in
consultation with the director. Despite our long experience in
solar-radiation work, new problems and difficulties still crop up.
The publication of the Mount Harqua Hala results has hitherto been
withheld so that a comprehensive discussion of them might be made
to reveal and correct any systematic errors.

Expedition to Chile—lt became necessary for the director to un-
dertake a visit to Chile to inspect the observing station at Monte-
zuma maintained by the Hodgkins fund for the study of the solar
variations, in cooperation with the stations in California and Ari-
zona. Leaving Washington near the end of October, 1921, he spent
the month, November 15 to December 15, at the station and returned
to Washington early in January, 1922. During the month at Mon-
tezuma he revised all the adjustments of apparatus and some of the
methods employed there, besides assisting in the daily observations
and reductions on 26 days. Silver disk pyrheliometer S. I. No. 5,
loaned by the Department of Agriculture for the purpose, was com-
pared with instruments at Montezuma, and before and afterwards
with instruments at Washington. No change in the scale of pyr-
heliometry was disclosed by these comparisons.

Expedition to Mount Wilson.—In June an axibilieieny including
the director and Mr. L. B. Aldrich, went out to Mount Wilson.
Four objects were in view. First, to inspect the station at Mount
Harqua Hala and compare pyrheliometers there with silver disk
pyrheliometer S. I. No. 5, above mentioned, so as to connect the
fundamental scales of pyrheliometry in Arizona and Chile. Second,
to repeat with all possible precautions and variations of method the
determination of the form of the solar spectrum energy curve out-
side the atmosphere. Third, to undertake preliminary measurements
of the distribution of energy in the spectra of the brighter stars,

106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

Fourth, to try further experiments with the collection and storage
of solar heat for cooking purposes.

The station on Mount Harqua Hala was visited by the director
and found in a highly improved condition owing to the zeal of Mr.
Moore, in charge there. The laboratory has been sheathed outside
with metal to protect the adobe walls from rain, and painted and
embellished within, lightning rods have been installed, a small shop
built, wireless telephonic apparatus erected, a garage built at the
foot of the mountain trail, and regular weekly mail and supply
trips arranged. Solar-constant observations have been made on
upward of 70 per cent of the days of the year, and much computing
and testing attended to. Comparisons made during and after the
director’s visit show no change in the scale of pyrheliometry, so
that as far as this is concerned the results at Harqua Hala are com-
parable with those at Montezuma. But from lack of sensitiveness
of the galvanometer the energy curves show less detail at Harqua
Hala, and this it was decided must be corrected as early as possible
to put the two stations on parallel footings.

In conversation with Mr. Moore, the director devised a new im-
provement of the “short method” which, it was agreed, would pro-
mote accuracy while greatly abridging computation. This will be
introduced at both stations as soon as the new determination of the
form of the solar energy curve outside the atmosphere is worked out.

At Mount Wilson, the time before the end of the fiscal year, June
30, only sufficed for a partial installation of new “solar constant”
apparatus replacing that which in 1920 was removed to Harqua
Hala. But it may be said by anticipation that later results were
secured on the distribution of energy in the spectra of 11 of the
brighter stars by bolometric work in connection with the 100-inch
telescope, and also that the solar energy curve was traced bolo-
metrically with both glass and rock-salt prisms. With the latter,
experiments were made at wave lengths from far down in the ultra-
violet to an infra-red wave length of 14 microns, with allowance for
stray light and for atmospheric and instrumental transmission.

Unfortunately the cover of the oil reservoir of the solar cooking
apparatus had been blown off in a very high wind, and snow hav-
ing gotten in, much water had leaked into the oil reservoir. After
a long time of fruitlessly attempting to boil out this water, the oil
and water were at length removed, but not in time to undertake the
proposed new experiments before the return of the expedition to
Washington in September.

OPINIONS OF THE SOLAR RADIATION WORK.

As the Institution is making great efforts to continue and to im-
prove its solar-radiation measurements, the director felt concerned
to invite the opinions of competent critics, in order to know if these

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 107

labors seemed quite justified by their probable outcome. Accord-
ingly, in a report to the American representatives of the Interna-
tional Astronomical Union he wrote as follows:

It is the intention of the Smithsonian Institution to continue daily observa-
tions at Mount Harqua Hala and Montezuma certainly until July, 1923, at
which time it is proposed to consider the state of the work and the results
reached with a view to deciding whether it is worth while to continue daily
observations of the variability of the sun indefinitely or whether the useful-
ness of that work is unequal to the trouble and expense involved.

An expression of opinion on the part of those interested in the subject would
be of great value to the Smithsonian Institution in making this decision.

In their meeting at Washington, April 3 and 4, 1922, the assembled
American representatives, including meteorologists, physicists, and
astronomers, passed unanimously, after earnest supporting speeches,
the following resolution :

Solar radiation—Moved: That it is the sense of the American section of
the International Astronomical Union that the continuation of the solar-
radiation work under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution in at least
two stations is highly desirable, both from an astronomical and a meteorological
point of view. Adopted.

Later, in the Congress at Rome, May 2, 1922, the international
representatives indorsed this opinion with equal unanimity and
earnestness, passing the following resolution:

The section of meteorology of the International Geodetic and Geophysical
Union records its appreciation of the excellent work done by the Astrophysical
Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution of Washington in determining with
a high degree of accuracy the intensity of solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere. It is of the opinion that the daily values now being obtained
at Mount Montezuma, Chile, and Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., will prove of
great value in te solution of certain meteorological problems. It therefore
expresses the hope that these determinations may be continued for a consider-
able period of years.

PROPOSED SOLAR RADIATION STATIONS,

In view of these impartial expert opinions, it is a pleasure to add
that Mr. John A. Roebling has made it possible to assure the con-
tinuation of the solar-constant stations at Harqua Hala and Monte-
zuma until July, 1925. By that time sufficient data will doubtless
be secured to prove whether they ought to be continued longer.

A movement is being made in Australia, led by Rev. E. F. Pigot,
of Riverview College, to provide a solar-constant observing station
similar to those maintained by the Smithsonian Institution. Funds
have been raised there, and a portion of the apparatus has been
purchased from the Institution. Also the Meteorological Service
of Argentina is proposing to equip its station at La Quiaca for
similar observations, in order the more directly to support the regu-

108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

lar weekly long-range forecasts which it bases on solar radiation
results. In order to aid these enterprises, the director has designed
a full set of solar-constant apparatus, and it is expected that within
the next fiscal year two sets will be prepared by contract for the
Australian and Argentine stations.

PERSONNEL.

Mr. A. F. Moore, field director at Mount Harqua Hala, was added
to the staff of the Astrophysical Observatory on July 1, 1921.

SUMMARY.

The outstanding event of the fiscal year was the publication in
June, 1922, of Volume IV of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observ-
itory, covering results from 1912 to 1920. New apparatus and
methods are described, a critical survey of the work is given, and
long tabular summaries of all solar observations made are included.
From these results it is indicated in numerous ways that the sun’s
output of radiation varies, that the march of its variations depends
on the sun’s rotation, and that it produces effects of several kinds
on terrestrial physics and meteorology. Much progress has been
made at the new station on Mount Harqua Hala. Solar-constant
observations were made there on over 70 per cent of the days, but
are withheld from publication until completely discussed for evi-
dences as to systematic errors. Expeditions were made to Chile and
to Mount Wilson.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Axzor,
e Director.

Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 8.

REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF
SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the United States Bureau of the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922.

Although the financial conditions of this enterprise were, in com-
mon with all other international interests, practically crippled in
the beginning of the war, almost all of the regional bureaus have
continued to collect and prepare for future publication this index
of the world’s scientific literature. The activities of this regional
bureau have been continued as usual and the data relating to
American scientific literature is regularly being prepared ready to
forward to the London Central Bureau whenever it is found pos-
sible to resume publication.

An international convention is to be held in Brussels beginning
July 22, 1922, to determine the future of the catalogue, and the
Smithsonian Institution has prepared and will submit to the dele-
gates then present the following statement of its position:

PROPOSALS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION REGARDING THE INTERNATIONAL
CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE,

It is the belief of the Smithsonian Institution:

1. That a classified subject and author index to the literature of science is
needed.

2. That no better means exists of attaining the end sought than by carrying
out the original plan of the International Catalogue based on international
cooperation guided by uniform rules and schedules modified to meet changes
in the several sciences and, when possible, broadened in scope to include the
allied technical branches of these sciences.

8. That every effort should be made to cooperate with all similar enter-
prises, including abstracting agencies, existing or projected, not only to
prevent duplication of labor but also to better serve the demands of those in
need of bibliographic aid.

4, That on account of abnormal conditions still controlling publishing costs
and monetary exchange it is probable that actual publication can not be
at present resumed unless financial aid is had from some source outside the
present organization; however, it is believed:

5. That the international organization should be kept in being through
mutual agreement to continue the work of the regional bureaus until such
time as it may be economically possible to resume publication. When that

109

110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

time arrives the stock of complete sets already published should be advertised
for sale at a price within the reach of the smaller libraries and institutions,
many of whom, although desiring this unique reference work, were prevented
from subscribing on account of the high original cost.

Were the price reduced even to one-fourth of the original, stock on hand
at that figure represents a sufficient sum to meet all outstanding obligations
and leave a surplus for working capital.

The intention in preparing this statement was to take into con-
sideration all existing conditions, and it is believed that if the
suggestions are indorsed by the convention, the organization may be
kept in being through the continued activities of the various re-
gional bureaus and that when international conditions become more
stable the central bureau will be able to meet its financial obligations
and resume publication.

When in 1896, 1898, and 1900, the representatives of practically
all the civilized nations and foremost scientific institutions met in
London to consider and formulate organic rules making possible
cooperation between all nations recording scientific investigations,
it was their intention not only to produce a catalogue and index of
published records as an aid to investigators and bibliographers,
but also to establish international cooperation to aid in developing
and making available to all those in any way concerned in scientific
matters the world’s output of scientific records. The material for
the 17 annual volumes of the International Catalogue of Scientific
Literature issued for the years 1901 to 1914, inclusive, was col-
lected by some 33 regional bureaus and published by the central
bureau in London. This unique international cooperative organiza-
tion, in the main, still exists and although actual publication has, for
financial reasons, been suspended pending a more nearly normal con-
dition in international finance and politics, the work of collecting
and preparing for publication the records of scientific research is
still going on. It would now seem advisable to consider how, until
the catalogue can be again published, these records may be made
available and to plan for the future improvement and extension of
the catalogue service.

The principal methods of furnishing information of the published
records of scientific investigations are: Card indexes and periodical
bibliographies; abstract journals; year books, cumulative cata-
logues, and indexes.

To prepare any of these, a complete list of journals is needed
but unfortunately no such complete current list now exists. One
of the first needs of the catalogue organization, when publication is
resumed, will be to bring its own list of journals up to date, the
last supplement to the original list having been published in 1904,
making the total number of journals listed at that time, 5,627. Since

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, UG ig)

there is, aside from its use in connection with the catalogue, a decided
need and demand for such a lst, this bureau is considering the
advisability of undertaking the preparation of a revised list of
journals, and of soliciting to that end the cooperation of the existing
regional bureaus, who would be requested, through the central
bureau, to furnish lists of the periodicals published in their several
regions.

It is thought that when this material is collected arrangements
for publication may be made without cost to the catalogue organiza-
tion and even that, through such a published list, some financial
benefit to the International Catalogue may be derived, but failing
in this the labor involved would be justified on account of the need
for the current list by the catalogue organization as soon as publica-
tion is resumed.

In whatever form bibliographic aid is furnished the method of
preparation is the same. In all cases the original publications must
be first collected whether they are to be catalogued, indexed, classi-
fied, or abstracted, and regular and systematic means must exist to
gather all publications, not only periodicals but also single issues. °
The regional bureaus collectively have advantages in this respect
never before available to bibliographers and practically all of the
- world’s scientific literature is through them available. As the
catalogue organization was at the London conference of 1920 di-
rected to cooperate with abstracting journals and other similar
agencies, it is felt that, although the organization has been disap-
pointed in not yet being able to resume publication, it would be
justified in extending its aid to other publishing agencies by fur-
nishing citations to scientific publications being catalogued by the
regional bureaus. In return for such aid the catalogue would be
benefited by having available abstracts prepared by experts, thus
simplifying the work of classification. A final ideal combined
organization would, through international cooperation, produce all
bibliographic publications of whatever type, and it is felt that when
close cooperation is once established between all agencies having
kindred aims it will prove essential for their mutual benefit to
merge these enterprises into one organization. This plan should aim
to eventually include not only the literature of science but also that
of related technical industries whose existence and advance depend
on the progress made in pure science.

It is realized that to carry out these plans a very extensive organi-
zation would be necessary, but when the many great interests in-
volved and their evident unfilled needs are taken into consideration
it becomes apparent that some definite effort should be made to
consolidate the numerous independent agencies to the end that all

112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

may be benefited. By combined effort much duplication of labor
and cost would be saved, and most important of all, bibliographers,
students, and industrial agencies would be furnished with prompt
and authoritative information regarding the literature of the sub-
jects relating to their several interests.

Very respectfully yours,

Leonarp C, GuNNELL,
Assistant in Charge.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 9.
REPORT ON THE LIBRARY.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ-
ities of the library of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1922. f

Possessing more than a million volumes, pamphlets, manuscripts,
and charts, acquired chiefly in exchange, the library has continued
its steady, ever-increasing growth. There are now, according to the
records, 888,128 publications deposited at the Library of Congress
and 156,275 belonging to the United States National Museum. Books
belonging to other branches of the Institution have been estimated at
35,000.

Its volumes are being constantly borrowed and consulted within
the buildings. Interlibrary loans to accredited libraries, where
distance permits, are being continued, and in a number of instances
arrangements have been made for the photostating of pages from
rare volumes not permitted to leave the buildings.

Each day typewritten lists of original scientific articles appearing
in periodicals received for the Smithsonian deposit in the Library
of Congress are prepared and sent to heads of scientific bureaus
under the Institution for their information and for circulation.
These daily bibliographical lists, begun last November at the re-
quest of the secretary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, have been well re-
ceived -from the start. Requests from other Government bureaus
and research organizations have been made for copies, which it has
not been possible to supply.

The facilities of the library have been taxed to the utmost since
the beginning of the war for information on various technical sub-
jects. Especially has this been so in connection with aeronautics.
In this one subject alone it is safe to say that the Institution, as
one ot the sources, has been the means of saving the United States
Government many thousands of dollars which would have had to
be paid if the information relating to the prior art had not been
analyzed and available.

SMITHSONIAN MAIN LIBRARY.

As most noteworthy among the accessions of the main library
might be mentioned copies of the @dttingische Gelehrie Anzeigen
for 1758, 1760, 1808, 1813, and 1814, the gift of the Gesellschaft fir

113

114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, and the Transactions of the Royal
Dublin Society for 1803 to 1810, the gift of that society.

Material published in oriental languages, while it is not yet
received in large quantities as compared with European publica-
tions, is continuing to increase, and it is hoped that in the future
the Institution may have in the collections at the Library of Con-
gress the most representative collection of this material that can
be brought together in this country. The furnishing of English
transliterations by the donors, as is done by the Vajiranafia Na-
tional Library, Bangkok, is of great assistance.

In order that material received for the library may be made
available to the public at the earliest possible moment, publica-
tions have been transmitted daily, as in years past, to the Smith-
sonian deposit in the Library of Congress. The number of publi-
cations so transmitted during the year was 8,907, consisting of 7,502
complete volumes, 800 parts of volumes, 376 pamphlets, and 229
charts. The accession numbers extended from 587,230 to 539,988.
The number of publications transmitted without being entered or
accessioned, including Government documents, was 7,213.

Cataloguing.—While the record for volumes catalogued has again
been surpassed, it has not been possible during the year to cata-
logue the remainder of the large accumulation of theses sent during
the war from European universities. Foliowing are the year’s
records:

Wolanies' ‘catalomtied! 15) Si )sitt.| OF Se Ae ee ee eee 6, 502
Volumessrecataloguedia _socjtecrint it tied ey? _ eter yea ears be cee 55
Charts! cataloguedn. 3204 tel ae gel tel _ tee cele ay lee aes 160
Cards: (typewritten: 4 or 2p eek ee ee ee 4, 243
hibrary.ot Wongress Cards: Bled. 229s. ge ee -< 592
Beep gale Ue Hyk 6 C0 26 a ta A lee Mgr Wi tte at Stas yee BREEN A Cs ATS yen iy 5 1, 614

Exchanges.—The securing of publications in exchange for the
completion of sets in the library has been continued, with the fol-
lowing results:

Wanted. Secured.

Volumes.| Parts. | Volumes.| Parts.

Library of Congress:

Smithsonian CiviSioNs pp esaacien cae ccns acne sn ceeenecesnee 1,620 1,184 520 584
Poriodicahidivision.--<6-- csp ceeseae vecwc unos whdwccetehakens 35 129 ll 28
Order division: |: <5. 54.4 s/apee game de aoa ae ce es Sgt ee BU hss cs oc hee 38 1
United States National Museum... ... 2.2.2... ececcccccccve 81 83 25 40

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115

OFFICE LIBRARY.

The growth and increasing value of the office library is perhaps
not fully realized. The total number of its accessions as reached
this year now numbers 27,100, of which 394 volumes were added
during the year. It consists of the following collections: Aero-
nautical, art room, De Peyster, deposited collections, employees’
library, periodicals (back numbers), reading room, reference room.

The aeronautical collection, founded by Samuel Pierpont Langley
while Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been since
augmented by gifts from Alexander Graham Bell, James Means,
Charles D. Walcott, the Aero Club of America, and other indi-
viduals and organizations that have had an important part in the
development of aeronautics during its pioneer stage. During the
present year some 45 volumes were added from the estate of James
Means, by gift of his sons Dr. James H. Means and Philip Ains-
worth Means.

By the transfer of the employees’ library to the east stacks in
the main hall of the Smithsonian building, it has been rendered more
readily accessible to employees, and additional space for its ex-
pansion has been provided. The collection of back numbers of
periodicals has been moved to the west stacks.

While the office library is primarily a reference library and books
are more often consulted than borrowed, many of the volumes are
available for loan purposes, and many employees of the Institution
avail themselves of its privileges. The total number of loans for
the year was 3,330.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY LIBRARY.

Loans from the Astrophysical Observatory Library are made
through the office library, and are included in the records of loans
from that library. During the year 79 volumes, 26 parts, and 40
pamphlets were added, and 53 volumes sent to the bindery. The
library is primarily a reference library for the use of the staff of
the Astrophysical Observatory.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY LIBRARY.

The report of operations of the library of the Bureau of Ethnology
will be found in the report of the chief of that bureau. It is admin-
istered directly under his care.

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM LIBRARY.

The facilities of the Museum Library have been taxed as never
before. The number of books loaned was 10,886, and as many more
were consulted without being taken from the library.

116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Valuable material has been donated as in preceding years by
friends and members of the staff of the United States National
Museum. Among the donors are Messrs. H. S. Barber, August
Busck, Austin H. Clark, W. H. Dall, H. G. Dyar, O. P. Hay, Walter
Hough, W. R. Maxon, E. G. Mitchell, C. W. Richmond, J. H. Riley,
S, A. Rohwer, W. S. Schaus, B. H. Swales, and Dr. and Mrs. Charles
D, Walcott. Especially noteworthy are the gifts of Doctor Walcott
to the geological and paleontological collections, and the gifts of
Dr. William H. Dall to the section of the division of mollusks, num-
bering 233 titles.

Many of these collections have been received and they have an inti-
mate relation to the library in that the donors were connected with
the Museum and brought the collection together during the progress
of their researches. The list of donors in the foregoing paragraph
will give some idea of the number of collections of this kind that
have been added. Special attention should be called to the Iddings
and Walcott collections, given during the previous year. These
required assorting, arranging, and checking with other publications
of the same kind on the shelves, in order to prevent duplication, for
which there is not enough room at the present time.

SECTIONAL LIBRARIES.

In order that the volumes and publications of the Museum Library
may be readily accessible to the members of the administrative
and scientific staff of the Museum, 35 sectional libraries are main-
tained, namely :

Administration. Minerals.
Administrative assistant’s office. Mineral technology.
American archeology. Mollusks.
Anthropology. Old-world archeology.
Birds. Paleobotany.

Botany. Photography.

Hditor’s office. Physical anthropology.
Fishes. Property clerk’s office.
Foods. Registrar’s office.
Geology. Reptiles and batrachians.
Graphic arts, Superintendent’s office.
History. Taxidermy.
Invertebrate paleontology. Textiles.

Mammals.

Marine invertebrates.
Medicine.

Mechanical technology.

Vertebrate paleontology.
War library.
Wood technology.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 117

The following statistics have been submitted by Mr. N. P. Scud-
der, in charge of the library:

Books in the Museum Library:

\C UST e a pst Se Saas assay ed pl a ie ita tener adi lore od A EO 60, 681
IDET 2S eS ee a ee eae Ia aT 95, 594
Motel. 2900UO7 TO 1am ed | geprslow BE pews 156, 275

Increase:

Peer eigen) Bee etn St ee ee UO) ee 27 R338. OFS 2, 023

Pompniets i) BTV S1OUO OO) Oi ait vey) weerttal reed) epg 4,185

BELG cell eee ee RR Re a ce ee ee 6, 208

Periodicals:

PARES Pentere dats tet Ek is A , LE Se be 18, 827

Section Cardy 22 ces lupe a vy! ty wo em eyes: fi gp pert yee ot 8 2, 714

Binkry ands tor ney penodicals. sl. <1... 2-5. Sac et ks Papel
Cataloguing (not including periodicals) :

ROG Ley epee res ap te eet ee eae oe 860

| ESCMNG) UE RST ele De pe ae es eee het ane spall CA Beh helt ceed IN Aiba pets Mane ans, 4,178

Cards typewritten) es Se ee ee eee ee 6, 183
PICGERSIOM r CArUS ess osc eerie ee ee eee Pee § TSA Ot eA pe SILLG 5, 214
PITAL OM GA TOG fase 3 cetl ask Noe OS he Me See Et es Ze 3, 655
Books bound, o 2.022 BAO TRA TOY PS A I 398
hous (of which 7,012) went. to the sections) — 22 =. 53 ee 10, 886
Library’ of Congress’ books’ borrowed! Vsti. tho) Sh I 1G) 2a sano 1, 583
Library of Congress books returned_____--_____-_-__-_-_-_----+-+---- 1, 886
Borrowed) from: other librariegsec-is oe ee ts te ee 106
Reiimedett Ohhen Wibraries: t= Sse BE eee 132

The general library of the Museum is located in the Natural
History Building. In order that reference facilities may be readily
available to divisions of the Museum located in other buildings, the
technological library is maintained in the Arts and Industries Build-
ing, and the office library in the Smithsonian Building is at the dis-
posal of Museum divisions located there.

TECHNOLOGICAL LIBRARY.

The technological library, located in the old Museum Building, is
continuing the reorganization and rearrangement of its material.
The number of loans made during the fiscal year ended was 220.
Statistics of the scientific depository catalogue are not at present
available, owing to repairs and remodeling now in progress in the
library’s quarters.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY.

Records of the library of the National Gallery of Art are at pres-
ent kept in the Natural History Library of the Museum, and period-
icals entered upon the records and included in periodical statistics

55379—24—_9

118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

of that library. Accessions for the fiscal year, exclusive of period-
icals, covered 32 volumes and 36 pamphlets.

FREER GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY.

Additions to the library of the Freer Gallery of Art during the
year numbered 14 volumes. The number of volumes now in the
library, exclusive of deposited books, is 127. A number of volumes
relating to art have been deposited by the Smithsonian Institution
in the Freer Building for use in connection with the collections,
among them the set of Serindia, by Sir Aurel Stein, comprising five
large quarto volumes with plates in color, presented by the Secre-
tary of State for India.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK LIBRARY.

Since the establishment of a library at the National Zoological
Park in 1905, there have been 378 accessions. The number during
the fiscal year ended was 15, comprising reports of kindred zoological
gardens and parks, and leading zoological works issued during the

year.
SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS.
The accessions for the year, including parts to complete sets, with
the exception of additions to the library of the Bureau of American
Ethnology, may be summarized as follows:

Other
Branch. Volumes.| publica- | Total.

tions.
Astrophysical Observatory . puch.c. <o)2.4.. 0.008. co ss daceembeck anh memes cep. 79 66 145
Wr GRUBCUAT ATE nn cho. Pench sce anhasscaibadnancas needa asc saneenay ED eee =| 14
INAGICNAL GHAMELU OL ADs i. wckedaabascadecctamenssun tuasecstadenets Meeaces 32 36 68
National Zoological Park. ...<...5.ccenccnccwadckdudes hutuatedcdaceueaaes i Eee eee 8 15
Smithsonian deposit, Library of Congress...............2 eee eee cence 7, 502 1,405 8, 907
Byrithsontan alos... .<vscocsesnaekdbteabianlandece hte Mote Re Ei pe eEtees 394 45 439
United States National Mrsetrn o 5. . oeds acu cncieauaccebWameheriue se eeetek 2,023 4,185 6, 208
SEO oe scons Bs nv ciate a aabciaindehne acs kepacd Eecod ett aestantrak acts 10,059 5, 737 15, 796

Respectfully submitted.
Pav Brocsert,
Assistant Librarian.
Dr. Cuartes D. Watoort,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution,

APPENDIX 10.
REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the pub-
lications of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches during the
year ending June 30, 1922:

The Institution proper. published during the year 9 papers in
the series of Miscellaneous Collections, 2 annual reports and pam-
phlet copies of 55 articles in the appendixes to the reports, a reprint
of the Smithsonian Physical Tables, and 5 special publications.
The Bureau of American Ethnology published 3 bulletins and 2
annual reports. The United States National Museum issued 1
annual report, 3 volumes of proceedings, 72 separates from the pro-
ceedings, 5 bulletins, 2 separate parts of bulletins, and 4 parts of
volumes in the series Contributions from the United States National
Herbarium.

The total number of publications distributed by the Smithsonian
and its branches was 165,196, which includes 251 volumes and sep-
arates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 20,777 vol-
umes and separates of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
27,263 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian annual reports,
97,806 volumes and separates of the National Museum publications,
14,215 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 3,159
special publications, 706 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical
Observatory, 64 reports on the Harriman Alaska expedition, 812
reports of the American Historical Association, and 143 publica-
tions presented to but not issued by the Smithsonian Institution.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

Of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, volume 67, 1 paper
was issued ; volume 72, 7 papers; volume 73, 1 paper; in all, 9 papers
as follows:

VOLUME 67.

No. 7. Cambrian Geology and Paleontology. IV, No. 7. Notes on Structure
of Neolenus. By Charles D. Walcott. December 20, 1921. Pp. 365-456, pls.
91-105. (Publ. 2584.)

VOLUME 72.

No. 8. A Review of the Interrelationships of the Cetacea. By Herluf Winge.
July 30,1921. 97 pp. (Publ. 2650.)
No. 10. The Circulatory System in Bone. By J. S. Foote. August 20, 1921.
20 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 2652.)
119

120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

No. 11. The Echinoderms as Aberrant Arthropods. By Austin H. Clark. July
20, 1921. 20 pp., 24 figs. (Publ. 2653.)

No. 12. A Study of the Body Temperature of Birds. By Alexander Wetmore.
December 30, 1921. 52 pp. (Publ. 2658.)

No. 18. The Melikeron, an Approximately Black-Body Pyranometer. By L. B.
Aldrich. January 25, 1922. 11 pp., 5 figs. (Publ. 2662.)

No, 14. A New Sauropod Dinosaur from Ojo Alamo Formation of New Mexico.
By Charles W. Gilmore. January 31, 1922. 9 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2663.)
No. 15. Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1921.

May 26, 1922. 128 pp., 182 figs. (Publ. 2669.)

VOLUME 73.

No. 1. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature. Opinions 68 to 77. January 31, 1922. 73 pn. (Publ. 2657.)

SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS,

REPORT FOR 1919.

The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of
Regents for 1919, together with the pamphlet copies of the papers
in the general appendix, was received from the printer during the
year.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution,
showing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the
year ending June 30, 1919. xii+557 pp., 185 pls., 24 text figs. (Publ.
2590.)

The appendix contained the following papers:

Modern theories of the spiral nebule, by Heber D. Curtis.

A determination of the deflection of light by the sun’s gravitational field, from
observations made at the total eclipse of May 29, 1919, by Sir F. W. Dyson,
A. S. Eddington, and C. Davidson,

Wireless telephony, by N. H. Slaughter.

Radium and the electron, by Sir Ernest Rutherford.

The “ HD-4.” <A 70-miler with remarkable possibilities developed at Dr. Gra-
ham Bell’s laboratories on the Bras d’Or Lakes, by William Washburn
Nutting.

Natural resources in their relation to military supplies, by Arthur D. Little.

Glass and some of its problems, by Sir Herbert Jackson.

The functions and ideals of a national geological survey, by F. L. Ransome.

The influence of cold in stimulating the growth of plants, by Frederick V.
Coville.

Floral aspects of British Guinea, by A. S. Hitchcock.

Milpa agriculture, a primitive tropical system, by O. F. Cook.

On the extinction of the mammoth, by H. Neuville.

A preliminary study of the relation between geographical distribution and
migration, with special reference to the Palaearctie region, by R. Meinertz-
hagen.

The necessity of State action for the protection of wild birds, by Walter E.
Collinge.

Glimpses of desert bird life in the Great Basin, by Harry OC. Oberholser.

The Division of Insects in the United States National Museum, by J. M.
Aldrich.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 121

The seventeen-year locust, by R. HE. Snodgrass.

Entomology and the war, by L. O. Howard.

Two types of southwestern cliff houses, by J. Walter Fewkes.

On the race history and facial characteristics of the aboriginal Americans, by
W. H. Holmes.

The opportunity for American archeological research in Palestine, by James
A. Montgomery.

The differentiation of mankind into racial types, by Arthur Keith,

The exploration of Manchuria, by Arthur de C. Sowerby.

The origin and beginnings of the Czechoslovak people, by Jindfich Matiegka.

Geographic education in America, by Albert Perry Brigham.

Progress in national land reclamation in the United States, by C. A. Bissell.

Richard Rathbun, by Marcus Benjamin.

A great chemist: Sir William Ramsay, by Ch. Moureu.

REPORT FOR 1920.

The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Regents for
1920 was received from the Public Printer in May, 1922.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, show-
ing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1920. 704 pp., 280 pls., 105 text figs. (Publ. 2622.)

The appendix contained the following papers:

Studying the sun’s heat on mountain peaks in desert lands, by C. G. Abbot.

The habitability of Venus, Mars, and other worlds, by C. G. Abbot.

‘Giant suns, by H. H. Turner.

A bundle of meteorological paradoxes, by W. J. Humphreys.

The determination of the structure of crystals, by Ralph W. G. Wyckoff.

Dr. Aston’s experiments on the mass spectra of the chemical elements, with
introduction by C. G. Abbot.

Vitamins, by W. D. Halliburton.

Soil acidity—its nature, measurement, and relation to plant distribution, by
Edgar T. Wherry.

The chemistry of the earth’s crust, by Henry S. Washington.

Major causes of land and sea oscillations, by E. O. Ulrich.

The Bryozoa, or moss animals, by R. 8. Bassler.

The horned dinosaurs, by Charles W. Gilmore.

Rhythm in nature, by F’. W. Flattely.

Parasitism and symbiosis in their relation to the problem of evolution, by
Maurice Caullery.

Local suppression of agricultural pests by birds, by W. L. McAtee.

The occult senses in birds, by Herbert H. Beck.

Adventures in the life of a fiddler crab, by O. W. Hyman.

The senses of insects, by N. E. McIndoo.

The resplendent shield-bearer and the ribbed cocoon-maker: Two insect in-
habitants of the orchard, by R. HE. Snodgrass.

The origin of insect societies, by Auguste Lameere.

The botanical gardens of Jamaica, by William R. Maxon.

Daturas of the old world and new: An account of their narcotic properties
and their use in oracular and initiatory ceremonies, by William E. Safford.
Effect of the relative length of day and night on flowering and fruiting of

plants, by W. W. Garner and H. A. Allard.
Fire worship of the Hopi Indians, by J. Walter Fewkes.

122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Racial groups and figures in the Natural History Building of the United States
National Museum, by Walter Hough.

Notes on the dances, music, and songs of the ancient and modern Mexicans, by
Auguste Genin.
The Ralph Cross Johnson collection in the National Gallery at Washington,

D. C., by George B. Rose.
REPORT FOR 1921.

The report of the executive committee and proceedings of the
Board of Regents of the Institution, and the report of the secretary,
both forming part of the annual report of the Board of Regents to
Congress, were issued in pamphlet form in November, 1921.

Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents
of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 380, 1921. 18 pp.
(Publ. 2660.)

Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending
June 80, 1921. 119 pp. (Publ. 2659.)

The general appendix to this report, which was in press at the
close of the year, contains the following papers:

The daily influence of astronomy, by W. W. Campbell.

Cosmogony and stellar evolution, by J. H. Jeans.

The diameters of the stars, by A. Danjon.

Isotopes and atomic weights, by F. W. Aston.

Modifying our ideas of nature: The Hinstein theory of relativity, by Henry
Norris Russell.

The alkali problem in irrigation, by Carl S. Scofield.

An outline of geophysical-chemical problems, by Robert B. Sosman.

The yielding of the earth’s crust, by William Bowie.

The age of the earth, by the Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, W. J. Sollas, J. W.
Gregory, and Harold Jeffreys.

The department of geology of the U. S. National Museum, by George P. Merrill.

Some observations on the natural history of Costa Rica, by Robert Ridgway.

The historic development of the evolutionary idea, by Branislav Petronievics.

The heredity of acquired characters, by L. Cuénot.

Breeding habits, development, and birth of the opossum, by Carl Hartman.

Some preliminary remarks on the velocity of migratory flight among birds,
with special reference to the Palaearctic region, by R. Meinertzhagen.

A botanical reconnaissance in southeastern Asia, by A. S. Hitchcock.

Ant acacias and acacia ants of Mexico and Central America, by W. E. Safford.

The fall webworm, by R. E. Snodgrass.

Collecting insects on Mount Rainier, by A. L. Melander.

The science of man: Its needs and prospects, by Karl Pearson.

Pigmentation in the old Americans, with notes on graying and loss of hair,
by AleS Hrdlitka.

Ancestor worship of the Hopi Indians, by J. Walter Fewkes.

The Indian in literature, by Herman F. C. Ten Kate.

Leopard-men in the Naga Hills, by J. H. Hutton.

A new era in Palestine exploration, by Elihu Grant.

The alimentary education of children, by Marcel Labbé.

A fifty-year sketch history of medical entomology, by L. O. Howard.

Laid and wove, by Dard Hunter.

Lead, by Carl W. Mitman.

William Crawford Gorgas, by Robert E. Noble.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 123

SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS,

The following special publications were issued during the year:

Catalogue of the Herbert Ward African Collection. 8 pp., 12 figs. (Publ.

“ec AT?)
Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available April 15, 1922. Com-

piled by Helen Munroe. May 1, 1922. 30 pp. (Publ. 2670.)
Title page and contents of volume 69, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.

(Publ, 2654.)
Title page and contents of volume 70, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.

(Publ. 2655.)
Title page and contents of volume 71, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.

(Publ. 2656.)
PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual
report, (0) the Proceedings of the United States National Museum,
and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which
includes the Contributions from the United States National Her-
barium. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Mar-
cus Benjamin.

During the year ending June 30, 1922, the Museum published 1
annual report, 3 volumes of proceedings, 5 complete bulletins, 2
parts of bulletins, 4 parts of volumes in the series Contributions
from the United States National Herbarium, and 72 separates from

the proceedings.

The issues of the bulletin were as follows:

Bulletin 100, volume 4. Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archi-
pelago and Adjacent Regions. Volume 4: Foraminifera of the Philippine
and Adjacent Seas. By Joseph A. Cushman.

Bulletin 118. Life Histories of North American Gulls and Terns. Order
Longipennes. By Arthur Cleveland Bent.

Bulletin 114. A revision of the King Snakes: Genus Lampropeltis. By Frank

N. Blanchard.

Bulletin 118. Handbook and Descriptive Catalogue of the Collections of Gems
and Precious Stones in the United States National Museum. By George P.
Merrill, assisted by Margaret W. Moodey and Edgar T. Wherry.

Bulletin 119. Catalogue of the Mechanical Engineering Collection in the
United States National Museum. Motors, Locomotives, and Self-propelled

Vehicles. By Carl W. Mitman.
Of the separate papers of bulletins, the following were issued:
Bulletin 82, A Monograph of the Existing Crinoids. Volume 1.—The Coma-
tulids. Part 2. By Austin Hobart Clark.
Bulletin 104, The Foraminifera of the Atlantic Ocean. Part 3. Textulariidae.
By Joseph Augustine Cushman.
Of the separate papers of the Contributions from the United States
National Herbarium, the following were issued:
Volume 20, part 11. The Identification of Berberis Aquifolium and Berberis
repens. By Charles V. Piper.

~

124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Volume 20, part 12. New or Noteworthy Plants from Colombia and Central
America—8. By Henry Pittier.

Volume 22, part 6. Grasses of British Guiana. By A. S. Hitchcock.

Volume 24, part 1. New Plants from Guatemala and Honduras. By S. F.
Blake.

Of the separates from the proceedings, 25 were from volume 59, 26
from volume 60, and 21 from volume 61.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

The publications of the bureau are described in detail in Appendix
4 of this report. The editorial work of the bureau is under the
direction of Mr. Stanley Searles, editor.

During the past year two annual reports, the thirty-fifth and the
thirty-sixth, and three bulletins were published, as follows:

Thirty-fifth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: Ethnology of the Kwakiutl
(Boas). Pts. 1 and 2. 1,481 pp.
Thirty-sixth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Osage Tribe: Rite
of the Chiefs; Saying of the Ancient Men (La Flesche). 604 pp., 23 pls.
Bulletin 73. Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors (Swan-
ton). 492 pp., 10 pls.

Bulletin 74. Excavation of a Site at Santiago Ahuitzotla, D. F. Mexico
(Tozzer). 56 pp., 19 pls.

Bulletin 75. Northern Ute Music (Densmore). 213 pp., 16 pls.

There were in press or in preparation at the close of the year
four annual reports and six bulletins, as follows:

Thirty-fourth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: A Prehistoric Island
Culture Area of America (Fewkes). ‘

Thirty-seventh Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Winnebago Tribe
(Radin).

Thirty-eighth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: An Introductory Study of
the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guinea Indians (Roth).

Thirty-ninth Annual Report. Accompanying paper: The Osage Tribe: The
Rite of Vigil (La Flesche).

Bulletin 76. Archeological Investigations (Fowke).

Bulletin 77. Villages of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes west
of the Mississippi (Bushnell).

Bulletin 78. Handbook of the Indians of California (Kroeber).

Bulletin 79. Blood Revenge, War, and Victory Feasts among the Jibaro
Indians of Eastern Ecuador (Karsten).

Bulletin 80. Mandan and Hidatsa Music (Densmore).

Bulletin 81. Excavations in the Chama Valley, N. Mex. (Jeancon).

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

The fourth volume of the annals of the Astrophysical Observa-
tory, covering the work of the observatory from 1913 to 1920, was
issued in June, 1922.

Volume IV. Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, by C. G. Abbot, F. E-
Fowle, and L. B. Aldrich. June 24, 1922. 390 pp., 2 pls. (Publ. 2661.)

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 125

REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION.

The annual reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, and are communicated to Congress under provisions of
the act of incorporation of the association.

The annual report for 1917 and the annual report for 1918, volumes
1 and 2, together with the supplemental volume to this report en-
titled “ Writings on American History,” were published during the
year.

The annual report for 1919, volumes 1 and 2, and the supple-
mental volumes to the reports for 1919 and 1920 were in press at the
close of the year.

REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE DAUGHTERS OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION.

The manuscript of the Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the
National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution
was transmitted to Congress according to law on January 4, 1922.

THE SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND
PUBLICATION.

The Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication
passes upon all manuscripts offered for publication by the Institu-
tion or its branches and considers all forms of routine, blanks, and
such other matters as pertain to printing and publication. Eight
meetings were held during the year and 100 manuscripts were acted
upon.

Respectfully submitted.

W. P. Troe,

Editor.
Dr. Cuartrs D. Watcorr,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

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REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1922.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the institu-
tion and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the
National Museum, the International Exchanges, the Bureau of
American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysi-
cal Observatory, the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera-
ture, and the National Gallery of Art, for the year ending June 30,
1922:

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
Condition of the fund July 1, 1922.

The sum of $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United
States under act of Congress is a permanent fund, having been ac-
cumulated by the deposit of savings and bequests from time to time.
Subsequent bequests and gifts and the income therefrom, when so
required, are invested in approved securities. The several specific
funds so accumulated are now constituted as follows and classed as
the consolidated fund:

DG E Kinsieeneral tuna e) eases ee tome ete cot nen enn ee $37, 275. 00
ERS Ee TILT CL earn a ate 2 aa oe ee Ee pee le Sip Uy 199. 00
EASES ESS TTP HE UA lid ANP OTN RS a NP GS TE AUS Ea PS ge ae el 20, 489. 80
Addison TD. Reid) fumd en ib og eae ete) Diheaih vy pipet menos ee 3, 679. 00
Lucy {2:,and) George! W.Poore funds 2228 ee ER ee es 8, 444. 00
reoree pele | SamforducitianG itn besa te eS a a ele De 374. 00
DSU ICAP COE Ba A tl i Lh ne op a seg te ea do TE 1, 429, 14
MOVELEREE) CSTSLSRTTD GMTERLEN Coe ssa ee ena a Faun SHEP sa berg = ehh aie 35, 000. 00
VEN oh PUSS WDC GE pi EY |e a eR As RT A OPES na EL DS Se Tee 9, 894. 76
LEMS ne abl ers Ros yo 6c 6 eae a Ome ae aca Magn cn Py Ae 1 pee ele a 500. 00
INERT op Feds es NN Cp Ea a ee Se eee 1, 260. 58
Papotugeritay BiCOn Lands. 2 SoS Ce 46, 900. 00
Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund___-_--_---__---- 11, 520. 00
WarolingsHenry. fund. oe ae we LO SRE Ae 1, 000. 00

Teg consol@ated: TUNG oo co 2 a Ee a ae 177, 965. 28

One piece of improved real estate, at 140 East Capitol Street,
Washington, D. C., forming a part of the original bequest of the late
127

128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Robert Stanton Avery, is still retained by the institution and yields
a nominal revenue.

The institution has further received from the executors of the
Charles L. Freer estate shares of Parke, Davis & Co. representing a
book value of $589,140, which, in turn, have been temporarily de-
posited with a local trust company as collateral to secure a l6an
for the purpose of liquidating inheritance and other taxes, which as
residuary legatee of the Freer estate the institution is required to
pay. ‘This loan is being paid as revenues will permit.

The tota] amount of dividends and interest received by the insti-
tution from this estate during the year for all purposes was $83,-
127.36. The further sum of $55,823.44 was transferred to the books
of the institution for account of the Freer building fund.

The itemized report of the auditor is filed in the office of the
Secretary.

Detailed survey of financial operations.
Ordinary receipts:

Was buranee on Nand duly 2° LO2T "Ut Seek. Ae ete $11, 229. 34
Income from miscellaneous sources available for general pur-
| 00): at > enc MR Eee aren apa NP Sapo AL ge Dee rap PE NIE MOR ete EL, 3 56, 361. 40
International Exchanges, repayments to the institution for
specific’ PurDOses == — tad el oe ee ke 5, 510. 74
Total resources for ordinary purposes__._________________ 73, 101. 48
Ordinary expenditures:
CORTE MG Pe Lelie OL Any ULC som meer aie eg 7, 124. 46
Furniture and *Axtures-24. 2222 _ 8 oe eae 2h Ne 1, 466. 73
Generalyadministrationei:: 203. ttm ott im bite sigan hs 25, 338. 83
Ty Toes a OEY She st et ee ee ee 2, 893. 23
Publications (comprising preparation, printing, and distribu-
| L017 peepee tee tink pot Dene rll Copley ty MPO Cree Ea etal Nye dni pt 14, 325. 63
Jvesearchesvand: explorations 2.5.22 -°0 2. 2 eee 3, 847. 90
Intemational xchanges.i-- Sse 3526 ee ee T, 752. 39
Totalmordinary expend bures = tee eee ee eee 62, 749. 17

Advances and repayments for field expenses and other temporary
transactions during the year:

PAL VOICES Soe). 2 ee ee eee — 18,886.62
PRONAVIMONLS Loo 2 2 =e Se Le ee ee eee 11, 308. 12
NDE Be 2) of 25 6/2 apne aN ala i ender a e M RRUNS ER HAST 2, 578. 50

The above difference will be adjusted in due course.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES FOR SPECIFIC OBJECTS,

Receipts:
“yery fund... =... _ Fes? sips Sie st eae eee $1, 863. 50
iNarriman: trust furid=. 12, 400. 00
ROGERS Pum 22s ee 6, 862. 00
Hantiton fund: 2.) ones < 2 2 eae ee ler = A Ee 173. 00
Biiees, fam ty ea ei Bp ee ee 48. 59
Addison Reid. fine. 2. 809. 96
Tucy i. 2nd George We Poore tunde.~22- == ees 1, 947. 95

Gedege H. Sanford: fund! 22-3 ee 81. 36

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. 129

Receipts—Continued.

DOC MO SECM rc he A RS ec o SeL Ose AO AU $2, 418. 88
SWAeS ONG Saeco ke en ath Je als 400. 00
Careline Henry ciund steer lala wines _ananiriie ofl age mod ee 1, 023. 00
BROTG es eRe YR OD ee I eer gi oe 1, 253. 04
Ries PADNOLL TE SCATCH CS ee eee AY 2, 000. 00
sonn, A. Roebling, solar research. ten wae Pde ny lh oy hed 15, 771. 38
Hirances) Lea Chamberlain fund-.2) 2.2.2. ee ab ht 1, 610. 00
OPEVON SS gd Bye) WOM HED CVO Ue meee ee Ue Oh ee Ro Vad eg A a Re Mp 55. 88
Virginia. Purdy-Baecon: fan d.2 2-222 oe se 2, 137. 00

BL OU eereeenrn enn ee ee eee eee ee Sree ee eae 50, 850. 04

Expenditures:

Jonun A: Roebling fund, for solar research -——— = = 8, 127. 86
pwales fund for ‘specimen gel sy Ms) WO Abst Oa he Oda? 20833 346. 73
@Ghamberlain fund, for: specimens£vikLe espace ow Wee 1, 040. 39
Hodekimes Ting, fOr solar TES ar Ch aoe lk ae ae 8, 417. 04
Harriman trust fund, for researches and specimens___________ 11, 088. 84
OECeS LON LN VeSbLe Ut ae 3 ht aes oer REE Soe one 2 eae Oe OR 43. 00
Avery-tund invested h. Slit Sols bh bon vw CVO a i 7 2, 050. 00
AddisoniT.-Reidjfund, investedsystiose poe set janes) coer 819. 00
Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund, invested__________-_____-_- 1, 784. 00
luey 7. and George,W, Poore.fund, taxes_—_.-- |. 281. 21
Georve &. Sanford fund) Invested___-""- = a ee ee 80. 00
lucy Hy Baird*fund invested 1204 C0ltb2 sen) See On mg iiss s 94. 00
EGiCowElenes Lund, ANVeSte = 2-2 2 ee ee 1, 152. 83
BruceHuches tung rexpendedust 2 222 Sei iht a Be ae aie 28. 34
VireinialPurdy) Bacon’ fund), investedc._22-- 22h eee 1, 900. 00
Caroline Fenty fund, invested::2.- «<b 2+. $7. Ter 1, 000. 00
TEPOCET a eyo Vw ESO 05) 0 Fa UY | A SDR I DT nr 350. 00

RNG fret Deere ae at A oh ee ee 33, 553. 24

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES PERTAINING TO THE CHARLES L. FREER BEQUEST.

Receipts:
Interest) and (dividends 222222222522 ee see SEIS 00 _70_ OU $83, 127. 36
Building construction and equipment________--_--_____-_-_-_- 55, 823. 44
AM of eer | a) oR Oe A ENT RENE NS Oe a Uae RDB 138, 950. 80
Expenditures:

Payment of temporary loan to settle estate and for purposes
designated by the testator, including purchase of art objects__ 85, 034. 48

Building construction and equipment__.---__._--_____________ 32, 122. 78
PROPANE X MON CIC PCS: 2 ee ie ee eh ee ak eR a 117,157. 26
SUMMARY.
RECEIPTS.

Ordinary income for general objects, including cash balance at

PeCUMnine Or Ven rie serene meena Meee OBR Sy! St sce ie $73, 101. 48
Revenue and principal of funds conveyed for specific purposes, ex-

CeDiniGhestineennhequcst-ter. tee 50, 850. 04
SF UT rN ISRO a EE A ee SO ce READ OEP E NOE RAINE Bt 188, 950. 80

ADVE pecially alt ED a, 2 iA, ne a Oe 262, 902. 32

130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

EXPENDITURES.
General objects of the-institution_....-- ae $62, 749. 17
Expenditures for specific purposes, except the Freer bequest_.______ 33, 553. 24
Melyvances: Tor field: -expernsesias o_o) beet 8 ee Be Fe eae 2, 578. 50
Mréer) Dequest.. 2256 oe a ee te 117, 157. 26
Cash deposited on time at 3 per cent-__--__-___+_---___~- se 40, 500. 00
Gash! Dalance- June 3$0,,1922-. ree LU AOE Be 6, 364. 15

Rotal po wAtes oF pe Tyee sale 1p epi ae eieeie haere, 262, 902. 32

All payments are made by check, signed by the secretary of the
institution, on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues
are deposited to the credit of the same account, except in some in-
stances small deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collec-
tion and later are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the
Treasury.

The practice of investing temporarily idle funds in time deposits
has proven highly satisfactory. During the year the interest derived
from this source, together with other similar items, has resulted in a
total of $2,033.93.

The following appropriations were intrusted by Congress to the
care of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1922:

Bureau. Appropriation.

THES HA LIONG ~ RemON TRON tee Se ate eee eee $50, 000. 00

ALES L Sy et Kets alae 0 8 260) 0] ge eka gee perience oan A pl a et tp aap 46, 000. 00

International Catalogue of Scientific Literature___________________ 7, 500. 00

AR ETOD EY SI CS CI DMON VOICE a sacs cee ee ce ocean ee 15, 500: 00

National Museum:

Mumifire and fixtures. = 225 2 a $20, 000. 00
Heating atid Hliting. 2. eis res eae 70, 000. 00
Heating and lighting (deficiency )__----__________ — 4,000.00
Preservation of collections—_________________._ ss. 312, 620, 00
Preservation of collections (deficiency )----------- 15. 84
RIPE ERP: PON BIE ooh ct 10, 000. 00
5 5730179 < aot binant. aetna teplenaaateieteyinis.s sunt meds Re eons meses 2, 000. 00
Books. (deficiency), <2 2.22. 4 te 3. 02
POSES 26 cc het ant Bese hg a Pe 500. 00

419, 188. 86

NationalcGallery. of Art... Sseceeher Ben os eens = 15, 000. 00

Neniona-soologieal Park. 22220 222 ee eee ee 125, 000. 00

‘Additions! land for Zoological Parkes a4 se a8 See 2, 500. 00

Increase of compensation, indefinite.

Respectfully submitted.
Gro. Gray,

Henry WHITE,
JoHN B. Henperson,
Executive Committee.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE
30, 1922.

ANNUAL MEETING, DECEMBER 8, 1921.

Present: The Hon. Calvin Coolidge, Vice President of the United
States, chancellor, in the chair; Chief Justice William H. Taft; Sen-
ator A. Owsley Stanley; Representative Frank L. Greene; Repre-
sentative John A. Elston; Dr. A. Graham Bell; Hon. George Gray;
Mr. John B. Henderson; Hon. Henry White; Mr. Robert S. Brook-
ings; and the secretary, Mr. Charles D. Walcott.

NEW REGENT.

The secretary stated that the organic act establishing the Smith-
sonian Institution provides that the Chief Justice of the United
States shall be ex officio a regent of the institution. He had the
pleasure, therefore, of announcing that Hon. William Howard Taft
was now a member of the board.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF RESOLUTIONS.

The secretary read the following letter from Mrs. Edward Doug-
lass White:
JUNE 2, 1921.
My Drar Mr. Watcott: May I not ask you to convey to the Board of Regents
my sincere thanks and grateful appreciation of the generous tribute to my be-
loved husband, expressed in their resolutions, a copy of which you were so kind
as to send me.
Permit me also to thank you personally for the kind sympathy conveyed by
your letter of transmittal. ,
Very sincerely,
Mrs. Epwarp Dovuctass WHITE.

RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.

Judge Gray, chairman of the executive committee, offered the fol-
lowing resolution, which was adopted:

Resolved, That the income of the institution for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1923, be appropriated for the service of the institution, to be expended by the
secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the
part of the secretary as to items.

131

132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The secretary presented, in printed form, the annual report of the
executive committee, giving a statement of the financial condition of
the institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921.

On motion, the report was accepted.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE.

At the request of Judge Gray the secretary submitted the follow-
ing report:

Hodgkins fund—Researches in solar radiation are being continued at the
station on the Montezuma Mountain, in Chile, at an altitude of between 9,000
and 10,000 feet. As stated in previous reports, the expense of the maintenance
of this station is borne chiefly from an allotment of $5,000 annually from
the Hodgkins special fund. The work is under the direction of Dr. Charles
G. Abbot, assistant secretary of the institution and director of the Astrophysical
Observatory.

Roebling contributions—Mr. John A. Roebling, of New Jersey, has gen-
erously contributed to date the sum of $29,150 in connection with certain
phases of the work of the solar research stations in Chile and Arizona. Sufficient
funds have been thus provided for the year, and good progress has been made
in the work.

Freer estate.—

Building fund:

Beeeiptes _sOcescsarte On} JO Ties Rai) Oey $1, 337, 984. 68
Wixpendiiureses. o 1! 2 ne EY on ol gw ew ts ere re Pe | ees 1, 289, 772. 87
Balance on hang <2 ee ee ee 48, 212.31

Other provisions: Mr. Freer’s bequest to the institution provides certain
shares of stock for specified funds to the extent of $353,004.75. Of the residuary
estate there have been received $900,000, the income of which will not be
available for the purchase of additions to the collections for several years.

Avery bequest.—The total amount of this bequest is now $33,424.80. One
piece of improved real estate, situated on East Capitol Street, remains unsold.

Poore bequest.—Several pieces of land remain, but will be sold as favorable
offers are received. According to the terms of the will of the testator, George W.
Poore, this fund must accumulate until it reaches a total of $250,000. It now
amounts to $34,230.

Virginia Purdy Bacon bequest—This bequest, which will probably total
$50,000, was given to establish the Walter Rathbone Bacon (traveling) scholar-
ship for the study of the fauna of countries other than the United States.
Forty-five thousand dollars has been transferred to the institution in the
form of bonds and preferred stock of excellent value and stability.

Bruce Hughes bequest.—This fund, which was given for the purpose of estab-
lishing the Hughes alcove, now totals $11,170.99.

Frances Lea Chamberlain funds.—Two bequests were made by Dr. Leander T.
Chamberlain as a memorial to his wife, Frances Lea. One of these, of $10,000,
was received in 1915, and the other, of $25,000, in June, 1921. The income from
these funds is to be expended in the improvement and increase of the Isaac Lea
collections of “ Mollusks” and of “Gems and gem material” now in the
National Museum.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS. 133

Addison T. Reid bequest.—This bequest, which is to found a chair in biology
as a memorial to the testator’s grandfather, Asher Tunis, now amounts to
$14,260. The bequest was subject to the condition that the income was to be
paid in three shares to certain named beneficiaries until their death, when the
principal of each share, with accumulations, was to come to the institution.
Two of these beneficiaries have died, and their shares have been received. The
remaining share represents approximately $5,000.

Miscellaneous bequests—A number of small bequests, aggregating several
thousand dollars, have been included in the consolidated fund.

Residual bequests.—The institution will receive the following bequests, sub-
ject to the death of certain beneficiaries: The Joseph White Sprague bequest;
the Lucy Hunter Baird bequest; the Riter Fitzgerald bequest; and the Caroline
Henry bequest. From the last named estate an additional cash bequest of
$1,000 has been received.

Consolidated fund.—This is composed of funds received in excess of the
$1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States under the authority
of the organic act. It includes several of the bequests referred to above, and
now amounts to $157,562.05.

Mr. Henderson offered the following resolution, which was adopted :

Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution accepts
the report of the permanent committee and approves and ratifies the actions
taken by the committee since the last annual meeting of the board.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The secretary submitted, with explanatory remarks, his report
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, printed copies of which had
already been supplied the regents.

On motion, the report was accepted.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART COMMISSION.

At a meeting held May 27, 1921, the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution established a National Gallery of Art Com-
mission, to consist of five public men interested in the fine arts, five
experts in the fine arts, five artists, and the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution ex officio. The primary purpose of the commis-
sion is to promote the administration, development, and utilization
of the National Gallery of Art, including the acquisition of material
of high quality representing the fine arts, and the study of the best
methods of exhibiting art works to the public and their utilization
for instruction.

The commission has held several meetings, at the first of which
officers were elected and the various committees called for in the plan
of organization appointed. The details of the membership of the
commission and of its committees, and also of the business transacted
during the year, will be found in the appendix on the National Gal-
lery of Art in the annual report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution for the year ending June 30, 1922.

On motion, the report was accepted.

55379—24—10

134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The secretary reported the resignation of Mr. Charles A. Platt
as a member of the commission, and stated that Mr. A. Kingsley
Porter had been suggested to fill the vacancy. On nomination he was
elected.

FREER ESTATE MATTERS.

The secretary said that he had already called attention to the
financial condition of the Freer bequest and funds as detailed in the
permanent committee’s report. The board was aware that the State
of Michigan had levied a State inheritance tax against the residuary
estate of Mr. Freer. This tax, which was considerably more than
$400,000, was also subject to a penalty tax, so that the total amount
was probably as much as $480,000.

The executors were anxious to settle the estate and had suggested
a plan which would save as much of the residuary portion as pos-
sible for the institution. This plan had been taken up by the per-
manent committee, and after careful consideration the method of
settlement had been outlined in a series of resolutions which were
submitted in detail to the board.

After discussion, the resolutions were adopted.

ZOOLOGICAL PARK APPROPRIATION.

The secretary said that in the alternative budget the appropria-
tion for the National Zoological Park has been taken from among
the Smithsonian branches, and has been included among the appro-
priations for the District of Columbia, for the reason, as stated,
that 60 per cent of the appropriation for the park is charged against
the revenue of the District.

The transferring of this appropriation to the District bill would
not necessarily make any change in the administration of the park,
which, in the act. of organization, is specifically placed under the
direction of the Board of Regents, the appropriations therefor to
be disbursed by the disbursing officer of the institution. It might,
however, give rise to misunderstandings and difficulties in its prac-
tical administration.

The secretary added that he was not asking action on the part
of the board at this time.

THE SECRETARY’S SUPPLEMENTAL STATEMENT.

The secretary presented a supplemental statement covering the
various activities of the institution since the printing of the annual
report. These will be described in detail in his printed report for
1922.

GHNERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1922

ADVERTISEMENT.

The object of the Genrrat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis-
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by
collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character
or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous
correspondents of the Institution.

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual
report required of them by Jaw with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress.

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum-
mary of progress which for 30 years previous had been issued by
well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geol-
ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology,
and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not alto-
gether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus-
sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1922.

136

WHO WILL PROMOTE SCIENCE?

By C. G. ABgoT.

President Harding, in transmitting the annual Federal budget to
Congress, on December 4, 1922, proposed a budget of approximately
three billion dollars for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924. Of this
sum, he pointed out that two-thirds were necessary on account of
practically fixed charges, such as the public debt, national defense,
pensions, World War allowances, Federal aid, and there was left
about one billion dollars in charges subject to administrative control.
Analyzing these latter charges, he at length came to the item
$10,619,456 for science and research and a little after took up the
question of further cuts in Government appropriations, saying:

Can there be a reasonable expectation for further considerable reduction in
governmental expenditures in the near future? This question is no doubt upon
the lips of many. The burden of taxation caused by the World War has borne
heavily upon us all, and it has been the earnest desire of the Government to
reduce this burden to the minimum consistent with a proper functioning of the
Federal services. We have seen, however, that approximately two-thirds of
the taxes collected go to pay certain fixed charges, over the expenditure of
which there can be exercised little or no administrative control * * *.

After deducting these items there is left, as has been shown, approximately
only one billion dollars, out of which these normal operating expenses of the
Government must be paid. It is against this group of expenditures that the
retrenchment policy of the Government has been directed.

After discussing some of the items included in this category, he
continues :

There is * * * a rapidly broadening field of Government expenditure
which may be discussed with profit to us all. I refer to expenditures which
are being made from appropriations for Federal aid in lines of research, im-
provement, and development, which, while having no direct connection with the
operations of the business of Government, have grown to become a recognized
part of its activities * * *, There is question as to how far the Govern-
ment should participate in these extraneous activities, and I am frank to say
that an answer to the question as to whether we can look forward to any fur-
ther material reduction in the expenditures of the Government in future years
depends largely upon whether or not there will be a curtailment or expansion
of these activities, which have already added greatly to the annual drafts
upon the Treasury of the United States.

137

138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

From these authoritative figures we learn that the Federal Gov-
ernment is appropriating one-third of 1 per cent of its annual budget
for science and research, and that in the pursuit of economy it may he
possible that this and other public welfare items, regarded as extra-
neous to the true business of Government, may be subject to future
reduction. This raises the question: Should science be supported at
all; and if so, by whom?

People fall in several classes according to their outlook upon
science. There are those who hold that because “A little knowledge
is a dangerous thing” a great deal of knowledge is a calamity. Over
against this is the little group of those who love knowledge for its
own sake as the soul of civilization and a great prize worth sacrifice
to gain. Between these extremes lies the great body of the public
whose first question about a new discovery is “ What good is it?”

If it were possible to change this attitude of the man in the street
to that of faith in the future value of all truth, such as indeed past
experience warrants, there would remain no reason to write this
article. Government would then support research by more than
one-third of 1 per cent of its budget, because the voters would demand
it, and men of wealth would increasingly bequeath new foundations
for scientific research or strengthen existing ones.

It is a pity that the man who loves and creates knowledge should
be so remote from the man who creates wealth. The press of our
country does little to bridge the chasm between the man of science
and the public, not because the papers are not eager to print every
new thing—far from it. But, unlike the press of many foreign coun-
tries, and notably of the British Australasian colonies, our writers
place small value on accuracy and appear by comparison with Aus-
tralian reporters to belittle the intelligence and good taste of their
readers. Few news reporters of the United States are qualified them-
selves to write on science, but when interviewing a research man on
the subject of his latest discovery they seldom use shorthand. They
take a few notes in a longhand code, but their prime object is to pry
for something sensational to associate with the story. When the
piece appears the sensation is the kite, the discovery no more than
a mutilated tail. The discoverer shudders and vows it shall be the
last interview he will grant. His fellow investigators, seeing the
news story, may make a shrewd guess as to what he has done, but
the public, with little knowledge of the subject as a guide, is led ever
deeper into the Alice in Wonderland world which our newspapers
invent. There are some gallant exceptions in the American press.
More power to them! §

Doubtless the blame should alight partly upon the man of science.
For if he will not or ean not present his news in an interesting way

WHO WILL PROMOTE SCIENCE?——-ABBOT., 139

the reporters will do it for him, accuracy to the contrary notwith-
standing, if they can scent out any whiff of human interest in it.
In good conscience it behooves him to practice up in the art of pre-
senting the heart of things. Even his fellow men of science would
appreciate that when it comes to listening to him in a meeting.

There is a time-worn illustration which strikes harder now than
when first uttered, because the faith of the man of science has been
so overwhelmingly justified. A member of the Government to whom
Michael Faraday was showing a new experiment in electricity said
slightingly, “ Very curious, but of what use is it?” “By and by,
my lord,” replied Faraday, “ you may tax it.”

Not everybody who makes valuable discoveries is a Faraday, yet
the man in the street expects every discoverer to be also a prophet,
and not only a prophet, but endowed with a gift of tongues, so that
when asked “ of what use is the new result? ” he shall go beyond the
answer of him who replied: “ Of what use, madame, is a new-born
infant?” and be able to describe the whole family tree of the de-
scendants of the infant discovery in terms so simple and so clear that
he who runs may read.

If investigation had always been limited to subjects promising to
have utility, we should still be in the dark ages. The enlightenment
of the human mind brought about by the study of astronomy, for
instance, has a value not to be measured by dollars and cents, but
by the safety of life and property from religious persecution and
by the advance from superstition and ignorant fear of nature. On
the other hand, it would be easy to cite many investigations of ap-
parently merely curious and trivial phenomena which later on came
to have high commercial utility. One will suffice. Thirty years ago
no “ practical man” would have dreamed of investigating the con-
duction of electricity through rarefied gases. Riéntgen’s discovery
of X rays was not in the least influenced by utility, but came out of
pure research work in that field. Think of X-ray hospital work
nowadays! Moreover, every department store carries radio-tele-
phone outfits, with their thermionic amplifiers, which also are the
children of that same line of pure research.

But after all, “ what further need have we of witnesses?” Hert-
zian waves have become radio; Pasteur’s bacilli have led up to the
Mayo brothers’ surgery and the abolishment of yellow fever; Fara-
day’s and Henry’s electromagnets have become dynamos and tele-
graphs, and the whole world is revolutionized in a century by the
discoverers who worked not for utilities but for knowledge. Yet it
is a mean, stunted mind that sees only things like autos and electric
iights as the foremost rewards and justification of science. What
the sculpture of Phidias, the painting of Raphael, the music of

140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Beethoven, the language of the Bible, are to the finer departments of
the mind such also and quite as wholesome in their influence on pri-
vate life and public conduct are those studies of the atoms, the uni-
verse, and the march of life, which form science.

An investment in science is as sure as a United States bond. All
history, and especially the history of our own time, proves it. Ifa
man of millions coming up to the time when he should put his house
in order for his departure is so clannish as to wish to give all to his
heirs, caring nothing for any other living beings in this world and
not even regarding a monument to himself, he would accomplish his
purpose more completely by investing 5 per cent of his fortune to
promote scientific research. For his descendants will suffer cancers
and will desire luxuries like other men. The only way that those
pangs may be avoided and those desires gratified is by the making
and utilization of scientific discoveries. If means are provided, such
discoveries will be made and applied. The past proves it. No gift
of prophecy is needed to know that the future progress of knowledge
will benefit both rich and poor.

Science should be supported, but by whom, and to whom should
the wealth flow to promote it? President Harding’s message shows
that for the present Federal support is scanty, and for the future un-
certain. The State governments differ in their liberality, but on the
whole, like the Nation, so the States. There are the universities and
schools of higher learning whose scientific output is inspiring. But
listen to the general cry from them! Enormous enrollment, pinching
salaries, time and energy consumed in teaching. They can do little
more without endowments specifically given them for research pur-
poses. They can not devote more of their present means to scientific
experiments, though they might employ additional sums highly
creditably if such were intrusted to them. Then there are the great
manufacturing corporations. All the more enlightened of them main-
tain now scientific laboratories, but primarily they are carried on for
utilitarian ends closely associated with the problems of manufacture,
and the results are apt to be withheld in part from public knowledge.
One is not aware that a single one of these organizations promotes,
for example, the progress of mathematics, although all of them make
use of it as a tool, and without the progress of mathematics beyond
its present attainments the more profound engineering problems of
the future will lack means of solution.

In short, research with the universities, colleges, and corporations
is a secondary by-product, associated in the former with teaching,
in the latter with manufacturing. The professors may have the
spirit inclined to seek knowledge wherever it leads, but they lack the
opportunity. The corporation employees drive knowledge where

WHO WILL PROMOTE SCIENCE?—ABBOT. 141

wealth is to be gained. These agencies are not enough. There needs
to be the broad research organizations founded to survey the field
of knowledge, direct researches so as to fill its gaps and extend its
borders without prejudice in favor of immediate wealth-producing
utilities. They must also publish and diffuse accurate and inspiring
knowledge among the people and find out and give opportunities for
work to the exceptional men and women—the Faradays and the
Curies of the future.

There are already several such establishments well organized,
ably directed, and enjoying the advice and counsel of the most well-
informed and far-sighted of our men of science and philanthropy.
Men of wealth have founded them as memorials in most cases, giv-
ing their own names, very naturally, to secure perpetual remem-
brance. The time will come when it would be foolish and hurtful
to add to the number of such institutions, but not soon when it will
cease to be needful to add to their financial resources.

There should be no hesitation on account of a name. Some of
these institutions, notably the oldest, the Smithsonian, have carried
their names so long that they are now no longer primarily associated
with the founders, but rather with the noble work which the institu-
tions have done, so that they have become household and national
rather than family names. A modern giver to such an old institution
may, however, well require that his own name should be attached to
that part of the foundation which he donates, and thus he may pro-
vide himself with a worthy memorial.

But let him think seriously in doing so before tying up his gift
with restrictions as to the character of the expenditures to be pro-
moted thereby. The giver is but one man, and however wide his
knowledge that of the institution is wider, more comprehensive, and
discerning. 'Times change; research is alive and growing. Let there
be trust in the wisest use of the funds by the enlightened executive of
the institution rather than a restriction of scope. Otherwise the in-
stitution is apt to be loaded with a series of white elephants and op-
pressed to stagnation by the management of them, whereas if the
gifts were free from oppressive conditions the right things could be
done to promote useful knowledge.

Colleges have loyal alumni, some of great wealth competent to en-
dow large foundations bearing their names. But the alumni as a
body, without hope of individual perpetual remembrance give great
sums to rescue the college in its times of need. Research institutions
lack these loyal constituencies. How can they, then, with dignity
lay bare their poverty or hope for adequate relief? Can their officers,
so imbued with veneration and loyalty that they serve a lifetime for
a pittance, eked out by literary or teaching work in recreation hours,

142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

confide their own straits, the paucity of research funds, the starva-
tion wages of the employees, and, as it might seem, ask alms of the
general world?

Really, the world owes research men a living. But the plain fact
is that they not only furnish the brains and the labor but a large
part of the money for the investigations which result in the utilities
that all enjoy. One could name leaders in all branches of knowledge
who piece out the living expenses of their families by pitiful out-
side jobs in order to be able to carry on their God-given tasks, when
they might use their exceptional ability and knowledge like others
to obtain princely incomes in the commercial world.

If any of our research institutions deserves public benefactions,
most of all it is the national Smithsonian Institution. Founded by
an Englishman, James Smithson, “ for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men,” it has been the parent of the Weather Bu-
reau, the Fish Commission, the National Museum, the Bureau of
American Ethnology, the Geological Survey, the National Zoo-
logical Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the Bureau of Interna-
tional Exchanges (of scientific intelligence), and the National Gal-
lery of Art; has contributed largely to the Library of Congress; and
has had a part in many other valuable enterprises. In its reports
and technical papers the inquirer may find in accurate form, some-
times popularly, sometimes technically expressed, the whole progress
of human knowledge. Not only that, but in a daily correspondence
which taxes its small force of experts and clerks, it has answered
millions of inquiries for useful or technical information. Though
some of the bureaus just named have split away from the parent or-
ganization, the Institution is still charged by Congress with the care
of eight of them. These administrative duties employ much time of
the staff and in some measure prevent the promotion of projects for
the advancement of science.

But, really, the Smithsonian Institution can not take a leading
place in scientific research any longer because of its poverty. The
present income from the endowment is only about $70,000 per annum.
The Carnegie Institution and the Rockefeller Foundation each have
more income than this every fortnight, and several other research
institutions are almost in their class. Salaries at the Smithsonian
Institution are on the scale of the year 1880. Young investigators
of promise can not be secured to supplement and succeed those grown
gray in service. No large projects can be undertaken. Even publi-
cation is restricted.

Surely if this were known generally a feeling of national pride
would refuse to permit this great Institution associated with the re-
searches of its famous secretaries, Joseph Henry, Spencer F. Baird,
Samuel P. Langley, and Charles D. Walcott, to continue to languish.

WHO WILL PROMOTE SCIENCE?—ABBOT. 143

Research has enhanced the Nation’s strength and glory. Let it be
fostered as it deserves. People of great wealth may do this in a
large way without strain, and yet provide liberally for their heirs.
Or great numbers of people of moderate means may share the enter-
prise, in full confidence that the outcome will help the world of the
future to a richer life.

What would the Smithsonian Institution do if it had a large
endowment ?

1. Draw to itself the wisest counselors, and fix, with their concur-
rence, on the most needful projects, not being worked by others, and
manageable with its endowment.

2. Pay sufficient salaries to its staff so that it could justly com-
mand all their time.

3. Procure young investigators of promise.

4. Broaden its output of publication.

If an illustration of what this might accomplish is demanded,
consider the record of the Carnegie Institution. Founded 20 years
ago, it set up eight principal projects, namely: The Mount Wilson
Solar Observatory; the Department of Meridian Astrometry; the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism; the Geophysical Laboratory;
the Laboratory of Experimental Evolution; the Marine Biological
Laboratory at Tortugas; the Desert Botanical Laboratory at Tucson;
the Nutrition Laboratory at Boston. In each case the director was
a man with a passionate zeal for his job, and a sound program for
its accomplishment. Subordinates hardly less zealous and competent
were employed. The results have been so rich that if the accom-
plishments and the very remembrance of the work of these eight
Carnegie Institution departments were now to be blotted out, our
total knowledge of astronomy would be cut in half, the magnetic
charts of the sea would be unfit for navigation, the United States
Army and Navy would have wanted unobtainable essentials in the
World War, sociology, biology, botany, and the science of nutrition
would have lacked many of their most valuable data. Besides this
there has been in these 20 years a rich flow of publications too costly
for the private publisher to undertake, and many great pieces of
research by exceptional investigators outside the Institution have
been subsidized. Such is the record of a well-endowed research
institution. Such ought to be made possible as the record for the
next 20 years of the national Smithsonian Institution.

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~ 4

RECENT DISCOVERIES AND THEORIES RELATING TO
THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER.’

By Kart TAyLor Compton,

Professor of Physics in Princeton University.

Molecules of matter are sometimes defined as the smallest sub-
divisions which have the properties of the matter which they com-
pose. Their existence has long been accepted because of the satis-
factory explanation which they give of elastic, thermal, and other
properties of matter, particularly in the gaseous state. More re-
cently the existence of such particles in rapid random motion has
been made almost visible in that we can accurately explain, by the
bombardment of such molecules, the erratic, jerky movements made
by a small particle immersed in a gas or liquid and observed through
a microscope.

Atoms are sometimes defined as the smallest particles which take
part in chemical reactions, and a chemical reaction is simply a
change from one to another kind of grouping made by atoms of the
same or of different kinds. Any characteristic grouping of atoms
constitutes a molecule. The existence of atoms was first suggested
to explain the fact of chemical combination of substances in definite
proportions.

Within the last 25 years, and chiefly within the last 10 years,
definite proof of the existence of atoms and molecules has been found
and methods have been developed to count and weigh them indi-
vidually, with very significant results. More important still, it has
been shown that all atoms are themselves built out of still smaller
and more fundamental units of matter, electrically charged, called
positive electrons and negative electrons. There is very decisive
evidence of the existence of these two fundamental types of matter
and of the number of each type in any given kind of atom. To this
extent the “electron theory of matter” is no longer to be considered

1 Reprinted by permission from Princeton Lectures, No. 10, Princeton University, Prince

ton, N. J., June, 1922,
145

146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

as a theory but as a fact. But when we attempt to explain all the
physical and chemical properties of matter as due to these electrons
and the electromagnetic forces between them we encounter some sur-
prising and unexpected facts regarding the behavior of electrons
when influenced by other electrons or by radiation, so that this is
still a field of hypothesis and experimentation.

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ELECTRONS.

Properties of the negative electron—When an electric discharge
at several thousand volts is passed between two metallic electrodes
sealed into a glass vessel from which most of the air or other gas
has been pumped, the remaining gas and the walls of the glass vessel
become luminous. This luminosity is of different sorts in different
parts of the vessel and can easily be shown to be due to two different
agents. One of these consists of something shooting out from the
cathode, or negative electrode, and producing luminosity in every-
thing in its path. The other consists of something shooting out from
the anode and moving toward the cathode, also producing luminosity
of gas molecules or other objects in its path, but luminosity of a
different color from that produced by the stream from the cathode.

The so-called cathode rays are found to consist of a stream of
negatively charged particles, as is proved by the fact that their
paths are bent if placed in an electric or magnetic field, or by the
fact that if they are caught in a metallic cup, this cup receives a
charge of negative electricity. From the amount of bending in elec-
tric and magnetic fields of known strength, which may be seen by
the luminous trace of the path of the stream along a properly placed
fluorescent plate, it is possible to calculate the speed of the particles
and the ratio of their charge to their mass, denoted by e/m. The
speed of the particles depends upon the voltage applied to the dis-
charge tube, but the value of e/m does not depend on the voltage
or the kind of gas in the vessel or the material of the electrodes.
It is a definite constant about 1,846 times larger than the ratio of
the charge to the mass of hydrogen ions liberated by electrolysis.
Thus, if the charge on one of these particles is equal to the charge
on a hydrogen ion (as we shall see is the case), then these particles
must be 1,846 times lighter than hydrogen atoms. These particles,
which constitute the cathode rays, are the negative electrons. They
may be driven out of metals by raising the temperature or by ex-
posing to ultra-violet light or X rays, or by intense bombardment,
or by chemical actions, etc. Their properties, as regards mass and
charge, are the same however they are liberated and they must be
considered as one of the fundamental units of which matter is com-
posed.

STRUCTURE OF MATTER—COMPTON. 147

The anode rays are also deflected by magnetic and electric fields in
a direction showing that they are positively charged particles and by
an amount showing that the ratio of their charge to mass is char-
acteristic of atoms or molecules of the gas in the tube. In other
words, they are the residues of the gas atoms or molecules which
remain after electrons have been driven out. Knowing their charges,
the bending of their paths in magnetic and electric fields enables
their masses to be determined. It is in this manner that atoms and
molecules have been individually weighed with high precision.

In order to find the mass m from the above values of e/m, it is
necessary to know the charge e of a negative electron. This has been
measured with the greatest accuracy by Professor Millikan about
eight years ago. The most sensitive instrument for measurement of
electric charges is the electroscope, which consists, essentially, of a
strip of gold leaf suspended between two oppositely charged metal
plates. When the gold leaf is charged it is attracted by one plate
and repelled by the other, and the size of its charge may be measured
by observing the distance which it moves from its uncharged position.
But this instrument is not sensitive enough to measure the charge
of an electron. Professor Millikan substituted for the gold leaf a
tiny droplet of oil from the spray of an atomizer. Because of its
weight it tended to fall through the air slowly, because of its small
size and the viscous resistance offered by the air; but if this droplet
were electrically charged, it could be drawn upward, in opposition to
gravity, by an electric field between the two horizontal metal plates
between which the droplet moved. By observing through a telescope
the rate at which the drop fell in the absence of an electric field and
the rate at which it rose in the field, data were obtained permitting
a calculation of the amount of electric charge on the drop. It was
found that all charges were simple multiples of a fundamental unit
charge, which is the charge of an electron. Thus the negative elec-
tron is not only a fundamental unit of matter but also a fundamental
unit of electricity.

By such experiments it is found that the mass of a negative elec-
tron is 8.97(10)-** grams and its charge is 4.774(10)-*° electrostatic
units. The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.65(10)-** grams.

Positive electrons—When the positively charged residue of an
atom, the part left after the loss of an electron, is weighed by meas-
uring the bending of its path in an electric and magnetic field, two
very significant results are obtained. In the first place, the weight
of every atom, except hydrogen, is an exact integral multiple of the
weight of a fundamental unit. This unit is one-fourth the weight
of a helium atom, or one-twelfth that of a carbon atom, or one-
sixteenth that of an oxygen atom, etc. The unit has almost the
weight of a hydrogen atom, but is less by 0.77%. ‘This discrep-

148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ancy is accounted for by the fact, discussed later, that when elec-
trically charged particles are grouped together their combined mass
differs slightly from the sum of their separate masses. We may con-
clude, therefore, that all atoms are built up of hydrogen atoms. We
shall see later that the hydrogen atom itself consists of one negative
electron and the part that remains, which is called the positive elec-
tron. The positive electron carries an electric charge equal to that of
a negative electron, but of opposite sign, and is 1,846 times heavier.
Thus we go a step further and conclude that all atoms are built up
of positive and negative electrons.

Why was not this simple integral relationship between atomic
weights discovered long ago, since chemists have accurately known
atomic weights for many years? Simply because chemical methods
of determining atomic weights measure only the average weight of a
great number of atoms, but the method described above measures the
weights of individual atoms. In the case of the element chlorine, for
instance, the chemical determinations give the weight equal to 35.46
times our unit, but the deflection method shows that there are three
different kinds of chlorine atoms, of weights exactly 35, 37, and 39,
which are chemically inseparable and which are present in such rela-
tive proportions as to make the average atomic weight 35.46. These
different kinds of chemically similar atoms, with different masses, are
called isotopes. It has been found that isotopes exist in a large
number of the chemical elements, but that the weight of every indi-
vidual atom or isotope is an exact multiple of that of the funda-
mental unit.

If positive electrons, or the massive part of hydrogen atoms, are
parts of the structure of all atoms, we might expect to be able to
break up heavier atoms into hydrogen. This has actually been done
by Professor Rutherford in the case of nitrogen, aluminium, and a
number of other elements.

HOW ELECTRONS ARE ARRANGED IN ATOMS.

Thus we have both direct and indirect evidence that atoms are
structures built out of positive and negative electrons. The next
question is, “ How are these electrons arranged in the various atoms? ”
A good deal is known about this arrangement, as I shall proceed to
indicate, but there is much more which is still unknown.

The nuclear structure of atoms.—Radium and the other radio-
active elements owe their unusual properties to the fact that they
emit positively and negatively charged particles, called a and @
particles, respectively, with tremendous velocities. By the bending
of their paths in electric and magnetic fields, or by other methods, it
is found that the @ particles are negative electrons which have veloci-
ties as large as 97 per cent of the velocity of light, or about 180,000

STRUCTURE OF MATTER—COMPTON. 149

miles per second. Similarly, the « particles are atoms of helium
which have lost two negative electrons and which consist, therefore,
of four positive and two negative electrons, forming a very com-
pact and stable group. These have velocities as large as about
one-tenth that of light. The 8 particles set up oscillations of nega-
tive electrons in neighboring atoms which they strike, and these oscil-
lations produce radiation called y radiation or wave motion in the
ether. The atoms of radium do not “explode” in this manner fre-
quently. In fact, the occurrence is so rare that the chances are even
that any given atom will or will not explode within a time of 2,000
years. When it does explode there remains not an atom of radium
(atomic weight 226), but an atom of radium emanation (atomic
weight 222) and an « particle (helium, atomic weight 4).

In spite of their smaller velocity, the « particles possess much
greater kinetic energy than do the @ particles, being nearly 7,400
times heavier. It was by means of bombardment of nitrogen and
other atoms by these « particles that Professor Rutherford has
effected their atomic disintegration, yielding hydrogen as a product.

When the « particles shoot out through a gas, such as air, their
paths may be seen and photographed, provided the air is saturated
with water vapor and suddenly cooled by expansion. The air mole-
cules in the path of the « particles have negative electrons forced
out of them by the action of the positively charged « particle as it
comes very close. These positively and negatively charged residues
of the air molecules serve as nuclei for the condensation of water
vapor. Thus the path of the a particle is visible as a thin line of
water droplets. In air at atmospheric pressure these paths may be
as long as 11 centimeters.

Now, the diameters of air molecules are known to be about 3(10)-°
em., and there are about 2.7(10)?® of them in each cubic centimeter.
An a particle, in traversing 11 cm. of air, would pass through about
200,000 molecules. Yet many «@ particles go this entire distance
without changing the direction of their motion, and most of them
go at least several centimeters without swerving from their course.
This can only mean that an « particle may pass right through thou-
sands of atoms without colliding with that part of an atom in which
practically all of its mass is situated. We must, therefore, think of
all of the positive electrons (and possibly some of the negative elec-
trons) of an atom as grouped within a region which is excessively
small as compared with the size of the atom. Around this compact
group, or “nucleus,” the remaining negative electrons are situated
at relatively large distances—distances comparable with the atomic
radius.

With all the heavy positive electrons and only some of the nega-
tive electrons constituting this nucleus, it is evidently positively

553879 —24——11

150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

charged. An «@ particle is also positively charged, with a known
charge. Professor Rutherford suggested that a collision between
them, indicated by a sharp bend in the path of the « particle as it
passes through the air, may be due simply to the effect of the repul-
sive force between these two charges when they come very near to-
gether. Darwin calculated, on this hypothesis, the fraction of all
the observed deflections of « particles, shooting through air or any
other substance, which should be within any specified angular limits.
When this calculation was compared with the experimental measure-
ments of deflections through various angles, it was found that there
was exact agreement only provided the force between the « particle
and the nucleus is taken to vary inversely as the square of the dis-
tance between them, and provided the charge of the nucleus of the
atom is taken equal (in electronic units) to its atomic number. The
atomic number of an element is its order in the periodic table, i. e.,
1 for hydrogen, 2 for helium, 3 for lithium, etc.,

This conclusion was verified by an entirely independent method.
When a beam of X rays passes through substances, some of its
energy is abstracted and sent out in all directions. The amount,
character, and distribution of this scattered radiation have been ex-
actly accounted for by ascribing the scattering to the action of the
electrons outside the nuclei of the atoms. These electrons are ac-
celerated by the electric forces in the X-ray beam, and, as a result
of their acceleration, give rise to the scattered radiation. Sir J. J.
Thomson calculated the proportion of the energy of an X-ray beam
scattered by each negative electron in its path. Dividing the ob-
served amount of scattering by this gives the number of negative
electrons taking part in the scattering. Dividing this by the number
of atoms gives the number of scattering electrons per atom, which
is found equal to its atomic number. But the number of scattering
electrons (electrons outside the nucleus) must obviously equal the
positive charge of the nucleus, in electronic units, thus verifying the
previous conclusions regarding the nuclear charges of atoms.

Finally, a relation between the atomic number of an element and
the vibration frequency of the radiation constituting its X-ray spec-
trum was discovered by Moseley. It can be expressed rather accu-
rately by saying that the square root of the frequency of any par-
ticular type of X-radiation is directly proportional to the atomic
number of the radiating element. This has been satisfactorily ac-
counted for only by supposing that the atomic number of an element
is equal to the electronic charge on its nucleus, i. e., to the excess of
positive over negative electrons in its nucleus.

Atomic constituents—The foregoing evidence, and much addi-
tional evidence, leads to the conclusion that the various chemical
elements have atoms constituted as shown in the following table,

STRUCTURE OF MATTER—COMPTON. 151

which contains only a few examples. Those elements bracketed to-
gether are isotopes.

. . + Elec- — Elec- |—Electrons

Element. ee po tronsin | tronsin | outside

: 60U. | nucleus. | nucleus. | nucleus.
PP ROO te jac cise bya as ata days omnis eee cies. say 1 1.007 nT 0 1
Be Vc 7 Be Eos AE ee ee 2 4 4 | Z 2
F 6 6 3 3
LEE i Si eme bpp iimey a ee Ae tae ets 3 | 7 7 4 3
10 10 5 5
ISOLDE sean shee pelne aiaete bite des eee 5 { 1 1 6 5
Carbine. decr$ like eckceessc rest t << 6 12 12 6 6
PN TEPOPOI te, tea cece earn Wa Perlas ts Scipcnnseane 7 14.01 14 | i 7
RAV PR ie cea case aceeat ee aeie science seus 8 16 16 8 8
20 20 10 10
NOOB syeheciasesdostcfineeed. Ao byte 10 21 21 ll 10
22 22 12 10
197 197 117 80
198 198 118 80
199 199 119 80
WMeredty 282 doc. Seco ees cae see esiecsacese 80 200 200 120 80
202 202 122 80
204 204 124 80

Thus far we may go with considerable certainty in our picture of
atomic structure. When we endeavor to learn how these electrons
are arranged, both within and without the nucleus, we must base
our conclusions on such evidence as we can get from the nature of
the chemical (electromagnetic) forces between atoms, from the
ways in which the atoms may be broken up or their parts set into
vibration, producing light or other radiation, from their behavior
in electric and magnetic fields, etc. To understand the structure
fully, we should know all about the forces which hold the parts to-
gether. In this direction some progress has been made but certain
phases of the problem are very perplexing.

ELECTRONS AND RADIATION.

Quantum theory.—Electromagnetic theory leads to the conclusion
that radiation is produced when an electric charge is accelerated, and
this conclusion has been amply verified. Yet it appears that, under
some conditions, electrons are accelerated without producing radia-
tion. Ordinary dynamical theory leads us to expect that a negative
electron, rotating or oscillating about a center of force, might rotate
in an orbit of any radius or oscillate with any amplitude under ap-
propriate conditions. Yet it appears that only certain particular
stable motions are possible, those which satisfy the condition
S p dqg=hs, where p is the momentum of the electron, g is its distance
from some reference point in its path, s is any integer such as
1, 2, 8, etc., and A is a universal constant, known as Planck’s con-
stant. We naturally think of radiant energy as being emitted con-

152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN {NSTITUTION, 1922,

tinuously from its source and being absorbed continuously by mate-
rial in its path, these emitting and absorbing agents being known to
be electrons. Yet there is evidence that radiant energy is absorbed
or emitted as if in discrete units equal to hn, where n is the fre-
quency of vibration of the radiation.

Such considerations have given rise to the guantum theory, which
has been remarkably successful as a statement of the conditions
under which an electron will or will not radiate and of the condi-
tions under which it may be in equilibrium in an atom. Little
progress has, however, been made in explaining the quantum laws,
and, until this is done, it will probably be impossible fully to under-
stand the forces which hold the parts of atoms together.

Spectral series.—In the apparently complicated spectra of chemi-
cal elements, some of which contain hundreds of bright lines in the
visible spectrum alone, there have been discovered remarkable rela-
tionships between the frequencies of vibration of the different spec-
tral lines of an element and between corresponding lines of different
elements. These relationships may be expressed by series formulae,
of which the following formula for the vibration frequencies of the
various kinds of light, or spectral lines, due to hydrogen atoms is

an example:
Lival
n= Ns oe 33)

Here » is the number of vibrations per section, V is a universal con-
stant 3.29025(10)'® and v and m are integers which may have any
value between 1 and infinity. Thus, if 7 = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4,....,
each value of m gives a frequency corresponding to a spectral line in
the extreme ultraviolet. These lines constitute a spectral series.
Similarly if 7 = 2 and m = 3, 4, 5, ete., we get a series of lines in the
visible and near ultraviolet spectrum. If 7 = 8 and m = 4, 5, 6, ete.,
we get a series of lines in the infra red. The frequencies of these
lines agree with the measured frequencies with an accuracy of about
one part in a hundred thousand. |

For elements other than hydrogen, there are added to r and m
certain constants characteristic of the element, but 7 and m still take
various integral values.

A study of the absorption or refraction of light by a medium leads
to the possibility of calculating the number of atoms in the absorb-
ing substance which are, at any given instant, capable of emitting
light of any given frequency. By such methods we learn that only
a small fraction of the atoms are, at any instant, taking part in the
emission of light and that the atoms emitting one line in the spec-
trum are different from those emitting any other line. Thus an atom,
when it emits radiation, emits only one frequency of radiation at a
time.

STRUCTURE OF MATTER-——COMPTON. 1538

Zeeman effect.—Mention only can be made of the discovery by
Zeeman in 1896 that, when a source of light is placed in a strong
magnetic field, its spectral lines are split up into several components.
The nature of this effect leads to the conclusion that light is emitted
by negative electrons which, during emission, are moving in orbits
which are usually circular, but sometimes elliptical. As a matter of
fact it was the study of the Zeeman effect which first led to the dis-
covery of the negative electron and to a determination of the ratio of
its charge to its mass.

Radiation and atomic structure.—A constant correlation of the
facts of radiation is obtained by supposing that there are only cer-
tain definite conditions in which a negative electron may exist in
stable equilibrium in. an atom, each of these conditions being charac-
terized by a certain total energy (kinetic plus potential). In the
case of hydrogen, for example, the energies of all these states are
given by —Vh/s?, where s may have any integral value and each such
value specifies the energy of an electron in a particular state. When,
for any reason, an electron passes from any state of energy Wm to a
state of less energy W,, the difference between the energies is sent out
as radiant energy. Thus the energy radiated is Wn—W,=Nh

~— AD, Combining this with the quantum law in form W,, — W,=hn,
Haat Un ‘4

we have, for the frequency of the resulting radiation, n= Ns -i.)
which is the ordinary series formula for hydrogen. Similarly, for
any element, we interpret the series formula, for any two integral
values of r and m, as proportional to the difference between the en-
ergies of an electron in the two corresponding states, and take h to
be the constant of proportionality. An electron may pass from any
state to any other state. If the integer characterizing the second
state is less than that characterizing the first, energy is radiated. If
the second integer is greater than the first, energy is absorbed by the
electron, from whatever agency produces the displacement.

This, in very bald outline, is the theory of spectral radiation and of
those features of atomic structure which determine the nature of its
radiation. When we attempt to account for or describe these partic-
ular stable states (which really involves accounting for the quantum
laws) by any dynamical model of an atom, our steps become more
uncertain, although some notable advances have been made.

ATOMIC MODELS.

The Bohr theory.—Bohr, followed by Sommerfeld and Silber-
stein, has formed atomic models which have been remarkably suc-
cessful in accounting for the phenomena of radiation and ionization
(or breaking up) of systems consisting of a positive nucleus and a
single outer negative electron, but which have not been developed

154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

successfully to account for these phenomena in more complicated sys-
tems, nor for the magnetic properties of atoms.

For the simplest case, a relatively heavy nucleus of positive charge
# and a negative electron of charge e and mass m rotating n’ times
per second about the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius a, we have
equilibrium if the electric attraction is just balanced by the centrif-
ugal force, or

oF = (2an’)’ a
The total energy, kinetic plus potential, is easily shown to be
A ila 9
W b

By the quantum law fp dq = hs it is found that the only possible
values of W are those for which W = — 14 8 hn’, where s is any
integer. By solving these three equations simultaneously we find the
various possible energies and radii of the atom to be given by sub-
stituting the various integral values of s in the equations

2rmeh? ss sth?

oh? 9 4*meE

Since the difference of energy in any two states equals An, the vari-
ous possible radiation frequencies are given by n = (W»—W,) /h, or

Q2a’me? H?/1 1 )
?

id

ame ra
where 7 and m are any two integral values of s. £# is simply the
atomic number of the element times the electronic charge e.

These three equations are in exact accord with all experimental
evidence available. The spectral tests of the latter equation are par-
ticularly severe and convincing, since substitution of the known
values of the constants makes the term outside the parenthesis exactly
equal to the observed Rydberg constant VV, so that the equation is
identical with the spectral series formula.

This theory has been extended to take account of the small motion
of the nucleus as the electron revolves, of possible elliptic as well as
circular orbits, of the variation of the mass of an electron with its
speed and of the effect of placing the atom in a strong electric field.
In every case the theory leads to results in ewact accord with the
facts. When dealing with systems with several negative electrons
outside the nucleus, the problem of the way in which they and their
orbits are distributed in space must be considered. Models with
coplanar, parallel and crossed orbits have been considered, with the
latter giving, on the whole, the best results. But the computations
are very complicated, and but little progress has been made with
such systems or with molecules.

STRUCTURE OF MATTER—COMPTON. 155

The Lewis-Langmuir theory.—In marked contrast with the pre-
ceding dynamical model of an atom, Professor Lewis and Doctor
Langmuir have developed a static theory of atomic structure to ac-
count, primarily, for the chemical valencies of atoms and the periodic
recurrence of their properties when they are arranged in the order
of their atomic numbers. In this theory the electrons outside the
nucleus are arranged as symmetrically as possible in positions on the
surfaces of imaginary concentric “ shells.” The maximum possible
numbers of electrons in these are 2 in the inmost shell, 8 in the next,
8 in the next, 18 in the next, 18 in the next, etc. No shell can contain
any electrons unless all the shells inside it contain their full quota of
electrons. The number of electrons to be thus distributed in the case
of any given atom is equal to the atomic number of the atom. Chem-
ical combinations of atoms are supposed to be due to the “ sharing ”
of electrons in common by different atoms in such a way as to give
the outer shells of all the atoms as nearly as possible their full quota
of electrons. This theory of chemical combination, which we have,
of necessity, treated very inadequately, is in more complete accord
with the facts of combination than any other yet proposed.

Discussion.—The chief weaknesses of the Bohr theory are its fail-
ure to account easily for certain chemical properties and the uncer-
tainties regarding its proper method of application to any but the
simplest atoms. The weakness of the Lewis-Langmuir theory, on the
other hand, lies in its qualitative rather than quantitative nature
and its disregard of all questions of structural stability, radiation,
and phenomena due to any part of the atom except the electrons in
the outer shell. Yet the striking successes of both theories in par-
ticular fields suggest that both contain elements of truth. The pres-
ent endeavor is, therefore, to reconcile the two viewpoints, and some
progress in this line has been achieved.

MATTER, ELECTRICITY, AND ENERGY.

Whenever an electrically charged body is set in motion a magnetic
field is set up in the region surrounding the body. But a magnetic
field can not be produced without expending energy, and it is possible
to calculate how much work must be done to set up any given mag-
netic field. Obviously, therefore, more work must be done to impart
a given speed to a body when charged than if it were uncharged.
In other words, the presence of the charge increases the inertia, or
mass, of the body. The question immediately suggests itself, there-
fore, “Is ali mass due simply to the electric charges of the positive
and negative electrons of which matter is composed?” Certain ex-
periments on the variation of the mass of a negative electron with
its speed, at speeds approaching the velocity of light, indicate that
the mass of a negative electron is entirely due to its charge, so that

156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

it has no material mass as distinguished from electromagnetic mass.
Therefore we consider a negative electron to be not a particle of
matter bearing an electric charge, but simply a particle or unit of
negative electricity.

It has not been possible to make similar experiments with positive
electrons, but all we know about them points toward the conclusion
that they also are simply units of positive electricity. It is believed,
therefore, that matter, in its ordinary sense, is simply an aggregate
of positive and negative electric charges.

Furthermore, the electromagnetic mass of any electric charge can
be shown to be always proportional to the energy of the electric
field to which it gives rise. It is unnecessary, therefore, to distin-
guish between mass and energy. Whenever the total electrical
energy of a group of electrons changes by a change of their relative
positions the mass of the group also changes in a definite proportion.
Theoretically, therefore, all chemical combinations should result in
a change of total mass. But the energy changes in chemical reac-
tions correspond to mass changes which are too small for detection
by the most sensitive instruments. In cases of atomic disintegra-
tion, such as in radioactivity, however, the energy changes are very
large in comparison with the energy changes in chemical reaction,
and suggest the possibility of detecting the corresponding mass
changes. Sir Oliver Lodge has stated, as an example of radioactive
energy, that if the total energy liberated during the disintegration
of 1 gram of radium could be utilized for the purpose, it would suf-
fice to lift the entire British Navy several thousand feet. These
energy changes are large enough to suggest the possibility of show-
ing that the mass of radium is greater than the total mass of the
elements into which it splits up. Such measurements have not as yet
been made, since radium splits up so slowly. We therefore combine
two fundamental laws—the principle of the conservation of mass and
the principle of the conservation of energy—into a single principle,
that of the conservation of energy.

In this connection attention should be called to the probable reason
for the slight excess in the atomic weight of hydrogen over that of
the least common multiple of the other atoms. In the heavier atoms
positive and negative electrons are packed together in the nucleus,
so that their electric fields partially neutralize each other, thus dimin-
ishing the total energy and hence the total mass. If we suppose the
universe to have been originally formed by the grouping together of
positive and negative electrons, the energy liberated as they com-
bine to diminish the total mass in the observed ratio 0.77% is suffi-
cient to have accounted for the heat of the sun and stars for about
a million million million years—an ample period to satisfy the most
exacting geological and evolutionary theories.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF ATOMS AND A UNIVERSE
BUILT OF ATOMS.

By C. G. ABBor.

In a lecture given by Dr. H. N. Russell at the Carnegie Institu-
tion in December, 1922, he concluded with this remarkable state-
ment:

If a first-rate physicist, well versed in all the knowledge acquired in the
laboratory during the last quarter century on the structure and properties of
the atom, should have lived his life on a planet so enshrouded by clouds that
neither he nor others had ever glimpsed the starry heavens, yet if he had the
imagination to conceive that immense quantities of matter might lie beyond
the clouds, he would be able to picture the heavens much as they are, tell
the probable maximum masses of the stars, their minimum distances, the
range of their diameters and temperatures, the differences of their spectra,
and in short to duplicate by prediction, not only in general features but in
many of the finest details, the actual appearance of the universe forever hidden
from him.

Let us run over some parts of the course which his mind might
follow in this extraordinary prediction. First, what is an atom
and how is it related to light?

The atoms of all substances are built of what we might call the
same kinds of bricks. There are two kinds in every atom, one kind
called protons, which are positive electrical charges, and the other
called electrons, which are negative electrical charges. Of these, all
of the protons are clustered at the center or nucleus of the atom,
but some of the electrons lie in outside orbits, or if not properly
orbits then vibrating semistable configurations of definite radii as
measured from the nucleus. It is not difficult to detach electrons
from the atoms of many kinds of chemical elements. This can be
done by heating, by electrical means, and by bombardment of radium
or X rays. Sometimes the electrons pass in this manner only from
one orbit or position of configuration to the next, but sometimes they
are driven quite out of the sphere of influence of their atom, become
temporarily free electrons, and are captured by some other atom
after wandering free for a brief time. In these separations and ap-
proaches of electrons from orbit to orbit reside the absorption and

157

158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

production of light rays and of all such rays, including the infra-red,
the visible, the ultra-violet, and the X rays.

The diameter of an atom—that is to say, the diameter of the sphere
within which all the protons and electrons of a single atom find them-
selves—does not exceed one ten-millionth part of the diameter of an
ordinary bird shot. Hence a single atom is quite too small to see
even with a microscope. Moreover, an atom, as we have remarked, is
not solid, but itself composed of a number of particles—the protons
and electrons—well separated. Indeed, these constituents of the
atom are excessively small compared to what we have just described
as the diameter of an atom. A single electron is only one fifty-
thousandth part of the diameter of an atom. Comparing this to one
of the planets, the diameter of Mars bears roughly the same ratio to
the diameter of its orbit that holds between an electron and an atom.
Similarly the nucleus of a heavy atom, like that of lead, containing
many protons and electrons, bears somewhat the same proportion to
the whole atomic volume that our sun, 865,000 miles in diameter, bears
to a sphere just inclosing the orbit of the planet Jupiter. From these
figures we see that the inclosure we call an atom is almost wholly
given up to free space. The occupied parts form hardly any greater
volume, proportionally, than the sun and planets do to the solar
system.

Matter exists in the three states—solid, liquid, and gaseous. The
two former have densities that are nearly equal. For instance, water
is of about twice the density of ice. But gases are of all densities,
from that of their liquids to as little as one pleases, depending on
the pressure one applies to keep them so. What, then, are the dis-
tances apart of the several atoms of a solid? This is known for
many crystals by experiments with X rays. In common salt, for
example, the distances are of only two or three times the magnitude
as given above for the diameter of an atom. Such, then, are the
distances between the nuclei of the atoms for solids and liquids, and
from this up to anything greater for gases, depending on the pres-
sure. In solids, and to a less extent in liquids, the atoms are so far
restricted by their mutual proximity and interacting forces of attrac-
tion and repulsion that there is no wandering, or but little, of the
atoms through the mass, so long as new forces are not introduced.
Individual electrons, freed from atoms temporarily, may easily travel
along under the urging of electric field, difference of temperature, or
bombardment by radium or X rays. In gases, however, especially
very rare gases, as in a vacuum, the whole atoms, or the combinations
of atoms called molecules, fly about over relatively long paths before
hitting each other, and so are continually remixing within the
gaseous volume.

ARCHITECTURE OF ATOMS—ABBOT. 159

The forces which define atomic positions, orbits, or spheres of in-
fluence, are electrical attraction and repulsion, and electromagnetic
effects of electric charges in motion. A neutral atom, which has
neither furnished free electrons nor captured any, has a definite
number of orbital electrons, each with its unit electrical negative
charge, and in the nucleus an excess of protons over bound electrons
sufficient to make up for the nucleus the same electrical charge as
carried by orbital electrons, but positive. Although the electrical
charges of electrons and protons are equal and opposite, the masses
of the two primitives are greatly unequal. An electron has only
about one two-thousandth part the mass of a proton. Yet the pro-
tons are not on that account larger than the electrons in dimensions,
only exceedingly more massive. _

All the usual physical and chemical properties are definitely fixed
when the excess positive charge of the nucleus is given. The excess
of positive charge on the nucleus may be gotten in two ways, either
by adding protons or subtracting electrons from it. To subtract
electrons scarcely alters appreciably the weight of the atom (atomic
weight). But to change the number of protons does essentially alter
the atomic weight. Hence it is that two dissimilar chemicals may
have about equal atomic weights, for example, bismuth and thorium-
lead each 208; while thorium-lead and uranium-lead, for example,
which are both quite indistinguishable from each other or from
ordinary lead (207.20) have atomic weights 208 and 206, respec-
tively. Readers of the Smithsonian Report for 1919 will remember
Doctor Aston’s brilliant work along these lines, and further back
in the report for 1918 Doctor Richards’s telling work on the atomic
weight of lead.

We are apt to think of solids ordinarily as completely occupying
the spaces inclosed by their boundaries. Recent knowledge shows
how radically this notion must be changed. For the protons and
electrons, which alone can be regarded as really occupying space,
are certainly more like the motes which dance in the sunbeam in a
room full of air, than like a structure completely occupying the same
volume. This shows us how it is possible for metallic wires to con-
duct electricity. It is the electrons which, flying through the free
spaces within and between the atoms, are the conducting agents.
And yet an electron does not have to travel clear along the entire
length of the wire to give the impression of an electric current. For
at the positive pole free electrons will be attracted, thus making a
void of them there, and tending to neutralize the positive pole, while
at the negative pole they will be repelled, making an excess there
and tending to neutralize the negative pole. Adjacent regions of

160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

wire will supply the void and take up the excess as long as these
inequalities remain, just as air molecules rush along to equalize pres-
sure differences. So it is that as water buckets at a country fire are
passed from hand to hand, the electric current does not require to
be conveyed by original lactone all the way through the wire from
the negative pole to the positive pole.

But some one may ask: “If the solid bar I push my top window
shut with is no more than a flimsy structure of flying motes, how can
- it transmit pressure?” The forces of electrical attraction and repul-
sion retain to the bar its form, and, somewhat as a steam or air
riveting hammer can be operated by a medium made up of particles
well separated, so pressure can be transmitted by a bar made up of
protons and electrons.

Without pursuing this résumé of atomic science further at the
moment, let us turn to some aspects of the stars.

As woeetds their intrinsic brightness, the stars are now classed
as the giants and the dwarfs. Giants are stars which are many times,
even thousands of times, more luminous than the sun. Dwarfs are
stars which range from near the brightness of the sun to complete
extinction into cold nonluminosity like that of the earth. As regards
their color and the details of their spectra, 99 per cent of the stars
are assigned according to the universally accepted Harvard classi-
fication in six principal types, called by the letters B, A, F, G, K, M.
Originally all the letters of the alphabet from A to M were used,
but it was found presently that the classes assigned to other letters
were unnecessary and only those above named were retained. More-
over, in the rational order of development of spectrum characteristics,
class B appeared to precede class A, hence the irregular order as
given above is now always followed.

There is a very extraordinary march of change of density asso-
ciated with these star classes. The giant red star « Orionis (Betel-
geuse), of spectrum type M, recently measured at Mount Wilson, is
300 times the diameter of our sun and not more than a thousandth
part as dense as the air of the room. Our sun, a dwarf of type G,
is 1.4 times as dense as water. Barnard’s “runaway star,” a dwarf
of type M, is probably nearly as dense as the earth. This leads us
up to the view which astronomers now generally hold as to the evo-
lution of stars. Beginning to glow as rare gaseous giants of type
M, showing in their spectra the lines and bands of the metals and
compounds of them, they grow denser and hotter as time goes on,
apparently simplifying in spectra. First, the bands due to com-
pounds fall out, for, as we well know, high temperatures break up

ARCHITECTURE OF ATOMS—aABBOT. 161

all chemical compounds into atoms, then the metallic spectrum lines
grow faint, with hydrogen lines becoming strong, and at length in
the blue-white giant stage of Rigel and Spica, where maximum
temperature is reached, only hydrogen and helium lines remain.
This is the turning point. The star cools and grows denser as it goes
on into the dwarf stage. Metallic lines reappear, and at last the
star fades out as a dwarf of type M, now indistinguishable in spec-
trum, except for certain details visible only to experts (which, never-
theless, are highly characteristic of the altered density), from its
original type as a class M giant. This progress is summarized in the
following table:

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

162

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ARCHITECTURE OF ATOMS—ABBOT. 163

The great question which this table raises is this: If a star actually
passes through the states enumerated, why do the spectrum lines of
_ the metals disappear as the star approaches its culmination as a
blue-white giant and then reappear at a later stage as a yellowish
dwarf? Can we believe that the mere exaltation of temperature
destroys the metals, resolving them into the simpler atoms of hydro-
gen and helium? Such a view at first sight seems reasonable, in
view of the now well-known fact that some of the heavy metals—
uranium, thorium, and radium—continually break down sponta-
neously with formation of helium, and that Rutherford and Chad-
wick have indeed disintegrated the lighter elements—nitrogen, boron,
fluorine, sodium, and phosphorus—with expulsion of hydrogen.
But the proportion of the atoms affected was only trifling and the
means employed for knocking out the protons from the atomic
nuclei were the alpha rays of radium, means as powerful as would
be the maintenance of a temperature of millions of degrees, perhaps
a thousand times as powerful as the effects of the actual temperatures
at the surface of the bluestars. Accordingly, we must regretfully give
up this simple temperature explanation of the disappearance of the
metals from the spectra of the hotterstars. It demands temperatures
higher than the stars afford, for measurements already made limit
us there to surface temperatures not exceeding 20,000° C.

What appears to be the main factor in the true explanation is
simpler still in essence, though involving such intricate and obscure
properties of the structure of the atoms as not yet to be fully worked
out by physicists, at least in the cases of any but the simplest of
atoms. In short, rise of temperature, or, speaking more broadly,
increased intensity of excitation, alters the atoms by setting free
electrons in such a way that the spectrum lines given out shift over
from the visible and photographic regions of the spectrum to those
of shorter wave length beyond the violet, where the earth’s atmos-
phere is not transparent to them. Thus the metallic spectra are still
present even in the hottest stars, but are merely removed from the
familiar spectrum region, where they can be observed, to another ~
where they can not penetrate our atmosphere.*

This behavior of the spectrum lines of the elements is illustrated
by laboratory work and explained by theoretical researches of Bohr,
Saha, and others on the relations of atomic structure to spectra.
Laboratory spectra are of three principal kinds, called flame, arc,
and spark spectra, according as they are excited by sources like low
temperature flames, the higher excitation of the electric arc, or the
still more intense action of the electric spark forced by high elec-
trical potential differences and often reenforced by condenser dis-

—)

1 There is another factor which we shall touch upon later.

164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

charges. In flame spectra certain lines and bands of an element
are conspicuous, but these are comparatively few, and many others
are faint or lacking. In the arc the flame lines remain, but the
emphasis may fall on quite different individual lines. Many moro
spectrum lines make their appearance. Again, in the spark still
another rearrangement of intensities appears. Prominent flame and
arc lines grow faint and new lines are found. Thus differences in
spectra of the same chemical element which are produced experi-
mentally depend on the degree of excitation.

According to Bohr’s theory of the atom, when an orbital electron is
driven from its neutral position by the excitation of high tempera-
ture or electrical discharge, it may migrate to one or another of
certain orbits, determined by limitations, depending on Planck’s
theory of the so-called “ quantum,” that unit of energy which crops
up so widely in physics, as readers of Millikan’s article in this
report for 1918 are aware. In each of these possible orbits the elec-
tron has a definite energy. Returning to its normal place from one
of these excursions, the electron from an outer to an inner orbit
gives up the difference between the definite energies appropriate to
the two situations and thereby gives rise to radiation in a specific
spectrum line. If the electron temporarily occupies successively sev-
eral orbits during its return, several spectrum lines are formed cor-
responding in the frequency of their vibrations to the several definite
differences of energy involved. The actual spectrum at a given in-
stant is the joint result of all the electronic excursions of all the
atoms involved.

The difference between are spectra and spark spectra is explained
as follows: In are spectra the lines are supposed to be produced by
the migrations of single electrons displaced from each of the par-
taking atoms. In spark spectra two electrons may be removed, one
to a great distance. This one is that which took part in arc spec-
trum phenomena. It is assumed to be eliminated from the system.
But the second electron in falling back to its position produces a
similar series of spectrum effects, but involving different amounts of
energy, and thus different frequencies of vibration for the lines pro-
duced. These new spectrum lines are then associated with the second
displaced electron and with the twice-shorn remainder of the atomic
structure. As the new energies involved greatly exceed the old, the
frequencies of vibration are correspondingly enhanced, so that on the
whole the new lines lie toward the violet of the old, and may even lie
beyond the region of experimentation.

Complicated and hypothetical as all this may seem with so inade-
quate a presentation as the above, yet remarkable predictions have
been made thereby which were later experimentally verified with

ARCHITECTURE OF ATOMS—ABBOT. 165

most striking success. Unfortunately the mathematical analysis be-
comes hopelessly involved for elements of high atomic weight, so that
such verifications are confined so far to the simpler atoms, such as
hydrogen, helium, and some of the alkalis.

Bohr’s atomic theory received complementary contributions useful
for explaining the spectra of the stars from considerations advanced
by Saha. He points out that within the range of temperatures and
pressures: (hardly less important than temperatures) prevailing in
the gases at the surface of a given star, the different elements will be
ionized in different degrees, depending on their characteristic “ ioni-
zation potentials,” some of which have been measured in the labora-
tory. Also that the numbers of neutral atoms, atoms less one
electron, atoms less two electrons, etc., are (in principle at least, if
not yet in actual fact) calculable thermodynamically from energy
considerations connected with the ionization potentials, the tempera-
tures and the pressures prevailing. Proceeding to illustrate with
assumed numbers for the element calcium, he shows that as between
temperatures of 2,000° and 4,000°, absolute centigrade, the relative
strength of lines corresponding respectively to neutral, once-shorn,
and twice-shorn atoms must have altered immensely in favor of the
latter, and so at the higher temperature the line spectrum of calcium
will have gone over predominantly into a region of shorter wave ©
lengths. Moreover, as the permanent gases, hydrogen, helium, and
others, have greatly higher “ ionization potentials ” than elements like
sodium, calcium, and others, the stimulation will at first pass by pref-
erence to the easily excitable atoms of the latter in cases of mixture
of elements like that prevailing in the sun and stars. But as the
easily ionizable elements become fully ionized, and, with the loss of
one or even two or more electrons, become greatly more difficultly
excitable, the stimulus of the temperature will more and more be
diverted to affect difficultly ionizable gases like hydrogen and helium.

Hence, from two directions the spectra are influenced to alter as the
star temperature waxes greater. First the dissociation of the atoms
of the metals tends to throw the intensity of metallic spectra more
and more into the ultraviolet regions which le beyond our observa-
tion owing to the absorption in our atmosphere. Second, the in-
creased difficulty of exciting these once-shorn or twice-shorn metallic
atoms throws the effects of the temperature stimuli more and more to
intensify the lines of the difficultly ionizable hydrogen and helium.
Finally, the less conspicuous but highly significant and experimen-
tally valuable influences of changes of pressure associated with the
march of stellar evolution find equally satisfactory theoretical ex-
planations. All of this is wholly in accord with the observations of

5587T9—24——12

166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the spectra of the sun and stars, and many of the details which have
heretofore been among the apparently insoluble puzzles of celestial
spectroscopy are becoming clear in the light of Saha’s expositions.
These cover not merely emission but absorption of light in the most
striking manner. If it were possible to express these in language
easily to be understood, the reader would join in the wave of enthusi-
asm which is just sweeping through the workers in astronomical
spectroscopy and kindred lines as they see the great problems of
stellar evolution yielding to laboratory experiment and penetrating
theory.

AERONAUTIC RESEARCH."

By JoserH 8. AMES, Ph. D., LL. D.

Professor of Physics, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland;
Chairman, Executive Committee, National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics,

[With 5 plates.]

Progress in the navigation of the air is being made constantly
along two quite distinct and independent lines; one is the art of
flying and the other is the science of flight. To this last is given
the name aeronautics; and by an aeronautical investigation is meant
a research which has a direct bearing upon our knowledge of the
properties of solid bodies immersed in a stream of air or moving
through the air. We wish to know the forces and moments acting
upon such solid bodies; how these vary with the shape and charac-
teristics of the bodies, and how they are affected if the velocity of
the air is changed. Another important inquiry refers to the sta-
bility of the solid body when in flight; if the attitude of the body
is changed by some gust or otherwise, does it tend to return to
its previous attitude, or on the contrary does it continue to depart
more and more from its original attitude? The question is like
that referring to a body balanced on a table. If it is pushed slightly,
will it simply oscillate to and fro, or will it turn over? ‘These
matters and similar ones make up the subject of aeronautics; and
in order to investigate them the same methods must be applied as
in any department of physics.

Experiments must be performed; a theory is evolved; deductions
are made from the theory and tested by experiment; the theory
is modified and improved, etc. During all the process knowledge
is being gained, and the facts being made known help the designer
of aircraft to make improvements in speed, in carrying power, in
safety, in stability.

One most important fact should be emphasized, and this is that with-
out the series of scientific studies just outlined not only would flight
itself have been impossible, but also all progress in the art would

1 Presented at the meeting of the Section of Physics and Chemistry of the Franklin
Institute held Thursday, Oct. 6, 1921. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the
Franklin Institute, January, 1922.

167

168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

cease. Scientific investigation forms the most important feature
of aviation, and it can be conducted only by trained students. The
best pilot in the world may know very little about the scientific
principles underlying flight, and he would therefore be unable to
make any marked improvements in his machine. Aeronautics is
in no sense a function of an engineer or constructor or aviator, it is
a branch of pure science. Those countries have developed the best
airships and airplanes which have devoted the most thought, time
and money to the underlying scientific studies. When the physical
facts are known, the engineer can design his aircraft, the constructor
can make it, and the trained man can fly it; but the foundation stone
is the store of knowledge obtained by the scientist.

Fic. 1.—Combination of source and sink.

Before describing the types of investigations in progress in aero-
nautics and the methods pursued, it may be interesting to see some
illustrations of the two types of aircraft now in use—the airship
and the airplane. If I had time, I would lke very much to say
something about the helicopter, a type of aircraft to which we have
given a name before constructing one. Up to the present no such
machine, worthy of the name, has been made; but beyond a doubt
one will be constructed, and in the near future.

An airship owes its flying power to the fact that it is made
“lighter than air” by being filled with a gas lighter than air.
Hydrogen is the gas always used, although helium may be. The
lifting power of the latter gas is about four-fifths of that of
hydrogen. As the airship moves through the air, it meets with

AERONAUTIC RESEARCH—AMES. 169

opposition as the air flows along its surface. Forces are required
to move the control surfaces, z. e., the rudders and elevators. We
must determine these forces, and must investigate the changes in
them as we change the shape of the airship, e. g., its length or its
cross-section. A great deal may be learned by studying theoreti-
cally the way in which air flows around a solid body shaped
more or less like an airship. A most interesting mode of attack
on this problem was devised by Admiral Taylor of our Navy, and
was applied by him to the design of ocean vessels. The drawings
illustrate how a uniform flow superposed upon a source and sink
produces a condition like the flow around an airship. This type

Fic. 2.—Air flow due to superposing a uniform rectilinear flow upon a combination of
source and sink.

of flow may then be studied mathematically; the pressures may be
deduced, etc.

Similarly, in the case of airplanes, we must know the character
of airflow past the struts, the fuselage, and the wings. It is the
difference in the pressure on the two sides of a wing that produces
the upward force required to support the machine. The figures
on plate 3 illustrate the type of flow around the aerofoil.

Great progress has been made in recent years by Prandtl and
other German physicists by showing how a flow of air around
an aerofoil could be produced in an ideal frictionless gas similar
to that observed in air by imagining vortices or whirls in the gas.
The method is not unlike that mentioned above as useful in the
case of airships, only vortices are used in place of sources and sinks.

170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Following this process, Prandtl and his associates have shown how
one could calculate the influence of one wing of a biplane upon the
other, so that if the behavior of one wing is known that of two
may be deduced; and they have proceeded much further and made
aeronautics into a beautiful theoretical science.

But in the end the function of aeronautic research is obviously
to learn all there is to be known about the forces acting on an aero-
foil or wing. How can this be done? It is not possible to make
actual airplanes of various types and test them, nor would this help
us much if it were practicable. We must actually measure the
forces involved in any one case, and must vary our conditions in
every conceivable way, but in a systematic manner. There are
several methods open to us. One is to make a model of a wing,
say, as nearly full size as possible, suspend it by wires 30 feet or

Air

Fic. 3.—Diagram of fiow past an aerofoil showing an increased pressure below and a
decreased one above.

more below an airplane which can carry it in flight, and then, by
inserting measuring instruments in the wires, study the forces
under varying conditions. This method is being used with marked
success at Langley Field, near Old Point Comfort, Va., by the staff
of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. It is called
the “ free-flight method.”

A second method is to make a small model of a wing or a
fuselage or an entire machine, say, one twenty-fifth the size of the
actual part, and then to investigate the forces acting on it when
it is placed in a rapidly moving stream of air. This is known as
the wind-tunnel method, and is now in general use in all countries.
England has 10 or more such tunnels, France has several, Ger-
many has a large number, etc. In this country there are 12, and
more are being made.

Other methods have been used in the past but are no longer.
Langley attached his models to one end of a long arm which could

AERONAUTIC RESEARCH—AMES. ETA

be made to revolve rapidly in a horizontal plane. Others have
studied models of different shapes by dropping them from heights
inside buildings, so as to avoid wind.

Air Stream —> 0
ae Prbrd 3.
Angle of Attack b

Fig. 4.—Diagram illustrating forces acting on an aerofoil.

Owing to the importance of wind tunnels, I have introduced plates
4 and 5, which show some photographs of the latest one made in this
country, that of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
at the Langley Memorial Laboratory, Langley Field, Va.

) ar ott seal
! % STE rea imilese | z

Fic. 5.—Diagram of wind-tunnel in its house.

Investigators in these different laboratories all over the world
have studied the greatest variety of problems—forces on models of
wings of different shapes at different air velocities, forces on models
of airships, the effect of disturbing elements on these forces, etc. A
long series of investigations has been made in particular upon air
propellers. The blade of a propeller may be considered as made

172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

up of a number of separate surfaces, and when the shaft is rotating
each of these is thought of as an aerofoil moving rapidly through
the air. In this way the action of a propeller may be calculated,
and the theory may be tested by trying the actual propeller. But
there is one all-important difficulty in applying the knowledge thus
available to the design of actual aircraft. Is one justified in drawing

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conclusions as to the properties of large bodies from knowledge of
the properties of smaller ones? Suppose, for instance, that on com-
paring two models on a scale of one twenty-fifth of full size in a
wind tunnel through which the velocity of the air stream is 40 miles
per hour, it is found that one model has a greater lift or a less drag
than the other, what conclusion could one draw as to the comparative
properties of two actual airplane wings in flight at 120 miles per

AERONAUTIC RESEARCH—AMES. 173

hour? The answer is, “ Possibly none.” The exact condition under
which results from tests on models may be applied to actual con-
struction is known. This can best be described by discussing what
is called in aerodynamics the “ Reynolds number.” When a body is
moving through the air there are two types of forces acting on it—
the air exerts a pressure upon it and there is friction between the
moving air and the layer of air sticking tight to the solid. It is not
difficult to see that the four physical quantities involved in the aero-
dynamical action are: The velocity of the air, its density, its viscosity
(i. e., measure of the frictional property), and the size of the solid
body as given by its length or its thickness. Lord Rayleigh showed
many years ago that if we formed the quantity—

density < velocity X length

viscosity
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Fic. 7.—Compressed air wind-tunnel,

which is now called the “ Reynolds number,” we would be justified in
saying that the properties observed in any experiment would also
be found to be the same for any other experiment having the same
Reynolds number. It is seen by looking at the definition of this
number that we can have the same Reynolds number for a large
number of different experiments. Thus, compare an actual airplane
in flight at 90 miles per hour, say, with a wind-tunnel experiment on
a model of one-twentieth scale but having the same velocity of air
flow. If the Reynolds number is to be the same for the two cases,
it is necessary to increase the density of the air in the wind tunnel
twentyfold. This shows that if one were to make a wind tunnel
in which the air is compressed to 20 or more atmospheres, experi-
ments on models placed in it would give results immediately appli-
cable to full-size airplanes. It is perfectly possible, of course, that

174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

certain properties studied and observed in ordinary wind tunnels
at atmospheric pressure may hold also for actual airplanes, but one
can not be certain of this until the question is investigated in a com-
pressed-air tunnel. In view of the great importance of this matter,
the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has designed,
and has now under construction such a tunnel, in which the air may
be compressed to 25 atmospheres. When completed it will be the
only one in the world; and it is expected confidently that a great
amount of useful information will be obtained.

I have outlined the experimental methods available for aero-
nautical investigations, and wish now to state briefly some of the
more important ones which occupy our thoughts:

1. Everyone, the world over, is interested in designing a heli-
copter; but before this can be done we must have knowledge of the
properties of a propeller whose shaft is very oblique to the flight
path, and we probably shall have to design a new type of propeller.

2. A greater range of speed for any one airplane is desirable, so
that it may attain a great flying speed and yet have a slow landing
speed. In order to secure this possibility, modifications of the wing
are essential; and the most promising form at the present time is the
Handley-Page slotted wing. Much more research is, however, neces-
sary.

3. Great improvements may be expected in reducing the drag, or
resistance, of aircraft, and many researches are now in progress as to
the effect of putting the engine and the propeller in different posi-
tions, of changing the position of the fuselage, etc.

4. Over 100 different wing forms have been investigated, but our
practical knowledge is far from satisfactory, largely owing to the
fact that the tests have been made in different laboratories and at
different air velocities. Further, of course, the Reynolds number in
all tests has been too small. When the compressed-air wind tunnel
at the Langley Memorial Laboratory is finished, we will be able defi-
nitely to say what wing is best for any specific purpose.

These are simply illustrations of the type of investigations now
engaging the attention of aeronautical laboratories, but they serve,
I hope, to make clear how interesting the subject is to the scientist
and how important to the designer of aircraft.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Ames. PLATE |.

6

AIRSHIP, FILLED WITH HYDROGEN. ENGINES AND PROPELLERS; ELEVA-
TORS AND RUDDER; STABILIZING SURFACES.

AIRPLANE. WINGS, FUSELAGE, AILERONS, ELEVATOR, RUDDER, ETC.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Ames. PLATE 2.

FOKKER F. III]. COMMERCIAL MONOPLANE.

AIRPLANE CARRIER. SEAPLANES IN FLIGHT.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Ames. PLATE 3.

*sotbitlinee! epee

EDDYING FLOW PAST AN AEROFOIL.

STREAM-LINE FLOW PAST AN AEROFOIL.

PLATE 4.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Ames.

EXTERIOR OF TUNNEL, FROM EXIT END.

MODEL OF A BIPLANE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Ames. PLATE 5.

INTERIOR OF EXPERIMENTAL ROOM AND VIEW OF MODEL SUSPENDED IN
TUNNEL.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND THE POSSIBLE USE OF SOLAR
ENERGY.?

By H. A. SPorue,

Carnegie Institution of Washington, Coastal Laboratory, Carmel, Calif.

The purpose of the following brief outline is to show that while the photo-
synthetic process of the plant is at present the only means we have of utiliz-
ing solar energy, this method is so very inefficient and subject to such great
uncertainties that it is exceedingly doubtful whether it can be depended upon
to maintain our energy requirements. In other words, our civilization is using
energy at a prodigious rate, and we would be depending upon the exceedingly
inefficient and slow process of photosynthesis to supplant the supplies which
have been stored for centuries and are now being depleted. Add to this, that
in order to supply food for our increasing population no encroachment on
agricultural industry would be permissible. ‘Theoretical speculations of the
nature of what might be accomplished if, for instance, all the arable land were
cultivated, are of no consequence to the problem. Conditions, economic and
social, must be faced as they exist. The inertia of our civilization is such
that great changes are induced only by the labored movements of evolution
or by catastrophe. What part, then, can science and engineering play in the
solution of this problem?

First of all, it is the function of scientists to exercise foresight in matters
regarding the material welfare of humanity. The experiences of the various
scientific bodies called together to cope with the many problems incident to the
war, concur in the conclusion that very rarely is necessity the parent of inven-
tion where difficult and highly complex problems are concerned. So for this
work there will be required an enormous amount of patient labor, which natu-
rally should be begun long before the situation becomes acute.

It has frequently been said of our earth that there are no exports
and no imports aside from occasional meteorites. This is true as far
as matter is concerned, but it is not true when energy is considered.
Matter and energy are the two fundamental entities in our concep-
tions of all physical phenomena. As scientific thought progresses,
ever-increasing attention is being given to the paramount impor-
tance of energy relations in the interpretation of natural phenomena.
Matter is of interest to us largely in so far as it exhibits certain
properties and undergoes definite changes. In viewing the common
materials upon which we depend for the maintenance and propaga-
tion of life, it is evident that we are less interested in the matter
as such than its ability to undergo certain changes which contribute

1Reprinted by permission from the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,
vol. 14, no. 12, December, 1922.

176

176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

in one way or another to our life activities. From this practical
viewpoint, knowledge of the composition of coal, iron ore, sugar,
etc., has its ultimate interest in guiding us in the application of such
materials to the manifold needs of our complicated physical and
physiological economy.

The eminent physicist, Boltzmann, pointed out in his classical ex-
position of the second law of thermodynamics that the struggle for
existence is essentially not a fight for the raw materials that are
abundant in earth, sky, and sea, nor for the energies as such, but for
the potential energies as in coal, sugar, and meat. Thus energetics
commands the center of attention in the consideration of the chemi-
cal phenomena exhibited by the various forms of matter, and matter
is but a medium for the manifestation of energy.

If our earth were an isolated system in which there were no im-
ports and no exports, our state of affairs would be very different
from that which now presents itself to us. According to our experi-
ence, formulated in the laws of thermodynamics, in all naturally
occurring transformations there is a tendency to arrive at a condi-
tion of stable equilibrium. Thus, the substances on the earth are
constantly tending to arrive at a condition of greatest entropy,
meaning “rundownness.” Most of the metals, for instance, are oxid-
ized to their most stable oxides and converted into other com-
pounds which under existing conditions are extremely stable. Our
ores are those stable oxides or salts. Although this condition has
not been uniformly attained in the earth, while there are still, for
example, natural deposits of metallic copper and silver, yet, unques-
tionably that is the direction in which the chemical changes are
proceeding.

Now most of these substances, before they can be made use of,
require certain chemical changes which are a reversal of the natu-
rally occurring ones. The ores, oxides or salts of the metals, must be
reduced to the elemental metals. This, of course, is the reversal of
the processes occurring in nature, and to accomplish such a reversal
work must be done, energy must be supplied.

If, then, the tendency is to attain the dead level—this state of
equilibrium on our earth—what are the agencies or sources of
energy that counteract this tendency and make possible the reverse
reaction, the pumping of water uphill, as it were?

In searching for such possible sources of energy which might
serve this purpose, we find that a little heat is probably given to the
surface of the earth from the interior, another very small amount
is the result of certain radioactive chemical changes, the action of
the tides contributes some, and a further amount is received from
radiation from the stars and moon. But these amounts are quite

*

SOLAR ENERGY—SPOEHR. 37

inadequate and insignificant when compared with the primal source
of our energy, the sun. The radiations from the sun constitute
our main source of energy. This is our main and most consequen-
tial import, the only potent factor which counteracts the tendency
of complete running down. It is important not only in such reac-
tions as the smelting of ores, but equally to the life on the planet.

All living things on the earth demand for their maintenance and
propagation a continuous supply of energy. The immediate source
of this energy for living things is derived from food. All animals,
including man, are fundamentally dependent upon plants for their
food. Just as the herbivorous land animals are the source of food
of the carnivora, the diatoms are the fundamental source of food
of the sea. The object of agriculture is essentially to provide man
with such materials from which he is able to derive the energy nec-
essary for the maintenance of his bodily activities, his growth and
propagation.

MEANING OF “ PHOTOSYNTHESIS.”

So far as the composition of food material is concerned, there
exists a closed cycle. Man feeds on animals, and animals on plants;
the plants feed on the carbon dioxide given to the air by the animals
as a result of the latter’s use of food. Thus the plant reconverts
the waste products of animal metabolism into food. ‘The latter
process is called photosynthesis. The plant absorbs through its
leaves the carbon dioxide which is universally present in the atmos-
phere, and which is formed by the burning of coal, fuel oil, etc.,
and is also exhaled by animals. By means of the light from the
sun the carbon dioxide thus absorbed by the leaves is changed into
material such as sugar or wood, which can again be used as food
for animals or as fuel. The net result, as far as the changes of mate-
rials are concerned in this interrelation of plants and animals, is nil.
Thus, in brief, a plant yields a certain amount of substance which
can be used as food. The food is consumed by man and thus enables
him to do some work. Thereby the food material is burned in the
body and is exhaled as the gas, carbon dioxide. Or the fuel is.
burned and the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere.

The fundamentally important point is in relation to the energy
changes. The energy expended by the man has been permanently
lost to a large extent; similarly, that obtained from fuel. The
reconversion of the carbon dioxide into food or fuel material can
be accomplished only by the use of a great deal of energy. The
cycle is made possible only by the introduction of energy from
without. This energy is derived from the sunlight, which the plant,
unlike the animal, is able to utilize and convert the waste carbon
dioxide again into food or fuel material.

178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

It thus becomes evident that all life on the planet depends upon
the energy derived from the sun through the intermediary of the
plant—i. e., through the process of photosynthesis. Mankind lives
entirely on the energy derived from the sun through the pursuits of
agriculture.

WASTE OF SOLAR ENERGY.

But in addition to this, we are squandering the principal of an
enormous legacy of solar energy accumulated during the past ages.
The plants, which alone are capable of utilizing the enormous floods
of solar energy pouring upon the earth, have been at work for many
ages prior to man’s appearance upon the earth and have, during
time which would make the total span of human history appear
as but a moment, built the foundations upon which all his present
eminence rests. This fossil vegetation, preserved as coal and oil,
represents a very small fraction of the energy which has been fall-
ing on the earth and which has been conserved for man. It is kin-
dled, its energy liberated and used in a thousand ways, and the rays
of sunlight stored beneath the earth for millions of years give birth
to a civilization such as the world has never known. It is this
source of energy which has made possible the habitation of the tem-
perate zones to the present extent, and on it depend our various
modes of rapid transportation and our multifarious industrial ac-
tivity. What may be called fossil solar energy, coal, made possible
the reversal of the natural course by the smelting of ores for the
production of metals. In fact, it is solar energy which counteracts
the tendency of our earth to attain its maximum entropy.

But this great civilization of coal and steel is at the same time a
most squandrous and profligate one; it is using the principal of
its legacy in numberless new ways. Modern man’s greatness de-
pends upon his being essentially a tool-using animal. To increase
the efficiency of one-man power has been his object for centuries.
It is the power-driven machine that has done most of his work.
But the source of energy which drives these machines is not a steady
stream, it is being drawn from the accumulation of centuries. A
year’s consumption of coal at the present rate represents the accu-
mulation of hundreds of years. The power of man to do work,
physical work, the unit one-man power, is now an almost insignifi-
cant factor. A return to such a physical standard would almost cer-
tainly follow the failure of such sources of energy as man now has
at his disposal. The quest of these sources of energy, coal and oil,
is at present being pushed with a feverish intensity that has never
been known before, and the competition for the possession of these
stores recognizes no principles. The destiny of civilization is guided
by and reflects the amount of available energy. When coal and oil

SOLAR ENERGY—SPOEHR. 179

are exhausted the daily ration of solar energy will represent almost
the entire means of livelihood; our mushroom civilization must pass
like the historic empires of the past and we may expect the reap-
pearance in the world once more of galley slaves and serfs.

ENERGY RESOURCES AVAILABLE.

And thus the scientific world is awakening to the necessity of
taking stock of our available resources of energy. Repeatedly, atten-
tion has been called to the inexhaustible floods of solar energy. With
cool theoretical nonchalance the untold possibilities of the use of the
sun’s energy are constantly called to our attention. Yet the chloro-
phyllous plant still remains the only converter of solar energy.

The student of photosynthesis can not, even if he would, escape
the practical applications of the problem. It is largely due to the
fact that photosynthesis has been dealt with in an academic manner
that its fundamental significance has until very recently not been
more generally recognized and it has not been possible to enlist the
interest and cooperation of workers in the allied sciences. To anyone
who has been actively engaged in the investigation of this problem it
must be evident that progress toward its solution would be enor-
mously accelerated by cooperative efforts from different angles.

Recently interest in the subject has been very greatly stimulated
through the realization on the part of industrial scientists that our
available supplies of energy are being rapidly depleted.

Our main source of energy is coal, and although it is less than
100 years since it has been put to extensive use as a fuel, the present
annual consumption is stupendous—about 650,000,000 tons. Hach
decade has brought a decided increase in the’ rate of consumption.
While there are, of course, still enormous supplies to draw upon
which, considered superficially, might allay all concern, our engi-
neers, most qualified to judge, have repeatedly called attention to
the necessity of preparedness on the fuel situation.

A far more serious situation is presented by the petroleum supply.
The rapid development of internal-combustion engines of various
types has brought about a tremendous demand for liquid fuel.
This has increased at such a rate that it can be conservatively stated
that the depletion of the petroleum supply in the United States is
clearly in sight. A report of the country’s foremost oil geologists,
under the auspices of the United States Geological Survey, states:

The estimated reserves are enough to satisfy the present requirements of the
United States for only 20 years, if the oil could be taken out of the ground as
fast as it is wanted.

Individual wells will yield oil for more than a quarter of a century, and some

of the wells will not have been drilled in 1950. In short, the oil can not all
be discovered, much less taken from the earth, in 20 years. The United

180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

States is already absolutely dependent on foreign countries to eke out her own
production, and if the foreign oil can be procured this dependence is sure to
grow greater and greater as our own fields wane, except as artificial petroleum
may be produced by the distillation of oil shales and coals or some substitute
for petroleum may be discovered.

It is, therefore, not surprising that every available source of
energy is being considered to meet the situation which is ap-
proaching.

Another very considerable source of energy is that developed from
the water powers. Theoretically, this is virtually an inexhaustible
supply and one of relatively high efficiency. Mr. Charles P. Stein-
metz* has calculated, on the basis of collecting every raindrop which
falls in the United States and all the power it could produce on its
way to the ocean being developed, that there would be possible about
300,000,000 horsepower. This enormous figure represents about the
amount received from our present total consumption of coal. Thus,
this theoretical hydroelectric power would just about cover our pres-
ent coal consumption, but leave nothing for future increased needs
or to cover other sources of energy now in use. Moreover, this figure
for hydroelectric power is purely hypothetical, of which only a
small fraction represents that actually available, which, when united
with other difficulties such as equipment and limitations of distri-
bution, shows very clearly that all the water powers of the country
can not suffice.

The question of liquid fuel is of particular importance in this con-
sideration. The great success of the internal-combustion engines
in the automobiles, airplanes, tractors, etc., as well as the many uses
of the Diesel engine,,has very greatly influenced our economic life
and, as has been stated, it is soon to exhaust our natural resources
of liquid fuel. Much attention has, therefore, been given to the
production of liquid fuel other than petroleum. Thus far the inves-
tigations along these lines have almost universally led to the opinion
that the substance best suited to these needs is alcohol. This is on
the basis that alcohol can be produced from vegetable material and is
the most direct route from solar energy. It is thus proposed to
develop a photosynthetic industry on the basis of agriculture, the
products of which are to be converted into alcohol by means of
fermentation.

This is, of course, the practical end of the photosynthesis problem.
There are’so many factors which come into consideration on careful
study of the problem in its broadest application, that it is not sur-
prising that some of the most important of these have been entirely
disregarded or not given the attention they deserve.

2““The White Revolution,’ Survey Graphic, 1 (1922), 1035,

SOLAR ENERGY—SPOEHR. 181

POSSIBILITIES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

In considering the sun as a source of energy two possibilities sug-
gest themselves. The first is a direct utilization of solar energy
through some device by means of which the energy could be trans-
formed and stored; the other is by means of the natural process of
photosynthesis. Disregarding as inadequate those arrangements
that transform solar energy into heat and attempt to use boilers of
various kinds, no advance has been made in the direct utilization of
solar energy. A transformation of the energy based upon chemical
methods has received little attention. The reason for this is that
such known photochemical reactions as are endothermal—that is,
processes in which energy is stored—are not of a nature to encourage
development. The process of photosynthesis in the green plant is
such a transformation and storing of energy. Nature has worked
out this problem and has done it in a most remarkable manner.

We are therefore still centering our speculations on the plant as a
transformer of energy through the production of carbohydrate mate-
rial. With complete disregard of biological facts, chemists have
continued to develop schemes for the employment of the photosyn-
thetic process and to evolve theories of the chemistry of photosyn-
thesis. One of the fundamental fallacies in these speculations may
be indicated by a quotation from a recent technical article: “ Photo-
synthesis is simply a manufacture that provides material used in the
process of living.” It is falsely conceived that this process of manu-
facture is not a function of the living plant.

There have also been many erroneous and misleading statements
regarding the amount of energy radiated from the sun which reaches
the surface of the earth. In nearly all the technical discussions on
this subject that have appeared recently the calculations are based
upon the value of 3 calories per square centimeter per minute. Now,
this value does not represent the amount of energy which reaches the
earth. It is the old value of the solar constant; i. e., the amount of
solar energy at the outside of the earth’s atmosphere.

The true value of this solar constant is still a subject of some
dispute, and it is in fact of secondary interest to the immediate prob-
lem of the utilization of solar energy on the earth. A great many
determinations of the amount of energy received on the earth have
been made, and it is certain that a very considerable amount of solar
radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere of the earth. For the present
purpose the intensity of solar radiation reaching the earth can be
placed at 1.5 calories per square centimeter per minute. On this basis
we would receive 5,400 large calories per square meter during six
hours. Now, 1 kilogram of coal when burned develops about 8,000

55379—24——13

182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

large calories, so that six hours of insolation per square meter rep-
resents a heat equivalent of 0.675 kilogram of coal, and on an acre
16.41 tons of coal. This for 90 days of insolation would equal
1,476.63 tons.

In order to gain some idea of the degree of efficiency of the photo-
synthetic process in utilizing solar radiation as expressed in the yield
of agricultural products, the heat value of a cereal crop can serve as
a comparison. Taking the very large yield of 50 bushels, or 17.619
hectoliters of wheat per acre, and considering this as entirely starch,
we get an energy equivalent of 0.623 ton of coal. This last figure of
about two-thirds of a ton of coal is to be compared to the 1,476 tons,
representing the total solar radiation during a period of 90 days,
approximately a growing season.

This, then, is the amount of solar energy received at the surface of
the earth and in a practical sense the amount of this energy that is
stored by means of agriculture. It is a very striking fact that the
processes of organic nature are exceedingly ineflicient and wasteful.
This, of course, is so of necessity. Faced with the uncertainties of
environmental and climatic conditions, only such processes as are
allowed a wide margin of safety are assured the living organism of
survival. These figures also indicate that agriculture, as the only
photochemical industry, is utilizing but a very small portion of the
available energy.

In discussing the possibility of preparing liquid fuel from grain,
Boyd * makes the following statements:

The large amount of motor fuel required seems to exclude the possibility of
preparing any considerable percentage of the necessary amount from foodstuffs.
In illustration of this statement the following figures are of interest:

Bushels.
Average annual United States production of corn, 1913-1919_____ 2, 740, 000, 000
Average annual acreage in corn, 1913-1919___________________ — 160, 000, 000
Alcohol from the corn at 2.75 gallons per bushel________________ 7, 500, 000, 000

The heating value of this amount of alcohol is about equal to that of
5,000,000,000 gallons of gasoline. The production of gasoline in the United
States during 1920 was very close to this amount, about 4,900,000,000 gallons.
The average acreage in corn as given above is equal to 166,000 square miles,
which is more than four times the total area of Ohio. In view of the fact that
the possible alcohol production from corn represents close to 60 per cent of the
total possible amount of alcohol that could be prepared from all of the starch
and sugar containing foodstuffs produced in the United States, and that such a
large acreage is required for its production, the possibility of a sufficiently large
increase in production of such materials to be diverted to the manufacture of
motor fuel seems very unlikely. At any rate, if large quantities of motor fuel
are to be prepared from vegetation, another material, if not instead of food-
stuffs at least in addition to foodstuffs, must be relied upon as a source.

5“ Motor Fuel from Vegetation,” Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 13
(1922), 836,

SOLAR ENERGY—SPOEHR. 183

It seems highly questionable whether the use of the products of
photosynthesis offers a rational solution to the problem of industrial
energy. It must be borne in mind that the products of photosyn-
thesis are essential to human life as the fundamental source of food.
The trend of modern investigation of the chemical, as well as the
economic phases of the food problem, strongly supports the dictum
that agriculture will always be the basis of food production and that
this can not be supplanted by any artificial method. The materials
which are elaborated by plants are directly essential to the well-being
of man. Furthermore, any serious disturbance in the way of divert-
ing agricultural products from their use as food to industrial ends
would undoubtedly be fraught with profound economic disturbances.

CELLULOSE AS SOURCE OF FUEL.

There is one other plant product about which there has been much
speculation regarding the possibilities as a source of liquid fuel; that
is cellulose. There are so many factors which enter into a rational
consideration of the possibilities of producing alcohol from cellulose
that no adequate analysis of the problem has as yet been attained.
These factors embody the biological aspects, the chemical methods,
and the economic possibilities. It can not be claimed that any one
of the many compilations and discourses offered since the great
interest in this subject has arisen treat adequately the complexities of
the problem. Briefly, the points that demand consideration are the
availability of cellulose material in sufficient quantity and the con-
tinuous supply thereof, an exact and broad knowledge relative to the
chemical processes of converting cellulose to alcohol, and the cost of
raw material, manufacture, and transportation, as well as the com-
plexities of labor and influence on other industries. In different
sections of the country where different kinds of wood come into con-
sideration there are problems peculiar to each locality.

Much of the speculation as to the use of cellulose for conversion
into alcohol is based upon the utilization of waste material in the
forests and at the mills. Of the 26,000,000,000 cubic feet of wood
cut annually, the major portion represents accumulated virgin tim-
ber, so that this source can not be considered as a permanent one. To
what extent and how soon the depletion of virgin forests will be met
by intensive forestry is a practical question that seems difficult to
answer.

These considerations also obtain for the frequently repeated state-
ments of the use of humid tropical regions for growing material
from which alcohol could be manufactured. It must be borne in
mind that for any such undertaking reliance could not be placed
upon extant material, recourse would have to be taken to very ex-

184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

tensive cultivation. Moreover, such an undertaking must not inter-
fere with the area now used for the production of foodstuffs.

COMPLEX NATURE OF AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY.

Finally, in advocating the natural photosynthetic process through
agricultural industry as the producer of a supply of energy there
has been evidenced great neglect of the fact that agriculture is a
’ highly sensitive and complex industry. The fact seems to be too
readily forgotten that agriculture deals with biological processes,
that solar radiation is but one of many factors influencing the de-
velopments of plants, and that in almost every place on the earth
where agriculture might be undertaken there is far more light than
the plant is capable of utilizing.

The uncertainties of agricultural industry arise from the very
complex nature of the biological processes and balances involved in
the development of a growing organism. Not only the multiplicity
of pests and diseases with which agricultural endeavor must contend,
but the relatively sensitive adjustment to climatic environment in-
creases the hazards of this industry enormously. Thus, of course,
the growth of plants is not dependent on light only, but on a variety
of factors not associated with solar radiation.

The fact that during critical periods in the development of a plant
slight changes in climatic conditions during a short time may greatly
reduce or entirely destroy a crop, serves to emphasize the hazard of
obtaining energy through the intermediary of plants. In agricul-
ture, water supply and temperature are far more variable and de-
termining factors than light intensity. On the proper coordination
of these two factors, probably more than any other, depends the
success of crop production.

On the other hand, considering alone the solar energy which it is
cur object to store, there falls on the earth during most of the year
a great deal more than any plant is capable of utilizing.

SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM.

Nature has worked out a method of utilizing solar energy. It is
the duty of the scientist to learn the precise manner in which this is
accomplished. He need not be timid about competing with nature.
He has many cases to his credit of surpassing the processes of nature
both in efficiency and reliability. There are many substances now
effectively produced artificially which were formerly obtainable
only from plants or animals. It is true that in the utilization of
radiant energy there are a great many intricate difficulties to be over-
come, but to anyone who has given the problem thorough study it

SOLAR ENERGY—SPOEHR. 185

must be evident that we are already in possession of much knowledge
which can find immediate application to this problem. As the basis
of agriculture, the problem of photosynthesis needs development and
clarification. As the only known photochemical reaction, proceed-
ing in the visible spectrum, in which there is a large increase in the
potential energy of the products, photosynthesis serves as a guide to
the utilization of solar energy. Although the chemical reactions
constituting the photosynthetic process are of a highly complex and
intricate nature, sufficient investigation has been done to justify the
conclusion that the problem is amenable to physico-chemical treat-
ment. However, no single academic division of science, such as
botany, chemistry, or physics, is of itself sufficiently rich in concepts
and methods to attack the problem adequately. The most promising
outlook for success in this field would be offered through an organi-
zation by which information from the various allied fields can be col-
lected and focused on the chemical and energy changes taking place
in the process of photosynthesis. In view of the present academic
division of the sciences and the variety of special training which is
requisite for such an undertaking, cooperative effort offers the only
rational method of advance.

Photosynthesis is essentially a problem of energy transfer. Those
aspects of the problem involving the changes of material, the rates
of these changes, and the conditions under which they occur, require
the methods: and conceptions of organic chemistry and physiology.
In order to determine the kinetics of these same reactions and the
mode of energy transfer, a very different method of experimenta-
tion is required. These latter lead directly to the fundamental prob-
lems of radiochemistry and require the most advanced methods of
physical experimentation.

Has not science here a unique opportunity to lead the way in real
cooperation and to demonstrate its true democratic value?

The embryo of a seed, during its first days after sprouting, lives
upon material stored for it by the parent, until it gains strength and
becomes an independent plant. Throughout nature the young are
nurtured and protected until they can care for themselves. So man
has had his great patrimony of fuel to help him in his first faltering
steps to dominion over his environment. As he grows in intellectual
stature, he must meet the problem of physical necessity, a problem
of energy pure and simple, ere he can aspire to true independence.
The great contribution of the nineteenth century was the establish-
ment of the doctrines of energy. To the twentieth falls the task of
freeing us from our economic placenta.

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FOGS AND CLOUDS.

By W. J. Humpureys, C. B., Pu. D.,

Professor of Meteorological Physics, United States Weather Bureau,
Department of Agriculture.

[With 26 plates. ]
EVAPORATION AND PRECIPITATION.
WHERE FROM AND WHERE TO.

Everyone knows that rain and snow come out of the clouds, and
that every cloud and fog particle is either a water droplet or an ice
erystal. Naturally, therefore, one asks where all this endless supply
of water comes from; endless, because year after year, century after
century, and age after age, rain and snow have descended as they now
descend. And where, too, does it all go, this world average ot
16,000,000 tons a second? The answers are: It comes from the soil
and its vegetation, from rivers, lakes, and the oceans; and to them it
returns—an endless cycle of evaporation and condensation.

“The mist and cloud will turn to rain,

The rain to mist and cloud again.”
—Longfellow.

EVAPORATION.

The first of these processes, namely, evaporation, consists in the
change of water (water in this case, though many substances behave
similarly) from the liquid, or even solid, state to that of an invisible
gas, in which condition it becomes an important, though always rela-
tively small, part of the air we breathe.

The rate of this evaporation depends on a number of things, the
more important of which are:

(a) The area of the evaporating surface. The larger the surface
the more rapid the total evaporation. It is in recognition of this
law that we spread out a drop or even a puddle of water to hasten
its disappearance.

1 Based on a lecture given before the section of physics and chemistry of the Franklin
Institute on Jan. 5, 1922. Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the Franklin
Institute, February—March, 1922.

187

188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

(6) The temperature of the evaporating water. The higher this
temperature the more rapid the evaporation. That is why heating
things hastens their drying.

(c) The velocity of the wind to which the water is exposed. This
explains why roads, for instance, dry so much quicker when the
winds are strong than when they are light.

(d) The amount of moisture already in the atmosphere. The
wash on the clothesline, as every housewife knows, dries provokingly
slowly during cloudy, muggy weather.

All the other factors that affect the rate of evaporation, such as
density of the air, saltiness of the water, etc., generally are small in
comparison with the above, and need not here be considered since it
is only intended to make perfectly clear, through our everyday ex-
periences, the wide occurrence and great importance of evaporation.

SATURATION.

Although evaporation, as just stated, is so very general there are
conditions under which things will not dry, nor bodies of water any
longer decrease. Thus even a rather small amount of water in a
tightly closed bottle, or other impervious vessel, remains there in-
definitely. The space above the water becomes saturated, we say, by
which we mean that it gets so charged with water vapor that, under
the existing conditions, it can contain no more. At this stage the net
evaporation is zero. That is, the amount of the invisible water
vapor that now goes back, or condenses, into the liquid stage is ex-
actly equal to that which, in the same time, leaves the liquid surface
and becomes invisible vapor. In other words, at this stage, however
rapid the interchange between liquid and vapor, the amount of each
remains constant.

Numerous careful experiments have determined very closely the
exact weight of water vapor per cubic foot, say, when the space in
question is saturated at any given temperature, from the boiling
point to far below that of freezing. And these experiments show
two facts of paramount importance in the formation and dissipation
of clouds, namely:

1. The amount of moisture necessary to produce saturation in-
creases rapidly with increase of temperature.

2. The amount of water vapor essential to saturation is not ap-
preciably affected by the presence or absence of the other gases of
the normal atmosphere.

It is true that even in technical language we often say that the
air contains such or such an amount of moisture, as though the pres-
ence of the air was essential to the existence of the vapor, or as
though the air acted somehow like a sponge in taking up water. But,

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 189

as explained, this idea is wholly wrong. The only appreciable effect
of the presence of the other gases of the atmosphere on the moisture
is that of slowing the rate of its spread or diffusion. Temperature
and temperature alone, to within a negligible amount, determines
the quantity of vapor per any given volume necessary to produce
saturation, or, of course, any definite percentage or fraction of
saturation.
CONDENSATION.

The percentage of saturation produced by a given amount of
water vapor may, therefore, as is obvious from the above discussion,
be varied by altering the volume it occupies or its temperature, or
both; and as rapidly as saturation tends to be exceeded moisture
condenses out onto any water surface or solid that may be present.
Thus, the deposition of dew, the formation of hoarfrost, and the
sweating of ice pitchers all are examples of condensation owing to
passing the saturation point or dew point, as it commonly is called.
In these cases just mentioned the temperature of the water vapor
and, of course, of the other constituents of the atmosphere, which,
however, play no part in the condensation, is lowered through con-
tact with cold objects, and the volume of this vapor, as well as that
of the accompanying chilled gases, decreased—decreased because in
the open air the pressure remains constant, or nearly so, whatever the
degree of cooling.

Similarly, whenever the temperature of the open air passes below
the dew point condensation occurs in the form of innumerable water
droplets or tiny ice crystals throughout the chilled volume, and
thereby produces a fog or a cloud, as determined by location—a fog
if on the surface, a cloud if only in mid-air.

The natural processes by which a given body of the atmosphere
may be sufficiently cooled to lose a portion of its water vapor by con-
densation are: (1) Contact with objects colder than itself; (2) mix-
ing with colder air; (3) radiation; (4) expansion.

Condensation as a result of contact cooling is well illustrated, as
already explained, by the deposition of dew—the bedewed objects
having been cooled by radiation; by the formation of hoarfrost,
which occurs under the same conditions, except at a lower tempera-
ture, as does dew; and by the sweating, during warm humid weather,
of all cold objects. It is further illustrated by the formation of
fog, generally light, when relatively warm humid air drifts over a
snow bank or other cold surface.

The second of the above processes of inducing condensation—that
is, the mixing of masses of humid air of different temperatures—is
not very effective. Indeed, an accurate calculation, based on the

190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

temperature and volume changes and other factors of the problem,
shows that while a fog or cloud may be obtained by this process no
appreciable amount of rain or snow is likely to result. Layer or
stratus clouds at the boundary between relatively warm air above
and cold beneath, a phenomenon of occasional occurrence, are at
least partially due to mixing, as are also the fogs that so frequently
occur over adjacent warm and cold ocean currents.

The third process by which air loses heat, namely, by radiation,

probably is of little importance in the production of clouds, since
the most chilled portions of free air sink to lower levels and thereby
become even warmer and drier than they were at first. Near the
surface, however, where descent and the consequent dynamical
warming, as it is called, are impossible, radiation often is very effec-
tive in the production of fog.

The last of the cooling processes mentioned above—that is, expan-
sion—is exceedingly effective, and to it is due the great bulk of cloud
formation. Now, expansion of the air may be produced either by
heating it or by reducing the pressure to which it is subjected. It
is the latter process, obviously, and not the former, even though
heating generally is the initial cause, that produces the cooling of
free air and the formation of cloud. To make these points clear,
consider the results when a given mass of humid air is heated, as it
may be, over a region warmed by sunshine or otherwise. With
increase of temperature it expands and thereby becomes lighter,
volume for volume, than the surrounding cooler air. The surround-
ing denser air then underruns the lighter and lifts it up to higher
levels, just as hot air is driven up a chimney. As the warmed air
is thus forced up (rises, as we generally say) the pressure to which
it is subjected obviously decreases in proportion to the weight of the
air left below. It therefore gradually expands as it rises and
thereby does work, and since the only energy available for this work is
the heat of the ascending air, it follows that as its height increases
its temperature must correspondingly decrease. As a matter of
fact, for air of average humidity, the rate of this decrease is ap-
proximately 1° F. per 187 feet increase of elevation up to the base of
the cloud, if there be one, in the rising air, and then much less
through the cloud. In any event the ascending air attains equi-
librium only when it has cooled by expansion to the temperature
of the air that finally surrounds it. Hence, when it comes to rest, it
is colder, often much colder, than it was before it was heated.

Of course the expansion of the rising air correspondingly increases
the vapor capacity, but it is easy to show, both theoretically and
experimentally, that this increase of vapor capacity by volume ex-
pansion is small in comparison with its simultaneous decrease through

FOGS AND CLOUDS—-HUMPHREYS. 191

the lowering of the temperature, and that convectional expansion,
therefore, whether incident to the blowing of wind up and over
mountains, or to local heating, is a most effective means of inducing
condensation and the formation of clouds.

CONDENSATION NUCLEI,

Whenever ordinary air, kept humid by the presence of water,
is suddenly expanded in a closed vessel, it instantly becomes filled
throughout with a miniature cloud, precisely as occurs on an incom-
parably larger scale in nature. Subsequent expansions of the same
air, otherwise undisturbed, induce less and less cloud, and presently
none at all. If filtered air—that is, air drawn through several inches
of cotton wool, or other substance of similar texture—is used, con-
densation by moderate expansion is impossible from the first. The
admission, however, of a little smoke restores to the exhausted air,
and endows the filtered air with, full powers of condensation. There
are, therefore, condensation nuclei in the atmosphere—hundreds and
often thousands of them per cubic inch—which can be filtered out;
and microscopic examination shows that they consist essentially of
dust particles. Hence, dust, moisture, and some cooling process are
the three essential factors in all natural fog and cloud formation.

It is true that a few substances other than dust, such as the
oxides of nitrogen, act as condensation nuclei, but they seem gen-
erally to be negligible in quantity. Furthermore, condensation can
be obtained in air wholly free from any such nuclei provided it is
ionized and forced to at least a fourfold supersaturation, a degree
of humidity that probably never occurs in nature. Indeed, under
very great supersaturation, eight or nine fold, condensation occurs
even in perfectly clean nonionized air. But this, too, is only a lab-
oratory experiment, and not a process by which clouds are formed
in nature.

FOGS.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN FOG AND CLOUD.

As already explained, whenever the air is cooled, by any means
whatever, below its dew point, a portion of the water vapor present
separates out on such dust particles or other condensation nuclei
as happen to be present. If this process occurs only at a con-
siderable distance above the surface of the earth, leaving the lower
air clear, the result is some form of cloud. If, on the other hand,
it extends quite to, or occurs at, the surface of the earth it is then
called a fog, no matter how shallow nor how deep it may be. The
distinction, therefore, between fog and cloud is that of position.
Fog is a cloud on the earth; cloud, a fog in the sky.

192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

In some cases the only basis of distinction between fog and cloud
is that of viewpoint. For example, the mist that sometimes covers
only the crest of a mountain generally is called fog by those actually
in it, and cloud, at the same time, by those in the valley below.

WHERE AND HOW FORMED.

Fogs are likely to form along rivers and large creeks and in the
mountain valleys of all but arid regions in the latter part of any
still cloudless night of summer or autumn. During these seasons
the streams and the humid soil are warm, especially when exposed
to sunshine, and hence evaporate much moisture into the lower
atmosphere, where, in great measure, it remains when there are no
winds to blow it away.

Throughout the night, however, the surface of the soil and the
adjacent humid air, by virtue of its humidity, lose heat rapidly by
radiation to the colder atmosphere above and to the sky, or empty
space, beyond. This loss of heat by radiation is no greater, of
course, by night than in the daytime, but when there is no sunshine
to make good such loss, or do better—as generally is the case through
the forenoon—the inevitable consequence is a lowering of the tem-
perature. Hence, during calm, clear nights the temperature of the
humid surface air often falls below the dew point and a fog of cor-
responding depth and density is formed.

If the sky is overcast there commonly is enough radiation from
the clouds back to the earth, especially if they happen to be low
(hence warm), to prevent the cooling of the surface air to the dew
point and the consequent formation of fog. Neither does fog form
when there is considerable wind, partly because the more humid
lower air is then mixed with the drier upper air and the surface
dew point thereby lowered, and partly because this mixing prevents
much fall in the surface temperature by distributing the loss of
heat through a relatively large amount of air instead of leaving it
confined essentially to that near the ground. Hence fogs of the
kind under consideration—radiation fogs, summer fogs, land fogs,
valley fogs—seldom occur either when the sky is cloudy or the night
windy.

Another source of numerous fogs is the drifting of relatively
warm humid air over places much colder, such as the drifting of
on-shore winds over snow banks. In this way the humid air
frequently is cooled below its dew point and fog— winter fog”
or “sea fog”—produced. Likewise, heavy fogs often are formed
when the wind is from warm to cold water—from the Gulf Stream
to the Labrador Current, for instance.

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 193

Fogs also frequently occur when cold air slowly flows in over
warm water. This explains the “frost smokes” of polar seas, and
the “steaming” of rivers and lakes on cold frosty mornings. In
these cases the relatively warm water goes on evaporating into the
cold air even after it becomes saturated and thereby produces a
water droplet or a minute ice crystal about every one of the myriad
millions of nuclei present. If, however, the cold air comes in with
a rush—that is, if it enters as a strong wind—no fog is produced,
simply because the vapor is distributed by the accompanying turbu-
lence through too large a volume to produce saturation.

KINDS.

In respect to the ways in which they are formed, fogs may be
divided into two classes:

1. Radiation fog (pl. 1, fig. 1), due to the cooling of the tower
air below the dew point, partly by its own radiation and partly by
contact with the surface which itself had cooled by radiation. This
type of fog is common, as already explained, along streams and in
valleys where, through the summer and autumn, it is apt to occur
on any calm, clear night.

2. Advection fog (pl. 1, fig. 2, and pl. 2, fig. 1), produced by the
advection or horizontal movement of air from one place to another
such as the drifting of relatively mild air from the ocean inland over
snow banks, or from a warm current to a cold one; and the flow of
frosty air over open water. Furthermore, any fog when shifted to
a new position may then be called advection fog. Usually, too, the
shifted fog, like that so common on many leeward coasts, is advective
also in origin.

There also are several other classifications of fogs, less scientific
perhaps, but often very convenient. Thus we speak of dry fog, mean-
ing a fog which, because of the small amount of water content, does
not wet our clothing—evaporates as fast as caught up—or else mean-
ing, as we often do, a haze caused by a forest fire, dust storm, or vol-
canic explosion; wet fog, meaning one containing so much water that,
like a Scotch mist, it makes at least the surface of one’s clothing dis-
tinctly damp; sea fog, fog originating on the ocean, whether re-
maining there or drifting on shore; land fog, one occurring in the
country and which, as its nuclei are but slightly hygroscopic, quickly
evaporates; city fog, one occurring over a city, especially a city that
uses a large amount of soft coal and has but few smoke consumers,
generally slow to evaporate, owing jointly, presumably, to the hy-
groscopic nature of the nuclei and to the oil in the unburned sooty
smoke; black fog, one containing a great amount of soot, such as occa-
sionally forms over large, smoky cities; pea-sowp fog, a local name

194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

given to those London fogs that contain only a moderate amount
of smoke particles—just enough to give the fog a distinctly yel-
lowish cast; ice fog, or “ frost smoke,” the fog of polar seas, caused
by the drifting over them of very cold air; and many others, mostly
of less interest and of small importance.

QUANTITY OF WATER CONTAINED.

It might seem, on first thought, that it would be a very easy thing
to measure the amount of liquid water in a given volume of fog, but
this amount is so small that even tolerably accurate measurements of
it require much care. Nevertheless, it has been reliably measured.
Thus, in the course of an official ice patrol cruise on the Seneca about
the southern edge of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, that is, in
the region of one of the most frequented of the steamer lanes, Wells
and 'Fhuras measured the water content of a dense fog that occurred
on the evening of May 9, 1915. In this fog there were about 20,000
droplets per cubic inch. In their report they say: “To gain some
idea of the order of magnitude of the quantities involved in this
dense fog, assume that one can not see beyond 100 feet. <A block of
fog 3 feet wide, 6 feet high and 100 feet long contains less than one-
seventh of a glass of liquid water. This water is distributed among
60 billion drops.”

Barely one good swallow!

SIZE AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES.

The size of fog particles is easily and accurately determined by
looking through the fog at a point (pinhole) source of bright light
and noting the difference in direction toward center and circumfer-
ence of any definite one of the rings of colored light seen around this
source—rings of precisely the same nature as the corone produced
by thin clouds around the sun and moon. This angular size, or dif-
ference in direction between center and circumference of any one of
these rings, increases as the diameter of the fog particles decreases,
and in such known and definite manner that when either is given the
other can at once be accurately calculated.

If then, we know the size of the fog particle and if, in addition,
we know the amount of liquid water in a given oman of fog,
which, as explained above, can be measured, it obviously is only a
matter of easy arithmetic to find the number of such particles per
cubic inch, say, or any other given volume.

These sizes and numbers, however, are surprising. Everyone
knows, of course, that a fog droplet is small, but not many, per-
haps, realize that 2,500 of them, of the average size, placed side
by side in a single row would extend only one inch, or, in other

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 195

words, that it would take half an hour to count a string of them
an inch long! Nor is the number of fog particles in a definite
volume any less amazing. It is but a light fog that has only 1,000
droplets per cubic inch; a heavy fog has around 20,000. Indeed,
vastly greater numbers have often been found, even up to nearly a
million per cubic inch.

But these droplets, as explained, are so excessively minute that
the very maximum density of a million per cubic inch would still
leave the empty space 30,000 times greater than the volume actually
occupied by all the liquid present.

IMPRESSIONS.

If one would thrill his soul with beauty let him, on a brilliant,
moonlit night, view from the mountain’s crest a far flung fog
over all the Piedmont region beyond, with foothills and knolls
rising here and there as so many enchanted islands in an enchanted
sea. Let him, as the dawn breaks clear, gaze from a mountain top
on an incipient, fibrous fog, covering a neighboring valley with a
fabric more gauzy and delicate than ever Arachne spun. Let him
stand on the topmost peak of rugged Tamalpais and watch in
wonder the mighty fog billows crowd through the Golden Gate,
break over the barrier mountain crests, and rush down their sides
in an all engulfing flood. Let him view from afar the snow-
crowned crest of incomparable Fuji, floating without visible sup-
port, in a clean, clear sky while all its base and the region around is
lost in deep fog and delicate mist.

These are but some, and typical, of the most beautiful and
fascinating of fog effects; so impressive, indeed, that we could
not forget them if we would, and so charming that certainly we
would not forget them if we could.

But the impressions produced by fog are not always so charm-
ing and entrancing. If one would go quite to the opposite extreme
and experience its terrors, let him get lost in London’s darkest and
densest fog. Let him be alone at night in an unfamiliar forest and
have settle down upon him so thick a fog that literally he can not
see his hand before him. Let him, on the ocean in the dead of
night, between the shrieks of his own ship’s siren hear from some-
where, just somewhere, within the encircling gloom, the same dread
warning. Let him, when flying over strange territory, be forced to
land in a deep, dense fog!

All these, and many others, are horrors one longs to forget,
but can not.

And so it is that, from extreme to extreme, from fascination to
fear, from delights we fondly cherish to dreads we would fain

196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

forget, fog in all its moods and circumstances plays compellingly
upon the whole gamut of human emotions.

CLOUD FORMS.

It is passing strange that the ancient Arabs, Greeks, and others
should have given a name to every portion of the heavens, and
to numerous individual stars—names still in current use through-
out the civilized world—and yet have failed to name any one of
the many kinds of clouds that are even more conspicuous in the
sky than the stars themselves or their constellations. Perhaps
giving them names long seemed both useless and impracticable
owing to their infinite variety and ceasless changes, for indeed,
as Shakespeare puts it:

Sometimes we see a cloud that’s dragonish,

A vapour sometimes like a bear or lion,

A towered citadel, a pendent rock,

A forked mountain, a blue promontory

With trees upon’t that nod unto the world

And mock our eyes with air.

That which is now a horse, even with a thought,
The rack dislimns and makes it indistinct

As water is in water.

But whatever the cause, there was not, down the ages, until the
very modern year 1801, any attempt whatever to classify the clouds,
although from the beginning everybody everywhere talked about
the weather and many wrote about it. This first attempt, made
in 1801, as just stated, was by the French naturalist, Lamarck. It
received little attention, however, and no general acceptance; owing
in part, presumably, to the fact that it was expressed in the words
aud phrases of a distinctly local or national language unfamiliar
to the world at large.

But the time for a practical classification of the clouds was ripe.
The need for it was felt by the large number of educated and cul-
tured people who were then taking an active and inquisitive interest
in the weather and its ways. Hence in a little while another classi-
fication was proposed, this time, 1803, by the Englishman, Luke
Howard. Like that of Lamarck’s, it, too, was based on the appearance
of the clouds, but the names, instead of being only locally under-
stood, were all in tolerably familiar Latin—the Esperanto of the
day. At any rate, whether this universal language had much to do
with it or not, Howard’s classification soon became well known and
extensively used; so much so indeed that all subsequent practical
classifications have been but extensions of this original one pub-
lished in 1803, with the addition, perhaps, of a few unusual and,

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, 197

commonly, unimportant types, some of which Howard probably
never saw.

To obtain uniformity in the cloud reports of professional meteor-
ologists, and of all others who wished to be clearly understood, the
International Meteorological Committee published in 1910, with
illustrations, the following definitions and descriptions of cloud
forms. The inclosed letters next after each type name are its cus-
tomary abbreviation. The illustrations are new (the original ones
are not available) but quite as good and typical, it is hoped, as
those selected by the committee.

The wording here followed of these international definitions and
descriptions is not exactly that of the original publication, but that
given in the second edition of “Cloud Forms,” 1921, by the British
Meteorological Office.

This latest classification of the clouds, a modification and exten-
sion of Howard’s, is also, like it, based on mere appearance and
not on anything really fundamental, such as cause or mode of forma-
tion. But however superficial such a classification may be, it never-
theless is the best, perhaps, that can be made, and altogether the
most practical. For instance, the mode of origin is not a practical
basis for cloud classification, however desirable, because several types
of cloud are formed in different ways and frequently one can not
be certain just what the actual way really was.

The supplementary remarks, after each of the following quoted
definitions and descriptions, while intrusive in position, may, it is
hoped, be of some service to those who are not yet cloud experts.

INTERNATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF CLOUD FORMS,
AND SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS.

1. Cirrus (Ci.)—‘Detached clouds of delicate appearance, fibrous
(threadlike) structure, and featherlike form, generally white in
color. Cirrus clouds take the most varied shapes, such as isolated
tufts of hair, 2. e., thin filaments on a blue sky, branched filaments
in feathery form, straight or curved filaments ending in tufts
(called cirrus uncinus), and others. Occasionally cirrus clouds are
arranged in bands, which traverse part of the sky as arcs of great
circles, and as an effect of perspective appear to converge at a point
on the horizon and at the opposite point also, if they are sufficiently
extended, Cirro-stratus and cirro-cumulus also are sometimes
similarly arranged in long bands.” (PI. 2, fig. 2; pl. 3, figs. 1 and 2;
and pl. 4.)

An interesting form of cirrus clouds is the familiar “mares’ tails”
(pl. 3, fig. 2), especially when a considerable number of them occur

55379—24__14

198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

in the same region of the sky. These are only thin streaks of snow
into which a little ball of rising cloud is drawn out, partly by the
slow descent of the snow itself, and partly by the increase of wind
velocity with elevation.

The cirrus occurs up to (and usually at) greater heights than any
other type of cloud—roughly 5 miles in polar regions, 7 in middle lati-
tudes, and 9 within the Tropics. Since it occurs above all other clouds
it also is the coldest, ranging, roughly, from 50°F. below zero near
the poles to 90° below in the neighborhood of the Equator, the differ-
ence in temperature being due to the difference in height. Further-
more, because it is the coldest of the clouds it likewise is the thinnest,
being formed in air whose water content, owing to its low tempera-
ture, must be very small. Indeed, the sun and moon are sharply
outlined through it. Finally, as its temperature is so very low the
cirrus nearly always (there seem to be occasional exceptions) consists
of snow crystals.

As just stated, the cirrus occurs at higher levels than does any
other type of cloud. But it also occurs, under favorable conditions,
at any other level, even down to the surface. It is only a shallow,
or thin, cloud of fine snow crystals (except rarely) drawn out by
the wind into more or less parallel, fine streaks. Its chief cause
appears to be the further cooling, by expansion due to ascent, of
air already cold and holding but little moisture, and the dragging
out of the slight cloud thus formed into streaks and whirls by
the winds in which it occurs.

When the cirrus slowly disappears, leaving a clear sky, fair
weather is probable for at least a day or two. On the other hand,
when it gradually thickens and merges into a nearly continuous and
formless sheet, rain or snow usually begins within a few hours.

2. Cirro-stratus (Ci.-St.)—“A thin sheet of whitish cloud; some-
times covering the sky completely and merely giwing it a milky ap-
pearance; it is then called cirro-nebula or cirrus haze; at other times
presenting more or less distinctly a fibrous structure like a tangled
aeb. This sheet often produces halos round the sun or moon.” (PI.
5, fig. 2.)

The halos here referred to are of two kinds: (a) Those due to
the refraction of light into rainbow colors on its passage through
ice crystals; and (6) those produced by the mere reflection of light
(hence white or colorless) by the faces of these crystals.

The most common of the first class of halos are: (1) The circle
of 22° radius about the sun or moon (pl. 5, fig. 2); (2) the similar
circle of 46° radius; and (3) the circumzenithal arc, a brilliantly
colored arc having the point directly overhead as its center, but ap-
pearing on the side next the sun only. The chief halos of the second

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 199

or reflection class are (1) the parhelic circle, a white band of light
passing around the sky parallel to the horizon and through the sun
(pl. 5, fig. 2); and (2) the sun pillar, a vertical column of white
light extending directly above and below the sun.

These halos are positive proof that the cirro-stratus clouds, like
the cirrus from which they frequently are developed, also consist,
normally, of myriads of ice crystals.

Whenever the cirro-stratus cloud (pl. 5, fig. 1) has developed from
a cirrus it may be assumed that rain or snow, as determined by the
temperature, probably will soon follow, not out of the cirro-stratus,
of course, but from an approaching nimbus, or rain cloud.

Though denser than the cirrus, the cirro-stratus still is so thin as
to leave the outline of the sun sharply defined.

3. Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.)—“ Mackerel Sky—Small rounded
masses or white flakes without shadow, or showing very slight
shadow, arranged in groups and often in lines. French, Moutons—
German, Schdfchen-wolken.” (Pl. 6, figs. 1 and 2.)

The term “mackerel sky” is an abbreviation of “ mackerel-back
sky,” so named because of the frequent resemblance of rows of cirro-
cumuli to the patterns (not the scales) on the backs of one or more
species of mackerel. When the cirro-cumuli are small, numerous,
and without order or pattern, they often are called “curdle sky.”
(Pl. 6, fig. 2.)

All forms of the cirro-cumulus appear to be due to small local
convections. Those occurring in rows presumably are on the crests
of air waves or billows at the interface between wind layers of
unequal speeds or different directions, or both, and commonly un-
equal also in temperature and humidity. The cirro-cumulus, through
turbulence or other cause, often merges into a more or less uniform,
stratified cloud, especially the cirro-stratus.

The fact that the cirro-cumuli cast but faint shadows, if any, and
that the sharp outline of the sun is visible through them shows that
they are quite thin and contain but little cloud material.

4, Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu).—‘ Larger rounded masses, white or
grayish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so
crowded together in the middle region that the cloudlets join. The
separate masses are generally larger and more compact (resembling
strato-cumulus) in the middle region of the group, but the denseness
of the layer varies and sometimes is so attenuated that the individual
masses assume the appearance of sheets or thin flakes of considerable
extent with hardly any shading. At the margin of the group they
form smaller cloudlets resembling those of cirro-cumulus. The cloud-
lets often group themselves in parallel lines, arranged in one or more
directions.” (Pl. 7, figs. 1 and 2; pl. 8, figs. 1 and 2; pl. 9, fig. 1.)

200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The alto-cumuli appear to be due to local convections, caused either
by differences of temperature or by wave motion, analogous to those
that produce the cirro-cumuli, but are at lower levels, roughly 24
miles high, usually larger in volume and of more humid air,
They frequently form in the early forenoon after a clear sunrise
in consequence of scattered convection in a humid layer of air—humid
from the evaporation in it of a previous sheet of alto-cumuli, or
owing to moisture from the spreadout tops of thunderstorm clouds.
After sundown this type of cloud frequently evaporates, through the
process of cooling, contracting, and then sinking to a warmer and
drier level.

5. Alto-stratus (A.-St.).—A dense sheet of a gray or bluish color,
sometimes forming a compact mass of dull gray color and fibrous
structure. At other times the sheet is thin like the denser forms of
cirro-stratus, and through it the sun and the moon may be seen dimly
gleaming as through ground glass. This form exhibits all stages of
transition between alto-stratus and cirro-stratus, but according to
the measurements its normal altitude is about one-half of that of
cirro-stratus.” (PI. 6, fig. 2; pl. 9, fig. 2.)

This type of cloud may be formed by the flow of warmer moist air
over colder air beneath, by winds dragging out the tops of thunder-
storm clouds, by the cooling in place of a layer of humid air, and by
the relatively small precipitation out of alto-cumulus and cirro-
cumulus.

The sun and moon when seen through the alto-stratus, alto-
cumulus, or any other thin cloud of water droplets, are sur-
rounded by one or more sets of rings of colored light commonly
only two or three diameters of the sun, or moon, away (pl. 26, fig. 2).

These small circles, in which the red is farthest from the sun
or moon are called coronae, and are produced, as just stated,
by the action (diffraction) of small water droplets on the light.
The much larger circles, called halos, and whose red portions are
nearest the sun, or moon, are caused, as previously explained, by
the passage of light through ice crystals. |

6. Strato-cumulus (St.-Cu.).—‘ Large lumpy masses or rolls of
dull gray cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially m
winter. Generally strato-cumulus presents the appearance of a
gray layer broken up into irregular masses and having on the mar-
gin smaller masses grouped in flocks like alto-cumulus. Some-
times this cloud-form has the characteristic appearance of great
rolls of cloud arranged in parallel lines close together. (oll-
cumulus in England, Wulst-cumulus in Germany.) The rolls them-
selves are dense and dark, but in the intervening spaces the cloud
is much lighter and blue sky may sometimes be seen through them.

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 201

Strato-cumulus may be distinguished from nimbus by its lumpy or
rolling appearance, and by the fact that it does not generally tend
to bring rain.” (PI. 10, figs. 1 and 2.)

This cloud, of which there are several forms ranging from the
stratus of uneven density through the great parallel rolls to the
sheet of well-nigh discrete cumuli, is always due to vertical con-
vection. The more nearly discrete or separate masses are produced
by the rising of warm air (thermal convection), while the irregu-
larities in the stratus form appear to be caused, in large part at
least, by mechanical turbulence. This last type (pl. 10, fig. 2),
might well be called turbulo-cumulus. The shallow depth and
broad expanse of the strato-cumulus often is due to an overlying
layer of air of such temperature that the rising, cloud-laden column
can not pass through it, and hence is forced to spread out, much as
rising smoke in a room spreads out under the ceiling.

7. Nimbus (Nb.).—‘A dense layer of dark, shapeless cloud with
ragged edges from which steady rain or snow usually falls. If
there are openings in the cloud an upper layer of cirro-stratus
or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen through them. Tf a
layer of nimbus separates in strong wind into ragged cloud, or if
small detached clouds are seen drifting underneath a large nimbus
(the ‘Scud’ of sailors), either may be specified as fracto-nimbus
(Fr.-Nb.)” (PI. 11, fig. 1.)

The name of this cloud has evoked much discussion. Nimbus,
originally meaning cloud and, inferentially, storm, now means snow
or rain cloud. Hence, many argue, if rain or snow is falling from
a cloud it certainly is a rain cloud. Likewise, if rain is not falling
from it, then clearly it must be some other sort of cloud. But, on
the other hand, if a given cloud while raining happens to be a typical
rain cloud (nimbus), what was it immediately before we saw the
rain? Again, if it happens to be raining very hard what shall we
call the cloud that we can not see for the rain? Suppose that we
can not see the edge of the cloud that is raining, and generally we
can not, dare we then call it a nimbus in face of the official defini-
tion “with ragged edges”?

These are typical of the questions and quibbles the arbitrary
official definition of “ nimbus ” has evoked.

As a matter of fact a trace at least of precipitation may be
falling from a typical alto-stratus, alto-cumulus, or other form,
which it would be but confusion to call nimbus. Similarly, a
typical nimbus from which rain is falling steadily looks but little
different from what it did immediately before the rain began.
Hence it is convenient to interpret the definition broadly enough to
cover both cases. If the cloud is typically alto-cumulus, call it alto-

202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

cumulus, whatever may be falling. On the other hand, if it looks
like a rain cloud and is not a “cumulo-nimbus,” described below,
call it nimbus, whether it is raining or not and regardless of
all edges.

Of course in taking weather notes it commonly is superfluous
to say both rain and nimbus cloud, because the former nearly
always implies the latter, except in the case of the thunderstorm,
which is separately reported. However, if one were noting clouds
alone he certainly should say nimbus, or occasionally, nimbus
cumuliformis, whenever there is precipitation of appreciable in-
tensity without lightning or thunder.

This type of cloud is most frequently formed by some kind of
mechanical convection, such as ascent due to converging winds,
the flow of air over mountain barriers, and the over and under
running of currents of different temperatures.

The fracto-nimbus, or scud, is only a low, ragged detached
fragment of cloud that often rises, like steam, immediately after
rainfall on a warm surface, especially the sides of mountains, which
it ascends like drifting fog. (PI. 11, fig. 2.) It also is frequently
dragged out of a crest cloud (which see below), by the swirls of the
passing wind and hurled down the leeward mountain slope.

8. Cumulus (Cu.).—‘ Woolpack or Cauliflower Cloud.—T hick
cloud of which the upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits
protuberances while the base is generally horizontal. These clouds
appear to be formed by ascensional movement of air in the daytime
which is almost always observable. When the cloud and the sun
are on opposite sides of the observer, the surfaces facing the
observer are more brilliant than the margins of the protuberances.
When, on the contrary, it is on the same side of the observer as the
sun it appears dark with bright edges. When the light falls side-
ways, as is usually the case, cumulus clouds show deep shadows.”
(Pl. 7, fig. 2; pl. 12, figs. 1 and 2; pl. 18, figs. 1 and 2; and pl. 14,
fig. 1.)

“True cumulus has well-defined upper and lower margins; but
one may sometimes see ragged clouds—like cumulus torn by strong
wind—of which the detached portions are continually changing;
to this form of cloud the name fracto-cumulus may be given.”
(Pl. 14, fig. 2.)

Even the most casual observation shows the cauliflower heads
and sides of cumuli to be in a state of rapid change and constant
turmoil. All clouds of this type are caused by the lower air being
so much warmer than the upper that it is forced to ascend much as
warm air is pushed up a chimney by the heavier cold air on the
outside. Hence, even forest fires sometimes cause the formation of

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 203

cumuli. (Pl. 15, fig. 1.) However, we should remember that the
fire itself adds a surprisingly large amount of moisture to the
air—a gallon of water, roughly, for every 15 pounds of fuel burned,
so that the fire cumulus is not entirely due to convection.

Since cumuli are caused by rising air currents induced by rela-
tively high surface temperatures, they are very common in equa-
torial regions, and also through the middle latitudes during summer.
Hence, too, they commonly occur over land most frequently during
the afternoon and over water late at night. For the same reason
they often follow a coast line over the water at night and over the
land through the day. Similarly they are common over islands (pl.
15, fig. 2), whose presence frequently is shown in this way while
they themselves are still below the horizon.

9. Cumulo-nimbus (Cu.-Nb.).—“ The thunder cloud; shower
cloud.—Great masses of cloud rising in the form of mountains or
towers or anvils, generally having a veil or screen of fibrous texture
(false cirrus) at the top and at its base a cloud mass similar to
nimbus. From the base local showers of rain or snow, occasionally
of hail or soft hail, usually fall. Sometimes the upper margins
have the compact shape of cumulus or form massive heaps, around
which floats delicate false cirrus. At other times the margins them-
selves are fringed with filaments similar to cirrus clouds. This last
form is particularly common with spring showers. The front of a
thunderstorm of wide extent is frequently in the form of a large
low arch above a region of uniformly lighter sky.” (PI. 16, figs. 1
and 2.)

This is the most turbulent and also the thickest of all clouds,
ranging in depth commonly from 1 to 3 miles, and occasionally, in
tropical regions, even to 8 or 9 miles. Its times, places, and modes
of occurrence are all the same as those of the cumulus, given above.

10. Stratus (St.)—‘‘A uniform layer of cloudlike fog not lying
on the ground. The cloud layer of stratus is always very low. If
it is divided into ragged masses in a wind or by mountain tops it
may be called fracto-stratus. The complete absence of detail of
structure differentiates stratus from other aggregated forms of
cloud.” (PI. 11, fig. 2.)

The stratus is the lowest of clouds, averaging around 2,000 feet
above the surface. It frequently is formed by the lifting of rela-
tively warm, humid air by underrunning cold winds; by the flow of
a warm, humid wind over a surface stratum of cold air; and by
the drifting of deep fog from the sea over relatively warm land, as
in the case of the “ velo” cloud of southern California, in which the
lower portion of the fog is delightfully evaporated away, while the

204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

upper part is left as a gracious veil that shields one from the sun
until nearly noon.

The same pamphlet, entitled “Cloud Forms,” from which the
above quoted definitions and descriptions of the ten standard
cloud types were taken, contains also the following instructions
to observers:

“(a) In the daytime in summer all the lower clouds assume,
as a rule, special forms more or less resembling cumulus. In such
cases the observer may enter in his notes ‘stratus- or nimbus-
cumuliformis.’

“(b) Sometimes a cloud will show a mammillated surface and
the appearance should be noted under the name mammato-cumu-
base TE le ET, aa 1.)

“(c) The form taken by certain clouds particularly on days of
siroceo, mistral, fohn, etc., which show an ovoid form with clean
outlines and sometimes irisation, will be indicated by the name
lenticular, for example: Cumulus lenticuiaris, stratus lenticularis
(Cu.-lent., St.-lent.).

“(d) Notice should always be taken when the clouds seem mo-
tionless or if they move with very great velocity.”

SPECIAL CLOUD FORMS,

It may seem, no doubt, that enough cloud forms have already
been mentioned to include every type known to the heavens, and
thus to satisfy the most ardent cloud observer, but, in addition to
the gradual transformation of a cloud from one type to another,
giving stages that puzzle the expert, there are several occasional
forms sufficiently distinct, even though some of them belong to the
general types already mentioned, to justify individual names and
special descriptions.

Billow cloud.—Billow clouds (pl. 9, fig. 1), also called windrow
clouds and wave clouds, occur in nearly equally spaced parallel
bands, generally with intervening strips of clear sky. The billow
cloud most frequently, perhaps, is only a special form of the more
general alto-cumulus. It also is a common form, rather as ripples,
however, of the cirro-cumulus (pl. 6, fig. 1). On rare occasions it
likewise occurs at low levels where it might be called a type of
strato-cumulus.

But whatever its level, the billow cloud is always produced in the
same way—by the flowing of one stratum or current of air over
another of distinctly greater density, thereby creating air billows
precisely as water billows are formed on the ocean. Now, the

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, 205

crests or tops of these waves are cooled by expansion, having risen
above their previous level, and their troughs or bottoms warmed
by compression. Hence, when the under layer is practically satu-
rated, each crest, because of this cooling, is cloud-capped, and each
trough clear.

It is particularly interesting to note that although each billow
cloud maintains its identity and position in the series of waves as
long as it exists at all—for hours it may be—nevertheless the
actual particles of which it consists at any instant have only the
briefest duration, there being continuous condensation on the
rising or windward side of the billow and equivalent evaporation
in the descending or leeward portion.

Furthermore, while the billow cloud progresses steadily across
the sky, its velocity is neither that of the upper stratum nor of the
lower, any more than the velocity of a water wave is either that of
the wind that is producing it or of the water in which it occurs.
Wind velocity, therefore, can not be determined by measurements
on clouds of this kind; nor, of course, by attempted measurements
on any of the stationary types, such as those mentioned below.

Lenticular cloud.—The lenticular cloud (pl. 17, fig. 2; pl. 18, figs.
1 and 2; pl. 19; and pl. 20, fig. 1) is only the cloud cap to a
stationary or nearly stationary air billow produced as a rule by
the flow of the wind over an uneven surface. It is especially
common among high peaks and rugged mountains. Its material,
like that of the crest cloud, is in rapid change—condensation on
the windward side and evaporation to the leeward. Hence it is
shaped like a double convex lens, the suggestive origin of its name,
thickest in the middle and thinning away to nothing on either side.

As implied above, this is a stationary cloud, and hence one of the
several that can not be used to measure wind velocities.

Crest cloud.—The crest cloud (pl. 20, fig. 2) is caused by the up-
ward deflection, and consequent cooling by expansion, of humid
winds by a long mountain ridge, whose crest it commonly covers,
whence its name, and whose sides it often gracefully drapes. Occa-
sionally, however, it forms slightly above and a trifle to the leeward
of the ridge along the topmost (hence coolest) portion of the de-
flected wind current. In either case the cloud is permanent in posi-
tion only, being continuously created (condensed) on the wind-
ward or ascending and cooling side, and destroyed (evaporated) on
the lee or descending and warming side.

The best known example, perhaps, of this interesting cloud is the
celebrated “Table Cloth” of Cape Town pride, spread by the south-
easterlies over the top and down the sides of Table Mountain.

206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

When the obstruction is only a peak the crest cloud is apt to ba
called a cap, hat, cowl, hood, and the like, all of which are recog-
nized signs of bad weather, as, for instance:

“When Falkland Hill puts on his cap,
The Howe o’ Fife will get a drap.

“When Traprain puts on his hat,
The Lothian lads may look to that.

“When Rubenslaw puts on his cowl,
The Dunion on his hood,

Then a’ the wives of Teviotside
Ken there will be a flood.”

hiffle cloud.—Very often the crest cloud along a mountain ridge
is paralleled by a similar but smaller cloud over the leeward valley,
or plain in the case of the exceptional isolated mountain. The
wind, deflected in a great wave over the mountain, rises in a series
of decreasing billows beyond, like the waves or riffles in ariver due
to a ledge of rock, or other obstruction, on the bottom—hence the
name “ riffle cloud.”

The process by which the crest cloud is formed along the ridge
of the mountain and restricted thereto, that is, the cooling of the
air by ascent on the windward side and its warming by descent on
the lee side, occurs also in the rising and falling air on the wind-
ward and the lee sides respectively of the series of air waves, or giant
riffes, induced by the mountain obstruction to the wind. Hence,
when the crest cloud is at all heavy the top of the first and largest
wave is apt to be clouded; even the second wave occasionally shows
some cloud, but the third rarely if ever.

The crest cloud and the riffle cloud, since they show the presence
of humid winds, are excellent signs of rain, or snow, in a few
hours. The order of occurrence is: Formation of the crest cloud;
thickening of the crest cloud and forming of the riffle cloud; growth
and union of these two clouds and the complete covering of the
sky; onset of rain or snow.

Banner cloud.—The banner cloud (pl. 21, fig. 1) suggests a great
white flag, whence its name, floating from a tall mountain peak.
In strong winds the atmospheric pressure to the immediate leeward
of such a peak is more or less reduced. If the humidity is right
this causes a cloud through the resulting cooling, aided, no doubt,
in many cases, by the cold walls of the peak itself. Here too, as
in the preceding cases, the cloud is stationary, but its substance in
rapid flux through condensation on one side and evaporation on
the other.

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, 207

Scarf cloud.—It occasionally happens that as a cumulus rises
rapidly to a great height a thin cirrus-lke cloud arch, convex up-
ward, forms above, and detached from, the topmost cumulus
head (pl. 21, fig. 2), so suggestive of a halo as to arouse poetic if not
even pious fancies. As the cumulus continues to rise this flossy
cloud grows and rests like a veil over the thunderhead. A little
later, a few minutes at most, it mantles the cumulus shoulder (pl.
22, fig. 1), the head or heads being free, and may even drape the
sides. In all cases it has the sheen and apparent texture of a great
silken scarf—hence the name. It has often been called false cirrus,
but that term is now commonly restricted to an entirely different
cloud. It frequently is also called a cap cloud, but this name, apart
from being loosely applied to any sort of cloud on a mountain peak,
is applicable, by analogy, only during the early stages of the develop-
ment of the scarf cloud and hence neither distinctive nor properly
descriptive.

It is caused by the rising and consequent expansion and cooling
of the air directly above the cumulus heads. Ordinarily this move-
ment and cooling of the air over the cumulus produces no visible effect.
Occasionally, however, there happens to be a stratum of air at a con-
siderable height (3 or 4 miles) that is practically saturated. When
such a layer is lifted locally, as just explained, a thin cloud, the first
stage of the scarf cloud, is formed at the place of disturbance. When
this layer is thin, as it commonly is, the thunderheads generally pass
quite through it into drier air above, leaving the scarf cloud mantling
the shoulders of the cumulus, or draping its sides at about the original
level of the humid stratum.

Although this is not a rare cloud, few, apparently, are familiar
with it, owing to its ephemeral nature and occurrence with other
clouds. It has, of course, but little of the grandeur of a towering
cumulus or intricacy of a far-flung cirrus, nevertheless, its coming
into existence at an unexpected place, its silken texture, and its
changes in form and position all merit its being carefully looked for
and closely followed when found.

Tonitro-cirrus.—The name “ tonitro-cirrus,” thunder cirrus, is ap-
plied to those gray locks, to speak figuratively, combed out from old
thunderheads by the upper winds, and also the thinner edges of the
anvil cloud, or spreading top of a cumulo-nimbus. (PI. 22, fig. 2.)

Even though the winds of the lower atmosphere are always light
when great towering cumuli are formed, the upper winds may still
be strong. Clearly, then, the top of a cumulus that extends into a
stratum of swift winds is certain to be drawn out into a more or
less extensive, fibrous sheet of snow crystals that differs but little,
if any, from the ordinary cirrus except in its mode of origin. A
more common name for this cloud is “ false cirrus,’ but this term

208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

is objectionable since the cloud in question is indeed a cirrus, differ-
ing from other cirri, as stated, only in origin.

Mammato-cumulus.—The mammato-cumulus, called also pocky-
cloud, festoon-cloud, sack-cloud, “ rain balls,” and several other local
names, is a sort of miniature up-side-down cumulus. (PI. 17, fig. 1.)
It occurs most frequently in connection with severe thunderstorms,
and appears to be due to irregular descents here and there of cold
air onto an existing stratus cloud, each place of fall being marked by
a downward bulge in the cloud base.

Tornado or funnel cloud—The tornado or funnel cloud (pl. 23,
figs. 1 and 2; pl. 24) is only a long funnel-shaped cloud about the
axis of rotation of a tornado. It hangs down, either straight or
curved, from the base of a rain cloud—commonly, if not always, a
cumulo-nimbus—and varies in extent all the way from a mere pro-
tuberance on the parent cloud, to a crooked trunk reaching all the
way to the earth. It is caused by the cooling, due to expansion,
of the rotating air, to a temperature below the dew-point. In short,
it is just cloud, induced, like other clouds, by cooling, though often
mixed with dust in its lower portion.

CLOUD MISCELLANY.
CLOUD MATERIAL.

Clouds consist either of water droplets, always when the tem-
perature is above freezing, or ice crystals, normally when the tem-
perature is below freezing, but not invariably, because occasion-
ally the droplets cool without solidifying to, or, perhaps, form at,
temperatures far below the “ freezing point.”

The droplets that together constitute a cloud out of which no
rain is falling vary in size from the vanishingly small, especially
at the surface and edges where they are likely to be disappearing
by evaporation, or coming into existence through condensation, up
to several fold that of the average particle. Most of them, how-
ever, appear to be about one one-thousandth of an inch in diameter,
roughly the size of the familiar lycopodium spore. In rain clouds,
on the other hand, such as the cumulo-nimbus, this range is much
greater—from the invisibly minute, as before, up to the fully de-
veloped drop of one-tenth, say, to one-fifth (the maximum possible)
of an inch across.

The ice crystals, the material of cold clouds, also vary widely in
size, and include every gradation from the minute, almost micro-
scopic, needles of the cirrus to the well-known snow flakes of the
winter storm. Their chief claim, however, on our attention is not
because of this interesting dimensional range, but owing to their

FOGS AND CLOUDS—-HUMPHREYS. 209

exquisite beauty. The fundamental pattern, however simple or
complex the crystal, is always the same, the hexagon, or six-sided
column, but the variety is endless: Needles with pyramidal ends; col-
umns, with flat ends; mere hexagonal flakes; hexagons with a simple
extension at each angle, and hexagons with complex extensions in
myriad varieties—and all are beautiful. Naturally then, hundreds of
these numberless forms, as admirably photographed by that en-
thusiast, Mr. W. A. Bentley, of Jericho, Vt., have been used as models
in design and art. Nor is there a keener zest than Mr. Bentley’s as
year after year he adds pattern upon pattern to his long since marvel-
ous collection of photomicrographs of the snow crystal.

WHY THE ATMOSPHERE AS A WHOLE NEVER IS SATURATED.

Since evaporation is continuous from much the greater portion
of the surface of the earth, it would seem that the atmosphere would
soon become saturated throughout, and perhaps even filled every-
where with fog and cloud. But before the surface air has become
approximately saturated to any considerable depth it commonly
is carried to higher levels by some type of convection, and this causes
it to cool, as already explained, and eventually to give up much of
its moisture, generally in the condition of rain or snow. Sooner or
later, however, the air out of which the precipitation falls returns
to lower levels where clearly it is less humid, on the average, than
when it began to ascend, by the amount of water abandoned dur-
ing its upward course. In short, vertical convection induces
precipitation through cooling, and precipitation in turn so dries the
air as to prevent it from becoming and remaining everywhere in-
tolerably humid, as it otherwise would be.

WHY CLOUDS FLOAT.

Since water is about 800 times heavier than air, one might well
wonder how it is possible for a cloud, consisting of myriads of drop-
lets, to float in a medium so light and of such slight resistance to
penetration as the atmosphere. But, however imperceptible and
entirely negligible the resistance of still air may be to our own
movements, it is not. strictly zero. In vacuo, for instance, as we
know from one of the most familiar of experiments, “the farthing
and the feather fall together,” but more and more apart in air of
increasing density. Now the total pull of a raindrop, say, causing
it to fall, remains the same no matter how finely it is divided, while
the amount of air disturbed, and hence the resistance and time of
fall, increase with every subdivision; and since a single raindrop,
one-sixth of an inch in diameter, is divisible into, or is the equivalent
of, 8,000,000 average cloud droplets, it is clear that, while the rain

210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

may descend, the cloud must settle, if it comes down at all, much more
slowly.

Cloud droplets of the size just implied—that is, such that 1,200
of them side by side make a row 1 inch long—do, as a matter
of fact, fall through still air about 8 feet per minute. Hence,
where there are no rising currents, a cloud must, and does, grad-
ually sink into the lower unsaturated air and evaporate. Clouds,
however, as explained above, commonly are formed in ascending
currents, and this ascent generally is distinctly greater than 8
feet per minute, the rate just given of cloudfall in still air. Hence
cloud is continously formed at that level at which the rising air
is cooled by its expansion to the dew point. The droplets here
formed are carried to higher levels, there evaporated or merged into
raindrops, or carried away, as circumstances determine, but new
droplets replacing these are as continuously being formed as fresh
humid air rises to the cloud level.

Clouds, therefore, do not even eventually fall to the earth because
either they are continuously formed at the condensation level by
rising currents or, on slowly sinking (8 feet per minute) to lower
levels in still air, or being dragged down by descending air, are
soon evaporated. In any case the cloud floats at a greater or less
height and never falls precipitately to the earth as does rain.

HOW RAIN IS PRODUCED.

Few people ever ask how rain is produced. Perhaps this is be-
cause the phenomenon is too familiar to arouse one’s curiosity or
make him in the least inquisitive. Nevertheless, and however
childish it may seem, it is both a rational question and a difficult one
to answer.

The familiar, pretended answer, is, in effect, that somehow the air .
is cooled until condensation occurs on the various nuclei present, and
that the larger of the droplets thus produced that happen to be well
up in the cloud fall to lower levels, thereby encountering many other
particles and through coalescence with them growing into full-sized
drops. But, as implied, this explanation explains nothing. In the
first place there are so many nuclei present in the atmosphere—hun-
dreds at least, and usually thousands, to every cubic inch—that divi-
sion of the condensed vapor between them leaves every one quite
too minute to fall with any considerable velocity. Then, too, calcula-
tion shows that if a particle should fall, in the manner supposed,
through a cloud even a mile thick and pick up everything in its path
it still would be a small drop. That is, rain is not formed in this

FOGS AND CLOUDS—-HUMPHREYS. 211

simple manner, as is also obvious from the fact that a cloud may last
for many hours without giving any rain whatever.

The actual processes in the formation of rain seem to be:

1. For some reason, such as surface heating, a mountain in the
wind’s path, or convergence of different currents, the surface air is
forced up to considerable heights; during which rise it does work—
gives up energy—by expansion against the surrounding pressure
and thereby cools.

2. As soon as the dew point is passed condensation begins on the
innumerable nuclei present and a cloud is formed, the particles of
which, being heavier than equal volumes of air, slowly fall with
reference to the atmosphere itself. That is, the rising current passes
by the cloud particles to a greater or less extent however high they
may be carried.

3. The lower cloud particles filter the air rising through them and
thereby more or less clean it of dust motes and other nuclei. Hence
the droplets formed in the rising air after this filtration grow much
faster, being relatively few, than they otherwise would.

4, Presently many of the larger droplets coalesce and thus be-
come heavy enough to fall against the rising current. Nor, indeed,
can they fall (reach lower levels) until by condensation, or coa-
lescence, or both, they have attained a certain minimum size deter-
mined by the vertical velocity of the air in which they happen to be.

In short, a rising current, essential to any considerable condensa-
tion, that sustains, or even carries higher, cloud droplets until they
have grown to falling size, and the automatic filtering of the ascend-
ing air by the cloud formed in it (which filtering restricts further
condensation to comparatively few particles and thus insures their
rapid growth), appear to be necessary and sufficient to account for
the formation of rain.

5. Most of the drops, as they emerge from a cloud, are likely to
have substantially the same size, namely, that which is just sufficient
to overcome the upward movement of the air in which they were
formed. Now, drops of the same size fall with the same speed,
hence any two that happen to be close together are likely to remain
so much longer than drops of unequal size and thereby have more
chances of union through fortuitous disturbances. Furthermore,
when falling drops are side by side the air tends to push them
together just as passing boats are forced toward each other. Clearly,
though, this pressure has time to bring closely neighboring drops
into actual contact only when they fall with the same or very nearly
the same speed. From these considerations it seems that the smallest
drops, size 1, say, should unite to form size 2, and size 2 unite with
each other to form size 4, rather than with size 1 to form size 3,

212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and so on, doubling at each union. Hence we should expect more
drops having the weights 1, 2, 4, 8,.... than any intermediate
values, and this expectation has been fully verified by observations
on all sorts of rains.

THE MEASURING OF CLOUD HEIGHTS.

It is always interesting and sometimes very useful to know the
heights of the clouds, or, to be more exact, the heights of their
bases—useful, frequently, to the aviator to whom very low clouds
may be a danger and certainly a nuisance, and useful as an aid in
forecasting the local weather for the next few hours.

There are several methods of determining the heights of clouds
as accurately as ever is necessary. Indeed, under favorable circum-
stances, the error may not be more than a few feet.

1. The aviator, for instance, can take the reading, corrected if
necessary, of his altimeter the instant he climbs into the base of
a cloud.

2. A pilot balloon (small free balloon without instruments) may
be observed from two stations a mile, say, apart, and its exact direc-
tion from each station, both horizontal and vertical, noted as it dis-
appears into a cloud base. From these directions, which can be deter-
mined very accurately with suitable theodolites, and from the known
distance between the two observing stations and the height of either
above the other, the cloud height is readily obtained by a simple
trigonometrical calculation.

3. Any definite spot on the base of a cloud may be simultane-
ously observed (triangulated, to be exact) from two stations and
its height calculated from the data thus obtained, precisely as in
the case of the pilot balloon. The observations, of course, may be
either visual or photographic; the latter, if well done, generally
being the better since it affords opportunity for detailed study and
sei measurements on many different points.

. The angular altitude of a kite and the length of wire out, at
ile time it enters a cloud base, also furnish a fair means of com-
puting the desired height.

5. The exact time of disappearance of a kite up into a cloud may
be noted, and the height of the kite at that instant, and hence also of
the cloud, determined by subsequent examination of the temperature
and pressure records on the kite instruments.

6. The level of storm clouds, or low clouds at the time of strong
winds, and of ordinary cumuli, can be tolerably closely computed
from the current values of the temperature and humidity.

The above are by no means all the possible ways of measuring
the heights of clouds, but they are the more accurate and the ones
most commonly practiced.

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, 213

WHY THE BASE OF A GIVEN CLOUD, OR CLOUD SYSTEM, HAS EVERYWHERE
NEARLY THE SAME HEIGHT.

One of the most interesting and significant things learned from
cloud measurements is the fact that the base of any cloud sheet—that
is, a particular sheet at a particular time, whether continuous or
broken and scattered—is everywhere at about the same level. The
reasons for this are very simple: (a) Since the temperature and
humidity of the air at any given time are nearly the same at neigh-
boring places over a considerable area, the height throughout such
region is approximately constant at which rising air will have cooled
to the dew point and cloud begun to form. Hence the base levels
of a series of detached cumulus clouds are about the same. (0) Since
rising air ascends until by expansion it has cooled to the temperature
of the then surrounding air, at which level it spreads out and drifts
away with the general circulation, and as convection, whatever its
cause, applies to air of all degrees of humidity, and occurs at differ-
ent times and all manner of places, it follows that the atmosphere is
always more or less stratified in respect to its water vapor. In
general, therefore, clouds must also form in these layers. There
may be, and often are, two or more cloud layers at the same time
at different levels, but a cloud filling the whole depth of the
atmosphere, or even a layer 5 or 6 miles thick, is not to be expected,
nor is any such layer of considerable extent often, if ever, formed.

LEVELS OF MAXIMUM CLOUDINESS.

Since several types of clouds occur at various elevations, and since
no level, from the surface of the earth up to the highest cirrus, is
free from condensation, it might seem that clouds are as likely to
have one height as another throughout their possible range. How-
ever, it is certain that there are levels of maximum and minimum
cloud frequency, even though it may not be as easy to prove some
of them by direct observation owing to the prevalence of lower
clouds. The more important levels of maximum cloudiness are:

Fog level_—As every one knows, a fog, whatever its depth, from
a mere gauzy veil to the deepest and densest layer, is a cloud on the
earth. Obviously, therefore, the surface of the earth itself is a level
of maximum cloudiness.

Cumulus level.—Since evaporation tends all the time to saturate
the atmosphere, and since humidity is held down by convectional
condensation, and, further, since, over extensive areas, convection
is roughly the same most of the time through an entire season, it
follows that the ordinary rain cloud, and the common cumulus cloud,
must have a roughly standard base, level at a moderate elevation.

553879 —24——15

214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

This level, therefore, say, 4,000 foot above the surface, is also a level
of maximum cloudiness.

Alto-cumulus level—The strong convection common to dry
summer weather often produces small cumulus clouds at considerable
heights— frequently 2 to 24 miles above the surface. Furthermore,
during the average thunderstorm a great deal of humidity is urged
up to roughly this same level, and there spread out into a wide layer
by the swifter winds of that height. Subsequent convections in this
layer often induce many small cumuli. For both reasons, therefore,
this level, known as the alto-cumulus level, is hkewise one of mayi-
mum frequency of cloud.

Cirro-stratus level—The topmost portions of the clouds in a
cyclonic, or general, rain are carried forward over very extensive
areas by probably the swiftest winds of the entire atmosphere.
Hence this level, roughly 5 miles above the surface, is also one of
maximum cloud frequency, or at least of cloud observation.

-Cirrus level——Rising masses of air can not ascend, for reasons
well known, beyond the level of the highest cirrus clouds: that is,
in middle latitudes, above an elevation of about 6 miles. Any
air that reaches this level necessarily spreads out in an extensive
sheet or layer in which, under favorable conditions, condensation
occurs in the form of fine snow crystals. Hence this ultimate
level of the ascending air, at which its horizontal spread is great, is
also one of maximum cloud extent.

LEVELS OF MINIMUM CLOUDINESS.

If there are different levels of maximum cloudiness, it follows
that between each two such adjacent levels there must be a level
of minimum cloudiness. However, there is nothing of particular
interest about any of these intermediate levels.

Why there are no clouds above the high cirrus.—The region above
the high cirrus also is one of minimum cloudiness. In fact clouds
do not occur in that region at all, and the reason is as follows:

There clearly is some temperature (actually about 60° F. below
zero) at which each portion of the high atmosphere must lose as
much heat by radiation as it gains, and this is the lowest tem-
perature to which the free air can cool. This temperature is reached,
in middle latitudes, at about 6 to 7 miles above sea level.
Hence this is the limit of vertical convection—for higher convection
would mean lower temperatures—and the maximum height, there-
fore, to which water vapor is carried. Of course some water vapor
reaches greater heights by the slow process of diffusion, but all of
this region is subject to frequent temperature changes just as is the

TOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 215

lower atmosphere, hence as soon as any appreciable amount of vapor
diffuses to a higher level than that of the average cirrus it is frozen
out in invisibly small amounts and the whole of the upper air
thereby kept too dry for the formation of even the thinnest clouds.

RELATION OF CLOUD HEIGHTS TO SEASON.

Clouds generally are lower during winter than during summer.
This is because the relative humidity is higher, or the atmosphere
more nearly saturated, during the colder season than during the
warmer. And this condition, in turn, is owing largely to the fact
that vertical convection, which is the chief cause of rain and hence
the chief drying agency of the air, is most active during summer,
when the surface of the earth is strongly heated.

RELATION OF CLOUD HEIGHTS TO LATITUDE.

Just as clouds generally are higher in summer and lower in winter,
so, too, and for the same reason, clouds commonly are highest in
equatorial regions and gradually descend with increase of latitude
to their lowest level in polar regions.

RELATION OF TYPE OF CLOUD TO THE SEASON.

As just explained, vertical convection, which is due largely to
surface heating, is much stronger during summer than during winter.
Hence the cumulus or woolpack cloud, a product of local convection,
is characteristic of warm summer days, while the low stratus or layer
cloud is equally characteristic of the winter season.

RELATION OF TYPE OF CLOUD TO LATITUDE.

For the same reason that the prevailing type of cloud varies with
the season, it also varies with latitude. That is, in tropical regions,
where vertical convection is strong, the cumulus cloud is very com-
mon, whereas, in the high latitude regions, where convection is
feeble, it is unusual. Here the prevailing cloud is of the stratus or
layer type.

CLOUD THICKNESS.

The thickness of clouds varies from all but zero in the case of
faint cirrus, and vanishing wisps and flecks of any other type, up
to the 10 miles or more of the deepest tropical cumulus. Habitu-
ally, however, the high cirrus, only a few hundred feet thick, is the
thinnest of clouds; the cumulus, especially when the seat of a hail
storm, is the thickest—often several miles deep. The common nim-

216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

bus cloud, from which rain often falls all day, varies in thickness
from, say, 500 feet, up to 4 or 5 miles. Its average thickness, how-
ever, appears to be, roughly, half a mile. AJl other types of clouds
generally are intermediate in thickness between the cirrus and the
nimbus, averaging, perhaps, 500 to 1,500 feet.

CLOUD VELOCITY.

The direction and speed of travel of clouds can be determined
in several ways, most of which involve triangulation of the kind
used by surveyors and geologists. In the great majority of cases
the velocity of a cloud is that of the air in which it happens to be.
In a few cases, however, the movement of the cloud is not that of
its enveloping atmosphere. Thus the cloud that forms along the
crest of a mountain is as stationary as a waterfall, and, like the
waterfall, is continually renewed by fresh material. No matter
how swift the current, the fall remains fixed, and however strong
the wind over the mountain, cloud is formed in it as soon as it
reaches a particular altitude, determined by the humidity and tem-
perature, and evaporated as it is drifted beyond and to lower levels.
The crest cloud, therefore, being always stationary, can not be used
in measuring wind velocity. Neither can the riffle cloud, the lenticu-
lar cloud, nor the banner cloud, and for the same reason—all except
certain kinds of the lenticular, are stationary whatever the wind
velocity.

Neither can the velocity of the wind be determined by the move-
ment of the parallel rolls of the windrow or billow cloud. These
clouds rest on the crests of air waves which are caused by the flow
of one wind sheet over another. The velocity of these waves, and,
hence, of the clouds that crest them, is intermediate between that
of the two sheets and therefore does not measure the actual velocity
of either.

In the great majority of cases, though—that is, with the above
exceptions—clouds do move strictly with the enveloping air. Hence,
though everywhere blowing, in the course of time, from all direc-
tions—“ boxing the compass,” as the mariner says—in the Tropics
they are nearly always from easterly points, northeast to southeast,
and in middle latitudes prevailingly from westerly regions.

Their average velocity when moving in their prevailing direction
increases with height at approximately the same proportion that
the density of the atmosphere decreases—that is, at such a rate that
the product of the velocity (cloud or wind) by the density of the air
is a constant.

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, SLT
VARIATION OF CLOUDINESS WITH LATITUDE.

As is well known, the amount of cloudiness varies greatly in dif-
ferent parts of the world. In some places it would be perfectly safe,
following the example of the Yuma Hotel, to advertise free meals
for every day the sun does not shine, and equally safe in others to
make a similar offer for every whole day that it does. Apart from
such obvious causes of cloud variation as direction of the wind,
particularly onshore and offshore, elevation, temperature, etc., there
is also a well-marked latitude effect. Thus, in the equatorial regions,
where convection is most active, nearly 60 per cent, on the average,
of the sky is clouded; around latitude 30°, both north and south,
or along the great belts of high pressure and over the principal arid
regions the average cloudiness falls to the minimum value of 40
to 45 per cent, while in the neighborhood of the polar regions it
becomes 60 to 75 per cent. All these are only average values for the
respective latitudes. The cloudiness of individual places covers a
much wider variation.

CLOUD SPLENDORS.

Crepuscular rays.—Everyone is familiar with the beautiful phe-
nomenon of the “sun drawing water” (pl. 25, fig. 1)—sunbeams,
that, finding their way through rifts in the clouds, are rendered
luminous by the dust in their paths. Many people seem to consider
this splendor an excellent weather sign, some insisting that it fore-
tells rain, while others as strongly claim it indicates continued fair.
As a matter of fact, it has no significance either way, hence its
excellence as a bone of contention.

When there are a number of such rifts the beams of light seem
to radiate from the sun like spokes from the hub of a great wheel,
or like ribs from the pivot of a giant fan. However, they are prac-
tically parallel, for the sun, from which they all come, is 93,000,000
miles away. The seeming divergence is only a perspective illusion,
the same as that which makes any long, straight, parallel lines—such,
for instance, as the rails on a straight, level track of railway—appear
to come closer and closer together with increase of distance.

Lightning —Few things in all nature so widely range our sensi-
bilities, from thrills of joy over the exquisitely beautiful to abject
terror in the face of imminent death, as does the lightning’s flash
from the heart of the thundercloud.

The story of this wonder meteor—how Franklin showed it to be
a form of electric discharge; how, as explained by Simpson, charge
after charge is obtained within the cloud; what curious freaks it
plays and marvelous things it does—is delightful in every detail

218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

but far too long to include here; for, after all, lightning, whatever
its interest and importance, is only a cloud incident.

When the storm is close by it is easy to see that lightning consists
of one or more sinuous (not zigzag, as the artist paints it) lines or
streaks of vivid white or pink. (PI. 25, fig. 2.) Often there is one
main trunk with a number of branches, all occurring at the same
instant, while at other times there are two or more simultaneous
disconnected streaks. Frequently the discharge, instead of being all
at once, continues flickering and, on rare occasions, even stationary,
like a glowing wire, during a whole second or more.

The rainbow.—Unlike the phenomenon of lightning, the rainbow
is all beauty and splendor, with nothing whatever of the appalling—
save alone to the physicist who undertakes to explain fully and
clearly its every detail, a most difficult task. Perhaps this assertion
may seem strange when so many textbooks, even some that are
quite elementary, profess to explain the rainbow so simply that a
child can understand it. But in this particular nearly all these books
have the same fault—they “explain” beautifully that which does
not occur and leave unexplained that which does.

The ordinary rainbow seen in a sheet of water drops—rain, spray,
fog—is a group of circular or nearly circular arcs of colors whose
common center is on the extension, in the direction of the observer’s
shadow, of the straight line connecting his eye with the luminous
source, which, as everyone knows, is nearly always the sun, but not
quite, for once in a while the moon, too, produces a very pretty bow.

Frequently there are two entirely different bows. The inner one,
known as the primary, with red outer border of about 42° ra-
dius, and blue to violet inner border, is much brighter than the
larger, or secondary bow, of about 50° inner radius, and whose colors
occur in the reverse order of those of the primary bow. In ad-
dition to these two conspicuous bows one can often see from one
to, rarely, half a dozen parallel, colored arcs just inside the pri-
mary bow, and a smaller number just outside the secondary bow.
These are known as the supernumerary bows. Most of these phe-
nomena are shown in plate 26, figure 1, copied, by kind permission,
from a remarkably fine picture taken by Mr. G. A. Clarke, of
Aberdeen, Scotland.

A careful observer will soon see that there is less light (that
the clouds look darker) between the two bows than outside the
secondary or within the primary; that the colors seen are not always
the same; that the band of any given color varies in angular width,
even, occasionally, from place to place in the same bow; and that
the purity of the colors varies from time to time. As one would
naturally suspect, all, or nearly all, these differences depend on the

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS, 219

size of the droplets. The greatest contrast, perhaps, is between the
brilliant rainbow of the retreating shower and that ill-defined,
faintly tinged bow one sometimes sees on a sheet of fog.

The halo.—As must be obvious to anyone, the cirrus and other
very cold clouds nearly always consist of ice crystals. These re-
flect some,of the light that falls upon them; and some of it they
transmit, bent, or refracted, as we say, out of its course and split
up into all its colors, but always with the red nearest to the source
of light. Both the refracted and the reflected light produce various
bright patterns properly known as halos.

By refraction we get: The very common ring of 22° radius about
the sun or moon (pl. 5, fig. 2); the less frequent ring of 46° radius;
the occasional brilliantly colored arc that has its center directly over-
head and its convex side next to the sun; and rarely, numerous other
splotches and arcs, all more or less distinctly colored, and things
of beauty and interest.

By reflection, on the other hand, we get only white or color-
less figures; chiefly, the parhelic circle (pl. 5, fig. 2) that passes
through the sun and is parallel to the horizon; and a pillar of light
that rises straight up through the sun, much as would its reflection
in rippled water if stood on end.

The corona.—Thin clouds of water droplets also produce beauti-
ful colored rings about the sun and moon, but usually much smaller
than the circles formed by refraction through snow crystals, and
with their colors in reverse order; that is, with the red farthest
from the source of light instead of nearest to it. These rings,
known as coronas, are owing to what the physicist calls diffraction,
or, in this case, the bending of the light around the droplets into
their shadows. They are most frequently seen about the moon,
but may be seen even more brilliantly, occasionally in a widening
series of two or three repetitions of the colors, about the sun, if
one will use dark glasses to cut down the glare.

Plate 26, figure 2, from a drawing by Mr. G. A. Clarke, of
Aberdeen, Scotland, shows a magnificent corona and also contains
other phenomena observed by him at that place on June 13, 1921.
These were: (a) The slightly veiled image of the sun; (d) an
aureole of faintly colored light close to the sun; (c) a triple corona
in which the radii of the red or outer borders of the three rings were
about 6°, 10°, and 16°, respectively; (d) iridescence (see below)
merged with and extending beyond a portion of the outer coronal
ring; (€) portions of a fine halo of 22° radius, produced by a back-
ground of thin cirro-stratus.

Cloud iridescence-—Unquestionably the most beautiful thing in all
the heavens is a magnificent display of iridescent clouds—numerous

220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

splotches among the cirro-cumuli, or other high type, and borders
of thin lenticular alto-strati and alto-cumuli, of gorgeous opalescent
rose pinks, emerald greens, and other colors, randomly mixed and
covering a large part of the sky 15° to 30° from the sun.

It can be fully explained (being only fragments of giant coronas
due to unusually small droplets), but only in the language of the
physicist and symbols of the mathematician. Its beauty, however,
can be enjoyed by all, and whoever looks at the heavens for anything
should watch most frequently and carefully for the glorious appari-
tion of the iridescent cloud.

CLOUDS AS WEATHER SIGNS.

Since the height, extent, and shape of clouds depend upon the
humidity, temperature, and motion of the atmosphere, it is obvious
that they often may furnish helpful hints of the coming weather.
Thus, thin cirrus clouds, when not increasing in extent nor growing
denser, indicate fair weather for at least 24 hours; and the same is
true of the alto-cumuli. In general

“The higher the clouds, the finer the weather.”

On the other hand, when the cirrus grows denser, and when the

sky is covered with cirro-cumuli, rain within 24 hours is likely.
“Mackerel scales and mares’ tails
Make lofty ships carry low sails.”

Also, when large cumuli develop in the forenoon, there probably

will be local thundershowers in the afternoon.
“Tn the morning mountains,
In the evening fountains.”

Again, when two or more layers of cloud are moving in different
directions, foul weather is almost certain to occur very soon. In
short, if one may coin a “ proverb,”

Whene’er the clouds do weave
’Twill storm before they leave.

Clouds of the lower and intermediate levels from north to west
usually imply fair weather for a day or two; clouds from east to
south generally mean rain within 24 hours. (This is for most of the
temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere; for the Southern
Hemisphere, write north for south and south for north.)

“When the carry [current of clouds] goes west,
Gude weather is past;

When the carry goes east
Gude weather comes nest.”

FOGS AND CLOUDS—HUMPHREYS. 221

Fog clearing up early means a fair day; fog persisting implies
that there probably will be rain later in the day, or during the coming
night. As the proverb puts it:

“Mists dispersing on the plain
Scatter away the clouds and rain;
But when they hang on the mountain tops
They’ll soon descend in copious drops.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Anyone especially interested in clouds will find several, if not all, of the
following worth reading:

Ley, W. Clement, “ Cloudland,” London, 1894, xiv, 208 pp.; 8vo. (A study on
the structure and characters of the clouds.)

Clayton, H. Helm, “ Observations made at the Blue Hill Meteorological Ob-
servatory—Discussions of the Cloud Observations,’ Cambridge 1896, 269-500
pp.; 4to. (Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, v.
30, pt. 4.)

Clayden, Arthur W., “ Cloud Studies,” London, 1905, xiii, 184 pp.; S8vo.

Vincent, J., “Atlas des Nuages,” Bruxelles, 1907, 29 pp.; folio. (Annales de
VObservatoire Royale de Belgigue, Nouvelle Serie. Annales Météorologiques.)

Loisel, Julien, “Atlas Photographique des Nuages,” 2 ed., Paris, 1912, folio.
(20 cloud photographs.)

Neuhaus, E., ‘ Die Wolken,” Zurich, 1914, 48 pp.; 30 cloud photographs, 4to,
(Use of clouds in local forecasting. )

Taffara, L., “‘ Le Nubi,” Rome, 1917, 67 pp.; 4to. (50 good cloud photographs;
details of cloud observing and photographing. )

Clarke, G. A., ‘ Clouds,” London, 1920, xvi, 186 pp., 12mo. (Forms, causes,
distribution, and weather significance; many excellent illustrations. )

Schereschewsky, Ph., and Wehrlé, Ph., ‘‘ Les Systemes Nuageux,” Paris, Office
National Météorologique, 1923, xvi, 77 pp., with album of charts and album of
pictures; 4to. (Relations of cloud systems to weather. )

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE Il.

|. RADIATION FOG, LOUDOUN VALLEY, VA.
(A. J. Weed, photo.)

2. ADVECTION FOG, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE. 2.

AOE appt

|. ADVECTION FoG, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.
(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. CIRRUS.
(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 3.

|. CIRRUS.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. CIRRUS.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 4.

CIRRUS, MERGING INTO CIRRO-CUMULUS.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—-Humphreys. PLATE 5.

|. CIRRO-STRATUS ABOVE, ADVECTION FOG BELOW; SEEN FROM MOUNT
WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. HALO OF 22° AND PARHELIC CIRCLES.

(Contributed by A. M. Comey.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 6.

1. CiIRRO-CUMULUS.
(E. E. Barnard, photo.)

2. CIRRO-CUMULUS, WITH ALTO-CUMULUS MERGING INTO ALTO-STRATUS
TO THE LEFT, FROM THE EBRO OBSERVATORY, TORTOSO, SPAIN.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 7.

1. ALTO-CUMULUS, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.
(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. ALTO-CUMULUS, TURRETED, AND CUMULUS; SEEN FROM MOUNT
WILSON, CALIF.

(¥. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922 —Humphreys. PLATE 8.

|. ALTO-CUMULUS.
(A.J. Weed photo.)

2. BILLOW CLOUDS, REGULAR AND IRREGULAR (FORMS OF ALTO-CUMULUS),
OVER WASHINGTON, D. C.

(A J. Henry, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—-Humphreys. PLATE Q.

|. BiLLow CLOUD (FORM OF ALTO-CUMULUS).

(A. J. Henry, photo.)

2. ALTO-STRATUS AND ADVECTION FOG, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON,
CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE IO.

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|. CUMULUS AND STRATO-CUMULUS, NEAR GAP MILLS, W. VA.
(L. W. Humphreys, photo.)

2. STRATO-CUMULUS, MONTEREY BAY, CALIF.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE II.

|. NimBuUs ABOVE, FoG BELOW; SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.
(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. STRATUS ABOVE; FRACTO-STRATUS, SCUD, OR STEAM
CLouD BELOw. SAN GABRIEL RANGE, CALIF.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys.

1. CUMULUS, FORMING FROM FOG—RARE, SEEN FROM Mount WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. CUMULUS, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. “PLATE 13.

an

oh

|. CUMULUS, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.

fo

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. CUMULUS, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK, CALIF.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 1/4.

|. CUMULUS, SEEN AT WILLIAMS BAY, WIS.
(E. E. Barnard, photo.)

2. CUMULUS AND FRACTO-CUMULUS, IN MONROE COUNTY, W. VA., PETERS
MOUNTAIN TO LEFT.

(L. W. Humphreys, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE I5.

|. CUMULUS FORMED BY CONVECTION OVER FIRE, SEEN FROM MOUNT
WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

2. CUMULUS OVER ISLAND—-KRAKATAO.
(E. E. Barnard, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE I6.

|: CUMULO-NIMBUS, PENSACOLA, FLA.
(Lieut. W. F. Reed, jr., photo.)

-

> oe

2. CUMULO-NIMBUS, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 17.

|. MAMMATO-CUMULUS.
(L. C. Twyford, photo.)

2. LENTICULAR CLOUD (ALTO-STRATUS LENTICULARIS), SEEN FROM MOUNT
WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 18.

|. LENTICULAR CLOUD (CUMULUS LENTICULARIS).
(C. F. Brooks, photo.)

2. LENTICULAR CLOUD, OVER MOUNT SHASTA.

(C. A. Gilchrist, photo, )

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 19.

LENTICULAR CLOUD (CUMULUS LENTICULARIS), SEEN AT FLAGSTAFF, ARIZ.
(C. O. Lampland, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.-—-Humphreys. PLATE 20.

a AS La

|. LENTICULAR CLOUD, OVER MOUNT RAINIER (IMMEDIATELY ABOVE TOP
OF MOUNTAIN).

(O. P. Anderson, photo.)

2. CREST CLOUD, LEE SIDE, SEEN FROM HONOLULU.
(A. M. Hamrick, photo.)

‘

Cojoyd Ystayoyty) “Vv “O)

"4ITVOD ‘WLSWHS
INNOW LV ‘SNINWNO YSAO ‘GNOID JAYVOS ‘%

“1G ALW1d

Cojoyd *yooTB AA “CL *O)

"VaVNVO
‘'44NVQ YVAN ‘ANIOSINISSY LNNO| ‘GN0O1D YAaNNVg *|

‘sAasyduinH—Zz6l Woday uvluosy}Iws

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 22.

|. SCARF CLOUD, ON TOP OF CUMULUS.
(W. A. Bentley, photo.)

2. TONITRO-CIRRUS (FALSE CIRRUS), OVER THE VALLEY OF VIRGINIA.
(A. J. Weed, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 23.

|. FUNNEL CLOUD (TORNADO CLOUD), SEEN NEAR ELMWOOD, NEBR.,
APRIL 6, 1919.

(W. A. Wood, photo.)

2. FUNNEL CLOUD (TORNADO CLOUD), FROM TWO EXPOSURES TAKEN
CLOSE TOGETHER, UPPER ONE FIRST, SEEN NEAR ELMWOOD, NEBR.,
APRIL 6, 1919.

(G. B. Pickwell, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 24,

FUNNEL CLOUD (TORNADO CLOUD).

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humphreys. PLATE 25.

|. CREPUSCULAR RAYS, SEEN ON THE POTOMAC RIVER.
(P. E. Budlong, photo.)

2. LIGHTNING, SEEN FROM MOUNT WILSON, CALIF.

(F. Ellerman, photo.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Humniphrays. PLATE 26.

ee

|. RAINBOW, PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND SUPERNUMERARIES; SEEN AT ABERDEEN,
SCOTLAND.

(G. A. Clarke, photo.)

2. CORONA, TRIPLE, AND 22° HALO.

Drawn f om observation, by G. A. Clarke, Aberdeen, Scotland.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE USE OF THE ANNUAL RINGS
OF TREES IN CLIMATIC STUDY.

_

By Prof, A. E. DouGiass,

University of Arizona,

I. AFFILIATIONS.

Nature is a book of many pages and each page tells a fascinating
story to him who learns her language. Our fertile valleys and
craggy mountains recite an epic poem of geologic conflicts. The
starry sky reveals gigantic suns and space and time without end.
The human body tells a story of evolution, of competition and sur-
vival. The human soul by its scars tells of man’s social struggle.

The forest is one of the smaller pages in nature’s book, and to
him who reads, it too tells a long and vivid story. It may talk in-
dustrially in terms of lumber and firewood. It may demand preser-
vation physiographically as a region conserving water supply. It
may disclose great human interests ecologically as a phase of plant
succession. It may protest loudly against its fauna and parasites.
It has handed down judicial decisions in disputed matters of human
ownership. It speaks everywhere a botanical language, for in the
trees we have some of the most wonderful and complex products of
the vegetable kingdom.

The trees composing the forest rejoice and lament with its suc-
cesses and failures and carry year by year something of its story
in their annual rings. The study of their manner of telling the
story takes us deeply into questions of the species and the indi-
vidual, to the study of pests, to the effects of all kinds of injury,
especially of fire so often started by lightning, to the closeness of
grouping of the trees, and to the nearness and density of competing
vegetation. The particular form of environment which interests
us here, however, is climate with all its general and special weather
conditions. Climate is a part of meteorology, and the data which
we use are obtained largely from the Weather Bureau. Much

1 Address of the president of the southwestern division of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, Tucson, Ariz., Jan. 26, 1922. Reprinted by permission
from the Scientific Monthly, Vol. XV, No. 1, July, 1922.

223

224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

helping knowledge needed from meteorology has not yet been gar-
nered by that science. For example, the conditions for tree growth
are markedly different on the east and west sides of a mountain
or on the north and south slopes. The first involves difference of
exposure to rain-bearing winds, and the second means entirely dif-
ferent exposure to sun and shade. The latter contrast has been
studied on the Catalina Mountains by Forrest Shreve. Again, the
Weather Bureau stations are largely located in cities and, therefore,
we can not get data from proper places in the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains of California, where the Giant Sequoia lives. Considering
that this Big Tree gives us the longest uninterrupted series of annual
climatic effects of known date, which we have so far obtained from
any source, it must be greatly regretted that we have no good modern
records by which to interpret the writing in these wonderful trees,
and, so far as I am aware, no attempt is yet being made to get com-
plete records for the future.

In reviewing the environment, one must. go another step. One
of the early results of this study was the fact that in many different
wet climates the growth of trees follows closely and sometimes
fundamentally certain solar variations. That means astronomical
relationship. It becomes then an interesting fact that the first two
serious attempts to trace climatic effects in trees were made by
astronomers. I do not know exactly what inspired Professor
Kapteyn, the noted astronomer of Groningen, Holland, to study
the relation of oak rings to rainfall in the Rhineland, which he did
in 1880 and 1881 (without publishing), but for my own case I can
be more explicit. It was a thought of the possibility of determin-
ing variations in solar activity by the effect of terrestrial weather
on tree growth. This, one notes, assumed an effect of the sun on
our weather and recognized trees as‘one of nature’s great recording
mechanisms.

But the possible relationship of solar activity to weather is a
part of a rather specialized department of astronomical science,
called astrophysics. And there is a great deal of help which one
wants from that science, but which one can not yet obtain; for
example, the hourly variations in the solar constant. I would like
to know whether the relative rate of rotation and the relative tem-
peratures of different solar latitudes vary in terms of the 11-year
sun-spot period. These questions have to do with some of the
theories proposed in attempting to explain the sun-spot periodicity.
We do not know the cause of the 11-year sun-spot period. Here
then is work for the astronomers.

Yet another important contact has this study developed. The
tings in the beams of ancient ruins tell a story of the time of build-

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 995

ing, both as to its climate and the number of years involved and
the order of building. This is anthropology. It will be mentioned
on a later page.

Viewed through the present perspective, there is one way of
expressing the entire work which shows more clearly its human
end, a contact always worth emphasizing. If the study works out
as it promises, it will give a basis of long-range weather forecasting
of immense practical value for the future and of large scientific
value in interpreting the climate of the past. This statement of it
carries to all a real idea of the central problem.

II. YEARLY IDENTITY OF RINGS.

The one fundamental quality which makes tree rings of value
in the study of climate is their yearly identity. In other words,
the ring series reaches its real value when the date of every ring
can be determined with certainty. This is the quality which is
often taken for granted without thought and often challenged with-
out real reason. The climatic nature of a ring is its most ob-
vious feature. There is a gradual cessation of the activity of the
tree owing to lowered temperature or diminished water supply.
This causes the deposition of harder material in the cell walls, pro-
ducing in the pine the dark hard autumn part of the ring. The
erowth practically stops altogether in winter and then starts off in
the spring at a very rapid rate with soft white cells. The usual time
of beginning growth in the spring at Flagstaff, Ariz. (elevation
7,000 feet), is in late May or June and is best observed by Dr. D. T.
MacDougal’s “ Dendrograph,” which magnifies the diameter of the
tree trunk and shows its daily variations. This spring growth de-
pends upon the precipitation of the preceding winter and the way it
comes to the tree. Heavy rains have a large run-off and are less bene-
ficial than snow. The snow melts in the spring and supplies its
moisture gradually to the roots as it soaks into or moves through the
ground. There is evidence that if the soil is porous and resting on
well cracked limestone strata, the moisture passes quickly and the
effect is transitory, lasting in close proportion to the amount of rain.
Trees so placed are “sensitive” and give an excellent report of the
amount of precipitation. Such condition is commonly found in
- northern Arizona over a limestone bed rock. If the bed rock is
basalt or other igneous material the soil over it is apt to be clay. The
rock and the clay sometimes hold water until the favorable season is
past and the tree growth depends in a larger measure on other factors
than the precipitation. For example, the yellow pines growing in
the very dry lava beds at Flagstaff show nearly the same growth year
after year. It is sometimes large, but it has little variation. Such
growth is “ complacent.”

226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Yearly identity is disturbed by the presence of too many or too
few rings. Surplus rings are caused by too great contrast in the
seasons. The year in Arizona is divided into four seasons, two rainy
and two dry. The cold rainy or snowy season is from December to
March, and the warm tropical summer, with heavy local rainfall,
occurs in July and August. Spring and autumn are dry, the spring
being more so than the autumn. If the snowfall of winter has not
been enough to carry the trees through a long dry spring, the cell
walls in June become harder and the growing ring turns dark in
color as in autumn. Some trees are so strongly affected that they
stop growing entirely until the following spring. A ring so pro-
duced is exceptionally small. But others near by may react to the
summer rains and again produce white tissue before the red autumn
growth comes on. This second white-cell structure is very rarely
as white as the first spring growth and is only mistaken for it in
trees growing under extreme conditions, such as at the lowest and
driest levels which the yellow pines are able to endure. Such is the
condition at Prescott or at the 6,000-7,000-foot levels on the moun-
tains about Tucson. A broken and scattered rainy season may give
as many as three preliminary red rings before the final one of au-
tumn. In a few rare trees growing in such extreme conditions, it
becomes very difficult to tell whether a ring is formed in summer or
winter (that is, in late spring or late autumn). Doubling has become
a habit with that particular tree—a bad habit—and the tree or large
parts of it can not be used for the study of climate.

But let us keep this clearly in mind: This superfluous ring forma-
tion is the exception. Out of 67 trees collected near Prescott, only
4 or 5 were discarded for this reason. Out of perhaps 200 near
Flagstaff, none has been discarded for this reason. Nearly 100
yellow pines and spruces from northwestern New Mexico have pro-
duced no single case of this difficulty. The sequoias from California,
the Douglas firs from Oregon, the hemlocks from Vermont, and
the Scotch pines from north Europe give no sign of it. On the
other hand, 10 out of 16 yellow pines from the Santa Rita Moun-
tains south of Tucson have had to be discarded and the junipers of
northern Arizona have so many suspicious rings that it is almost
impossible to work with them at all. Fossil cypresses also give much
trouble.

The other difficulty connected with yearly identity is the omis-
sion of rings. Missing rings occur in many trees without lessening
the value of the tree unless there are extensive intervals over which
the absence produces uncertainty. A missing ring here and there
can be located with perfect exactness and causes no uncertainty of
dating. In fact, so many missing rings have been found after care-

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 29'7

ful search that they often increase the feeling of certainty in the
dating of rings.

Missing rings occur when autumn rings merge together in the
absence of any spring growth. This rarely, if ever, occurs about
the entire circumference of the tree. There are a few cases in which,
if the expression may be excused, I have traced a missing ring
entirely around a tree without finding it. I have observed many
cases in which the missing ring has been evident in less than 10
per cent of the circumference. Some are absent in only a small
part of their circuit. I have observed change in this respect at
different heights in the tree, but have not followed that line of
study further. It is beautifully shown in the longitudinally bisected
tree.

One sees from this discussion what the probable errors may be
in mere counting of rings. In the first work on the yellow pines
the dating was done by simple counting. Accurate dating in the
same trees (19 of them) later on showed that the average error
in counting through the last 200 years was 4 per cent, due prac-
tically always to missing rings. A comparison in seven sequoias
between very careful counting and accurate dating in 2,000 years
shows an average counting error of 35 years, which is only 1.7
per cent.

Full confidence in yearly identity really comes from another
source. The finding of similar distribution of large and small
rings in practically all individuals of widely scattered groups of
trees over great periods of time has been evidence enough to make
us sure. This comparison process between groups of rings in dif-
ferent trees has received the rather clumsy name of “ cross-identifi-
cation.” Cross-identification was first successful in the 67 Prescott
trees, then was carried across 70 miles to the big Flagstaff groups.
Later it was found to extend 225 miles further to southwestern
Colorado with extreme accuracy, 90 per cent perhaps. This is over
periods of more than 250 years. Catalina pines from near Tucson
have a 50 per cent likeness to Flagstaff pines. There are many points
of similarity in the last 200 years and many differences. Santa
Rita pines are less like the Flagstaff pines than are the Catalinas.
In comparison with the California sequoias, differences become
more common. The superficial resemblance to Arizona pines is 5
or 10 per cent only. That is, out of every 10 or 20 distinctive rings
with marked individuality, one will be found alike in California
and Arizona. For example, A. D. 1407, 1500, 1580, 1632, 1670,
1729, 1782, 1822, and 1864 are small in Arizona pines and Califor-
nia sequoias. While only a few extreme individual years thus

228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

match, there are correspondences in climatic cycles to which atten-
tion will be called later.

Cross-identification is practically perfect amongst the sequoias
stretching across 15 miles of country near General Grant National
Park. Trees obtained near Springville, some 50 miles south, show
50 to 75 per cent resemblance in details to the northern group.
This was far more than enough to carry exact dating between
these two localities. Cross-identification in some wet climate groups
was extremely accurate. A group of 12 logs floating in the river
mouth at Geffle, Sweden, showed 90 to 95 per cent resemblance to
each other. The range was 100 to 200 years and there were no
uncertain years at all. The same was true of some 10 tree sections
on the Norwegian coast and of 13 sections cut in Eberswalde in
Germany. A half dozen sections cut in a lumber yard in Munich
did not cross-identify with each other. A group of 5 from a lumber
yard in Christiania was not very satisfactory. A very recent group
of coast redwoods from Santa Cruz, Calif., proved very un-
satisfactory. ‘The vast majority, however, have been absolutely sat-
isfactory in the matter of cross-identification. Nothing more is
needed to make the one ring a year ideal perfectly sure in the work
here described, but if there were it would come in such tests as
frequently occur in checking the known date of cutting or boring,
with a set of rings previously dated. That has been done on many
occasions in Arizona and California. To give final assurance, the
record in the yellow pine was compared with statements of good
and bad years, and years of famine, flood, and cold, reported in
Bancroft’s “ History of Arizona and New Mexico,” and it was
found that his report identified with the character of the growth in
the corresponding years of the trees.

Three results may be noted before leaving this important subject.
Deficient years extend their character across country with more
certainty than favorable years. A deficient year makes an individual
ring small compared to those beside it. Large rings, on the other
hand, are more apt to come in groups and so do not have quite the
same individuality. Nor are they as universal in a forest. If they
occur at a certain period in one tree, the chances are about 50 per
cent that the corresponding years in the neighboring trees will be
similarly enlarged. If, however, a very small ring occurs in a
tree, the chances are over 90 per cent that the neighboring trees will
show the same year small.

Second, with many groups of trees where the resemblance between
their rings is strikingly exact, a small number of individuals such
as 5 will answer extremely well for a record, and even fewer will
give valuable and reliable results. But the central part of a tree
has larger growth and is less sensitive than the outer part. Its

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 229

character is somewhat different. To get a satisfactory representa-
tion through several centuries, therefore, it is better to combine
younger trees with older ones to get a more even and constant record
of climatic conditions.

The third thought is this. The spreading of a certain character
over many miles of country stamps it in almost every case as climatic
in origin, because climate is the common environment over large
areas.

III. NUMBER AND LOCATION OF TREES.

The whole number of trees used is nearly 450 and includes cone-
bearing trees from Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colo-
rado, Vermont, England, Norway, Sweden, Germany, and Bohemia.
The total number of rings dated and measured is well over 100,000.
The average ages found in these various trees are very interesting.
The European groups reach for the most part about 90 years, al-
though one tree in Norway showed 400 years of age, and 15 were
found beginning as early as 1740. The Oregon group of Douglas firs
goes back to about 1710, the Vermont hemlocks reach 1654, the
Flagstaff yellow pines give a number of admirable records from
about 1400.

The oldest trees, of course, were the great sequoias from the Sierra
Nevada Mountains in California. They were found to have ages
that formed natural groups, showing probably a climatic effect.
There are very few under 700 years old (except the young ones which
have started since the cutting of the Big Trees). A number had
about that age. The majority of the trees scatter along in age from
1,200 up to about 2,200 years, at which age a large number were
found. One or two were found of 2,500 years, one of 2,800, one of
3,000, one at just under 38,100, and the oldest of all just over 3,200.
The determination of this age of the older sequoias in the present
instance is not merely a matter of ring counting, but depends
upon the intercomparison of some 55,000 rings in 385 trees. In
1919 a special trip was made to the Big Trees and samples from a
dozen extra trees obtained in order to decide the case of a single
ring, 1580 A. D., about which there was some doubt, and it was
apparent that the ring in question stood for an extra year. This was
corrected and it now seems likely that there is no mistake in dating
through the entire sequence of years, but if not correct the error is
certainly very small.

IV. TOPOGRAPHY.
The late Prof. W. R. Dudley, of Stanford University, in his charm-

ing essay on the “Vitality of the Sequoia” refers to the fact that the
growth of the Big Trees depends in a measure on the presence of a

55879—_ 2416

230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

brook near by. This agrees with my own observations. Size is far
from a final indication of age. The General Grant tree, which has
no running water near it and is the largest in the park of that name,
has a burnt area on one side in which the outer rings are exposed,
allowing an estimate of its average rate of recent growth. From
much experience with the way the sequoia growth is influenced by
age, it was possible to assign 2,500 years as the approximate time it
took this giant to reach its present immense diameter of close to 30
feet. But about 3 miles west near a running brook is a stump
which is over 25 feet in diameter, but is only about 1,500 years old.
That is the effect of contact with an unfailing source of water.

Perhaps the most general characteristic which stands out in the
different groups of dry-climate trees is a close relationship of this
kind between the topography and the growth produced. For that
reason, I have visited the site of every dry-climate group and indeed
have examined the stumps of almost every tree in my collection.

It was found that dry-climate trees which grew in basins with a
large and constant water supply, and this refers especially to the
sequoias, usually produced rings without much change in size from
year to year. This character of ring is called “complacent.” The
opposite character is the “ sensitive ” ring where a decided variation
is Shown from year to year. Sensitive trees grow on the higher eleva-
tions where the water supply is not reliable and the tree must de-
pend almost entirely on the precipitation during each year. Such
trees grow near the tops of ridges or are otherwise separated from
any collection of water in the ground. In case of the basin trees,
ene could be sure that a ring was produced every year, but owing
to the lack of individuality in the rings for certain years, it was
difficult to compare trees together and produce reliable data. In
case of the sensitive tree growing in the uplands there was so much
individuality in the rings that nearly all of the trees could be
dated with perfect reliability, but in extreme cases the omission
of rings in a number of trees required special study. Of course,
these cases were easily settled by comparison with other trees grow-
ing in intermediate localities.

Trees growing in the dry climate of Arizona at an altitude where
they have the utmost difficulty in getting water to prolong life be-
come extraordinarily sensitive. In the same tree one finds some
rings several millimeters across and others microscopic in size or
even absent.

In order to express this different quality in the trees a criterion
called mean sensitivity is now under investigation. It may be de-
fined as the difference between two successive rings divided by their
mean. Such quotients are averaged over each decade or other period

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. Bok

desired and are believed to depend in part on the relative response
of the trees to climatic influences. The great sensitiveness of the
yellow pines as compared with the best sequoias is evident in any
brief comparison of dated specimens.

Vv. INSTRUMENTS.

In the course of this long attention to the rings of trees and in
studying such a vast number of them, special tools to secure ma-
terial and to improve and hasten the results have very naturally
been adopted or developed. One goes into the field well-armed,
carrying a flooring saw with its curved edge for sawing half across
the tops of stumps, a chisel for making numbers, numerous paper
bags for holding fragments cut from individual trees, a recording
notebook, crayon, a shoulder bag, camera, and especially a kindly,
strong- armed friend to help in the sawing. In the last 18
months the Swedish increment borer has been used extensively to
get records from living pine trees. Hardwoods and juniper are
too tough. It has previously been considered that the little slender
cores, smaller than a pencil, so obtained, would hardly be worth
working on. But the method of mounting them has been raised
to such a degree of efficiency, and the collection of material be-
comes so rapid that the deficient length and the occasional worth-
less specimen are counterbalanced. JBesides, it is often easy to sup-
plement a group of increment cores by some other form of speci-
men extending back to greater age. The Mount Lemmon group,
near Tucson, has eight cores giving a good record from about 1725
to the present time; a saw-cutting from a large stump in Summer-
haven carries the record back 150 years earlier. It should, however,
be supported by at least one more long record and this can be done
by the tubular borer described next. “

The tubular borer was designed especially for the dried and
sometimes very hard logs in the prehistoric ruins. It works well
on pine trees and junipers. It gives a core an inch in diameter,
which means a far better chance of locating difficult rings than in
the increment borer cores which are only one-fifth of that diameter.
The borer is a 1-inch steel tube with small saw teeth on one end
and a projection at the other for insertion in a common brace. A
chain drill attachment is also provided to help in forcing the drill
into the wood. The difficulty with this borer is the disposal of saw-
dust and the extraction of the core. For the former, a separate
hole is bored with 4 common auger just below the core (if in an
upright tree) and in advance of it to catch the sawdust. The core is
broken off every three inches and pulled out to make more room for
the sawdust. To extract the core a small steel rod is provided with

232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

a wedge at one end and a screw at the other. One and two foot tubes
are carried so that it is possible to reach the centers of most pine
trees. It would not be difficult to develop an instrument much more
efficient than this and it should be done. Soon a borer will be needed
to pass through a 35-foot tree or to sound the depths of the great
Tule trees of southern Mexico.

The tools just mentioned are technical, yet in no sense com-
plex. A measuring instrument has just been completed whose use-
fulness will be extensive and whose details of construction are too
complex for present description. It is for measuring the width of
rings. It makes a record as fast as one can set a micrometer thread
on successive rings. The record is in the form of a plot drawn
in ink to scale on coordinate paper so that the values can be read
off from it at once for tabulation. This form of record was de-
sired because individual plots have long been made to help in se-
lecting the best trees and in studying their relation to topography.
The instrument as constructed magnifies 20, 40, or 100 times, as
desired. It can be attached to the end of an astronomical telescope
and used as a recording micrometer capable of making a hundred
or more settings before reading the values. It seems possible that
it will have other applications than the ones here mentioned.

Another instrument of entirely different type has been devel-
oped here since 19138. Its general principle has been published and
will not be repeated, but in the last three years it has been entirely
rebuilt in a more convenient form through the generosity of Mr.
Clarence G. White of Redlands. This instrument is now known as
the White periodograph. It could be called a cycloscope or cyclo-
graph. Its purpose is to detect cycles or periods in any plotted
curve. It differs from previous instruments performing harmonic
analysis in that it is designed primarily to untangle a complex
mixture of fairly pronounced periods while others determine the
constants of a series of harmonic components. For example, the
periodograph can be applied to a series of rainfall records to find
if there are any real periods operating in a confused mixture. It
is also designed to get rid of personal equation and to get results
quickly. The instrument as reconstructed is far more convenient
and accurate in use and has already given important results. It
enables one to see characteristics in tree growth variation which
are not visible to the unaided eye. It is specially arranged now to
give what I have called the differential pattern or cyclogram because
this pattern not only tells the periods or cycles when properly
read but shows the variations and interferences of cycles and pos-
sible alternative readings. Tests on the accuracy of solutions by
this instrument show that its results correspond in precision to
least-square solutions.

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 233
VI. CORRELATIONS.

It is no surprise that variations in climate can be read in the
growth rings of trees, for the tree ring itself is a climatic product.
It is an effect of seasons. The geologists use the absence of rings
in certain primitive trees as an indication that no seasons existed
in certain early times. Whatever may have been the cause of that
absence, we recognize that the ring is caused primarily by changes
in temperature and moisture. Now if successive years were exactly
alike, the rings would be all of the same size with some alteration
with age and injury. But successive years are not alike and in
that difference there may be some factor which appeals strongly
to the tree. In northern Arizona, with its limited moisture and
great freedom from pests and with no dense vegetable population,
this controlling factor may reasonably be identified as the rainfall.
If the trees have all the moisture they can use, as in north Europe
about the Baltic Sea and other wet climates, we look for it in some-
thing else. It could be—I do not say that it is—some direct form
of solar radiation. It could be some special combination of the
ordinary weather elements with which we are familar. Shreve
has studied this phase in the Catalinas. If the abundance of mois-
ture is so great, as actually to drown the tree, then decrease in rain-
fall which lowers the water table below ground will be favorable.
A fact often forgotten is that more than one factor may enter into
the tree rings at the same time, for example, rainfall, temperature,
and length of growing season. These may be isolated in two ways.
We may select a special region, as northern Arizona, where nature
has standardized the conditions, leaving one of them, the rainfall,
of especial importance. Or we may isolate certain relationships
as in any other investigation, by using large numbers of observa-
tions, that is, many trees, and averaging them with respect to one
or another characteristic. For example, I can determine the mean
growth curve of the Vermont hemlocks and then compare it sepa-
rately with rainfall and solar activity, and I may, and do, find a
response to each, For that reason, I have felt quite justified in
seeking first the correlation with moisture. A temperature cor-
relation doubtless exists and in fact has been noted, but its less
minute observance does not lessen the value of the rainfall rela-
tionship.

The first real result obtained in this study was in 1906, when it
became apparent that a smoothed curve of tree growth in northern
Arizona matched a smoothed curve of precipitation in southern
California since 1860. That degree of correlation is now extensively
used in the Forest Service. This was followed almost at once by
noting a strikingly close agreement between the size of individual

234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

rings and the rainfall for the corresponding years since 1898, when
the Flagstaff weather station was established. The more detailed
comparison between rainfall and ring growth was made with Pres-
cott trees in 1911. Some 67 trees in five groups within 10 miles
of Prescott were compared with the rainfall at Whipple Barracks
and Prescott which had been kept on record since 1867. The result
was very interesting. For most years the tree variations agree
almost exactly with the rainfall, but here and there is a year or two
of disagreement. The cause of these variable years will sometime
be an interesting matter of study. Taken altogether the accuracy
of the tree as a rain gauge was 70 per cent. But a little allowance
for conservation of moisture raised the accuracy to 85 per cent,
which is remarkably good. The actual character of this conserva-
tion is not evident. At first thought it might be persistence of
moisture in the ground, but the character of the mathematical
formula which evaluated it allowed a different interpretation,
namely, that in a series of poor years the vital activity of the tree
is lessened. During the dry period, from about 1870 to 1905 or
so, the trees responded each year to the fluctuations in rainfall but
with less and less spirit. This lessening activity took place at a
certain rate which the meteorologists call the “ accumulated mois-
ture” curve. This suggested that the conservation was in the tree
itself. There is much to be done in this comparison between tree
growth and rainfall, but the obstacle everywhere is the lack of
rainfall records near the trees and over adequate periods of time.
The five Prescott groups showed that in a mountainous country near-
ness was very important. But the nearest records to the sequoias
are 65 miles away and at 5,000 feet lower elevation. The best com-
parison records for the Oregon Douglas spruce are 25 miles away.
It is so nearly everywhere. ‘The real tests must be made with records
near by.

In 1912, while attempting to test this relationship of tree growth
to rainfall in north Europe, I found that the Scotch pines south
of the Baltic Sea showed a very strong and beautiful rhythm,
matching exactly the sun-spot cycle as far back as the trees extended,
which was close to a century. The same rhythm was evident in the
trees of Sweden, and perhaps more conspicuous in spruce than
pine. Near Christiania the pines were too variable to show it, but
it reappeared on the outer Norwegian coast. To the south near the
Alps it disappeared, and in the south of England it was uncertain
but probably there. In this country it shows prominently in Ver-
mont and Oregon, but the two American maxima come one to three
years in advance of the sun-spot maxima. There is evidently an
important astronomical relationship whose meaning is not yet clear.

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—-DOUGLASS. 235

It is to be noted that it appears in regions whose trees have an
abundance of moisture, and it thus appears to be a wet-climate
phenomenon.

_But the correlations do not stop at rain and sun-spot periodicity.
The pines of northern Arizona, which are so sensitive to rainfall,
show a strong half sun-spot period. And on testing it one finds
that the rainfall does the same and that these variations are almost
certainly related to corresponding temperature variations and to the
solar period. Thus, the Arizona trees are related to the weather, and
the weather is related in a degree, at least, to the sun. Thus, we
find evidence in forest trees that the 11-year sun-spot period pre-
vails in widely different localities and in many places constitutes
the major variation. This introduces us to the study of periodic
effects in general.

VII. CYCLES.

Considering first that cycles, as we have just shown, are revealed
in tree growth, second, that the trees give us accurate historic rec-
ords for hundreds and even thousands of years, and third, that
simple cycles or even some more complex function could give a
basis for long range weather forecasting, we recognize the vital
importance of this elemental part of the story told by the trees.
It was exactly for this purpose that the periodograph was designed
and constructed and some 10-score curves have been cut out for
analysis, after minute preparation of the very best yearly values.
In fact the major time for two years has been given to this prepara-
tion of material. It is hardly done yet, but it is far enough along
to anticipate its careful study in the near future. Our present view
may be profoundly modified, but it is safe to say that the sun-spot
cycle and its double and triple value are very general. The double
value, about 22 years, has persisted in Arizona for 500 years, and
in some north European localities for the century and a half cov-
ered by our tree groups. The triple period, essentially Briickner’s
cycle, has operated in Arizona for the last 200 years and in Norway
for nearly 400 at least. A 100-year cycle is very prominent
throughout the 3,000 years of sequoia record and also in the 500
years of yellow pine. A hypothesis covering all these sun-spot mul-
tiples will be tested out in the coming months. Should a real
explanation be found a step will have been made toward long-range
prediction and an understanding of the relationship of the weather
and the sun. Other periods, however, than the multiples of the
sun-spot period do occur, and general analysis shows that different
centuries are characterized by different combinations of climatic
eycles. This suggests to us a great and interesting problem. If we

236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

can establish the way in which different regions act and react at the
same time, then it may become possible to determine the age of an
ancient buried tree by finding the combination of short cycles its
rings display and then determining when this combination or its _
regional equivalent existed in our historic measuring tape, the great
sequoia.

VIII. PREHISTORIC RECORDS IN TREES.

A new method of investigating the relative age of prehistoric ruins
has been developed in connection with this study of climate by
the growth of trees, and is being applied to the remarkable ruins
at Aztec, in northwestern New Mexico, with its 450 rooms, now in
process of excavation by the American Museum of New York City.
The ceilings were built of tree trunks placed across the width of
the rooms. Smaller poles were laid across these beams and covered
with some kind of brush and a thick layer of earth. The beams
used in this ceiling construction are almost entirely of yellow pine
or spruce and for the most part are in good condition. Many of
the rooms have been hermetically sealed for centuries. The beams
which have been buried in dust or adobe or in sealed rooms are
well preserved. Only those which have been exposed to the air
are decayed.

In 1915, Dr. Clark Wissler of the American Museum offered
sections of such beams for special study of the rings, knowing the
writer’s work upon climatic effects in the rings of trees. This offer
was gladly accepted, and some preliminary sections were sent at
once from the Rio Grande region. These first sections showed that
the pines and spruces were far better than cedars for determining
climatic characteristics.

The next lot of sections came from Aztec and was cut from
loose beams which had been cleared out of the rubbish heaps. Six
of these sections cross-identified so perfectly that it was evident
that they had been living trees at the same time. This success led
to my visit to Aztec in 1919 and a close examination of this won-
derful ruin. It was at once apparent that an instrument was nec-
essary for boring into the beams to procure a complete sample of
the rings from center to outside, and that the process must avoid
injuring the beams in any way. Such an instrument was de-
veloped in the tubular borer as already described. ‘This tool was
sent to Mr. Morris and during 1920 he bored into all the beams at
Aztec then available and sent me the cores.

These cores, together with other sections of beams too frail for
boring, finally represented 37 different beams in some 20 different
rooms scattered along the larger north part of the ruin. Prac-
tically all of these show similar rings near the outside, and by

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 23k

counting to the last growth ring of each it was easy to tell the
relative dates at which the various timbers were cut.

In order to help in describing given rings in these various sections,
a purely imaginary date was assumed for a certain rather large
ring which appeared in all the timbers. This was called R. D.
(relative date) 500, and all other rings earlier or later are designated
by this system of relative dates. Many interesting results were evi-
dent as soon as the various relative dates were compared. In the
first place, instead of requiring many hundreds of years in con-
struction as any one would suppose in locking at the ruin, the larger
part of it was evidently erected in the course of 10 years, for
the dates of cutting the timbers found in the large north side in-
clude only eight or nine years.. The earliest timbers cut were in
the northeast part of the structure. The later timbers are at the
northwest, and it is evident that the sequence of building was from
the easterly side to the westerly side, ending up with the westerly
end and extending toward the south.

In one place beams from three stories, one over the other, were
obtained. The top and bottom ceiling timbers were cut one year
later than those of the middle ceiling, showing that in vertical con-
struction the three floors were erected in immediate succession. A
floor pole from Pueblo Bonito was cut one year later than the latest
beam obtained from that ruin.

An even more interesting fact was soon after disclosed. A study
of the art and. industries of neighboring ruins had satisfied Mr. Nel-
son and Mr. Morris of the American Museum that some of the
ruins in Chaco Canyon, some 50 miles to the south, were not far
different in age from those at Aztec. The only beams immediately
available from the Chaco Canyon ruins had been collected in the
Pueblo Bonito ruin 25 years before by the Hyde expedition. Accord-
ingly sections were cut from seven beams which this expedition
had brought back to New York City. One of these sections was a
cedar and has not yet been interpreted, but the others were imme-
diately identified in age both among themselves and with reference
to the Aztec timbers. It was found that these Pueblo Bonito beams
were cut within a few years of each other at a time preceding the
cutting of the timbers at Aztec by 40 to 45 years. Many of the
timbers of each ruin were living trees together for more than 100
years and some even for 200 years, and there seems no possible
doubt of the relative age here determined. ‘This result showing
that. a Chaco Canyon ruin was built nearly a half century before
Aztec is the first actual determination of such a difference in exact
years. A single beam from Pefiasco, some 4 miles down the Chaco
Canyon from Pueblo Bonito showed that its building was interme-
diate between Pueblo Bonito and Aztec.

238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Another association of growth rings with prehistoric deposits
has rapidly developed in the last two years. In 1904 the writer
discovered an Indian burial at a depth of 8 feet in a cultivated field
near Flagstaff, Ariz. A skeleton and two nests of pottery were
revealed by a deep cut which a stream of water had made through
the land. Near the burial was an ancient pine stump standing in
place 16 feet underground. The tree was later discovered by a
neighbor and became part of a bridge support. The Indian remains
were given away except a red bowl of simple pattern and a good
piece of black-and-white ware which is now in the Arizona State
Museum. In 1920 the search for these buried trees was resumed and
more than a half dozen in excellent preservation were found at
depths from 4 to 12 feet. Mr. L. F. Brady of the Evans School gave
most important help in getting out sections of these. In the summer
of 1921 he again resumed the search and found several more buried
trees and especially determined several levels at which pottery and
other Indian remains are plentiful. These buried trees have been
preserved by their pitch and show here and there quantities of
beautiful little white needle-shaped crystals, which Doctor Guild has
discovered to be a new mineral and to which he has given the name
“Flagstaffite.”

Several conclusions are already evident in the study of these buried
trees. In the first place they supply much desired material from
which some data regarding past climates may be obtained. The
trees buried most deeply have very large rings and a certain kind
of slow surging in ring size. Both of these features are character-
istic of wet climates. The stumps at higher levels show characters
common in dry climates; that is, general small rings and a certain
snappy irregularity with frequent surprises as to size. This varia-
tion with depth gives a strong intimation of climatic change. The
cycles dominant at these different levels also may be read from these
sections and are likely to prove of great value.

In the second place this material will help in determining the
age of the Indian remains and perhaps even of the valley filling in
which these objects were located. There are several ways of getting
at this which will take time in working out but there is one in-
ference immediately evident. One log was buried about 2 feet, yet
its rings do not tally with the 500 years of well determined rings of
modern trees in that neighborhood. Allowing about a century for
the sapwood lost from the buried tree and a half century more neces-
sary to detect cross-identity, we have an approximate minimum of
350 years from that 2 feet of depth. The age of Indian relics at 9 and
even 4 feet must be very considerable. It is interesting to add that

ANNUAL RINGS OF TREES—DOUGLASS. 239

this log cross-identified perfectly with another found at about the
same depth a hundred yards away.

These then are the first results of the application of the general
study of tree rings to archeological work and suggest further pos-
sibilities. Not only does it seem probable that this beginning of
relative chronology of the wonderful ruins of the Southwest will
be extended to include other ruins in this region, but this study of
the prehistoric writing in trees will help in the clearer understand-
ing of the climatic conditions which existed in those earlier times
when the largest bona fide residences in the world were being built.

IX. CONCLUSION.

The economic value of this study of tree rings and climate is to
be found in the possibility of long-range weather forecasting. In
noneconomic terms, we are trying to get the interrelationships be-
tween certain solar and terrestrial activities by the aid of historical
writing in the trees. The work is not done; a wide door is open to the
future. Hence it is impossible to make an artistic conclusion. There
is no real conclusion yet. Some definite results have been reached
and they encourage us to hope for larger returns in the future.
Through this open door we can see attractive objectives looming
above us and we note the outlines of some of the hills to be sur-
mounted. To climb these metaphorical hills we need groups of trees
from all parts of this country, from numerous specially selected
spots and areas, from distant lands; we need ancient tree records
from Pueblo ruins and modern Hopi buildings, from mummy case
and viking ship, from peat bog and brown-coal mine, from asphalt
bed and lava burial and from all ancient geologic trees in wood and
stone and coal. We need measuring instruments, workers, museum
room for filing and displaying specimens. And we need great
quantities of climatic data obtained with special reference to tree
comparison. With all this and with a spirit behind it, we shall
quickly read the story that is in the forest and which is already
coming to us through the alphabet of living trees.

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THE AGE OF THE EARTH.
By T. C. CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS.

THE AGE OF THE EARTH FROM THE GEOLOGICAL VIHWPOINT.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN,
University of Chicago.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

In pioneer days, when the sciences were struggling for a place in
the sun, it fell to geology to pull up and set back the stakes that man
had stuck to mark the beginning of the earth. This seemed to many
a moving of sacred landmarks; to others it seemed a wanton use of
the secrets of the cemetery of nature’s dead. A bitter war arose;
racial bias disputing the rock beds, tradition and sentiment fighting
mud layers and fossil imprints. The struggle that followed was
long. The throwing of rocks and rock-ribbed arguments grew to be
an art that might well have drawn forth the envy of an Ajax. But
the substantial slowly gained on the sentimental. The brutal co-
gency of a slab of fossils could be hated and fought, but could not be
gainsaid. And as the tide turned the geologist began to play cru-
sader; he mounted his war horse and went forth to convert the
world—including, withal, some of his scientific colleagues.

After a time, however, the battle shifted to another field. Darwin
and Wallace drew off a following and taught them to use the subtler
weapons of “the struggle for existence” and “natural selection.”
However, they still plied the old geologic weapons, for they, too, had
reason to point to bed on bed; they had need of even more time than
the geologists. So they took the lead and the team became a tandem,
biology prancing in front, geology trotting on in the thills.

But the spirit and abandon of this team soon awakened a new
antagonist. Kelvin took the field in the name of physics, astronomy,
and mathematics, and sought to set metes and bounds to the back-
ward extension of terrestrial time. He told the tandem, with much
show of premises and figures, that the feed on hand positively would
not let them go as far as they proposed. The tandem was reined in

1 Reprinted by permission from Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol

LXI, Dec. 26, 1922.
241

242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

and marked time, losing not a little of the free natural pace it should
have retained.

But in time this great antagonist was neatly flanked from an
unexpected quarter. Certain physicists and chemists discovered that
they had a decaying atom on hand. They keenly watched its rate of
decay and soon came to see that if atoms take as long to grow as
some of them take to die off, there should have been time enough for
this little ball of atoms to get together—and plenty of energy as well.

So, too, astronomers began to see that the making of globular
clusters and stellar galaxies required time. If 60,000 suns have time
to come together and work themselves into a steady state while yet
they are suns, the getting together of our little earth may be merely
a negligible matter after all. And so a new order of things has
arisen. ‘The tandem is a vexed tandem no longer. We now have a
fine four-horse team: Astronomy and physics at the front, leading
off at a great pace; biology on the pole, steadying the team; and
geology plodding on as the old original wheel horse.

THE GEOLOGIC PROBLEM.

Now, I must hasten to warn you not to expect much of the old
wheel horse. He has grown stiff in his paces, and his paces are not
what they should have been. Kelvin checked him too high. A
reasonable check should have given him good form and some sense
of restraint, but checked too high, he took to short mincing steps.
As a result he is in poor shape to swing into the great pace of the new
leaders. It is too much to expect him to recover his natural step at
once, but he will in time. For the present, he will need a touch of
the whip now and then to make him keep pace. Let this be gentle
and considerate, because of his age and his past service, but let it
be persuasive.

REPRESENTATIVE GEOLOGIC TIME ESTIMATES.

It is a simple matter, theoretically, to use the rate at which sedi-
ments are being laid down, or solutions gathered into the ocean, as a
divisor to find the time required to lay down the whole column of
sediments or the whole accumulation of the salts in the sea. Practi-
cally there are serious difficulties. In the first dozen years of this
century four notable estimates were made in this way by able geolo-
gists—two Americans, Clarke* and Becker; ? two British, Joly * and

if. W. Clarke, “A preliminary study of chemical denudation,” Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Ivi, no. 5 (1910) ; “‘ The data of geochemistry.”

2 George F. Becker, ‘‘ The age of the earth,’ Smithsonian Misc. Coll., lvi, no. 6 (1910).

’J. Joly, ‘‘ An estimate of the geological age of the earth,’’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Dublin,
VII (1899), pp. 23-66; ‘“‘ The age of the earth,’ Phil. Mag., 6th ser., Vol. XXII (1911),
pp. 359-380.

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 243

Sollas.t These estimates form an admirable point of departure for
this discussion. They represent the mode of geologic interpretation
that has been most current until recently ; they typify opinions widely
held by the conservative school of geologists; they stand out in con-
trast to the views of the new school.’ The mean of the four esti-
mates, on the basis of the sediments, was 90,000,000 years, roundly ;
on the basis of the ocean, 95,000,000 years. The highest individual
estimate was 150,000,000 years; the lowest 70,000,000 years. I shall
not deal with the individual estimates, but merely with their mean
value, and with that only as representative.

My discussion can not be specific and concrete without some refer-
ence to views in other fields. My colleagues in this symposium will
give you the last word from their viewpoints, and if I could follow
them I would gladly take their estimates as specifically representa-
tive in their several lines. In lieu of this, I can only use such gen-
eral views as are current. It has long been known to be the view of
many biologists that the evolution of life required much more than
100,000,000 years. It is also well known that most estimates based on
radio-activity greatly exceed this. Astronomical opinion has re-
cently been trending toward the view that long periods are neces-
sary for certain typical phases of celestial evolution. Perhaps I
may overstep my proper limits far enough to say that I have re-
cently tried to form some notion of the time required for the gather-
ing of planetesimals from what seemed a probable distribution into
the collecting planetary nuclei, and found a period of the order of
two or three billion years the most probable. These current views
in the collateral fields warrant me in assuming that there is a wide
discrepancy between the geological estimates just cited and the
present estimates in the related fields. In view of this I can perhaps
serve you best by inquiring whether the recent additions to geologic
evidence and the newer modes of interpretation mitigate this
discrepancy in any appreciable measure. Let us consider first what
the newer evidence relative to the sediments has to say, and turn
later to the solutions.

*W. J. Sollas, ‘“‘ Presidential address,’’ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 65 (May, 1909),
Proc. Geol. Soc. of London., sess., 1908—9, pp. l—-cxxii.

5It is not practicable to summarize the time estimates of the newer school consistently
with the division of labor adopted in this symposium since they are composite, embracing
organic, astronomic, and radioactive factors, with some emphasis on the last. The fol-
lowing papers of this class may be taken as representative: J. Joly, ‘‘ Radioactivity and
geology,” Van Nostrand, New York (1909), pp. 233-251; Arthur Holmes, “‘ The age of the
earth,” Harper Bros., London and New York (1913), pp. 1-196; J. Barrell, “ Rhythm and
the measurement of geological time,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 28 (1917), pp. 745-904;
T. C. Chamberlin, “‘ Diastrophism and the formative processes,’ XIII, ‘‘ The time over
which the ingathering of planetesimals was spread,’ Jour. Geol., Vol. XXVIII (1920),
pp. 675-681.

6 Diatrophism and the formative processes, XIII, The time over which the ingathering
of the planetesimals was spread, T, C, Chamberlin, Jour. Geol., Vol. XXVIII (1920), pp.
675-681.

244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.
THE TESTIMONY OF THE SEDIMENTS.

In considering possible modifications of the foregoing estimates
five questions arise: (1) How far do recent investigations tend to
lengthen or to shorten the older estimates? (2) To what extent has
human action made the present rate of wash and deposit faster than
the mean pre-human rate? (3) How far does the present state of
elevation make the present rate faster or slower than the mean rate
of the past? (4) How does the present area of erosion compare
with the mean area? And, finally, (5) does the lower end of the
geologic column give us the point from which the accumulation of
the sediments began? I can try to answer these questions only very
briefly and inadequately.

1. The effect of imtensive studies on earlier time estimates.—
A strictly accurate chronology reaching back from the present. for
several thousands of years is now being worked out by De Geer.’
He has succeeded in identifying the yearly deposits of glacial waters
and in correlating them with annual moraines. In addition to this
he has been able to match sections at distant points by comparing
the succession of peculiarities in the annual “ varve” layers. While
this is a quite special method and has only limited application, it is
important to general time estimates, because it gives a means of
checking up other criteria that indicate glacial time, and these help
check up certain nonglacial criteria. As is well known, the duration
of the recent Ice Age was for a time a sharply battled question, and
the old views pitted against the new views came to be well defined.
Though not yet ready for precise announcement, it is already fore-
shadowed that the De Geer method of measurement, when it shall
have fully covered the retreatal stage of the last glacial epoch, will
show that stage to be about three times as long as it was made by
the most representative of the old estimates. The main differences
of opinion as to the duration of the glacial period, however, grew out
of the evidence that instead of one simple short epoch there were
several epochs of glaciation separated by rather long interglacial
intervals. Now, by using the De Geer method to correct the criteria
on which time estimates of these glacial and interglacial epochs have
been based, a glacial period at least twenty times as long as that
assigned by the old estimate seems to be foreshadowed. Very likely
this degree of extension of an old-time estimate by a new one is ex-
ceptional; at any rate, the glacial formations are exceptional de-
posits and make up only a small part of the geologic column.

7 Gerald De Geer, ‘‘A geochronology of the last 12,000 years,” Proc. Int. Congr., Stock-
holm, 1910, p. 241; “‘Kontinentale Niveauveriinderungen in Norden Europas,’ ibid.,
p. 849; Spitzbergen, ibid., p. 1205; ‘‘ Phenomenes Quaternaires de Stockholm,” ibid.,
p. 1290; “‘ Quaternary phenomena in the southern part of Sweden,” ibid., p. 1339.

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 245

In considering the standard water-lain sediments of the column,
it is to be understood that only rapid surveys or mere reconnais-
sances have as yet been made of the larger part of the earth, and that
inevitably inconspicuous breaks in the continuity of the deposits have
been overlooked. As a result recent critical studies have revealed in
some cases surprising numbers of gaps in the continuity of deposi-
tion. For example, Dr. Stuart Weller, in a study of what was for-
merly regarded as a continuous section of the Mississippian, has
found no less than 12 breaks in continuity. The time value of these,
in his judgment, is two or three times as great as that of the visible
beds themselves. The time values of such intervals are best judged
by comparing the faunas below them with those above, but this falls
within the province of my paleontological colleague, and I therefore
leave this source of correction in his hands, merely expressing the
conviction that these breaks in the continuity of the sediments are
quite sure, when finally and fully adjudicated, to extend greatly the
old estimates of the time occupied in sedimentation.

2. Human acceleration of the rate of deposition—To pioneers
who watched the effects of floods, freshets, and ordinary wash on the
native surface of our prairies and forests in their virgin state, and
who are able now to compare this with the present wash of the same
surfaces under cultivation, there is no need to argue that human
intervention has greatly hastened denudation and deposition. In
the native state the surface was protected by thick mats of grass,
leaves, and other vegetable débris; while the soil was bound together
by dense entanglements of roots. The waters then ran almost clear
where now they run mud.’ Added to this are the quickened defla-
tion of winds, the wear of roadways, the effects of quarrying and
other excavation, as well as the actual carting away of clays, sands,
gravels, quarry stone, foodstuffs, timber, and other material. While
it is not easy to fix on a definite measure of these effects, the needed
correction seems certainly to be large.

3. Correction for the present elevation of the surface.—It is held by
leading American geologists that the general elevatory movements of
the continents have alternated with periods of relative stability dur-
ing which the processes of base leveling and sea transgression have

8 Personal communication.

®A fuller statement of this with citations of data from Dole and Stabler and from
F. W. Clarke is given in ‘‘ Diatrophism and the formative processes, VIII, the quantita-
tive element in continental growth,’ T. C. Chamberlin, Jour. Geol., Vol. XXII (1913),
pp. 522-528. :

Dpalg-—24——1 7

246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922. '

cut down the continents and developed peneplains.*° The periods oc-
cupied in the process of lowering the surface by denudation are held
with good reason to be greater than those occupied in its elevation
by deformative action. It is needless to say that elevation increases
the velocity of the run-off, and that this velocity greatly increases
the transporting power. “ It is generally agreed that the present
altitude of the continents is greater than their mean elevation during
geologic history. Geologists recognize at least two stages in which
the continents were exceptionally high and broad: That which at-
tended the transition from the Paleozic to the Mesozoic Era, and that
which attended the transition of the Tertiary to the present epoch.
The existing stage thus falls in one of the most notable stages when
continental elevation and breadth were greatest, though perhaps
not at its climax. Geikie estimates the present mean elevation of the
land at 2,441 feet.12 The mean elevation of the great peneplains
is a matter of judgment rather than of knowledge, but no one would
probably put the elevation at much more than a third of this.
Probably a third is too high. The mean elevation for all the ages,
high and low, quite surely falls somewhere between 2,400 and 800
feet, and probably nearer the 800 than the 2,400. There can be little
doubt, then, that the present rate of denudation and deposition is
much above the mean rate.

There are incidental conditions attending high relief which add
appreciably to the immediate effects of the steep declivities to which
it gives rise. Relief of the surface increases the vertical air currents,
and these favor precipitation; they also tend to concentrate the pre-
cipitation and give it enhanced effect. High relief often induces
sharp showers and distinctly rapid run-off. The smooth surfaces of
the stages of lower elevation, on the other hand, favor a more even
distribution of rain, a larger absorption into the soil, and a slower
run-off of the remainder. So, too, accidented surfaces are likely to
be ineffectively protected by vegetation, for lack of soil, or of ade-
quate moisture. These and other incidental influences add appre-

1° The following group of papers emphasizes the rhythmical nature of elevation and
stability and of the action of the atmosphere and hydrosphere upon the periodic deforma-
tions of the earth body and thus form the basis for the arguments in this and the next
section: “A group of hypotheses bearing on climatic changes,” T. C. Chamberlin, Jour.
Geol., Vol. V (1897), pp. 681-683 ; ‘‘ The ultimate basis for time divisions and the classi-
fication of geologic history,” ibid., Vol. VI (1898), pp. 449-463: “‘ A systematic source of
provincial faunas,” ibid., Vol. VI (1898), pp. 597-609; ‘‘ The influence of great epochs
of limestone formation upon the constitution of the atmosphere,” ibid., Vol. VI (1898),
pp. 609-622 ; and specifically as applied to the question of age: “‘ Rhythm and the meas-
urement of time,” J. Barrell, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 28 (1917), pp. 745-904. The argu-
ment used in the present paper will be found stated as a quotation from Chamberlin in
Holmes’s “ The age of the earth,” cited above (1913), pp. 79-81. See also T. C. Chamber-
lin, ‘“‘ Diastrophism as the ultimate basis of correlation,” in ‘‘ Outlines of geologic his-
tory,” compiled by B. Willis and R. D. Salisbury (1910), The University of Chicago
Press, pp. 298-306.

41 See the special investigation of G. K. Gilbert, ‘‘ The transportation of débris by run-
ning water,’ Prof. Paper, 86, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1914).

2“ Textbook of geology,’ 4th ed.. Vol. I (1903), p_ 49.

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS, 247

ciably to the total effect. It seems clear, therefore, that a large cor-
rection is to be made to the present rate of denudation because of the
relatively high elevation of the continents.

4. Correction for area.—This is to a large degree, but not wholly,
an effect of the elevation of the continents, but none the less it
deserves separate recognition. When elevation increases the land
area, base leveling and sea transgression at once set in and combine
their forces to reduce the exposed area. The result is very large
variations in the areas of the ancient lands. The estimates of
Schuchert and others for North America show variations that range
from the full surface of the continental platform down to half that
surface. As a rule, of course, the lesser surfaces were also low sur-
faces, and the two influences were cumulative. At stages of low
elevation and slack drainage deep soils were likely to accumulate,
and these favored thick vegetation, which helped to hold the soils.
Thus in several ways small area and low elevation united their influ-
ence in a cumulative effect which could not have been other than
large.

Partial summary—Summarizing at this point, it appears that
four important corrections quite certainly must be applied to the
present rate of geologic action to reduce it to a mean rate for the
whole of geologic time. These corrections are cumulative. There
seems to be no way at present to evaluate them rigorously or perhaps
even very closely. The weighing of their value is greatly affected by
the individual judgment and that, in turn, by individual experiences
and opportunities of observation. Speaking for myself alone, it
does not seem to be overstraining the importance of these corrections
to suppose that their cumulative value will be found great enough to
bring the old-time estimates up to figures of about the same order as
those of the current radioactive estimates.

5. The lower end of the geologic column.—Below the base of
the Paleozoic series the geologic terranes are much obscured by
diastrophism and metamorphism. It remains to inquire what is the
testimony of this obscured portion as to the horizon at which the
sediments began to be deposited, for that is essential to measuring
the whole period of deposition. It was once thought that the Cam-
brian beds lay close upon “ the original crust,” and that they either
represented the real beginning of the sedimentary series or else an
early stage close to the beginning. But as field work progressed it
was found that first one and then another thick series of sediments
lay below the Cambrian. It was further found that there were
marked unconformities between these great terranes, and that these
were of such a nature as to imply long intervals of time unrepre-
sented by deposits; that is, times when the deposition took place else-
~ where. The number of such strongly unconformable terranes has
been notably increasing as investigation proceeds. The correlation

248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

of these is not yet complete—or even wholly satisfactory so far as it
has gone—but the leading workers in this field recognize six, eight,
or more great stages. This pre-Cambrian factor is thus certainly
great, but just how great is yet undetermined.

The mere extension of the sediments downward in this large
degree is not, however, the most significant feature of this recent
work. Great granitic series form a prominent feature of these lower
terranes. These were formerly taken to be parts of “the original
crust.” They have been found, however, to consist of remarkable
intrusions into earlier series made up of sediments, voleanic débris,
and surface lava flows. The granites are not evidence of “ the origi-
nal crust of the molten globe.” Nor does there seem to be any other
trustworthy evidence of “an original crust.” Thus observational
evidence does not give the depth at which the bottom of the column
of sediments is to be found, and theory is perhaps as favorable to a
depth of a thousand or two thousand miles as any shallower depth.
A reliable starting point for reckoning the total thickness of the
sediments is not available.

THE TESTIMONY OF THE SOLUTIONS.??

In the effort to find the earth’s age by means of sediments advan-
tage may be taken of the fact that each deposit makes its own indi-
vidual contribution. It is thus possible to sum up as many of these
separate contributions as can be measured satisfactorily and rest the
case there, leaving what remains of the earth’s age to be found out
later or to be guessed at or to be ignored. But when the inquiry
turns to the solutions it must face the fact that the contributions of
each stage have been mingled with those of all other stages and the
record to be measured is thus an indivisible unit. If the ocean, con-
sidered as such record, can be used to measure age at all, it is the
total age of the ocean. This total age of the ocean can not be ex-
pected to tally with the age found from an unknown fraction of
sediments.

The basis of estimating the age of the ocean.—The interpreta-
tion of the time occupied in the concentration of solutions in the
ocean hangs on the assumptions made relative to its origin and to
the entire history of the earth’s waters on land and sea alike. This
includes the volume of the waters at the start and all along; it in-
cludes the metamorphic solutions from within the earth as well as

18 Only a brief general statement could be made at the Symposium for lack of time.
Adequate citation of evidence or of authority or elaboration of critical points was imprac-
ticable. The printed text gives somewhat more liberty and I have taken advantage of it
to a limited extent and have recast this part of the text to accommodate it to this. I am
greatly indebted to Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan, United States geologist in charge of investi-
gations on sediments, for aid in securing documents and personal statements from the
departments of our general Government and from its officials engaged in investigations
bearing on the question in hand.

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 249

those that arise from surface action. Account must also be taken of
such reversals of action as take material out of solution and return
it to the solid state. All these must be considered, for they are all
necessarily involved in the question of the age of the ocean. Some
basal assumptions are unavoidable, and if we must deal with them
it is best to be frank and explicit about them. The necessary as-
sumptions as to the early stages of the ocean are more or less specu-
lative, but.if we are to discuss the question of age at all, there is no
occasion to be squeamish about that. It does not make the assump-
tions any less “speculative” to gloss over or shy at the fact that
they are speculative or at least have speculative factors. Assump-
tions are least dangerous when explicitly recognized. They are
even likely to be least speculative when the grounds on which they
rest are carefully sifted, logically weighed, and made to throw such
light as they may on the question in hand. We have no call to dis-
cuss the age of the ocean at all unless we are ready to be frank about
the other end of its history. The crux of the issue lies there. We
are all agreed about the age of this end.

The two types of assumptions in actual use and their radical
differences.1*—Only two general types of assumptions require recog-

1%4The four estimates of the age of the ocean which were cited earlier and which give
an average age of 95,000,000 years, with a range from 70,000,000 to 150,000,000 years,
seem clearly to have been made on the basis of the inherited view of the origin of the
earth. This assumes that all the material of the present hydrosphere, together with
such substances of the present earth body as would be volatile at the temperature of
molten rock, were held in the atmosphere which surrounded the supposed molten earth.
The oceanic history is assumed to have begun when the waters from this primitive ocean-
bearing atmosphere condensed upon the crust that had formed over the molten earth.
The great influence which this view has had on geologic thought and the wide extent to
which interpretations derived from it enter into various geologic concepts not recognized
as its offspring, are chiefly due to the explicit teachings of the old masters who had clear
cosmological conceptions and the courage of their convictions, Foremost of these among
Americans was Dana, and as I once believed and taught this view but have become an
apostate from it and the protagonist of another view, I trust that in following Dana’s
statement in the fourth edition of his Manual of Geology as a standard exposition I
shall not be doing any injustice to the inherited view.

On the other hand, the only accretional view that has been carried out into any
measure of detail is the planetesimal hypothesis. (The most recent statement of points
pertinent to this discussion may be found in a series of articles entitled “‘ Diatrophism
and the formative processes,’ I to XV, Jour. Geol., Vols. XXI (1913) to XXIX (1921),
particularly Articles X to XV.) ‘To clear the air of needless fog let it be noted that this
is not a speculation regarding the origin of the universe, or of the stars, or even of our
sun. It is merely an endeavor to explain the singular dynamic properties of the earth
and its fellow planets and their strange relations to the sun. It is merely a definite
endeavor to solve a very definite problem. It started from an attempt to test the ten-
ability of the inherited view of the atmosphere just outlined. The hypothesis that the
atmosphere once held as vapor all the water of the ocean and much other volatile ma-
terial was framed before the nature of gases was known. The view seemed logical
enough under the old notion of gases. Special reasons for testing it by the kinetic theory
of gases arose out of the relations of the atmosphere to glaciation. The results of the
test were very unfavorable. It seemed wholly improbable under the kinetic constitution
of gases that a molten earth could hold so vast and active an atmosphere. This adverse
result led to other tests of a more mechanical sort. These disclosed certain critical facts
in the dynamics of the solar system which, while not altogether unknown, had not been
adequately recognized as indispensable criteria in the interpretation of our planery

250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

nition here, the one based on the view that the earth started as a
molten globe, the other that it grew up slowly by the accession of
solid particles. For the purposes of the present question it is not
radically material how the molten globe arose, on the one hand, nor
by what celestial mechanism the accretion took place, on the other,
beyond the fact that the material of the ocean was supposed to be
assembled as a vapor about a hot earth, in the one case, ready to begin
work in full volume when cooling took place, while in the other case
the waters came into action very gradually. Out of these basal dif-
ferences, however, there arise some important contrasts in the modes
of later action that are almost equally radical in their bearings on the
evolution of the ocean, so that both the original and derivative differ-
ences need to be sharply in mind in considering the question of the
earth’s age.

1. On the one hand, it is assumed that the ocean was essentially
uniform in volume throughout all the ages, and that the disintegra-
tion of the surface rocks, the inflow of solutions, and the content they
carried were also essentially uniform. If these assumptions are cor-
rect, or if they hold true of a single leading element, as sodium, the
present rate and content of inflow may be used as a divisor to ascer-
tain the total time of inflow. This, however, is subject to the condi-
tion that there is no important reversal of action, or at least none that
can not be adequately measured and discounted.

The alternative view assumes that the ocean grew to its present
volume very slowly from a small beginning, that the solutions came
from three sources and were variable from the start, so that the whole
history was very different from the preceding. The three sources of
solutions were (1) the internal metamorphic action of waters en-
trapped in the growing accessions, (2) surficial action by the atmos-
phere and hydrosphere acting on the shell of the lithosphere, and (3)
accessions of water-substance from the environing sphere under con-
trol of the sun—particularly accessions through the system of ex-
change between the ultra-atmosphere of the sun and the ultra-atmos-

system. In other words, the earth and its family have dynamic peculiarities that make
the question of their origin a special one. These hereditary peculiarities point the way
to their interpretation. The planetesimal hypothesis is simply the result of an attempt
to follow these hereditary traits back to their parentage. It is as little as possible
speculative, for it starts with mechanical properties which are rigorously determinate and
which must be met by any hypothesis of genesis worthy of serious consideration. It
follows these back to their probable origin in other known properties and natural actions
so related to them as to be their probable sources. The method followed was only a
phase of the standard practice of geologists in following the vestiges of a recorded event
back to their most probable sources. If peculiar at all, it is merely in that the vestiges
are dynamic, It ill becomes us to be squeamish about historical deductions from his-
torical vestiges, for there are plenty of people who regard geology as a speculation from
beginning to end and there is no present help for it.

AGE OF THE EARTH——-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 951

phere of the earth.° The first source brought one type of solutions,
the second another, and the third added water that was essentially
fresh. Under this view it is obvious that until this complex of
sources and variations has been worked out the present rate of acces-
sion has no claims to be regarded as a trustworthy divisor for ascer-
taining the total period of activity.

There are also two rather radically different methods of dealing
with the geo-chemical evolution of the ocean. These are not neces-
sarily connected with the preceding differences of view, but as a
matter of fact they are closely associated with them.

The first of these—associated with the older cosmological view—
takes (a) for its start the concept of a universal crust acted upon
from without by an atmosphere and hydrosphere, (6) for its middle
factor the streams, and (c) for its end products the sediments and
the ocean. The matter in the sediments and in the ocean taken to-
gether are supposed to match the loss of the crust by decomposition
and wear. Under this view any real failure to so match is a dis-
crepancy to be accounted for. In the special problem in hand the
sodium in the ocean, together with the sodium that remains in the
sediments, should match the sodium once in the denuded rocks of
the crust. So, also, the other elements of the crust should appear
in due proportion in the sediments and the ocean. It is recognized
in the cases of calcium, magnesium, potassium, silica, and other ele-
ments that there are reversals of action by which these elements go
back into the solid state as new sediments, but it is held that sodium
does not return to the solid state in the sediments in a similar
chemico-physical cyclic way, to any appreciable degree. Thus the
sodium now in the ocean is held to represent the accumulation of
all the geologic ages, and this total accumulation divided by the
rate at which the present streams are carrying sodium down to the
sea is held to give the age of the ocean, barring some corrections to
be noted later. The crux of the whole issue of age lies in the
validity of these concepts, particularly the irreversibility of the
sodium.

The other view is far less simple. It looks upon the hydrosphere,
of which the ocean is the chief concentration, as only the liquid phase
of a solid-liquid-gaseous cycle through which the earth substances
are passing. It is held that the earth is perpetually undergoing self-
metamorphism in all its parts. This metamorphism takes place in a
multitude of ways, each unit doing its part, in its own place, in its
own way, and at its own rate. Each unit passes through its own
cycles of liquid-solid-gaseous states according as its nature, its con-
tacts, and conditions determine. Its career is wholly dependent on
its own succession of conditions, and is only affected by what other

158 The origin of the earth,’ The University of Chicago Press (1916), pp. 19-21.

252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

units are doing under their conditions incidentally as it happens
to come into working relations to them. The cycles that thus arise
are so multitudinous and intricate that their correlation is a most
formidable task which is scarcely yet fully appreciated; little more
than a beginning has been made toward its accomplishment.

Under this view it is necessary to stress the fact that the simple
solid-to-solution change from the rock to the ocean does not cover
the whole evolution in the case of any substance. In most cases
there are many cycles, some in parallel lines, some in succession.
The content of the indurated rocks, on the one hand, and the con-
tent of the sediments and the ocean solutions on the other, are great
features that have guiding value, but they are too general to cover
with adequate accuracy the sub-cycles that make up the real history.
The correlation of the whole is too largely conditioned by the num-
ber and speed of the constituent cycles to be successfully dealt with.
It is especially affected by the reversals from the liquid to the solid
state which take place during the passages from rock to soil, from
soil to fresh-water solutions, or to colloids and turbid suspensions,
and from these to the concentrated sea solutions in the borders of
the sea. The deductions drawn from such a complication of cycles
differ in very important respects from the deductions drawn from
a simple matching of the content of the igneous rocks with the con-
tent of the ocean solutions and the sediments.

Now, in respect to sodium, it is, of course, recognized that it
returns to the solid state in less degree than potassium, magnesium,
and calcium. It is held, nevertheless, on good evidence, that the
sodium does return to the solid state in minor equilibrium degree and
is recounted. The reactions involved are controlled by the law of
mass action and the mutual effects of the constituents on one another.
The reactions are particularly affected by the degrees of concentra-
{ion, which are very low in the fresh-water solutions and quite high
in the sea solutions. The trend of the reactions is toward equilibrium
between the constituents, not toward any exclusive or monopolistic
combination. Specifically, it is held that when the state of concentra-
tion favors the sodium, it will displace either potassium, magnesium,
or calcium, and that such displacements take place as a standard fea-
ture in the processes of disintegration and solution, though only in an
appropriate minor degree.

Let us now turn to such determinations as are available for testing
the validity of these contrasted interpretations.

Discrepancies in the matching of igneous rocks with sediments
and solutions.—The differences between the content of the igneous
rocks and that of the sediments and the salts of the ocean have been

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 253

put in definite form by Leith and Mead.*® Comparing first the
igneous rocks with the sediments, they find the following excesses
and deficiencies: (1) a deficiency of 3.1 per cent in iron; (2) a de-
ficiency of 26 per cent in magnesium; (3) an ewcess of 32 per cent in
calcium; (4) a deficiency of 64 per cent in sodium; and (5) an ewcess
of 2 per cent in potassium. If the corresponding constituents in the
ocean are added to these severally, some of the discrepancies will be
lessened, while others will be increased; the discrepancies do not
disappear, though they are somewhat mitigated.

2. It is recognized on all hands that the land, waters vary greatly
according to the nature of the drainage area from which they are
derived. In some districts they consist largely of carbonates, or of
sulphates; in others of chlorides, or of silicates; while the degree of
dominance varies greatly within each class. The solutions of the
ocean, however, are not identical with any of these, nor with a simple
mixture of them; the ocean solutions are dominantly chlorides, but
constitute a combination which is quite distinctive. This implies that,
instead of a theoretical mixture of the land waters, an effective
chemico-physical reorganization takes place, a liquid metamorphism
of the heterogeneous land waters and their content into the homo-
geneous sea solution and its sediments. This is in a measure recog-
wized, but the recognition is inadequate if the change is regarded
simply as a liquid metamorphism. There is a neglected solid factor
in the form of silts and clays that is of critical importance. The
usual comparison is really between the clear waters of the streams—
which are mainly the outflowing grownd waters of the land—and the
sea waters. The run-off and its contents—the wash-waters of the
jand and their burden of mud—are neglected. But it is this run-off
water with its mud and the colloids that go with it which carries the
larger part of the acid radicals of the soil from which the basic radi-
cals were leached. The reunion of these acids with the alkalies in
the border of the ocean constitutes a critical part of the metamorphism
which gives rise to the ocean solutions and sediments. We will
return to this presently.

3. The larger part of the solutions now flowing into the ocean
comes from the sediments, the lesser part from the igneous rocks.—
This becomes the more suggestive when it is noted that the sediments
have been worked over repeatedly in some notable part; some small
part, perhaps hundreds of times; some larger part, scores of times;
while some other large part perhaps has not been worked more than
once, unless we count in the many times most material is handled
in going from the parent rock to the ocean. That the sediments
should still be able to yield saline solutions to the observed extent

wC, K, Leith and W. J. Mead, Metamorphic geology (1915), p. 69 et seq., particularly
pp. 838-88,

254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

raises a vital question into which it is necessary to inquire before
assuming the practical nonreversibility of the sodium solutions. It
is already well recognized that a part of this sustained productive-
ness is due to sea winds which carry salt inland from the ocean. This
salt is thus counted as many times as it is carried back. An endeavor
has been made to estimate and make allowance for this by taking the
increase of salt solutions near the ocean as a criterion. It has also
been recognized that salt solutions are entrapped in the pores of the
sediments as they are laid down under the sea, and that when the beds
are afterwards raised above the sea level these solutions are drained
into the streams and counted again as salts from the land. The
amount of duplication involved in this depends on the ability of the
rocks to hold salt water mechanically in their pores, and correction
has been sought by estimating their porosity and discounting for it.
Sandstones usually have the highest porosity and limestones come
next, while shales are relatively close-textured and impervious, but
still the shales are exceptionally productive. So, also, it has been
recognized that beds of rock salt occur in the stratified series, but
these are held to be relatively unimportant. So still further some
particles of the original rock may remain undisintegrated; so, too,
fresh particles may be cut away from exposed rocks by wind blast
and widely though sparsely distributed. But when the modifying
effects of all these have been recognized and discounted, there still
remains a serious source of double counting of sodium which we must
consider presently.

4. The ratio of chlorine to sodium is a crucial matter, recognized
but not sufficiently emphasized. Inspection of the drainage from
regions of igneous rocks shows that the chlorine is relatively low and
the sodium relatively high compared with the ratio of these ele-
ments in the ocean, which is about 1.8 chlorine to 1 sodium. The rela-
tive deficiency of chlorine in the drainage from the very rocks that
are assumed to be the ultimate source of the salt solutions raises a
fundamental issue.

5. In view of this, let us make our inspection as sweeping as pos-
sible. Let us compare the ratio of sodium to chlorine in the ocean
with the ratio found in the average igneous rock of the whole
“crust.” The latest and most authoritative determination of the
chemical composition of the igneous rocks is that of Clarke and
Washington, which gives the mean sodium content as 2.83 and that
of chlorine as 0.096.17 From this it appears that the mean per cent,

17 Frank W. Clarke and Henry S, Washington, U. S, Geol. Surv. and Geophys. Lab.,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, ‘‘ The average composition of igneous rocks,” Proc.
Nat. Acad. of Sci., vol. 8, no. 3 (May, 1922), pp. 108-13. In the paper as read at the
symposium I used the then latest and most authoritative figures, viz, those of H. 8S.
Washington, “The chemistry of the earth’s crust,” Jour. Franklin Inst., in which the
sodium was given as 2.85 and the chlorine as 0.055.

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS, 255

of sodium in average igneous rock is about thirty times as great as
their content of chlorine. This is a large difference, but it does
not represent the full discrepancy, for the chlorine in the ocean
exceeds the sodium in about the proportion of 1.8 to 1. Taking this
into account, the discrepancy rises to somewhat above 50 to 7. This
is a formidable discrepancy. How is it to be met on the assump-
tion that the sodium in solution is not reconverted into sodium solids,
but remains in perpetual solution? The dilemma is not much relieved
by reckoning in the sediments and the ocean salts, for Clarke and
Washington also give*® the ratio of sodium to chlorine when the
atmosphere and hydrosphere are reckoned in with the outer 10
miles of the lithosphere. The discrepancy, corrected for actual
oceanic proportions, is even then nearly 20 to 1. Quite naturally
volcanoes have been thought to be a source of excess of chlorine, but
any contribution from the volcanoes is covered by this inclusion
of the whole atmosphere and hydrosphere in the average. Besides,
the later studies of volcanic gases do not sustain the earlier views that
they contained a specially high content of chlorine.*® The observed
differences between the sodium and the chlorine appear to have
grown mainly out of the normal processes of cyclic change when
these are viewed in their largest aspects. If the sodium returns to
the solid state in due (though lesser) proportion to the potassium,
magnesium, calcium, and chlorine, as these constituents are found
mixed in the solutes and the sediments, there is no necessary dis-
crepancy in these great differences. The discrepancy is constructive
and is imposed by the assumption that the sodium does not take its
proportional part in cyclic action. Under the alternative interpreta-
tion, the amounts of the several elements present in the ocean are
primarily functions of their own cyclic histories; their proportions
are not predetermined solely by the composition of the igneous rocks
now at the surface, but rather by the relations of their own solvent °
to their non-solvent natures under the conditions of their long com-
plex history. Specifially, in the case of sodium and chlorine, the
observed ratio merely means that the solution stages of sodium com-
pared with its solid stages are much inferior to those of chlorine, just
as those of potassium are much inferior to those of sodium, and so
on through the list. But, however cogent this may be, definite evi-
dence that sodium does enter freely into the cyclic processes, in due
proportion to the action of its associates, however inferior the pro-
portion may be, will naturally be demanded. Allusion has already
been made to a neglected factor. Let us turn to that.

18 [bid., p. 114.

2, T, Allen, “Chemical aspects of vulcanism with a collection of the analyses of
volcanic gases.’”’ Papers from the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, No, 440 (1922), pp. 1-80.

256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The mud cycle actuated by the surface floods.—Familiar as this is
in many respects, it has perhaps received less critical geochemical
study than almost any other common feature of nature with which
we are directly, not to say unpleasantly, brought into contact. The
agricultural chemists have naturally been preoccupied with those
elements of the soils that serve as plant food, the students of hygiene
and domestic science with waters suitable for drinking and culinary
purposes, and the geologic chemists with the organic extracts and
precipitates that form the limestones, dolomites, and siliceous beds.
The mud factor of the surface wash has been neglected. And yet
the muds (later shales) comprise much the largest part of the solid
residue of disintegration. ‘This solid disaggregated residue and the
colloids associated with it are separated from the true solutions in
large measure at the very start on their long journey to the sea.
The true solutions are largely formed by waters that descend through
the soils into the underlying formations and thus form the ground
waters which pass by springs and seep into the streams, giving them
their steady supply of clear water. This is the water chiefly analyzed
and taken into account in reckoning the material borne by the streams
to the ocean. The solid residue, the clays, silts, and sands, however,
are only slightly removed by the gentler rains which soak into the
ground. They are carried down to sea chiefly by the floods following
heavy storms, or by the thaw waters of winter snows which form the
spring freshets, or by flood stages from any cause. The turbid mat-
ter of these muddy waters contains a large part of the acid radicals
with which the basic radicals of the true solutions were united in the
parent rock and in the soils. While it is known that the muddy
waters contain hydrous silicates of alumina and iron, partly colloidal
and partly noncolloidal, together with finely divided siliceous silts
and colloidal silica, full and exact information is lacking. Doctor
Collins says that “ the dissemination of silica in natural waters, par-
ticularly turbid waters, is one of the least accurately known of the de-
terminations of substances present in appreciable quantities.” *° He
adds that even “ the exact state of the silica present in a perfectly clear
water is usually not known. It may be colloidal or it may be present
as a silicate radical.” In addition to this—or perhaps the cause of
it—investigation is embarrassed at the inland end of the cycle by the
fleeting and irregular nature of the freshet stage, and by the rapid
and intricate changes within the soils. The changes in the soil are
so rapid in certain respects that F. H. King found it important to
make his determinations of water-soluble solutions by means of an
improvised laboratory in the field so that determinations might be

* W. Id. Collins, chief of the quality of water division, U. 8S. Geol. Sury. Personal
communication,

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 257

made as promptly as possible after the sample tube had taken the
soil from its natural relations.* At the sea end of the cycle the
recombinations of the acid radicals with the basic radicals seems to
take place chiefly at the base of the turbid water as it is carried out
over the concentrated sea solutions and diffuses into them. Before
the acid radicals reach the bottom the reversing phase of the cycle
has probably ended and a new cycle begun under suboceanic condi-
tions. ‘The experimental evidence in support of this conclusion is
buried in a great mass of literature which relates primarily to other
elements, particularly the elements that form plant foods, such as
potassium, phosphorus, etc., and those that form precipitates such
as calcium and magnesium carbonates, but when these scattered data
are gathered together their combined import is sufficient to make
clear the essentials of what happens.”

The present status of knowledge and opinion is summarized by
the following quotations.

Doctor Truog writes:

The minerals or salts in soils consist largely of silicates. On weathering
the bases are removed from the silicates, leaving acid residues or acid silicates.
These acid silicates will react with salts like KCl and NaCl and remove the
base and leave HCl in solution. When soil is treated with equal molecular
strengths of these two solutions, the potassium is removed to a greater ex-
tent than the sodium. This is due to the fact that the potassium forms more
insoluble compounds with the acid silicates than the sodium. Furthermore,
silicates which have not had their bases removed will also react with these
salts and exchange bases with them. For example, potassium chloride will
react with an insoluble sodium silicate, in which reaction the potassium replaces
the sodium and the sodium is left in solution as soluble sodium chloride. If an
insoluble potassium silicate were treated with a solution of sodium chloride,
some of the sodium would replace the potassium and some potassium would
thus go into solution as the soluble chloride. This, however, would not proceed
to as great an extent as the previous reaction, since the potassium forms a
more insoluble silicate than sodium. In reading some of the literature on this
subject one may get the impression that sodium is not retained by soils like
the potassium, but this is really not the case; the action is merely relative.
The potassium is retained to a greater extent simply because it forms more
insoluble compounds with the soils.

1 Bull. 26, U. S, Dept. Agri. (1905), pp. 26-27.

2 The following are among the more important early investigations:

Way, Jour. Roy. Agri. Soc., vol. 11 (1850), pp. 313-879; vol. 13 (1852), pp. 123-143;
vol. 15 (1854), p. 491.

Hichhorn, Pogg.-An., vol. 125 (1854). p. 126.

Voelcker, Jour. Roy. Agri. Soc., 2d series, vol. I, pp. 289-316.

Kullenberg, Hoffman’s “Jahres bericht der Agrikultur Chemie,’”’ vol. 8 (1865), p. 15.

Lemberg, Zeitschr. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vol. 29 (1877), p. 483.

73H, Truog, soil chemist, Dept. of Soils of the College of Agriculture, University of
Wisconsin. Personal communication,

258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Dr. Milton Whitney ** writes:

The investigations of this bureau™ show that the absorptive power of a
soil resides almost wholly in the ultra clay or the colloidal material in the soil.
This ultra clay is mainly a hydrous silicate of alumina and iron, with hydrated
oxides of iron and probably alumina and absorbed calcium, magnesium, sodium,
and potassium. It is of a colloidal nature, and can be separted from the soil
in the form of minute droplets in dilute colloidal solutions which form into
colloidal aggregates when the concentration is somewhat over 1 gram per
1,000 ec. «.

The chemical analysis of the soil colloids which we have separated shows
considerable amounts of lime, potash, soda, and other material which we be-
lieve to be absorbed in colloidal condition. We believe there is a distribution
between the amount so absorbed and the concentration of the noncolloidal
part of the solution. We believe also that the absorption of any one of these
constituents such as potassium will be influenced by the presence of other salts
such as sodium or calcium. Under all stable conditions there will be an equi-
librium between the amount absorbed and the concentration of the surrounding
liquid. Sodium chloride lowers the absorption of potassium chloride and
calcium salts lower the absorption of potassium chloride. In general, soils and
the colloids obtained therefrom absorb the basic ions much more readily than
they absorb the acid ions.

According to Clarke the earth’s crust contains 3.28 per cent of Na-O and
2.96 per cent of K.0. Thirty soils and the colloids obtained from the same
collected by this bureau contained in the soil 1.59 per cent of K.O and 1.45
per cent in the colloids. The soils contained on the average:0.77 per cent of
Na,0O and 0.29 per cent in the colloids. These figures show very clearly the
greater power possessed by the soil colloids to absorb and to hold back potash
than they have for sodium.

A diffusion experiment with a soil colloid lasting over two months in which
large volumes of distilled water were allowed to act showed a loss of 25 per
cent of total K.0 and over 95 per cent of the total Na.O.

There is no question that the soil colloids are able to absorb NaCl. This
is shown by the ancient experiments of making sea water drinkable by filter-
ing through soil filters.

Data and references examined show that under conditions of leaching by
rain water where equilibrium conditions are changed potassium is largely re-
tained by the soil but sodium is largely leached out.

*% Milton Whitney, Chief, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Personal
communication.
2% These include numerous publications containing many analyses as well as special

discussions, but as in all agricultural publications the constituents that most concern
plant life receive most attention and data relative to sodium is incidental. The following
may be cited:

Cameron, F. K., and Bell, J. M., ‘‘ The mineral constituents of the soil solution,” U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur, Soils, Bull. 30, 1905,

Cameron, F. K., and Patten, H. E., ‘‘ The distribution of solute between water and
soil,’ Jour. of Phys. Chem., vol. II, pp. 581-93, 1907.

Patten, H. E., ‘‘Some surface factors affecting distribution,’’ Trans. Amer. Electrochem.
Soc., vol. 10, pp. 67-74, 1906.

Patten, H. E., and Gallagher, F. E., ‘“‘ Absorption of vapors and gases by soils,’ U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Bull. 51, 1908.

Patten, H. E., and Waggaman, W. H., “ Absorption by soils,’ U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Soils, Bull. 52, 1908.

Schreiner, Oswald, and Failyer, G. H., “The absorption of phosphates and potassium
by soils,’ U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 32, 1906.

Parker, E. G., ‘Selective adsorption by soils,” Jour. of Agr. Research, Dept. Agr.,
vol. I, no. 3 (Dec. 10, 1913).

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 259

In the presence of much NaCl, as is found in sea water, ocean shore de-
posits would undoubtedly absorb considerable NaCl up to the point where the
colloids were in equilibrium with the sea water. If the material were then
formed into a shale and elevated to land areas, the induration would presum-
ably destroy the colloidal properties, leaving the NaCl free from its colloidal
entanglements, and with the change of the solvent from sea water to rain
water equilibrium conditions would be expected to remove readily a consider-
able amount of the NaCl, while the K.0 would be largely retained on the
weathering of the shale and the reformation of colloids resulting therefrom.

From these authoritative statements of present knowledge and
opinion; from the early experiments of Way, Eichhorn, Kullenberg,
Voelcker, Lemberg, and others, in mingling soils with salt solutions
and in passing salt solutions through soils, and from many inter-
mediate experiments cited by Sullivan,”* there is left little ground for
doubt that when the acid radicals previously separated from the basic
radicals under conditions of very low concentration, again meet basic
radicals under conditions of high concentration in the ocean off the
mouths of the streams, reunion takes place in equilibrium propor-
tions. The experiments of Lemberg are particularly instructive on
this point. He treated potassium-aluminum silicates with sodium-
chloride solutions of different degrees of concentration, and after
thoroughly washing the solid material so treated found that potas-
ssum had been replaced by sodiwm in increased quantities as the
concentration of the sodium solution was increased. Complete re-
placement of the potassium by the sodium did not take place, but
only replacement to the degree required by the law of equilibrium.
Now if, in addition to laboratory results, we recall that in former
times salt water was freshened for use by passing it through soil,
the periodic flooding of the border waters of the ocean by soil wash
from the lands may be looked upon as a natural process of salt-
water freshening. As there was wash from all the lands, and as the
shales formed from the wash products are known to make up much
the largest part of the sediments, the process was really one of
great magnitude.

As the recombinations are divided among the constituents in ac-
cordance with the law of equilibrium, the sodium gets a smaller
share than the potassium, but it gets a share. From the imperfect
evidence one may guess that the sodium recombines to a third or a
fourth of the extent of the potassium, but whether more or less than
this proportion, it seems clear that enough sodium reunites with the
acid radicals in their solid state to vitiate the use of sodium solutions
as a criterion of age. This is as far as the present issue requires me
to go. Doubtless other cycles follow in the sea and in the sedi-

Eugene C. Sullivan, “The interaction between minerals and water solutions, with

special reference to geologic phenomena,” Bull. No. 312, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1907), pp.
7-62.

260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

mentary beds, particularly when deformations take place or igneous
and metamorphic actions follow, but we need not dwell on these.

The cycles of chlorine.—The climax of the. solvent actions that
enrich the sea is reached in the cycles of chlorine, but only a passing
word can be given to these. The tenor of experiments with soils
indicates that chlorine remains more persistently in solution than the
sodium and associated substances. As the cycles of each substance
spring from its own nature and the conditions it encounters, the very
high preponderance of chlorine over sodium in the ocean finds its
chief explanation in this more persistent solubility. Its proportion
in average rock is only a conditioning factor and is not the chief
controlling influence. When compared with sodium, which is much
more abundant in the igneous rocks and indeed in the whole sub-
stance of the outer 10 or 20 miles of the earth shell, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere included,?’ the logical conclusion is that the cycles
of chlorine have always had a much larger liquid phase than those of
sodium, and that this has been cumulative through the ages. Chlo-
rine is better fitted than sodium to be used as a criterion of age, but
even in this case there are formidable difficulties. Both sodium and
chlorine and all the other constituents, as already noted, have their
own histories which are difficult to disentangle. As Roger Bell
neatly puts it: “There are as many histories to be written about the
waters as there are kinds of sediment.” ?* 'There would be an ocean
highly charged with chlorides if there were no sodium in the earth at
all. So there would be an ocean highly charged with sodium solu-
tions if there were no chlorine in the earth. The status of the ocean
at any time is simply the equation of the solution phases of the ante-
cedent cycles of its constituents, all of which have passed through
long, complex, more or less individual histories. In the tedious work
of their disentanglement the older and simpler geochemical notions
will not answer; the newer principles of chemistry, physics, and
geology are indispensable.

Conclusions.—Our finding, then, in respect to the age of the earth
from the geological viewpoint is this:

1. Estimates of time based on the well-preserved series of geologi-
cal sediments will, when adequately corrected, probably fall into
harmony with the revised deductions from paleontology, radio-activ-
ity, and astronomy, so far as these cover the same ground.

2. The distorted and metamorphosed terranes below the well-pre-
served series of sediments do not disclose the starting point of sedi-
mentation. The sediments can therefore give no verdict on the total
age of the earth; they are great enough, however, to show that the
earth is very old.

* Clarke and Washington, ibid,, p, 114. % Personal communication.

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 261

3. The science of hydrogeology, of which oceanology is only a
part, is not yet ready to render a verdict; it has more need of a court
of inquiry than a place on the witness stand.

THE AGE OF THE EARTH FROM THE PALEONTOLOGICAL VIEWPOINT.

By JoHN M. CLARKE.

It falls to me to consider this knotty problem on the basis of the
biological evidence alone, in so far as it is possible to disentangle this
from its almost inevitable complication with geological accompani-
ments. In saying biological I mean, of course, biology with the time
element generously admitted; that is, not the biology of the instant,
the present, but the long biological panorama leading up to the
present. Thus I am in a different case to some of my colleagues, for
I presume it safe to say that life can have come into being only as
a secondary potency in the evolution of force. Just what I mean is
that the combination or interaction of physical energies of different
categories did not produce the form of energy we designate as life
till after a very long chapter of the earth’s planetary history had been
written. I may as well frankly say at the beginning that there can
be little hope of arriving either at a reliable or an approximate con-
clusion as to the age of the earth through this paleontological chan-
nel, unless the study of the chronological development of life may in
some way afford a measure of the rate of vital processes and thus the
measure of some short span or infinitesimal fraction of earth history.
This is a shadowy road and this presentation must resolve itself into
consideration of such evidences as there may be for time-requisites
in the consummation of evolutionary biological procedures, whether
in gross or in detail. The bare statement of this fact in such vague
form must carry with it an indication of the grave uncertainty of
the results except to minds of the fourth dimension. I am not con-
vinced that it is within the power, now or ever, of even the most
refined understanding of paleontology, to accomplish this and es-
tablish such standards of measurements. Nor am [ at all confident
that the attempts which have been made to establish such rates of
procedure could justify the great labor they have exacted, were it
not for the important accessory facts they have elicited.

There seems to be no effective reason or very good philosophy in
declaring, as some of our writers have been wont to do, that all life
is one life. Weseem to have really established the polyphylogeny of
several races not only in the lower phyla of animals and plants, but
among the vertebrates, and in the thought of competent authority,
even to the inclusion of man, and we assign these like products to a
differently governed and directed inheritance emanating from fixed

55379—24—18

262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

points in evolutionary history. This is an enlarging point of view in
the interpretation of past life, and admitting its general effectiveness
we can conceive and can justify a concurrence of physical energies
which need not, and indeed should not logically, be restricted to some
single outburst and some single definite moment in earth history.
This intimation is that life itself may be polygenetic, though we
would not have it interpreted as applying to the reiterative appear-
ance of inceptive life through the ages, which is an old conception that
still awaits its justification; it is rather only the precise implication
of a terrestrial condition so controlled that by the intersection of the
requisite forces life came into being at the points rather than at the
point of such intersection—a crude way of stating it, perhaps, but it
is an intimation of my meaning.

When we gaze upon some of Walcott’s Burgess Pass fossils, see
the extraordinary intricacy of their anatomy, as, for example, the
crustacean Burgessia, with not merely the delicately toughened parts
of its exterior, but the evidence of internal organs of great refine-
ment, the lobulation and venation of renal organs; and, in the trilo-
bite Neolenus, the multiplex delicacy of gills and swimming or walk-
ing organs, the effective impression is that, as between such creatures
and their nearest allies and perhaps their offshoots of to-day, there
is no difference in degree of specialization of structure, no progress in
perfection of organic function. Indeed, we may even go further;
modern allies of these creatures are in close straits of adjustment to
their own physical surroundings, which are too often indicative of
the surrender of progress, and to this I shall again make reference.
But the Walcott fossils are from the Middle Cambrian, almost the
oldest term in the whole long series of rocks in which life has been
well preserved, and we here, in this year 1922 of the Christian era,
are unable to find that any progress has been made in the structure
of these creatures or along the direct line of their development and
succession. Their successors in time and place have adjusted, read-
justed, adapted, and readapted themselves without having produced
a creature of their tribes which can be called a more intricate or a
more perfect mechanism.

And yet what has gone on in that vast interval of time from then
to now? The successive derivation of all intermediate types of life
have come into being. The trilobite Neolenus, from the viewpoint
of the paleontologist, stands for a tremendous conception of the vast-
ness of time behind it. This inconspicuous thing, standing back be-
hind us in the dim days of the Cambrian, stripped bare now by the
arduous labors of its discoverer, reveals a creature so highly special-
ized that it must have commanded uncountable ages for its production
by any such process of organic development as that to which we

AGE OF THE EARTH—CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 263

paleontologists make our allegiance. The problem behind the Neo-
lenus is that of having developed out of the unicellular expression of
life, under favoring physical conditions and directive impulse, this
intricate and closely functioning organism. How long did it take?
I would like to put the problem to the experimental biologist: Given
an organism with a full equipment of motor and sensory nerves and
an elaborated digestive tract, with specific organs of circulation, re-
production, and of waste—is the distance greater from that starting
point to the specialized creatures of the present, ourselves if you will,
or from the nuclear cell (which we must hold to be not alone the seat
but the radial point of life) up to that marvelously specialized crea-
ture? Starts are slow, progress to be secure must be deliberate, the
momentum of the impulse must be acquired gradually, the passage
from a protozoan to a metazoan means the crossing of a deep moat,
the climbing of a high wall. But the directive once acquired, then
matters may go forward with acceleration. On the basis, then, ot
the structure of this ancient trilobite alone, it is safe and probably
necessary to answer that Neolenus was farther away from the begin-
ning of life, very, very much farther away, in the highest probability,
than we of to-day are from Neolenus.

This is a relative expression, but we can not be more concrete.
The Walcott discoveries have lifted the veil from a scene in the
- panorama of life that was barely guessed before. In our previous
general understanding there was, in the still earlier faunas, a group
of creatures believed to be of simple structure and lowly place in the
category of life; it was thought that with these simple things the
caravan of life had got under way for its journey through the ages;
and now we are compelled to believe that the journey was half over
when this caravan first came under our eye.

It is not my part to make a review of statements and calculations —
of earth age based on the rates of sedimentation from the Cambrian
time on to the present; but whatever these are, they may, from the
biological point of view, reasonably be doubled and then increased by
some improper fraction, if we are to reach a competent expression of
the duration of the life day of extinct species—the zoéhemera, as I
termed it many years ago, and of the sum of these which go to make
a fraction of earth history.

It has not been the practice of students of evolutionary pale-
ontology to raise the question as to whether there were time enough
available for the production of the succession of results which pass
under their eye. Such an attitude would of itself be highly unphilo-
sophical, and only a natural inquisitiveness or curiosity quite unessen-
tial to the real philosophy of the succession and purpose of life has
led to the occasional investigation as to the possible time rate of
evolutionary processes under historic and under natural conditions.

264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

We are not the makers, but the users, of time. There have been
stages in the history of our science when we have been treated gin-
gerly by astronomers and physicists in the allotment of time, but now
that our colleagues in celestial mechanics are heaping upon us their
munificence in the prescription of this heavenly commodity, we are
content; and the interpreters of radiochemistry—we thank them for
giving us what we already had. There is time enough. So much,
indeed, that to absorb a needful share of it into the philosophy of the
evolution of life actually requires of us a revision of our conceptions.

I should, I think, take passing notice of the fact that the problem
as to how species have originated (one from another, with or without
the help of mutations, variations, or variants—the problem of the
factors which have controlled their production) does not belong to
paleontology. Bateson, speaking recently at Toronto, has expressed
the conviction that after the nearly three-quarters century since the
publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species we are still in doubt and
darkness as to the causes of the origin of species. Incautious as it
seems, that expression would still be a hopeful one if it means that
in this relatively brief period the study of this theme, stimulated by
Darwin, has led to the elimination of an extensive array of supposed
factors, so that if the buried treasure, if it is really the treasure he
has thought, has not yet been found, at least some of the brush has
been cleared away from about the place where it lies hid. Both
laborers in the field of living nature and those delving among the
past creation see the engrossing fact of evolution, but see it out
of different eyes; the former perhaps as one would see a vast throng
gathered together to acclaim a momentous event, a great victory or a
high armistice; the latter as an endless army marching by, its van-
guard already out of sight in the mists of the horizon, stragglers
‘ along the way falling back or giving up in hopelessness, while the
interminable procession ever emerges out of the shadow.

Once upon a time, when Walcott was first bringing out his won-
derfully specialized Cambrian fossils from the Burgess shale, I said
to the discoverer in a jocular way, “ Keep on and you may find the
remains of a Cambrian man.” In the recent address referred to,
Bateson ventures more solemnly into this field. “It has been asked
[I am quoting] how do you know, for instance, that there were no
mammals in paleozoic times? May there not have been mammals
somewhere on the earth, though no vestige of them has come down
to us? We may feel confident there were no mammals then, but are
we sure? In very ancient rocks most of the great orders of animals
are represented. The absence of others might by no great stress of
imagination be ascribed to accidental circumstances.” Considering
that these remarks were made in the presence of a great body of

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 265

scientific men, among whom were paleontologists, I fear the speaker
neglected to do what he should have done and as Artemas Ward was
wont to do in like case, for in no evidence from any quarter, whether
it be of biology, geography, geology, meteorology, oceanography, or
psychology, is there the slightest justification for seriously embalming
such a fancy in a scientific address and sending it abroad in the world
for the daws to peck at.

We must fasten our gaze upon such impressive evidence as can
now be adduced of the duration of time required in the attainment
of organic specializations, and let me supplement those I have given
by others taken from the plant world. Casting up the evidences that
have been adduced by paleontologists and paleobotanists, I think the
footings show very positively a large balance of argument in favor
of the great conception that the life of the land has emerged from
the sea. I believe it may be said, on behalf of paleontologists gener-
ally and their broader deductions, that these are happy in the
harmony of their conclusions in this matter after having experi-
mented with and checked up alternate conceptions.

The broader lines of evolutionary derivation and the best weighed
deductive propositions seem to intimate a convergence of the life
lines back to the sea and a radiation from it. The inception of life
was the most solemn moment in the history of the universe. We
invite certain astronomers to refrain from further speculations and
presumptions as to life in other worlds, and followers of Arrhenius
from pursuing life spores through interplanetary space. These no-
tions seem to be very exciting to the emotional public and there is
indeed no shred of evidence of these things, no matter what physical
conditions may be predicated of other worlds than this. So far as
the evidence of outstanding facts and major probabilities goes, life
is confined to the earth. Into this solemn event, the birth of life,
the interaction of the forces requisite to emergence, we shall not here
attempt to pry. We look back, then, to a primitive period of life in
the sea, the Plankton epoch, the place and stage of life’s emergence,
the surface life; followed by a Benthic epoch, the secondary stage of
development in which the living forms had found the shallower sea
bottoms and thereupon began their adaptations and more rapid
evolution.

I shall now borrow freely the brilliant conceptions of Church,
the British paleobotanist, as to the procedure among the plants
thence forward from the sea to the land, an act which implies time in
impressive measures and yet an act which we know has reversed
itself in later geological times, at least among the animals, with
nostalgic energy and must again and again have shown a like rever-
sion in both the animal and in the plant world. We see suggestions

266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

of these reversionary movements among the Amphibia and the
Mollusca and many Mammalia, and it seems highly probable that a
more exact knowledge of extinct life will establish these suggestions
and awaken others.

The Plankton epoch, says Church, gave rise to the first encysted
flagellate plants which, under conditions of the Benthon, developed
multicellular thallus, tissues and organs of special function and a
reproductive mechanism contrived so as to minimize waste. Then
followed the epoch of the land flora brought on by the transmigra-
tion of highly developed alge which in fact “appear to have been
more highly organized than any single algal type at present known
to exist in the sea.” “ The alge of transmigration may be * * *
said to have combined the best features of the known great con-
ventional series of marine phytobenthon.” “The origins of all the
main successful adaptations of the land are to be traced down to
the benthic phase of the sea.” In this impressive statement we are
confronted by the quality of the plant life at its emergence from the
sea.

Now as to the period of its emergence, of foremost importance
to our present consideration, Thomas C. Chamberlin in 1918 directed
attention to the fact that the pre-Cambrian rock complex is divided
into earlier and later stages on the basis of the degree of disintegra-
tion of the exposed rock surface. In the lower division there is an
immature disintegration which implies partial decomposition, but
the mature disintegration of the later division implies, he says, “ some
restraining agency that held the rock in place while the slow weather-
ing completed its work.” “This view favors the existence of a
vegetal covering of the land as far back as this period.”

Church, therefore, has a well-found argument when in the pres-
ence of this fact of pre-Cambrian weathering he intimates that it was
with the uplifting and exposure of the primary rock to the air that
“ the marine organism was brought into direct association with atmos-
pheric air and subaérial environment to mark out new lines of pro-
gression to still higher and more strenuous forms of land life, though
these are again necessarily expressed in terms of preceding organiza-
tion and mechanism.” The point to be made here is that with the
earliest lifting of land from the sea, benthic alge of advanced struc-
ture, “ the remarkable alge of transmigration,” as he has character-
ized them, got their foothold on the land. “The evolution of the
land flora was a phase of transmigration in s¢tw” and did not in-
volve a preliminary landward migration by the way of fresh water,
“the biological factors being exposure to more or less desiccation and
the removal of the food solution.” “The few races that survived
only did so by pressing to the utmost any principles of economy in

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 267

reproductive output that they may have previously initiated, ” such
as oOgamy and fertilization in situ.

The picture presented by this line of carefully founded SHH At
is even more impressive in its demands upon time than the argument
we have presented from animal life. It is summed up thus: Plants
of complex organization and function—deductively of higher organ-
ization than can be to-day found among the algee—had worked out
their attainments before their arrival on the land, and probably this
organic achievement, not surpassed in the seas of to-day, was accom-
plished at a stage in earth history long before the Cambrian epoch
brought with it the tangible evidence of the complex animals. The
argument from the plants is more highly deductive than that from
animals, but its steps are logically taken from effect to cause, and in
its presence we must stand uncovered at the inconceivable lapses of
earth time through which these transmigrant plants were slowly
working out their organization in the waters when there was no
permanent land—a period of time which must have been longer than
all time that has passed since the emergence of the Laurentian or the
basal rock complex of the great shields of the earth.

II.

If we are prepared to concede the steadily increasing weight of
evidence of the polyphyletic origin of genera which recent researches
have indicated for so many different groups of life, and can compel
our conception to grasp the duration of the vast unrecorded past of
life history, there remains another phase of the paleontological rec-
ord which in part emphasizes and in part serves as a check on this”
conception. It has fallen to me to study the earliest recorded ex-
pressions of dependent life—that is, the beginnings, so far as we can
find them, of such consociations of animals as we are wont to desig-
nate as parasitic, mutualistic, and symbiotic, wherein one creation
has depended upon or adjusted itself to the life functions or habits
of another, or has sought mechanical protection at the cost of its
own locomotive independence. Two very obvious facts seem to
stand out as a result of these inquiries: (1) That these interdepend-
ent conditions with which the living world is rife to-day, in passing
backward to the early stages of Paleozoic time, become palpably
fewer; indeed, while such conditions are well marked in some groups
and common in others during the middle and later Paleozoic, they
are very unusual in the earlier stages and in the Cambrian fauna are
little more than suggested. (2) This dependent state seems with
reasonable clarity to be resolvable into an original loss of loco-
motive independence, a willingness to be fed rather than to feed, an
adaptation to an easier mode of life. The commanding percentage

268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

of the Cambrian fauna belongs to groups against which the charge
of surrender of locomotive independence can hardly be laid, though
inclusive of groups of animals which in later stages did become in-
fected with the loss of independence, but still in a capital sense
embraced those whose independent living was unimpaired.

These considerations I have analyzed elsewhere in some detail
and their significance is this—that the degeneration of life (for de-
pendence of necessity implies degeneration of physiology) has been
a process attendant upon and of course influencing evolution, but
apparently limited in its effects to that part of the procession of life
which comes under our actual observation; that is, since the days of
the free and independent faunas of the Cambrian. If this is an
approximation to the truth, as we believe it to be, then in a broad
sense the real vigor of life, which established the major branches and
laid down the plan of all future ages, was dominant in its purity in
the ages before the beginning of the life record in the rocks. How
often the student of the past of the earth has exclaimed at the wonder
that man came through to his excellence in a world permeated with
ever-increasing conditions of degeneration.

DHE TT

With such propositions as the foregoing we are confronted by an
impressive requirement of time necessary to the development of life
on the earth. It is a requirement that seems to roll back and ever
backward into the undifferentiated ages of our planetary history. It
is a magnitude that takes on proportions before which the outstand-
‘ing estimates of time based on processes of rock building would seem
to dwindle, and it partakes more and more of the magnitudes in
which the radiologist has been wont to speak. The question for us
now is whether our present knowledge affords any basis for an esti-
mate or calculation of this time or any part thereof into a concrete
expression. If it were possible to estimate by any or all ap-
proaches, the length of the life of a single extinct species in any
part of the world, there would then lie a possibility of determining
what fraction this given quantity might be of the whole. For more
than two generations the evidence has been sought, paleontologists
endeavoring first to establish the endurance of a given or index
species as the basis of a geologic or stratigraphic element—a zone.

Into the discussion of the zone—its meaning in time and space—has
entered a very long list of eminent names in the science. The zone
has been looked upon as a sedimentary element in which a datum
species slowly coming to its acme suddenly culminates and abruptly
disappears; as such sedimentary unit in which not a species, but a
mutation, or an entire fauna rises and falls. To Oppel the zone was
a space unit. Buckman has embodied the time conception of the

AGE OF THE EARTH-—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 269

zone in the word hemera. The double combination of time and space
makes a biozone. The time unit has also been termed swculum by
Jukes-Brown, moment and phase by the International Geological
Congress. In the recent summary of these expressions and their in-
terpretations as given by Diener, in order to determine a proper basis
for his discussion, he employs the term zone for the spatial, that is
horizontal and vertical distribution of a fauna, whose time is a
moment.

The whole interpretation of these conceptions centers upon the
origin and endurance of a mutation, which in the proper paleontologi-
cal sense is a departure from a recognized species toward and into a
unit which, by determinate action of the genes producing variation,
will become another species. That is to say, the mutation is a clearly
recognizable entity in paleontology, is the bridge crossing from spe-
cies to species, the connecting link which establishes the continuity of
the chain. Apart from considerations of physiology only, the pale-
ontologist sees no further occasion for debating the existence of con-
necting links or of passages from species to species, or as to how
species originate. The mutation is the departure from the one, seek-
ing adjustment and failing, or seeking and finding it in what must be
recognized from accepted standards as a distinct specific form, a dif-
ferent species from its parentage. But when it comes to a matter of
determining the rates, the time measure of these changes under vary-
ing and all conceivable physical conditions, the pursuit seems to us
hopeless, hopeless a priori, hopeless in observation. There are species
that have held their own without change through the ages—“ im-
mortal types” they have been called; and there are others which
have yielded so rapidly to change that their evolution is explosive.
The same facts are true of groups of animals; and for the entire
organic world there have been earth-wide periods of long stagnation
as well as of rapid intensive change. So long as an estimate of the
age of the earth rests on evidence of the rate of change or adjustment
in organisms through the acquisition of new characters, we may as
well abandon the attempt to express it in concrete terms and
satisfy ourselves that for the development of life the duration of
that fraction of the earth’s history is beyond human expression.

THE AGE OF THE EARTH FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF
ASTRONOMY. (ABSTRACT.)

By Ernust W, Brown.

Astronomical evolution is considered under three heads: First,
that method of observation in which it is assumed that all stages in
the process are visible in the sky and so can be traced step by step.

270 © ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Second, physical theory, based on well-known laws such as those of
gravitation, heat, etc. Third, pure speculation. When we attempt —
to apply these methods to the solar system we find a complete ab-
sence of any observational evidence from the first point of view, be-
cause we have no stellar systems sufficiently near for us to detect
planets if such exist. Thus evolution in the solar system is mainly
a mixture of physical theory and speculation.

All theories of evolution use the idea of contraction under gravi-
tation, which in general causes a gain of heat and of angular velocity.
The chief differences between the theories consist in the forms of
matter which are assumed to come into existence under the operation
of the process of contraction. Laplace imagined that a planetary
nebula contracted and in the course of the process left behind rings
of matter which later condensed into planets. Roche showed that
under certain conditions matter will be thrown off along the Equator.
G. H. Darwin and Poincaré developed the processes of fission from
which it was hoped that planetary bodies might be shown to have
developed through successive divisions of the central body. Later
workers at the theory, and particularly Jeans, have proved that this
hypothesis is very improbable for planetary evolution on account of
the fact that in this process of division the masses should be of the
same order of magnitude and not, as in the case of the planets, of
very different orders of magnitude. It has, however, been applied
with considerable success to the evolution of close double stars.
Finally there are the tidal hypotheses in which the matter is supposed
to have been drawn off by the close approach of some second body
which later moved away. Each of these hypotheses has many objec-
tions. But it may be stated that from these points of view we can
learn nothing definite or even approximate about the age of the earth.

Another method of approach is through observation of the present
condition of the bodies in the solar system. For evidence we have
eight major planets, but it is very doubtful whether from so small a
number we can deduce any results of value. In fact, it is now well
known that differences in mass may produce very different conse-
quences in the history of bodies. Thus arguments drawn from the
moon, Mars, Venus, or the other planets have never inspired very
much confidence.

Still another method is a consideration of the present condition
of the earth combined with the theory of contraction and subsequent
loss of heat. Here we are on somewhat firmer ground, since we have
many observations which give information concerning the interior
condition of the earth. Amongst these may be mentioned the values ~
of the mean density and the surface density, the phenomena of pre-
cession, nutation, etc., the measurements of earthquake and seismic

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 271

waves, and measurements of the rigidity of the earth by various
methods, and more particularly by that lately developed at Chicago
by Michelson and his colleagues. From these phenomena we know
with fair certainty that the earth behaves mechanically like a solid
body which has approximately the rigidity of steel. It is sometimes
assumed that this shows that the interior of the earth consists of
matter which under surface conditions of pressure would be solid.
Unfortunately the argument is doubtful, because we know nothing
of the condition of matter under the pressures which it experiences
at depths of 100 miles or more below the surface of the earth.
It is, therefore, impossible to argue with any security concern-
ing the temperature conditions in the interior of the earth from
these observational data. Lately, Jeffreys has shown that under
almost any theory of evolution the earth must at one time have
been sufficiently hot so that all its materials were in a liquid state,
understanding by this latter phrase, a state liquid under surface
conditions of pressure.

Thus the astronomical evidence which can be furnished as to the
age of the earth is practically nil, and one must turn to methods out-
side the range of the astronomer’s work.

A further difficulty may be mentioned. Evidence is accumulating
that there is widely extended diffuse matter in space, some of which
is visible and some of which is only evident on account of the
obscuration of light which it causes. It therefore seems highly prob-
able that the solar system in the course of several hundred million
years may have passed through one or several such clouds. These
would have effects, which from theory are well known, such as
diminishing the mean distances of the planets from the sun, the cir-
cularization of their orbits, possible changes in the total angular mo-
mentum of the system, and other effects, such as the possible forma-
tion of comets and the production of glacial and interglacial periods.
At present, however, the consequences of this hypothesis are still in
the range of speculation and need to be worked out in considerable
detail before any arguments can be built on it. It may, however, be
stated that such a hypothesis would have the general tendency of
increasing the age of the earth as estimated from other sources.

THE RADIOACTIVE POINT OF VIEW.

By WILLIAM DUANB,
Harvard University.

In estimating the age of the earth one should measure the time
that has elapsed by some process in nature that takes place in one
direction only and that does not change its rate when conditions
(temperature, pressure, etc.) alter. In most of the estimates of

272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

geological periods of time that have been made the “clocks” em-
ployed do not fulfill these conditions. Estimates based on the tem-
perature of the earth or of the sun, for instance, can not be reliable,
for the temperature of a body may fall or it may rise. Further, the
rate of change of the temperature depends upon a variety of condi-
tions, such as the amount of energy radiated, the supply of energy
to it, etc.

Attempts have been made to deduce the age of certain minerals
from the appearance of little round marks in them, called halos.
These halos are supposed to be due to radiation from minute specks
of radioactive matter at their centers. The colors produced by
radiation in transparent substances depend to a considerable extent
upon the temperature, so that no very great weight can be put upon
geological periods of time estimated by means of halos.

There are, however, other radioactive processes the rates of which
do not, so far as we know, depend on the temperature or the pressure
nor upon any other physical or chemical state.

During the last 25 years a large number of radioactive trans-
formations of one chemical element into another have been discov-
ered. Students of the subject agree that these transformations take
place in one direction only, i. e., from an element of higher atomic
weight to an element of lower atomic weight. Further, nobody has
been able to alter the rate of a radioactive transformation by any
process whatsoever, although numerous attempts have been made to
do so. These radioactive changes, therefore, seem to offer a reliable
means of estimating certain periods of time.

Among the radio-active changes appear processes in which the
metal uranium transforms itself through successions of intermediate
stages into the metal lead and into the gas helium. It does not seem
necessary to describe in detail these series of transformations at this
time. Descriptions of them may be found in the literature on radio-
activity. It suffices for our purposes to say that the rate of trans-
formation is such that 5 per cent of a quantity of uranium changes
into lead and helium in about 370 millions of years.

We find, uranium, lead, and helium associated together in a great
many minerals and it is natural to suppose that the helium and the
lead were produced by the disintegration of the uranium during the
past ages. Further, if we determine the relative amounts of urani-
um, lead, and helium in a mineral we can form an estimate as to how
long these chemical elements have been in contact with each other.
Estimates of this kind that have been made from the quantities of
helium in uranium ores vary between 8 and 700 millions of years
according to the locality from which the ore came. Since some of
the helium (it being a gas) may have leaked out of the ores these

AGE OF THE EARTH—-CHAMBERLIN AND OTHERS. 273

intervals of time must be regarded as minimum estimates. The
uranium and helium must have been in contact with each other for
at least as long as the periods mentioned, but they may have been
together for much longer intervals of time.

Calculations based on the quantity of lead in uranium ores vary
from 340 millions to 1,700 millions of years, according to the locality
from which the ore is obtained. In this case another complication
appears. We have learned to distinguish several different kinds of
lead from each other. The various kinds of lead have similar chem-
ical properties but differ from each other in their atomic weights.
All the different kinds of lead do not come from uranium; only lead
of atomic weight about 206 may be regarded as produced from ura-
nium. Until, therefore, we have determined exactly what the atomic
weights of the lead in the various ores really are, we can not be sure
that the lead came from the uranium. We can assert, however, that
there is no more uranium lead in a given uranium ore than the
amount of lead actually found. Unless, therefore, the atomic weight
of the lead in an ore has been actually determined and found to be
about 206, we must consider the estimate of the age of the ore as a
maximum estimate only. The lead and uranium can not have been
in contact with each other for a period of time longer than that
calculated from the known rate of transformation of uranium into
lead.

The atomic weight of the lead in a few ores has been found to
be very close to 206. In one of these the age of the mineral has
been estimated at a little over 900 millions of years.

The calculation of the age of uranium deposits by means of radio-
active data rests upon the laws of nature as we now believe them to
be. It would be a waste of time to speculate on future discoveries
(new radio-active elements, for instance, or alterations in the rates
of radio-active processes) or on a possible evolution of natural law.

The ages calculated from radio-active data represent the length
of time during which we may suppose the chemical elements to have
been in more or less mechanical contact with each other. They do
not represent the time that has elapsed since the earth may have
reached a state capable of supporting organic life as we now know it.

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HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN?

By C. G. ABBOT.

Not everybody who laughed over the “ Connecticut Yankee in King
Arthur’s Court” knows why its author called himself “ Mark Twain.”
To know that, one should read his earlier book, just as funny in spots
_and far more interesting, “ Life on the Mississippi.”

Here’s how they took the conceit out of a cocky young cub pilot by
leaving him alone to navigate one of the deepest places on the Mis-
sissippi and scaring him with false soundings.

Captain and Mate sang out instantly, and both together:

“ Starboard lead there! and quick about it!”

* * * * * * *

Then came the leadsman’s sepulchral cry:

““D-e-e-p four !”

Deep four fathoms in a bottomless crossing! The terror of it took my
breath away. 4

““M-a-r-k three! M-a-r-k three! Quarter-less-three! Half twain!”

This was frightful! I seized the bell-ropes and stopped the engines.

“ Quarter twain! Quarter-twain! Mark twain!”

* * * * * * *

I was quaking from head to foot, and I could have hung my hat on my eyes,
they stuck out so far.

“ Quarter-less-twain! Nine-and-a-half!”

We were drawing nine!

* * * * * * *

I flew to the speaking-tube and shouted to the engineer:

“Oh, Ben, if you love me, back her! Quick, Ben! Oh! back the immortal
soul out of her!”

I heard the door close gently. I looked around, and there stood Mr. Bixby,
smiling a bland, sweet smile. Then the audience on the hurricane deck sent
up a thundergust of humiliating laughter.

* * * * * * oe
For months I so often had to hear a phrase which I had conceived a par-

ticular distaste for:
“Oh! Ben, if you love me, back her! ”

This kind of a scheme of hand sounding is well enough for water so
shallow that it is dangerous, but what good is it for sounding the
ocean depths that average 2,000 fathoms (12,000 feet), and in many

275

276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

places run to 3,000 fathoms? Indeed there is one sounding by the
U. S. cable ship Vero, far out in the Pacific, of 5,269 fathoms, which
lacks just 66 feet of being 6 miles. So Mount Everest, the highest
mountain in the world, could be turned upside down there without
hitting the bottom by half a mile.

For purposes of navigation, the most important thing is to know
where the shallow places are, and just how shallow they are. Gov-
ernments maintain coast and hydrographic survey organizations for
this purpose. All of the approaches to important harbors are
mapped quite as carefully as the land, in order that ships can go
safely. Our own country and island countries like Great Britain
have had an immense task in sounding and surveying their enor-
mously long coast lines.

Until now the depths less than 20 fathoms (120 feet) have usually .
been observed by letting down by hand from stationary boats
weights called “leads” attached to cords. The lead is hollowed out
at the bottom and filled with tallow so as to bring up a little sample
of the bottom, and prove that it has been reached.

For depths over 20 fathoms, steel wires are used instead of cords,
and special machines for unreeling and reeling up the sounding wire
are employed. As the depths increase the time required increases,
too. Of course the ship must be as stationary as can be during the
letting down of the lead. If the sounding apparatus is at the stern
she can, of course, get under way as soon as the bottom is surely
reached. With enormously great depths it would be a little dif-
ficult to tell just when this time came, if the lead was not extremely
heavy. For what with the weight of the wire, the surging of it to
and fro under the influence of waves and currents, the difference be-
tween resting on the bottom and not would be inconspicuous with a
light lead. A device was therefore invented so that as soon as the
wire slackened, due to the resting of the lead on the bottom, the
sinker separated. Thus heavy sinkers could be used without having
to pull them up again, and the fact that they were detached proved
that the bottom was reached.

There is another sounding device which can be used at depths less
than 100 fathoms which does not require the ship to be stopped and
is used in navigation. The lead contains a glass tube closed at the
top and faintly etched inside according to Benedict’s scheme with a
screw of about 40 threads to the inch. As the lead sinks deeper and
deeper the pressure of water compresses and forces the air back and
back in the tube, and wets the etching so that the exact amount of
compression of the air is shown. This is read off on a‘scale which
indicates the depth. Of course with the ship moving, the bottom can
be surely felt by the twitching of the cord,

HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN ?—ABBOT. 277

It requires from 15 to 25 minutes to get a sounding of 1,000
fathoms for surveying purposes, 45 minutes for 2,000, 75 minutes
for 3,000, and 5 or 6 hours for a depth like that found by the
Nero. This shows what a time-consuming, costly business it is to
learn about the bottom of the ocean. In fact it is so costly that
little is known compared with what should be.

The most famous scientific expedition of all history was under-
taken by the British ship Challenger which started on a three year’s
cruise at Christmas, 1872, and returned in May, 1876. She spent
nearly a year in the Atlantic, several months in the Antarctic, and
over a year in the Pacific. Besides the navigating officers, she car-
ried naturalists, chemists, geologists, and physicists. Not only
soundings but dredgings of the mud of the bottom, deep-net hauls of
fishes and deep-sea animals, temperature measurements, carbonic
acid and salt measurements, and many other studies were carried
on every day. The results filled 50 great quarto volumes, and, like
Columbus, discovered a new world peopled by creatures even stranger
than he found in America.

The United States and many other countries have also engaged in
this interesting ocean study. Notable voyages of scientific discovery
were made by the late Prince Albert I of Monaco. He was a scientist
even more than a prince, and not only devoted great sums to build-
ing and equipping special ships for ocean investigations but went to
sea himself and took a vigorous part in the actual investigating.
He received the Murray Gold Medal for his work on oceanography
from our National Academy of Sciences in April, 1921, and lectured
at Washington on his work.

But of what good is it, says some one, this making difficult sound-
ings and hauls way out to sea? In the first place, all knowledge is
good to take away ignorance and superstition and point the way to
new discoveries. When one throws down a handful of seeds, he can
not tell which ones they will be that will survive and give the
hundredfold increase. So it is with discoveries. No one could have
predicted in 1830 that Faraday’s and Henry’s experiments on
magnetic effects of electric currents would have grown up into the
telegraph, telephone, dynamo, and all modern electrical installations.

But soundings are not only valuable as interesting knowledge in
themselves. They have a bearing on many other scientific problems
of the tides, the condition of the earth in past geological epochs, the
causes of ocean currents, the climate, and others. More directly
still, they are indispensable for submarine cable laying. Cables are
costly things, and repairing of them is a costly business. It makes

55379—2419

278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

much difference as to the lengths required and the costs of laying
and repairing what kind of the ocean floor they are to lie upon.
What a foolish business, for instance, it would be to lay a cable into
a hole like that sounded by the Vero in the Pacific, if it could just
as well be avoided.

The matter is not even altogether out of the field of romance.
Once in a while a new island appears or an old one sinks. Coast
lines go up and down, slowly it is true, but perceptibly enough to

Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the method of taking depth soundings with the hydrophone.

illustrate for us those grand natural processes of uplift and erosion
which laid down beds of marine fossils now thousands of feet above
sea level as at the Grand Canyon of Arizona. Plato in his “Timeeus”
tells a tale some Egyptian priests told him of a lost island called
“Atlantis ” as big as Asia Minor and Libya together which ages be-
fore had existed “ beyond the Pillars of Hercules,” which meant out
in the Atlantic west of the Straits of Gibraltar. Plato even described
the ideal commonwealth and the powerful armies of Atlantis and its
conquests along the shores of the Mediterranean. But the island,
as the priests said, had been overwhelmed by the ocean long before,

HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN ?—ABBOT. 279

and lost, leaving for a time dangerous shoals to mark its sunken
place. *

Recently, as the result of attempts by our Navy during the war to
locate ships and submarines by the sounds they make, the art of ocean
sounding has taken a great step forward. A device called the “ MV
hydrophone ” has been invented and perfected to such a high degree
that in favorable cases sounds coming as far as 20 miles can be heard
and located in direction. By this ingenious device, and modifica-
tions of it made under the direction of Dr. H. C. Hayes, of the Navy,
it has become possible to locate
by sound ships, shoals, pre-
cipitous shores, icebergs, and
“sound beacons” and to com-
municate by sound from ship
to ship. Not only so, but a
means has been perfected and
applied with the most complete
success whereby the depth of
the ocean can be measured con-
tinuously by a vessel proceed-
ing at good speed on her
course.

Just as our heads have two
ears, by means of which we
judge of sound directions in-
stinctively because it takes
sounds from our right a trifle
longer to reach the left ear, and
vice versa, so the MV hydro-
phone has two sets of sound re-
ceivers placed one on each side
deep down attached under the ye. 2.—Section of bow tank showing relative
ship’s bottom. As itis not con- location of port and starboard receiver lines

5 ‘ and intervening sound screens.
venient to turn the ship toward
the sound, as we do with our heads, until the sounds reach the two
sets of receivers simultaneously, an electrical arrangement is provided
for retarding the sounds from receivers which get it first until all
come in unison into the double telephone headpiece of the observer.

This retardation principle is carried still further, for the two
groups on either side of the ship each contain 12 receivers spaced 12
inches apart in a row parallel to the ship’s length. Hence it is only
found sounds coming in exactly at right angles that there is no dif-
ference in times of receipt by the separate instruments of each bank.
Thus each set alone by itself is a direction finder, but it takes both

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280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

together to tell whether the angle of direction found means to right
or to left of the vessel. That can be told from the relative loudness
on the two sides.

The receivers themselves have membranes like a drum or a tele-
phone, and microphones attached which are connected through the

Rorary ConverTeR.

Sewoine Key
om Osciuaror
Pane.

Fic. 3.—Wiring diagram of depth finder.

electrical compensators for retarding the sounds, so that they join
to operate the telephones on the observer’s head. Their arrangement
and connections are shown in figures 2 and 3.

Such hydrophones can hear the propellers of their own ship or the
sounds of a sound-signalling apparatus located at the stern. Pro-
peller sounds are of low pitch, and so are other water noises like the

HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN ?—ABBOT. 281

splashing of waves. Sounds of extremely high pitch are therefore
better for signalling purposes. Not only can such signals be heard
directly but the echoes of them from the bottom of the ocean can
be heard too. Therefore it is easy to see in principle how by measur-
ing the angle from which the echo sounds come up to the receivers
one could determine the distance to the bottom. For with sound
as with a billiard ball (played without English) the angles of the
path at the reflecting surface are equal. Knowing the ship’s length
and the angle the sound appears to come from, it is therefore easy
to calculate the depth. But this scheme is good only for depths less
than two or three times the ship’s length. Beyond that the errors
of measuring the angles produce too much error in the result.

Doctor Hayes has worked out another scheme for greater depths.
This depends on measuring the time between sending the signal
and receiving its echo. Sound travels 800 fathoms per second in
water. Hence it can easily be seen that a stop watch would not be
accurate enough, for an error of one-fifth of a second would mean
the half of 160 or 80 fathoms in depth. An indirect process is
used. Sounds are sent out at equal intervals. A very accurate and
controllable mechanism is used so that not only are the intervals
between the signals exactly equal but the interval can be varied in
length between wide limits. It will be seen that as the interval is
changed it can be arranged so that one ear will hear the series of
sounds directly at the same instant that the other ear hears them
through the hydrophone as an echo from the bottom.

If the time intervals are read off from the scale of the sending
machine, and if one could be sure that the coincidence was caused
by the interval being just long enough for the sound to go to the bot-
{om and back, that would be enough. But it is plain that, by speed-
ing up, the interval could be shortened so much that there would
again be a coincidence. Again it could be shortened still more till
a third coincidence came, and so on. But it is clear that the lengths
of these several intervals that gave coincidences would be as 1 to
1/2 to 1/3, and so on. From this it is easy to tell just which coinci-
dence we are using.

This method of measuring depths has been made exceedingly
accurate for all distances above 40 fathoms, and so it joins onto the
other one to cover all ocean depths. The first big test of it on an
actual cruise was made in June, 1922, on a run of the U. S. destroyer
Stewart from Newport, R. I., to the Straits of Gibraltar. This voy-
age was made in nine days. During it and while proceeding at usual
speed, several hundred soundings were made as shown on figure 4.
The depths observed ranged from less than 100 fathoms during the

282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Y

My

UI

:

TOT LL TA Nek

is A U

1a. 4.—Depth of the Atlantic Ocean as obtained from cruise of the U. S. destroyer Stewart from Newport, R. I., to the Straits of Gibraltar,

<
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RSG £

in June, 1922,

first day to 3,200 fath-
oms found at one spot
near the end of the
voyage. About 1,200
miles west of the Straits
of Gibraltar they ran
over a comparatively
shallow region, about
500 miles wide, where
the depths averaged
less than 1,000 fathoms.
If we could imagine
this part elevated as
much as the plateau at
the Grand Canyon has
risen out of the sea,
we might see again
Plato’s lost island of
Atlantis. Wonderful
pinnacles were found,
the like of which are
hardly duplicated in
abruptness by moun-
tain ranges anywhere
on land.

This new and power-
ful method of making
soundings was seized
upon immediately for
scientific purposes.
Great interest had been
growing in recent years
in volcanoes and earth-
quakes, their causes and
effects, and the means
which may be found to
foretell them. Those
who remember the San
Francisco earthquake
will not be surprised
to know that roughly
parallel to our western

coast there lies a region liable to disturbance from earthquakes

and volcanoes.

HOW DEEP IS THE OCEAN ?—ABBOT. 283

Beds of lava not so very old, as geology counts age, may be seen
in various parts of California, and for some years Mount Lassen
has been somewhat active as a volcano. Others of the peaks in
northern California, Oregon, and Washington show evidences of |
voleanic origin. As far north as Alaska, and all down through old
Mexico and the western countries of South America, volcanoes are
scattered among the high peaks of the big mountain chain which
forms, as it were, the backbone of the American Continent.

Some of these are slightly active at all times, and occasionally
there is a great eruption, as for instance Mount Katmai, Alaska,
in June, 1912. So tremendous was that eruption that the sun was
obscured full 20 per cent of his brightness, during July and August,
1912, over the whole Northern Hemisphere by the volcanic dust
thrown miles high and carried around the world by the winds.
Only two weeks elapsed between the explosion and the first appear-
ance of its effects as far away as Algeria in north Africa.

Readers will recall to mind not only the San Francisco earth-
quake, but the numerous reports of earth tremors frequently occuring
in the South American west coast countries. Chile especially has
felt very severe earthquakes. A notable one in November, 1922, ap-
parently took place just outside the coast line under the ocean, and
its tremendous waves caused great losses of property and life ad-
ditional to those caused by earth tremors themselves at several
Chilean coast cities.

In view of all this, a committee was formed in cooperation be-
tween many scientific organizations of the United States and else-
where to take up this pressing and interesting problem offered by
the west coast. Dr. A. L. Day, director of the geophysical labratory
of the Carnegie Institution, of Washington, is chairman. Among
the exact measurements needed to base studies upon, it seems very
desirable to sound the ocean off the California coast so as to be able
in future to detect slips under sea as well as on land. How fortunate
that just at this time the new method had been perfected by the
Navy!

Under the direction of the Hydrographic Office, the Navy equipped
two destroyers, the Hull and the Corry, with the sounding apparatus
developed by Doctor Hayes. The actual soundings began on Novem-
ber 17, 1922, but the Corry required certain improvements of equip-
ment so that the Hull continued alone for the first week, sounding
the area between the Farallon Islands off San Francisco and
Monterey Bay. Then both vessels proceeded to Point Descanso,
Mexico, and beginning work November 28 sounded steadily north-
ward till the work was completed December 21, 1922.

284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The two vessels had gone over an area of 34,000 square miles be-
tween Point Descanso and San Francisco Bay, measuring depths
5, or at most 10, miles apart over the whole range of depth from
100 to 2,000 fathoms. They had cruised over 5,800 miles in 38 days
of sounding. Most of the work was done while moving at 12 knots
per hour. Had this program been attempted with the old methods
it might well have occupied the better part of a year.

TWO DECADES OF GENETIC PROGRESS.

By EK. M. East,
Harvard University, Bussey Institution, Forest Hills, Mass.

Genetics was born 21 years ago when there came the first real
appreciation of the studies on heredity made in the little garden at
Brunn. Now that it has reached full manhood and is ready to as-
sume the toga virilis, the time seems fitting to call back the yester-
days, to cast up accounts, and to judge whether the performance of
maturity promises to repay the cost of infancy and childhood.

Perhaps it will serve our purpose to contrast the status of affairs
toward the close of the long prenatal period previous to the twentieth
century with that of to-day. When one does this, he is convinced
that our chance metaphor is really rather apt. When the chick
breaks through the egg, when the butterfly bursts the chrysalis,
when the rosebud opens, the change is superficially so revolutionary
that one is likely to forget the intensive energy expended in prepara-
tion for the natal day. So also with the study of heredity. Genetics
was born and christened because of Gregor Mendel. Not because he
diligently gathered facts regarding the heredity of the garden pea;
rather because he was able to analyze and correlate these facts. —
Others had gathered facts galore. Indeed the growth-curve of
knowledge had been rising steadily for many years. Yet metamor-
phosis came only when mathematics began to be applied effectively
to the efforts of physiologist and morphologist. Change in method
rather than a single great discovery gave the first real insight into the
master riddle of the ages.

EARLY STUDIES OF HEREDITY.

Previous to the beginning of the twentieth century, isolated ob-
servations on heredity had been made by many types of workers. It
was only natural that this should be the case. Such a seemingly
mysterious force could hardly have failed to fascinate mankind from
the very beginning of his speculative history. But isolated observa-
tions on subjects wherein are numerous complex variables usually

1 Reprinted by permission, with change of title, from Journal of Heredity, May, 1922.
285

286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

wait long for the keystone with which the generalizing mind can
support an edifice of useful theory. And in this particular instance
the time was undoubtedly extended by a striking aloofness and lack
of a spirit of cooperation among the laborers in the various guilds.

The first tier of foundation stones was laid by the breeder. As was
to have been expected, the empiricism of a practical art led the
judicial classification and the inductive reasoning of science. One
has only to study the wonderful domestic animals in the paintings
and reliefs of Babylonia, of Assyria, of Egypt, to realize that knowl-
edge of the effects of selection has been extant for at least 6,000 years,
perhaps for 10,000 or 20,000 years. And Jacob’s little scheme to
mulct his father-in-law of the ring-straked and spotted cattle shows
us somewhat of the older theoretical beliefs. Jacob, in fact, seems
to have been as advanced a geneticist as many of the animal breeders
of the nineteenth century, since the textbooks of this period express
a similar belief in maternal impressions and other fables and con-
tain not a single conclusion that one can now point out as having
a permanent value.

Generally speaking, the history of plant breeding gives a little
more cause for pride. True, the early Semitic knowledge of plant
sexuality was actually lost until the latter part of the seventeenth
century; but having rediscovered this fundamental truth through
the work of Camerarius, the eighteenth and nineteenth century hy-
bridizers did leave behind them several legacies well worth while.
Kélreuter established the fact that reciprocal crosses give very simi-
lar results. A little later the efforts of such men as Sageret, Wieg-
mann, Gartner, and Naudin placed three other conclusions on a
firm foundation of experiment—the variability of hybrids of the
second generation when compared with that of the first, the domi-
nance of certain individual characteristics, and the occasional reap-
pearance of the qualities lost to sight. Possibly analogous observa-
tions had been made previously by animal breeders; but it is cer-
tainly within the truth to say that even at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century these were not accepted with anything like the una-
nimity which existed in the botanical field.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MORPHOLOGY.

Morphology, with a much later start, got down to essentials a great
deal more quickly than experimental breeding. Indeed, morpholo-
gists built so rapidly during the Victorian era they nearly reached a
pinnacle of success that would have given us a different day to cele-
brate. They lacked but the inspiration to put their “ifs” to the
test of calm experiment.

GENETIC PROGRESS—EAST. 287

Logically it followed from the theory of genetic continuity by cell
division that a material substance passed from cell to cell is the basis
of all heredity. Naturally, then, the mechanics of cell division was
the subject of intense investigation. The result was the discovery
that in building up the tissues of the individual organism, in the
preparation of the reproductive cells for their special work, and in
the behavior of these cells in carrying out that work there was an
essential similarity of the two processes in both animals and plants.

As these studies progressed it became apparent that the cell nucleus
was the controlling agent of inheritance, and that within the nucleus
the chromosomes played the star réle. This hypothesis, put forth as
a speculation by Haeckel in 1866, within 15 years gained the sup-
port of such eminent investigators as Hertwig, Strasburger, and
Van Beneden, largely because of the similar elaborate preparations
within the nucleus of egg and of sperm during maturation and of
their apparently identical contribution of nuclear material in bi-
parental inheritance. Numerous investigations on artificial fertiliza-
tion were made by adherents and opponents of this view; but owing
to the experimental difficulties involved, they were not conclusive.
Polemic dissertations on the part played by nucleus and cytoplasm
followed that were reminiscent of discussions in the realm of religion
or of politics. Gradually the proponents of the view gained more
and more converts, not because they were able to demonstrate a mo-
nopoly of directive action by the nucleus in development and hered-
ity, not because they could prove that the intricate organization of so
many unfertilized eggs was controlled by nuclear behavior, for such
was not the case; it came through small increments to cytological
knowledge which gradually wove a mesh so fine that there was no
loophole of escape from the conclusion. Belief in the importance
of the chromosomes grew, as in the case of organic evolution, not
because of direct proof, but because of circumstantial evidence.
Without going into an extended argument on the subject, one may
recall the constancy of chromosome number in each species, their
individuality in size and shape, the exactitude of their division
during growth, and their peculiar behavior at the maturation of the
germ cells.

NINETEENTH CENTURY THEORIES OF HEREDITY.

These facts, together with numerous minor discoveries, were the
basis of nineteenth century theories of heredity. But besides the
efforts of the practical breeders and of the morphologists, a serious
attempt was made by Francis Galton and Karl Pearson to put
genetic studies on a firm groundwork of quantitative experiment.
Essentially their method was to measure the degree of association

288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

between parents and offspring for any particular character. It was
wholly a group method, and by its very nature precluded both the
analysis of individual cases and the utilization of biological facts
among the premises. Its chief generalization, the law of ancestral
heredity, wherein the correlation of characters among blood rela-
tives was interpreted as showing the inheritance of an individual to
be made up of a series of contributions, one-half from the parents,
one-fourth from the grandparents, and so on, has been shown to be
erroneous. Having proved no stimulant to productive investigation,
its discussion has passed from the genetic literature of to-day; but
the mathematical procedure evolved by the Galtonian school has
proved to be extremely helpful.

The earlier genetic theories of the period under consideration
necessarily were highly speculative because of the paucity of known
facts; but the fundamental postulate of each, active ultra-
microscopic living units, has been retained in the genetic theory of
to-day.

Darwin’s provisional hypothesis of pangenesis (1868), for ex-
ample, assumed that such particles, the gemmules, were given off
at all times by every cell, and passed to all parts of the body in-
cluding the germ cells. He thus accounted vaguely for the in-
heritance of acquired characters and for regeneration of parts, as
well as for ordinary heredity.

Among several contemporary modifications of this type of theory
was that of De Vries (1889), who assumed that the corpuscles,
which he called pangens, represented potential elementary body
characters rather than cell qualities, and that the universe of their
activity was the cell rather than the body.

It is clear, even with only a glimpse of such theories, that they
could satisfy none but the philosophically inclined. They did little
or nothing toward stimulating work designed to test the points
involved.

A different fate met the speculations of Niigeli (1884). Here was
postulated two types of protoplasm built up of physiological units,
the micelle: The one was nutritive in its functions, and required no
particular architecture; the other, the idioplasm, a structure of
elaborate constitution, was built of units which represented the
potential elementary characters of the organism.

WEISMANN’S THEORY.

Utilizing this conception, Weismann (1892) evolved a theory
which more nearly fulfilled the requirements of an experimental
working hypothesis than any of those previously outlined. The

GENETIC PROGRESS—EAST. 289

idioplasm or germplasm he identified with the chromatin of the
nucleus. His ultimate physiological unit, the biophore, was the
biological atom active in building up organic characters. Grouped
together into higher units, the determinants, these corpuscles con-
trolled the specialization of cells. The various determinants of an
organism made-up the zds contributed by past generations. The
ids, if more than one, might differ slightly among themselves, thus
governing variation within the species. They formed the chromo-
somes, or idants, by arrangement in a linear series.

Denying the inheritance of acquired characters, and doing much
toward demolishing the fallacious logic put forth as proof at that
time by adherents in the belief, Weismann outlined a very stimulat-
ing conception of heredity on this basis. The immortal germ-
plasm was assumed to be set apart at a very early cell division and
passed along unchanged to the next generation, except as the
activities of the living units produced occasional changes in its
constitution. A provision for accurate equational division of the
chromosomes and their reduction in number at the maturation of
the germ cells was thus demanded, predicted and afterwards
realized—though not precisely in the way he supposed—by dis-
coveries in the field of cytology.

Weismann further accounted for evolution by a selective struggle
between the determinants of the germ cells, and for individual
development by a qualitative distribution of the determinants of
those cells set apart to build up the bodies which were to act as
hostelries for the immortal germplasm.

With Weismann is reached the peak of genetic generalization at
the beginning of the twentieth century. To-day we have parted
company with him in many particulars, nevertheless if modern
genetic theory can be said to be the outgrowth of any earlier school,
the Weismannian school must be given the preference. As Wilson
has said, he brought “ the cell theory and the evolution theory into
organic connection.” His work, besides dispelling many old wives’
notions by its cutting logic, was second only to that of Mendel in
making genetics an experimental science. Morgan credits him
with “the basis of our present attempt to explain heredity in
terms of the cell” in that he propounded three of the principles
upon which the modern Chromosome Theory is founded.

WEISMANN AND MENDEL.

Some may see an inconsistency in ascribing the ground-work of
current ideas of heredity to Weismann, and yet celebrating the re-
discovery of Mendel’s papers as the true break between the old

290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and the new. The obvious reply would be that it takes more
than three foundation stones to prop up a useful structure, and
that Mendel furnished several examples, most beautifuly cut and
polished. But there is a deeper truth than this to be emphasized.
Weismann unquestionably had a breadth of mental vision far ex-
ceeding that of Mendel. He was a real clairvoyant of science, too,
and not a mere visionary in the cynical modern sense of the word.
Nor was he above the drudgery of experiment. But he failed to
have the good luck of initiating a simple method whereby the
elementary quantitative relationship between hereditary phenomena
could be tested and retested by those who followed him. This
fortune fell to Mendel, who, though in a comparative sense a nar-
row man, was yet able to grasp somewhat of the significance of
the results obtained, and leave an imperishable monument to his
name. No one may say he was the greater man, but no one can
deny he left the more useful work. His results are a satisfaction
to the rank and file of scientists for just this reason, They leave
a ray of hope to the plodders with whom most of us trail.

The path opened up by Mendel has joined with the path cleared
by morphology to produce a road that has extended some distance
during the past two decades; but to point out the cairns and avoid
falling into the pits is not an easy task. The road makers have
been numerous, and in general, honestly constructive; but in order
to hold this article within reasonable limits I shall mention few
names except to pay a just tribute to Morgan as the master crafts-
man. Nor shall I speak of the attempts at sabotage except to say
they have become more and more infrequent. I shall merely en-
deavor to recapitulate the fundamental points as best I may with
the hope that the effort will not be far afield. At the risk of
becoming wearisome I want to try to estimate the progress in terms
of general conclusions rather than to describe a heterogeneous selec-
tion of ancient heredity puzzles that have yielded to simple
interpretations.

GENETICS AND EVOLUTION.

First, it must be emphasized that though modern genetics has
brought about a clearer orientation of the problems of development
and of evolution, it has been concerned directly with the mechanism
of heredity. Least progress has been made in connection with
the problems of ontogeny. But the conception of where the one
ends and the other begins, in so far as this is possible, has become
much more definite—at least in this country. It is probable that
the interesting phenomena recently described by Mr. Bateson where

GENETIC PROGRESS—EAST. 291

seeds from various parts of the same plant apparently transmit
different characters, would be less likely to appear so puzzling if
this were clearly recognized. And even if we admit our inability
at present to contribute much toward the solution of the question,
so well delimited by Weismann, of somatic specialization during
the development of the individual, one can not but feel that further
progress in dealing with problems of straight heredity will ulti-
mately be helpful.

As to the grand problem of evolution, I believe there has been a
concrete offering. True, the question of “ how ” is still in statu quo;
but one must be rather a pessimist if he does not consider that the
current conception of the gene presents something tangible on the
subject. It certainly allows a definite distinction between variations
due to environmental fluctuations, variations due to rearrangements
and combinations of genes, and variations due to change in the con-
stitution of the unit of heredity itself. Furthermore the data now
being gathered on the type of gene changes occurring, and on the
frequency with which they take place, are not to be cast aside as of
no value to the evolutionist. A statement as to just what they mean
would be a daring assertion, but that they mean something now and
will mean more later can not be doubted.

Let us take, for example, the following illustrations, which, I
think, are fair.

1. Mutations (gene variations) are now occurring in all species
that have been investigated intensively.

2. There is a wide range to mutation frequency in different species.

3. The number of useless or of harmful mutations is many times
the number of useful or of beneficent mutations.

4, The number of mutations affecting chiefly certain organs or
particular tissues greatly exceeds those affecting other parts of the
individual.

5. The “ conservative ” parts as measured by mutation frequency,
appear to have slight relation to the “ conservative” parts as deter-
mined by the circumstantial evidence of the phylogenist. For ex-
ample, loss of the ligule, a characteristic of the grass family, has been
found in a goodly number of the cultivated grasses—these being the
only ones that have been studied very carefully.

6. Mutations are often reversible. Reversibility may not be uni-
versal, though the mere fact that it has not been observed in every
case proves only that the reaction does not take place in both direc-
tions with the same ease.

7. Mutations which from their major effects can be arranged in a
graded series—for example, eye color of Drosophila melanogaster—
are found not to have originated in that order. That is to say, such

292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

orthogenetic phenomena as have been observed are better interpreted
as analogous to chemical phenomena, where tendency to certain re-
actions is greater than to others, than as “ vital force” phenomena. |

No one can maintain that these genetic findings compare with the
fundamental laws of thermodynamics in elegance and simplicity.
No one can say how general they are. But fruit flies and maize,
rodents and peas, upon which the observations were largely made, ~
are pretty far apart in the general scheme of things; therefore it
would be very odd indeed if they should turn out to be special cases.
And to me they are very helpful to a clearer general conception of
evolution,

THE MECHANISM OF HEREDITY,

Turning now to the mechanism of heredity, let us see what can be
said. The main generalization is that there are units of inheritance,
the genes, which are constant in the sense that stable chemical com-
pounds are constant; and whose distribution follows the distribution
of the chromosomes. In other words, the discoveries of experimental
genetics have made it possible to endow the conceptual units of
earlier days with particular qualities, just as discoveries in the
physical sciences have made it possible to delimit the characteristics
of atoms and molecules. Presumably there may be other types of
inheritance, but the only one thus far described is an exclusively
maternal inheritance of certain plastid characters. And even in
this case, it is not absolutely certain we are not dealing with sym-
biotic organisms that are transferred from host to host in some such
way as the numerous more or less yeast-like forms being daily de-
scribed in relation to insects and other lower animals. The mere
fact that numerous dicotyledons and monocotyledons on the one
hand, and mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, arthropods,
and molluscs on the other, show essentially identical types of here-
dity, makes it probable that the generalized mechanism has been
discovered. At the same time, though the angiosperms, insects, and
mammals thus far studied intensively, distribute their units of here-
dity with a convincing similarity of detail, it is altogether likely that
special cases of peculiar distributions will be found later. And there
is every reason to believe that these odd or unique types of inheritance
will parallel a specialization in chromosome distribution departing
somewhat from the one we have come to look upon as regular.

THE LAWS OF HEREDITY.

This regular or common scheme of chromosome distribution in
sexual reproduction has been the basis of practically all of our pres-
ent genetic knowledge. From past experience with it one can pick
out the following inductions, each of which has been tested with

GENETIC PROGRESS—-EAST. 293

variable degrees of thoroughness. They are not set down here with
the idea they are necessarily more inviolable than the laws of the
Medes and Persians, but merely with the annotation that no experi-
mental data have thus far overstepped them except those on the plas-
tids. They may be called provisional laws of heredity.

The first five of these generalizations describe the mechanism of
heredity in the preparation of the germ cells for fertilization.

1. There is segregation of paternal genes from maternal genes,
each unchanged by the association. The. pedigree culture evidence
supplements the cytological evidence in favor of the idea that this
segregation takes place at the reduction division of the chromosomes
in the maturation of the germ cells, when homologous paternal and
maternal genes pair and separate, one of each pair passing to each
of the two daughter cells.

2. There may be any combination of the choice of one out of each
pair of genes in making up the genetic constitution of the gametes.

3. In transmission to the two daughter cells, certain sets of genes
are always manipulated independently of all other genes. This is
a statement of independent inheritance, or rather of independent
genetic recombination, without reference to the chromosomes. It is
an unworthy piece of quibbling, however, not to accept the simple in-
dication of cytology that this law is the result of the operation of
the chromosomes acting as gene carriers. It results from the fact
that No. 1 pair of chromosomes, no matter how it may be packed with
genes, carts its cargo independently of all other pairs.

4, The manipulation of genes within a given series is always de-
pendent. This is the phenomenon of linkage, or association in in-
heritance. Concretely, we assume that the genes packed within each
freight carrier pair, an homologous pair of chromosomes, are mu-
tually dependent to various degrees in their recombinations with

- each other.

5. The number of dependent series or linkage groups is limited.

In the fruit fly, the number corresponds to the number of chromo-
somes, and the presumption is that this is the case in every species.

Added to these five laws are four more generalizations which refer
particularly to the architecture of the germ plasm within the carrier.

6. There is a stable orderly arrangement of genes.

7. This arrangement is linear. The genes appear to be strung
together much as a string of magnetized steel balls.

8. Rearrangement of genes after linkage breaks is stable, orderly,
and linear. By this it is meant to say that rearrangement of the
package after interchange of the contents of a pair of carriers is also’
constant and of the same linear order as in No. 6 and No, 7,

0019—24—_20

294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

9. A regularity of behavior has been found in the interference of
one crossover or linkage break, with a second crossover in the same
carrier, which says that the per cent of crossovers varies independ-
ently of the per cent of interference. The converse is also true.

There is a facination to this picture of germplasm architecture,
and the type of investigation which has led to these statements will
undoubtedly lead to still greater things in the future; but we should
do well to realize that each of these generalizations, except prob-
ably the sixth, may be a special case; and that new and different
special cases may be found without necessitating a change in the
first. five conclusions.

There is just one other generalization to be mentioned. It is the
only one concerned with fertilization, and upon its truth has largely
depended the discovery of all the others.

10. There is no selective fertilization between complementary, com-
patible, functional gametes.

In other words, if a series of male gametes meets a series of female
gametes sufficiently alike to be compatible with them, fertilization
takes place by chance. Clearly chaos would result if this were not
so. Gametes produced by a single hermaphroditic organism may
present hundreds of hereditary differences. The slightest tendency
to selective fertilization, therefore, would prevent genetic analysis of
the results. Happily, this is not the case. Even in the flowering
plants where varying lengths of pistil tissue must be traversed by the
male gametophyte before fertilization is possible, evidence has been
offered that rapidity of passage probably is not affected by differ-
ences in gametic constitution. Genes evidently do not begin to func-
tion as such until the life cycle of the new generation commences.*

OTHER FACTS OF HEREDITY.

There are other categories of facts, several of them probably not
flowing out of the above conclusions, that are as interesting to the
general biologist as the abstract laws. Without them one can not
get a just idea of the actual concrete working out of the heredity
mechanism.

First let us speak of dominance. Dominance was originally de-
fined as an observational phenomenon, the appearance of the effect
of one of a pair of different homologous genes, as opposed to the
disappearance or exclusion of the effect of the other. Later, it was
taken to be the presence of an effect as the antithesis of its absence;
and this idea was carried to such lengths that many geneticists came

1It should be mentioned, however, that in Nicotiana (several species) and in Zea the
pollen tubes from different plants exhibit different rates of growth under similar condi-
tions. The rates appear to be controlled by the genetic constitutions of the mother plants
from which they came.

GENETIC PROGRESS—EAST. 295

to believe that dominance of “ A” over “a” was due to actual ab-
sence of any function of “a,” or even to the physical absence of any
gene whatsoever. Now we have come to see that dominance is a
mere arbitrary measurement of the approach of the result “Aa” to
that of “AA” or “aa.” This has been brought about by finding
cases in which the effect “ A ” or “a” in the haploid condition could
be compared with the effects of “AA,” or “Aa” and of “aa.”
These cases make it seem doubtful whether the association of “A”
with “a” ever wholly inactivates the latter.

With this conception of the function of the genes in mind it is
possible to work out pretty definitely the actual resultant onto-
genetic characters after different matings, both with and without
linkage, by applying the laws I have just discussed. It is merely a
straight mathematical relationship following immediately after ac-
ceptance of these basic conclusions. But there are several difficulties
involved in identifying the concrete results of breeding with the
abstract results of calculation. Some of these difficulties have been
leveled, others are yet to be overcome.

One must realize that each gene has many effects on the organism,
some of which are not easily discoverable. The fact that a gene is
usually ticketed with a name indicative of its most obvious effect on
a particular character, should not mislead us in this regard. Then,
too, one must remember that many genes affect each organic char-
acter; and that similar characters, characters apparently identical,
do not necessarily owe their qualities to the same combination of
genes. And, finally, it does not follow from any of the above rela-
tions, what will be the result of gene interaction. The action of
two or more genes may be necessary to bring about a visible or
measurable result, though these genes may be carried along sep-
arately generation after generation. The full logic of this fact
tears down the veil from many an obscure result; since the difficulty
of appreciating the results of selection has been due to the failure to
realize how many modifying genes may be carried along which
have no chance to produce a measurable effect unless a certain basic
gene complex necessary for particular organic expression is also
present.

This short sketch will show, I hope, that in the 21 years of ex-
perimental genetics real progress has been made. To be sure, this
résumé has been a leaping from crag to crag. No more was possible
within the editorial limits here allotted. But if one recalls the
scorn of 50 years ago should a daring seer have predicted such a
triumph for quantitative mechanical analysis in a subject so over-
strewn with variable factors, he in turn will scorn the Freudian over-
compensation of to-day’s critic who makes the taunt that it shall go
no further.

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OBSERVATIONS ON A MONTANA BEAVER CANAL.

By 8S. SrrmumMaw Berry.

[With 6 plates.)

Less frequently seen than the spectacular dam and lodge, but, when
in a state of perfection, well nigh exceeding either in the interest
and wonder which it invariably arouses in the mind of one fortunate
enough to encounter it, is the unique example of beaver engineering
known as the canal. As familiarity with it increases, one rarely fails
eventually to regard it as altogether the most astounding evidence
afforded us of the beaver’s extraordinary “ capacity,” as Willey puts
it, “for suiting its labors to the nature of the district which it
inhabits.” * 'The attempt to explain it on the basis of hereditary in-
stinct alone, in the narrow sense of the word, is not wholly convine-
ing. The comparative rarity of the canals, at least in their more
developed forms, only adds to the astonishment with which each new
vbserver views so purposeful a conquest, through efforts both in-
dividual and cooperative, of difficulties which must, from the very
nature of the case, be almost wholly peculiar, local, and therefore
original. Not only is there nothing stereotyped about the construc-
tion of the canal, but given the closest possible parallelism in at-
tendant circumstances, the answer to even the flat question of whether
a canal will be built or not is variable. In many regions where
beavers are known to flourish, their haunts may be explored to the
end of time without finding so much as a trace of an attempt at
canal building,® while elsewhere a colony situated under what would
seem far less favorable conditions has laboriously constructed entire
systems of these waterworks. Nor must the possibility be overlooked
that different species or subspecies of beaver may not be possessed
of the same natural capacities in this direction.

1 Reprinted by permission, with minor changes and additions, from Journal of Mam-
malogy, vol. 4, No. 2, May, 1923,

*Yet Lydekker, in the article ‘ Beaver,” in the eleventh edition of the Hneyclopwdia
Britannica, fails even to mention the existence of the canals,

*It must be admitted that lodges, too, are in some places conspicuous only for their
absence, while some colonies have so forsaken more usual habits as, temporarily at least,
to have given up even dam building,

297

—

298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The entire phenomenon of canal building by beavers is surely
worthy of a far more intensive study by observers trained in modern
methods of the investigation of animal behavior than has yet been’
given it. When such sporadic observations as the few which have
been made include so much of more than ordinary interest, a
genuinely exhaustive investigation could hardly fail being fruitful.
It is because prior to so desirable a consummation even relatively
minor contributions may prove of interest that these notes have been
published. At least one basal fact seems to be pretty thoroughly
established: These artificial waterways are constructed primarily
for the transportation of food, thus bearing an analogy to the more
pretentious canals of human construction, and, like the latter, they
appear to be only secondarily utilized for the transportation of
building materials, for the diversion of needed or superfluous water,
or as simple thoroughfares for the beavers themselves. I would
not deny that there are sometimes individual canals which situation
or other circumstances quite conclusively indicate to have been in-
tended largely or wholly for one or the other ordinarily subsidary
purposes last mentioned. Indeed several such examples have been
cited by Mills,‘ in a volume which contains quite the best account of
this phase of beaver activity that I have been fortunate enough
to encounter. But this does not gainsay that the primal urge back
of all this cerebral activity, whether or not any degree of intelligent
control of the instinct be admitted, is that of food getting.

The aspen, or quaking asp (Populus tremuloides Michx.), is said to
be the tree the bark of which is most keenly sought by the beaver
as food, but in the absence of the aspen various other species of the
Salicaceze, notably certain of the cottonwoods and willows, with per-
haps one or two other trees, seem to serve just as well. However
that may be, once the supply immediately adjacent to the winter
feeding basin has become depleted, the simplest recourse (for the
beaver) is to push his foray farther afield, and, as even his most faith-
ful admirers admit him to be far more agile and dexterous in water
than so heavy and nearsighted a creature can ever be on land, what
more natural when he wishes to take advantage of a slightly more
distant forage plot than that he attempt to carry his medium thither
with him! Instinctive or intelligent, such resourcefulness must often
be of survival value to the animal.

For the past five years the writer has had under intermittent obser-
vation a very long and in some ways unusually highly developed
beaver canal which is the subject of the following account. It is

* Enos A. Mills, In Beaver World, pn. 77. 103, 106-107, 145, 149 (1913).

BEAVER CANAL—BERRY. 299

situated on the Winnecook Ranch, one of the old-time stock ranches
still persisting a few miles east of Harlowton, Mont. Therefore some
degree of protection of both the canal and its architects has been pos-
sible during a part, if unfortunately not the entirety, of the period of
observation. More generally the location may be stated as Wheat-
land County, south-central Montana, whereof the principal body of
water is the Musselshell River, a considerable stream traversing the
entire county in a west to east direction, and inhabited, at any rate in
favored stretches, by colonies of beaver.’ The more striking physio-
graphic features of the river and its immediate environs are fairly
constant throughout this area. The prevailing bench lands of the
north, and the rougher and more broken hills to the south, as in all
our upper prairie country, terrace down to a sharply defined, narrow,
and comparatively level “ bottom,” through which meanders, though
frequently with considerable current, the river itself on its way to
join the muddy torrent of the great Missouri. The only “ forest”
is an irregular, yet generally abundant growth of cottonwood trees
(Populus, spp.), in their primeval state all intertangled with a thick
undergrowth, “ the brush,” composed of such smaller trees and shrubs
as willows of divers species, buffalo berry (Lepargyrea argentea
Nutt.), chokecherry, dogwood (Cornus stolonifera Michx.), wild
roses, currants, gooseberries, and other associated types, which
borders the actual stream channel, forming a continuous belt of an
eighth to a half mile in width, but giving way here and there to
more open parklike spaces, or long swales or sloughs. In spite of
the encroachments of civilization and a relentless persecution at the
hands of farmers and less legitimate foes, which have combined in
so many regions to force the beaver to surrender all his more
characteristic and conspicuous ways of life or be exterminated, in
many a serene nook along the Musselshell his lodges, dams, trails,
slides, food piles, abandoned stumpage—indeed, his own picturesque
self, are still to be observed in something like their original perfection.
And since this particular race of beaver seems to be especially ad-
dicted to building canals, these are by no means lacking.

The particular waterway in question (pl. 1.) is by all odds the
finest specimen of this type of work which has been discovered in this
neighborhood. Just above the point where the canal becomes tribu-
tary to the river, the Musselshell is quite deep in places, even at the
lowest water. Slides, tracks, peeled twigs, food piles, and other
evidences of beaver occupation have long been numerous there and I
have little doubt but that somewhere hereabout is the principal

57 am not aware that the specific determination of the beavers inhabiting the Mussel-
shell and its tributaries has ever been made. ‘The present locality seems to be rather
close to the supposed boundary between the ranges of Castor canadensis and C. frondator.

300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

home, or at least the site of the parent colony, of the beavers who
built the canal.

The river wanders much through this part of its course, and in the
not distant past has veered and shifted and migrated so that the
cottonwood forest springing up along its successive beds has pro-
duced an unusually broad piece of woodland at this point, especially
to the south of the present course of the river, and there are many
of the little open parks, twisting lines of trees marking former
channels, shallow depressions, and narrow swales bordered by willow
thickets. Straight back into this native tangle the beavers have
found occasion to build their canal. Although one of the best
traveled ranch roads of the time led through a large park im-
mediately west of the canal, while not a great way to the east was
a much-used sheep shed, so swiftly and unobtrusively did the beavers
carry out their work when once engaged upon it that in the spring
of 1916, when one of the ranch boys happened to stumble into it, the
canal had been completed, we know not for how long previously,
and was being abundantly utilized. There are two reasons for be-
lieving that at this time the canal of a fact had not been in existence
so very long. In the first place, when discovered it was at the very
acme of structural perfection, indeed was so finished in detail and
so well kept that some of those who first saw it, who happened to
be ignorant of beaver structures, had no thought of it as possibly
of other than human origin, and expressed a wonder as to who could
be running so well constructed an irrigation ditch through that par-
ticular piece of forsaken jungle, and more especially how it could
have been constructed without their knowing it—an amusing state-
ment to make, but not surprising considering the original symmetry
of the canal. In the second place, when the present writer first vis-
ited the canal, on the succeeding 29th of July to be exact, the princi-
pal tree fellings adjacent to the middle and upper reaches of the
canal were in the main quite fresh. Many fellings were in progress
at the time and similar work contintied all through that summer.
The canal was revisited a number of times that season and likewise
during the summer following by the writer and others, but it was
not until August 25, 1918, that it was thoroughly explored, its real
extent appreciated, and the entire system as carefully measured and
plotted as was feasible in the absence of a surveying equipment.
Most of the notes forming the principal basis of the present account
likewise date from that time.

The general trend of the canal, together with its succession of con-
tributory works, is practically south to north. Principally as a direct
result of disturbing variations in the character of the terrain which

BEAVER CANAL—BERRY. 301

- it traverses, the system is composed of several very differently con-
structed segments. Since so far as the watercourse proper is con-
cerned these segments chanced to coincide almost exactly in extent
with the three principal curves, it becomes convenient to resort to a
correspondingly arranged treatment for its description. A glance at
the accompanying diagram now and then will be helpful in render-
ing this point and much of the remainder of the discussion clearer.

The first or lower segment (pls. 1 and 2, and pl. 3, fig. 1) comprises,
or rather did comprise, the main canal, leading in the form of a
crescent from the river into a long slough curved in the reverse
direction, which was utilized as the second segment of the canal and.
only here and there exhibits evidence of artificial treatment by the
beavers. The third segment is made up of a much narrower canal
which passes by way of an ephemeral rivulet into a mere beaten trail
which finally loses itself in the undergrowth, some 1,145 feet meas-
ured by the canal, from where the latter left the river.

The first-mentioned division of these extensive works, therefore, is
readily seen to be the one of primary importance and interest. The
terrain here not only offered certain special advantages for the con-
struction of such a work, but at the same time certain noteworthy
difficulties, all of which seem to have been taken advantage of or
overcome, as the case chanced to be, in quite a remarkable manner.
A little way back from the river and separated therefrom by a low,
willow-covered ridge is a narrow swamp, no doubt originally a pro-
longation of the large slough mentioned in the last paragraph as
constituting the second principal segment of the watercourse.
Students of beaver bionomics have more than once called attention
to the interesting aptitude exhibited by the animals in carrying a
canal across a slope by banking the excavated earth largely or
wholly on the down side.* In the present instance a complication
enters in, the mastering of which has resulted in perhaps the most
interesting single claim to novelty which this particular canal
possesses. For in order to bring about the desired connection between
the flooded slough and the river the beavers had not only to pierce
the low, willow-clad ridge near the river (pl. 4, fig. 1), but in some
way to carry their watercourse across the depression occupied by the
miry swale. By felling and removing innumerable willows they
might have accomplished this in the usual manner followed in cross-
ing a simple slope, running the canal along the bank of the swale and
banking it on the down side only, but this would have necessitated an
enormous amount of labor. There was a better way to solve the
problem, a way which any irrigation engineer would have chosen
under the pressure of similar circumstances, and this was chosen

6. g., Mills, In Beaver World, p. 88.

302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

by the beavers. They plowed their channel right through the cen-
ter of the swale and banked both sides of the canal (pl. 2, fig. 1).
In 1916, when the work was new, the levees so constructed were
very conspicuous, and sufficiently high to enable the beavers to fill
the canal to a level appreciably higher than that of much of the
immediately adjacent terrain. In winter these levees gave rise to
an especially curious effect at times, for when the snow receded
they were exposed first and showed as two narrow parallel ridges
protruding through the white mantle covering the canal and the
surface of the swale (pl. 2, fig. 2). Beginning exactly at the
lower end of the flooded slough, though a little to the north-
east of the center thereof, the levees featured the canal for a dis-
tance of some 215 feet. In fact, this entire lower portion of the
canal was very regular and as exact in construction as rather care-
ful human hands would likely have made it. An entertaining
incident occurred in 1916, the year the works first came under ob-
servation, when one of the ranch hands chanced to place a large board
across the canal to serve as a bridge in passing over it. The beavers
failed to appreciate this obstruction to their traffic and at once got
about its removal. Whether one, or more than one, animal was so
engaged we did not discover, but in any case the board was set upon
from both sides without much evident coordination of effort. Two
good-sized crescents were thus bitten away, but not being coincidently
directed the obard was still holding pretty well when I last saw it
(pl. 6, fig. 1). This is hardly to be adduced as proof of very keen
intelligence on the part of the beaver, but it must be admitted that
man himself would obtain a poor verdict were he similarly judged
on some of his own incidental behavior.

Although I speak of the canal as opening into the river, I never
was able to determine which end was actually the head and which
the foot of the main portion. When I first saw it in July, 1916,
all the water was out of it. except a mere trickle which drained ~
into the river. There were plenty of fresh beaver tracks in the
muddy bottom and those of white-tail deer, coyotes, wild cats,
and a few smaller animals along the levees. In 1918 it was full,
or nearly full, of water, which was slowly flowing away from the
river and into the slough. That same summer a little later I
saw the water in the canal so nearly neutral between river and
slough that floating particles moved now one way, now the other, in
the most indeterminate fashion. Sometimes the water was noted to
be flowing steadily toward the river. The obvious explanation of
this curious state of affairs would seem to be that this part of the
canal was so nearly level that the direction of whatever current mani-
fested itself depended wholly upon the relative levels of the water

BEAVER CANAL—BERRY. 303

in river and slough. But in practice the problem failed to resolve
itself so simply, and I have sometimes been quite at a loss to explain
a given reversal in the direction of flow. With the river at fair
flood I have found the éntire beaver works nearly empty, while the
last time I saw the canal with any head of water it was setting
distinctly in the direction of the slough although it was the last of
August and the Musselshell was in its season of low ebb. It is
possible that the condition of the big slough is a more important
consideration for the behavior of the water in the lower canal than
that of the river. When the Musselshell is very low the river end
of the canal is necessarily high and dry, and at such a season the
slough also is apt to be reduced to a mere quagmire. Measure-
ments taken in the latter part of the month of August, 1918, showed
that near the main bend (x—x in the accompanying diagram)
the canal had a low-water diameter of 5 feet, or of 9 feet 6 inches
measured across the summits of the levees at the same point. At
the mouth it was 9 feet in diameter (8 feet at water level), with
a maximum depth of 1 foot 8 inches and a low-water depth of
10 inches. Where it cut through the willow bank (y—y of dia-
gram) the canal diameter at high-water level was 6 feet 9 inches;
at low-water level 5 feet 6 inches. The low-water depth at
this point was 1 foot to 1 foot 3 inches. The river near the mouth
of the canal was about 50 feet wide at this time. At the date of
these measurements the leveed part of the canal had already begun
to deteriorate badly. The banks were partially worn down (pl. 1,
and pl. 3, fig. 1) and the hollows in the swale largely filled in by
the washings, bi‘ _caue places, especially on the lower or east
side, the banks remained to some extent leveed above the adjoining
ground. It would appear that in its pristine condition, upon emerg-
ing from the willow-clad ridge, the canal opened directly into the
river very nearly at right angles with the shore line, or even deflected
to head a trifle upstream. But a heavy mud bank was later silted
across it by the river current so persistently that after a little effort
to keep open an adequate passage across it, the beavers capitulated
and sheared away the shore — v0 east a little in such a way as to
run their channel downstream back of the bar, across the foot of
which it then opened obliquely into the river without much danger
of further blocking (pl. 4, fig. 2). Up to this time there were no
dams of the beavers’ own making either at the river opening of the
canal or at its juncture with the flooded slough, or, in fact, at any
point between.

In 1918, and at certain times previously, the slough (pl. 3, fig. 2) at
the head of the leveed canal was a turbid lake some 260 feet long and
40 feet across, bordered, like the swale at its foot, by a thick growth of

304

"at 001

Fic. 1.—Diagram of the Big
Beaver Canal at Winnecook,
Mont., together with the more
important of the beaver works
tributary to it, as they existed
in August, 1918.

BEAVER CANAL-—BERRY. 305

scrub willows, wild roses, and a few dogwoods, with cottonwoods of
two species rising farther back. Many of the willows and cotton-
woods, particularly at the upper end of the slough, had been felled,
numerous slides on the steep east bank and trails leading through
the growth of willows to both east and west yielding abundant testi-
mony of the activity and industry of the rodent woodsmen. There
was also evidence of the floating of considerable quantities of felled
timber via the slough into the canal and thence to the river. The
attainment of this inland timber was of course the principal motive
for the building of the canal, although the beavers seem to have
made the flooded slough the domicile of a part of the colony at this
time.

But a further quantity of very desirable willow and cottonwood
growth still existed farther up between.the slough and the hills.
I had previously noticed beaver cuttings as far beyond the slough
as the road crossing, on numberless occasions, but had never thought
to associate them with the beavers of the canal, nor to explore the
upper end of the slough, at any rate until August, 1918. At that
time, in company with Mr. A. W. Bell, I traversed the entire length
of the slough in order to measure it, and was quite unprepared to
discover thereupon in the willow tangle at its head a continuing
canal leading on to the south through the dense thicket. The ground
here was marshy and many little side canals had been pushed off
into the willows toward the firmer ground on either side. This
canal was neither so ambitious in magnitude nor in any respect so
finished in construction as the lower one. A narrow, pebbly creek
bed of some former time, hardly more than a foot in width, under-
lay its upper reaches, uncovered where the beavers had pushed back
the swampy mire which had engulfed it. The flooded part of the
canal did not quite reach this point when I saw it, but there was
evidence that at no very distant time the water course had extended
considerably farther. Perhaps a hundred feet farther on even the
pebbly creek bed became indistinct where it traversed an open marsh,
but beyond this it emerged once more and the trail continued to
follow it very plainly to an old beaver slough another hundred feet
in length, with felled trees and other beaver signs all about. At
this time all these relics were more or less weatherworn and very
fresh indications of beaver activity were quite wanting. Above this
last small slough, it was still possible to follow the main trail for
perhaps yet another hundred feet. But here it constantly grew
fainter and finally lost itself entirely about where the road crosses
through the little break in the woods where the beaver cuttings had
first been observed,

306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

As there is evidence that the beavers themselves have at times
been responsible for the flooding of the big slough, and they have
actually excavated its bottom in places in line with or even in con-
tinuation of the upper and lower canals, it seems only just to reckon
the entire length of the watercourse, or 745 feet, as that of the canal.
So credited, it becomes one of the longest which has been recorded.’

In summary then it may be said that the canal seems to occupy,
and in large degree to have taken advantage of a long swale, which
at its upper end bears evidence of being the remnant of an ancient
rivulet, now dry, the lower portion now at best not possessing
gradient enough or running water enough to maintain an unbroken
outflow into the river. This necessary detail was accomplished by
the beavers, who have pushed their canal through a cut in the
vegetation-covered bank of the river, and thus made possible the
full development of the entire system.

The canal has now been under observation as opportunity has pre-

sented for six summers, and I have also been able to pay it a winter

visit or two. As has been related, the canal was in its highest state of
perfection in July and August of 1916. A year later it had been some-
what damaged by the abnormally high water of that season, and
although it continued to be occupied it was never fully restored. In
July of 1918 I found it very miry and in bad shape in other par-
ticulars, but the beavers were still actively utilizing it and did a little
work on it during the rest of that summer. A miserably cruel and
needless onslaught carried on against them by persons who chanced
to be temporarily connected with the operations of the ranch along
about this time so depleted their numbers that until quite recently it
was feared it would be many years before the damage could be made
good. Certainly the canal showed the effect of this slaughter, for in
1919, which was a year of almost unprecedented drought and low
water, when they would normally have been exceedingly assiduous in
storing back as great a proportion of the retreating waters as pos-
sible, the entire canal was absolutely dry, pond and all, and badly

7Seton (Life Histories of Northern Animals, vol. 1, p, 458) records a beaver canal at
Gal Pond, in the Adirondacks, 654 feet long and some 4 feet wide, leading “ from the

pond to a grove of poplar and yellow birch.” “Although abandoned for fully 50 years,
it was very well marked and showed many beaver cuttings.’’ Most of Seton’s discussion
of beaver canals is, however, taken from Morgan, Ps

Mills (In Beaver World, p. 140-141) describes and illustrates a remarkable canal near
Long’s Peak, Colo., which was excavated through a deep wreckage of fire-killed and fallen
spruces in order to permit the successful harvest of a certain grove of aspens. This canal
was 334 feet long, with an average depth of 15 inches and a width of 26 inches. Still
more noteworthy is the very complex canal which he observed near Three Forks, Mont.
(op. cit., p. 107-111, fig.), and which had a total length of 428 feet.

By far the longest canal recorded by this author was observed at Lily Lake, Colo,
(op. cit., p. 104, ill. opp. p. 102), This canal was one of a number built by the beavers
of the locai colony in order to maintain necessary water thoroughfares in the bed of their
home lake during a time of drought. It was measured to be 750 feet long, 3 feet deep
throughout, and from 3 to 5 feet wide.

BEAVER CANAL—BERRY. 307

grown to rushes and weeds. No evidence whatever of renewal of
beaver activity anywhere along the canal was detected either that
summer or the next. In fact by August of 1920 the unoccupied canal,
still nearly dry, had been washed in at the sides all along the line,
and the lower canal as well as even part of the former pond were
almost completely smothered in the rank growth of rushes, sedges,
arrow weed, marsh grass, and similar plants which had overgrown
them.

Meanwhile there was put into effect on the part of the ranch
management a more enlightened and forward-looking policy respect-
ing the care of such wild creatures as still remained within the
bounds of its jurisdiction. Hopeful that the beaver in particular
would eventually respond to the more sympathetic treatment, I
nevertheless was completely taken by surprise, upon revisiting the
old canal in August, 1921, to find there already indubitable evidence
of their resumption of domain. The pond had not been again flooded,
nor did I notice any fresh beaver work near the road crossing or
in visited portions of the intermediate area, but the lower segment
of the canal showed a narrow median strip which had been dredged
clear of weeds and basined out, and had evidently lately carried a
flow of water, although for the time being it contained none (pl. 5,
fig.2). The extreme lower part of the canal adjacent to the river still
retained approximately its original dimensions with the weeds only
slightly encroaching at the sides. The mud bar still persisted, but
strangely enough it had been cut through once more and the original
opening of the canal approximately restored (pl. 5, fig. 1). But the
haleyon days of the leveed portion were no more. The old high
banks were merged in the surface of the swale, and the newly exca-
vated tract in the middle had a bottom width of but 10 to 15 inches, a
high water diameter of but 15 to 30 inches, and a maximum depth of
not exceeding 4 to 5 inches. Even worse, across the canal, about 30
feet above the mud bar, had been thrown a massive dam of well-
packed mud and sticks, so inordinately high in relation to the usual
water line of the old canal as to suggest very forcibly that it could be
intended not so much to keep the canal from draining out, as to keep
the flood of the river (at high water) from pouring in. Just a
little down river the steep bank on the same side of the canal showed
several holes and fresh slides. It was greatly hoped that the con-
struction of the dam. did not signify a final desertion of the canal,
but that the activity of this colony of beavers would soon be pushed
to the accomplishment of perhaps yet more interesting results. In
this I was disappointed, however, for upon a visit to the canal in
September, 1922, we found its desertion apparently complete; this
in spite of abundant beaver signs in the neighboring stretches of
river.

308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The linear measurements of the canal and its contributory works
as they existed in August, 1918, are summarized in the following

table: . é‘

Revecd. portion of lower canal. 2 = gt $e 215
Gross lenvth of lower.canglis oro. 2 Se 8 eee 285
benoit Of Hooded slough=2 S28] 3k aes a eee 260
Approximate leneth oft upper’ Canale! vs. 22 snes eee 200

etal ieneth of, water: course-5. tt ees
Approximate length of former water course and its trail-like continua-

Feet.

“SIGI ‘Gz Jsnsny ‘1oYyQNeV sy} Ay Ydeisojoyg

“AAUND SO ALIYVINDAY ALON °] AYNDIA ‘SZ ALV1d NO LWHL OL
YVIINIS ATYVAN M3IA V ‘HLNOS SHL OL GNAG AHL GNNOYY LNIOd WV WOYS YSAIY SHL GHYYMOL DNINOO7] NAXV_L
*SSSARq] SHL AO NMOG ONIYVAM SHI YS1AY “LNOW ‘MOOOANNIM LV IVNVO YSAV3EQG DNO7 SHL SO LNSWDAS NIVIN) SHL

*| ALVId *Ald9G—'ZZ6l JAOdeY uvlUuOsSYyYWS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Berry. PLATE 2.

THE MAIN CANAL AS IT APPEARED WHEN FIRST DISCOVERED; LOOKING
TOWARD THE RIVER FROM A POINT ON THE BIG BEND ABouT I60 FEET
FROM THE MOUTH OF THE CANAL. THE NARROW LEVEES SHOW FAIRLY

PLAINLY.
Photograph by the author, July 29, 1916.

A SIMILAR VIEW OF THE CANAL FROM A POINT A LITTLE FARTHER TO THE
SOUTH, TAKEN IN THE WINTER SEASON TO SHOW THE LEVEES PUSHING
ABOVE THE MELTING SNOW.

Photograph by Thayer Stevens, winter of 1916-17.

PLATE 3.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Berry.

1. ANOTHER VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL SEGMENT OF THE CANAL AS IT AP-
PEARED IN 1918; TAKEN FROM THE BEND LOOKING NORTH.

eh Sab nee

eee) oo
ae Ea my
-_ - r W.

2. THE LONG SLOUGH FROM ITS NORTH END, SHOWING EMERGENCE OF THE
BEAVER CANAL IN THE FORE PART OF THE PICTURE. THE DENSE
GROWTH OF COTTONWOODS AND WILLOWS IN THE BACKGROUND WAS THE

SCENE OF MUCH BEAVER ACTIVITY DURING THE OCCUPANCY OF THE

SLOUGH AND CANAL.
Photographs by the author, August 25, 1918.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Berry. PLATE~4.

|. THE NORTHERN EXTREMITY OF THE CANAL WHERE IT PIERCES THE
WILLOW-CLAD RIDGE BEFORE ENTERING THE RIVER.

Photograph by the author, August 25, 1918.

2. THE JUNCTION OF THE CANAL WITH THE MUSSELSHELL RIVER, THE
CANAL ITSELF BEING SOMEWHAT OBSCURED BY THE BAR SILTED ACROSS
ITS MOUTH. THE CANAL AT THIS TIME OPENED DOWNSTREAM TO THE
LEFT OF THE BAR.

Photograph by A. W. Bell, August 25, 1918.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Berry. PLATE 5.

1. A SIMILAR VIEW TAKEN AFTER THE BEAVERS HAD AGAIN PIERCED THE
BAR. THIS PICTURE PLAINLY SHOWS THE TEMPORARY DOWNSTREAM
CONTINUATION OF THE CANAL JUST BEHIND THE BAR. A PORTION OF
THE DAM FINALLY BUILT BY THE BEAVERS ACROSS THE CANAL A FEW
YARDS BACK FROM THE MOUTH IS BARELY TO BE DISTINGUISHED.

Photograph by the author, August 12, 1921.

2. LOOKING NORTH ALONG THE MAIN CANAL IN 1921, SHOWING THE RESULTS
OF THE FIRST EFFORTS OF THE BEAVERS TO CLEAR AWAY THE RUSHES AND
OTHER GROWTH WHICH HAD ENGULFED THE OLD CANAL.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Berry. PLATE 6.

|. A BOARD LAID TO SERVE AS A Foot BRIDGE ACROSS THE MAIN SEGMENT
OF THE BEAVER CANAL PRODUCED A TEMPORARY BLOCKADE OF CANAL
TRAFFIC; THE CRESCENTIC CUTS MADE BY THE BEAVERS AS HERE ILLUS-
TRATED SHOW A CURIOUS LACK OF COORDINATION IN THE EFFORTS DI-
RECTED TOWARD THE REMOVAL OF THE OBSTRUCTION.

Photograph by the author, July 29, 1916.

2. TRUNK OF A LARGE COTTONWOOD TREE, FELLED AND STRIPPED OF ITS
BARK BY BEAVERS, STRANDED ON THE BANK OF THE MUSSELSHELL RIVER
SomME DISTANCE BELOW THE BIG CANAL.

Photograph by the author, September 5, 1919.

THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR.

a

By Paut C. STANDLEY.

[With 16 plates. ]

Of the five Central American countries there is none so little
known in the United States as El Salvador, the least in area of all
the American Republics. It is not because of its small size that so
little is known about it, but rather because of its somewhat remote
geographic position, and moreover it often suffers innocently be-
cause of confusion of its name with that of a tiny island in the
Bahamas. Mention the name Salvador to almost any American,
even a person of presumably good education, and too often it evokes
a remark, “Oh, yes, the island on which Columbus landed;” and
when the Republic is, infrequently, distinguished from Columbus’s
first landing place, it is only too likely to be relegated to some indefi-
nite location in South America.

That Salvador has been less visited by North Americans and is
less known to them than the neighboring Republics of Guatemala,
Honduras, and Nicaragua, results chiefly from the fact that it les
wholly upon the Pacific slope of Central America; it is the only one
of these States that does not possess an Atlantic coast. It is, be-
sides, rather difficult of access from the United States, except from
‘California, and the only Americans likely to visit it are commercial
travelers and a few tourists who land for a part of a day while
their steamers lie at anchor to take on cargo at one of its three ports.

Salvador was explored in 1524 by Pedro de Alvarado, one of the
associates of Hernin Cortés, conqueror of Mexico, who fought his
way against the hostile occupants of the country until he reached
their chief town, Cuscatlin, which was situated near the site of the
present capital, San Salvador. Soon afterward permanent Spanish
settlements were established, which now have a history extending
over nearly four centuries—centuries of peace and quiet if we may
judge by the scant accounts of them that have come down to us.
Salvador’s boundaries, like those of the other Central American
States, have remained nearly always the same. More isolated than
its sister countries from the ordinary trade routes, it passed a peace-

55379—24——_21 309

310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ful existence under the Spanish régime, and since that time its his-
tory has been somewhat less turbulent than that of some of its neigh-
bors.

As seems to be the case with all small countries, the Salvadoreans
are very loyal to their own land, and their loyalty and patriotism
are based upon thorough personal acquaintance with their country,
for standing upon almost any one of the mountains in which the
land abounds, it is possible to view nearly the whole Republic, from
the mountains of Guatemala to the west, along the great blue moun-
tain wall of Honduras, to the peaks of Nicaragua which rise in the
far distance of the east, beyond the Gulf of Fonseca. The Salva-
doreans have always been the most enthusiastic advocates of the Cen-
tral American Federation, the union of the five States as one govern-
ment, which did exist for a series of years after the liberation in 1821
of Central America from Spanish dominion, and they were very bitter
when at the end of 1921 the most recent attempt to resuscitate that
union resulted in failure. A well-known traveler, John L. Stephens,
sent by the American Government as a special minister to Central
America at the time of the dissolution of the first Central American
Federation, about 80 years ago, after having traversed the whole
region between Guatemala City and the capital of Costa Rica, speaks
of the inhabitants of Salvador, then fighting under the famous
patriot, Moraz4n, against the Guatemalans, in the following words:

From the time of the independence this State stood foremost in the mainte-
nance of liberal principles, and throughout it exhibits an appearance of im-
provement, a freedom from bigotry and fanaticism, and a development of physi-
cal and moral energy not found in any other [Central American country]. The
Salvadoreans are the only men who speak of sustaining the integrity of the
Republic as a point of national honor.

The same characteristics are strikingly noticeable to-day. No
other part of Central America except Costa Rica is so far advanced
in political affairs and physical improvements. The country has the
advantage of possessing a population that is industrious to a re-
markable degree, progressive, and intelligent. There are few for-
eigners in Salvador, and the greater part of the wealth has remained
in the hands of the native people. There is no negro population as
in Guatemala and Honduras, and all the Indians have adopted the
speech and customs of the Spanish conquerors. Formerly the Na-
huatl language, a dialect of the idiom spoken in the Valley of Mexico,
prevailed among most of the population, but it is now almost ob-
solete, except in the place names of the country, and in a large
number of the words used for common household articles. Here as
elsewhere in Latin America, Castilian Spanish has been extensively
modified by the incorporation of words taken from the tongue of the

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. Sth

conquered people, just as the people themselves have nearly all been
modified by the inheritance of Spanish blood.

The people of Salvador are noted for their independence, and there
is among them nothing of the servility that characterizes the Guate-
malan Indians. Although not quarrelsome, they are able and ready
to maintain their rights, and do not submit easily to dictation. Al-
though there are some large estates in Salvador, the country boasts
of its great number of small landowners, and there exists here noth-
ing of the peonage system that holds in practical slavery the in-
habitants of some Latin American countries.

In area, Salvador is slightly larger than the State of Vermont.
Its population is about a million and a half, and it is probably the
most densely populated country of the western hemisphere. The
central and western departments are the most thoroughly occupied,
and in these parts of the country one is scarcely ever out of sight of
a dwelling. In the eastern portion, known as the Oriente, there are
large tracts of unimproved land, much of which is given over to
cattle raising.

VOLCANOES.

Since Salvador lies upon the western slope of the great cordillera
that traverses Mexico and Central America, none of the elevated
peaks of that chain lie within the country. Although almost every-
where mountainous, Salvador has no very lofty peaks, the highest
reaching an elevation of slightly less than 8,000 feet. For what the
mountains lack in size they compensate in their interest. Geologi-
cally Salvador is a great volcanic mass, with voléanoes rising on
every side. Nowhere is one ever out of sight of a volcano, and
nearly always there are several in the landscape. It is said that
no other country possesses so many that have been active within
historic times.

These volcanoes lie in an irregular chain that extends lengthwise
of the country, parallel with the coast. Along the western side near
the Guatemalan border lies the most sharply marked mountain range
of Salvador, the Sierra de Apaneca. At one end of this small range
stands the Volcano of Santa Ana, still feebly active, the highest
Salvadorean mountain, at whose foot sprang up the Volcano of
Izalco. To the eastward at irregular intervals, usually separated
by level country, rise one after another the volcanoes of San Sal-
vador, Cojutepeque, San Vicente, Usulutan, San Miguel, and Con-
chagua, besides numerous lesser ones, while isolated clusters of
small volcanic peaks occur here and there outside the principal
chain.

The Oriente is a low country, with wide stretches of plains, but
the central and western parts of the Republic are elevated and hilly

312 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

or mountainous. There is only one large river in Salvador, the
Lempa, which traverses nearly the whole length of the country.
There are several large lakes, occupying old craters, the best known
of which are Giiija, Coatepeque, and Ilopango.

Of all the natural features the volcanoes are no doubt the most
interesting, and the history of the country is inextricably interwoven
with their activities. They constitute one of the most active seismic
regions of the globe, and their eruptions, resulting in great loss of
life and damage to property, have been all too frequent in the last
few hundred years. The Volcano of Santa Ana is quiescent at the
present time, and its slopes are covered with rich coffee plantations ;
but formerly it was more active, and an eruption occurred in 1885.
Its neighbor, the Volcano of Izalco, is the most interesting mountain
of Central America, and has a history which is paralleled in interest
only by that of the Volcano of Jorullo in Mexico. Accounts disagree
as to the details of its development, but it is certain that it was not
in existence in 1637, its site being occupied at that time by a mere
fumarole or ausol, situated in the middle of a plain. According to
some authors, its growth began about 1740, but according to others
not until 1770. At any rate, its period of active development began
abruptly, and after a violent outbreak that took place in 1798 it
grew rapidly, attaining almost its present size within about 30
years. It now has an altitude of over 6,000 feet, and is a symmetri-
cal cone of forbidding aspect, devoid of vegetation over the greater
part of its slopes. It is still active, and an extensive flow of lava
ran down its side in 1920. Smoke rises from the crater a great deal
of the time, and flames are often seen at night, their frequence upon
its summit, which is in full view from the sea, having given it the
name of the “ Lighthouse of Central America.”

The Volcano of San Salvador, although not the highest, is the
most important one of Salvador, because of its proximity to the cap-
ital, a city of some 80,000 inhabitants. San Salvador lies in a valley
to which has been given the significant name of Valle de las Hamacas,
“Valley of Hammocks.” This valley has been rocked repeatedly by
violent earthquake shocks, and a less persistent people would long
ago have abandoned the site of the capital in despair—although, to
tell the truth, it is hard to tell where in Salvador it would be possible
to fix upon a site free from similar dangers. On several occasions it
has been necessary to remove the seat of government temporarily to
other parts of the Republic. Tremors of the earth, slight but suf-
ficiently strong to be readily perceptible, are so frequent as to at-
tract little attention. Not all of these, it is believed, are the result of
action of this volcano, but some at least are thought to originate in

—— rr

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 8138

other centers, such as the vast crater in which lies the Lake of
Tlopango.

Only two important actual eruptions of the Volcano of San Salva-
dor are on record, the first of which took place in 1658, when a
great flow of lava descended to the north, covering the village of
Nejapa. This old lava field, though now overgrown with vegetation,
is a conspicuous feature. In June, 1917, there occurred a second
violent eruption, during which another large flow of lava was
thrown out over nearly the same course as the former one, and for-
tunately not in the direction of the capital. This flow came from a
vent on the side of the mountain, and not from its central crater,
which is an immense circular pit, 1,260 feet deep. In the bottom of
this crater prior to the outburst of 1917 there was a beautiful lake,
but at the time of the eruption the water was thrown up in the
form of vapor and precipitated as rain. The vapor must have been
charged with acids or other deleterious substances, for the rain killed
all vegetation upon which it fell. In the bottom of the crater,
where the lake formerly existed, was formed a diminutive cone,
about 300 feet high, in whose summit there is the most perfectly
symmetrical crater imaginable. Eruptions of rock from this minia-
ture crater continued for some time after the first violent outburst of
smoke and flame, but they did no damage. The city of San Salvador
was mostly destroyed by the earthquake accompanying the eruption,
although there was little loss of life. In 1919 there occurred another
violent earthquake, much more destructive to life than the first, but
this was not accompanied by an eruption.

The Volcano of San Vicente, the second highest peak of Salvador,
has not been active within historic times, but there lies at its foot
a group of hot springs and fumaroles that indicate that it is not
wholly extinct. Farther on, to the east, stands the Volcano of San
Miguel, which, while only the third in absolute elevation, is by
far the most imposing of Salvadorean mountains, on account
of its symmetrical form and its isolation, and because it rises from
a low plain. It has erupted several times, and at present there is
nearly always a cloud of smoke and steam streaming like a plume
from its summit.

AGRICULTURE.

The principal industry of Salvador is agriculture, and here
agriculture is almost synonymous with coffee growing. Coffee is
cultivated everywhere at altitudes of 1,000 feet or more, and it is
often planted right up to the summits of the highest mountains.
It is the chief source of the wealth of the country, and the annual
exportation amounts sometimes to over $12,000,000 a year. The ex-

314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

portation of so great a quantity of a staple article entails a large
trade balance in favor of the country. Coffee plantations lend a
pleasing aspect to the landscape, and give the impression of the ex-
istence of primeval forest in a region where all the natural covering
of trees was removed years ago. The coffee plant is a denizen of the
forest and requires shade for protection from the sun, hence it is
necessary to plant trees for its shade. Unless familiar with coffee
cultivation, one may travel for miles through a region given over to
its growth and yet be unaware that the land is actually under culti-
vation, for the coffee bushes are scarcely noticeable beneath the
shade trees, unless they happen to be loaded with the clusters of
spicy-fragrant, waxy-white blossoms that they bear for a few days
of the year.

It is fortunate for Salvador that the prevailing crop is such a
one as coffee and not wheat or corn, which would necessitate com-
plete clearing of the land. In spite of their substantial appearance,
many of the hills and mountains, like most of the plains, are nothing
but beds of volcanic ash, finely packed, and so hard in a vertical
exposure that they are almost unaffected by weathering, but when
cleared of vegetation they sometimes melt away after heavy rains
almost like snow. In certain parts of the country the hills have
been greatly eroded by running water and rain, resembling the
“bad lands” of the western United States. Enormous gullies, sev-
eral hundred feet deep, are separated by knifelike walls only a few
yards in thickness, which gradually—and not too gradually—dis-
solve away. If it were not for the extensive planting of trees neces-
sary to shade the coffee plantations, the whole country would
shortly become unfit for cultivation, and in no part of the earth
is there greater need for conservation of trees and other natural
vegetation, or for efficient substitutes for them.

The Salvadorean climate is tropical, but it does not altogether
satisfy the generally accepted ideas of what a tropical climate ought
to be. It is hot in the lower parts, but in the mountains it is de-
lightfully cool and pleasant. The most marked feature of the
climate is the division of the year into two seasons, dry and wet.
From April until the end of October there are frequent rains, and
often heavy ones. Sometimes there are temporales or prolonged
rainy periods that last as much as two weeks, but in general there
are brief showers almost every day or night, with good weather the
greater part of the time. It is during the rainy season that most
of the crops other than coffee are planted and cultivated. From the
first of November to April there is no rain, except for an occasional
insignificant shower. Soon after the cessation of the rains the ground
dries, and only a few days elapse before the roads are deep in dust.

——---

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 315

The dust, which pervades everything, lends to the dry season its
characteristic and all too perceptible atmosphere. In most Salva-
dorean roads there are few stones, and the result is that there seems
to be almost no bottom to the dust. During the dry season, which
corresponds to our winter—strangely enough, the Salvadoreans call
it summer—cultivation of most crops can not be carried on for lack
of water. In some places irrigation has been established, and there
corn and other crops may be seen in all stages of growth at any
time of year.

Although coffee is the most important Salvadorean product, other
substantial crops are grown, chiefly for food. Sugar cane is culti-
vated extensively in the less elevated parts and some sugar is ex-
ported. Formerly indigo was the chief export crop, and huge
amounts were shipped annually; but its cultivation has now de-
clined because of the use of coal tar dyes, and only a little is pro-
duced. The most important food crops are corn, beans, and rice.
Corn and beans, the latter a peculiar small black sort, are the arti-
cles of food which appear upon every table at every meal, in the
homes of both rich and poor, just as throughout Mexico and Central
America and in some portions of the southwestern United States.
Rice is almost equally important. That grown in Salvador is of the
upland variety, which does not require flooding for its development
but is planted and tilled like wheat or oats.

Vegetables are grown in great variety, and San Salvador especially
has a favorable location for obtaining a continuous supply of fresh
vegetables and fruits. The city lies at an altitude of slightly over
2,000 feet, making possible the growth of all sorts of tropical plants
in the immediate vicinity, while rising above the city is the Volcano
of San Salvador, over 6,000 feet high, on whose slopes, where the
climate is cool and comparatively moist, most of the plants of tem-
perate regions can be grown. Practically all the common vegetables
of the United States are cultivated, besides some that are not known
here. Such is the yuca, a close relative of the cassava plant from
which the people of some parts of South America obtain their prin-
cipal starchy food and from which tapioca is prepared. Yuca is
grown for its roots, which resemble sweet potatoes and are used in
the same way. In texture they are firmer and somewhat waxy, and
their flavor is very good. One of the commonest vegetables is the
chayote or huisquil, a relative of the cucumber. The plant is re-
markable in that all its parts can be utilized for food. The tender
green fruits are boiled and eaten, the young branches are cooked
as a pot herb, and the large fleshy roots also are edible, serving as
the basis of a peculiar and delicious sweetmeat. Cabbage, cauli-
flower, turnips, and other vegetables that are associated with cool

316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

climates thrive. Irish potatoes are not used extensively by the
common people of Central America, but they are grown on the
slopes of the volcanoes. Most of those produced are scarcely larger
than walnuts.

FRUITS.

It is in the abundance of fruits that tropical countries surpass tem-
perate regions, although it must be confessed that in the United
States we have available the best of the tropical fruits. In all our
markets it is possible to obtain cheaply the orange, grapefruit, pine-
apple, and banana, and with these we have the finest of all the
American tropical fruits, with the exception of the avocado and per-
haps the mango. There are dozens of others that are grown in
the Tropics, but it is doubtful whether they would ever become pop-
ular in competition with the best fruits of temperate regions, no
matter how abundant they might be. The most marked character of
the majority of tropical fruits is sweetness, and many of them have
no other merit. It is not uncommon in Central America to hear the
remark made that such and such a fruit is very good because it is so
sweet.

The mango is probably the favorite fruit in Salvador and is
grown everywhere. It*is too well known to need description, the
turpentine flavor and superabundance of fiber in the inferior vari-
eties being matters of rather general knowledge. The best mangoes
are really very good, competing in quality with peaches, which they
distantly resemble. I have heard working people say in Salvador
that when mangoes were in season they never had to spend a cent for
food, and it is certain that enormous quantities are consumed.
Avocados are grown commonly, but they are scarcely equal to those
of Guatemala. Numerous kinds of anonas, soursops, and custard
apples are cultivated, and the country has the distinction of pro-
ducing the very best of these, the white anona (Annona hetero-
phylla), a variety known only from this country and Guatemala.
Salvador produces large quantities of excellent oranges, similar to
those of Florida but much sweeter. Pineapples, often of exceptional
size, are common, also limes, pawpaws, sapotes, sapodillas, and
mameyes. There is an almost unlimited list of minor fruits, most of
which are unknown in the United States, such as the sunzapote
(Licania platypus), a large yellow-fleshed fruit of little merit; the
maranon or cashew fruit (Anacardium occidentale), whose seeds are

roasted and used like almonds, while the fleshy stalk beneath the ~

seed is eaten as a dessert fruit; various kinds of granadillas, the
fruits of species of passion-vines (Passiflora) ; the icaco (Chryso-
balanus icaco), a flavorless white-fleshed black-skinned fruit; the
aceituno (Simaruba glauca), which is equally flavorless, and re-

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 817

sembles an olive in appearance; the rose-apple or manzana rosa
(Hugenia jambos), a curious small crisp yellowish fruit, little es-
teemed, with a flavor suggesting scented toilet soap; and dozens of
others, wild and cultivated, which it would not be of interest to
mention here.

By far the most extensively grown fruits of Salvador are the
banana and plantain, for these are important articles of food among
all classes. Salvador is the only Central American country in which
bananas are not grown for export to the United States. Although
there are no large plantations of them, such as those of Guatemala
and Honduras, small patches are planted in every finca, and I sup-
pose that the banana plants are really the most characteristic feature
of the vegetation of the country, for, indeed, one is almost never out
of sight of them. Bananas and plantains are much alike in gen-
eral appearance, but the fruit of the plantain is larger and coarser
and eaten only when cooked. There are several common varieties of
bananas, but the one most esteemed for eating raw is that. which is
so universally seen in the United States. Some of the varieties are
too coarse for eating raw, like the one called majoncho, which is the
kind most commonly grown.

Besides these tropical fruits, most of those of temperate regions
are cultivated upon the higher mountains. On the Volcano of San
Salvador there are apples, peaches, grapes, strawberries, quinces, and
cherries in cultivation, but except for the strawberries it can not be
said that they are cultivated successfully. The peaches and apples
are small and of inferior quality, owing perhaps to the planting of
unsuitable varieties. Strawberries of good quality are produced and
may be had throughout most of the year. One of the more unusual
fruits cultivated upon the volcanoes is the pepino (Solanum muri-
catum), a plant closely resembling the common potato plant. It
has large blue flowers which are followed by egg-shaped fruits, yel-
lowish and striped with purple, that are eaten as a dessert fruit.

The high slopes of the voleano of San Salvador are the source
of most of the flowers with which the markets of the capital are
lavishly supplied. In the early morning it is common to see files of
women coming down from the volcano, bearing upon their heads
baskets of fruits and vegetables, eggs, chickens, and turkeys, and
many other articles, and not a few of them bring baskets of freshly
gathered flowers. Nowhere do roses flourish better than in Sal-
vador, and I have seen a single plantation of over 800 bushes all
loaded with blossoms. Dozens of bunches of violets are brought
every day tothe markets, and great quantities of fragrant white lilies.
Nearly all our common garden flowers are cultivated, besides many
that are rare or unknown here, or are seen only in the gardens of

318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Florida and California. After having seen cultivated in hothouses
of our country so many of the native plants of Central America, it is
interesting to see grown in Salvador some of the native plants of
the United States, like the gaillardia and the California poppy.

VEGETATION.

The botanical features of Salvador are those in which the writer
is most interested and to which he has devoted most attention. Two
of the Central American Republics, Guatemala and Costa Rica, are
fairly well known botanically, but until 1921 scarcely any plants
had been collected in Salvador, and practically nothing was known
of the flora. The writer spent five months there, visited nearly all
parts of the Republic, and made a comprehensive collection of the
plants.

The flora is not so diversified as those of the neighboring
countries. The area of Salvador is small, and its surface is less
varied than that of any other Central American State. Moreover,
the greater part of its surface, and particularly that portion which is
naturally the most interesting botanically, is under cultivation. The
mountain slopes, where the most interesting plants would be expected,
are nearly all occupied by coffee plantations, and in many localities
almost all the natural vegetation has been destroyed. Nevertheless
in nearly all parts it is possible to find small tracts of land that are so
rough or otherwise unfit for cultivation that they have been left in their
natural state, and in these spots one can form some idea of the con-
ditions originally existing. In eastern Salvador there are large
areas whose vegetation has been little or not at all changed by man,
but these lie at a low altitude, and in tropical countries generally
the plants of low elevations are pretty certain to be less interesting
than those found in the mountains. The low-altitude plants are
likely to be widely dispersed species, many of them of a weedy nature,
while in the mountains there are great numbers of localized plants.

The flora of Salvador is like that of western Guatemala, and
probably closely related to that of Pacific Nicaragua, although
practically nothing is known of the latter. Study of the collections
recently obtained indicates also that the flora bears a close relation-
ship to those of western Costa Rica and Panama, and there are
numerous plants in these collections which previously were not
known to occur north of those countries. So little is known at
present of the Central American flora as a whole that it is impossible
to speak with real authority upon the relationships of the floras of
the different regions.

In general, the vegetation of the Pacific slope of Central America
is less rich than that of the Atlantic slope, largely because of the

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. | 319

difference in rainfall. The Atlantic slope is very wet, while the
Pacific slope is comparatively, and often absolutely, dry. All of
Salvador lies within this dry region, and there are not found here
the heavy rain forests that characterize the Atlantic slope, especially
on its higher mountains. At the present time there are no dense
Salvadorean forests of great extent, and perhaps there never were
any. It is true that in some parts of the coast there are primeval
forests, composed of large trees, but the trees are not nearly so
closely spaced as in regions where there are heavier rains. Upon
the slopes of some of the mountains there still remain forested
areas, but seldom of great extent. The most important forest tracts
still remaining are those of the Sierra de Apaneca, near the Guate-
malan border, but these are being rapidly destroyed to make way
for coffee, and the small areas of virgin forest remaining on the Vol-
cano of San Vicente are meeting a similar fate. Upon the Volcano
of San Salvador nearly all the big trees have been destroyed, and
even the small ones are burned for charcoal, leaving only brush in
the parts of the mountain unfit for cultivation.

It is difficult to give a brief account of the general appearance of
Salvadorean vegetation, because of the changes that have been
wrought by man. The coastal region, which includes the eastern
part of the country and a strip of varying width extending all along
the coast, and up the valleys of the streams, is characterized by a
rather thin forest which consists largely of species which lose their
leaves during the dry season, so that during the winter months the
forest is little greener than a deciduous forest of the North Temper-
ate Zone. Many shrubs are interspersed among the trees and fre-
quently form dense thickets, although in places where conditions are
not favorable for their growth the plant covering is sparse. Trees
and shrubs that bear spines are particularly common, and the gen-
eral aspect of the vegetation is like that of the coastal plain of west-
ern Mexico, especially in the State of Sinaloa. Along the beach are
found the plants that are characteristic of such locations throughout
the American tropics, nearly all of them species of wide distribution,
such as the mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), the black mangrove
(Avicennia nitida), and manchineel (Hippomane mancinella). The
mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) is rather common in the coastal plain,
but is rare or wanting in other parts of Salvador.

At middle elevations most of the large trees have been removed,
except some left for shade because their wood is useless, but there are
seen here and there on sterile areas thickets composed of a wide
variety of shrubs. The best place in which to find plants in this
region is in the hedges, which are so prominent a feature of the
Salvadorean countryside. Fences of wire are not often seen, but the

320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

fields are separated by dense hedges in which the native plants also
find their only refuge. The number of plants grown for hedges is
almost endless, but among the most common are pineapples and an-
other plant of the same family, and nettle trees of various kinds, no-
tably one known as chichicaste (Urera baccifera), which stings the
flesh painfully on contact. In most parts of Salvador there are
miles of hedges composed of a tree cactus (Pereskia autumnalis)
known as matial. This plant attains a height of 20 feet or more,
forms a dense growth, and is covered with long slender spines. It is
one of the most repellent plants that can be imagined, and it is most
unpleasant to have to pass along a road lined with it, especially when
the wind is blowing, for there is always danger from the minute
spines that are borne upon the stems and are carried about by the
wind. Jfatial hedges are undesirable from nearly every point of
view. They occupy a great deal of ground that might be utilized for
more productive purposes, and they are dangerous to domestic ani-
mals, but nevertheless they seem to be popular.

In these areas at middle altitude there are often to be observed
considerable stretches of grassland, such as those about San Sal-
vador, upon the slopes of the volcano and on the sides of the Cerro
de San Jacinto, which stands near the city. These are used as pas-
ture. Near Ahuachapdn is a curious tract of land, called the Llano,
almost devoid of bushes but carpeted with a close greensward
scarcely 2 inches high, composed wholly of a single kind of grass.
The Llano also is used as pasture, and it has the appearance in winter
of a well-kept lawn. f

Upon some of the higher mountains there are dense growths of
trees, representing a large number of species. The mountain for-
ests consist almost exclusively of broad-leafed trees, most of which
retain their foliage the entire year, although actually they shed
the old leaves gradually, putting forth new ones at the same time.
In a few places there are small pine forests, such as those upon the
hills about Santa Ana, the Volcano of Conchagua, the crater of the
Volcano of San Salvador, and the mountains along the Honduran
frontier, but pines are so scarce as to be of almost negligible eco-
nomic importance. No other plant of the pine family is native in
Salvador.

The mountain forests consist chiefly of trees which have no
close relatives in the United States, but there are a few which are
familar. At the highest elevations several kinds of oaks are fre-
quent, also a fine large elm (Chaetoptelea mexicana), and among
the undergrowth are found viburnum and blackberries. Epiphytic
plants are common throughout Salvador, but are particularly abun-
dant in the high mountains, where the tree trunks are covered by

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 321

various “air plants,” such as orchids, ferns, aroids, bromeliads,
lichens, and mosses.

The Salvadorean flora is not rich in ferns, and ferns are not ordi-
narily conspicuous features of the vegetation. Tree ferns are very
rare, although at least three species occur. One of these (Cibotiwm
guatemalense), growing high up on the volcano of San Salvador,
has the young leaves or croziers covered with long hairlike yellowish
scales resembling fur. Bunches of these, known as micos (“mon-
' keys”), are sold in the markets for decorations. Around San Sal-
vador tree ferns must have been common formerly, although now
only a few small sterile plants are to be seen. In the Sierra de
Apaneca there are beautiful ferns with tall, slender trunks, but they
are being rapidly exterminated.

The widespread belief that tropical forests afford vivid color dis-
plays, composed of vast flocks of parrots and other bright-colored
birds, and great masses of brilliant-hued orchids and other flowers,
an impression obtained by reading overenthusiastic descriptions in
popular works of fiction written by persons who knew nothing of
the Tropics, has so often been shown to be false that it is probably
not so widespread as it once was. The forests of Salvador are of
rather gloomy aspect, and it is only now and then, at favorable times
of the year, that fine vistas of color can be seen. Nowhere in that
country did I observe any color display that would compare with the
flower fields to be seen anywhere in the Rocky Mountains in August
or those to be found in late summer in the mountains of North
Carolina. For sheer wealth and intensity of color I suppose nothing
can equal the miles and miles of fields of solid yellow common in the
Mississippi Valley in late summer when the beggar’s ticks or Spanish
needles are in full blossom.

Orchids grow in Salvador, but there do not appear to be many
species, and few of them are showy. There is one, however, that ful-
fills all one’s preconceived notions of tropical orchids. This is the
one known locally as flor de San Sebastian and botanically as Cat-
tleya skinneri. The Cattleyas are the largest and handsomest of hot-
house orchids, and this species is one of the finest. It grows nearly
everywhere, and forms clumps as large as a bushel basket placed
high up on the tree branches. In spring the plants are covered with
flowers and form masses of color that may be discerned at a long
distance. The flowers—or the whole plants, for that matter—are
brought to the markets, where they bring prices that seem ridiculous
in comparison with those paid for scarcely superior hothouse flowers
in the United States.

Much more showy than most orchids are the bromeliads (plants of
the pineapple family), which are often mistaken for orchids. Some

322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

of these are common in Florida, and one of the best-known repre-
sentatives of the family is the Spanish moss that festoons the trees
of the Southern States. Bromeliads are much more common than
orchids in Salvador and grow at all altitudes. The large flower
spikes are usually pink or bright red and the flowers themselves
some vivid shade of blue.

Other epiphytic plants common here are the aroids, to which
belongs the common caladium or elephant-ear. Some of the mem-
bers of this family grow upon the ground, but most of them cling
to the branches of trees, and are vinelike in habit. There are many
kinds of them, but they are mostly confined to the mountain forests,
especially along streams. These plants are remarkable for the
polymorphism of their leaves, the young plants often being so unlike
adults that it seems almost impossible there can be any relationship
between them. The young plants often have remarkably handsome
leaves, with metallic sheen or tinted with pink, and for this reason
are grown in northern hothouses. Some of the aroids, especially
those of the genus Monstera, are noteworthy for the form of their
adult leaves, which are perforated with large round holes. Not a
few of the Salvadorean aroids have edible fruits, but care must be
exercised in eating them because of the needlelike crystals contained,
these causing a painful sensation to the tongue.

TREES.

It is among the trees that the most important native Salvadorean
plants are found, and of these none is more interesting than the
balsam tree (Toluifera pereire), which produces the article known
as Peruvian balsam. This leguminous tree ranges from Mexico to
northern South America, but it is most abundant in a limited part
of Salvador, known as the Balsam Coast, and practically all the
commercial article comes from this region. The Balsam Coast
lies mostly in the Department of Sonsonate, where the trees occur
abundantly in the low mountains, growing in thin forest. The tree
is a handsome one, with a very tall but slender, straight, pale, smooth

trunk and a small open crown. It is of slow growth, and the wood

is fine and hard. The leaves are furnished with innumerable small
oil glands that are easily visible when a leaf is held to the light, and
the curious winged fruit is filled with large glands from which oil
oozes when the fruit is crushed.

The balsam is sometimes obtained from the fruits by crushing,
but most of it is secured by tapping the trunk. Over a small portion
of the trunk the bark is crushed, and upon these injured parts rags
are placed and left for some days, becoming thus saturated with the
balsam that runs out. The rags are collected and the liquid is

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 323

expressed and later refined by a boiling process. The balsam is an
official drug in the United States Pharmacopeeia, being employed in
the treatment of diseases of the respiratory system, and in Europe it
is used in the preparation of perfumes and other articles. By a
papal bull issued by Pius IV in 1562 and by another by Pius V in 1571
the clergy were authorized to use the balsam in the preparation of
the chrism, and it was declared to be a sacrilege to injure or destroy
the trees. The balsam is still much used in church services.

In spite of its naiie of Peruvian balsam, the tree which produces
it is not found in Pe 1. This erroneous term owes its origin to the
fact that in colonial days the balsam sometimes found ‘its way to
Spain by way of Peruvian ports. When first introduced into Europe
the most extravagant properties were ascribed to it, and it sometimes
sold at as much as $200 an ounce. Although apparently native only
in a restricted portion, cultivated trees are seen in all parts of Sal-
vador. It is said that these cultivated trees will not yield balsam;
but while this actually may be the case, it seems most improbable.

The national tree of Salvador undoubtedly is the amate, or wild
fig. Of the wild figs there are numerous species, all with fruits in
form much like those of the cultivated fig tree, but usually small
and inedible. The amates are not lofty trees, but they are strik-
ingly handsome, with short, thick trunks and broad, spreading
crowns of lustrous foliage. The familiar banyan trees of the Orient
are of this group, but I did not see any trees of the banyan type
(with numerous trunks extending down from the branches) in
Salvador, although they are common enough along the western coast
of Mexico. The wild figs frequently begin their existence upon the
branch of some other tree, where the seed germinates, and later the
young fig plant develops long aerial roots that reach down to the
ground and take root. The intruder grows rapidly and soon envel-
ops and destroys its foster parent. The amates are probably the
most admired of all Salvadorean trees, and they are left for shade
everywhere along roads and in fields. There is scarcely a country
dwelling that does not boast of its special tree, which is frequently
quite as much a center of domestic activities as the dwelling itself.

Another tree which vies in beauty and interest with the amate is
the cetba, or silk-cotton tree, of which there are fine examples in
many places. The cezba is not nearly so abundant as the amate,
but it is a much larger and more imposing tree, being actually, I
believe, the largest Salvadorean tree. The trunk is often of enor-
mous girth, but not very tall, and the crown is large in proportion,
not high but of ample spread. The trunk is usually strengthened
at the base by buttresses, which radiate on all sides and- supply the
strength necessary to sustain the great top. The amaze trees also,
when they have attained a large size, sometimes develop buttresses,

324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The flowers of the ceiba are small and inconspicuous and the tree
has the disadvantage of shedding its leaves during the dry season.
The fruit is a capsule whose seeds are surrounded by a beautiful
lustrous silklike fiber that is useful for stuffing pillows. The wood
of both the ceiba and amate is useless except for fuel, and even for
this it is unsatisfactory ; and I suspect that to this fact these trees owe
their great abundance.

The trees that excel all others in the matter of showy flowers are
two species of Z’abebuia, a group of plants closely related to our
catalpas, with flowers of about the same size and form, but with
quite different leaves. Both these trees have the defect of producing
their flowers when leafless, but they bear their blossoms in such
profusion that even if the leaves were present they would scarcely
be noticeable. One of the Tabebuias (7. chrysantha), known by
the name of cortez, bears large bunches of bright yellow flowers.
The cortez is found mostly at low altitudes, and, while it is extremely
showy when in flower and is not rare, I have not seen any particu-
larly noteworthy displays of it. The other tree (Z'abebuia penta-
phylla), which is known by the name magquiligua, is in a class by
itself so far as display of color is concerned. The trees are often
large, and in spring, near the end of the dry season, become giant
bouquets of pink blossoms. They are found throughout the country,
dotting the landscape or occurring in groves as far as the eye can
reach. In color effect they simulate Japanese cherries, for they
exhibit the same variation in tints, from nearly white to a deep
rose-pink. Aside from their esthetic value, both the maquiligua and
cortez are of economic importance, since they furnish excellent cabi-
net woods that are much used locally.

There is another tree that in some localities is almost as showy as
the Tabebuias, although far inferior in beauty of color. This is the
palo mulato (Triplaris americana), also a valuable timber tree,
which, strangely enough, belongs to the same family as buckwheat
and smartweed, a group of plants which, as they occur in the United
States, have few claims to beauty and do not with us attain the size
of trees.

The palo mulato is particularly abundant about Santa Ana, where
it is planted extensively in the fincas, and in February the whole
valley, as viewed from a hillside above, is colored crimson and pink
with it. The trees are of two sexes, and it is only the female or
pistillate ones that are showy. In the case of these, it is not the flow-
ers but the fruits, with their envelopes, which produce the vivid
color effects. The palo mulato maintains its color display much
longer than the maquéligua, until the fruits fall. These are curious
structures, the seed being overtopped by three paddle-shaped ap-

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. 325

pendages that spread obliquely and form a sort of parachute, which
bears the seed through the air. When one of the fruits falls it is
not carried to any great distance unless the wind is blowing strongly,
but as it drops it spins about like a top and floats gently to the
ground. There is one other Salvadorean tree (Gyrocarpus ameri-
canus) known as lagarto or “alligator” that has a fruit almost
exactly similar, although much larger and not colored.

One of the showy trees is the madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium),
which owes its name, “cacao-mother,” to the fact that the inhabit-
ants of Central America discovered centuries ago that for some
reason the cacao plant throve better in its shade than in that of any
other tree. Little cacao is grown in Salvador, but the madre de
cacao is here in great profusion, being in fact the most common and
characteristic tree of dry hillsides at low and middle elevations. The
wood is valuable, especially for its resistance to weather, and the
tree is often planted for living fence posts. When in blossom it is
devoid of foliage but thickly clothed with clusters of pale pink flow-
ers. Except in color, the blossoms are like those of our black locust,
to which the Central American tree is closely related.

Of the same family (Leguminosae) is the tree known as pito
(Lrythrina rubrinervia), which is never very large and often but a
shrub. It is an ungainly thing, irregular in form, with only a few
clumsy branches, which are tipped with bunches of bright scarlet
blossoms, followed by pods that contain several red seeds. The seeds
contain a narcotic poison’, and something of their properties appears
to exist also in the flowers, which in their season are gathered in con-
siderable quantities and used for food. They are boiled or fried with
eggs and are quite palatable, resembling string beans in flavor. It is
said that if they are eaten in quantity they cause marked drowsiness,
and in view of the known properties of the seeds this seems not un-
likely.

There are several trees and other plants whose flowers serve as
food in Salvador. Most conspicuous of these is the izote or yucca
(Yucca elephantipes), a plant of the Spanish bayonet type, which
attains the stature of a good-sized tree. The ample panicles of
creamy blossoms are seldom left to attain perfection, but are nearly
always cut when tender, and fried with eggs and eaten.

One of the very best of Central American products that I have
tested is the pacaya, the inflorescence of a dwarf palm (Chamae-
dorea sp.) of the same name that is common in all the higher moun-
tains. The inflorescences are surrounded by a green spathe in such
a way that they closely resemble small ears of corn. When dipped
in egg and fried they are tender and have a delicious, agreeably
bitter flavor.

95379—24—_22

326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Salvador is not rich in species of palms, and except for coconuts
these tropical plants are not often dominating features of the land-
scape. Coconuts are abundant at lower altitudes, and the towns of
Sonsonate and San Vicente are especially distinguished for their
wealth of these most graceful of all tropical trees. The coyol (Acro-
comia vinifera) is common in many places. It has plumelike leaves
and hard round fruits which are more or less useful. Around Con-
chagua and in some other places there are groves of fan palms, whose
leaves are employed for weaving hats. In the coastal country there
are too frequent thickets of huiscoyol (Bactris subglobosa), one of
the most pernicious plants in existence. It is a shrubby palm, grow-
ing in clumps, and armed everywhere with long, dark-brown spines
that have points as sharp as needles. Huiscoyol thickets are literally
impenetrable. The fruits are edible—more than that can not be
said of them. At the little fishing village of Olomega boys and
grown men were gathering big bunches of them and cracking the
nuts to get the white kernels, for which they showed marked relish.
They insisted upon my trying them, and I found them of about the
consistency of aspen wood and equally delightful in flavor.

The trees that produce cabinet woods are almost without number.
Mahogany is found, although not now very plentiful. The mahog-
any of the western coast is of a different species from that occurring
in eastern Central America, and grows on dry hillsides, while that
of the Atlantic coast is a swamp tree. Mahogany is so common in
Central America that it is treated with scarcely more consideration
than is hard pine in the United States. Beautiful ebony, hard and
almost jet black, is furnished by one or more trees. From the cona-
caste (E’nterolobium cyclocarpum) or ear tree, whose fruits are
coiled in such a way as to resemble an ear, and from the euapinol
(Hymenaca courbaril), which also produces a gum useful for mak-
ing varnishes, are obtained valuable woods, and the list might be con-
tinued indefinitely.

ANIMAL LIFE.

In a country so thickly settled, most of the larger animals have
long since disappeared, and in Salvador there is no danger from the
savage beasts that are popularly supposed to infest tropical lands.
Jaguars and pumas, I believe, still are found in remote regions, but
tapirs have been nearly or quite exterminated. Deer are plentiful in
some localities, and tame fawns are often kept as pets. The largest
wild mammals that I saw were rabbits, and only two or three of them.
Parrots of a few kinds are abundant locally, but not often very con-
spicuous. To one who is not an ornithologist the other birds are
not particularly interesting, except the turkey vultures or zopes,

SALVADOR—STANDLEY. BAT!

which constitute the unofficial pigeon: departments of tropical
American towns.

There are many alligators in some of the lakes and in the rivers,
and they are hunted for their skins and flesh. The giant lizards,
known as iguanas and garrobos, are common in the low country,
especially in the vicinity of San Miguel. In some settlements their
flesh is used for food, while in others its use is scorned. The eggs of
these lizards are often eaten. That snakes exist in Salvador can not
be denied, and authentic accounts of deaths from their bites are not
rare. In five months in the country, most of which was spent in
tramping about in thickets and woods, I saw three or four small ones,
all harmless. Rattlesnakes occur in places, likewise the coral snake
and the deadly tamagaz, known elsewhere as the bushmaster or fer
de lance. In general, I should say that the Salvadoreans take about
as great precautions against serpents and think as much about them
as do the people in any part of the United States.

To one who has to go out into the rural districts it is not the
snakes that give concern but the insects and their relatives. Of
these Salvador has its full share, but none of them to so troublesome
- a degree as some other countries. The worst of the insects, for they
are most universal and persistent, are the ants. Salvador must pos-
sess a remarkable variety of them, from the big zompopos or leaf-
cutting ones, which delight in stripping of their leaves and blossoms
one’s most cherished trees and shrubbery, to the little /ocos, harmless
insects that seem to pass their whole existence in aimlessly darting
from spot to spot in such a manner that they well deserve the term
“crazy” applied to them. Most of the ants can bite, and do so with
little or even no provocation, and in some cases their bites are poison-
ous, at least to certain persons. One of the most vicious kinds fre-
quents the wet sand at the edge of streams, and security from them
can be obtained only by walking in the stream itself. Another fero-
cious sort inhabits the hollow spines of certain species of Acacia.
Wasps are plentiful but not nearly so abundant as on the northern
coast of Guatemala. Even worse than the ants at times are the
garrapatas or seed ticks, much smaller than our wood ticks (which
also are found in Salvador), and occurring in myriads in favorable
regions, especially those where cattle are pastured. The ticks are so
tiny that it is hard to find them upon the body, but their effects leave
no doubt as to their presence. Ticks, however, are not found at
higher altitudes, and even in the low country one may go for days
without accumulating any. Nowhere in Salvador did I find them in
such profusion as on the western coast of Mexico, where they some-
times make the work of collecting plants almost unbearable. The
ticks, as I have said, do not ascend far into the mountains, but their

328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

place is taken by a creature called coloradilla, which from its effects
is probably the same as our red bug or chigger. The true chigger or
nigua is common in Salvador—a pernicious flea which burrows into
one’s toes and does serious damage if not promptly removed, but one
who wears shoes is not likely to be bothered by niquas.

In all tropical American countries the animal that is the most
dangerous and usually the only one that is a serious menace to life
is one of the smallest and most innocent-appearing—the mosquito.
Without mosquitos there would be no malaria, and malaria is the
worst scourge of the Tropics, at least for foreigners, since yellow
fever has been so nearly eradicated. In nearly all parts of Central
America malaria is prevalent, and Salvador is no exception. Because
the climate here is comparatively dry, malaria is not so common
as upon the north coast, but it is nevertheless still sufficiently preva-
lent. It can be avoided by protection against mosquito bites, and one
who is careful always to sleep beneath a net runs little chance of
contracting the malady. In Salvador I saw very few mosquitos
during the dry season, but they are reported to be more numerous
after the rains begin. Only by extermination of the insects would
it be possible to control the disease, and this is impossible. Amebic
dysentery is another dangerous disease of tropical American coun-
tries, but it does not seem to be very common in Salvador. In
general the country is a rather healthy one, the result in large part
of the labors of an efficient health service, supported in substantial
part by the Rockefeller Institution, which maintains here an agent,
especially for assistance in control of the hookworm disease. Of all
American influences in Salvador there is no other that is so disinter-
ested, so utilitarian, and so appreciated as this work of one of our
great scientific organizations, whose operations must be a matter of
deep satisfaction to all Americans who have observed its practical
field work.

‘UoIuUy UvolIOMIY Uvg wo ydeis0j0yg

“GVLYSAESIT Vy] AO LYOd

“| 3L1V1d *Ae|Pue}S—'ZZSL WOdeYy uBlUOsYy} US

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 2.

ee ue 5 $1 Oe ORR RLS
Te Spee ee hee ee ee

ns < j : Heng.
oe é ess se tan en ee ee =

NATIONAL PALACE, SAN SALVADOR.

MoU UvoWeMY ueg wo ydeiz0j04g

‘avVLYSsIT VW] SO LYOd AHL NI AN3AO0S

.

ia

a |

Wodey uBluosYyyJWS

*Kajpuejs—'ZZ6 1

"€ aAlW1d

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 4.

Prteeaggter ot eee OF
- goers eer

I. VIEW OF THE VALLEY OF THE RIO ACELHUATE, SAN SALVADOR, A PORTION OF
THE CERRO DE SAN JACINTO IN THE DISTANCE.

|

2. A PARK (FINCA MODELO) IN SAN SALVADOR.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 5.

2. CAVE IN THE CLIFFS OF THE COAST, DEPARTMENT OF LA LIBERTAD.

Photographs from Dr. V. M. Huezo.

‘ozanyy *W A ‘Ad woud sydess0j0yg

‘avLYuaaI7 VI “dQvLY¥ss!I7] VW] AO LNAWLYWd3aq
dO LINSAWLYVdag *‘LSVOD AHL YNOI1VWY NOODV] °S ‘NOIDSY WLlsvOD J3JHL AO LANOIHL TOIdAL ‘I

‘9 AlW1d *Ka|PuejS—'ZZ6L Wodey uvjuosyiWs

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 7.

2. CLIFF WITH SUPPOSED INDIAN HIEROGLYPHS, DEPARTMENT OF LA
LIBERTAD.

Photographs from Dr. V. M. Huezo.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 8.

1. ERUPTION OF THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR, JUNE, I9I7.

2. CRATER AND LAKE OF THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR BEFORE THE
ERUPTION OF IQ9I7.

Photographs from Dr. V. M. Huezo.

‘OZONE, “WA ‘AG wWoay sydeasojoy gd
*NOILdNYS SIHL DNIYUNG GANYO4 ANOD AHL
JO .LNSLXQ SHL SSLVOIGN| ONIN AIVd AHL
“LI61 ‘ANN AO NO!ILdNYS AHL ONIHYNG YOAVAIVS
"YaLV7] SGNOOAS M34 V YSLVYHO AHL AO MAIA V *G NVS JO ONVOIOA AHL AO YSALVYD SHL AO MAlA ‘1

‘6 ALV1d ‘Ka|puejs—'ZZ6l odey uRjuosyyws

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 10.

|. CRATER UPON THE SIDE OF THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR, FROM
WHICH ISSUED THE LAVA FLOW OF JUNE, IQIT.

Photograph from Dr. V. M. Huezo.

2. FLOW OF LAVA FROM THE VOLCANO OF SAN SALVADOR, COVERING THE
RAILROAD LINE, ERUPTION OF I9QIT7.

Photograph from Pan American Union.

‘ozony “WA “Iq wow sydeis0j04g

“dVLYsasl] ‘dvVLlds9s!] V1] AO LNAWLYVd
V7 40 LNAWLYVdSagd ‘LSVOD AHL SNOTY SASITO °S “Ad ‘NOILVWYOS OILIVSVG GNV TIVSYHSLVM *]

l ae |

“TI S3LW1d *Ka|PueRIS—ZZ6l Wodey uvluosy}IwsS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 12.

|

|. PRESS USED FOR EXTRACTING BALSAM.

2. BRACKISH LAGOON, DEPARTMENT OF LA LIBERTAD.

Photographs from Dr. V. M. Huezo.

‘ozonyyT ‘WA ‘Ad wo sydviso0j0y J

*SaSSaYLLNG ONIMOHS
‘SHSUL WVYSIVG DNIddVL 'S ‘NOIDSYH IviSVOD 3HL NI 33yuL DIY GM ‘|

“E] aALv1d *AO|PUBIS—"ZZ6L Wodey uBjuosy}WS

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"Ad0YH ONINVIA) HOS GASM HONW Si YSSI4 SHL ‘('dS SAVOVW) ASANODVIA) JO NOILVINVId

poeta

‘p| aLW1d *Ka|pueljs—ZZ6| Wodey uPjuosYy}JWS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE I[5.

AMATE (FICUS SP.) TREE IN A COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR SAN SALVADOR.

Photograph from Pan American Union.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Standley. PLATE 16.

FRUIT OF THE PEPINO (SOLANUM MURICATUM). ABOUT NATURAL SIZE.
Photograph from Dr. Salvador Calder6n.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Snodgrass.

TENT CATERPILLARS AT HOME IN A WILD CHERRY TREE.

THE TENT CATERPILLAR.

By R. E. SNopeRAss.
Office of Fruit Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology.

[With 1 plate.]
THE LIFE OF THH CATERPILLAR.

It is one of those bleak days of early spring that so often follow
a period of warmth and sunshine, when living things seem led to
believe the fine weather has come to stay. .

Out in the woods a band of little caterpillars is clinging to the
surface of what appears to be an oval swelling near the end of a
twig on a wild cherry tree (fig. 1). The eis
tiny creatures, scarce the tenth of an inch BANG A@ ZZ
in length, sit motionless, benumbed by the |
cold, many with bodies bent into half
circles as if too nearly frozen to straighten
out. Probably, however, they are all
unconscious and suffering nothing. Yet,
if they were capable of it, they would be
wondering what fate brought them into
such a forbidding world.

But fate in this case was disguised most
likely in the warmth of yesterday, which
induced the caterpillars to leave the eggs
in which they had safely passed the win-
ter. The empty shells are inside the “iss just etched trom an
spindle-shaped thing that looks so like a egg mass on a twig (1a
swelling of the twig, for, in fact, this is ap rbaL alae He
merely a protective covering over a mass of eggs glued fast to the
bark. The surface of the covering is perforated by many little holes
from which the caterpillars emerged, and is swathed in a network
of fine silk threads which the caterpillars spun over it to give them-
selves a surer footing and one they might cling to unconsciously in
the event of adverse weather, such as that which makes them helpless
now. When nature designs any creature to live under trying circum-
stances she grants it some safeguard against destruction.

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329

330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The web-spinning habit is one which, as we shall see, these cater-
pillars will develop to a much greater extent later in their lives,
for our little acquaintances are young tent caterpillars. They are
found most often, amongst woodland trees, on the choke cherry and
wild black cherry. But they frequently infest apple trees: in the
orchards, and for this reason their species has been named the
Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar, to distinguish it from related forms
that do not commonly inhabit cultivated fruit trees. The scientific
name is Malacosoma americana.

The egg masses are not hard to find at this season. They are gen-
erally placed near the tips of the twigs, which they appear to sur- —
round, and being of the same brownish color as the bark they look
like swollen parts of the twigs themselves (fig. 2, A). Most of them
are five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch in length and almost
half of this in width, but they vary in thickness with the diameter
of the twig. A closer inspection shows that the mass really clasps
the twig, or incloses it like a thick jacket lapped clear around. In
form the masses are usually symmetrical, tapering at each end, but
some are of irregular shapes, and those that have been placed at a
forking or against a bud have one end enlarged.

The greater part of an egg mass consists of the covering material,
which is a brittle, filmy substance like dry mucilage. Some of it is
often broken away, and sometimes the tops of the eggs are entirely
bare. The eggs are placed in a single layer next the bark (fig. 2, B),
and there are usually 300 or 400 of them. They look like little, pale
gray porcelain jars packed closely together and glued to the twig by
their rounded and somewhat compressed lower ends. The tops are
flat or a little convex. Each is the twenty-fourth of an inch in
height, about two thirds of this in width, and has a capacity of one
caterpillar. The covering is usually half again as deep as the height
of the eggs, but varies in thickness in.different specimens. The outer
surface is smooth and polished, but the interior is full of irregular,
many-sided air spaces, separated from one another by thin, filmy
partitions (fig. 2, B).

Wherever the covering has been broken away, the bases of the
partition walls leave brown lines that look like cords strapped and
tied into an irregular net over the eggs (B), as if for double security
against insurrection on the part of the inmates. But neither shells
nor fastenings will offer effective resistance to the little thieves when
they are taken with the urge for freedom. Each is provided with
efficient cutting instruments in the form of sharp-toothed jaws that
will enable it to open a round hole through the roof of its cell (fig.
2,C). The superstructure is then easily penetrated, and the emerg-
ing caterpillar finds itself on the surface of its former prison, along
with its several hundred brothers and sisters, when all are out.

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS,

All this time the members of that un-
fortunate brood we noted first have been
clinging benumbed, motionless, and help-
less to the silk network on the covering
of their deserted eggs. The cold con-
tinues, the clouds are threatening, and
during the afternoon the hapless creatures
are drenched by hard and chilling rains.
Through the night following they are
tossed in a northwest gale, while the
temperature drops below freezing. The
next day the wind continues, and frost
comes again at night. -For three days
the caterpillars endure the hostility of the
elements, without food, without shelter.
But already the buds on the cherry tree
are sending out long green points, and when
the temperature moderates on the fourth day
and the sun shines again for a brief period the
revived outcasts are able to find a few fresh
tips on which to nibble. In another day the
young leaves are unfolding, offering an abun-
dance of tender forage, and the season of ad-
versity for these infant caterpillars is over.
This family lived in Rock Creek Park, near
Washington, D. C., in 1919, where it was
hatched the 25th of March.

The newly hatched caterpillars are about
one-tenth of an inch in length. The body is
widest through the first segment and tapers
somewhat towards the other end. The general
color is blackish, but there is a pale gray collar
on the first segment back of the head and a

Fig. 2.—Eggs and young

caterpillars. A, Egg
masses on twigs (nat-
ural size); B, eggs
exposed beneath the
covering; C, several
eggs more enlarged,
three with holes in
tops from which cat-
erpillars emerged; D.
newly hatched cater-
pillars (enlarged 10
times).

332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

grayish line along the sides of the body. Most of the segments have
pale rear margins above, which are often bright yellow or orange
on the fourth to the seventh segments. There is usually a darker
line along the middle of the back. The body is covered with long
gray hairs, those on the sides spreading outward, those on the back
curving forward. After a few days of feeding the caterpillars
increase to nearly twice their length at hatching.

When the weather continues fair after the time of hatching the
caterpillars begin their lives with happier days, and their early his-
tory is different from that of those unfortunates above described.
* Three other broods, which

were found hatching in Rock

Creek Park on March 22,

before the period of bad

weather had begun, were
brought indoors and reared
under more favorable circum-
stances. These caterpillars
spent but little time on the
egg masses and wasted only
a few strands of silk upon
them. ‘They. were soon off on
exploring expeditions, small
processions going outward on
the twigs leading from the
eggs or their vicinity, while
some individuals dropped at
the ends of threads to see what
might be below. Most, how-
ever, at first went upward as
if they knew the opening leaf
Fic. 3.—First tent made by young caterpillars yds should lie in that direc-
aia ae tion. If this course, though,
happened to lead them up a barren spur, a squirming, furry mob
would collect on the summit, apparently bewildered by the trick their
instinct played upon them. On the other hand, many followed those
that first dropped down on threads, these in turn adding other
strands till soon a silken stairway was constructed on which indi-
viduals or masses of little woolly bodies dangled and twisted as if
either enjoying the sport or too fearful to go farther.

For several days these young caterpillars led this happy, irrespon-
sible life, exploring twigs, feeding wherever an open leaf bud was
encountered, dangling in loose webs, but spinning threads every-
where. Yet, in each brood, the individuals kept within reach of one
another, and the trails of silk leading back to the main branch al-

>

SS

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 8338

ways insured the possibility of a family reunion whenever this should
be desired.

One morning, the 27th, one family had gathered in its scattered
members and these had already spun a little tentlike web in the
crotch between the main stem of the supporting twig and two small
branches (fig. 3). Some were crawling on the surface of the tent,
others were resting within, still others were traveling back and forth
on the silk trails leading outward on the branches, and the rest were
massed about the buds devouring the young leaves. The establish-
ment of the tent marks the beginning of a change in the caterpillars’
lives; it entails responsibilities that demand a fixed course of daily
living. In the lives of the tent caterpillars this point is what the
beginning of school days is to us—
the end of irresponsible freedom
and the beginning of subjugation
to conventional routine.

Every tent caterpillar family
that survives infancy eventually
reaches the point where it begins
the construction of a tent, but the
early days are not always spent
alike, even under similar circum-
stances, nor is the tent always
begun in the same manner.

At Wallingford, Conn., where
the season for both plants and in-
sects is much later than in the lati-
tude of Washington, three broods
sa aasealrocitoe _ found Mice sheet of web (about natural size).
year. These also met with dull and chilly weather that kept them
huddled on their egg coverings for several days. After four days the
temperature moderated sufficiently to allow the caterpillars to move
about a little on the twigs, but none were seen feeding till the 14th—
six days after the hatching. Yet they had increased in size to about
one-eighth of an inch in length.

Wherever these caterpillars camped in their wanderings over the
small apple trees they inhabited they spun a carpet of silk to rest
upon, and there the whole family collected in such a crowded mass
that it looked like a round, furry mat (fig. 4). The carpets afforded
the sleepers a much safer bed than the bare, wet bark of the tree,
for if the sleepers should become stupefied by cold the claws of their
feet would mechanically hold them fast to the silk during the period
of their helplessness. The test came on the 16th and the night fol-

334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

lowing, when the campers were soaked by hard, cold rains till they
‘became so inert they seemed reduced to lifeless masses of soggy
wool. On the afternoon of the 17th the temperature moderated, the
sun came out a few times, the wetness evaporated from the trees,
and most of the caterpillars revived sufficiently to move about a
little and dry their fur. Though a few had been washed off the
carpets by the violence of the storm and perished on the ground, and
in one camp about 20 dead were left behind on the web, the majority
had survived.

For several days after this, during better weather, the caterpillars
of these families continued their free existence, feeding at large on
the opening buds, but returning during resting periods to the webs
or constructing new ones at more convenient places. Often each
family split into several bands, each with its own retreat, yet all
remained in communication by means of the silk trails the cater-
pillars left wherever they went.

The camping sites were either against the surface of a branch or in
the hollow of a crotch. Though the carpetlike webs stretched over
these places were spun apparently only to give secure footing, those
at the crotches often roofed over a space well protected beneath,
and frequently many of the caterpillars crawled into these spaces
to avail themselves of their shelter. Yet for 12 days none of the
broods constructed webs designed for coverings. Then, on the morn-
ing of the 20th, one family was found to have spun several sheets
of silk above the carpet on which its members had rested for a
week and all were now inside their first tent. These caterpillars
were nearing the end of their first stage, and two days later the
first molted skins were found in the tent, 14 days after the date of
hatching.

In Stage II the caterpillars have a new color pattern and one
which begins to suggest that characteristic of the species in its more
mature stages (fig. 6). On the upper part of the sides the dark
color is broken into a series of quadrate spots, each spot partially
split lengthwise by a light streak, and the whole series on each side
is bordered above and below by distinct pale lines, the upper line
often yellowish. Below the lower line there is a dark band, and
below this another pale line just above the bases of the legs. The
back of the first body segment has a brown transverse shield, and the
last three segments are continuously brown, without distinction of
spots or lines.

From now on the tents increase rapidly in size by successive addi-
tions of web spun over the tops and sides, each new sheet covering
a flat space between itself and the last. The old roofs thus become
successively the floors of the new stories. The latter, of course, lap
over on the sides, and many continue clear around and beneath the

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 335

original structure; but since the tent was started in a crotch, the
principal growth is upward with a continual expansion at the top.
During the building period a symmetrical tent is really a beautiful
object. (PI. I.) Half hidden amongst the leaves, its silvery white-
ness pleasingly contrasts with the green of the foliage, its smooth
silk walls glisten where the sun falls upon them and reflect warm
grays and purples from their shadows.

The caterpillars have adopted now a community form of living—
they all feed together, they all rest and digest at the same time, they
all work at the same time, and their days are divided into definite
periods for each of their several duties. There is, however, no visible
system of government or regulation, but with caterpillars acts are
probably functions; that is, the urge probably comes from some
physiological process going on within them which may be influenced
somewhat by the weather.

The activities of the day begin with breakfast. Early in the morn-
ing the family assembles on the tent roof, and then, about 6.30, pro-
ceeds outward in one or several orderly columns on the branches.
The leaves on the terminal twigs furnish the material for the meal.
After two hours or more of feeding appetites are appeased, and the
caterpillars go back to the surface of the tent, usually by 8.30 or
9 o’clock. Here they do a little spinning on its walls, but no strenu-
ous work is attempted at this time, and generally within half an hour
the entire family is reassembled inside the tent. Most frequently the
erowd collects first in the shady side of the outermost story, but as
the morning advances the caterpillars seek the cooler inner chambers,
where they remain hidden from view.

In the early part of the afternoon a light lunch is taken. The
usual hour is 1 o’clock, but there is no set time. Occasionally the par-
ticipants appear shortly after 11, sometimes at noon, and again not
till 2 or 8 o’clock, and rarely as late as 4. As they assemble on the
roof of the tent they spin and weave again till all are ready to pro-
ceed to the feeding grounds. This meal lasts about an hour. When
the caterpillars return to the tent they do a little more spinning
before they retire for the afternoon siesta. Luncheon is not always
fully attended and is more popular with caterpillars in the younger
stages, being dispensed with entirely, as we shall see, in the last stage.

Dinner, in the evening, is the principal meal of the day, and again
there is much variation in the time of service. Daily observations
made on five colonies at Wallingford, Conn., during 1922, from the
8th to the 26th of May, gave 6.30 p. m. as the earliest record for the
start of the evening feeding and 9 o’clock as the latest, but the dinner
hour is preceded by a great activity of the prospective diners assem-
bled on the outside of the tents. Though the energy of the tent

336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

caterpillars is never excessive, it appears to reach its highest expres-
sion at this time. The tent roofs are covered with restless throngs,
most of the individuals busily occupied with the weaving of new
web, working apparently in desperate haste as if a certain task had
been set for them to finish before they should be allowed to eat. Pos-
sibly, though, the stimulus comes merely from a congestion of the
silk reservoirs in their bodies, and the spinning of the thread affords
relief.

The tent caterpillar does not weave its web in regular loops of
thread laid on by a methodical swinging of the head from side to
side, which is the method of most caterpillars. It bends the entire
body to one side, attaches the thread as far back as it can reach, then
runs forward a few paces and repeats the movement, sometimes on
the same side, sometimes on the other. The direction in which the
thread is carried, however, is a haphazard one, depending on the ob-
struction the spinner meets from others working in the same man-
ner.

But amongst the crowd of weavers there are always some that are
not working, though they are just as active. These are running back
and forth over the surface of the tent like boarders impatiently
waiting the sound of the dinner bell. Perhaps they are individuals
that have finished their work by exhausting their supply of silk.

At last the signal for dinner is sounded. It is heard by the cater-
pillar, though it is not audible to an outsider. A few respond at first
and start off on one of the branches leading from the tent. Others
follow, and presently a column is marching outward, usually keep-
ing to the well-marked paths of silk till the distant branches are
reached. Here the line breaks up into several sections which spread
out over the foliage. The tent is soon deserted. For one, two, or
three hours the repast continues, the diners often returning home late
at night. Observations indicate that this is the regular habit of the
tent caterpillar in its earlier stages, and perhaps up to the sixth or
last stage of its life. The writer noted entire colonies back in the tent
for the night in at least nine instances at hours ranging from 9 to 11
p.m. In other cases a part of the crowd was still feeding when last
observed; but daylight-saving time was then in vogue and 11 o’clock
was doing duty for midnight. The observations are recorded in
standard time.

In describing the life of a community of insects it is seldom pos-
sible to make general statements that will apply to all the indi-
viduals. The best that a writer can do is to say what he sees most
of the insects do, for, as in other communities, there are always those
eccentric members who will not conform with the customs of the
majority. Occasionally a solitary tent caterpillar may be seen feed-

TENT CATERPILLAR—-SNODGRASS. 337

ing between regular meal times. Often one works alone on the tent,
spinning and weaving long after its companions have quit and gone
below for the midday rest. Such a one appears to be afflicted with
an overdeveloped sense of responsibility, and looks as foolish as those
human individuals who must always put everyone else to shame

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Fie. 5.—Caterpillars feeding at night.

about the camp by fussing around over unnecessary work when the
rest of the crowd is lying around trying to enjoy an afternoon snooze.
Then, too, there is nearly always one amongst the group in the tent
who can not get to sleep. He flops this way and that, striking his
companions on either side and keeping them awake also. These are
annoyed, but they do not retaliate, because they seem to realize that

338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

their restless comrade has but a common caterpillar affliction and
must be endured.

Many of these little traits make the caterpillars seem almost hu-
man. But, of course, this is just a popular form of expression. In
fact, it is too popular—we take too much satisfaction in referring
to our faults as particularly human characteristics. What we really
should say is not how much tent caterpillars are like us in their
shortcomings, but how much we are still like tent caterpillars. We
both revert more or less in our instincts to times before we lived in
communities, to times when our ancestors lived as individuals irre-
sponsible one to another.

The tent caterpillars ordinarily shed their skins six times during
their lives. At each molt the skin splits along the middle of the
back on the first three body segments and around the back of the
head. It is then pushed off over the rear end of the body, usually in
one piece, though most other caterpillars cast off the head covering
separate from the skin of the body in all molts but the last. The
molting takes place in the tent and renders the caterpillars inactive
for the greater part of two days. When most of them molt at the
same time there results an abrupt cessation of activity in the colony.
By the time the caterpillars reach maturity the discarded skins in
a tent outnumber the caterpillars 5 to 1.

The first stage of the caterpillars, as already described (fig. 2, D),
suggests nothing of the color pattern of the later stages, but in
Stage II the spots and stripes of the mature caterpillars begin to
be formed. In succeeding stages the characters become more and
more like those of the sixth or last stage (fig. 6), when the colors
are most intensified and their pattern best defined. Particularly
striking now are the velvety black head with the gray collar behind,
the black shield of the first segment split with a median zone of
brown, the white stripe down the middle of of the back, the large
black lateral blotches, each inclosing a spot of silvery bluish white,
the distinctly bluish color between and below the blotches, and the
hump on the eleventh segment, where the median white line is almost
obliterated by the crowding of the black from the sides. Yet the
creatures wearing all this lavishness of decoration make no ostenta-
tious show, for the colors are all nicely subdued beneath the long red-
dish brown hairs that clothe the body.

In the last stage the average full-grown caterpillar is about 2
inches long, but some reach a length of 24 inches when fully
stretched out. The head measures 3 to 34 millimeters wide in this
stage, or a little more than one-eighth inch. In Stage V the largest
heads are not wider than 24 millimeters; in Stage IV they do not
exceed 14 millimeters; in III, 1 millimeter; in II, about two-thirds

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 339

millimeter; and in I, one-half millimeter. The width of the head
is a better index to the stage than is the length of the body.

In southern Connecticut the tent caterpillars begin to go into
their sixth and last stage about the middle of May. They now
change their habits in many ways, disregarding the conventionalities
and refusing the responsibilities that bound them in their earlier
stages. They do little, if any, spinning on the tent, not even keeping
- jt in decent repair. They stay out all night to feed, unless adverse
weather interferes,
thus merging din-
ner into breakfast
in one long noctur-
nal repast. This is
attested by observa-
tions made through

Ml,

MUHTAN WA 4) J
MM All) WY.
wa 21 eg

most of several \(

nights, when the \\
caterpillars of four : il Z ; ;
colonies which went Ya fu
out at the usual =4 g

time in the evenings were found feeding ne
till at least 4 o’clock the following morn-
ings, but were always back in the tents at
7.30. When the caterpillars begin these
all-night banquets, however, they dis-
pense with the midday lunch, their crops
being so crammed with food by morning
that the entire day is required for its di-
gestion. Some other writers have de-
scribed the tent caterpillars as nocturnal
feeders, and some have said they feed
three times a day. Both statements, it
now appears, are correct, but the writers
have not noted that the two habits per-
tain to different periods of the cater-
pillar’s history. :

At any time during the caterpil- “ine aCe ree anes
lars’ lives adverse weather conditions .
may upset their daily routine. For two weeks, during May, days
and nights had been fair and generally warm, but on the 17th
the temperature did not get above 65° F., and in the afternoon
threatening clouds covered the sky. In the evening light rains fell,
but the caterpillars of the five colonies under observation came out
as usual for dinner and were still feeding when last observed at 9
p. m. Rains continued through the night, however, and the tem-
perature stood almost stationary between 50° and 55°.

340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The next morning three of the small trees containing the colonies
were festooned with water-soaked caterpillars, all hanging motion-
less from leaves, petioles, and twigs, benumbed with exposure and
incapable of action—more miserable-looking insects could not be
imagined. No instinct of protection, apparently, had prevailed over
their appetites, till, at last, overcome by wet and cold, they were
saved only by some impulse that led them to grasp the support so

firmly with the abdominal

feet that they hung there
mechanically when senses
' and power of movement
were gone. Some hung by
the hindmost pair of feet
only, others grasped the
support with all the ab-
dominal- feet. One colony
and most of another were
safely housed in their
tents. These had evi-
dently retreated before
helplessness overtook them.
By 8 o’clock in the morn-
ing many of the suspended
caterpillars were sufh-
ciently revived to resume
activity. Some fed a little,
others crawled feebly to-

ward the tents. By 9.45

most were on their way

home, and at 10.45 all were
under shelter.

Gentle rains fell during
most of the day, but the

temperature gradually rose

Fig. 7.—Twigs of choke cherry and apple denuded tg g maximum of 65°.
by tent caterpillars.

Only a few caterpillars
from the youngest colony came out to feed at noon. In the evening
there was a hard, drenching rain, after which several caterpillars from
two of the tents appeared for dinner. The next morning, the 19th, the
temperature dropped to 49°, light rains continued, and not a cater-
pillar from any colony ventured out for breakfast. It looked as if
they had learned their lesson, but it is more probable they were
simply too cold and stiff to leave the tents. In the afternoon the sky
cleared, the temperature rose, and the colonies resumed their normal
life. | The tent caterpillars’ mode of feeding is to devour the leaves

TENT CATERPILLAR—-SNODGRASS. 341

clear down to the midribs (figs. 5 and 6), and in this fashion they
denude whole branches of the trees they inhabit (fig. 7). While the
wild cherry is the tree most preferred by the caterpillars, and the
one on which the moths usually deposit their eggs, they also infest
apple trees to a sufficient extent to make them a considerable pest in
orchards. They are easily poisoned on trees sprayed with arsenicals.
In others the best remedy is to clean the tents out with a brush when
the caterpillars are in them and then to kill the caterpillars before
they escape. Occasionally the tents are found in other trees, and
have been recorded from cultivated cherry, plum, peach, rose, witch-
hazel, beech, barberry, oaks, willows, poplars, and birch.

Since the caterpillars have big appetites it sometimes happens that
a large colony in a small tree or several colonies in the same tree
strip the tree bare before they reach maturity. Clarence M. Weed
says that in such cases the caterpillars descend to the ground and
search for some other tree on which they can feed. (Bull. 38, N. H.
Ag. Exp. Station.) The writer never saw a colony reduced to this
extremity by its own feeding, but produced similar conditions for
one in a small apple tree by removing all the leaves. This was on
May 19, and the caterpillars were mostly in their fifth stage.

At 7 o’clock in the evening the caterpillars in this colony came out
as usual, and, after doing the customary spinning on the tent, started
off to get their dinner, suspecting nothing till they came to the cut-off
ends of the branches. Then they were clearly bewildered—they re-
turned and tried the course over again, they tried another branch,
all the other branches; but all ended alike in bare stumps. Yet, there
were the accustomed trails, and their instincts clearly said that fol-
lowing silk paths led to food. So all night the caterpillars hunted
for the missing leaves; they went over and over the same courses,
but none ventured below the upper part of the trunk. By 3.45 in the
morning many had given up and had gone back to the tent, but the
rest continued the hopeless search. At 7.30 a few bold explorers had
discovered some remnants of water sprouts at the base of the tree
and fed there till 10 o’clock. At 11 all were back in the tent.

At 2 o’clock in the afternoon the crowd was out again and a mass
meeting was being held at the base of the tree. But nobody seemed
to have any idea of what to do, and no leader rose to the occasion.
A few cautious scouts were making investigations over the ground
to the extent of a foot or a little more from the base of the trunk,
but, though there were small apple trees on three sides 5 feet away,
only one small caterpillar ventured off toward one of these. He,
however, missed the mark by 12 inches and continued onward, but
probably chance eventually rewarded him. At 3 p. m. the meeting

553879—24——23

342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

broke up and the members went home. They were not seen again
that evening or the next morning.

During this day, the 21st, and the next an occasional caterpillar
came out of the tent but soon returned, and it was not till the evening
of the 22d that a large number appeared. These once more explored
the naked branches and traveled up and down the new paths on the
trunk, but none was observed to leave the tree. On the 23d and
24th no caterpillars were seen. On the 25th the tent was opened
and only two small individuals were found within it. Each of these
was weak and flabby, its alimentary canal completely empty, its
fat tissue almost gone. But what had become of the rest? Prob-
ably they had wandered off unobserved one by one. Certainly there
had been no organized migration. Solitary caterpillars were subse-
quently found on a dozen or more small apple trees in the immediate
vicinity. It is likely that most of these had molted and had gone
into the last stage, since their time was ripe. But this was not
determined.

In general, the tent caterpillars live easy and comfortable lives.
Still, they have their troubles, some of them serious ones. They
are destroyed when young by exposure to adverse weather, they are
eaten by birds and by other insects, they are killed by internal para-
sites, and they are attacked by a deadly disease. But insects seldom
actively contend against destructive forces. They do not believe in
direct action. They are like plants in this respect, depending rather
on numbers than on resistance for the maintenance of their species.

Yet even the tent caterpillars sometimes make feeble efforts at self-
defense. Amongst their enemies is a small bug which lies in wait
for them as they come out to feed. The bug is armed with a large
piercing and sucking beak, and when it sees a column of caterpillars
headed in its direction it cautiously advances and stabs at a passing
individual. If the threatened caterpillar is not punctured, it wards
off other strokes from the bug by suddenly switching its body from
side to side and goes on its way unharmed. The intimidated bug
often has to make many assaults on members of the procession before
it secures a victim, which, according to the custom of its species,
must be speared in the second body segment. When at last, though,
its thrust takes hold the assassin lifts the kicking and squirming
victim off its feet and lets it hang free from the end of its beak.
Then, crooking the elbow of the four-jointed sheath of the beak
and holding the slender piercing and tubular parts firmly in the tip,
the bug sucks out the juices of the writhing caterpillar as calmly
as if it were drinking a glass of soda through a straw (fig. 8). But
the caterpillar shortly ceases its motions and hangs limp, as if the
bug had injected some anesthetic into its body. Several species of
these bugs (Podisus) attack the caterpillars also in the tents.

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 843

While many of the’caterpillars protect themselves from the attack
of predaceous insects and ward off parasitic flies by their sudden
swinging of the body from side to side, they frequently make the
same motions for no evident reason. We have noted how one may
begin switching in the tent, perhaps fighting imaginary enemies in
his dreams, much to the annoyance of his companions. The tent
caterpillars, however, never exhibit the concert wagging character-
istic of the fall webworms. (See p. 402, Smithsonian Report for
1921.)

A number of small and minute beetles live in the tents of the tent
caterpillar, but these probably only feed there on the accumulated
refuse. They are to be compared with the
mice and rats of human dwellings.

After the caterpillars go over into their
last stage the tents are neglected and
rapidly fall into a state of dilapidation.
Birds often poke holes in them with their
bills, and they rip off sheets of silk which
they carry away for nest-building pur-
poses. The caterpillars do not even repair
these damages. The rooms of the tent be-
come filled with accumulations of frass,
molted skins, and the shriveled bodies of
dead caterpillars. The walls are discolored
by rains which beat into the openings and
soak through the refuse. Thus, what were
shapely objects of glistening silk are trans- . ga = iiven aca
muted into formless masses of dirty rags. uliventris) feeding on a cat-

But the caterpillars, now in their finest ome hanging from ihe
dress, are oblivious of their sordid sur- :
roundings and sleep all day amidst these disgusting and appar-
ently insanitary conditions. However, the life in the tents will soon
be over, so it appears that the caterpillars simply think, “ What’s
the use?” But, of course, caterpillars do not think; they arrive at
results by instinct, in this case by the lack of an instinct, for they
have no impulse to keep the tents clean or in repair when doing so
would be energy wasted. Nature demands a practical reason for
most things.

The tent life continues about a week after the last moth, and then
the family begins to break up, the members leaving singly or in
bands, but always as individuals without further concern for one
another. Judging from their previous methodical habits, one would
suppose that the caterpillars starting off on their journeys would

344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

simply go down the trunks of the trees and walk away. But no; once
in their lives they must have a dramatic moment. A caterpillar
comes rushing out of a tent as if suddenly awakened from some ter-
rible dream or as if pursued by a demon, hurries outward along a
branch, goes to the end of a spur or the tip of a leaf, and without
slackening continues out into space till the end of the support tickles
his stomach, when suddenly he gives a flip into the air, turns a
somersault, and lands on the ground. (Fig. 9.)

The first performance of this sort was observed on May 15. On the
afternoon of the 19th, 20 or more caterpillars from two neighboring
colonies were seen leaving the trees in the same fashion within half
an hour. Most of the members of one of these colonies had their last
molt on May 12 and 13. During the next few days other caterpillars
were observed jumping from four trees containing colonies under
observation. All of these went off individually at various times, but

most of them early in the after-

Ul } ff noon. Many caterpillars simply

drop off when they reach the end
of the branch, without the acro-
Gi) batic touch, but only three were

Ni | seen to go down the trunk of a

, mr h tree in commonplace style.
Ppp The population of the tents
I gradually decreases during sev-
Fic. 9.—A tent caterpillar in the last eral days following the time when
stage leaving the tree by jumping from the first caterpillar departs. One

PES? OFA reste. PA SO MR Es of the two tents from which the
general exodus was noted on May 19 was opened on the 21st and was
found to contain only one remaining caterpillar. On the evening of
the 22d a solitary individual was out feeding from the other tent.
The two younger colonies maintained their numbers till the 22d,
after which they diminished till, within a few days, they too were
deserted. The members of all these colonies hatched from the eggs
on April 8, 9, and 10, so seven weeks is the greatest length of time
that any of them spent on the trees of their birth. The caterpillar
that left the tent on the 15th came from a colony that began to hatch
on April 10, giving an observed minimum of 36 days.

As soon as a departing caterpillar lands on the ground it sets olf
at a rapid pace as if it had already picked out its destination and
knew what road to take. Early in the afternoon of May 21 a cater-
pillar was observed making its headlong rush from the tent of one
of the later colonies. It jumped from the southeast side of the tree
and, without hesitation, started off at a running gait in the same di-
rection. Its course took it first across a narrow strip of grass, then

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 845

diagonally over a bare garden plot that had been plowed and har-
rowed, but beaten down fairly smooth and solid by recent rains, ex-
cept where it had since been raked. The traveler proceeded over
smooth ground and over raked ground, changing his course for noth-
ing, being neither deterred nor deflected by any obstacle on the road.
He climbed over stones and rough clods, dodged between the leaf —
stems of occasional plantains that stood in the path, and threaded
his way through labyrinths of upturned roots, but always held the
course to the southeast. For 70 feet there was not a deviation of
more than 2 feet on either side of a straight line. Yet there was no
prominent mark ahead; the sun was a little west of south and a high
board fence on the east side of the yard crossed the line of the course
at an angle of 45°. Neither sun nor fence, therefore, appeared to be
the objective; so, it seems that the traveler must have secretly carried
a compass somewhere on his person. At the end of 70 feet he ab-
ruptly veered a little to the south and headed now directly toward a
large apple tree not far distant. When 12 feet from ‘the trunk he
was lost to sight in some tall grass and weeds growing at the edge
of the garden. Up to this point the caterpillar had covered just 100
feet and had made the journey in 34 minutes.

Half an hour later the trunk of the tree, which was banded with
tanglefoot 4 feet from the ground, was examined to see if any travel-
ing caterpillar had arrived. None was on the trunk, but four were
sitting quietly on the stems of water sprouts beside it. In the even-
ing of the same day nine caterpillars were feeding on the leaves of
these sprouts and one was crawling up the tree. On the next even-
ing there were 12 in all. Evidently here was a rendezvous.

This tree stood at the corner of a small orchard of large apple
trees, the trunks of all of which were circled with tanglefoot. Water
sprouts were abundant through the orchard, but only two caterpillars
were found elsewhere than on those by the corner tree. Yet the latter
was not the nearest tree to the tents—the trees directly south could
have been reached by a shorter course, while the plot of small trees
containing the tents offered an abundance of forage close at hand.
No tents were to be found in the orchard.

It is unfortunate that other caterpillars were not followed in their
travels. But since many were found at this time scattered here and
there on the small trees in the yard it is evident that their journeys
had not taken them far. These quietly rested during the day on the
twigs and fed on the leaves in the evening, and probably all night.
The excitement and hurry of leaving the tents had been but a mo-
mentary spasm in their lives. Once on the new feeding ground their
normal placid temperaments returned. The 12 caterpillars on the
water sprouts lived there in the same quiet manner, but soon their

846 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

number began to decrease from day to day, till by the end of a week
all had departed.

When the mature caterpillars disappear in this mysterious man-
ner they go off to spin their cocoons, but those from our colonies hid
themselves so effectively for this act that few of them were recovered.
Two cocoons were found spun against the under side of a wooden
bench a few feet from where the 12 caterpillars spent their last days
on the water sprouts, and one in dry grass beneath. Several were
found elsewhere spun vertically amongst blades of tall grass, one
was taken from a mass of cobwebs on the floor of an unused chicken
house, and another from the rafters of an open shed. It is usually
stated that the tent caterpillar spins its cocoon “ most anywhere ”
amongst grass and rubbish, on tree trunks, on fences, and on build-
ings. But Dr. B. A. Porter and the writer made a thorough search
in the neighborhood of six tents in a small tree beside a country road
without discovering the site of a single cocoon. We examined the
surrounding tall grass and weeds,
turned over rocks on the ground,
carefully inspected a stone wall
across the road, and examined the
trunks and branches of near-by
trees.

¥ ; The caterpillars that left the

F1a. 10.—A tent caterpillar cocoon (natu- two colonies in the yard on May
Pea 19 were captured and confined in

an outdoor cage where they were daily supplied with fresh cherry
leaves. All of these spun their cocoons in the cage between May
24 and 28, and from this we may infer that the caterpillars normally
spend about a week in feeding after they leave the tents. Since
most of those in the cage had molted last on the 12th or 18th, they
were from 12 to 16 days in the last stage before spinning their cocoons.

The cocoon is a slender oval or almost spindle-shaped object, the
larger ones being about an inch long and half an inch wide at the
middle (fig. 10). The cocoon is spun of white silk thread, but its
walls are stiffened and colored by a yellow substance infiltrated like
starch all through the meshes of the web. :

In building the cocoon the caterpillar first spins a loose network
of threads at the place selected, and then, using this for a support,
weaves about itself the walls of the final structure. On account of
its large size, as compared with the size of the cocoon, the caterpillar
is forced to double on itself to fit its self-imposed cell. Most of
its hairs, however, are brushed off and become interlaced with the
threads to form a part of the cocoon fabric. When the spinning is
finished the caterpillar ejects a yellowish, pasty liquid from its intes-

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 847

tine, which it smears all over the inner surface of the case, but the
substance spreads through the meshes of the silk, where it quickly
dries and gives the starchy stiffness to the walls of the finished
cocoon. It readily crumbles into a yellow powder, which becomes
dusted all over the caterpillar within and floats off in a small yellow
cloud whenever a cocoon is pulled loose from its attachments.

The cocoon is the last resting place of the caterpillar. If the
caterpillar lives it will come out of its prison as a moth, leaving the
garments of the worm behind. It may, however, be attacked by para-
sites that will shortly bring about its destruction. But even if it
goes through the period of change successfully it must remain in
the cocoon about three weeks. In the meantime it will be of interest
to learn something of the structure of a caterpillar, the better to
understand its physiology and some of the details of the process of its
transformation.

THE STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CATERPILLAR.

A caterpillar looks like a worm, but it is not a worm. It is a young
moth that has carried the idea of independence of youth to an ex-
treme degree, but which, instead of rising superior to its parents,

i’1g, 11.—The head of a tent caterpillar, A, Facial view; B, under view; C, side view.
Ant, antenna: For, opening of back of head into body; Ft, front; Hphy, hypopharynx ;
Lb, labium; Lm, labrum; Md, mandible; Ma, maxilla; O, eyes; Spn, spinneret.
has degenerated into the form of a worm. What an excellent theme
this would furnish to those who at present are so bewailing what
they believe to be a shocking tendency toward an excess of independ-
ence on the part of the young of the human species! But the moral
aspect of the lesson loses its force when we learn that among insects
this freedom of the caterpillar from parental restraint gives ad-
vantages to both young and adults, and, therefore, results in good
to the species as a whole. Independence entails responsibilities. A
creature that leaves the beaten paths of its ancestors must learn to
take care of itself in the new way. And this the caterpillar has
learned to do preeminently well, as it has come up the long road of
evolution, till now it possesses both instincts and physical organs that
make it one of the dominant forms of insect life.

348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The general external form and structure of a caterpillar may be
learned from a study of Figure 17, A. But the external organs of
chief interest are those of the head (fig. 11), including the mouth,
the jaws, and the silk-spinning instrument. The facial view (A)
shows the notched upper lip or labrwm (Zm) suspended from the
triangular frontal plate (#7) like a protective flap over the bases
of the jaws. The latter, called mandibles (Md), are large, heavy
appendages at the sides of the mouth, swinging out and in on two
ball-and-socket hinges. The muscles that move them are shown in
Figure 12, A. The cutting edge of each mandible carries a number
of strong teeth. At the sides of the jaws are the two small three-
jointed antennae (fig. 11, Ant). The caterpillar has 12 very small
eyes, one near the base of each antenna and the others in two groups

of 5 each on the sides of the head (fig. 11,

ALU Ap RMet A, 0). But with all its eyes the cater-
\ pillar appears to be very nearsighted and

TZ
GY

gives little evidence of being able to see
more than the difference between lght
and darkness. Those tent caterpillars
that were starving on the denuded tree
failed to perceive other food trees in full

Fie. 12.—The mandibles or

jaws of the caterpillar de-
tached from the head. A,
front view of right man-
dible; B, underside of the
left. a and p, the socket
and knob that hinge the
jaw to the head; HMcl
and RMecl, extensor and re-
tractor muscles that move
the jaw.

leaf only a few feet away.

The large complex organ that projects
behind or below the mouth like a thick
under lip (fig. 11, C) is a combination
of three parts that are separate in other
insects. These are a second pair of soft
jaws, called maxilla (B, C, Mx), and the

true under lip, or labium (Lb). The
most important part of this combined structure in the caterpillar,
however, is the hollow spine (A, B, C, Spn) pointed downward
and backward from the end of the labium. This is the spinneret.
From it issues the silk thread with which the caterpillar weaves its
tent and its cocoon.

The fresh silk is a liquid formed in long tubular glands extending
back in the body of the caterpillar to the tenth segment (fig. 13, A,
Gl). The middle part of each tube is enlarged into a reservoir
(Res), where the silk liquid may accumulate, and the first part con-

sists of a narrow duct (Dect) which unites with the duct from the
other gland in a thick-walled sac (Pv) that finally opens into the
spinneret. Two small glands, which look like bunches of grapes
(GIF), open into the ducts near their front ends.

The relation of the ducts and the sac to the spinneret is seen in
the side view of the maxilla and labium shown at B in Figure 18.

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 849

The sac (P7), into which the ducts of the silk gland opens, is called
the silk press, because its thick walls are supposed to squeeze the
silk into a thread varying in form and thickness according to the
pressure exerted on it. The cut end of the press, given at KE, shows
the crescent form of its cavity (Zwm) in cross section, and the
thickening in its roof (ph), called the raphe. Muscles (Mels)
inserted on the raphe and the sides of the press serve to enlarge
the interior of the
press by lifting the
roof and spread-
ing the walls. The
four sets of these
muscles are shown
from above at C.
The opening of
the press cavity
probably sucks the
suk liquid into it
from the reser-
voirs, and when the
muscles relax the
elastic roof springs
back and _ forces
the silk through

the spinneret. The
P Fic. 18.—The silk glands and spinning organs. A, the silk
continuous pas- glands (@l), their reservoirs (Res), and ducts (Det) open-
sage from the ing into the silk press (Pr). Gf, glands of Filippi opening
4 into the ducts.
ducts into the B, side view of maxilla (Ma) and tip of labium (Lb)

press and from the carrying the spinneret (Spn) showing the silk press (Pr)
a i ijn place and the ducts (Dect) entering it.
press into the spin- C, upper side of the silk press (Pr), showing the 4 sets
neret is shown of muscles (Mcls) inserted on its walls and on the rod-like
raphe (Rph) in its roof.
from the side at D. D, side view of the press, ducts, spinneret, raphe, and

The silk liquid bears section of the press, showing its cavity or lumen
is very gummy (Lum), which is enlarged when the muscles lift up the
and adheres tightly itnag Aiste
to whatever it touches, while at the same time it hardens rapidly and
becomes a tough, inelastic thread as it is drawn out of the spinneret
when the caterpillar swings its head away from the point of
attachment.

The mouth of the caterpillar is between the jaws and the lips.
It opens into a short gullet or wsophagus, which is the first part of
the alimentary canal (fig. 14, @). The rest of the canal is a wide
tube occupying most of the space within the caterpillar’s body and
is divided into the crop (Cr), the stomach or ventriculus (Vent),
and the intestine (Int). The crop is a sac for receiving the food

350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and varies in size according to the amount of food it contains (A
and B, Cr). The stomach (Vent) is the largest part of the canal.
Its walls are loose and wrinkled when it is empty, or smooth and tense
when it is full. The intestine (Zt) consists of three divisions, a
short part just back of the stomach, a larger middle part, and a
saclike end part called the rectwm (fect). Six long tubes (Jal)
are wrapped in many coils about the intestine and run forward and
back in long loops over the rear half of the stomach. The three on
each side unite into a short basal tube, which opens into the first
part of the intestine. The terminal parts of
the tubes are coiled inside the muscular coat
of the rectum. These tubes are known as the
Malpighian tubules.

When a tent caterpillar goes out to feed
the fore part of its body is soft and flabby;
when it returns to the tent the same part is
tight and firm. This is because the cater-
pillar carries its dinner home in its crop,
digests it slowly while in the tent, and then
goes out for more when the crop is empty. It
is quite easy to tell by feeling a caterpillar
whether it is hungry or not. The empty, con-
tracted crop is a small bag contained in the
first three segments of the body (fig. 14, A,
Cr) ; but the full crop stretches out to a long
cylinder like a sausage, filling the first six
segments of the body (fig. 14, B), its rear end
sunken into the stomach and its front end
bs SE peed etarttae? pressed against the back of the head.

4, ' before” feeding: 'B’ The fresh food in the crop consists of a

after feeding. Cr, crop; soft, pulpy mass of leaf fragments. As this

Int, intestine; Mal, Mal- . Z

pighian tubules; oz, 1S passed into the stomach the crop contracts

ih Apuamelorar a site stom- and the stomach expands, and the caterpillar’s

center of gravity is shifted backward with
the food burden. The food is digested in the stomach and the un-
digested part is passed on into the intestine. As the stomach be-
comes empty there accumulates in it a dark-brown liquid, probably
the gastric juice, and it becomes inflated with bubbles of gas.
When the caterpillar goes to its meals both crop and stomach are
sometimes empty, but usually the stomach still contains some food
besides an abundance of the brown liquid and numerous gas bub-
bles. The refuse that accumulates in the middle section of the
intestine is subjected to pressure by the muscles of the intestinal
wall, and is here molded jnto a pellet which retains the imprint
of the constrictions and pouches of this part of the intestine,

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 351

and looks like a small mulberry when passed on into the rectum and
finally extruded from the body.

The alimentary canal is a tube made of a single layer of cells ex-
tending through the body; but its outer surface, that toward the
body cavity, is covered by a muscle layer of lengthwise and cross-
wise fibers which cause the movement of the food through the canal.
The gullet and crop and the intestine are lined internally with a thin
cuticle continuous with that covering the surface of the body, and
these linings are shed with the body cuticle every time the cater-
pillar molts.

The Malpighian tubules (fig. 14, Mal) are the kidneys of insects;
they are the excretory organs that remove from the blood the waste
products containing nitrogen, and discharge them into the intestine
along with the waste parts of the food from the stomach. Ordi-
narily the Malpighian tubules are of a whitish color, but just before
the caterpillar is ready to spin its cocoon they
become congested with a bright yellow sub-
stance. Under the microscope this is seen to
consist of masses of square, oblong, and rod-
shaped crystals (fig. 15). At this time the
caterpillar has ceased to feed and the ali-
mentary canal contains no food or food refuse.
The intestine, however, becomes filled with the
yellow mass from the Malpighian tubules; and

aoe : : c : Fic. 15.—Crystals from
this is the material with which the caterpillar che Malgishien. tubules

plasters the walls of its cocoon, giving them = eniected into the walls

the yellowish color and stiffened texture. OF SR Spee

The yellow powder of the cocoon, therefore, consists of the crystals
from the Malpighian tubules.

We now come to the question of why the caterpillar eats so much.
Tt is almost equivalent to asking, “ Why is a caterpillar?” The
caterpillar is the feeding stage in the insect’s life—eating is its
business, its reason for being a caterpillar. It eats not only to build
up its own organs, many of which are to be broken down to furnish
building material for those of the moth, but it eats also to store up
within its body certain materials in excess of its own needs, which
likewise will contribute to the growth of the moth.

The most abundant of the food reserves stored by the caterpillar
is fat. With insects, however, fat does not accumulate amongst the
muscles and beneath the skin. Insects never become “ fat” in ex-
ternal appearance. Their fatty products are held in a special organ
called the fat body.

In the tent caterpillar the fat body consists of a loose cellular net-
work surrounding the crop and continued backward as a thin sheet.

352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

adhering to the body wall through the region of the stomach. In a
well-fed caterpillar the cells of the fat body (fig. 16, A) are full of
small drops of a liquid that looks and acts like oil. Two physiologi-
cal tests for fat are that it stains black in a weak solution of osmic
acid and red in a solution called “ Soudan III.” The oily drops
in the fat body of the tent caterpillar sustain both of these tests,
and thus show that they contain fat. In a caterpillar that has been
starved for several days the fat body is reduced to a few small strands
of cells on the crop, but each of these cells contains as much fat as
do those of the normal fat body.

Another substance stored in the caterpillar’s body for future use
is glycogen or animal starch, and it, too, is contained in the cells of
the fat body. The fat body is, therefore, a sort of liver to the insect,
since the storage of glycogen is one of the important functions of
the liver in vertebrate animals. Glycogen is used up in the produc-
tion of energy, and both it and the stored
fat are consumed during the next stage
of the insect, when the caterpillar under-
goes the alterations that produce from it.
a moth.

During these alterations, however, busi-

Fig. 16.—A, fat cells of a cat- x
erpillar 13 inches long as ess does not go on as usual. Many of the
they look when stained with o]d functions are discontinued and physio-
osmic acid; B, fat cells of a , : :
male moth just out of the logical processes come into action that

cocoon, The clear spaces are would be impossible in an active animal.

filled with an oily liquid. . : “
Therefore the insect goes into a special

inactive stage called the pupa, and some of the details of its reorgani-
zation, called metamorphosis, will now be described.

HOW THE CATERPILLAR BECOMES A MOTH.

When the caterpillar ceases feeding its body contains an abun-
dance of fat, and its silk glands are more distended than at any time
before. When it begins to spin its cocoon its alimentary canal con-
tains no remains of food, the crop is contracted to a narrow cylinder
and the stomach is shrunken and flabby. But the latter contains a
soft, orange-brown substance, composed, not of plant tissue, but of
animal cells. It is, in fact, the dissolving cellular lining of the
stomach itself which has already been shed into the cavity of the
stomach, and is apparently in the process of being digested by the
new wall that is taking its place. This marks the beginning of the
dismantling of the caterpillar preparatory to the process of reforma-
tion that is to take place—the beginning of metamorphosis.

After the caterpillar has completed its cocoon, its life as a cater-
pillar is almost ended. Its external appearance is already much al-
tered by the shortening of its body and the loss of its furry covering,

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 853

Lee

ah VIAN ps2
1 \p j S ee

HS MY Was z

Ly "2"

= nT} \\ ‘

; at \ \
\ \
Sp AL

We

DAs shat ciao
a) tr BN VOSS

rr etn odgra $04.

Fic. 17.—A, the mature caterpillar, showing the head (H ) and 18 body segments, the
jointed legs (ZL) on the three thoracic segments, the abdominal legs (AL) on the
third to sixth and the tenth abdominal segments, and the breathing pores or spiracles
(Sp) along the side of the body.
B, the contracted prepupal stage of the caterpillar in the cocoon.
C, the propupa extended after artificial removal of the prepupal caterpillar skin. The
antennae (Ant), wings (W), and legs (L) are all free appendages.
D, the pupa, the form of the insect when the prepupal caterpillar skin is shed nor-
mally. The appendages are all glued fast to the hard shell-like body wall.
B, the empty pupal skin and the newly emerged moth,
a thoracic leg of the caterpillar. Ca, coxa; F, femur; Tar, tarsus; Tb, tibia; Tr,
trochanter,
G, corresponding leg of the propupa. Only the tarsus (Tar) develops in the leg of
the caterpillar (F).
H, the head of the propupa, under view. Ant, antenna; LZ, eye; LvPlp, labial palpi;
Lm, labrum; Md, rudiment of mandible ; Mth, mouth; Mz, maxilla.
I, under view of front half of the pupa, Lettering as in H: also In, Lz, La, legs;
W:, Ws, wings.

354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and during the next three or four days a characteristic change of
form takes place. As the body continues to shorten, the first three
segments become crowded together, but those of the abdominal
region swell out and their legs are retracted. The creature (fig. 17,
B) is now only half its former length (A) and would scarcely be
recognized as the same animal that spun itself into the cocoon.

This period of the insect’s life is called the prepupal stage of the
caterpillar. Yet the creature is really no longer a caterpillar, it is
simply still wearing the caterpillar’s skin; and this garment can now
be taken off like a coat without injury to the wearer. The latter
(fig. 17, C) is then discovered to be a thing entirely different in ap-
pearance from the caterpillar (A). In many ways it suggests the
future moth (E), but it is called the propupa. It has a pair of small
wings (W, and W,) on each side of the body, legs (Z) much longer
than those of the caterpillar (being folded, only the ends are visible in
side view), and a pair of large antenne (Ant) on the head. Its first
three body segments, though all different from one another, consti-
tute a well-defined thoracic region bearing the wings and legs, while
the following 10 segments are more alike than in the caterpillar and
form a distinct abdominal part of the body, swollen at the middle
and tapering toward, the rear end. The breathing pores along the
sides of the body correspond with those of the caterpillar, except
that there is an extra pore on each side between the second and third
segments (but covered by the base of the front wing in the figure, C).
This spiracle is present in most insects, both young and adult, and
is simply overgrown by the skin in the caterpillar.

Many important alterations have taken place in the form and
structure of the head and the appendages about the mouth during
the change from the caterpillar, as will be seen by comparing Figure
17, H, with Figure 11. Most of the sides of the caterpillar’s head,
including its 12 eyes, have been converted into the two huge eyes
(Z’) of the propupa, and the antenne (Ant) have increased enor-
mously in size. The upper lip (£m), on the other hand, is much
smaller in the propupa, the great biting jaws of the caterpillar are
reduced to mere rudiments (J/d), while the spinneret of the cater-
pillar (Spn) is gone entirely. The maxille (Ma) and labium (Z6)
are more distinct from one another, and their parts more simplified.
The labium carries two long palpi (fig. 17, H, LbPlp).

Yet, as different as are the external parts of the propupa from
those of the caterpillar, they have all been formed in the correspond-
ing organs of the latter, or at least as far as there was room for them
to grow in the caterpillar parts. In the case of the antenne only
the very tips of the new organs could develop in the old, the rest
had to fold back against the sides of the head beneath the skin.

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 355

In the case of the mandibles the condition is reversed—the new
organs shrink to such an extent that they leave the old ones almost
empty. From this we see, however, that the parts of the head of the
propupa are derived from those of the caterpillar, just as are the
parts in any one stage of the caterpillar, except the first, derived
from those of the preceding stage, and are disclosed when the skin
is shed. The change of form in the propupa is but a detail, for in
some species changes take place during the molt between stages of
the caterpillar.

The legs of the propupa are so much longer than those of the
caterpillar that only the terminal part of each, the tarsus (fig. 17,
G, Zar), can develop inside the corresponding caterpillar leg (F) ;
the rest of the leg folds upward within the skin against the side of
the body, just as the antenne fold back against the sides of the head
to find space for their increasing bulk. This does not mean, there-
fore, that the caterpillar leg represents only the tarsal part of the
adult leg, though it has often been so interpreted.

The case of the wings appears to be different, for the caterpillar
has no external wings at all, not even rudiments in which the pro-
pupal wings could start their growth. Consequently the wing buds
are forced to grow internally. They can be found inside the skin
of the caterpillar as little sacs turned outside in. When the cater-
pillar skin is loosened over that of the propupa the wing sacs are
everted and quickly take their normal place on the outside of the
body as small external lobes (fig. 17, C, W., W;).

The propupa remains within the caterpillar skin for three or four
days and then the latter splits open along the back of the first two
body segments, over the top of the head and down the right side
of the frontal triangle to the base of the right jaw. The creature
within now quickly wriggles out of the skin and pushes it over the
rear end of its body and into the end of the cocoon, where it remains
as a hairy wad, the last evidence of the caterpillar.

The propupa (fig. 17, C) very clearly started out to be a moth
(E), but the thing that appears (D) when the caterpillar skin is
shed does not at all resemble a moth. The propupa, in fact, has
changed to a pupa, and this (D) is a cylindrical hard-shelled crea-
ture, rounded at the head end, tapering at the other, with all of its
appendages glued down fast to the body wall. Its size is much
less than that of the propupa (C) and its length only about one-third
that of the original caterpillar (A). The only motion it can make
is a rotary, wriggling movement of the rear end of the body. A
pupa of this sort is characteristic of moths and butterflies and is
called a chrysalis. It is a specialized stage in the insect’s life, which,
by its compact form and shell-like skin, affords greater safety for

356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the period of reconstruction than would a soft-bodied thing like
the propupa. The color of the chrysalis is at first bright green on
the foreparts, yellowish on the abdomen, and usually more or less
brown on the back. But it soon darkens till the fore parts and the
wings are purplish black and the abdomen purplish brown.

The changes that have taken place in the mouth parts, antenne,
legs, and wings since the propupal period are shown at I on Figure
17. The legs and wings are folded flat against the body, the antenne
(Ant) are straightened out against the edges of the wings, the max-
illee (A/a) are longer than in the propupa (H), and the mouth (Mth)
is closed to a narrow slit.

From now on the external form of the pupa will not change, but
the processes of transformation will go on rapidly within it during
the next three weeks. Then the fully formed moth will discard the
pupal shell, just as the pupa rejected the skin of the caterpillar after
the latter had served as a covering during its formative propupal
period.

We have seen that the caterpillar’s business is to eat. Its wormlike
form, supposedly, is one better adapted to the securing of foed than
the moth form. Therefore, the young moth hatches out of the egg
as a caterpillar, provided with external organs, alimentary canal,
and silk glands all ready for its work, and a system of muscles that
will accomplish all its necessary movements. But these parts be-
come suddenly useless when the insect reaches the end of the cater-
pillar stage. Consequently they must be discarded or made over
into the corresponding organs of the moth if the insect is to complete
its life and produce another generation. The necessity for this
change is the reason for the pupal period. The departure of the
pupa from the direct road from the propupa to the adult necessi-
tates another molt and establishes the pupa as a separate stage in the
insect’s growth, though it is really but the formative period of the
moth and is to be regarded as a part of the adult stage.

During the re-formation it is necessary that continuity be pre-
served in most of the parts, else the animal would fall to pieces
somewhere in the process. Reconstruction, therefore, keeps on the
heels of disintegration, and in all the tissues, except some of the
muscles, the newly forming parts are always present along with the
remains of the old. Hence, while the external form of an organ may
be changing, it always appears to be intact. It is only by a micro-
scopic examination of tissues prepared for a study of their cells
that it is possible to see what is really taking place in them. The de-
tails have been described by many investigators, who agree pretty
well on the following points.

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 357

All the external parts of the insect are formed from the skin and
its hard outer cuticle. The skin consists of a layer of cells and is
called the hypodermis. The remodeling of the external form and
organs results from a regeneration of the hypoderm. After the ex-
ternal parts of any stage are once formed they do not change again
during that stage, but there are certain islands of cells in the hypo-
derm that retain their vitality till the propupal period. At the be-
ginning of metamorphosis these cells begin to multiply rapidly and
spread out in expanding patches of new skin. The old skin cells
appear to be discouraged at the sight of these vigorous young cells
crowding upon them; they give up at once without a fight, go to
pieces, and are absorbed into the interior of the body as the new
cells take their places. The islands from which the latter originated
were parts of the original body segments, and each new growing set
respects the boundaries of its own segment, but pays no attention to
the old shape of the segment or any of its parts. Thus the newly
formed insect has the same segmentation as in the preceding stage.
but its shape and details may be very different.

During all this modification of the hypodermis the old cuticle cov-
ering it has remained the same. When the new hypoderm is com-
pleted, the old caterpillar cuticle is loosened and separated, while a
new cuticle is formed beneath it on the surface of the new skin. This
gives the wing buds a chance to evert and take their normal position
outside the body. Then the old cuticle is shed and the newly formed
creature is exposed in the shape of the pupa.

The original islands of regeneration cells are called imaginal buds
(from émago, meaning an adult). During the pupal stage the hypo-
derm undergoes still further modifications, and forms still another
cuticle beneath that of the pupa. Finally, the latter is cast off, and
the moth appears.

But while this remodeling of the external form has been going on
other changes have taken place inside the body. We have already
noted that the lining of the stomach is shed at the time when the
caterpillar is spinning its cocoon. But it is not all cast off—groups
of small cells which, like those of the hypoderm, have not lost their
vitality remain behind and generate a new lining that digests and
absorbs the débris of the old. The gullet, with the crop and the
intestine, being ingrowths of the hypoderm, are regenerated in the
same way as the body wall. Groups of cells in their walls multiply
and replace the old cells, which are absorbed into the blood. Their
linings are shed with the body cuticle. The alimentary canal of the
moth is very different from that of the caterpillar, but it will be de-
scribed in the next section.

59879—24——24

358 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The walls of the Malpighian tubules are regenerated, but the
tubes do not change much in form. The silk glands are greatly
reduced in size and the silk press and the spinneret are not re-
formed at all. The ducts of the new glands, which are to have a
new function, open into the mouth.

None of these organs ever loses its continuity. Each is always
present in some form during all of the pupal period. But the reor-
ganization that affects the muscles is so thorough that many lose
their integrity for a while. Some that were intended only for the
use of the caterpillar are destroyed completely, others are remod-
eled, and new ones are built up expressly for the use of the adult.

Other internal parts, such as the nervous system, the heart, the
respiratory tubes, and the reproductive organs, do not suffer any
disintegration but grow to the mature form in the ordinary manner
of development.

The cells of the fat body separate from one another in the pupa
and float about in the body cavity as a mass of free globular cells.
They give up their oil droplets either by absorption or by the dis-
solving of their thin walls, which scatters their contents broadcast
in the blood. In some insects, however, the fat cells assume a new
function during the pupal period; they absorb and appear to digest
material derived from the débris of the old organs, especially the
dissolving muscles, and convert this material into albuminoid prod-
ucts that accumulate in their protoplasm in the form of small
granules. These albuminous bodies are finally reabsorbed into the
blood or are liberted by the breaking of the walls of the fat cells
and are used as food by the developing tissues of the adult.

From all this we see that the pupa is far from being dead; from a
physiological standpoint it is very much alive and active. But its
activities are not a part of the drama of the insect’s life—the pupal
stage is a period of intermission between the two main acts when a
great commotion of scene shifting and costume changing goes on
behind the curtain of the pupal shell.

THE MOTH.

For three weeks or a little longer the processes of reconstruction
go on within the pupa, and then the creature that was a caterpillar
breaks through its coverings and appears in the form and costume
of amoth. The pupal shell splits open at the front end (fig. 17, E) to
allow the moth to emerge, but the latter then only finds itself face to
face with the wall of the cocoon. It has left behind its cutting in-
struments, the mandibles, with its discarded overalls; but it has
turned chemist and needs no tools. The glands that furnished the
silk for building the cocoon now, in their altered state, secrete a clear

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS. 359

liquid that oozes out of the mouth and acts as a solvent on the glue
that holds the cocoon threads together. The strands thus moistened
are soon loosened from one another sufficiently to allow the moth to
poke its head through the cocoon wall and force a hole large enough
to permit of itsescape. The liquid from the mouth of the moth turns
the silk brown, and the lips of the emergence hole are always
stained the same color—evidence that it is this liquid that softens
the silk. But a former writer, L. Trouvelot, actually watched a
Polyphemus moth in its cocoon press the liquid from its mouth
against the cocoon wall and then wait a half hour for its dissolving
properties to act. Trouvelot says that the moth then emerges by
separating the strands of silk without breaking a single thread. But
the frayed edges of the hole left in the cocoon of the tent caterpillar
by the moth show many loose ends of broken threads.

!
{
|
!

=

Fig. 18.—The tent caterpillar moths. A, male in natural position at rest; B, female
(14 natural size).

The most conspicuous features of the moth are its furry covering
of hairlike scales and its wings. The latter are short at first (fig.
17, E), but they quickly expand to normal length and are then
folded over the back (fig. 18, A). The color of the moths are vari-
ous shades of reddish brown with the wings crossed by two oblique
pale bands. The female (B) is somewhat larger than the male, her
body being a little over three-fourths of an inch in length and the
expanded wings 12 inches across.

The tent caterpillars performed so thoroughly their duty of eat-
ing that the moths have no need of more food. Consequently they
are not encumbered with implements of feeding. The mandibles,
which were so large in the caterpillar (fig. 11, Md), and became
rudimentary in the propupa (fig. 17, H), are now gone entirely (fig.
19). The maxille (J/x), which were fairly long lobes in the pro-
pupa, have shrunken in the adult to insignificant though movable
knobs at the sides of the mouth (Mth). The under lip or labium

360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

(Zb) of the moth is reduced almost to nothing, but its palpi (LbPIp)
are long and three-jointed. When covered with their scales these
palpi form the two furry brushes that project in front of the face.

In most moths the two maxille are drawn out into a pair of long
straps, the grooved inner faces of which are united to form a tube
or proboscis through which the moth sucks up nectar from flowers
and drinks water. In some species, however, such as the fall web-
worm moth, the proboscis is short and perhaps almost useless (see
p. 411 of Smithsonian Report for 1921). In the moth of the tent
caterpillar the maxille are so small that they do not form any pro-
boscis at all. It is interesting to note that the maxille of the tent
caterpillar reach their greatest length in the pupa (fig. 17, I), as if
nature had intended the moth to have
a proboscis, but changed her mind
and had the maxille grow backward
again in the pupal stage. When
things like this take place in the
development of an animal zoologists
interpret it as meaning that the final
form of the organ has been acquired
recently, referring, of course, to the
past few million years.

“L4Fip Since the moth eats nothing and
probably drinks nothing, it has little

Fic. 19.—Head of the moth, facial USe for an alimentary canal. But im-
view, with scales removed ard an- portant organs, though useless, are
ited et m4 “igo r fy Si tart seldom obliterated. Consequently the

LbPlp, labial palpus; Lm, lagram; tent caterpillar moth has a threadlike

TAP ery ait tn tube extending backward from its
mouth which preserves the tradition of a stomach, an organ which
its ancestors once possessed. The intestine is better developed, since
it must still function as the outlet for the Malpighian tubules. The
secretion of these tubes during the pupal period consists of minute
spherical crystals. They accumulate in the rear part of the intestine
as an orange-colored mass which is discharged as soon as the moth
leaves the cocoon.

Most of the male moths emerge from the cocoons several days in
advance of the females. At this time their bodies contain an abund-
ance of fat tissue (fig. 16, B), the cells of which are filled with drop-
lets of fatty oil, as shown by their staining deeply with osmic acid
and Soudan III. But the internal reproductive organs of the male
are not yet fully developed and probably do not become functional
till about the time the females are out of their cocoons,

TENT CATERPILLAR—SNODGRASS,

361

The body of the female, on the other hand, contains no fat tissue
when she emerges, while her ovaries are full of mature eggs ready
to be laid as soon as the fertilizing element is received from the male.

One specimen examined contained
289 eggs, an average of 36 for each
of the eight tubes of the ovaries
(fig. 20, Ov). The material that
will form the covering of the eggs
when laid is a clear brown liquid
contained in two great sacs (/’es)
that open into the oviduct (OvD).
Each is the reservoir of a long
tubular gland (Gl). The liquid
must be somehow mixed with air
when it is extruded over the eggs
to give the covering its frothy
structure. It soon sets into a jelly-
like substance, then becomes firm
but elastic like rubber, and eventu-
ally becomes dry and brittle.

The date of the egg laying de-
pends on the latitude of the re-
gion the moth inhabits, varying
from the middle of May in the
Southern States to the end of June
in the North. While the eggs will

Fie. 20.—Internal organs of a female

moth, showing the ‘base of one ovary
(Ov), the common oviduct (OvD) and
its opening to the exterior (OvDO),
the spermatheca (Spm), connected with
the oviduct bv a short tube, and its
opening to the exterior (SpmO). The
egg covering is formed as a brown
liquid in the glands (Gl) and accumu-
lates in the large sacs (Res) which
open into the terminal part of the
oviduct.

not hatch till the following spring, they nevertheless begin to develop
at once, and within six weeks the caterpillars may be found fully
formed inside of them (fig. 21,B). Each has its head against the top

Fig, 21.—A, young tent caterpillar taken from
an egg July 29; B, caterpillar in natural

position in the egg.

of the shell and its body bent
U-shaped, with the tail end
turned to one side. The hairs
of the body are all brushed
forward and form a thin
cushion about the poor crea-
ture, which for crimes un-
committed is sentenced to
eight months’ solitary con-
finement in this inhuman po-

sition. Yet, if artificially liberated, the prisoner takes no advantage
of the freedom offered. Though it can move a little, it remains
coiled (A) and will fold up again if forcibly straightened, thus
asserting that it is more comfortable than it looks.

362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

It is surprising that these infant caterpillars can remain inactive
like this all through the summer, when the warmth spurs the vitality
of other species and speeds them up to their most rapid growth and
development. External conditions in general appear to have much
to do with regulating the lives of insects, but the tent caterpillars in
their eggs give proof that the creature is not entirely the slave of
environment. By some secret source of patience the prisoners will
serve their time in those tiny capsules through all the heat of sum-
mer, the cold of winter, and not till the cherry buds are ready to
open in the spring will they gnaw through the inclosing shells against
which their faces have been pressing all this while.

THE LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE SOLITARY
WASP, PHILANTHUS GIBBOSUS.

By Epwarp G. Rertnwarp, 8. J.,
Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md.

[With 3 plates.]

Should the ordinary entomologist that tramps the field with col-
lecting net and cyanide bottle catch sight of the small black and yel-
low wasp known to scientists as Philanthus gibbosus, he would
probably pass it by as a specimen scarcely worth a sweep of his net.
‘True, it is an insect not rare, nor even handsome, nor deserving of
much comment when pinned in a cabinet. But, like all the solitary
wasps, it lives a life of extraordinary interest, fascinating for the
biologist and the layman alike.

The habits of this Philanthus have previously been studied to
some extent by the Peckhams? in Wisconsin (1897) and by the
Raus? in Missouri (1918). These veteran observers have made
known the general behavior and the most conspicuous features in the
life history of the wasp. The observations described in this paper
disagree in no essential point from those of the older writers. The
present writer’s aim has been to supplement our knowledge and to
remove lacunae, so as to present the life history of Philanthus as a
nearly complete biography rather than as a cursory sketch.

DESCRIPTION, SYNONOMY, DISTRIBUTION.

Philanthus gibbosus is a small but robust wasp, 10 to 12 milli-
meters in length (pl. 1, fig. 1). She has a broad head that seems
almost too large for the dwarfed body. Her coat of chitin is shiny
black with spots of yellow on the head and yellow bands on the
thorax and abdominal segments. The very large and deep punctures
on the abdomen of this insect make it an easy species to recognize.
These conspicuous punctures suggested Say’s name of Philanthus
punctatus. Under this title the wasp has commonly been referred to,
but Mr. S. A. Rohwer has recently examined into the synonomy of

1 Peckham, G. W. and EB. G. Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. Wisconsin
Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 2, Sc. Ser. 1, pp. 117-124.
2Rau, P. and N. Wasp Studies Afield. Princeton University Press, pp. 109-116.

363

364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

this species and believed it necessary to change the name to P. gib-
bosus Fabricius, a synonym that was intimated by Dalla Torre but
was not generally followed in America.

The male of gibbosus resembles the female very closely, but differs
mainly in having less yellow on the head (fig. 1). This is the oppo-
site of the usual sexual diversity in Hymenoptera. Most male wasps
and bees have more light-colored markings on the face than the
female.

Philanthus gibbosus is a common and widely distributed Sphecid
of North America. Specimens in the United States National
Museum collections show a habitat that extends from Washington,
Colorado, Arizona, and Texas in the West to Georgia, Virginia,
New York, and Massachusetts in the East. There are specimens in

¥ic. 1.—Philanthus gibbosus. Heads of male and female.

the collections of the National Museum from 21 States, as well as
from Canada and Mexico.

THE ANNUAL CYCLE.

In Maryland Philanthus gibbosus goes through two generations
a year. The early pioneers begin prospecting for a nesting site dur-
ing the second week of June; but some laggards do not start to dig
until two weeks later. By the end of June the establishment is in
full swing. For about three weeks each wasp applies herself to the
task of provisioning and egg laying, and then, her season over, she
dies.

During the middle of July the progeny of this first brood begin
to make their appearance, and the gradual emergence continues until
almost the end of August. The major number of this second gen-
eration have provided for their young and died before the beginning
of September. A few stragglers, however, keep on with their task
until more than a fortnight later. The larvae pass the winter in
their cocoons, change to pupae in April, and emerge during May
and June, and thus one annual cycle is complete.

SOLITARY WASP—REINHARD. 365
NESTING SITES.

An uncemented brick walk which surrounds the main building of
Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md., was a favorite nesting site for
Philanthus gibbosus. The wasps tunneled down between the bricks
and built their cells in the sand beneath. The greater number had
selected a portion of-the path which was sheltered from the rain by a
wide, projecting balcony. Though it was on the northern side of the
building and received only the late afternoon sun, this section of
about 35 yards was strewn with the excavated sand of nearly a hun-
dred burrows. It was a curious instance of phototaxis that the
mouth of every burrow opened toward the light; not a single door-
way was found which faced the side of the building. This colony
was kept under observation for two years, and it was here that most
of the information for the present paper was gathered.

Under the broad eaves of another building a second group of
nearly 30 Philanthi had settled close together in tenement fashion
in a spot of hard ground which bore a scant growth of chickweed and
foxtail grass.

A smaller colony, numbering about a score of nests, had also be-
come established in the hard-packed clay of a tennis court; another
group chose a bare slope in an open grove of trees.

Isolated nests were likewise found, one in the midst of a lawn,
and several others along the bank of a roadway.

THE BURROW.

During the season of the wasp’s activity, from the middle of June
to the middle of September, small scattered heaps of sand upon the
loose bricks of the path betray the entrance to the storerooms of
Philanthus. One might at first credit the heaps to the home build-
ing of the ubiquitous ant, but these piles of sand are flat and spread-
ing and do not form such a neat architectural dome as the ants are
wont to erect. Should you chance to find Philanthus at work on her
burrow you would see her backing out of the earth with a load of
moist sand, which she pushes clear of the tunnel and then spreads
over the heap with queer little jerks of her front legs. During the
proceedings she stands on her four hind feet, the last two spread
widely apart, and with the front ones scoops up the sand and shoots
it backward beneath the arch of her body. It falls far in the rear
in rapid, dusty jets, and with each strenuous dig and toss the wasp
teeters sharply up and down like a toy rocking-horse. The front
tarsi are often the main fossorial tools of a wasp, and those of
Philanthus (fig. 2), with their spadelike calcaria, are well equipped
for their work.

366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The large amount of dirt carried up from below and spread before
the entrance gives indication that the burrow is a long one and leads
far into the earth; and, indeed, Philanthus, with her tarsi and man-
dibles, often digs a shaft that is 2 feet or more in length. From one
edge of the pile of sand a narrow, tortuous tunnel descends obliquely
into the earth for about 6 inches, then swings .around to run in a
horizontal direction for 15 more, and finally
ends in a neatly rounded oval cell (fig. 3).
Other cells are disclosed, but these have no
direct communication with the main corri-
dor. From their contents we gain a clue to
the plan of the architect. The chamber
closest to the entrance is strewn with the
skeletons of Halictine bees, and on this heap
rests the consumer’s cocoon. We break into
the next cell and find a full-grown larva
munching its last mouthfuls of bee flesh.
The succeeding cells show us larvae growing
fat on their provisions, each larva a little
younger and smaller than the preceding.
The penultimate pocket contains the wasp’s
egg, while the terminal cell is as yet unpro-
visioned. From this arrangement it is clear
that the oldest cell is the one nearest the
opening of the burrow. Each cell was in
turn a terminal pocket which was fashioned
only when needed. After completion its
connection with the main gangway was
blocked and the gallery was pushed onward
to form another pocket. In due time this
was likewise provisioned, tenanted, and
sealed, and so the work proceeded until the
ee \//} wasp had enough separate nurseries to
Sa?
se house her entire offspring.
fic, 2—Philanthus gibbosus. | Lhe illustration (fig. 3) is meant to repre-

Fore tibia and tarsus of sent a typical burrow. Scores of nests were

SP OR EN excavated and all conformed more or less to
this general type in inverse proportion to the stony nature of the
ground. One wasp had met with so many obstacles that the terminus
of her burrow was only 2 inches from the entrance—she had tunneled
in a circle.

THE EGG AND LARVA.

The egg of the Philanthus (pl. 1, fig. 2) is a smooth, banana-
shaped capsule, lustrous white, with a very thin, transparent chorion.
Its length is between 3 and 4 millimeters; its greatest width is about

SOLITARY WASP—REINHARD

eight-tenths of a millimeter. Queerly
enough, it is usually secured to the
sternum of one of the smaller Halic-
tinae, so that it often stretches along
the bee’s entire length from chin to
tail. Knowing that the bees are
butchered and not paralyzed, one
might suspect that the egg would be
laid on the first carcass brought in.
We might reason that the sooner the
egg is laid the sooner will it hatch
and the fresher will be the food sup-
ply. But facts confound our logic. It
is always on the last bee stored away,
on the bee resting on the top of the
heap, that we find the wasp’segg. Nor
are the provisions uncommonly well
preserved. Long before the Philan-
thus larva has ceased feeding there is a
decidedly unpleasant effuvium coming
from the corpses which form its food.

Within three days the egg hatches,
not suddenly, but gradually and almost
imperceptibly. Inside the forward
and blunter end of the egg the embry-
onic larval head has been forming and
the segmented body begins to fill the
membranous shell. Then the larva,
without moving, pierces the skin of
the egg directly below its mandibles
and begins to draw nourishment from
between the sternal sclerites of the bee.
The swelling larval form at length
bursts the tight envelope of the shell.
It splits and shrinks away, leaving the
larva a suckling at the breast of a
dead bee (pl. 1, fig. 3).

The next seven days are a glorious
banquet for the eupeptic grub. The
tiny creature munches methodically,
and methodically grows fat. Twenty-
four hours after hatching it takes a
short rest to shed its first moult.

367

Fic. 3.—The underground nest of Philanthus gibbosus, one-third natural size.

During the course of its growth two other sloughs are cast. The
second and third ecdysis I have not witnessed, but I conjecture

368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

their existence from a study of the changes ‘in the shape of the
larval mandibles.

After a week of feasting on honey-flavored meat the larva has
reached its full growth. Nothing savory remains to be eaten. The
cell is cluttered with the unpalatable legs, wings,
and horny armor of the bees.

Now we can examine the larva (pl. 2, fig. 5)
more carefully and correlate some of its habits
with its structure. It has a body that is slender
and fusiform, all covered with a stubble of
short, brown bristles. The head is very small
and for that reason well suited to pry into the
narrow foramina of body walls to reach the food

that is stored away in stout, chitinous boxes.
<=> The anal segment of the larva ends in a subcylin-

Fic, 4. — Philanthus . ° , : ° .
gibbosus. Head of rical projection which is often telescoped in and

full-grown larva. gout of the abdominal somites. This tail makes a

ae ae handy lever for propulsion when the grub has
need to shift its position. The tail is withdrawn, pressed against a
fulcrum, and extended. The extension gives a propelling force to
the whole body, and the grub with his caudal prolongation poles his
way around the narrow confines of the cell.

Fic, 5.—Philanthus gibbosus. Larval mandibles, showing progressive changes from
newly-hatched larva to prepupal form. Drawn to scale. (X 150.)

The microscope reveals nothing exceptional about the larva’s head
(fig. 4). The lower margin of the clypeus is notched, and its sides
shield two teeth of the tridentate mandibles—these may be charac-
ters of interest to the taxonomist.

A study was made of the mandibles from the newly hatched larva
to the adult, and it showed an interesting mutation in these organs.

SOLITARY WASP—REINHARD. 369

In figure 5 four mandibles are shown, corresponding to the four
larval instars. Each stage exhibits a progressive lengthening and
narrowing of the mandibular shaft, and a blunting and equalizing
of the iseth. This development continues during the pupal stages
(fig. 6) where two of the teeth become obsolete, and finally results
in the long, acuminate mandibles of the imago (fig. 1).

THE COCOON, PUPAL PERIOD, EMERGENCE.

Thus far in its career the larva has shown no talents save those
of a butcher and a trencherman. Now it will weave a silken teepee
to shelter it during the critical period of the transfiguration. The
cocoon (pl. 2, fig. 10) when completed is a bulbous case composed of
a single ply of homogeneous, straw-colored silk. These silken walls
are sometimes obscured by a white cottony flock which rubs off
readily and leaves the cocoon almost as translucent as an amber
bead. It has the shape
of a very long pear,
with its tapering neck,
colored brown by the
stercoral plug securely
fastened to the rear
wall of the cell. The
blunt end is free and

invariably points to- Fic. 6—The pupal mandibles of Philanthus gibbosus.
The chitinized mandibles of the adult are shown in

ward the mouth of the formation within the swollen, fleshy mandibles of the

burrow, the corridor pupa. Mandible of white-eyed pupa at left, of black-
5 eyed pupa at right. (xX 36.)

for exit.

It takes the insect weaver 48 hours to complete its cocoon. As a
sort of preliminary scaffolding the larva spins a loose, cobwebby
hammock in the cell. This much, though mere preparation, requires
15 hours of labor. Then a light silk bag is spun on this support.
Its tip is open and attached to the wall. Toward the end of the task
the open tip is sewed up. Last of all, two days after the abode is
completed, the occupant fits its faeces into the narrow neck, and with
that act all larval activity ceases.

Eight months pass, and the larva sleeps on in its silken flask. The
chemicals are mixed, the retort filled, but the flame has not yet been
applied. At last the long lethargy reaches an end, and the shape-
less grub is metamorphosed into a nymph. But should the grub
belong to the first generation it will take only a week’s siesta in
preparation for the nymphosis. Then the larval wrapper is thrown
off and the delicately-molded pupa (pl. 2, figs. 6, 7, 8) makes its
appearance. The transitory pupae that link larva to wasp are feeble,
grotesque organisms, mere ghosts of the perfect insect. They look

370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

like uncompleted statuettes, like alabaster carvings waiting for the
breath of life. The pale pupae gradually don the livery of Phi-
lanthus. Their white eyes change to brown after two days, then to
black after four more days, and before another week has elapsed the
coloration is complete.

The length of the pupal period varies presumably with the
weather. Three male Philanthi pupated on April 15. One emerged
as imago after 27 days, the other two after 28 days. In July, how-
ever, one female required but 19 days and another only 15 days to
complete its transformations.

When the time has come for the emergence the wasp with her pow-
erful mandibles attacks the blunt end of the cocoon (pl. 1, fig. 4). A
few lusty strokes and the imago is free. Patient digging in the right
direction will demolish the barricade between the cell and the main
gallery, and before long another Philanthus is ready to ply its trade
of bee butchering.

The adults of many colonial wasps emerge in a body, as if at a
given signal, and then hold riotous mating flights in the sunshine.
But the Philanthus clan muster their numbers only very gradually.
While the oldest cell is already vacated by the fully-formed imago,
the last cells of the same burrow may contain but a prepupal larva.

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. we

For some time after emerging the youthful wasps share together
the ancestral cave, and on a bright morning one can see framed in
the doorway the stolid yellow face of a female, or the black-barred
visage of a male. When and where the couples formed could not be
determined. Frequent visits to the near-by flowers showed Philanthi
of both sexes feeding quietly together in large numbers, but in perfect
disregard of each other. Daily observation at the nesting site failed
to disclose a single endeavor at copulation. It seems probable there-
fore that the nuptial ceremonies are conducted within the nest, and
possibly within the old nest previous to the dispersal of the clan.
If this be so we wonder what provisions are made to avoid the dan-
gers of inbreeding. The underground cave is also used as the
wasp’s dormitory and crypt. The matron of the nest always spends
the night at home. Toward 5 o’clock or later in the afternoon she
bars the door of her dwelling with a plug of sand pushed up from
within. Her rest will be secure unless Harpalus or some other night-
prowling beetle blunders in. The callow males at first patronize the
home dormitory, but later on they sometimes dig individual lodg-
ings of their own, whither, as the Peckhams relate, they retreat
night after night for slumber. The female Philanthi have a stren-
uous but brief existence. For them there is no lingering senescence.
It is not unusual when excavating a burrow to find in the terminal

SOLITARY WASP—REIN HARD. 371

cell a moldering harvest of bees and the harvester’s corpse. Death
takes Philanthus in the midst of labors.

THE PROBLEM OF THE PREY.

Previous observers had reported that Philanthus provisioned its
nest with bees of the genus Halictus (sensu latiore). Ashmead and
the Peckhams have recorded the use by Philanthus of Helictus dis.
paralis Cres.; while the Raus noted that the wasp took H. versatus
Robt., H. pruinosus Robt., and H. sparsus Robt.

More extensive investigations were undertaken by the writer to
determine if possible whether Philanthus restricts her captures en-
tirely to Halictine bees. At various intervals during the four months
of the wasp’s activity her burrows were ransacked and rifled of their
contents. The loot of two seasons amounted to 331 bees. When
these were sorted and determined they comprised 22 species, 21 of
which belonged to the family Halictidae.

The complete catalogue is as follows:

Catalogue of the prey found in the nests of Philanthus gibbosus.

Type. Species. Length.| June. | July. |August.|; nee okt Total.
Mm.

A | Augochlora viridissima Vier.............-....- 7-8 2 12 4 5 23
Ww) Avigochiorafervida Sim 22 sooo. ONe. teen ramrae oe dh enone p's 1
Bo} Oxystoglossa: pura (Say)-. .2e.2.8-bul.tf2i20. 5-8 5 18 15 4 42
Bie} Halictislizatus Say. o:.- 52... -- tenn es G28 jlnuebi cen 12 49) leiwazne -c 61
Ty) eebiotes lgrouxt LAD... <5 2c gencdae nme i 9 1 ects deel ea ae nr ay 1
D | Chioralictus sparsus Robt...-.-..............- 3-5 15 41 16 5 ie
C | Chloralictusillinoensis Robt...............---- 466 [2505.24 1 2 18 21
C_ | Chloralictus sp. near zephyrus Sm.........-.-- 45 1 LA. -ssccersipebe - a5 18
& | Chioralictus pilogus (Sm.).<.- -...--<<e-s:----- BOF les wet ae 5 aD epee or 6
DD | Chloralictus cressoni ? (Robt.)..........-..---- Seu saeee es 4 i al esreesees | 5
{ | Chloralictus obscurus (Robt.)-...........--.-- 6-7 1 Mery e.e z 4
N_ | Chloralictus viridatus Lov............-..------ Gy wba, Fo. OY)... swsrela seme eee 2
CC | Chloralictus versatus Robt....................- at casa ece PAD sere eel pas Serene 2
S | Chloralictus caeruleus Robt.................--- i en Lo ae Dae ceeecs tanase 1
F | Seladonia provancheri (D. T.)...........---.-- Grfisttn eet 2 22 8 |i. add 30
G | Curtisapis coriacea (Robt.).......-...-.------- 7 PRESS ear te 1 8, 9
BB | Curtisapis fuscipennis (Sm.)...............-.-- 9 1 Wy pay Saab ipa | a en i ge tee ee 1
Y | Evylaeus arcuatus Robt................------- 7-8 2 10M (oe eee les te = 12
J Evylaeus pectoralis (Sm.)......-.......------- BOT -f.. 5 AAS 9.4 6
AAD! Hiv vISOUS SD. aon cnn Sant S new ed rcp ea eee ak 5 iT eee Pets ieee Se | 1
T | Dialonia antennariae (Robt.)................-- mee. eh 7S i ESS by a aT 2
U_ | Calliopsis andreniformis Sm...-.........--.--- BGs A ee 2 ane Se Meee 6
331

Specimens of all these species have been placed in the collections
of the United States National Museum. Each one is designated by
its respective type letter and bears the label “ Prey of Philanthus
gibbosus.”

372 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

In compiling the catalogue I have followed the classification and
nomenclature of Charles Robertson. The genera are therefore used
in the Robertsonian sense. According to the commoner classification,
the first 20 bees on the list would be placed in the genus Halictus.
These 20, with Dialonia antennariae, which is a Sphecodes, belong
to the family Halictidae. Calliopsis andreniformis, however, belongs
to the family Panurgidae. This latter species, of which one female
and five males were found in the cells of the wasp, bears a super-
ficial resemblance to Halictus ligatus.

Shall we say that the capture of these six Panurgid bees was acci-
dental? Shall we set it down as a mistake on the part of a Philan-
thus who was deceived by a superficial similarity between Calliopsis
and Halictus? That we should have to do if we were certain that
the wasp actually selects Halictidae. To make such an exclusive
choice the wasp must possess a remarkable instinct. Size affords no
reliable guide when the bees to be chosen vary from 8 millimeters to
three times that in length. Color is still more confusing. The prey
of Philanthus includes bees clad in brown or dull russet; others are
girdled with yellow, banded with white, adorned with hoary wool;
others are bright metallic green, red, blue, ebony black, or golden
green; and underneath this variety of garb and livery the wasp must
recognize the invariable Halictus. Endowed with such a talent, the
Philanthus would be a rival to expert melittologists; she would have
more skill than our professional classifiers—a conclusion that Henri
Fabre would most heartily indorse.

But the problem permits of another solution. It can be solved by
saying that Philanthus takes any bees of proper size that visit the
flowers during her hunting season. Halictid bees are captured in
such abundance not because the huntress is a specialist on Halictidae
but because they form the almost exclusive population of the summer
field flowers. This solution is plausible enough, but requires for
proof more study and experiment than I have been able to give the
question.

A third suggestion is possible. In our neighborhood I have seen
Philanthus gibbosus hunting or feeding on the flowers of Wild Car-
rot (Daucus carota), Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), Daisy Flea-
bane (Lrigeron ramosus), Lady’s Thumb (Polygonum persicaria),
and the cultivated Gaillardia (Gatllardia grandiflora), and Chinese
Woolflower (Celosia plumosa) in the garden. These are all flowers
whose surgary corollas are patronized largely by Halictidae. It
might accordingly be suggested that the preponderance of Halictid
prey is an accident resulting from the partiality of Philanthus for
flowers which Halictidae prefer. But this answer of itself scarcely
solves our difficulty. It merely leads to another question : Does Phil-

SOLITARY WASP——REINHARD. 378

anthus capture Halictidae because she just happens to visit the Halic-
tid flowers, or does she visit the Halictid flowers for the purpose of
capturing Halictidae?

But we must remember that in raising questions of this nature we
are presupposing that our taxonomic groups are perfectly natural
ones. Has not this discussion arisen because to our notions Calliopsis
does not belong with the Halictidae? I have a suspicion that the
Panurgidae could readily be brought together with the Halictidae
under the same family. If these two families were merged on a nat-
ural basis it would prove a magnificent compliment to the entomolog-
ical instinct of Philanthus. “Ask the beasts and they shall teach
thee,” and it is not improbable that Philanthus is offering taxonomy
a hint which taxonomy might profitably consider.

THE MENU OF BEES.

I hasten to abandon these conjectures for the secure pathway of
fact. To each cell the provident wasp furnishes a supply of from
8 to 16 bees. The contents of three cells belonging to a burrow
opened on July 7 will show how varied is the menu which Philan-
thus supplies her offspring.

Chioralictus ‘sparsus 022 8 102 | Chloralictus sparsus__________ TBR.
Oxystogiossa pura!!! Ceo) ll dhs 22 | Seladonia provancheri__________ 2¢
Hvylaeus arcuatus____________ 2¢é | Evylaeus arcuatus 2-3 19
Evylaeus arcuatus __-~--__-_-__ t-9 +) J@lalictus, ligatusib sul too lass 19
Chloralictus viridatus__________ 1¢ | Chloralictus caeruleus__._______ 192

Chloralictus sparsus __________ 82

Chloralictus versatus _______ steer D

Chloralictus. versatus _..-.—__ 1¢

Dialonia antennariae_________ 1¢

If each wasp provisions 10 cells, what a record of butcheries she
must have to her credit! The colony of Philanthi under observa-
tion was responsible for the destruction of several thousand Halic-
tidae every season. Because of its wholesale massacre of beneficial
bees, Phzlanthus gibbosus must be classed as an injurious insect.

THE BUTCHERING OF THE BEES.

The question of the prey may be looked at from another view-
point. The bees brought home from the hunt are often thickly
powdered with pollen—a fact that would lead one to suspect that
the unfortunate bee was caught and killed so quickly and skillfully
that there was not even a strugggle. Such was actually the case in
the encounter which I witnessed on an umbel of Queen Ann’s Lace.
A Philanthus was sipping nectar on the dome of florets and moving

55379—24 25

374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

quietly from cup to cup. Suddenly she made a dart for the edge
of the umbel—the next instant I saw her standing upright, holding
a small bee face to face and stinging it’ upwards under its chin.
One dagger stroke and the fight was over. Philanthus grasped her
victim and flew off. The whole operation did not take more than
10 seconds.

This capture which I observed was prettily and neatly done, but
oftentimes the wasp is only a blundering bungler. She will hover
over a flower and pounce on spider, fly, bug, or wasp that looks
small enough to be an easy victim. I have even seen her deceived
by the dark central florets in the white disk of Queen Ann’s Lace,
at which she would dart with amusing ferocity. Actual proximity
shows her the mistake, and she makes off to fall into other errors
of insect myopia.

THE RETURN FROM THE CHASE.

It is interesting to post oneself at the galleries of Philanthus to
watch the wasps return from the chase laden with their prey (pl.
3, fig. 11). Their flight is easy and unimpeded by the burden. If
one looks closely one can see that the wasp carries the limp carcass
of the bee tightly clasped to her breast with her middle pair of
legs. Sometimes she also grabs the bee’s antennae in her mandibles,
so that in case of emergency, when all six legs would be needed, the
bee need not be dropped. It happens sometimes in walking that
the legs release their grasp, but the bee is dragged along by the
grip which the wasp has of its antennae. In picking up the bee
the wasp first gets a mandibular hold of its antennae and then swings
it into position under her body. The wasp that is bringing home
prey descends to her nest in a rapid, swinging, zigzag flight.
Usually little difficulty is experienced in finding the right burrow.
The wasp alights, quickly removes the barrier of sand at the en-
trance, and disappears down the hole. Generally Philanthus effects
a neat and rapid entrance without releasing her burden, though at
the moment when the wasp tumbles down the shaft she shifts the

bee a bit to the rear so that its abdomen projects slightly beyond ~

her body.
AN AUTOPSY OVER THE VICTIMS.

If we play the coroner and hold an autopsy over the victims, it
becomes evident that one and all were fatally stabbed in the brain.
The bees that are taken from the wasp in transport all exhibit
strong reflex movements. The tarsi tremble, the legs are flexed, the
abdomen twitches spasmodically, but the antennae and mouth parts
are almost totally inactive. These latter organs are directly in-

SOLITARY WASP—REINHARD. 375

nervated by the brain, or, more properly, by the suboesophageal
ganglion, and would be the first to be affected by its lesion. The
postmortem activity of the other parts of the body is readily under-
stood when we remember that the abdomen, thorax, and thoracic
appendages are provided with special ganglia which may, even for
a short while after the brain is destroyed, still perform their func-
tion of stimulation, though no longer of coordination. The legs
and abdomen quiver actively at first, but the movements gradually
grow feebler and cease altogether after two or three hours. Then
complete immobility ensues. Electric and chemical stimulation
bring no response. Soon comes desiccation and decay.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

No wasp’s history could be called complete without mentioning the
concomitant ravages of those professional parasites, the Tachinids.
The persecutor of Philanthus is a dapper little fly, clad in pearl gray
with markings of rich seal-brown. Her eyes, red as gobs of clotted
blood, border a silvery face; hence she is placed on record as Metopia
leucocephala Rossi (det. Dr. J. M. Aldrich). Daily during July and
early August several of these white-faced flies can be seen poking
around from burrow to burrow in the populous colony of Philan-
thus. An open tunnel suits the parasite’s designs. With gingerly
haste she steps just inside the threshold, pauses a moment, then scur-
ries out and makes off. Never was she seen to enter a burrow more
than two or three inches. Since the hoary-headed Metopia is vivipa-
rous, I presume that she releases several live maggots at the entrance
to make their way unaided into the cells of the wasp.

Another intruder in the burrows of Philanthus is Senotainia tri-
liniata Van der Wulp (det. Dr. J. M. Aldrich), of smaller form than
Metopia but no less destructive. On July 22 two brood chambers of
Philanthus were discovered which were parasitized by two maggots
apiece. The marauders were feasting on the store of bees, and there
was no trace of the wasp’s larva or egg. These maggots formed
puparia within two days, and the adult Senotainiae emerged, one on
August 9 and three on August 10.

The adult wasp also falls a victim to predatory enemies. A female
Philanthus was found lying on the florets of goldenrod with a yel-
low spider (Miswmena vatia) sucking at her abdomen.

At Fordham University, during August, 1923, after the foregoing
notes were completed, I observed another enemy of Philanthus. The
incident occurred in a colony of P. gibbosus that had settled in a
characteristic nesting site under the brick pavement of an open auto
shed adjoining the Fordham faculty building. A large brown Asilid
had discovered that this Philanthus colony was a profitable spot for

376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

piracy. Frequently the robber-fly would come and crouch motion-
less near the nests, alert for booty. Whenever an unsuspecting wasp
drew near, swiftly the Asilid would rise and strike at it hawk-like
with legs extended ; but most often the intended victim escaped. The
home-coming Philanthi laden with their bees fell more easily into
the pirate’s clutches. One case in particular is worth recording. As
the wasp burdened with its bee came into sight the robber-fly pounced
upon it and caught both the wasp and her prey between its long
spiny legs. Then with its two captives dangling from its talons the
Asilid flew off. I followed to see the finish. The tableaux was
remarkable. The fly hung nonchalantly by one leg from a near-by
branch and with its sharp beak drained the juices of its double
catch. The incident was not without dramatic irony—the assassin
being despoiled by another assassin. To complete the tragedy I cap-
tured the second assassin. When its Bertillon prints were taken
the robber-fly was found to be Deromyia discolor Loew (det. Dr.
Aldrich).

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to my friend, Rev. John A.
Brosnan, 8. J., of Woodstock College, for his valuable services in
taking the photographs for this paper. To Mr. Sievert A. Rohwer,
of the United States National Museum, I am also obliged for deter-
mining nearly all the species of Hymenoptera involved in this discus-
sion and verifying my determinations of the rest. For this and other
assistance which Mr. Rohwer rendered me during the preparation of
this paper I am happy to express here my sincere gratitude and
appreciation.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Reinhard. PLATE I.

I. PHILANTHUS GIBBOSUS, FEMALE. (X5.)

2. THE EGG OF PHILANTHUS SECURED TO THE VENTRAL SURFACE OF A SMALL
HALICTINE BEE. (X6.)

3. NEWLY HATCHED LARVA OF PHILANTHUS BEGINNING TO FEED. (X6.)

4. IMAGO OF PHILANTHUS GIBBOSUS EMERGING FROM COCOON. (X5.)

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Reinhard. PLATE 2.

=

FULL GROWN LARVA OF PHILANTHUS. (X6.)

PUPA OF PHILANTHUS, LATERAL ASPECT. (X6.)

PUPA OF PHILANTHUS, DORSAL ASPECT. (X 6.)

PUPA OF PHILANTHUS, VENTRAL ASPECT. (X6.)

. A PHILANTHUS CELL, SHOWING THE LARVA AND ITS PROVISIONS. (NATURAL
SIZE).

10. PHILANTHUS CELL, SHOWING THE COCOON AND Foop Desris. (X2.)

OONDA

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Reinhard. PLATE 3.

11. PHILANTHUS IN FLIGHT, TRANSPORTING HER PREY. (X 7.)

12. PHILANTHUS GIBBOSUS AND SOME SPECIMENS OF HER PREY. THE
WASP IS IN THE CENTER FOR COMPARISON. THE BEES, BEGINNING
WITH THE LARGEST AT THE TOP AND GOING CLOCKWISE ARE—ANGO-
CHLORA VIRIDISSIME 2°, EVYLAEUS PECTORALIS 2, HALICTUS LIGATUS
2, CHLORALICTUS ILLINOENSIS 2, CURTISAPIS CORIACEA 3, SELADONIA
PROVANCHERI 3, CHLORALICTUS OBSCURUS <¢, CHLORALICTUS SPAR-

SUSic) sme)

THE USE OF IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP.

By J. WALTER FEWKES,
Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology.*

[With 6 plates. ]
INTRODUCTION.

Very little has been published on the forms, distribution, uses, and
ethnological significance of idols among North American Indians.
This poverty of our knowledge evidently either is due to a neglect
to study these objects by ethnologists or may reflect the relatively
small number of Indian tribes in which elaborate idol worship for-
merly flourished or still survives.

The early accounts of the southern Indians of the Mississippi
Valley contain descriptions of the employment of idols in religious
rites, and many archeological collections from that region contain
stone or clay images that may have served for idols. As we approach
the Mexican border, in the Southwest, the relative number of these
images increases. Early writings on Mexico, Central America, and
the West Indies contain frequent references to idolatry, and many
- idols existing in Mexican collections have been found in prehistoric
mounds. There are only a few localities in the United States where
both ethnologists and archeologists find these evidences of idolatry
plentiful. One of these is the pueblo region, or, as generally called,
the Southwest. The living Indians of this region are survivors of a
peculiar culture in which stone idols were abundant and the archeolo-
gist has recorded a large number of these images as found in this
area. It is instructive to remember that the ancient pueblo cult was
continued into modern times and in some instances old idols are
heirlooms and are regarded reverently in modern times. It is very
generally stated by Hopi priests that idols, like other cult objects,
came from the underworld and were inherited by their ancestors
from the earliest men who emerged from that place.

+ This article is the fourth of a series on the Hopi religion published in successive
annual reports of the Smithsonian Institution. The following have already appeured:
(1) Sun Worship of the Hopi Indians (1918); (2) Fire Worship of the Hopi Indians
(1920) ; (8) Ancestor Worship of the Hopi Indians (1921).

377

378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The survival of ancient objects into modern times among the
pueblos is a fortunate condition for one who desires to interpret them,
as it enables him, through comparative studies, to learn their meaning
and interpret the rites performed with idols of similar form in
ancient times. ‘These indications point to the conclusion that there
is no break in the cultural sequence of cliff dwellers and pueblos.
There has been a shifting of population by migration, union, or
disintegration of clans or social units and extinction of ceremonies
by death of clans, but no essential difference can be detected between
ancient and modern pueblos. There is a continuous growth in
culture with no great break in character from the ancient into the
early historic life.

For several years the use of idols in Hopi worship has been a sub-
ject of investigation by ethnologists, and we have better material
from this tribe than from any other pueblos. It is also worthy of
note that several idols are peculiar to certain clans (Snake and
others) and that those Walpi idols that were reputed to have been
brought from the north are identical with idols of the cliff dwellers.
We may interpret this similarity as one more evidence, supporting
many others, that the ancestors of certain clans of the Hopi were
cliff dwellers.

The places where idols are most commonly found are in shrines or
on altars erected at the time of great ceremonials. A shrine (pl. 1,
figs. 1 and 3) is a house (pahoki) where a prayer stick is deposited
to a god and is spoken of as the prayer-stick house of a supernatural
being, and often there stands in it an idol representing that being.
Cliff dwellers’ shrines are difficult to recognize, but those of pre-
historic pueblos have repeatedly been discovered. Up to last summer
(1922) shrines had not been recognized on the Mesa Verde, but else-
where, as at Zufii and Walpi, they are well known, the latter having
been enumerated and described by the author in an elaborate article.
As is well known, shrines to the world quarters are found near most
pueblos, ancient or modern, and have a general similarity in form,
being a small cairn or stone inclosure, sometimes with a flat stone
roof but generally open to the east. The Sun shrine at Zuni is a
good example of a simple shrine still used. The Alosaka shrine at
Awatobi? is a shallow depression in a rock with a wall before it.
Sometimes the door of a shrine is closed and a stone slab luted in
place with adobe and opened only when a ceremony is about to
be performed. The idol of Talatumsi belongs to the group of closed

2 Notwithstanding the fact that the Hopi pueblo Awatobi became a ruin in 1700, this
shrine was used up to about 1889, when the two idols of Alosaka which had stood in it
many years were taken away and carried to another shrine at the Middle Mesa. The inci-
dent connected with their removal is referred to in the author’s account of the excava-
tions at Awatobi in 1895. (See 17th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn.)

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 379

shrines. In the New Fire ceremony it is carried up the mesa and
placed on top of the different kivas to receive the prayers of the
faithful. The late excavations on the Mesa Verde National Park
have revealed several shrines and idols. Three shrines have been
discovered outside a ruin in the Mummy Lake cluster of mounds.
One of these, at a ruin called Pipe Shrine House,’ is attached to the
outer northeast corner of the ruin, another is situated a few feet
south of the south wall, while a third lies in the cedar forest some
distance south of the ruin. The shrine on the northeast corner con-
tained a slab of stone on which a circle was cut like that in the Zuni
Sun shrine. In the south shrine there stood a mountain lion idol
surrounded by many waterworn stones. In the Sun shrine there
were many waterworn stones, a meteorite, and numerous other objects.

When one enters a Hopi house where there are children one’s
attention may be attracted by bright-colored images carved out of
wood hanging from the rafters of the dwelling. It was said by
Bourke that these objects, after having done duty as idols, were used
as dolls; but it is now known, as elsewhere pointed out, that they
were made for dolls and presented to the little girls at the great
spring festival called the Powami. They are, however, made and
decorated with symbolic designs to represent the different clan
ancients or Katcinas, and now they serve to indicate the distinctive
symbolism of these beings as elsewhere* pointed out in an account
of some of their more common forms.

The Hopi idols are distinguished from fetishes or small stone
figurines of animals so common in former years. These fetishes
appear to be more abundant at the New Mexican pueblo, Zuni, and
are rarely found among the Hopi, where the priesthood of the Bow
or Warrior fraternity is less powerful. It is difficult always to
determine a line of demarcation between idols and fetishes, but the
former are generally larger than the latter and have animal or
human forms, being rather family than personal images and more
racial in character.

Many of the idols have anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms
among the Hopi. They commonly have a string tied about their
necks, to which are attached feathers or personal prayer offerings.
These objective prayers or symbolic wishes for blessings are espe-
cially common at the winter solstice ceremony.

There is reason to believe that in old times the use of stone idols
among the Hopi was very general and that the older the idol the

3 The kiva of this ruin has a shrine which served also as a fireplace, marked out on its
floor, but no idol was found in it. See Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian
Institution in 1922, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 74, no. 5, 1923.

4Vide “Dolls of the Tusayan Indians,” International Archiv., 1893. Of late years
there has been a considerable activity in the manufacture of Hopi dolls, stimulated in
part by commercial considerations, so that many more kinds are now made than formerly.
The wark quoted contains only a fraction of the number of different kinds of dolls made
as early as 1890,

380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

cruder it was made. They occur in all forms, from simple fossil
logs (pl. 1, fig. 2) of petrified wood and waterworn stones to elabo-
rately carved and painted images, human or animal in form, with
elaborate symbolism. The more realistic images do not date far back
in time, and it is doubtful if many of them antedate the arrival of
the Spanish padres. It is not improbable that church santos served
as models in their manufacture and may have inspired the elabora-
tion of the more realistic images. The painted stone and wooden
slabs bearing symbols of rain clouds, the sun, and various animals,
especially those loving water, often forming a reredos for these idols,
are here treated as symbols, although there may have been imparted
to them something of the same power as to idols. Many of these
bear zigzag figures, symbols of lightning, or, in case of wooden
sticks, have human heads cut upon one end.

It is difficult to believe that there ever lived any great number of
American Indians who worshiped a stone or a wooden or clay image,
or any object which they had themselves manufactured. There
have been individuals so lacking in intelligence or so sluggish in
mentality that they may have been hypnotized into the belief that
an idol representing a supernatural being had the power of the god.
Some Indians may have confused cause and effect so hopelessly that
they ascribed to a waterworn stone the power to bring water or
believed that a water-frequenting plant or animal caused rain to
fall, but we have yet to learn that psychologically even these people
have gone any farther than to ascribe power to such objects. It is
quite a different thing to worship the power expressed by certain
symbols and the symbol itself. Having exchanged ideas with those
who personate supernatural beings in their ceremonies, the author
has come to the conclusion that primitive men do not worship idols,
but use them as symbols to express by tangible objects well-grounded
beliefs current in their philosophy.

A fundamental belief among the Hopi is that men, animals,
material objects, sky, earth, fire, water, everything, organic or inor-
ganic, possesses magical powers which are the objective elements of
primitive religion. It is believed by most savages that there exists a
power beyond that of man which controls the universe and that this
power of nature wherever found can be associated with that of man
and used by him for material or spiritual advantage. Idols like-
wise share this power with other objects; by some persons super-
natural beings are believed to reside in these images, but few intel-
ligent men believe that the idol is the supernatural it represents.

Worship is not considered the best term to use in speaking of the
relation of the powers of supernatural beings and man, but it is the
effort of man to be in harmony with the power behind nature, and
the idea seems to be that man by a union of his own power with that

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 881

personified in natural objects may bring about certain greatly needed
material help,

One of the perplexing aspects of the study of individual idols is
the multiplicity of names which many of them bear. This has been
commented on by many authors and may be due to the composite
nature of the Hopi people, different groups of people among a com-
posite tribe like the Hopi having different names for the same god.

Many facts seem to indicate that the Hopi hold a belief in a future
existence beyond the grave, which antedates the advent of EKuro-
peans. The belief that on death the Hopi descend to the under-
world is very old. The breath body or spirit is supposed to lead a
life in this place not greatly unlike that on earth. The defunct
preserved its kinship with the living members of the same clan and
held communication through an opening in the floor of the kiva with
those members of the clan that remained behind.

The ancestors of Pueblos, whether cliff dwellers or inhabitants of
stone houses in the open, were accustomed to deposit bowls of food
and jars of water, ornaments, effigies, and other objects at the graves
of the dead, as is generally done by people who believe in a future
life. The spirit food is supposed to be consumed by the spirit before
its departure for the underworld. The material food decays or is
consumed by animals.

In considering any tribe of men among whom idols exist we are
continually meeting a great predominance of symbolism. It would
seem that a primitive religion dealing with belief, generally symbol-
izes its conceptions by means of material objects—images, pictures,
and concrete representations of other kinds. The relation of the
object to the belief is variously stated. For instance, the belief is
current that the image is the home or the residence, the place of abode,
of an essence or breath body. In more refined civilization this breath
body is given the name spirit. It must be remembered, however,
that the term spirit originated at the dawn of language and simply
meant a breath, having the same material existence as air in the
mind of primitive men. In the course of development of men’s
interpretation of this breath power it has taken on several phases,
implying as many differences in meaning. The spirit is sometimes
spoken of as a double, and in the Hopi conception every individual
has a double, or what might be called a power to accomplish results,
or what we would call a vital force, and a mortal body that dies and
disappears. The Hopi shaman holds to a belief that by certain in-
cantations, prayers, songs, and association of material objects a
magic power that can be used to influence the spirits of other objects
can be intensified ; for instance, by the use of certain words addressed
to certain symbols representing the rain clouds a priest can compel
the rain clouds to bring the rain. It is not exactly a response to a
petition, but rather a compelling of magic power to act by the use

382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

of a higher and more potent magic in order to accomplish the de-
sired end. Religion among primitive men may be regarded from
the point of view of symbolism, and in order to use this effectively
they are accustomed to present the powers of nature by symbolic
means, representing them either in the form of figures or as en-
graved images to which the name idol is commonly given. An idol,
in other words, is an image made of wood, clay, or stone, in the
form of a human or animal shape, supposed from its antiquity, form,
or symbolism to possess the power of the god it represents and
capable of being used for the bringing about of desired results.

Formerly it was not unusual to see a stone image or idol in every
Pueblo dwelling room. This domestic idol (pl. 2, fig. 2) was often
of crude construction, in the form of an animalistic or anthropo-
morphic being. In the house of Intiwa, the Katcina chief,’ there for-
merly stood a stone idol of the war god, and there was an idol of
the mountain lion in the house of the Sun priest. At the present
time there are few of these domestic idols remaining, for zealous
collectors from eastern museums have purchased them or they have
been hidden away by the owners in some remote corner of the house-
hold. Formerly these idols were not only at times sprinkled with
prayer meal but also daily worshiped by the members of the house-
hold and prayer feathers tied around their necks. Food was gener-
ally found clinging to their lips, indicating that there survived into
modern times the custom of feeding them which was practiced before
the coming of the whites.

Idols in shrines—The idols found in shrines near Walpi are gen-
erally more archaic than those used on altars in kivas and are made
of stone, rarely of wood and clay. They are sometimes simply
strangely formed waterworn stones, more like fetishes. .

There is a well-made idol near the stairway trail on the east side
of the mesa, which is called Talatwmsi (the Elder Sister of the Dawn,
planet Venus). This shrine is a rude excavation made by man in a
bowlder, its opening being closed by a flat slab of rock that serves as
a door, which is ordinarily luted in place with clay. This door is
removed in November every fourth year, when the idol in the shrine
is taken out and carried, with considerable ceremony, to the top of
the mesa; here it is placed on the kiva hatches and rites performed
near it. This idol of Talatumsi is a wooden image dressed in a white
ceremonial blanket, with an embroidered sash about her waist, in
which are put the wooden prayer offerings that are every four years
made to her (pl. 2, fig. 1). At the close of rites around the kiva
entrance the image is carried back to her shrine and the door luted
in place, awaiting the next quadrennial emergence. As this image
is very sacred, it is rarely exhibited, and no one save the initiated
is supposed to be acquainted with her shrine.

5 When the author last visited Walpi this house was deserted and falling into ruins.

PLATE lI.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Fewkes.

3
THE STICKS WITH PRAYER FEATHERS ARE

|. SHRINE OF THE SUN NEAR WALPI.
MADE IN GREAT NUMBERS AT THE WINTER SOLSTICE CEREMONY AND ARE
OFFERINGS TO THE SUN FOR INCREASE OF ALL BLESSINGS DESIRED BY THE
VISITED AT THE NEW FIRE CEREMONY AT WALPI.

Hopt.
2. SHRINE WITH FOSSIL LOG.
ON LEFT OF THE TRAIL FROM EAST TO MIDDLE MESA.
3. SHRINE OF THE FIRE GOD MASAUWU, SITUATED IN THE PLAIN WEST OF
MEN RETURNING WITH FAGOTS ON THEIR BACKS THROW A BOUGH

SMALL POTTERY DISHES ALSO DEPOSITED IN IT.

WALPI.
ON THIS SHRINE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Fewkes. 2 PLATE 2.

4

|. IDOL OF TALATUMS| REMOVED FROM HER SHRINE AT THE QUADRENNIAL
CELEBRATION OF THE NEW FIRE AND CARRIED TO THE TOP OF THE EAST MESA

_ BY HER GUARDIANS, THE HORN PRIESTS.

2. HOUSE IDOL OF MOUNTAIN LION.

3. IDOL OF THE GERM GOD, MuyYINwU. (SQUARE TOWER HOUSE,)

4. SIDE VIEW OF STONE IDOL OF PLUMED SERPENT (PIPE SHRINE HOUSE).

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Fewkes. PLATE 3.

|. THE STONE IDOL OF
THE TWISTER, USED IN
THE MARAU CEREMONY
AT AWATOBI, Now A
RUIN NEAR WALPI.

2. STONE IDOLS ON THE WARRIOR ALTAR AT HANO. THE THREE LARGER
REPRESENT THE LITTLE GODS OF WAR: THE SMALLER ON THE RIGHT OF THE
REAR Row, THE SPIDER WOMAN, THEIR MOTHER. THE FOUR STONE IDOLS
IN THE FRONT ROW ARE ANIMAL PETS OF THE IDOLS.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Fewkes. PLATE 4

3 4

|, 2. FRONT AND SIDE VIEW OF A STONE BIRD IDOL, PIPE SHRINE HOUSE.

3. STONE IDOL OF PLUMED SNAKE. SAME SPECIMEN AS PL. 2, FIG. 4;
FRONT VIEW WITH FEATHERS RESTORED. PIPE SHRINE HOUSE.

4. STONE HEAD OF MOUNTAIN SHEEP, PIPE SHRINE HOUSE.

a re

ee

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 383

Talatumsi is related to one of two wooden idols called Alosaka
(germ god) that were formerly worshiped by the inhabitants of
Awatobi. Up to the year 1888 these stood in a little cave under the
rim rock at that ruin and, although the pueblo was deserted in 1700,
were objects of reverence; but on that year Navajos, not knowing
that these images were still used by the Hopi, desecrated their shrine,
carried away the idols, and sold them to Mr. Thomas Keam, who
deposited them in his store in Keams Canyon, some 8 miles away.
When the Hopi of the Middle Mesa heard of this act they appeared
in force at the store, demanding the idols, which they held in great
reverence. Mr. Keam, being a man of broad appreciation, delivered
the images to the chiefs of the Middle Mesa, who made a broad trail
of meal, reaching from his house to the Middle Mesa, over which
the idols were carried to a new shrine near the village, where they
are now kept in a small cave.

Before the coming of the white people there were several other
shrines situated near by or a considerable distance from the pueblos,
but of late all have been brought nearer the village in order to pro-
tect them from desecration by alien people, who have rifled many
shrines for commercial purposes.®

A shrine in which were formerly kept the effigies of the Great
Serpent is one of those which have been moved nearer to the mesa,
and the serpent effigies when used are taken from their present
receptacle, although in commemoration of their past history an offer-
ing is made and prayers are annually said at their original home.

A coiled or screw-like idol (pl. 3, fig. 1), called a “ heart twister,”
occupies the central position in a line of images before the reredos of
the altar of one of the basket dances. It is said by the Hopi shamans
that in certain diseases the heart is twisted out of position, and by
waving this object in a circle over the head of the sufferer the heart
can be restored to its natural position.

These idols are known as “twisters” (pl. 3, fig. 1), one of which,
found not far from the prehistoric pueblo, Awatobi, is now in the
Ethnological Museum at Berlin, Germany. ‘This idol is like a stone
screw, about 14 feet high. Around it is a spiral groove; white, red,
and green bands run around it like stripes of the same colors on a
barber’s pole. This idol was probably used for the same purpose as
the so-called “ heart twister” on a modern Hopi altar, which legends
declare a priestess saved in the massacre and introduced into Walpi
from Awatobi, near which ill-fated pueblo this idol was found. On
the wagon trail to Hano there is another of these “ twisters,” a coiled
cast of a cephalopod shell that has for years stood in a shrine or rude
cairn not far from the road, halfway to the top of the mesa from
the plain.

6 The desecration of the Hopi shrines and abstraction of their idols have been much
resented by the priests.

384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

While the author was studying the rituals of the Hopi Indians he
rented a room in Hano in which, unbeknown to him, the serpent
effigies were kept. At one end of this room there was a raised ban-
quette admirably adapted for a sleeping place, and upon it he spread
his sheepskins and blankets and for months slept nightly upon it. On
the opening night of the March drama, when the time came to pro-
cure the serpent effigies, a procession, headed by the chief, went to
the room occupied by the writer and the priests began to scrape away
the clay on top of the bench and brought to light four vases covered
with a circular stone covering. In the vases were kept the serpent
effigies, and unknowingly the author had slept on snake idols for sev-
eral months without harm, Having procured the serpent effigies, the
priests carried them to the Sun spring at the foot of the mesa and
several weird rites, as yet never described, were performed about
them. Formerly the idols of the horned serpent were kept in a cave
some distance north of Hano, but that shrine was abandoned on

Fia. 1.—Side and front views of Plumed Serpent idol. Far View House, Mesa Verde
National Park.

account of its exposure to persons of vandalistic tendencies. It is
instructive to note that when a shrine has once been used as the
receptacle for an idol and the idol removed, the priests do not neglect
to say their prayers at the ancestral place. This feeling appears
in another form when ancestral springs are visited for sacred water
for ceremonials. For instance, in the snake dance priests go to old
springs in the north for sacred water because when they lived in the
cliffs the adjacent springs were used by them for sacred purposes.

In the work of excavation of Mesa Verde ruins last year (1922)
stone idols of animals were discovered in shrines near Pipe Shrine
House. These are crude images and considerably broken, but they
are not unlike modern counterparts. One of the largest, the torso
of the mountain lion? above mentioned, found in an inclosure south
of Pipe Shrine House, was left in place in the south shrine of this
remarkable building. The head of an idol recalling the Great Ser-
pent (pl. 2, fig. 4), likewise broken, was discovered at this ruin.
Although attached feathers were absent, there is a groove around
the neck of this idol where feathered strings were probably once tied.

pear AIS RNID OAT EE POI tl AEE MERION SE LMP RN Al St IES TA EN
7At Walpi, Hopi women sometimes wear a small stone fetish of a mountain lion
attached to their belt.

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 385

It is worthy of mention that the Great Serpent figured in the Mesa
Verde rituals, for set in the wall between the two doors in the south
wall of Pipe Shrine House there is an inscribed rock on which is
an incomplete spiral identified as the pictograph of the serpent, in-
dicating that the worship of the Sun Serpent God was one of the
purposes of that building. The snake idol shown in figure 1 was
found near Far View House.

A bird idol (pl. 4, figs. 1 and 2) and a stone head identified as the
head of the mountain sheep were likewise found in the dump re-
moved from Pipe Shrine House, but the positions of the shrines
which once housed these supernaturals were not discovered. The
stone head of a mountain sheep idol (pl. 4, fig. 4) was found in the
dump outside Pipe Shrine House on the Mesa Verde National Park.
It appears that a larger number of stone idols were discovered in the
excavations at Pipe Shrine House than in any other Mesa Verde
ruin, and that they not only far outnumber those from any other ruin
on the park but also in the San Juan Valley. No stone idols have
yet been found in Mesa Verde cliff houses, as the shrines of the cliff
dwellings are yet to be discovered.

Idols on altars —The majority of idols are found on altars, and
in order to get a better idea of their forms we will now consider a
few of the great Hopi altars. These idols are often more elab-
orately made than those found in shrines and are generally of wood,
or when very ancient are of stone.

The distribution of idols* on Hopi altars is somewhat as follows:

Ceremony. Idols.
1. New Fire Ceremony......... 1. Talatumsi, Alosaka, anthropomorphic idol of
Germ God; (Elder Sister of the Dawn; the
Morning Star, Warrior God.)
2. Tuwapontumci. (Earth Altar Woman)

2 WIRtEr MOIBLICE..-.c 2-6. .<50 Germ God (stone cone).
Plumed Serpent. (Effigy).
Sy Momiicita fisted. ku 290s: Piiitikong, War God.

Kokyanwiiqti, Spider Woman.
Stone images of animals.

Sor ROWAN 2. seccanareleaes she i Sun sand picture.
Tungwup.

5 Palalukons te AG 0IANS Lk Plumed Snake. (Effigy).

6. Snake Dance........-....... Human personations of snake maid and youth.
Animal idols.

PA OL SESS ey NS A a IR Images of Flute hero and Flute maid.

Sky God, Germ God, birds.
: ae ids aT Dave }outtus hanwasidHerdineylanthimpomerphicddole:
jee God (Muyinwu).
Oia sh a ee Stone cone.

® There are several other idols in use at Walpi which are not included in this list.

386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1923.

The Oraibi Snake altar has two idols, differing from that at Walpi
and the other Hopi pueblos. The rites about it have never been
observed.?®

The idols used by the Warrior priesthoods at Hano and Walpi
are set up directly after the winter solstice ceremony and consist
of shapely stone images of Spider Woman and her two ofisprings,
the Twin Gods of War (pl. 3, fig. 2). When not used these idols are
in the keeping of the priesthood of the Bow, and the ceremony in
which they are used is called the Momtcita.'°

The secret rites of the Hopi priests are generally conducted in
special rooms called kivas, of which there are five in Walpi. Mod-
ern kivas are generally situated in the courts separated from secular
rooms, but several priesthoods use special rooms, not known as kivas,
for ceremonials. These rooms are embedded in the house masses,
generally the rooms of the clan that owns the idols, fetishes, or cere-
monial paraphernalia of that family. For instance, the Flute room,
where the Flute idols are kept and in which the Flute altar is erected,
is a good example of such a type of ceremonial room. The cham-
ber in which the Sun priests gather and erect their simple altar is
another instance of a ceremonial room not a kiva. A third example
of a chamber not a kiva is that in which the Warriors or Priesthood
of the Bow annually assemble and hold their sacred gatherings.
This room is seldom opened except on days of war rites, and idols
are hidden in a recess in its walls. Here they are kept, and in
midwinter they are taken from their receptacle and arranged as
an altar.

This room (fig. 2) of the Warriors is situated in the second story
of Walpi directly under the dwelling of the Pakab or Reed people,
the chief of which inherited the tiponi or badge of office of the
Warriors. It is entered by a hatchway and is without windows. It
is rectangular in shape and the niche or sealed recess where the
idols and other paraphernalia of the Warriors are customarily kept
in its northeast corner. The length of this room is about double the
width and its walls are oriented about east and west. The wall
decoration of this chamber is interesting, corresponding with its use.
Each wall is painted with a picture of a different animal charac-
teristic of a cardinal point, and as these animals are realistic enough
for identification we may conclude what animals are associated with
the cardinal points.

® A description of this altar by Voth was mainly derived from the author’s description
of the Snake altar of the Walpi ceremony. The view of the sand picture of the Snake
altar at Oraibi by the same author is made from the Walpi altar, not from direct
observation.

10'The ceremonies are described in the author’s article, “‘ Hopi Minor Ceremonials,”
Amer, Anth., n, s., vol. v, no. iv,

“IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 387

On the north wall, facing west, there is a picture of the mountain
lion, 8 feet long, of brown color. The eye of this animal is a glis-
tening fragment of a pearly Haliotis shell; a line painted red rep-
resents the life line, extending from the mouth to the region of the
heart. The tail extends forward above the back, a significant posi-
tion in pictures of the mountain lion, the tail of which is generally
represented as a ridge in relief extending longitudinally along the
backbone; but in this connection it is instructive to call to mind

wae ee ee ee

ae oe oe

Ul

Se ee wee ay

Fig. 2.—Diagram of Warrior room at Walpi; inner rectangle, floor of room; animals
painted on walls. N. W. S. EB. cardinal points; north, west, south, east: as, Aspergil ;
b, basket plaque; c, niche in which idols are kept, closed by stone paint slab (ps), on
which paint is ground: d, door into next room; e, entrance to room from roof by
ladder; f, eagle feather; fc, fireplace; h, ancient war club; k, spider woman idol;
1, lightning framework ; n, packet of prayer meal tied to prayer stick (wps) ; p, little
war god; ph, little war god; ps, stone paint slab used as door to niche (c); 7, path-
way of blessings; t, Tiponi (warrior badge of office) ; tc, ancestral celts; tk, wooden
cross, tokpela, representing sky god; wps, warrior prayer stick.

that the large so-called stone lions at Cochiti pueblo do not have the
tail extended along the median dorsal line.

The figure painted on the east wall measures about 3 feet long
and has an extended tail, just above which is a conventional sun sym-
bol consisting of a circle from which radiate eight feathers arranged
in four clusters of two each and intermediate lines representing the
rays of the sun. The figure on the south wall represents the wild
cat and that on the west a bear drawn above a five-pointed star.

The idols on the altars used by the Warrior priesthood at Walpi
and Hano are practically representative of the same supernatural

388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

beings, viz, the Spider Woman and her children, the Twin War
Gods, and certain “ pets” associated with them. These are repre-
sented in the accompanying figure (pl. 3, fig. 2) of the altar at Hano.

The most important idol of the Hopi is that of the Sun god, known
in ceremonials as the Heart of the Sky. One of the best examples
of this god, found on the Oraibi Flute altar,
elsewhere figured,t should be especially’ men-
tioned, as it is the best Hopi idol. A symbol of
this god, which takes the shape of a cross, occurs
on several of the Hopi altars.

Next in importance to the idol of the Sky god
is that of Muyinwu, the Corn Mountain or Germ
Goddess, which occupies a prominent place on the
majority of Hopi altars. Its archaic form is a

a) conical stone or wooden object called the corn hill

Fie. 3.—Idol of the or corn mound (pl. 2, fig. 3, and text fig. 3).
= eee et The altars of the Hopi Basket Dances have two
altar of Mamzrauti idols (figs. 4 and 5), one of the cultus hero and
kat another of the cultus heroine, parents of the clan
that controls the rite. The latter strongly resembles Calakomana
or the Corn Maid as she appears in the Tablet Dance, when she
is called the Palahikomana. Similar pictures of the same per-
sonages, having human heads, and wings, bodies, and tails of

birds, also occur on the lateral wings of the altar reredos.

Among the instructive sacred objects on the
Lakone altar are bundles of rods that are placed
over a sand mosaic and are spoken of as Germ
God idols. These bundles contain prayer sticks
and other fetishes,’? and although described as
idols, suggest the bundles of the plains tribes.
They are regarded as very sacred objects, being
sometimes sprinkled with sacred meal; it is com-
monly said that they represent “ mothers,” and
they are held in great respect.

The Hopi dances, commonly called Katcinas, in
which masked men representing ancients appear, fic. 4. — Idol of
have idols on the altars which are erected at the Marau Maid from

é * Marau altar.
advent and departure of these beings, Powamti
and Niman. One of these idols is called Tungwup (the sun); the
other Pokema or Eototo, the earth god.

On several altars, as that of the Antelope in the snake dance, we
find stone idols in the form of animals, which are rude and small, in-
dicating a more archaic condition than the elaborate wooden figurines.

11 Sun Worship of the Hopi Indians, Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1918.
122The contents of one of these bundles are enumerated in the author’s account of the
Takone altar, Amer. Anth., 1892.

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 389

The author has already alluded to the idols on the altars of the
Flute priests in his article on Sun Worship.” The Flute altars have
anthropomorphic images representing the Flute Youth and Maid, as
well as the Germ idol. The former are shown in the accompanying
figure (pl. 5), one representing the Flute Youth, the other the
Flute Maid. Wooden images of birds are frequently found on Hopi
altars and likewise occur in ruins situated along the San Juan River.

Traces of sun worship in the numerous rites of the Flute ceremony
are many and highly significant, emphasizing the tradition that the
Flute people, like the Patki or Raincloud clans, came from the south
and joined the Snake and other northern clans in prehistoric times.
Later the Flute clans separated from the northern
clans, to be reunited at Walpi, where they have
since lived in harmony, forming a homogeneous
people. The Flute legends have many similari-
ties to those of the Snake fraternity, which
leads to the belief that they lived some time
together.7®

Winter solstice altar (Hano).—The most strik-
ing idol used in the winter solstice ceremonial is an
efigy of the Plumed Serpent, which is also used in
the spring equinoctial ceremony. This has al-
ready been described and figured in the author’s
pamphlet on Sun Worship of the Hopi Indians.
These idols are effigies manufactured from va-
rious materials. At every celebration of the
vernal equinox and winter solstice they are
mended, repainted, and adorned with fresh
feathers. Fic. 5.—Idol of the

One of the most archaic rites performed in ant paid ea
the vernal equinox ceremony in March is the visit of the reredos of
made by the guardians of these snakes to the juin a
Sun Spring, their home or shrine. They are laid on the bank of
this spring with their heads reaching to the water, into which
their tongues hang, and prayers are said to them before they are
carried into the kivas.

Idols are not necessarily made of stone, clay, or wood, but may
be effigies constructed of other materials. Each of these idols in the
Walpi variant of the winter solstice ceremony is an effigy composed
of a series of hoops over which is tied a buckskin or cloth cover
representing the body of a serpent, while the head is made of a
painted gourd, the whole decorated with symbolic markings.

2 The contents of one of these bundles are enumerated in the author’s account of the
Lakone altar, Amer. Anth., 1892.
8 There is a ruin north of Walpi, said to have been their former habitation, called
Lefianobi, the House of the Flutes,
55879—24——_26

390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

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Ire. 6.—Altar of the Basket Dance, Owakiilti, at Sitcomovi. This altar was erected in a
kiva and consists largely of slats of wood decorated with symbols (ww), tied together
and held in place by upright and horizontal rods. Individual cult objects designated by
the following letters: a, Sky band; 6, Hagle of the Sun; c, Upper Sun with lightning ;
Lower Sun with rays of the four ‘woxld quarters; cs, Corn symbol; d, Frog; e, Tad-
poles; f, Star symbol; g, Rain clouds; h, Unknown birds ; i, Rabbit; k, Dragon fly ;
1, Butterfly symbol; m, Germ God in form of corn mound; n, Germ Goddess; o, Little
War God; p, Horns worn on head of Owakiil Maid; 7, Tiponi, badge of chief; ¢, Tok-
pela, sky god; w, Netted disk carried in hand of Owakiil Maid; #, Tiponi, badge of
chief ; 2, Lightning,

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 391

Through the middle of the body is a stick, called the backbone, by
which the effigy is manipulated. This effigy is regarded by the
priests in much the same way as a stone idol, prayers being offered
to it with sacred meal in a similar way.

The Hano priests, however, in their winter solstice rite make each
year a clay idol of the Plumed Serpent, Avanyu,'* which is laid on
the floor back of their altar. A somewhat similar idol of stone
(pl. 2, fig. 4; pl. 4, fig. 3; and text fig. 1), found at the Pipe Shrine
House, Mesa Verde, was probably the recipient of prayers in the
same way as the clay images of the Hano Winter Solstice altar and
the effigy idol of the Walpi or Hopi variant.

Unworked stones of rare forms, fossils, or stones eroded by water,
may also serve as idols, and we find them treated as such; for instance,
a fossil log in a shrine near Walpi is used in the New Fire ceremony.
The author found many and various waterworn stones, crystals, and
Tertiary fossil shells in the shrines of Pipe Shrine House. There
exists a rich chapter of folklore regarding the efficacy of strangely
formed stones among the Hopi, which is not here considered lest it
would swell this article to undue proportions.

The most widely known of all Hopi ceremonies is that called the
Snake Dance, in which there are two altars. Neither of these has
an anthropomorphic idol representing the cultus hero and heroine of
the Snake-Antelope, but at the Antelope altar these ancestral super-
naturals are personated by a boy and girl who stand back of the
altar. as shown in plate 6. On the rear border of the sand picture
that forms the greater part of this altar are a mountain lion fetish
and several stone images of animals.

The related Flute ceremony has its altar idols (pl. 5) representing
the Flute Hero and Heroine carved out of wood. In the march from
the Sun Spring to the top of the mesa they are represented by a
boy and two girls appareled like the Snake Maid and Antelope
Youth of the Antelope altar (pl. 6).

Cultus heroes and heroines are represented by wooden idols in the
altars of the three great basket and tablet dances, known as the Lala-
konti, Mamzrauti, and Owakiilti. They are well fashioned and sug-
gest recent manufacture, or later than those of stone used in the
more archaic New Fire and Winter Solstice ceremonies.

In the accompanying illustration (pl. 6) the Antelope priests are rep-
resented as seated around the Antelope altar in a secret consecration
of prayer sticks of the celebrated Snake Dance at Walpi. Although
many hundred white people have witnessed the open Snake Dance,
thus far only a very few have been admitted to the rites that take

144A description of this idol may be found in Hepi Minor Ceremonials, Amer. Anth.,
Wolk. DV; a2. 8.

392

W?
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ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

=H

Ly}

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5 (BLUE FLUTE ALTAR).

a, Flute Youth.

b, Flute Maid.

c, Flute Tiponi, badge of chieftain.

d, Flute birds.

e, Medicine bowl.

fe, Flute chief.

g, Mounds of sand, inserted in which are
wooden ‘‘ corn flowers.”

h, Four marks on each wall of the room
made with corn (prayer meal).

i, Bank of corn ears behind altar.

m, Corn ears.

n, Basket tray.

o, Wooden slat representing lightning.

p, Prayer sticks and corn husks.
q, Rafter of house roof.
r, Gourd rattle.
re, Rain clouds, square and semicircular.
s, Slab of stone on which paint is ground.
t, Ladle made of gourd.
u, Blanket.
v, Hanging strings (rain?).
w, Feathers, blankets, bags, and ceremonial
paraphernalia.
w, Cupboard.
z, Shelves.
Feather symbols indicated by triangles on
angles of the rectangular rain clouds.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Fewkes. PLATE 5.

el wiih. ne

Nic j Mullett

BLUE FLUTE ALTAR AT MICONINOVI, MIDDLE MESA.

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 393

place in the kivas or secret rooms at that time, and one may count
on the fingers of one hand the descriptions of these rites of the Snake
Dance that have been published. This illustration (pl. 6) has been
made with care and accuracy to show the character of the altar and
the posture of the priests gathered about to begin the dramatization
und sing the 16 songs in the Walpi presentation. Having witnessed
this rite in the five Hopi villages that celebrate the Snake rite, the
author does not hesitate to say that the Walpi variant is one of the
best in Hopi land.*®

The earliest account of this altar and the songs about it appeared
in the author’s Snake Ceremonies at Walpi in 1894,1° based on a
study of the Snake Dance at Walpi in 1891 and 1893. An accurate
picture of the sand mosaic in color appeared in the year 1900.27

Let us briefly consider this rite. It is called the consecration of
certain prayer emblems and is a rude dramatization of a rite men-
tioned in the Hopi Snake legend. The ceremony is supposed to have
formerly been celebrated by the ancestors of the Snake people in the
underworld, and to have been brought to the surface of the earth by
a cultus hero known as the Antelope Youth. This youth, or cultus
hero, visited the underworld where he married a daughter of the
chief, and representations of him and his bride are standing back of
the altar. The exact time in the rite chosen for illustration is mid-
way in the songs when the pipe is passed to the Antelope Chief,
Wiki,** the signal for the beginning of the ceremony.

A large stone idol of the mountain lion stands on this altar back
of the sand picture between two palladia or tiponis, one of which is
now in place; the other is held on the left arm of the Antelope or
Snake Hero. ‘There are several smaller idols on the altar which are
said to be heirlooms inherited from very old times.

Midway in the songs about this altar the chief of the Antelopes
receives from the pipe lighter a lighted pipe or conical “cloud
blower,” and kneeling back of the mountain lion so that the pointed
end rests between the ears of the idol, blows six whiffs of smoke
through the cloud blower upon the sand picture.1® The ingredients
smoked in this cloud blower are herbs gathered from the cardinal
points, mixed with fragments of spruce leaves, the burning of which
makes a pleasant smell in the room.

4% The Walpi Hopi claim that their variant is the most ancient and truthful of all
and assert since the original palladium of the Snake priesthood is now in their possession
that all others are imitations.

16 Journal of Am. Ethn. and Arch., vol. IV, Boston, 1894.

7Tusayan Flute and Snake Ceremonial, 19th Ann. Rept. Bur, Amer, Ethn., 1900,

18 The rites, songs, and prayers at the consecration of the prayer emblems on this altar
are described in Vol. IV A, Journal of Am, Hthn. and Arch., Boston, 1894,

1 This and other straight-tubed pipes are known as cloud blowers. There are all
gradations in form from a tobacco pipe with upturned bow! to a straight-tubed cloud
blower.

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

394

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IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP-—FEWKES. 395

This cloud of smoke, by sympathetic magic, is supposed by the
priests to represent the raincloud, and the production of the smoke
is one way of praying for rain that is often sorely needed for the
parched fields of the Hopi. As the formal cloud blowing in the
secret rites of the Antelope altar takes place midway in the progress
of the songs it may be regarded as the culmination of the ceremony.
The presence of the mountain lion idol is appropriate, because this
fetish represents the Mountain Lion people, who formerly lived with
the Hopi in their cliff houses on the San Juan.

One object that may be called a fetish is omitted in the picture
of the Antelope altar. In the 1893 Snake Dance at Walpi the
author gave Wiki, the Antelope priest, a specimen of the King
crab (Limulus polyphemus) which he collected on the Atlantic
coast. The Antelope chief had never seen a horseshoe crab and did
not know what it was. After he and his fellow chiefs had examined
it one of their number pronounced it a “Giant Tadpole” and
placed it on the altar, after which all the priests sprinkled it with
meal and prayed to it, as they believed it efficacious to bring rain.
In other words, it was accepted as an idol,®° although probably no
one had ever seen one of these animals.

It will be noticed that the Antelope altar is largely horizontally
placed, consisting of a sand picture and accompanying objects,
none of which rise high above the floor. The only upright portion
of this altar is a stone slab known as the Butterfly Maid,” which
stands back of the altar, making a very ancient form of reredos.

Prayers to idols——The method of praying adopted by the Hopi
is practically identical for all idols. When an altar is set up it
is customary for a devout priest on entering the kiva to ask the
chief, as he steps from the ladder, whether he is welcome or not,
and, on being informed that he is, he approaches the altar with
the fireplace always on his left hand. He then takes a little prayer
meal from the flat basket tray on the floor, and, after raising it to
his mouth and praying, sprinkles it upon the idols and other altar
objects. The breath body of the prayer meal is supposed to
communicate the wish of the worshiper to the god represented by
the idol. When a priesthood prays as a body, or when an indi-
vidual priest offers a more formal prayer in the form of a prayer
stick, it is inserted in the girdle about the body of the idol. These
prayer sticks are generally placed in a ridge of sand before the
image. Another method of prayer is by the use of a stringed

20 The last time the author saw the Antelope altar this animal was still in use.

“1 The Butterfly clan is associated with Badger, Butterfly, and kindred families, who are
said to have been among the latest introductions into the Hopi country.

22Under prayers may be mentioned smoking tobacco fumes upon idols or asperging
medicine over them, both of which are regarded as symbolic rain prayers.

396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

feather, which is breathed upon and tied either about the neck or
attached to the belt of an idol.

The mouths of domestic idols have fragments of food adhering to
their lips, showing it was customary to offer nourishment or to
feed them; but the habit of feeding Hopi idols is not now as com-
mon as formerly. It is true that there are very few idols now stand-
ing in the corners of living rooms, although in 1890 the author knew
of several of these household images, which have gone the way of
many other Hopi specimens; the museum collector has purchased and
carried them off, thus transporting them from their natural en-
vironment to beautiful cases where they are exhibited, often without
explanations of their significance.

Conclusions.—Do the preceding pages have any bearing on the
questions so frequently asked: Who were the Hopi and whence did
they originate? Does the character of their idols throw any light
on Hopi history before they were discovered by Tobar in 1540?

On comparison of the simplest form of stone idols here considered
with those from ruins along the San Juan River and its tributaries
we find the resemblance close, almost identical; but we also find some
of them have a close likeness to idols found in ruins south and east
of the present site of Walpi. The difference in form of the idols can
be in part explained by age but mainly from their geographical
derivation. In this connection it is to be noted that the priesthoods
that own these idols and control the rites about them claim they are
related to clans that declare they migrated from the region inhabited
by people that have closely related idols. In other words, arche-
ology affords strong evidence of derivation of cult objects used in
the religious system of the Hopi from different directions, thus sup-
porting their migration legends. Relations of idols can be used to
identify former homes of the separate components of the Walpi popu-
lation. They furnish evidence that the Hopi are a composite race or
that the population of Walpi is a blend or mixture of peoples that
came to the East Mesa from different directions, as shown in an
article on Tusayan Migration published elsewhere.”*

The forms, decorations, and material from which idols are manu-
factured, like secular portable utensils and implements, can be used |
by the archeologist as data bearing on prehistoric migrations of
groups of Indians. One of the last objects an Indian priest would
throw away as he migrated from place to place would be his idols.
Other things he might leave behind, but his gods, never. So attached
is he to localities once his home that he has often taken the trails
back; he often visits ancestral springs to get water for religious pur-

% 19th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer, Ethn,

IDOLS IN HOPI WORSHIP—FEWKES. 397

poses; his idols he carries with him. The technique of these idols
varies in different clans and furnishes important data in studies of
clan migration.

In conclusion, it may be said that it is very difficult to accurately
define the line of demarcation in the Hopi mind between what would
ordinarily be called an idol and other sacred or cult material objects
used in worship. We ordinarily confuse the terms fetish and idol
but the latter generally has some anthropomorphic or zoomor-
phic form. The Hopi Snake Dance and attendant secret rites
are regarded as the oldest in the ritual, a conclusion that comes out
clearly in the archaic conditions of the altar and the character of
objects on it. The Antelope altar is conspicuous by the absence of
idols, whereas other great nine-days’ ceremonies of the Hopi have
well made wooden anthropomorphic images in addition to graven
representations of nature power, sun gods, germ gods, and the like.
These graven idols indicate a late cultus, pointing to a more recent
development. But it is instructive to notice, in passing, that on the
Antelope Snake altar the cult ancestors are represented by a boy and
girl, indicating that, in this instance, the ancient way of represent-
ing the cult ancestors appears not to be by idols but by human beings
personating them; on the other hand the idols on the Flute altars are
so well made that they appear to be carved out with iron implements.
In most respects, and especially traditionally, the Snake and Flute
clans are related. The explanation would naturally be that the re-
semblances are due to a former life of the two clans together. It
may be stated as a general law that in the composition of the Hopis
those clans that came from the South had a much more complicated
ritual and much more elaborate symbolism depicted on their idols
than clans from the North or those that originally inhabited the cliff
houses. The Hopi are the survivors of a prehistoric people on the
line of fusion of two forms of culture, the pure pueblo of northern
origin and the now kiva people of the Gila or the South. The earliest
contact was practically along the Little Colorado valley, where the
mixed population survived into historic times and whose best present
survival is the well-known pueblo, Zuni. Lower down the Little
Colorado, the settlements were abandoned and their populations
migrated northward and joined the kiva people or pure pueblos, and
the mixture still survives as the Hopi Indians of Arizona.

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TWO CHACO CANYON PIT HOUSES.

By Nem M. Jupp,
Curator, American Archeology, U.S. National Museum.

[With 7 plates.] "

In writing or speaking of the prehistoric habitations of Chaco
Canyon? one invariably has in mind only the great communal
dwellings, such as Pueblo Bonito and Pueblo del Arroyo. This
mental discrimination is the natural one, for these ruins of stone-
walled, terraced villages are among the best preserved and most
impressive of all the ancient structures north of Mexico. They
immediately arrest the attention; they convey, in comparison, so
colorful a picture of the busy life once carried on within their now
silent rooms that the remains of contemporaneous, or even more
ancient, settlements near by are usually entirely disregarded.

_ Lesser house remains, however, exist in large numbers in Chaco
Canyon. There are talus pueblos and a few small cliff dwellings
at or near the base of the perpendicular cliffs which form the north
wall of the canyon; there are literally hundreds of small ruins scat-
tered along the south side of the valley and out in the broad reaches
of open country that stretch away from its inclosing mesas. The
presence of these latter structures has been known for many years,
yet they have received but scant attention from those students of
prehistoric cultures who have pursued their investigations in the
Chaco Canyon region. In addition to these several types of primi-
tive habitations, two isolated pit houses, vastly more ancient than
the stone structures already mentioned, have recently been discovy-

1 Printed with the permission of the National Geographic Society, whose Pueblo Bonito
expedition is being directed by Mr. Judd.

2That portion of Chaco Canyon most densely inhabited in prehistoric times roughly
parallels the boundary between San Juan and McKinley Counties, N. Mex.; the stream
course turns northward a few miles to the west of this center of population and joins
the San Juan River in the extreme northwestern corner of the State. Eighteen of the
major ruins are now included in the Chaco Canyon National Monument, created by presi-
dential proclamation Mar. 11, 1907. The Chaco drainage is semidesert in character, with
but little permanent water and few trees except on the higher mesas. Navaho Indians
and a half dozen white settlers and traders, with their families, comprise its present
inhabitants.

399

400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ered and examined by members of the National Geographical So-
ciety’s Pueblo Bonito Expedition.*

PIT HOUSE NO. 1.

The first of these pit houses was encountered in 1920 during
trenching operations in a burial mound about 100 yards east of Casa
Rinconada, a circular ruin surmounting a low knoll on the south
side of Chaco Canyon, opposite Pueblo Bonito. A number of stone-
walled ruins, each with its own refuse pile, are to be seen in this
vicinity. ‘The pit house was discovered, quite unexpectedly, by Zuni
workmen near the lower edge of one such pile, and the fact that ashy
earth had gradually worked from the latter down over the former
unquestionably accounts for certain intrusive sherds in the collec-
tion (p. 403). The writer was absent on reconnaissance duty while
the east half of this primitive dwelling was being excavated, but the
Indians subsequently pointed out the approximate spot at which
each of the specimens discovered was exposed.

This first pit house (fig. 1) examined by the Pueblo Bonito Expe-
dition averaged 3 feet (0.914 m.) in depth and 17 feet (5.182 m.) in
diameter; its walls were vertical except at the south, where they
flared outward a few inches (pl. 1, fig. 1). The room had been
gouged, presumably with stone or wooden implements, from the
clayey silt strata which wind and water had deposited throughout
the length and breadth of the valley; its original depth may be pre-
served in the present walls but the superstructure which covered the
pit has long since disappeared. That it had some sort of timbered
roof goes without saying. (Two short, decayed fragments of logs
were exposed on the west side of the room, standing on the floor and
resting against the wall of the excavation.) Lacking definite in-
formation to the contrary, it may be assumed that the walls and
ceiling of this house were shaped after the fashion of those in the
dwelling next to be described. It is not unlikely that what is herein
referred to as a wall was, in fact, the face of a bench upon which the
roof timbers rested.

No trace of applied plaster was present, but the sides of the exca-
vated chamber had been roughly finished by dampening the clay and
pounding it to a hard and relatively smooth surface. The not un-
satisfactory results of such treatment may be observed in plate 1,
figures 1 and 2. As would be expected in so primitive a habitation,
the floor, while hard and compact with use, was noticeably uneven.

In its furnishings, this Chaco Canyon pit dwelling illustrates
the simple life and the few needs of its former inhabitants. A cir-

3See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 72, Nos, 6 and 15; also the National Geographic
Magazine for June, 1921, and March, 1922.

PIT HOUSES—JUDD. 401

cular fireplace, 10 inches (25.4 cm.) deep, occupied a favored
position near the center of the lodge; its diameter, as measured from
the crown of its slightly raised rim, was 36 inches (91.4 cm.) but this
was reduced to 22 inches (55.8 cm.) at its own floor level owing to the
sharp slope of its adobe sides (pl. 1, fig. 2). The fireplace was filled

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Fig. 1.—Pit House No. 1, ground plan and section, Chaco Canyon.

with coarse ashes in which bits of greasewood predominated. A
mere handful of broken deer bones, split for the extraction of mar-
row, and a few small mammal and bird bones were scattered through
the earth which filled the pit; none of these was found in the fire-
place.

Against the east wall of the chamber were three bins each formed
by upright slabs of sandstone (fig. 1; pl. 1, fig. 1). Two of these

402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

bins were excavated by the expedition; in one were several frag-
ments of an earthenware bowl and a number of small objects
probably utilized in pottery making. The chief function of these
bins was most likely the storage of corn and other foodstuffs. <A dis-
carded metate, worn through, formed one of the inclosing stones on
the north side of bin 2.

On the floor of the room, between its south wall and the fireplace,
lay three shallow metates* or stone mills for the preparation of corn
meal. A single mano, the handstone invariably used in connection
with each mill, had been placed under the edge of metates b and ¢,
respectively (fig. 1). That the presence of these primitive grinding
instruments is not unusual in ancient dwellings of this character is
evident from explorations by Dr. Walter Hough near Luna, N.
Mex., during which he observed that “every pit house revealed on
excavation a mealing stone lying on the floor near the fireplace.” *

Two receptacles for the protection of small objects had been
carved into the adobe wall of the room in its southwestern quarter
(fig. 1). The floor level of each lay somewhat below that of the
room, a feature which has been noted, also, by Mr. Earl H. Morris*®
in pit houses between the San Juan River and the Continental
Divide, 70 miles east of the La Plata. Although placed much lower
in the wall, these repositories were probably identical in purpose
with the small cubbyholes frequently found in dwellings of later
periods. .

Relatively few artifacts were recovered during excavation of this
pit dwelling (the northwest quarter was not completely cleared) and
these, unfortunately, do not afford a satisfactory index to the
cultural attainments of their original owners. A grooved stone maul
(315892) ,7 two hammerstones (315893), and five bone awls (315894)
may or may not belong to the pit-house culture. There is nothing
distinctive about them since objects of this kind, made from raw
materials near at hand, are very much alike in early Pueblo dwell-
ings throughout the entire Southwest. The neck of an undecorated
jar (315900) and several sherds from a similar vessel (315901), said
by the Indians to have been found near the middle of the room and
well toward the surface, are certainly not of pit-dweller origin. The
high straight neck (24 inches) of the former and the lack, in both
specimens, of the broad bands so characteristic of pit-house cooking
jars is sufficient to connect the fragments with the small-house refuse
piles which lie near by and slightly above the pit dwelling. In the

4The three metates averaged 17 by 24 by 2 inches (43.1 by 60.9 by 5.08 cm.).

5 Proc. U, S. Nat. Mus., vol. 55, p, 416.

633d An. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., p. 186.

7 The catalogue numbers given for specimens not figured are those of the United States
National Museum, to which the National Geographic Society has presented the collections
from the dwellings here described.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Judd PLATE I.

|. SLAB INCLOSED BINS IN PIT House No. I. THE UNEVEN FLOOR, THE
SLOPE OF SOUTH WALL, AND THE CRUDE SURFACING OF THE LATTER ARE
ALL APPARENT IN THIS ILLUSTRATION.

2. Pit House No. I, PARTIALLY EXCAVATED. THIS VIEW, TAKEN FROM
THE NORTH, SHOWS THE FIREPLACE IN THE MIDDLE FOREGROUND AND
BEYOND IT THE THREE METATES AND ONE OF THE SUBWALL REPOSI-~
TORIES.

Photos by Neil M. Judd. Courtesy of the National Geographic Society.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Judd. PEATE 2

|. SEARCHING AMONG THE BLOCKS OF FALLEN ADOBE BELOW PIT HOUSE
No. 2 FOR POTSHERDS AND OTHER ARTIFACTS. THE CROSS SECTION OF
THE ROOM WILL BE NOTED IN THE SHADOW AT THE RIGHT ABOUT MIDWAY
OF THE BANK.

2. IN THIS NEAR VIEW OF PIT House No. 2, BEFORE EXCAVATION, THE
WeEsT BRANCH WILL BE NOTED AT THE LEFT; THE DIVIDED FIREPLACE
APPEARS JUST ABOVE THE INDIAN, AND THE POSTHOLE WHICH MAY HAVE
HELD THE LADDER IS SEEN AT THE RIGHT. THE CHARRED REMAINS OF
ROOFING TIMBERS WERE BOUND TOGETHER BY EXTREMELY HARD ADOBE
AND SAND STRATA.

Photos by Neil M. Judd. Courtesy of the National Geographic Society.

PIT HOUSES—-JUDD. 403

course of uncounted centuries these intrusive sherds may well have
shifted along with the blown sand and lodged on the flat area above
the pit.

wa
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YY

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Fig. 2.—Pit House No. 2, Chaco Canyon.

PIT HOUSE NO. 2.

A second Chaco Canyon pit house (fig. 2; pl. 2, figs. 1 and 2;
pl. 3, fig. 1) which, happily, affords a much clearer estimate than
that just described of the degree of cultural advancement reached by
its builders, was brought to the writer’s attention by one of his
Navajo friends early in the spring of 1922. This second ruin stands

404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

about 1 mile (1.60 k.) east of Pueblo Bonito and was exposed by
caving of the north arroyo bank during the heavy rains of the pre-
vious summer. Here the arroyo is fully 30 feet (9.14 m.) deep and
the ancient dwelling was almost equally divided when the huge
masses of adobe crashed from their resting place and rolled out 50 or
75 feet (15.2-22.8 m.) from the bank (pl. 2, fig. 1).

Some idea as to the geophysical changes which have taken place
in Chaco Canyon since this prehistoric dwelling was inhabited may
be gained from the fact that the rim of the fireplace (pl. 2, fig. 2,
directly above the Indian) is 12 feet 2 inches (3.708 m.) below the
present valley surface and that approximately 6 feet (1.82 m.) of
silt had been deposited above the original roof level of the house fol-
lowing its abandonment.

The cross section (pl. 2, fig. 2) of this second pit house, when
first seen by members of the Pueblo Bonito Expedition, revealed a
tangled mass of burned and rotting roofing poles closely packed in
blown sand and adobe. This débris largely occupied that portion of
the pit lying below the level of a broad bench, plainly seen on the
western side of the room; above the bench were successive layers of
sediment, deposited both through wind and water action, which had
gradually filled and, later, completely hidden this underground
habitation. A bench corresponding to that on the west did not at
first appear on the eastern side but a split posthole, 9 inches (22.8 cm.)
in diameter by 22 inches (55.8 cm.) deep, quickly attracted one’s at-
tention. The floor of the room was slightly dished, its middle being
3 inches lower than its periphery. Although but half of it remained
for examination, this subterranean dwelling appeared to offer so
much of interest in connection with the general problem of human
occupancy of Chaco Canyon in prehistoric times as to warrant its
excavation, a not inconsiderable task owing to the depth and extreme
hardness of the clay which filled and covered the pit.

Once the earth had been removed from that portion remaining
in the bank this ancient pit dwelling was found to agree closely
with those described by other explorers. Its form, its manner of
roofing, and the culture of its builders could be pictured with satis-
fying accuracy. Although smaller than that excavated in 1920, this
second pit house was likewise round, being 12 feet 9 inches (3.88 m.)
in diameter. The middle of its slightly concave floor was occupied
by a slab-lined fireplace 9 inches deep by 22 inches in diameter
(22.8 by 55.8 cm.). A bench 35 inches (88.9 cm.) high and 26
inches (66 cm.) wide enlarged the room on its northern half, but
on the east, only a few inches from the face of the bank, this bench
is unexpectedly interrupted by a broken wall of undisturbed adobe
which appears to have been not more than 16 inches (4.64 cm.) high.

PIT HOUSES—JUDD. 405

At this point the banquette had been widened to 36 inches (91.4 cm.)
and the height of the outstanding wall of clay probably affords a
reasonably accurate idea as to the space between the top of the
bench and the original valley surface. A second, though now
shattered, block of adobe left by the original excavators connected
the face of the bench with the posthole previously mentioned. It is,
of course, quite impossible to establish the conditions which obtained
here at the time of occupancy, that is, as to the width, or function,
of these two protruding sections of unexcavated earth. Being to-
ward the east, they may have formed or supported a series of steps
connecting with an entrance through the roof, but the fact that so
little remained after caving of the bank leaves this uncertain. One
is inclined to the belief, rather, that the large post which stood just
within the wall at this place was provided with notches and served
as a ladder.

In roof construction this second Chaco Canyon pit house is not
unlike others of the type found elsewhere. Two posts, 7 inches and
84 inches (17.1 and 21.5 cm.) in diameter, stood about 2 inches
(5.08 cm.) inside the face of the bench at the northwest and north-
east quarters, respectively (fig. 2); since the room has been almost
equally divided it may be assumed that corresponding posts also
stood in that portion of the dwelling now missing. Vertical sections
had been gouged from the adobe bench and, after the posts had been
placed and blocked in with stone and earth, the front of each cut
was closed with stone slabs and plastered over. Among the slabs
covering the northwest upright was a metate, worn through at the
bottom, set on end with its grinding surface toward the post. Sev-
eral coats of smoked plaster had been applied to the slightly con-
cave face of the bench, and its upper surface was hard and smooth
as though from long usage.

Twenty-two small posts of about 2 inches diameter had been
placed around the exposed banquette at an average distance of 20
inches (50.8 cm.) from its face. These were set approximately
14 inches apart and all stood in an upright position extending and
inclining, no doubt, to cross pieces supported by the four principal
posts already noted. The presence of the latter carries the infer-
ence that that portion of the roof between the posts was flat or
narly so. And it is not unreasonable to assume that the small
uprights reaching above the bench originally supported layers of
brush and grass, overlaid with loose earth taken from the excava-
tion.

It is to be recalled that the bench in this pit house was approxi-
mately 16 inches below the valley surface at the time of construc-
tion and that the floor of the dwelling was 35 inches lower. These

553879—24-—27

406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

combined measurements, however, probably fall considerably short
of the actual ceiling height. Just why the ancient artisans deemed
it desirable to build a wall of posts and brush above the bench in
preference to utilizing the hard adobe face of their excavation is
not clear but such practice seems to be characteristic of pit houses
in which the bench is present. Kidder and Guernsey ® describe a
pit dwelling in the Monuments district of northeastern Arizona in
which roofing poles, driven into a narrow bench at an angle, ap-
peared to have met above the middle of the lodge. Dr. J. W.
Fewkes ® has observed a similar method of construction on the Mesa
Verde National Park. Hough, writing of pit villages near Luna.
and Morris, reporting on excavations between the San Juan River
and the Continental Divide in Colorado, both noted the occurrence
of large posts as roof supports but say little or nothing of an en-
circling bench and lesser timbers reaching from it to the main
beams. Dwellings similar to, but seemingly more elaborate than,
these circular structures in that the benches were faced with stone
slabs and the upper walls were of wattle work, have been discovered
in southwestern Utah caves by the present writer.?*

Several slab-inclosed receptacles, corresponding with those in the
other local pit dwelling (p. 401), formerly rested against the south
wall of the room, the stone slabs and adobe flooring of such bins hay-
ing been found among the huge blocks of earth caved from the bank.
These bins are, of course, now completely shattered and but little of
interest could be gathered from their broken remains. One of the
number, a box 29 inches wide and 10 inches deep (73.9 by 25.4 em.)
had been paved with waterworn cobble stones; on its floor lay a
quantity of charred vegetable matter among which were corncobs
and kernels.1? Other corncobs and one squash seed were found
among the débris.

No traces of subwall depositories, such as those observed in our
first pit house (p. 402), were noted in this second structure but a rec-
tangular depression, 15 inches wide by 22 inches long by 3} inches
deep (38.1 by 55.8 by 8.88 cm.), had been scraped from the floor be-
low the eastern end of the bench (fig. 2).

MINOR ANTIQUITIES.

The few artifacts of unquestioned pit-house origin taken from the
excavations of 1920 were found by the writer on the bottom of bin
No. 1 (fig. 1) and consist of a small mass of kaolin (315898), a
Si Soe: inl es dc etna tat asi A he, ae

§ Bull. 65, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., p. 44.

® Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 72, no. 1, p. 58.

10 Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 55, p. 415.

11 33d An. Rep., Bur. Amer. Hthnol., p. 186.

12 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 72, no. 1, p. 66, 1919.

183A bowl (324806) found beside the fireplace was partially filled with charred, shelled
corn,

PIT HOUSES—JUDD. 407

rubbed piece of red ocher (315895), an unworked bit of compact
yellow clay, probably intended for paint, a small ball of impure
sandstone (315897), and two disconnected portions of an earthen-
ware bowl (315901). The latter only are of especial interest at this
time.

Its fragments show the bowl to have been about 7 inches (17.01
cm.) in diameter and 3} inches deep (8.88 cm.) with a thickness of
less than three-sixteenths inch. The paste, which is rather coarse
and filled with tiny quartz crystals, has been fired to a uniform pink-
ish yellow. Although its outer surface remains somewhat uneven,
the interior exhibits a fine, smooth finish on which a geometric de-
sign has been drawn with dark red paint. This design can not be ac-
curately reconstructed from the sherds at hand, but it consists, ap-
parently, of a central decoration of thin, parallel lines with terraced
or “ cloud ” elements, joined to
a horizontal band just within
the rim by four V-shaped units
from which hang solid tri-
angles and within which is a
single row of dots inclosing an
open triangle. These frag-
ments differ both in paste and
decoration from sherds associ-
ated with the more recent
stone-walled ruins near the pit
house and indicate that the inhabitants of the latter were not un-
skilled in the art of pottery manufacture.

An earthenware pipe of rather unusual shape (fig. 3) was found on
the floor of the room between the fireplace-and the slab bins. Its
bowl resembles a miniature jar with a constricted opening and with
one side drawn out to form a round stem, now broken; its surface is
roughly smoothed and bears no trace of ornamentation. The stem
had been perforated by pushing a coarse straw from the bit toward
the bow] while the clay was yet plastic. The specimen is 1} inches
high by 14 inches wide by 2} inches long (3.12 by 3.81 by 5.71 cm.)
with a three-fourths inch orifice; no evidence of use is to be seen.

The really abundant material recovered at the site of the second
pit house, excavated in 1922, happily balances the paucity of speci-
mens from the first. Among the heavy blocks of clay which had
crashed down into the arroyo (pl. 2, fig. 1) and in the silty deposits
which filled that half of the ancient pit house not destroyed were nu-
merous potherds and other artifacts abandoned by the one-time in-
habitants. Several jars had been left in or adjacent to the slab bins

Fic. 3.—Harthenware pipe.

408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

which formerly stood against the south wall; their impressions were
plainly visible in some of the larger adobe masses and their scattered
sherds were recovered in considerable quantities. Altogether, 11
earthenware jars and 8 bowls have been restored from the pottery
fragments collected at this site (pl. 3, fig. 2).

Certainly the most noteworthy of these vessels are the two large
black-on-white water jars shown in plate 4. One (a) stands 164
inches (41.1 cm.) in height and has a diameter of 134 inches (34.2
cm.); its orifice is oval in shape, 23? inches wide by 4 inches long
(6.78 by 10.2 cm.). A crack running downward from each end of the
opening indicates a slight unintentional misshaping, perhaps due to
pressure early in the firing process. The second jar (b) is 172 inches
(45 cm.) high by 144 inches (36.8 cm.) in diameter; its mouth, also
oval, is 2? inches wide by 4 inches long (6.98 by 10.1 cm.). In both
vessels the body is decorated by an elaborate geometric pattern and,
above this, interlocking spirals representing plumed serpents. Three
seems to have been the favorite number for such spirals but in the
second jar (b) there are five, the serpents being represented by single,
somewhat angular lines, above which is an encircling, zigzag line.
Fragments of four other large jars, not sufficiently complete to war-
rant restoration, show similar treatment but, on one of these, the
body ornamentation reached nearly to the rim and on another, whose
upper portion is entirely missing, interlocking plumed serpents form
the basic feature of the main design. In all six specimens the exterior
surface has been washed with a thin white slip as a background for
the black paint of the design. None of these water jars was provided
with handles or the outflaring rim so typical of later pre-Pueblo
ollas.

One small jar (pl. 5, fig. 1) has this noticeable difference from
the larger vessels: A constricted shoulder permits a more direct
approach to the rim and provides the specimen with what might be
called a neck. A reddish-brown body decoration has wholly disap-
peared except in one limited area; the upper portion shows three
horizontal, wavy lines adjacent to the rim.

Three of the eight bowls recovered have interior decorations,
drawn with black pigment over a white slip (pl. 6) ; the rim edge of
each has been flattened by rubbing and carries a black line, a char-
acteristic feature of bowls from the principal Chaco Canyon cul-
ture. One specimen (324805), rather cruder in workmanship and
more straight-sided than the others, is ornamented with four hori-
zontal bands crossed at intervals by two or four vertical lines. This

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Judd. PLATE 3.

1. Pit House No. 2 AFTER EXCAVATION, SHOWING THE EXPOSED BENCH
AND DEPTH OF THE SILTY DEPOSITS ABOVE IT. THE STONE SLAB EmM-
BEDDED IN THE FRONT OF THE BENCH, AT THE LEFT OF THE UPPER
INDIAN, COVERS THE GROOVE IN WHICH ONE OF THE FOUR ROOF SuP-
PORTS HAD STOOD.

2. CHACO CANYON AS SEEN FROM THE SOUTHEAST CORNER OF PUEBLO
BONITO. PIT HOUSE No. 2 WAS FOUND NEAR THE ARROYO BANK INDIS-
TINCTLY SEEN IN THE MIDDLE DISTANCE, ABOUT MIDWAY BETWEEN
THE TWO HIGHEST PORTIONS OF THE NEAR-BY WALLS AND DIRECTLY
ABOVE THE OLB Door.

Photos by Neil M. Judd. Courtesy of the National Geographic Society.

‘yp ALV1d

‘S “ON ASNOH Lid WOYS

"SUVP HALVM

———— — _

‘PPnr—ZZ6lL Wodey uvjuosyzWsS

Smithsonian Report 1922,—Judd. PLATE 5.

a b c d

|. EARTHENWARE JARS AND COOKING POTS, PIT HOUSE No. 2.

2. EARTHENWARE LADLES, PIT HOUSE NO. 2.

3. EARTHEN LADLES (INSIDE VIEW OF FIGURE ABOVE).

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Judd. PLATE 7.

3 4
EARTHENWARE COOKING PoTs. PIT House No. 2.

PIT HOUSES-—JUDD. 409

design was painted with a reddish-brown pigment “ upon a slate-
colored wash; the evident lack of skill both in modeling and in deco-
rating this particular bow] suggests the possibility of its being the
work of a beginner. One of the bowls has a slightly incurving rim;
in all the others the edge is reached directly, 1. e., without apparent
incurve or outcurve. The relatively thin rim in a majority of the
vessels is rather carelessly rounded and noticeably uneven. In the
specimens at hand, ornamentation was restricted to the polished in-
terior of the bowls; the outside surface was not carefully smoothed
and evidently did not receive the customary slip. Two bowls and a
small cuplike vessel were not decorated in any manner; handles do
not appear on any of the bowls in the collection.

In paste, in decoration, and in general workmanship these vessels
from the Chaco Canyon pit house are characteristic of that phase
of prehistoric culture in our southwestern United States commonly
recognized as “pre-Pueblo.” Fewkes, Kidder, Morris, and others
have described the ware in their several reports of explorations
throughout the San Juan drainage; almost identical specimens are
figured by Hough in his important contribution on the Luna pit
houses. Certain decorative elements on the pottery from this an-
cient Chaco Canyon structure, namely, the combination of thin,
straight lines with areas of solid black, are suggestive of, but en-
tirely distinct from, the designs on pottery from such great com-
munal dwellings as Pueblo Bonito. The closely hachured designs
so characteristic of the latter do not occur in pit houses so far as
known.

Cooking pots, as represented in the collection (pl. 7), are typical
of the pit-house culture as identified elsewhere. They present, in-
deed, one of its most distinguishing features. In shape they are
globular with wide orifices; their rims are approached with little,
if any, outflare. That portion of the jar between the shoulder and
mouth is built up of broad bands of clay, one-fourth to three-fourths
of an inch wide. These, however, are not true coils as in the case of
the corrugated ware of the cliff dwellers and other prehistoric peo-
ples; rather, each band has been added separately, overlapping that
next below and the union of its ends carefully obliterated.

The paste from which these culinary vessels were shaped is
coarser and more granular than that employed in manufacture of
the bowls and decorated water jars previously described. It is noted,
also, that although both inner and outer surfaces have been
smoothed—the marks of tools are usually in evidence—no attempt

144 Two brown bowls (324807, 324808), nicely smoothed on the inside, seem also to have
been decorated with red paint, but this has so faded that the orlginal color can not be
ascertained with certainty; a small, light-colored cup (324809) has no ornamentation
whatever.

410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

has been made to improve the appearance of the vessel by applica-
tion of a slip or surface wash.

Handles are present on five of the eight pots in this series. In
one specimen (pl. 7, fig. 3) a single handle, consisting of three rolls
of clay pressed together, was attached horizontally at the shoulder;
in another instance (pl. 5, fig. 1) a handle of similar construc-
tion connects the shoulder with the edge of the orifice. Two vessels
(pl. 7, fig. 2, and pl. 5, fig. la) are provided with flattened lugs,
attached to opposite sides of the rim, whose under surfaces are
gently curved to fit the finger. Dissimilar handles occur on the fifth
specimen (pl. 5, fig. 1d),a thin, flat lug 14 inches long and five-eighths
inch wide being attached vertically just below the rim on one side,
while its opposite is a round lug with a slight downward curve.
The latter handle, now largely missing, probably came to a blunt
point about three-fourths of an inch from the side of the vessel. It
should be noted that this is the only cooking pot in the collection
whose outer surface is plain, the usual broad neckbands having been
entirely effaced.

Three earthenware ladles (pl. 5, figs. 2 and 3),1° restored from
fragments gathered at this site, are so interesting as to merit brief
description. In both form and ornamentation they are quite unlike.
The smallest of the three has a round bowl and a handle which is
slightly convex both above and below; the bowl of the largest is
somewhat oval in appearance, due chiefly to its open or concave
handle.*® This second specimen is still further unique in that the
near right-hand quarter of the bowl rim (as held in the hand) is
one-half inch (1.27 cm.) lower than the remainder. The third ladle
differs from the other two both in the shape of its bowl, which is
considerably wider than it is long, and in the fact that its thick
handle (flat on top and convex below) is attached to the bowl one-
half inch below the rim of the latter. Perhaps as an additional deco-
rative feature half of this upstanding portion of the rim has been
cut away in a shallow curve, clearly shown in plate 5, figure 2.
Each of these three ladles is decorated with black paint over a
whitish slip applied to both inner and outer surfaces; in the second
and third specimens a thin black line has been drawn around the
rim edge.

Two additional earthenware objects from this second Chaco Can-
yon pit house should be mentioned. One of these (fig. 4) is a pipe
made apparently from a portion of the handle of a gourd-shaped
bottle.17 Both ends have been rubbed smooth; the hole at the bit

16 The only complete specimen is 5§ inches long by 23 inches wide (14.2 by 6.98 em.)

76 So far as the author is aware this type of ladle handle, so closely associated with the
eulture of Pueblo Bonito, has not previously been noted from pit houses.

47 See Morris: 33d An. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., fig. 5, p. 197.

JUDD. 411

PIT HOUSES

end has been gouged through with a flint drill. The larger opening
shows unmistakably the use to which the object was put.

The second of these two specimens (324823) is a portion of what
appears to have been the hollow handle of a ladle, reworked perhaps
for intended use as a pipe. The smaller end has been carefully
smoothed, while the fractured face of the opposite end shows but
slight rubbing. A certain doubt arises in connection with this par-
ticular fragment, for its superior paste, its white slip, and its style
of ornamentation all tend to place it with a culture later than that
of the pit dwellers. There is no question, however, but that it was
found in direct association with the other artifacts here described.

Several charred fragments of a small, finely woven coiled basket,
gathered from among the débris in the arroyo, obviously add to the
importance of this collection. The technique is “ two rod and splint,”
as described by O. T. Mason.** Of still further interest are the
charred remains of a pair of re-
markably thin sandals found on
the bench at the west side of the
room. In these the weft is a
twisted thread of a fine, uniden-
tified fiber woven over paral-
lel-warp cords of yucca which
are arranged after the fashion of
those in a cliff-dweller sandal
figured by Kidder and Guern-
sey..° One may judge of the exceptional fineness of the weave in
these specimens by the fact that there are no fewer than 9 warp
and 32 weft strands to the inch. The importance of these fragments
lies in the fact that, from the very nature of the dwellings, pit-house
sandals and basketry are extremely rare. Discovery of these charred
specimens, however, encourages the belief that other, perhaps more
perfect, examples will be found as investigation of pit-house remains
progresses.

In addition to the artifacts already mentioned, the collection in-
cludes two incomplete bone awls (324824), a reworked fragment of
a shell bracelet (324825), two flint knives or scrapers (324826), and
several stone hammers, manos, etc. Three broad, thin metates and a
number of smoothing and grinding stones, recovered from the mass
of fallen adobe (pl. 2, fig. 1), were not included in the material
brought to Washington.

Lying upon the floor of the room between the fireplace and the
west bench, its head to the northwest, was the incomplete skeleton of
a young female. Caving of the arroyo bank had torn away all the

Fic. 4.—Harthenware pipe.

18 An. Rep., U. S. Nat. Mus., 1902, p. 246.
# Bull. 65, Bur. Amer. Ethnol., fig. 88, p. 104.

412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

leg bones; those of the trunk were mostly crushed by the weight
of the roof poles and clay which had collected above them. All
available fragments were preserved, however, for further study.
The chief result of this subsequent examination ?° was the positive
determination that the skull had been subjected to cradle-board
pressure, resulting, in occipital flattening. Such artificial deforma-
tion, so characteristic of crania from cliff dwellings and other early
Pueblo ruins, was scarcely to have been expected in a skull from a
pit house in Chaco Canyon. From our meager knowledge of the
pit dwellers (few adult skeletons have been found) we have rather
assumed that they were a long-headed or dolichocephalic people, an
assumption which has been drawn, perhaps, on too scanty informa-
tion. As we become more intimately acquainted with the pit
people through future exploration and as the character of their
culture becomes more firmly established, it is not unlikely that these
early conceptions will merit revision.

CONCLUSION.

On the basis of two incomplete dwellings only it would appear
extremely unwise to attempt to draw any definite or final conclusion
in respect to pit-house culture as found in the Chaco Canyon region.
That other examples will be discovered seems almost certain; the un-
happy fact in this connection, however, is that such vast changes
have taken place in the canyon since arrival of these pioneer set-
tlers as to preclude the possibility of identifying the sites of their
subterranean homes through examination of the present valley sur-
face. From preference the pit people seem to have constructed their
shelters in open or exposed places, and these unprotected areas nat-
urally have been subjected to the most intense leveling influence of
the elements.

Perhaps the greatest contribution to American archeology which
can be claimed for these two Chaco Canyon pit houses is the con-
necting link they afford between similar structures in localities so
widely separated as Luna, N. Mex., the Mesa Verde National Park,
Colo., and the Monuments district of northern Arizona. Their dis-
covery increases the number of known pit dwellings and tends to draw
them into one distinct group. Of scarcely less interest is the fact that
finding an improvised pipe and basketry and textiles exhibiting ex-
traordinary skill in weaving adds appreciably to previous knowl-
edge of pit-house culture and strengthens its suspected close rela-
tionship with that of subsequent periods.

20'The fragments have been examined by Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, Curator of Physical An-
thropology, U. S. National Museum, whose report is incorporated in the above paragraph.
It could not be learned, owing to its shattered condition, whether the skull was dolicho-
cephalic or brachycephalic.

PIT HOUSES—JUDD. 413

In his “ Chronology of the San Juan area,” Morris * assigns to the
“ pre-Pueblo” period dwellings both of the type herein considered
and those of wattled construction in which upright slabs were oc-
casionally incorporated in the basal portion of the wall. Such
classification appears to be justified on the basis of ceramic remains
only, and, indeed, the slight difference in architecture may prove to
be merely a result of environment or the growth of a clan system,
for “slab houses” are found in groups more frequently than are
pit dwellings. But Morris observes that a majority of the crania
from pre-Pueblo sites is dolichocephalic, although some skulls with
occipital flattening, possibly brachycephalic, have been recovered.
It remains to be seen, therefore, whether this peculiar custom of
artificial deformation is identified with pit houses only or with
both types of pre-Pueblo habitations equally; whether it is early
evidence of the adoption of a rigid type of cradle board or the immi-
gration of a separate people, as has commonly been held heretofore.

Surely one of the most pressing needs of southwestern archeology
to-day is a clearer definition and a broader appreciation of the “ pre-
Pueblo ” stage in our chronological system. It was the very germ
of that widely distributed culture which found its greatest prehistoric
development in such marvels of aboriginal creative genius as Pueblo
Bonito and which still struggles to maintain its individuality in
modern pueblos such as Walpi, Oraibi, Zufi, and others. But these
needs may be realized only through painstaking labor in crude, ill-
defined ruins, often difficult of access and, be it said with regret, so
unpromising that they are rarely left solely to the choice of the
student of ancient history.

Proc. Nat, Acad: Sci., vol. ‘7, no. 1, p. 20, 1921.

# Aah phe break ne bs All

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ovale or bre chi yoeplgic ve ‘ Me iy ie

THE COLLECTIONS OF OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY IN
THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

By I. M. Casanowlicz,

Assistant Curator, Division of Old World Archeology, United States National
Museum.

[With 57 plates. ]

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page.

Linu @if0Yo (eRe) 9) olaeaps aeek tocentnde «en. alee ee baat papers ASE Aneaaey Seale deftones cst Si, etait deste 416
bE iy SAREE A GN STG UY oR a pel nd eect Mate ants 416
RenmINA OLthe LONG “AGEs sao ae a) aes See aN eee 416
EeDbeuPaileolithieuperiods 4+ = =-= << == <a no CU Pee 416
i-aGhellean) stages 2-2. ST NEBR LEE) Pel 417

22 Achewlean, Stave.- 22.4. OR NI SEES 418

a, the. Mousterian stage... BI DORt Sune es — 418
4“Anrignacian: Stages 2. 2 Se te Se ee eee 418

5) (Solutrean stage fe 2 pie) 8 ct aa eet tae fred poe 419

G: Mardalenian stage 2 hyip spd Ch oh oe eh ie A419

RIO UIRDI Sirs ee ee eee 2 eee AS hae 2 ae 2 reeks me . 420
Azilian-Tardenoisian period__________ LA RTS AR ett 420

i. he Neolithic Period. 2" 2) eo Asse LAAN ose.) Sh ee eee ee 420
cPemiciehy INCOM EMIC=- tes: eeset 0a 8) cgay Tee Pere ee es 421

2 MWTE-=Neolnbn ig Leis ht) Mls 8 Dd ns We Ea he 421

oeuaite; Neo thie. ier rely sia Gert) Wl Rieti Ei 421

he’ Lake dwellings. 2k ed ee ee 422
‘The “Perremare ‘settlements: 2.27.) ee a
Remains of the Stone Age from Hurope_________--_____---____---__- 424
Great-Britainvandrelandved SUOriniy st) erie sete? 424
The Brandon: fiint mdustry: tes. ees aiealeyjens 425
(gr) 10 be eaeatanely ant ie SD ae AN Ta, cod SS Sea SLE Sa Oe oP) 0 AEE 426
MEL VeEe caret Sot EMC l ee Pe Sa Oe, Lee). Ay. Pa te, a 428
Berit ae eee ee ee ee ee ee ee 429
Swatzertand 2.9. J LUIse 6 Ol Sie ot Mh ORY See eee 429
Woeorlavia_earttovtns gp foetny 4h) pita stot] ae eT Bey 430

A ROR GO 2 oan oop Es Ou Sh ee oe Ra Ae ey ye be 430
COnMmAn Vas ties 3 Y Be 1 he Or eee 2 8 see 430
PpRSial? fcc. 8} arco se Ad Pha htc toes esl 2 Sen) in diel he 430

SUH ILGMIIEE let. eae See en Se ee ee ee 431
Remains of the Stone Age from Asia_-_-_--____-_-___-____--__-_ 432
Indiv ttt SEs RTA AY PPh aie Amy eray Tevirh i) Sit Ti & 432
Cambodia, Indo-China_.-tescty 3. 4 pet SNE pe iia s 432
[ECT NES jh a (se ORME Ae Si bee SOL ee ee ed sO DT eee) PON ke Ae Se RE cc ee 433

AW {th Gaerne emer oe Clow BEES 4 Uw vee a TE AB ae IEE) eee ee ee ee eee ee, 433

eI DADL ATIC OTOH mete a ee 8 SA se ea ee 433
Remains of the Stone/Age‘from ‘Africa, 22.eie4r 434
i pee th MI Salas Ngee DIN EN i SOIR BD hs lh ge eR OR 434
Pte ares. week, Les PUR see eee ee LEO ee. ue) 435
Somalilam Gis) taeve tage geap yt hey sted este Cy Pedy ay Dede 9 435
Sombie Aerie 8h ae cyte es ee Oe a ah ce Bol Espo oh hg eb cep eee 435

416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

Prehistoric antiquities—Continued.

Page.

AUISiralasie fo 2 kot ok Oe IS pA te ve ee Re ee EO 485
Tasmonigua sy. oe vet eaeee se yyy Noe Ne 7 Peay 436

HA TIGLET DRO a eee lem aad, a elders eae | eae so 436
The Archeological Collection of Historic Times____-____-_______ 438
eyptias entiquities..._....) juince en ctoee fe oC ee 438
Babylonian and Assyrian antiquities. 2) eee 438
UICHIE SCOIDCOTES = 1 Sree ne ee eee tee ree Oe ae hal |) 438
Persiiuts balun) vwootostyrh bhiet DW lo moteigiG TOle wes Bie 489
Syriaand PalestineLs< > 3.2) see ee a ee 439
VW SUC) 1b: ee ee ene eS ER PUTO RE MRK NS TCE eae Lol 439
pl yo el 2) <5 21 | eh LL pier tee Selah b ade Mime APL Ne Cement vue 440
Terek, Caue@asus..- .sepeceerie ric: ne we eee ge 440
Greco-Roman . antiquities. te Se eee 440
Greek ‘and’ Italian’ potteries..22. 2-222 LL ee ee ee 440
Ancient: terra. cottas2. 22) a ee ee ee 442
Terra-cotta lamps. _ 2.22 Re eee et ae ee 443
Antique iridescent elassware......-.. 2.9%. sealed) OF 2 oe 443
Ancient oriental seals... _.__ eri ate riefre ie kh OU 444
Coins. and. medals_--_..._.. . ae ete welvetenolf at? 2 444
Oniental tiles ee aisenghi A oe ee 444
Collection,.of Bibles.) be ee RR DOME. ee 444
G@iide to, the exhibition.......2.2 02. 98819 Cee A 445

INTRODUCTION.

The collections embrace two great sections of the antiquities of the
Old World, illustrating: (1) the culture of the so-called “ historic ”
nations, especially those who were settled around the Mediterranean
Basin (Egyptians, Babylonian-Assyrians, Syro-Palestinians, Greco-
Romans), from which our own civilization is largely derived; (2)
the diversified cultures of various peoples in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and Australasia, imperfectly or not at all represented in contempo-
raneous written documents, and commonly designated as “ pre-
historic ” archeology. Though the collections are by no means com-
plete and well rounded out, since no systematic explorations and re-
searches have been extended to foreign countries, still they contain
a considerable, varied, and important series of specimens, both in-
teresting and instructive to the public as well as the student. The
following pages will first give a survey of the material contained in
the collections, combining the chronological order of the phases or
stages of the cultural remains with their geographic provenance; and
then a sketch of the exhibit of a selection from this material.

PREHISTORIC ANTIQUITIES.
REMAINS OF THE STONE AGE.
I. THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD.

The Stone Age derives its name from the fact that during that age
man manufactured his tools and weapons chiefly of stone. These
implements constitute the earliest known cultural traces of the human

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 417

race. They are assigned to the Pleistocene, or Quaternary period of
geology, which includes the so-called Ice Age. The two chief sources
of these traces are the river gravels and the caves, rock shelters, and
other inhabited sites. The flint implements occurring in the former
are found to have the same color and surface characteristics as the
unworked nodules among which they lie, and are often abraded in
the same way, indicating original inclusion in the formation. The
period is determined not only by their geological position, but by
their association with the remains of extinct species of mammals,
such as the mammoth, rhinoceros, and reindeer. In some cases these
bones are found in such relative position as to prove that they were
deposited with the flesh still adhering to them, and it is also clear
that the animals were contemporary with the makers of the flint
implements.

In the caves occupied by man, his implements have been left. with
the bones of animals on which he lived. Scattered upon the floor
of the caves these objects have been sealed up by the infiltration of
lime-charged water, and have remained undisturbed until our day.
There can be, therefore, no doubt of their great antiquity.

The cultural conditions characterizing the Stone Age, however,
were not common to the whole world during a certain definite
period of remote antiquity. The beginning and duration of this
so-called age varied in different regions of the earth, and with
different peoples. It must, therefore, be held to denote a stage of
human culture rather than a division of time.

The Stone Age is divided into: (1) a Paleolithic (older stone)
period, and (2) a Neolithic (younger stone) period.

In the Paleolithic period six stages are generally distinguished,
determined by the character of the relics found on certain stations
in France, which are regarded as typical. They are, in chrono-
logical sequence, the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian,
Solutrean, and Magdalenian, names derived from Chelles (Seine-
et-Marne), Saint-Acheul (Valley of the Somme), Cave of Moustier
(Dordogne), Grotto of Aurignac (Haute-Garonne), Solutré (Sadne-
et-Loire), and la Madeleine (Dordogne). The names of these
stations have been adopted by anthropologists as conventional land-
marks for describing the progressive development of man, marking
the divisions in his general march to the goal of civilized life. The
characteristics of the culture of these six stages are briefly as follows:

1. Chellean stage.—The distinctive implement of the Chellean
phase of culture, frequently its sole representative, is the hand ax
(coup-de-poing, also called boucher, after its discoverer, Boucher de
Perthes). It was produced by detaching flakes from a nodule, or
pebble, bringing it to a point, while leaving a heavy base, sometimes

418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

retaining the natural crust. The edges are more or less wavy, owing
to alternate chipping on opposite faces. It varies from 2 to 10 inches
in length, and was fitted for grasping in the hand without a haft.
It might have been used for a number of purposes, as cutting, dig-
ging, scraping, etc., and also as a weapon.

The animals represented by the fossil remains imbedded in the
Chellean river-drift deposits were the straight-tusked elephant
(Zlephas antiquus), the large hippopotamus, the woolly rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros tichorhinus, or merkit), the Trogontherium, the cave
bear, and the cave hyena, pointing to a warm, moist climate, per-
haps one of the milder intervals of the Ice Age.

2. Acheulean stage—The hand ax, or boucher, characteristic of
the Chellean Age is also associated with this stage, but is distin-
guished by better workmanship and a more elegant form. It is
flatter and thinner. The flaking is finer, and the edges are worked
by secondary chipping into an even, regular line, rendering the
implement more trenchant and efficient. The natural crust of the
stone, if not altogether removed, is only visible in small patches.
In the upper Acheulean stage the hand ax assumes a fine lanceolate
form, and is accompanied by a great variety of smaller implements.

In addition to the animals of the preceding Chellean stage, the
mammoth (Elephas primigenius) was an inhabitant of western
Europe during this period.

3. The Mousterian stage—The most characteristic implement of
this stage is a flake struck off from a nodule, chipped on one side
giving a curved cutting edge, opposite which is usually left a por-
tion of the original crust of the stone to serve as a grip. The
nodule held in the hand was carefully chipped on one surface,
giving the desired form, and then with a well-directed blow the
entire worked surface was severed from the rest of the nodule. The
tool thus produced presented a sharper cutting edge, and required
less labor in its manufacture than the hand ax. Along with it
were scrapers, lance heads, etc.

It is believed that about this time the climate became colder and
man first made his home in caves. Animals adapted to a cold
climate, as the mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer, arctic fox, etc., be-
came abundant, while the hippopotamus and other creatures usually
associated with warm climates, gradually disappeared from Europe.

The formations of this stage furnish earliest known osseous re-
mains of man (found in Neanderthal and Heidelberg, Germany;
Krapina, Croatia; Spy, Belgium; Le Moustier and La Chappelle-
aux-Saints, France; and Ipswich, England).

4. Aurignacian stage——The stone industry of this stage is char-
acterized by slender, pointed flakes, carefully retouched all along

iteeaal :

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 419

the cutting edge and marked by regularity and fineness of the
secondary flaking.

More important is the introduction of a new material, namely,
bone, which while tougher and less brittle than flint is capable of
taking a fine point. Bone points with cleft base, perhaps the
predecessors of the needle, are characteristic of this stage. Other
typical tools are awls carved out of the metacarpal of the horse
or reindeer with the knuckle end left to form a handle; they are
chiseled with transverse incised lines.

This stage also marks the birth of the fine arts: Sculpture, paint-
ing, and drawing made their appearance.

The presence of the reindeer in this and the succeeding stages
gave them together the designation of the reindeer epoch.

5. Solutrean stage.—During this stage flint working attained a
high degree of excellence, to be surpassed, however, in the Neolithic
period. The most characteristic forms are leaf-shaped blades,
which may have been used, according to size, as arrowheads, lance
heads, or even as knives, and shouldered points having one side of
the hilt cut away, leaving a tanglike projection. It is probable that
the chipping of fiints which hitherto had been effected by percussion
with a stone hammer, was now also performed by pressure by means
of bone fabricators, which permitted of more refined finish. Bone
and ivory continued in use, and the earliest bone needles are met
with in the upper horizons of this stage.

The horse was abundant, but the reindeer, the mammoth, the
urus (Bos primigenius), etc., also were represented. Along with
the remains of implements and animal bones a number of hearths
have been found.

6. Magdalenian stage.—In this stage prominence was given to the
manufacture of all sorts of objects of bone, ivory, and horn, with a
corresponding decline in the flint industry. The flint implements
are less elaborate and often lacking in finish; they consist to a great
extent of long, thin flakes and splinters which have been converted
by a minimum of dressing into scrapers, knives, gravers, drills, and
other simple tools. The occurrence of bone harpoons may indicate
that the people of this time were fishermen as well as hunters. Aside
from sculpture and line engraving some of the paintings on the walls
of caves are credited to this period.

The fauna is represented by animals of a cold climate: The rein-
deer, stag (Cervus elaphus), Irish deer (Cervus megaceros), bison,
artic hare, etc. The mammoth had disappeared.

These stages may be separated into two groups. The older,
represented by the two first stages, is practically confined to the
diluvial, or river-drift deposits; the typical implement is the crudely
chipped almond-shaped hand ax. The younger group, comprising

420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

the four later stages, is characterized by a greater variety of im-
plements which are also noteworthy, both for their greater artistic
finish and their wider range of usefulness; they are found princi-
pally in the caverns and rock shelters. It is also marked by the ap-
pearance of bone implements and the beginnings of the arts of
sculpture and painting.

“ Holiths.”—Preceding the Paleolithic period is assumed by some
archeologists an “ Kolithic period” (“dawning stone age”), which
is supposed to have reached back into the Tertiary epoch of geology.
The finds attributed to the “ Eolithic” period are roughly worked
pebbles, or nodules, slightly trimmed on one margin, deeply stained
to a deep, ocherous brown color, indicating age, and usually bearing
marks of drift action. They have been found in the south of Eng-
land, notably on the chalk plateau of Kent, and in some districts
of France, Belgium, and Spain. They are believed to represent the
earliest known attempts of man at tool making.

Although it would seem to be a necessity that man should have
passed through an earlier stage before arriving at the precision of
workmanship and the fixed types characteristic of the Paleolithic
period, the geological age of these relics is not well determined and
it is even a question in many cases whether they are the work of
human hands, as flints may be chipped by pressure of shifting gravel,
glacial action, or falling masses. It is therefore doubted by some
archeologists whether the crude flints assigned to that period are
artifacts or are of natural origin.

Azilian-Tardenoisian period.—As connecting links between the
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods are regarded the relics found in
the cavern of Mas d’Azil (provincial form of Maison d’Azyle),
Ariége, and in Fére-en-Tardenois, Aisne. The typical implement
of the former locality is the flat harpoon of red-deer horn, while
the finds in the latter place are characterized by small flint instru-
ments and tools, affecting geometrical forms, such as triangle,
trapeze, rhomboid, etc.

Il. THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD.

In the Neolithic period the physical conditions were similar to
those of modern times. The configuration of the land was practi-
cally the same as at present and the severe arctic conditions had
passed. Of the animals which lived with the cave man, some, like
the mammoth, had become extinct, others, including the reindeer,
had wandered to distant regions. The animals associated with man
belonged to existing species.

The implements and weapons of Neolithic times were made in a
great variety of well-defined forms and exhibit a high grade of

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 421

workmanship, and by providing them with hafts or handles they
were made more efficient, while the adoption of polishing or grind-
ing made it possible to employ other hard stones, such as diorite,
serpentine, and basalt, not so tractable for chipping as flint.
Polished stones, however, are not the main characteristic of the
Neolithic period. For not only were a large class of the more deli-
cate implements and weapons, such as knives, scrapers, spearheads,
and arrowheads rarely ground or polished, but even axes of excep-
tionally fine workmanship were sometimes shaped by chipping alone.
More important were the great strides which Neolithic man made in
the direction of what is summed up under the name of civilization.
He no longer lived, like his predecessor of Paleolithic time, exclu-
sively by the chase, but tilled the ground, cultivating cereals for
food and textile plants for raiment. He tamed animals and trained
them to domestic use, developed the art of making pottery, and for
shelter he often constructed wooden dwellings, raised on piles, in
lakes and rivers. From the elaborate chambered graves (Barrows)
erected over the bodies of chiefs, as well as from other megalithic
monuments (Menhirs, Cromlechs, Dolmens) which still exist, we
may, perhaps, safely infer the birth of religious sentiments and
beliefs during, if not before, that time.

According to the degree of civilization attained, as illustrated by
the remains discovered, there are distinguished three divisions in
the Neolithic period:

1. Larly Neolithic, called the Campigny period, from one of its
typical stations (Seine-Inferieure, France), characterized by rough,
indeterminate flint implements, the tranchet hatchet of the Danish
kitchen-middens, axes sometimes slightly polished. Dog domesti-
cated. The habitations consisted of caverns and rock-shelters, and
hearths hollowed out of the earth. No burials yet found have asso-
ciated relics of art.

2. Mid Neolithic (Chassey, Sadne-et-Loire, France, and Roben-
hausen, Switzerland).—Increased number of implements—daggers,
saws, gouges, maces; deer-horn hafting of celts; polished stones;
bows and arrows and lances. Building and navigation; nets, fish-
hooks. Baskets; spinning and weaving; cultivation of trees and
crops. Domestication of animals. Manufacture of pottery with
handles and ornaments. Alongside of caves and grottoes, pit and
lake dwellings. Inhumation in caverns and grottoes, or in the
earth, with objects deposited in the graves.

3. Late Neolithic (Carnac, Morbihan, France).—Artistic forms
of celts; polished and perforated ax and hammer heads; jet, quartz,
and steatite ornaments; engraving and sculpture; superior pottery

55379—24——_28

422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

and general improvement on earlier industrial products; surgery,
trepanning.

Improved habitations as demonstrated by the lake-dwellings of
Switzerland and the Terremare settlements of Italy. Megaliths:
Menhirs, stone circles, etc. Inhumation in dolmens, chambered bar-
rows, and cists, with votive axes, amulets, and food.

The term Neolithic period does not imply a culture uniform in
all parts of the world. In some regions the new arts developed
sooner than in others. The progress in various regions and among
different peoples toward civilization has always been very uneven.
The culture of most, if not all, of the primitive peoples of historic
times falls within the Neolithic stage.

The transition from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age to
the Iron Age, and thus to what has been termed the “ Middle level
of civilization and onwards,” is formed by the cultures of the lake
dwellings and the Terremare settlements.

Tue LAKE DwELLIncs.

The term is applied to habitations of wattle and daub raised, for
greater security, upon piles within the margin of lakes or creeks at,
some distance from the shore. The existence of such dwellings was
first noticed during the exceptionally dry season of 1853, when piles
were exposed on the shores of the Lake of Ziirich, in Switzerland,
and soon numerous antiquities were brought to light. Since then
it has been found that nearly all the lakes of Switzerland and many
in the adjoining countries were peopled by lake-dwelling commu-
nities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by
piles at varying distances from the shores. Fifty such settlements
have been enumerated in Lake Neuchatel, 32 in Constance, 20 in
Bienne, and 24 in Geneva. Some of the settlements occupied an
area 1,200 by 150 feet. The settlement of Pfaffikon covered 3 acres
and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. A settlement in
Lake Bienne extended over 6 acres and was connected with the
shore by a gangway nearly 100 yards long by 40 feet wide. Often
the settlements were accessible only by canoes. The huts raised
upon the platforms were quadrilateral, measuring from 20 by 12
feet to about 27 by 22 feet. The walls were constructed of wattle
coated with clay; the roofs were thatched with bark, straw, reed,
or rushes; the floors were formed of clay well trodden down; the
hearths consisted of stone slabs. The antiquities found on the vari-
ous sites show that this manner of life continued from Neolithic
times through the whole of the Bronze period into the earlier
Tron Age.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ, 423

The remains discovered on the sites of the Swiss lake dwellings,
of which the settlement of Robenhausen on the moor which was
formerly the bed of Lake Pfiffikon is considered the typical example,
discloses an advanced condition of culture. The most important im-
plement or weapon was the polished celt axe, which was usually of
small size and made of hard stone, like diorite, serpentine, syenite,
etc. It was often fixed in sockets of deerhorn or staghorn and set
into a wooden handle, the elasticity of the horn socket rendering
the handle less liable to split. Other weapons and implements were
flint arrowheads and spearheads, saws and knives mounted in wooden
handles with asphalt, stone hammers, and grain crushers. Along
with a great variety of bone tools, wood was extensively employed
for shafts, maces, bows, floats for nets, plates, ladles and spoons,
tubs, canoes, etc. The art of the potter had considerably progressed,
although the use of the wheel was still unknown. The vessels were
often of large size, and sometimes roughly decorated with knobs
and finger or cord impressions. The lake dwellers were no longer
wholly dependent upon hunting for their livelihood. They culti-
vated wheat, barley, and millet, from which they made a rough kind
of bread; they preserved apples and pears, and were also acquainted
with raspberry and blackberry. The pieces of woven stuffs which
have been preserved show that besides garments of skins, flax was
grown and clothing woven from it. About 170 plants and 70 species
of animals have been discovered and determined. Of the latter,
10 are fish, 4 reptiles, 26 birds, and 30 mammals. The animals which
were domesticated were the ox, horse, dog, swine, sheep, and goat.
Of the wild animals then inhabiting the district, the urus, bison,
elk, and stag were among the most common.

Tue TERREMARE SETTLEMENTS.

Remains of ancient settlements have been uncovered in mounds
scattered over the plains of northern Italy which are traversed by
the Po River and its tributaries, comprising the Provinces of Parma,
Reggio, and Modena. Similar remains are also found in the valley
of the Theiss, in Hungary. The name Terremare is derived from
the marly soil of which the mounds are composed, known among
the peasants of Italy as marna, or merne, by archeologists generally
called terra mara, or terre mare.

The remains brought to light in these mounds represent pile-
dwelling villages erected on land. The typical settlement was
trapezoidal in plan, with its parallel sides running north and south,
and two roads at right angles dividing it into four quarters. It was
protected by a rampart and a wide moat and strengthened on the
inside by buttresses, Outside were one or two cemeteries, The

424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

average settlement covered about 7 acres. Over 100 stations have
been discovered in Italy.

The stage of culture represented by the relics imbedded in the
mounds is mainly of the early Bronze Age, but stretches back into
the later Stone Age. Stone objects are few in number. Bronze was
the chief material, represented by axes, daggers, swords, knives,
razors, needles, pins, brooches, etc. Some stone and clay molds and
pieces of bronze slag show that the technique of bronze casting was
known. The practice of weaving is proved by a great variety and
abundance of spindle whorls and loom weights. Wood was used in
the manufacture of a great variety of objects, as handles, dishes,
spoons, flooring, etc. Ornamental buttons, pins, combs, etc., were
made of horn and bone. The ceramic art was extensively practiced.
The decoration of pottery consisted of parallel and wavy ridges,
incised triangles and crosses, knobs, circular impressions, etc. Small
clay figurines, chiefly of animals, are the earliest specimens of
plastic art found in Italy.

The inhabitants, though still hunters, derived their principal sus-
tenance from agricultural and pastoral pursuits. They cultivated
wheat, beans, vine, and flax, and had as domesticated animals the
dog, pig, chickens, etc.

It is generally assumed that the Terremare folks were descendants
of the lake dwellers who invaded the north of Italy in two waves
from Central Europe, one toward the close of the Stone Age and the
other after the Bronze Age had begun, bringing with them modes
of house building which led to the erecting of pile dwellings on dry
land. With the entrance of the Iron Age the Terremare settlements
seem to have fallen into desuetude.

REMAINS OF THE STONE AGE FROM EUROPE.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

The old Stone Age of England is represented by “ eoliths,” Chel-
lean and Acheulean celts and picks, and a large variety of flake
tools. They are derived from various localities, as the gravel of
the Thames, chalk plateau of Kent, Thetford, the caves of Igtham,
Robin Hood, Creswell Crags, Grimes Graves, Island of Jersey, etc.
Of Neolithic material there are chipped celts, adzes, chisels, hammer-
stones, various scrapers, discoidal, triangular, and crescent shaped,
and other flake tools, as knives, gravers, needles; a few shells and
arrowheads, mostly coming from Beachamwell, Swaffham, Norfolk,
and Ploughed Lands, South Downs, Sussex.

The osseous material (partly casts) consists of bones and teeth of
the mammoth, hippopotamus, bison, rhinoceros, grizzly bear, cave
hyena, reindeer, and fox.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 425

Ireland furnished a considerable number of rude, nondescript
quartzite implements, pounders or crushing stones, mauls, sling
stones, hoes, and rudely worked flakes, but also polished celts and
chisels, whetstones, drilled hammerstones, perforated stone rings,
and a variety of arrowheads;? also a few fragments of pottery and
bones and teeth of deer and ox. The material is derived from the
caves of Ballymenoch and Craigavad and the counties of Antrim
and Limerick.

From Scotland there are only an anvil of sandstone and a few
flint flakes and cores, while Wales is represented by only a cast of a
drilled hammer, carved with a netting design.

As a continuation of the Stone Age works into modern times in
England may be considered :

THE BRANDON FLINT INDUSTRY.

Near Brandon, a village in Suffolk, England, there are prehistoric
flint quarries which are being worked at present for the production
of gunflint and strike-a-lights. The flint for this industry is ob-
tained from Lingheath Common, about a mile southeast of the vil-
lage; but the original quarry, believed to date from Neolithic
times, was some years ago discovered in “ Grimes Graves,” a collec-
tion of pits 3 miles north of Brandon, where, at a depth of 39 feet,
the “stone floor” was reached from which gunflints are manufac-
tured at the present day.

The flints best adapted for the purpose of manufacture are those
from the chalk formations. They are usually procured by sinking
small shafts into the ground until a band of flint of the right quality
is reached, along which low, horizontal galleries or “ burrows” are
worked. The tools used in quarrying are a one-sided, steel-tipped
iron pick and a short crowbar. The lamp is made up of a candle
. stuck in a hollowed-out lump of chalk. The finished article passes
through three processes of manufacture:

1. Quartering.—Sitting upon a stool which is slightly sloping
forward a block of flint is placed on a leather pad on the workman’s
knees and broken up into splinters of about 6 or 7 inches square.
The technique of quartering lies in breaking the stone so as to have
a more or less squared-off edge to begin flaking from. Two sizes of
hammers are used weighing 3 and 6 pounds, respectively. They are
hexagonal in section and taper toward the faces.

2. Flaking.—This is the most difficult part of the process. The
stone must be struck at a proper angle, with a certain force, and

1The bow and arrow became the ordinary weapon during the Neolithic period. The
arrowheads preserved from that period present a variety of forms, as triangles, leaf and
lozenge shaped, barbed, and with or without a stem. Polished arrowheads are found only
in Ireland and Portugal.

426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

by a particular portion of the face. The flaking hammer is made
of steel, weighs about a pound, is square in section, and tapers
toward the two ends.

3. Knapping.—Before the “knapper” is a wooden block into
which an iron stake or chisel is let in and padded at the sides with
leather to insure a rebound from the hammer stroke. The flake is
taken in the left hand and held on the stake and with a chisellike
hammer is cut into the required sizes and trimmed.

Hight different sizes of gunflints are made, their names and
dimensions being as follows: Long Dane (for the lengthy Arab
gun), 12 inches by 1 inch; fowling, 12 inches square; musket,
18 by 1} inches; carbine, 1} inches by 1 inch; horse pistol, 1 inch
square; single (for single-barreled gun) and rifle, seven-eighths of
an inch square; and pocket pistol, five-eighths by one-half of an
inch.

Gunflints are still used by the tribes of central and western A frica,
the Congo and Gold Coast, and the Arabs around the Mediterranean,
all of whom are precluded—so far as it lies within the power of
European Governments to enforce the prohibition—from acquiring
modern firearms, such as breech-loading rifles and sporting guns.
Factories exist at Birmingham and elsewhere which turn out nothing
but flintlock and small arms, and Brandon provides the flints, the
average output being 150,000 a week.

Tinder-box flints (strike-a-lights) are likewise still made for ex-
port. The Italian and Spanish peasantry prefer the tinder-box to
any other means of obtaining light. It is also used in the humid
African forests where matches prove unreliable. During the South
African War 14,000 tinder boxes, provided with the best Brandon
strike-a-lights, were issued to the British troops.

By a comparison of scrapers of prehistoric times with old strike-a-
lights, of these with modern ones and with old English gunflints,
an almost unbroken succession from the Neolithic period may be
traced for the Brandon industry. Also the tools have not much
altered since Neolithic times, if the ground and perforated Neolithic
hammers are compared, save that iron or steel has superseded stone
in the hammers and horn in the picks, and it may be mentioned that
during the exploration of “ Grimes Graves” there was found in the
covered passage of a sand mound which had apparently been used for
flint working in Neolithic times a pickax formed of flint fastened in
a stag’s antler.

FRANCE.

From France, the classic reservoir of the remains of the Stone
Age, there is a considerable collection representing the several
stages of the Stone Age period and various stations, caves, and

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 427

rock shelters where they have been located, as Chelles, St. Acheul, Le
Moustier, La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, La Quina, Laugerie Haute and
Basse, Bruniquel, Grotto de Bize, etc.

Of the Paleolithic period there are rude quartzite celts, Chellean
and finely flaked Acheulean flint celts, Mousterian points and
scrapers, especially of the Levallois type, Aurignacian, Solutrean
and Magdalenian flake tools, as scrapers, points, gravers, borers, etc.,
mortars, breccia, pieces of stalactite and stalagmite, ochre and mul-
lers for rubbing the ochre for painting, fossil shells. Besides, bone
and horn implements,’ as points and needles, spear throwers, har-
poons,® and the so-called batons de commandment.

A small collection of plaster casts illustrates the art of the Paleo-
lithic period. The esthetic arts of prehistoric times had their be-
ginnings in the Aurignacian stage and reached their zenith in the
Magdalenian stage, the final stage of Paleolithic culture. During
these later stages of the Paleolithic period the cave dwellers cul-
tivated both the graphic and plastic arts so assiduously and effec-
tively that they have bequeathed an art gallery of some four or five
hundred of engravings, sculptures, and even polychrome paintings,
executed with such life and realistic naturalism as to excite astonish-
ment and admiration.

The paintings were chiefly executed on the walls and ceilings of the
caves. The materials for sculpture and engraving were the bones,
horns, and tusks of the animals killed in the chase; the tools, sharply
worked points or gravers of flint. The objects represented were
chiefly the animals of the period and locality; representations of the
human form are comparatively rare, and for the most part of in-
ferior execution. ‘

In the Neolithic period the industrial arts rather than the esthetic
arts were cultivated. The latter were almost entirely confined to the
decoration of pottery, the designs being mostly geometric in ehar-
acter and incised or impressed. The collection in the Museum com-
prises carvings and engravings.

2 Implements of horn and bone were common in the later stages of the Paleolithic period
and continued to be employed through the Neolithic period. Bone was worked into chisels,
awls, needles, arrowheads and spearheads, harpoons, whistles, and various other objects.
The horns of the stag were made into celt sockets. Stout pieces of this material, per-
forated for inserting wooden handles, served as hammers and hatchets or hoes; and the
antler was sometimes converted into a club by the removal of the prongs, except that near
the base.

8 The earliest harpoons occur in the Magdalenian stations, showing that at this stage
of culture man added fishing to hunting as a means of sustenance. The larger specimens
are invariably made of deerhorn, but the smaller ones are sometimes made of bone. Some
harpoous are barbed on both sides, others on one only. At the base there are sometimes
projecting knobs for retaining the loop of the cord by which the head was connected with
the shaft. In northern Europe (Denmark) are also found harpoons of staghorn set with
sharp pieces of fiint as barbs.

428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

Of the Neolithic period there are chipped and polished celts and
chisels from various localities, the large cores (livres de beure from
a supposed resemblance to pounds of butter) and flakes from the
workshops of Grand-Pressigny (Indre-et-Loire)* knives, hammer-
stones, sling stones, grind,’ mealing, and rubbing stones, worked horn,
pottery fragments from dolmens, a plaster model of a dolmen,’ clay
beads and spindle whorls.’ The osseous remains consist of the bones
and teeth of the cave bear, rhinoceros, aurox, wild goat, reindeer, and
horse, and fragments of a human jaw.

ITALY.

The prehistoric remains from Italy come largely from the Terra-
mare stations near Modena, Castelaccio, and Castione, and from the
lake dwelling stations at Lonato and Peschiera on Lake Garda, be-
sides from the caves of Breonio and Lazarro, the island of Levengo,
Sicily, island of Elba, Tuscany, and other localities. They include
a variety of flake implements—scrapers, knives, points, arrowheads,
some small chipped celts or chisels, and a number of finely polished
celts and chisels. Mention is also deserved by a collection of forma
curiosa, falsificates which originated in Breonio and in the neighbor-
hood of Santa Anna, Verona. They consist of gray or brown flint,
chipped in form of crosses, stars, squares, etc., representing neither
tools nor weapons nor ornaments. There is also a considerable

«They are débris of a Neolithic workshop in the neighborhood of Grand-Pressigny, De-
partment of Indre-et-Loire, France. The products of this industry, easily recognizable by
their yellow waxen color, have been traced not only in various parts of France, but also
in Belgium and Switzerland, so that apparently an export trade was carried on by the
neolithic manufacturers.

5 The grindstones used in shaping stone implements are generally of compact sandstone
or quartzite and usually of two forms—fiat slabs, often worn by use, and polygonal forms
with several facets, convex and concave, In the operation of grinding, the grindstone was
fixed and the implements were rubbed lengthways on the grinding bed, as shown by the
longitudinal furrows, or striae, which characterize the implements; and from the coarse-
ness of these furrows on many of the implements, especially the large ones, it would
appear that some coarse and hard grit must have been used to assist the action of the
grindstone.

6 Stone monuments of huge size have been found in various regions the world over, aud
may be traced to the remotest times. Modern statues, obelisks, and other monumental
works are the lineal descendants of these crude, unhewn monoliths. Such stones when
standing single and isolated are called menhirs; when several of them are arranged in a
circle or ring they are called cromlechs; while the term dolmen (table stone) is used for
structures consisting of a large capstone supported on upright stones, usually three in
number so as to form a chamber (see model in case). This chamber is sometimes em-
bedded in a mound of earth or stones so as to present the form of a tumulus or cairn.
It is believed that the primary object of these monuments was sepulchral, and that the
implements, ornaments, etc., found in their neighborhood were votive offerings to the
dead. The megaliths found in abundance in France, especially in the Province of Brittany,
are regarded as marking the close of the Neolithic period.

7In their simplest form spindle whorls are disks of stone, clay, bone, or wood, from 1
to 14 inches in diameter, pierced in the center for inserting the shaft. Sometimes they
are conical and ornamental with incised lines. They served as flywheels to add momentum
to rotary motion of the implement.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 429

amount of pottery fragments and spindlewhorls. Osseous material is
represented by the bones and teeth of the cave bear, cow and ox,
besides the antler of a deer and horns of a bullock.

BELGIUM.

There is first to be mentioned a collection (partly casts) of Mes-
vinian and Strepyan artifacts. They are so called after the typical
sites of their occurrence—Mesvin and Strepy, in Belgium. They
consist largely of nodules and flakes of flint or brown chert, roughly
chipped at the margin, and adapted to the purposes of hammering,
cutting, abrading, and perforating. Dr. A. Rutot, of the Royal
Museum of Natural History, at Brussels, Belgium, divides them, ac-
cording to the degree of deliberate design which they exhibit, into
three classes: Mesvinian, pre-Strepyan, and Strepyan, and considers
them as representing transition stages from the Eolithic to the Pale-
olithic stages of culture.

The bulk of the implements from Belgium are of the Neolithic
period and come from Spiennes (the flint mines of which belong to
the best known, and where the flint was not only mined but manu-
factured on the spot and widely distributed from this center), Saint
Symphorien, and the caves of Goyet, Sureau, Magarite, Montangle,
Chaleux and Nutons. The collection includes miners’ picks, cores,
rudely chipped celts and chisels, hammers, and a variety of flake
tools. Of bone implements there are casts of darts, points, daggers,
harpoons and polishers, and celts and chisels made of deerhorn.
Besides single animal bones, as the humerus, radius, caleaneum, etc.,
of the reindeer and ibex, there is a set of well-executed casts of the
skulls and lower jaws of the brown bear (Ursus arctus), grizzly
bear, the cave bear, the cave hyena, the elk, wolf, glutton, chamois,
and goat.

SWITZERLAND.

Switzerland is represented by a considerable and varied collection
of material coming in the main from the several settlements of the lake
dwellers (see above the description of the lake dwellings, page 422)
and from the cave of Kesslerloch (so-called because it has been a
frequent place of resort of traveling tinkers), near Thayingen on
Lake Constance. The collection comprises a wooden model of a
lake-dwelling settlement and a variety of stone implements, chipped
and polished. Among the latter may be mentioned finely worked

430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

perforated hammers and celts,’ and numerous chisel-like blades of
nephrite and jadeite mounted in sockets of deerhorn, besides grind-
ing and mill stones. The clay material includes a large collection of
well-preserved pottery, some of large dimensions, spindle whorls,
large clay rings, which were probably used as stands for vessels
with rounded bottoms. Then an assortment of agricultural prod-
ucts, as various grains and fruits, threads and pieces of cloth and
fishing nets, all in good preservation from having been carbonized.
In the osseous material are represented the ox, pig, goat, deer,
hare, etc.
YUGOSLAVIA (CROATIA).

There are from this region only a few casts of stone implements
which were found with the remains of the Krapina man.

GREECE.

The small collection of obsidian cores and flakes came chiefly from

Crete.
GERMANY.

The German prehistoric collection comes in the main from the
islands on the Baltic Sea, with small contributions from the cavern
of Taubach, near Weimar, and from Thuringia. It includes va-
rious flake tools, including Mousterian points and lunate knives,
polished and perforated celts and ax hammers, chisels and gouges,
daggers and spearheads, spindle whorls, and fragments of pottery,
bones and teeth of the bison, rhinoceros, cave bear, and horse.

RUSSIA.

Russia is represented by a small collection of crude chisels, ar-
rowheads, spearheads, and flakes of slate, and quartzite schist from
Vladivostok, fragments of pottery, decorated with cord impressions,
from Novgorod, and other pottery fragments, one containing car-

8 Axes and hammers pierced for the reception of a handle, and thus approaching in
character corresponding iron implements in use at present, were for the most part manu-
factured from varieties of greenstone (diorite or diabos), basalt, or granite and similar
rocks. Pierced implements of flint do not occur, as the hardness of this kind of stone
rendered the drilling process difficult. Two different methods at least seem to have been
employed in drilling. One with a hollow, cylindrical or tubular drill, probably of oxhorn
or hollowed-out deerhorn aided by sand. This is evidenced by the presence of cores or
lumps often left in the perforations, The other was done with a solid drill, probably of
wood, operated by a bow drill, similar to that used in producing fire. In either method
hard sand and water were applied. In some cases the hole on both sides tapers toward
the middle, having the form of an hourglass, due to drilling from both sides with a solid
point. In some rare instances the perforation is oval instead of round. The drilling was
undertaken after the stone had been ground into the proper shape, as shown by many
specimens with unfinished borings. The more finely finished specimens were probably
not used as tools but as weapons, or, more likely, as badges of rank or command by
chiefs, as the edges of the axes are usually too blunt for cutting purposes, and all of
them, though sometimes expanded at the perforated part, would easily break at the shaft

hole by hard usage.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 431

bonized human bones from a tumulus near Chernigov. From tumuli
in the neighborhood of Kiev in southern Russia (Ukraine) came a
collection of rudely decorated pottery, bone ornaments, fragments
of wood, pieces of charcoal, scoria, ochre, and baked earth.

SCANDINAVIA.

There may be first noted a collection from the Danish kitchen
middens. The kitchen middens (kjokken moddings) are heaps of
shells, principally those of the oyster, scattered along the Danish
coast. They are accumulations of kitchen refuse of the peoples who
lived on these sites and fed largely on shellfish and such animals
as could be procured by hunting. These refuse heaps formed in
course of time large mounds. Over 150 of these heaps are known in
Denmark, sometimes 10 feet in height and nearly 350 feet in length.

The industrial remains usually found embedded in these mounds
consist of roughly chipped flint implements, a few pointed imple-
ments of bone and horn, and some coarse pottery. The typical flint
implement of the kitchen middens is the so-called tranchet, a wedge-
shaped hatchet, usually made by transversely dividing a large
oblong flake, having one straight, incisive lateral edge, into two or
more sections. One end of each chisel-like section retains the sharp
edge of the original flake, which is usually left untouched, while the
sides and top are chipped into shape for hafting.

The animal bones found in the shell heaps are chiefly those of the
stag, roe deer, and wild boar. The long bones have been broken to
extract the marrow, which shows that the people of these settle-
ments lived in part on the products of the chase. They appear to
have had no knowledge of agriculture, and their only domestic
animal was the dog.

It is generally supposed that the kitchen middens of Denmark
represent one of the earliest stages of the Neolithic period and that
they contain the oldest traces of man in the Scandinavian Penin-
sula, where, thus far, no remains.of a Paleolithic industry have been
found.

The remains from the kitchen middens include flint flakes, tran-
chets, points, chisels, hammerstones, and cores, bones of the red deer,
roe, boar, and domestic dog, besides shells, fishbones, and bones of
birds.

From a later phase of the Neolithic period both Sweden and Den-
mark are represented by considerable collections of finely worked
stone implements, both chipped and polished, such as celts, per-
forated axhammers, square chisels, gouges, lunate knives and saws,
daggers and spearheads, arrowheads, various bone implements, spin-
dle whorls, and pottery fragments.

432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,
REMAINS OF THE STONE AGE FROM ASIA.
INDIA.

From India there is a collection of Paleolithic implements of
quartzite corresponding to the Chellean and Acheulean hand axes
of Europe. They were washed out of Pleistocene laterite (red fer-
ruginous clay) alluvium containing quartzite bowlders in the dis-
tricts of Boondi and Gazeepet, Madras Presidency. Polished celts
and chisels of basalt and trap rock come from the Banda District,
Northwest Province. A small collection of bone fragments of pig,
vertebree of fish, shells, and pottery fragments hail from the Anda-
man Islands in the Bay of Bengal.

There is also a large collection of minute chipped implements,
found by A. C. Carlyle, formerly of the Archaeological Survey of
India, in the caves and rock shelters of the Vindhya Hills, Central
India. The implements, varying in size from half an inch to one and
a half inches, are made of a variety of siliceous rock—jasper, chert,
hornstone, flint, agate, and chalcedony—and in various forms, as
crescentic, rhomboidal, trapezoidal, quadrilateral, triangular, and
slender-blade form. These “pygmy tools” have been found in
widely separated parts of the world and are generally attributed to
the Neolithic period. Various uses have been ascribed to them, such
as that of arrowheads, fish snags, lateral barbs of harpoons, or
piercers. But they may have had various uses. Few of them show
any signs of wear.°

CAMBODIA, INDO-CHINA.

The objects from Cambodia were found in the shell heaps or
kitchen-middens, situated near the shores of Lake Ton-le-sap, which
have been explored by Prof. L. H. James. The shell heaps, varying
in depth from 13 to 29 feet, and covered by deposits of alluvial soil,
the deposit of annual floods, are composed of three layers marking
three different cultures. The upper layer, which was also the thin-
nest, contained bronze implements and ornaments together with
some finely worked stone implements, and pottery decorated with
geometrical designs characteristic of the Bronze Age. In the middle
stratum were found objects of stone mixed with those of copper
and bronze, which may be assigned to the transition period from the
use of stone to that of metal. In the lower and deepest stratum were
embedded stone implements and pottery characteristic of the Neo-
lithic phase of culture.

aii ett Ao oe oy clang ths ss et ca 2 hee eed Uhre en Ay ei ee ee
® Compare Thomas Wilson, Minute Stone Implements from India, Report of the U.S.
National Museum for 1892, pages 455-460.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 433

From the size of the shell heaps, which must have required a long
period for their accumulation, and from the fact that some of them
are more than 50 miles distant from the great lake, so that at the
time of their formation the margin of the lake must have extended
to the site of the shell heaps, it is inferred that the Neolithic period
was of exceptionally long duration in this region.

The collection consists of polished celts and chisels, rectangular
and squared with square tangs for hafting. The slight thickness of
these implements as also the poor quality of the stone (shale and
feldspar) would indicate that they were intended not for practical
use but for ceremonial or ritual purposes. It includes finely polished
gouges, tubular and flat rings of black stone and a variety of orna-
ments—rings, bracelets, anklets, perforated beads made of shells be-
longing to the genera 7'ridacena and Hippopus, besides bone imple-
ments and ornaments, perforated animal teeth, clay cones and cups.

PALESTINE.

Palestine is represented by a collection of flint celts of the Chel-
lean type, found near Raphaim, Neolithic flint chisels and flake tools
found near Jerusalem, and flint flakes, representing the section of two
flint sickles, showing polish from use, found near Gezer.

TROY.

The site of ancient Troy, the modern Hissarlik, in the northwest
corner of Asia Minor, was explored by Dr. Henry Schliemann (1822-
1890) during the years 1870 to 1882. He laid bare the remains of a
series of ancient settlements one above the other. The collection
here exhibited was found by him at various depths. It was pre-
sented to the National Museum by Mrs. Schliemann in 1893.

The collection includes polished celts and chisels of basalt, ham-
merstones and rubbing stones, bone implements, terra-cotta balls and
weights, ivory plaques, probably representing idols, a number of
characteristic pottery vessels and some bronzes.

JAPAN AND KOREA.

The remains of the Stone Age in Japan are chiefly found in shell
heaps, resembling the kitchen-middens of Europe. They occur near
the coast, and in those parts of the islands which had been inhabited
by the ancestors of the Ainos who occupied Japan long before the
modern race of the Japanese. Most of the stone implements consist
of roughly worked slate; but there are also some well-finished, pol-
ished celts, so that no dividing line between Paleolithic and Neo-
lithic can be drawn. The numerous remains of handmade pottery,
in fragments as well as in almost perfect vessels, would indicate that

434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

this whole culture was Neolithic. The stone implements include, be-
sides hatchets, knives, arrowheads, and drills. Especially character-
istic are the “ thunder-mallets,” or “ stone-mallet-swords,” and the
crescent-shaped knives with projecting knob at the butt or back,
probably designed to afford a hold in binding it to a thong.

The personal ornaments appear in shape of stone and clay rings,
beads, and comma-shaped objects, called magatama (“crooked
jewels”). The pottery decorations show great variety in form and
motive.

The bones occurring most frequently are those of the deer, boar,
fox, bear, and, occasionally, dog, wolf, and monkey. Human bones
are found in the shape of fragments of the tubular bones, such as
the humerus, radius, ulna, etc.

The small collection from Korea includes rude celts and chisels of
trap rock, polished celts of quartzite, polished and carved daggers
and spearheads of shale, polished arrowheads, semicircular knives,
notched, or hour-glass-shaped implements, amber beads, and
“crooked jewels.”

REMAINS OF THE STONE AGE From AFRICA.
EGYPT.

Most of the Egyptian stone implements have been picked up upon
the surface of the desert where relics of various ages are found
mingled, and as a rule there is little to determine their age other
than their form and the condition of their surface, as no animal re-
mains belonging to species now extinct have thus far been found in
an undisturbed stratum in Egypt. But it is commonly agreed that
the northeast corner of Africa was occupied by man at a very re-
mote period. The implements resembling those found in the river-
drifts of Europe may therefore be referred to an early age, while
the finely chipped implements, such as knives, lance-heads with rip-
ple flaking and serrated edge, etc., which are in delicate workman-
ship only comparable with the Neolithic products of Scandinavia,
may be assigned to the period immediately preceding the dawn of
history.

The use of stone implements in Egypt was not confined to the pre-
historic period, but was continued for domestic and ceremonial pur-
poses into historical times.

The considerable Egyptian collection comes largely from the prov-
ince of the Fayum, west of the Nile, from the ancient quarry sites
and workshops in the Wady el-Sheikh, east of the Nile, opposite el-
Fent, Middle Egypt, and from the Valley of the Kings. The col-
lection includes a large number of rude bladelike implements, trian-
gular, pyramidal, leaf and lozenge-shaped, some with one edge curved

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 435

or convex, the other straight, assuming a lunate form. Some are
rudely chipped on both edges, others on one edge only. They were
found on the surface, around shallow pits from which the chert had
been extracted. Many of them have been broken in the manufacture,
and the two fragments have often been exposed to the weather and
the rays of the sun on opposite faces, so that when joined together
they show different degrees of patination. Then flake tools, celts,
chisels, gravers, Mousterian scrapers and points, side scrapers,
gravers, shouldered knives, sickles and saws, arrowheads, spearheads,
crescent-shaped implements, etc.

ALGIERS.

From Algiers in North Africa there are only a few flakes and
cores, shell beads, fragments of bones and of pottery.

SOMALILAND.

The collection from Somaliland in East Africa comprises chipped
celts, scrapers, points, knives, etc., of quartzite. The form of the
larger implements is very similar to that of those from the river
gravels of Europe (The Chellean and Acheulean hand-axes or bou-
chers), while the smaller implements, mostly points, resemble the
Mousterian equivalents.

SOUTH AFRICA.

The collection from South Africa (Cape Colony and Transvaal)
consists of a variety of flake tools, celts of the Acheulean type, dig-
ging and rubbing stones, pottery fragments, and human bones.

AUSTRALASIA.

It is generally assumed that man came at a very early time to
Australia. The original inhabitants known to history were related
to the Melanesians, as also to the Negritos of the Andaman, Moluccas,
and Philippine Islands. The now extinct Tasmanians represented
the last remnant of these primitive aborigines. The present Aus-
tralian natives came later and drove out the aborigines to the adja-
cent islands.

At the first arrival of white men in Australia, in 1788, when they
established in the neighborhood of Port Jackson a penal colony, the
natives were estimated to number 150,000. In 1891 they had
dwindled to 30,000. They usually live in hordes not exceeding a
hundred members. Occasionally these hordes coalesce into tribes.
When left to themselves they continue to live in the Stone Age.
Their principal occupation is hunting. Their implements consist of
stone axes, knives, scrapers, chisels, and saws, all roughly made and

486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

corresponding closely to the Paleolithic forms, though occasionally
polished. They also employ bones, shells, and wood for the manu-
facture of tools, and make simple baskets.

The collection in the National Museum consists of polished and
partly polished celts of lava and trap rock, a spearhead of quartzite,
rude points and scrapers, chips, and bones of a dog.

TASMANIA.

Tasmania is an island of Australasia in the southern ocean, 150
miles south of the colony of Victoria, from which it is separated
by Bass Straits. It is a British colonial possession and has an area
of 26,216 square miles. It is named after the Dutch navigator, Abel
Janszoon Tasman, who discovered it in 1642.

The aborigines became extinct in 1876, except a few half-castes
who survive. They remained in the lowest stage of culture, lower
even than that of the Paleolithic man of Europe. They lived on the
chase of animals, which they roasted whole in the skin, and on shell-
fish, which they obtained by diving. Cooking by boiling and the
art of fishing by -hook or net were alike unknown to them. They
wielded a wooden spear and a sort of knob berry. Fire was ob-
tained by stick rubbing. They had rafts, or floats, but no boats.
Their fundamental stone implement was a hand-grasped rude knife,
or scraper, generally chipped only on one side and quite devoid of
symmetry. The long cutting implements, characteristic of the stone
industry, both of the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of Europe,
are absent. Next to these most primitive implements, and used for
cutting, scraping, sawing, chopping, etc., may be mentioned the
anvil, a chipped round stone plate upon which the animal bones
were broken to extract the marrow, using another stone as a hammer.
Flint being unknown in Tasmania, the aborigines used a fine-grained
sandstone or phthanite, which is not as tractable as flint, and this
may partly account for the limited variety of the stone implements
of the Tasmanians and the inferiority of the workmanship.

The collection includes a hammer and anvil, cores, knives, and
scrapers.

ANCIENT BronzEs.

Bronze antiquities belong to the period when stone was gradu-
ally failing into disuse, and iron was either practically unknown
or only partially adopted for tools and weapons. The beginning
and duration of this period varied in different countries, and was
overlapped by the stone age on the one side and by the iron age on
the other. No two prehistoric periods can be separated by a hard

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ., 437

and fast line, and the terms “ Stone Age,” “ Bronze Age,” and “ Iron
Age” denote rather stages of human culture than divisions of time.
In a general way it is assumed that the use of metal, which consti-
tutes one of the most important steps in human progress, began
3000 to 4000 B. C.

The oldest piece of bronze so far known is a rod found in the
pyramid of Medum, Egypt, which is held to date from 3700 B. C.,
while Babylonia can show a bronze statuette of Gudea from about
2500 B. C. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Europe is set in
the period between 200 and 1800 B. C.

By the word “ bronze” is designated in archeology a mixed metal
composed chiefly of copper with an alloy of tin, the latter rang-
ing from 20 to 9 per cent. Besides copper and tin there are found
in ancient bronzes appreciable quantities of silver, gold, and zinc,
although the alloy of copper and zinc, known as brass, was almost
unknown in antiquity.

It is probable that in some parts of the world copper was the
first metal of which implements were made, and that its use may
have continued for some time before it was discovered that the addi-
tion of a small portion of tin not only rendered it more readily
fusible but added to its elasticity and hardness. But there is no
evidence of a “ copper age,” or of a universal stage of culture char-
acterized by the sole use of copper. There is also no doubt that
gold was known in some parts of Europe in the Neolithic Age, and
it may possibly have been the first metal worked in this part of the
world.

The use of bronze was far more extensive and varied in ancient
than in modern times. It was employed not only for decorative
purposes, but also in the manufacture of furniture, household uten-
sils, armor, and other objects.

Several processes were employed by the ancients for the pro-
duction of works in bronze: For implements and utensils, hammer-
ing and casting; for statues, solid casting, beaten plates riveted or
welded together, and hollow casting; for reliefs and decorative
work, chasing, and repousse work.

The collection of bronzes in the museum comprises tools, as celts
in their four principal forms, viz, flat, flanged, winged, and
socketed celts, chisels, knives, razors; weapons, as swords, spearheads
and arrowheads; domestic utensils, as pitchers, pails, bowls, dishes,
lamps, strainers, ladles, cups, scales, etc.; chirurgical instruments;
ornaments, as fibulae, finger rings, earrings, bracelets, anklets. mir-
rors, ets., besides masks, helmets, stamps, human and animal fig-
urines, etc.

553879—24 29

438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.
THE ARCHEOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF HISTORIC TIMES.

(For a more detailed description of some of the important specimens see the
section ‘‘ Guide to the Collections of Old World Archeology ’’).

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

The remains of ancient Egypt are chiefly of a sepulchral char-
acter. The collection in the National Museum includes a human
mummy and several mummified animals. Several coffins, funerary
boxes and cones, a considerable number of ushabti figurines, a set of
Canopic vases, a Greco-Egyptian painting, Greco-Egyptian inscribed
papyri, a collection of mummy cloth, necklaces, scarabs, amulets,
pottery ranging from the predynastic times down to the Greco-
Roman period. The later Christian period is represented by a col-
lection of Coptic cloth. Of sculpture there are an original stone
sphinx and casts of statues and busts of the chief divinities and
the great historic rulers, besides reliefs. Facsimiles of the Book
of the Dead, casts of the Rosetta and Canopus Stones, squeezes
from the tomb of Taia, etc.

BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES.

They consist mainly of casts of sculptures including the Code of
Hammurabi, the torsos of Gudea, a stele of Sargon, human-headed
winged lion and bull, the black obelisk of Shalmaneser IT, a boundary
stone, besides many reliefs representing genii before the sacred tree
or tree of life, hunting and war scenes, and a collection of seals.

HITTITE SCULPTURES.

In the Bible the Hittites are derived from Heth, son of Canaan,
the son of Ham (Genesis x, 15). They are described as an important
tribe in the region of Hebron (Genesis xxiii, 2), and are often men-
tioned as one of the seven principal Canaanitish tribes, and some-
times as comprising the whole Canaanitish population (Joshua i, 4).
From Abraham (Genesis xxiii) to Solomon the Hittites came more
or less in contact with Israel. Numbers of them remained with the
Jews even as late as the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra ix, 1).
Hittite kings are mentioned as living north of Palestine (I Kings x,
29; II Kings vii, 6), and some writers call them Syrian Hittites to
distinguish them from the Canaanite tribe. Recently the Hittites
have been identified with the Aheta of the Egyptian and Khatti of
the Assyrian monuments.

From the inscriptions on these monuments it is gathered that this
people at an early period were a mighty power, ruling for a time
the territory from the Euphrates to the 4 gean, and being a rival of
Egypt and Assyria.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 439

Of late there have been added to the Biblical, Egyptian, and
Assyrian sources numerous monuments which were discovered
throughout Asia Minor and’ northern Syria. These monuments,
mostly of black basalt, contain representations in bas-relief of re-
ligious objects, winged figures, deities standing on various animals,
sphinxes, griffins, the winged disk, as symbols of the deity, the two-
headed eagle (which became the standard of the Seliukian Turks,
and afterwards of Austria and Russia), and hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions in lines alternating from right to left and left to right, called
bustrophedon, besides inscriptions in the cuneiform characters of
Assyria and Babylonia. The foremost center of Hittite power was
at modern Boghaz-Keui, in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, where in 1906
remains of palaces and an archive of clay tablets inscribed in Baby-
lonian characters were discovered.

The casts from the Hittite reliefs in the Museum collection include
divinities, kings, warriors, sphinxes, griffins, composite beings, and
scenes from the chase.

PERSIA.

Persia is represented by casts of the inscription and the warrior
from Persepolis.
SYRIA AND PALESTINE.

The antiquities from Syria and Palestine may be designated as
“ Biblical Antiquities.” They include casts of some of the inscrip-
tions found in Palestine, as the Moabite Stone, the Siloam inscrip-
tion, and the Temple stone; also objects illustrating Biblical pas-
sages, as millstones, sling, trap, and various ornaments; a collec-
tion of coins from Bible lands; precious stones and musical instru-
ments mentioned in the Bible. Also a few specimens of the geology
and flora of Palestine, a large relief map of Palestine and casts of
the colossal statue of the god Hadad and of the torso of King
Panamu II from Syria.

ARMENIA.

The territory which once formed the kingdom of Armenia is the
table-land situated between Asia Minor and the Caspian Sea, inclosed
on several sides by the ranges of the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and
partly traversed by other mountains, the highest of which is the
volcanic peak of the Ararat mentioned in the Old Testament.

The collection from Armenia, which consists of pottery, bronze
torques, bracelets, pendants, pins, shell beads, iron spearheads and
knives, was obtained from the ancient necropolis of Monci-yeri, near
Allahverdi in the Caucasus.

440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.
TURKESTAN.

From Turkestan, Central Asia, there is a collection of pottery and
fragments of tiles, dating from the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
A. D.

TEREK, CAUCASUS.

The collection, which was taken out from a tomb near Terek, con-
sists of copper and bronze pieces—pins, rings, bracelets, anklets,
buckles, and fragments of handles, ete—colored glass beads, and
pottery fragments.

GRECO-ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.

The collection comprises a set of casts of statues and busts of the
major and minor divinities of the Greco-Roman pantheon. A
wooden model of the Parthenon. Casts of reliefs illustrating some
episodes of Greek mythology, as the battle of the gods with the
giants and of the Centaurs with the Lapithi, etc. A Roman mosaic
from Carthage. Reliefs from the Triumphal Arch of Trojan at
Beneventum. Votive tablets and sepulchral stellae. Plaster casts
and electrotypes of engraved gems. The minor or domestic arts are
represented by a collection of painted pottery and terra-cotta
figurines.

GREEK AND ITALIAN POTTERIES.

The manufacture of vases was an important industry in early
prehistoric times in Greece and on the adjacent islands of the
Archipelago.

The potteries found on the site of ancient Troy (modern Hissarhk,
Asia Minor) are still crude, mostly handmade and unpainted, and
often in the shape of a rudely modeled human figure.

In the vases of the “ Mycenaean civilization ” (about 1500 to 1000
Bb. C.), so called after the city of Mycenae, which was its center,
artistic feeling begins to appear. The vases are all wheel made
and varied in form and decoration. The favorite designs are bands
and spirals, plants, leaves, and marine animals (cuttlefish, octopuses,
etc.).

Next follow the geometric pottery, in which the decoration 1s
composed of patterns in lines on a regular plan and measurements,
such as zigzags, meanders, and concentric circles. The most in-
teresting and important variety of this style is the pottery, painted
with naval battles and funeral processions, found in the cemetery
near the Dipylon (double gate) of ancient Athens and hence called
Dipylon vases. This style of decoration prevailed from about 1000
to 800 B. C.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ,. 441

About the middle of the eighth century, B. C., the “ orientalizing ”
style came into vogue, characterized by an ornamentation in bands
or zones, recalling that of Oriental carpets. The vases so treated are
called “ Corinthian.” The ground is light yellow or cream colored;
the conventionalized figures between the bands are reddish-brown,
heightened with white, black, and violet; flowers, leaves, and
rosettes are scattered over the ground.

The height of development was reached in the sixth and fifth cen-
turies B. C., in the vases produced in Attica, Greece. According
to the disposition of the colors, two styles were distinguished in the
painting of the potteries of this period—the “ black-figured ” and
the “ red-figured ” style. In the former, which lasted till about the
year 500 B. C., the designs were (silhouettelike) on red ground; in
the latter the design stood out in red color against the black glaze
which covered the remaining surface of the vase. These two kinds
of vases are sometimes called “ Etruscan ” because great numbers of
them have been found in the tombs of Etruria, but it seems certain
that nearly all of them were made in Greece, at least in the fifth cen-
tury, and that all the finer vases discovered in Etruria are of
Athenian origin.

The subjects depicted on the vases illustrate Greek life in all
its aspects: Myths of the gods, story and legend, the school and
gymnasium, the stage and many scenes from everyday life. The
chief forms of the vases are: Amphora, so called from its two
handles, used to hold liquids as well as grain, and always ege-
shaped in form; pelike, a development of the amphora, in which
the foot is done away with and the body swells out from the han-
dles downward; crater (“mixer”), used for mixing water with
wine before serving it in cups to guests at banquets; oenochoé
(“wine pourer”’), used for dipping the wine from the crater and
pouring it into goblets, also for pouring water on the hands of
guests at banquets and for libations to the gods; kylix (chalice),
the favorite drinking cup at banquets; hydria (water jar), used
almost exclusively for carrying water, and provided with three
handles—a large one at the back for carrying when empty and two
smaller ones at the sides for carrying when full; skyphus, originally
a wooden bow] used by the peasantry for milking, later made in
metal and clay and used as a drinking cup, and sacred to Herakles
(Hercules); aryballus, an oil flask used in the bath; alabastron,
so called from the material of which it was originally made, gen-
erally used for ointments and perfumes in the toilet, but some-
times also for funeral purposes. Both the aryballus and the alabas-
tron have a flat top with small orifice, and a globular or cylindri-

442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

cal body. Lekythus, originally an oil flask, was chiefly used for
funeral purposes.

In the fourth century B. C., important potteries were also estab-
lished in southern Italy (Lucania, Apulia, and Campania), which
in general followed Athenian models, though developing local va-
riations of style. About the middle of the third century B. C. the
manufacture of painted vases ceased, even in Italy. They were
superseded by vases decorated with reliefs (“ Megarian bowls” and
“ Arretine ware”).

In the Museum’s collection of pottery nearly all the forms enu-
merated above are represented and range in date from the seventh
century B. C. to the first century A. D., including the Roman
black vases (so-called Buchero) and the Arretine red ware (also
incorrectly called “ Samian”), which was a characteristic product
of the Romans, deriving its name from Arezzo (the ancient Ar-
retium) in Tuscany, Italy, the chief center of its manufacture.

Another collection of pottery, ranging in date from the middle of
the second millenium to the end of the first millenium B. C., may
be roughly assigned to the countries around the Mediterranean
Sea, viz, Phenicia, Syria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, etc.

ANCIENT TERRA COTTAS.

Terra-cotta statuettes have been found on nearly all the famous
sites of antiquity, from Babylonia to north Africa, and from Sicily
to the Crimea in Russia. The earliest go back to the second mil-
lenium B. C., and their manufacture continued down to the end
of the first century A. D. The subjects represented in these
statuettes are: Figures of deities; mythological subjects; scenes
from daily life; caricatures; masks, animals, and toys. Most of
these represent female figures, seated or standing, with a high
headdress, or with a veil or part of the upper garment drawn over
the head. Sometimes they hold a child or carry an animal or
fruit.

As these figurines have chiefly been found on sites of former sanc-
tuaries or in tombs, it is assumed that they were originally intended
for religious purposes, but in time lost this significance and were
used by the Greeks as ornaments in daily life.

The Romans placed these statuettes in their house shrines, but em-
ployed them also as toys and gifts and for the decoration of their
houses.

The earliest fabrics were modeled by hand and were solid. Sub-
sequently molds were generally used which enabled the making of
hollow and light figurines. The head and arms were usually molded
separately and attached afterwards, which permitted variations to
the figures coming from the same mold, so that no two are alike.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 443

The final touches before firing were given the figure either with the
finger or with a graving tool. After the firing the figures were
colored, in rare cases, gilded. This has been largely worn off.

The most finished and elegant terra-cotta statuettes are those found
in the graves of Tanagra, in Boeotia, Greece, dating from the fourth
and third centuries B. C., examples of which, in facsimile, are shown
in wall cases in the southeast end of the hall.

The bulk of the terra-cotta figurines in the collection represent
female figures, some of them adorned with diadem or crown with an
expression of dignity and calm, evidently meant for a goddess, others
in various poses, sometimes holding a child or an animal. A small
number are of male figures, satyrs, caricatures, and animals. The
facsimiles of the Tanagra figurines largely represent mythological
scenes.

TERRA-COTTA LAMPS.

Terra-cotta lamps have been found everywhere through the
ancient domain of the Roman Empire, mostly in tombs where they
were placed for the use of the dead, or with the idea of their burn-
ing perpetually. They were used for lighting houses, in processions,
as offerings in temples, as New Year’s gifts, and for funerary pur-
poses.

The oldest lamps date from the third century B. C. and were
made on the wheel, with decorations in incised lines; later they were
either modeled by hand or made in molds, with decorations in relief.

The principal parts of the lamp are (1) the reservoir, which con-
tained the oil, (2) the flat, circular top, (3) the nozzle with hole for
insertion of the wick, and (4) the handle, which was not indispen-
sable.

Wicks were made of a plant known as verbascum or thryallis, but
tow and papyrus were also employed. The oil was vegetable oil of
some kind.

The average size of the lamps is from 3 to 4 inches in diameter,
with a length of about 1 inch greater than the diameter, and they
are mostly about 1 inch in height.

The Museum’s collection of terra-cotta lamps includes specimens
from Egypt, Phenicia, Palestine, Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. The
tops of some are adorned in relief with figures of Gods—Jupiter,
Zeus with the eagle, Cupid in various postures, etc.—or with human
figures, and there are some with the monogram of Christ.

ANTIQUE IRIDESCENT GLASSWARE.

Glass which has for many years been subject to the slowly disinte-
grating influences of dampness, alternating heat and cold, light, and
darkness, etc., displays an iridescent play of colors, due to the forma-

+44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

tion in consequence of the decomposition of minute scales or films
on the surface that reflect light in colors similar to the delicate hues
on the neck of a dove or of soap bubbles.

The Museum’s collection of ancient glassware comprises a large
variety of vessels: amphoras, pitchers, cups, bowls, dishes, vases,
bottles of various shapes, besides bracelets and beads.

ANCIENT ORIENTAL SEALS.

Seals among the ancient peoples served a threefold purpose: (1)
to authenticate a document, as does the modern signature, (2) as
talismans, and (3) as ornaments. The oldest form of seal is a cylin-
der. It had its origin in Babylonia, where it can be traced back in
the fourth millennium B. C., while in Egypt it goes back to the
first dynasties, but there was later superseded by the engraved
scarab or beetle. The material of the seals varies from the hardest
stones, as porphyry, quartz, hematite, rock crystal, to the soft
marble, serpentine, alasbaster, as well as ivory and bone. The en-
graving, in intaglio, occupies the convex surface. The subjects en-
graved on them represent either episodes of ancient myths and
legends or religious ceremonies. They are often accompanied by
inscriptions. The cylinders are generally pierced longitudinally.
Through the hole a metal axis was passed, by means of which it
was rolled on the soft clay, which was the writing material in the
valley of the Kuphrates. In the time of the Assyrian Empire, in
the seventh century B. C., the cone, usually of chalcedony or carne-
lian, begun to replace the cylinder seal. In the Persian period the
cone seal developed into the hemispherical or flattened into the
shape of a finger-ring.

The Museum’s collection has nearly a hundred original seals,
mostly cylinders, and upwards of three hundred flat casts.

COINS AND MEDALS.

The collection of upwards of 500 specimens comprises Greek coins,
beginning with Alexander the Great, Roman coins of the Republic
as well as of the Empire, Byzantine coins, Papal and other Italian
coins, besides small numbers of Carthaginian, Armenian, and
Mohammedan coins.

ORIENTAL TILES.

The collection, which comes from Turkey and Persia, consists of
glazed, enameled, and inlaid tiles and plaques.

COLLECTION OF BIBLES.

The collection includes editions of the Scriptures in the original
tongues; facsimiles of the manuscripts of the old versions; several
English versions; and translations in modern foreign languages.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 445
GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION.”

The collections of Old World Archeology are installed in the
elongated hall on the west side of the second story of the north
wing of the Natural History Building and the entire outer end or
pavilion of the wing, occupying about 7,926 feet of floor area. The
pavilion is mainly occupied by antiquities of Egypt and Babylonia.
(pls. 1-3).

1. Wall case on the east side of the pavilion, containing Egyptian
coffins and sepulchral boxes. The coffins are made in form of a
mummy, of planks, covered with a thin layer of plaster, upon
which are painted mythological scenes, figures of the gods, scenes
of the nether world, etc. Sepulchral boxes, made of wood, were
placed in the tomb to hold sepulchral figures (ushabti), papyri,:
articles of dress, the toilet, and other things. They vary in size
from 6 to 8 inches to 2 feet in length. Some are perfectly square,
others oblong in shape, and each end rises above the level of the
cover. Some have two, and others have three or four divisions.
The outsides are usually ornamented with scenes of worship and
figures of the gods (pl. 4).

On the wall over the case is an Assyrian bas-relief *! representing
four warriors with spears and shields; on the north side, another
Assyrian bas-relief representing a winged figure holding cone and
bashed and a eunuch, with an inscription of Ashurnazirpal, King
of Assyria, 884-860 B. C., while on the south side are three Egyptian
bas-reliefs, representing, respectively, a female bust, two heads of
Asiatic captives from Medinet Habu and Rameses ITI, the second
king of the xxth dynasty (about 1180 B. C.).

2. Egyptian mummy in its coffin. Found at Luxor, Egypt, in
1886. Length, 5 feet 6 inches. No hieroglyphics or inscriptions
exist either on the mummy or coffin. The face and head are covered
with a mask of green cement; the body is delicately proportioned.
On the chest lie four small tablets about the size of playing cards,
each one having a mummied figure of the god Osiris in a standing
position. Two shield-shaped ornaments lhe across the breast and
stomach, respectively. The upper one bears the sacred beetle
(scarabaeus) with spread wings, beneath which is the ¢e¢ (emblem
of Osiris, also designated as nilometer) between two figures, which
support each the sun disk upon the head. At the end of the wings is
represented the hawk head of Re, also supporting the sun disk. Over

Part of the collection relating to Bible lands has been described in a bulletin en-
titled “ Biblical Antiquities: A Description of the Dxhibit at the Cotton States Interna-
tional Wxposition, Atlanta, 1895. By Cyrus Adler and I. M. Casanowiez. Report of the
U. 8S. National Museum for 1896, pp. 943-1023, with 46 plates.”’

4 Jf not otherwise stated the sculptures deseribed in this pamphlet are casts.

446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the surface of the shield are painted representations of jewelry
(necklaces). On the lower shield appears the kneeling figure of the
goddess Nephthys, with extended arms and wings. On either side
of her head are two groups of three small figures each. Ostrich
plumes appear in the corner of the shield. Along the legs is a sheet
of cemented linen, on the top of which is a mummy on a dog-shaped
bier; at the head of the bier is a figure kneeling, holding plumes.
Further down is a second ¢e?¢, on either side of which a figure with
an implement in each hand faces two mummied figures. The feet of
the mummy are incased in a covering of cemented linen.

The ancient Egyptians conceived man as consisting of at least
three parts: the body, the soul, and the Aa; that is, the double or
genius. The Aa was supposed to remain in existence after death
and to be the representative of the human personality. In order that
the Ha might take possession of the body when it pleased, the latter
had to be preserved from destructive agencies and decay in the
tomb. To this end the Egyptians mummified their bodies, built in-
destructible tombs, inscribed the tombs and coffins with magical
formulae to repel the attacks of demons, and placed statues, house-
hold goods, food, statuettes of servants, etc., in the tomb that “the
house of eternity” might as much as possible resemble the home
of the deceased.

To arrest the decomposition of the body, the Egyptians embalmed
it by means of bitumen, natron, and various drugs or spices. The
name given to a body thus preserved was mummy, derived from the
Arabic (?) word for bitumen, “ mwmia,” and “ mumiyya,” “ bitu-
menized thing.” The native Egyptian names for mummy are sahu,
or ges, “ to bandage a dead body.” The process of mummifying was
of great antiquity in Egypt, probably dating back to the earliest
dynasties; it reached the highest perfection at Thebes during the
eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties (about 1600 to 1200 B. C.), and
the practice is said to have continued to 500 A. D.

The Greek writers Herodotus (ii, 85) and Dioderus Siculus (3,
91) record that the Egyptians employed three methods of em-
balming, more or less elaborate, according to the wealth and posi-
tion of the deceased. The most costly mode is estimated at a talent
of silver, or about $1,250. After removing the brain and viscera
the cavities of the body were rinsed with palm wine, filled with
myrh, cassia, and other aromatics, and soaked in natron (subcar-
bonate of soda) for 70 days. It was then washed, swathed in linen
bandages, and smeared with gum. The second mode cost 20 mznae,
about $300. The intestines were allowed to be dissolved by means
of cedar oil injected into the abdomen, while the flesh was conserved
by natron, in which the body was soaked for the prescribed period.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 447

The third method, employed by the poorer classes, consisted in merely
soaking the body in natron. The Biblical record mentions embalm-
ing only in connection with the Egyptians, the bodies of Jacob and
Joseph, who died in Egypt, having been thus preserved. (Genesis
L, 2-25).

EGYPTIAN FUNERAL PROCESSION AND BURIAL.

The coffin containing the mummy was carried to the bank of the
Nile in a boat placed on a kind of sled drawn by oxen, and was
escorted by priests, mourners, wailing women, and attendants bear-
ing funeral furniture, offerings, etc. The procession embarked and
in a short time arrived at the western banks, in the highlands of
which the Egyptians usually built their cemeteries, as they imagined
the entrance into the hidden land lay in the west where the sun
disappeared. Here the procession was re-formed and continued its
way to the bluffs opposite Thebes. When the procession arrived at
the tomb the mummy or a statue of the deceased was placed in an
upright position before the door. Tables loaded with offerings of
cakes, beer, fruit, flowers, etc., were laid before it, and a bull was
slaughtered, from which an attendant cut off one of its haunches
and held it to the nose of the statue. One of the priests performed
the ceremony of “ opening the mouth,” touching the mouth and eyes
of the mummy with iron instruments, in order that the deceased
might regain the use of his intelligence and limbs which he lost by
the process of embalming. During these ceremonies another priest
recited the portions of the funeral ritual appropriate to each act from
a roll of papyrus. After the slaughter of another bull and the pre-
sentation of a number of offerings the funeral ceremony was com-
plete (pls. 5 and 6).

3. Screen. On the east side the screen bears a large relief map of
Palestine. The map is the result of geographical and geological
survey work, carried on for more than 10 years by experts in the serv-
ice of the Palestine Exploration Fund, and is made on the scale of
reeoes, or three-eighths of an inch to the mile. It embraces the
whole of western Palestine, from Baalbek in the north to Kadesh
Barnea in the south, and shows nearly all that is known of the
country east of the Jordan. The natural features of the country
stand out prominently, being reinforced by appropriate colors.
The mountains and plains are shaded a creamy white. The seas,
lakes, marshes, and perennial streams are shown in blue. The Old
and New Testament sites are marked in red. The map thus furnishes
a most important aid for the understanding of the Bible narrative.

The west side of the screen is occupied by the Siloam inscription
and the Greek inscription from the Temple of Jerusalem.

od

448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The Siloam inscription was discovered in 1880. It is engraved
on a recessed tablet cut in the wall of the tunnel a few yards from
its lower end. The latest restoration and translation ¥ is as follows:

The boring through (is completed). And this is the story of the
boring through. While yet they (plied) the drill, each toward his
fellow, and while yet there were three cubits to be bored through, there
was heard the voice of one calling unto another, for there was a crevice
in the rock on the right hand. And on the day of the boring through
the stonecutters struck, each to meet his fellow, drill upon drill; and
the waters flowed from the source to the pool for a thousand and two
hundred cubits, and a hundred cubits was the height of the rock above
the heads of the cutters.

The inscription is not dated, but the tunnel was probably con-
structed in the reign of King Hezekiah and is referred to in II
Chronicles xxxii, 4 and 30, as follows: “So there was gathered much
people together, and they stopped all the fountains and the brook
that flowed through the midst of the land saying, Why should the
King of Assyria come and find much water? * * * ” This
same King Hezekiah also stopped the upper spring of the waters
of Gihon, and brought them straight down on the west side of the
City of David.

The original is preserved in the Museum of Constantinople, Tur-
key.

The stone containing the inscription from the Temple was dis-
covered by the French archeologist, M. Clermont-Ganneau, May 26,
1871. The inscription reads: “ No stranger is to enter within the
balustrade round the temple and inclosure. Whoever is caught will
be responsible for his death which will ensue.” The inscription
throws light on the incident in Acts xxi, 28-31, where Paul was ac-
cused of bringing Trophimus, an Ephesian, within the balustrade.

The original is in the Museum of Constantinople, Turkey.

Both the map and the inscriptions are surrounded by a series of
geographical and ethnographical photogravures, showing various
sites and human types of Palestine.

4, Flat-top table case. Contains a selection of Oriental seals,
originals as well as flat cast, for which see above, p. 444. On the
bottom of the case are some Egyptian antiquities.

The center of the Pavilion is occupied by a mosaic, flanked on
either side by two monuments on bases.

5. The Moabite Stone. In II Kings iii, 4 ff. it is related that
Mesha, the King of Moab, had paid tribute to the Kings of Israel,
but after the death of Ahab he rebelled. Thereupon Ahab’s son,
Joram, allied with Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, invaded Moab and

12See George A. Barton, Archaeology and the Bible, Philadelphia, American Sunday-
School Union, p. 377.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 6.

PHOTO ENG Co NY.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PPA Ein

THE MOABITE STONE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 8:

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—-Casanowicz.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.

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OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 449

shut up Mesha in Kir Hareseth, situated a little to the east of the
southern end of the Dead Sea. Mesha, in his emergency, offered his
first-born son as a sacrifice, in the presence of the invading army, to
Chemosh, the principal divinity of the Moabites, whereupon the
Israelites withdrew. Thus far the Biblical account.

In 1868 the Rev. A. F. Klein, a German missionary, discovered at
Deban, the ruins of Dibon, the ancient capital of Moab (Numbers
xxi, 30; xxxii, 34; Isaiah xv, 2), on the north shore of the river
Arnon, a stone or stela of dark blue basalt, 3 feet 84 inches high, 2
feet 84 inches wide, and 1 foot 1% inches thick, inscribed with 34
lines, celebrating the achievements of Mesha. The Arabs of the
neighborhood, perceiving that the stone was of great value and
dreading the loss of such a talisman, broke it into pieces. For-
tunately the French archeologist, Clermont-Ganneau, had succeeded
in securing a paper impression of the inscription before the stone was
broken up. He collected most of the pieces, which, with the aid of
his paper impression, were put together and the reconstructed monu-
ment is now, together with the impression, in the Museum of the
Louvre, Paris, France.

In the inscription Mesha relates that Omri and Ahab, Kings of
Israel (J Kings xvi, 21 ff.) oppressed the land of Moab for many
years until he recovered several cities from the Israelites, mentioning
Medeba (Numbers xxi, 30; Joshua xiii, 9, etc.), Ataroth (Numbers
xxxli, 84; Joshua xvi, 2, etc.), and Nebo (Numbers xxxii, 3; Isaiah
xv, 2, etc.), where he slew 7,000 people and captured Jahaz, which
had been built by the King of Israel, and describes the public works
which he undertook and the devastated cities which he rebuilt.

The dialect of the inscription differs only slightly from Hebrew,
and the characters employed are those of ancient Hebrew, the so-
called Samaritan or Phenician. The Moabite Stone is the most im-
portant surviving relic of the Moabite civilization, and its discovery
was of great importance for the history of the alphabet (pl. 7).

6. The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II, or, as some scholars
assume, Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria 860-824 B. C. The
original of black basalt, which is now preserved in the British
Museum at London, England, was discovered by Sir Austen Henry
Layard at Nimrud, ancient Calah (Genesis x, 12), about 19 miles
below Nineveh. It is about 7 feet high. The terraced top and the
base are covered with cuneiform script containing a record of
Shalmaneser’s career nearly to the last year of his long reign. The
upper part is occupied by five compartments of bas-reliefs running
in horizontal bands around the four sides, and representing pro-
cessions of tribute bearers from five nations. Narrow bands be-
tween the compartments contain short legends of the scenes rep-

450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

resented. In 854 B. C. Shalmaneser defeated the confederacy of the
Syrian kings, among whom were Benhadad of Damascus and Ahab
of Israel, and in 842 B. C., after the siege of Damascus, received the
tribute of Jehu, King of Israel (figured and described in the second
row). This monument thus supplemented the Biblical narrative,
since the participation of Ahab in the Syrian league and the pay-
ment of tribute to Shalmaneser by Jehu are not recorded in the
Bible. This King is not to be confounded with Shalmaneser IV,
727-722 B. C., who is mentioned in II Kings xviii, 9, in connection
with the conquest of Samaria (pl. 8).

7. In the center, on the floor, an ancient Roman mosaic, which
formed part of the floor of the temple of Astarte, erected by the
Romans at Carthage in the first century B. C., representing a lion
attacking a wild ass. The original design, which was very large, is
supposed to have been formed of a central mosaic, representing the
goddess Astarte driving a chariot drawn by stags, and surmounted
by others, depicting a great variety of animals. The fragment
measures 6 feet 2 inches by 7 feet 10 inches wide (pl. 9).

8. Statue of Chefren. The original of dark green basalt, which
is now in the Museum of Cairo, Egypt, was discovered by Mariette
in a temple not far from the great sphinx.

Chefren (Egyptian, Chafra), third king of the fourth dynasty
(beginning of the third millennium B. C.), is known as the builder
of the second largest pyramid of Gizeh. According to the Egyptian
records he reigned 56 years. The King is represented in the con-
ventional attitude of seated figures; the headdress and the throne
alone show that the figure represents a Pharaoh. The face is evi-
dently a portrait (pl. 10).

9. Statue of Queen Amenerdas. The original of alabaster is in .
the Museum of Cairo, Egypt. The statue is of the twenty-fourth
dynasty, about 720°B. C., and is the last good specimen of Egyptian
art. The face is a portrait. The dress is that of an Egyptian wo-
man. The headdress is the vulture bonnet worn by queens. In
one hand is a lash, one of the insignia of royalty, and in the other
a sort of purse.

Amenerdas was the sister of So or Sabaco, mentioned in II Kings
xvii, 4. While her brother was still alive she was made queen of
Egypt. After his death she married an obscure king, Piankhi II.

The inscription of the figure reads: “'The beloved of Osiris, the
lord of life, the great god; Mut-ha-nefru, the wife of the god (the
king) ; Amenerdas, the daughter of the god (the king).”

The inscription on the pedestal reads: “'The princess, Mut-ha-
nefru, living forever; the royal daughter, Amenerdas, beloved of
Osiris” (pl. 11).

>

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 451

On the walls, on the north side, opposite the Moabite stone:
Assyrian four-winged figure holding a:chaplet. The figure wears
the horned headgear of the Assyro-Babylonian gods and is richly
decorated with earrings, necklace, and bracelets. The right arm is
lifted up, while the left is stretched out to the front, holding a
chaplet or necklace.

Opposite the statue of Chefren: Assyrian bas-relief, representing
a winged, eagle-headed genius, holding cone and basket.

On the south side, opposite the statue of Amenerdas: Lid of the
sarcophagus of Queen Ankhneferabra. The original, of basalt, is
in the British Museum, London, England. Ankhneferabra was
high priestess of Amon and wife of Amasis II, King of Egypt
about 550 B. C. The sarcophagus is considered as one of the finest
monuments of the twenty-sixth dynasty. In the center is the figure
of the queen, wearing the headdress of the goddess Isis-Hathor, sur-
rounded by a funeral inscription (pl. 12).

Opposite the Shalmaneser obelisk: Inscription from Persepolis
in the Cuneiform characters. The inscription is in the language of
ancient Persia. It was engraved at the command of Artaxerxes ITT,
Ochus, who reigned 358-344 B. C., or, according to some, from
359-338 B. C. The following is a translation of the inscription:

A great god is Ahuramazda, who created this earth, who created that heaven,
who created mankind, who created prosperity, who made me, Artaxerxes, king,
the sole king of multitudes, the sole ruler of multitudes.

Thus speaks Artaxerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of
countries, the king of this earth:—I am the son of king Artaxerxes, Arta-
xerxes the son of king Darius, Darius the son of king Artaxerxes, Artaxerxes

son of king Xerxes, Xerxes son of king Darius, Darius son of Vishtaspa, Vish-
taspa son of one named Arshama, an Achaemenian.

Thus speaks the king Artaxerxes: This structure of stone I have built for
myself.

Thus speaks the king Artaxerxes: May Ahuramazda and the god Mithra
protect me, and this land, and what I have done.

Persepolis was the ancient capital of Persia. It is situated in the
interior of Persia proper, forty miles northeast from Shiraz. Per-
sepolis was the name given to this place by the Greeks. Its ancient
Persian name is unknown (pl. 18).

10. Screen. On the east side, colored drawing of The Medeba
Mosaic Map of Palestine. The original mosaic formed the floor of
an old church in Medeba, a town in the former territory of Moab,
situated east of Bethlehem, about five miles south by west from
Hebron, and often mentioned in the Old Testament. (Numbers xxi,
30; Joshua xiii, 9, 16; Isaiah xv, 2; I Chronicles xix, 7). The work
dates from the sixth century A. D., and is not only the oldest map of
Palestine known, but also the oldest detailed map of any country.
Unfortunately, on the occasion of the rebuilding of the church in

452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

1896, when the mosaic was discovered, it was much damaged, but the
portion preserved, measuring about 35 feet, includes most of the
places connected with Bible history, from Nablus (the Biblical
Shechem) in the north to the delta of the Nile in the south. Like
all the maps which are based on Greco-Roman tradition, the Medeba
map is oriented toward sunrise—that is, when the map is read the
east is at the top. It combines a view of ancient Canaan of the
Israelites with a picture of Christian Palestine of the Byzantine
period. Thus, alongside the Biblical place names are often given
those in use at the time of the making of the map, and of the place
names, about 140 in number, preserved on the fragment, some 60 have
no reference to the Biblical narrative. The map, like the mosaic
pictures of sacred history, is an illustration of the Bible narrative
rather than a work of geography. The artist was more intent on the
picturesque details than on geography. Much care is bestowed on
the picture of towns. In the desert, east of the Jordan, a gazelle is
pursued by a lion or panther. In the Jordan fishes disport them-
selves, while its banks are connected by two bridges. On the Dead
Sea are shown two vessels, necessarily much out of scale. The in-
scriptions are in Greek. In addition to the geographical names
there are in some cases added Biblical quotations or brief references
to historical events (pl. 14).

On the west side: Decree of Canopus. Dr. R. Lepsius, early in
1866, while exploring the Isthmus of Suez and the Delta in the
vicinity of the ship canal, uncovered a slab 74 feet by 24 feet, the
upper part inscribed with hieroglyphics and the lower part with
Greek characters. Subsequently a small slab containing a transla-
tion of the foregoing into demotic was recovered. The three parts
of the stele contain a parallel inscription of 37 lines of heiroglyphics,
73 lines of demotic, and 74 lines of Greek.

The stele was set up at Canopus in the 9th year of Ptolemy ITI,
Euergetes I (247-222 B. C.), to commemorate the great benefits
which he had conferred upon Egypt, and particularly his restoration
of the images of the gods which the Persians had carried off to
Mesopotamia. In grateful acknowledgment of these acts the priests
assembled from all parts of Egypt at Canopus, decreed that festivals
be celebrated in his honor and in that of his wife, Berenice; that a
new order of “ Priests of the Beneficent Deities ” be constituted, and
that a copy of this inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek, and demotic,
should be placed in every large temple in Egypt. The decree of
Canopus is also called the Tanis Stone (Biblical Zoan, Arabic San),
from the locality in which it was found. The original is in the
Museum of Cairo, Egypt.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 458

Below are two Egyptian reliefs, made from squeezes, represent-
ing, respectively, men sailing an oar-boat, and four men dragging
a sledge.

11. Case containing among other objects a Greco-Egyptian por-
trait, representing a man’s head of the Roman type. One of a col-
lection of the oldest portrait paintings thus far discovered. It was
found, along with many others, in the necropolis of Rubaiyat, in the
province of Fayum in Egypt. These paintings were executed on
thin panels of wood in encaustic (by means of melted white wax
mixed with oil and burned in), or distemper (with colors mixed
with adhesive substances, as the white and yolk of an egg, gum, size,
etc.), or in a combination of the two. They were intended to be
portraits of deceased persons, and were placed over the face of
mummies, being glued to the linen bandages which enwrapped the
body. The custom came up under the Greek domination of Egypt
in the third century B. C., and is assumed to have continued till
the end of the fourth century A. D. (Pl. 15).

Model of an Egyptian obelisk. Made of brass. The original, a
shaft of granite 78 feet 4 inches in height, was erected during the
reign of Rameses II, King of Egypt, about 1340-1278 B. C., in front
of the temple of Luxor, on the site of ancient Thebes, in Upper
Egypt. In 1831, it was transported to Paris, France, where it now
stands on the Place de la Concorde. The inscriptions in Latin and
French on the pedestal record the erection of the obelisk in Paris,
in the presence of King Louis Philippe, in 1836. The original ped-
estal was left in Egypt.

Book of the Dead. Facsimile of an Egyptian Papyrus at the
British Museum, London. The so-called Egyptian “Books of the
Dead” are collections of religious texts, hymns, invocations, prayers
to the gods, utterances of the gods, etc., intended for the use and
protection of the dead in the world beyond the grave. The present
collection is that of Ani, “Royal Scribe” and “Scribe of the Sacred
Revenue of all the gods of Thebes,” who is accompanied on his way
through the divers parts of the realms of the dead by his wife Tutu.
The hieroglyphic text is accompanied by colored vignettes which de-
pict the various scenes through which the deceased has to pass in
the nether world—his appearance before Osiris, the supreme judge
of the dead; the weighing of the heart of the departed against the
goddess of Truth, etc. (pl. 16).

The Gliddon Mummy Case. This fragment is one third of a
mummy case obtained by Mr. George Gliddon at Sakkarah, in
Egypt, and presented to the National Institute in Washington, in
1842. At the dissolution of this Society the specimen became the
property of the Smithsonian Institution. The remaining two

55379-—24——30

454 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

thirds were divided between the Naval Lyceum of Brooklyn and
Mrs. Ward of New York. The mummy case is formed of layers of
linen, over which is a thin coating of chwnam to receive the paint-
ing. This chunam is a kind of stucco used in Egypt and Hindustan,
even to the present day. The figure on the left represents Isis, god-
dess of dawn, holding in her right hand the ankh or crua ansata,
emblem of life, and in her left hand the was, symbol of power and
purity. The figure on the left represents Nepthys, goddess of twi-
light, with the symbols reversed. The inscription is part of a for-
mula frequent from the 6th dynasty, in the Pyramid of Seti, of Pepi
5th, ete.

Greco-Egyptian papyri, containing accounts of payments of
money and in kind; collector’s return, fragments of letters, etc., dat-
ing from the end of the first century B. C. to the end of the second
century A. D.

A selection of Egyptian sepulchral figures. The Egyptians buried
with their dead small figures, called Ushabti (“answerers,”) to
serve as substitutes for the deceased and to perform for him what-
ever agricultural work he might be called upon to do in the realm of
the departed, which was conceived as an arable country, where the
work of tilling went on as on earth. These ushabti were placed,
sometimes in large numbers, either in a special box or upon the
floor of the tomb. They were made of wood, clay, terra cotta, stone,
glazed faience, and other materials, in form of a mummy with the
hands folded upon the breast, and were sometimes laid in the model
of a coffin or sarcophagus. In later times they are represented hold-
ing a mattock, or hoe, and a reed basket. They are usually in-
scribed with the name and titles of the deceased, to which is often
added a chapter from the Ritual of the Dead.

Scarabs, plaques representing deities, models and molds, etc.

SCARABS.

Scarab or scarabaeus is the name given to the myriads of models
of a beetle which are found with mummies, in tombs and ruins of
Egypt and other countries which had relations with Egypt. The
beetle which was copied in this manner is identified by entomologists
with the Ateuchus sacer, an insect generally black, occasionally also
of blackish green hue, about an inch long by three quarters of an
inch broad, found in the southern regions of the Mediterranean. It
lays its eggs in a small pellet of dung, rolling it till it assumes the
shape of a ball, and then burying it in the sand where the eggs are
hatched out by the sun’s rays. On account of this habit of the
insect the ancient Egyptians saw in it an emblem of the sun god
who rolls the sun ball across the sky. It was especially the symbol

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 455

of the god Khepera, whose name the scarab bears in Egyptian, the
“father of the gods,” who created himself and all that exists from
emanations of his own body. The scarab, which like the god, was
supposed to have produced itself in the mud pellet, became the
symbol of resurrection and of perpetual life.

Scarabs were made of every kind of stone known to the Egyptians,
also of shell, glass, ivory, faience, or glazed pottery, and even of
wood; metal scarabs are rare. In size the scarabs range from a
fifth of an inch in length to 4 or even 5 inches, but the commonest
size is about three-quarters of an inch by one-half of an inch broad
and a quarter of an inch high, and are nearly always pierced Jongi-
tudinally to receive a thread or thin wire.

By far the greater number of scarabs are carved to represent the
beetle standing upon an elliptical base the underside of which is
engraved in intaglio with a device or inscription. The engraving
depicts figures of gods, men, animals, and flowers, or bears hiero-
glyphic inscriptions, or ornamental devices, as coils, spirals, rope
and scroll patterns. A large number of the inscriptions consist
of the names or titles of kings. They were used as seals or signets;
were placed with the mummies as expressive of the belief in the
revivification of the body and in the renewed life after death, and
may also have had an amuletic or talismanic import. Some of them
are inscribed with mottoes of good wishes. They are sometimes
found strung together and may have been worn as bracelets or
necklaces.

The scarab was essentially an Egyptian gem, as the cylinder seal
was essentially Assyrian. But the Phenicians borrowed the use of
the scarab from Egypt and made it an article of trade. This ac-
counts for the finding of scarabs in various lands bordering on the
shores of the Mediterranean.

The Etruscan scarabs, which are frequently found in Tuscany,
the ancient Etruria, are generally carved of sard, banded agate, or
rock crystal, and are usually engraved with figures or groups de-
rived from the heroic legends of Greece.

12. Case containing the funerary tablet of Nebsumenu, of lime-
stone.

Mummied Ibises. The ibis was the sacred bird of Thoth, the
scribe of the gods and the god of learning. Dead ibises were em-
balmed and buried in earthenware jars. At Memphis there are
numerous burial places of the sacred ibises.

An ibis eggshell.

Stone implements. Made of dolorite, granite, limestone, syenite,
basalt, and gabbro, in forms of cones, spheroidals, discoidals, etc.

456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Used as hammers, polishers or rubbers, palettes, etc. Predynastic
period.

Rhomboid palette of slate with a depression in the center for
holding the ink or paint. Predynastic period.

Predynastic and later pottery.

On the walls on the north side—Assyrian bas-relief represent-
ing winged figures kneeling before the sacred tree or tree of life,
with an inscription of Ashurnazirpal, King of Assyria 884-860 B. C.
On the south side are three Assyrian bas-reliefs, representing, re-
spectively: Head of a priest or divinity;

Wounded Lioness. The original in limestone, which is now in
the British Museum, London, was found in 1853 in the ruins of the
palace of King Ashurbanipal (668-620 B. C.) at Kuyunjik, the
ancient Nineveh. The wounded lioness is regarded as one of the
masterpieces of Assyrian sculpture, combining, as it does, simplicity
and ease in treatment; and

King with two armor-bearers and a eunuch.

13. Wall case on the west side of the Pavilion, containing Egyp-
tian coffins and casts of the Canopic jars.

In the process of mummification, the viscera were taken out of the
body, and after being cleansed and wrapped in linen with spices,
salt, etc., were put into four jars, which were placed under the pro-
tection of the four gods of the dead, sons of Horus (or Osiris),
whose part was to guard them, and therefore also the deceased,
from hunger and thirst. Each of the vases was provided with a
cover which was made in the shape of a deity, to whom it was dedi-
cated, viz, (1) Emset, human-headed; (2) Hapi, dog-headed; (3)
Tuamutef, hawk-headed; and (4) Khebesennuf, jackal-headed. The
name, “ canopic,” was given to these vases by early Egyptologists
under the misconception that they represented a certain god whose
worship centered in the city of Canopus. The inscription on the
vases declares that they belong to “the favorite minstrel of Amon-
Re in the fourth class Nes-netret, the justified daughter of the
prophet of Amon in Opet-Hot, her mother is Ankhes-en-Aset.”

On the wall over the case, Assyrian relief representing Sennach-
erib receiving the submission of Lachish. The original, of alabaster,
which was found in the ruins of Kuyunjik on the site of ancient
Nineveh, is now in the British Museum, London. In II Kings xviii,
13 and 14, it is said that Sennacherib, King of Assyria (705-681
B. C.), received tribute from Hezekiah, King of Judah, in the city
of Lachish, in southern Palestine. This cast represents the Assyrian
King receiving the submission of Lachish. He is seated on his
throne, with his attendants holding fly brushes over his head. Be-
hind is a tent, over which is the legend: “ Tent of Sennacherib, King

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 457

of Assyria.” Underneath is seen his chariot with the state umbrella
and attendants. Before the King stands an official followed by
soldiers, who introduces a file of captives. Overhead is an inscription
reading: “ Sennacherib, King of the World, King of Assyria, seat-
ing himself upon his throne, inspected the booty of Lachish.”

Leaving the Pavilion and entering the passage adjoining it, there
is on the north side a series of Kensington cases with reliefs be-
tween them. From west to east:

14, Collection of Mediterranean pottery (see above, p. 442).

15. Antique iridescent glassware (see above, p. 443). (Pl. 17.)

Persian bas-relief, representing a warrior from Persepolis. (PI.
18.)

16. Haremhab (or Heruemheb). He was the second successor of
Tutankhamen and the last king of the eighteenth dynasty. Cast of
the original of granite in the Museum of Cairo, Egypt.

Assyrian bas-relief, representing two warriors with bows and
arrows.

17. Antique iridescent glassware.

18. Egyptian antiquities. Collection of necklaces, scarabs, ushabti
figurines, pendants, potteries, mummy fragments, terra-cotta lamps,
coins of Alexander the Great and of the first Ptolemies. The col-
lection was made by the late John Chandler Bancroft Davis when he
was United States Minister to Germany, 1873-1877, and presented
by the executors of his estate, James Gore King, of New York;
Gracie King Richards, of Washington, D. C.; and Bancroft Davis,
of Boston, Massachusetts.

Opposite, or south side of the passage, from east to west:

19. Torso of Panammu II. Cast from the dolorite original,
found at Senjirli, Asia Minor, and now in the Museum of Berlin.
Originally about 9 feet high. On the lower portion is an inscription
in relief of 23 lines in the old Aramaean language. Height, 6
feet 2 inches. The inscription says that the statue was erected by
Bar-Rekub “ before Hadad, El, Rakubel, Shemesh (sun god), and all
the other gods of Ja’di” to his father Panammu, son of Bar-Sur,
King of Sam/’al, a region situated between the Orontes and Taurus
in the country of the Hittites; also that, in an uprising against
Sam/al, Bar-Sur, grandfather of Bar-Rekub, fell a victim, together
with seventy of his house (compare Judges ix, 1-5), Panammu
alone surviving. A famine ensued (II Kings vii, 1). With the
assistance of Tiglathpileser III, tranquillity was restored, Panammu
placed on the throne of his father, and food and drink became plen-
tiful. Panammu followed him on his expeditions, in one of which,
before Damascus, he died. His body was carried to his native place,
and his son, Bar-Rekub, who set up this stele, was appointed by the

458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

Assyrian King to succeed him. As Tiglathpileser III (Pul, of II
Kings xv, 19) occupied the Assyrian throne from 745 to 727 B.
C., and was a contemporary of Panammu II and of Bar-Rekub, the
maker of the inscription, this monument belongs to the eighth cen-
tury B. C., and is accordingly one of the earliest in the Aramaean
script.

20. Hapi, the Egyptian God of the Nile. Original, of quartzite
sandstone, in the British Museum, London. Hapi is in Egyptian the
name of the god or personification of the Nile and of the river itself,
upon which Egypt was dependent for the issue of its crops. On
his outstretched hands the god bears an altar from which hang down
bunches of grain, vegetables, flowers, and waterfowl. The statue
was dedicated to Amon Re, the supreme god of Egypt, by Shoshenk
II, a king of the twenty-second dynasty, about 900 B.C. His grand-
father, Shoshenk I, is mentioned in the Bible by the name of Shishak
(I Kings xiv, 27; II Chronicles xii, 5,7,9). (Pl. 19, fig. 1.)

21. Horus and Altar. Cast of original in the British Museum,
London. Horus was worshipped with the other solar divinities of
Egypt as the morning sun. As the son of Osiris, the deity of the
nether world, he presented the deceased to Osiris. He is generally
represented as hawk-headed. His symbol is the winged sun-disk.
(Pl. 19, fig. 2.)

22. Assyrian Human-headed Winged Lion. Cast from original,
of yellow limestone, preserved in the British Museum, London,
England. The original specimen was found by Sir Austen H.
Layard in 1846, at Kuyunjik, on the site of ancient Nineveh, and is
supposed to belong to the period of Asurnazirpal, who reigned 884—
860 B. C. Dimensions, 11 feet by 9 feet.

Figures of composite animals, in stone or metal, sometimes of
colossal size, were placed by the Assyrians at the entrances to the
temples of the gods and the palaces of the kings. ‘They were con-
sidered as emblems of divine power, or genii (Assyrian shedw), and
were believed to “exclude all evil.” Lions were also placed “ beside
the stays” and on either side of the steps of the gilded ivory throne
of Solomon (I Kings x, 19-20). Some Assyriologists connect the
Assyrian winged and composite beings with those seen by the
Prophet Ezekiel, in his vision of the “ chariot ” (Ezekiel i), and the
cherubim guarding the entrance to Eden (Genesis 111, 24), and those
overshadowing the Ark of the Covenant (Exodus xxv, 18, etc.).
Compare also the “ four living creatures” in Revelation v, 14; vi, 1.
Parallels are also found in the sphinx, the chimera, and the griffin.
(Pl. 20.)

23. The Babylonian Code of Hammurabi. Cast of an original
of black diorite, now in the Museum of the Louvre at Paris, which

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—OASANOWICZ. 459

was found, in 1901-2, by the French expedition on the site of the
ancient city of Susa, the Biblical Shushan, once the capital of
Elam and one of the residences of the Persian Kings. On the top
of the stele a bas-relief represents the king standing before the sun-
god (Shamash), from whom he receives the laws. The code com-
prises, in the present condition of the monument, 245 distinct laws,
and it is assumed that about 35 more have been erased. They are
concerned with all the relations of commercial, agricultural, social,
and domestic life.

Hammurabi, the originator or compiler of these laws, is identified
with Amraphel, mentioned in Genesis xiv as a contemporary of
Abraham. This code of laws is thus the oldest in existence, antedat-
ing by about one thousand years the Pentateuch, with which it
shows many similarities in form and substance (pl. 21).

24. In the alcove, the Rosetta Stone. Cast in plaster from the
original, of black basalt, now in the British Museum, London, Eng-
land. The Rosetta Stone was discovered in 1799 by Boussard, a
French officer, near Fort St. Julien, near the Rosetta, mouth of the
Nile, in Egypt. The inscription is in the Egyptian and Greek lan-
guages. The Egyptian portion is written in hieroglyphic and
demotic characters. This bilingular inscription supplied the key
to the deciphering of the ancient monuments of Egypt. In its
present condition the stone measures 3 feet 3 inches by 2 feet 6 inches,
and contains 14 lines of hieroglyphic, 32 of demotic, and 54 of Greek
script. The upper part, containing probably 14 or 15 more lines
of hieroglyphics and some sculptured ornament on top, has been
broken off, and the right-hand bottom corner has also suffered in-
jury. The inscription contains a decree by the Egyptian priests as-
sembled at Memphis, in 196 B. C., to celebrate the first commemora-
tion of the coronation, in the eighth year of his reign, of Ptolemy V.
Epiphanes (205-182 B. C.). It enumerates the benefits which the
King has conferred upon Egypt, chief among them, that he has re-
duced taxes; dedicated certain revenues to the temples; released
prisoners; abolished the pressgang; and averted great damage from
the land by restraining the waters of an unusually high Nile. In
return the priesthood directed that a statute of the king, inscribed
“Ptolemy the Saviour of Egypt,” be set up in the temples; that a
shrine containing an image of him be placed in every temple and be
carried with those of other deified kings in processions; that the
first five days of the month of Thoth should be set apart for special
services in his honor; and that a copy of this decree, engraved upon
a tablet of hard stone, in hieroglyphics, demotic, and Greek charac-
ters, should be erected in each of the temples of the first, second,
and third orders (pl. 22).

460 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

25. Lid of the Sarcophagus of Sebaksi. Original in the British
Museum, London. In Egyptian inscriptions occurs the name Se-
baksi as that of an Egyptian priest who lived about 700 B. C.
Height, 7 feet 4 inches (pl. 23).

26. Human-headed Winged Bull. The original, of yellow lime-
stone, now in the British Museum, was found by Sir Austen H.
Layard in 1846, at Kuyunjik, on the site of ancient Nineveh, and
is supposed to belong to the period of Asurnazirpal, who reigned
884-860 B. C. Dimensions, 11 by 9 feet. The winged bulls, like the
winged lions, guarded the entrances to the temples and the palaces
of the Assyrian monarchs, in order to protect the coming and going
of the King. They were called “the bulls of heaven,” and were
supposed to have been made by Anu, the god of heaven.

27. Stele of Sargon II. Cast from the limestone original in the
Museum, Berlin, Germany. It was discovered at Larnaka,in Cyprus,
the site of the ancient Kition, by Prof. L. Ross, in 1845. Height,
7 feet; width, 27 inches; thickness, 14 inches. The Stele is a
monument of Sargon II, King of Assyria, 722-705 B. C., and of
Babylonia, 709-705 B. C. After Sargon had captured Babylonia,
Cyprus, called in the inscription Latnan, sent the Assyrian king
presents, and in return he gave this image of himself. The in-
scription is in the archaic Assyrian script, which Sargon adopted
after he became king of Babylonia. Sargon was the father of
Sennacherib, grandfather of Esarhaddon, and great-grandfather of
Ashurbanipal, the Sardanapalus of Greek writers. He captured
Samaria, completing the destruction of the kingdom of Israel, which
his predecessor, Shalmaneser, had begun. According to the inscrip-
tions, Sargon led 27,280 Israelites into captivity, and transplanted
in their country colonists from Babylon, Kutha, Awwa, Hamath,
and Sepharvaim (II Kings, xvii, 24). He is mentioned once in the
Bible (Isaiah xx, 1), in connection with the campaign against
Philistia: “In the year that Zartan (commander in chief) came
into Ashdod, when Sargon, King of Assyria, sent him, and fought
against Ashdod and captured it.” That event took place in 711 B. C.

28. Statue of the God Hadad, with inscription in the old Ara-
maean dialect. Cast from the original of dolorite, found at Gertchin,
near Senjirti, northern Syria, and at present in the Museum of
Berlin, Germany. Height, 10 feet 5 inches.

This statue was erected by Panammu, son of Karul, king of Ja’di,
in northern Syria, in the 8th century B. C., to the gods El, Reshef,
Rakubel, Shemesh, and above all to Hadad. Hadad was the name
of the Supreme Syrian deity, the Baal, or Sun-god, whose worship
extended from Carchemish, the ancient Hittite capital in Syria, to
Edom and Palestine. Many Edomite and Syrian kings bore the

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE I7.

ANTIQUE IRIDESCENT GLASSWARE.

PLATE 18.

Casanowicz.

Smithsonian Report 1922,

WARRIOR FROM PERSEPOLIS.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 19.

| 2
1. HAPI, GOD OF THE NILE. 2. HORUS WITH ALTAR.

“NOI GSDONIM GS0VSH-NVYWNH NVIYASSY

"0G 3LV1d *ZOIMOUBSPDO—'ZZHl! }40dey, UBIUOSYJIWS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 21.

CODE OF HAMMURABI.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 22

coer? mets parm eoreny

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wet ake

THE ROSETTA STONE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 23.

LID OF THE SARCOPHAGUS OF SEBAKSI.

Casanowicz. PLATE 24.

Smithsonian Report 1922.

STATUE OF THE GOD HADAD.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 461

name of the deity as a title. (Compare Genesis xxxvi, 35; II Sam-
uel viii, 3.) In Zachariah xii, 11, is mentioned a place in the valley
of Megiddo named after the two Syrian divinities“ Hadad-Rimmon.”

The inscription contains 34 lines. The characters are in relief
and in form most nearly resemble those of the Moabite stone. The
first part (lines 1 to 15) contains the dedication of Panammu to
the gods to whom the monument was erected, who conferred on him
the government of Ja’di and granted plenty to the land. The second
part (lines 15 to 24) relates the injunction of Karul to his son
Panammu that he erect a statue to Hadad and honor him with
sacrifices. The third part (lines 24 to 34) containes the usual curses
against those who would destroy, deface, or carry off the monu-
ment (pl. 24).

Above on the wall, west side, Assyrian relief, representing Ashur-
banipal, King of Assyria, 668-626 B. C., in chariot hunting lions;
on the east side, three Assyrian reliefs, representing, respectively,
winged figure holding cone and basket, priest holding a poppy stem
in his hand, and a winged, eagle-headed divinity.

In the large western hall there is on the left, or east side, a series
of wall cases, while the floor is occupied by two parallel rows of
cases. Ranged on bases at the south end of the hall are casts of
large sculptures.

Starting from the north side, the first three wall cases (29-31)
are occupied by Egyptian antiquities. Above on the wall of the
cases are casts of several limestone stelae, representing in succession
Rameses II (about 1800-1230 B. C.); the reputed Pharaoh of the
Oppression, making an offering to the goddess Hathor; men at
various occupations; upper part of the figure of a queen; walking
sphinx; two attendants in front of a table; female bust; Amenophis
I, King of Egypt, about 1562-1541 B. C.; the priest Hor-em-hat; and
perhaps Amenophis IV, about 1375-1358 B. C., who introduced the
monotheistic worship of the solar disk and called himself Ikhnaton.

On the upper shelves are wshabti figurines and plaster casts of
busts.

Underneath, on the wall, are specimens of mummy cloth and of old
Egyptian textile art. The latter were found in the tombs of Akh-
mim, the Greek Panopolis, in upper Egypt, and date from the fourth
to the seventh centuries A. D.

On the shelves are parts of coffin lids, representing human heads
and faces, of wood, terra cotta and cartonage; funerary cones, frag-
ments of mummied animals, necklaces, rings, scarabs, vases which
were found in tombs; an old sun-dried brick and a modern Egyptian
brick, which consists of ordinary soil mixed with chopped straw
and sun baked. This method of making bricks is alluded to in

462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Exodus v, 18, where the oppressed Israelites are told, “ there shall
no straw be given you, yet shall ye deliver the tale of bricks.” In
the ruins of Pithom, one of the cities where the Israelites were em-
ployed, three kinds of brick were discovered, some with stubble, some
with straw, and some without. Among the paintings of Thebes, one
on a tomb represents brick-making captives with “ taskmasters,”
who, armed with sticks, are receiving the “ tale of bricks” and urg-
ing on the work. Judging from the monuments, the process of
making sun-dried bricks was much the same as in modern times.
The clay or mud was mixed with the necessary amount of straw or
stubble by treading it down in a shallow pit. The prepared clay
was carried in hods upon the shoulders and shaped into bricks of
various sizes. There are also some geological and agricultural speci-
mens on the shelf.

On the bottom of the case are a series of busts and statues, viz:

Bust of Amenophis II, King of Egypt about 1450-1425 B. C.

Human-headed Sphinx. With head of a man and body of a lion.
Made of limestone and only partly finished. The headdress is that
of a royal person, surmounted by a group of symbols consisting of
ostrich plumes in front; wraei or asps on the side; and the solar disk
and horns of Hathor in the rear. On the shoulders are carved in flat
relief the sacred beetle or scarabaeus and the image of Apis support-
ing the solar disk. On the breast is the scorpion, the special emblem
of the goddess Selk or Serk; and the jackal, emblem of Anubis, the
conductor of the dead. Around the legs are wound serpents, and a
crocodile appears between the forefeet. Under the belly and sup-
porting the lion is the head of Phthah. Received from the National
Institute. Height, 24 inches (pls. 25 and 26).

Royal Head. Of the eighteenth dynasty (about 1550-1350 B. C.).
Cast of an original of granite in the British Museum, London,
England.

Rameses II, King of Egypt about 1800-1230 B. C. Supposed to
have been the Pharaoh of the Oppression. Cast of an original of
black granite in the Museum of Turin, Italy.

Statuette of the god Osiris. Egyptian god of the dead. Cast of
an original of dark green basalt in the Museum of Cairo, Egypt.

Queen Hatshepset (Hatasu). Daughter of Thothmes I and co-
regent with her brothers, Thothmes II and Thothmes III of the
18th dynasty (1516-1481 B. C.). Cast of an original of granite in
the Museum of Cairo, Egypt.

Statuette of the goddess Isis, wife of Osiris. Cast of an original
of dark-green basalt in the Museum of Cairo, Egypt.

Thothmes III, King of Egypt about 1500 B.C. Cast of an origi-
nal of gray granite in the Museum of Turin, Italy.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 463

Khnumtamon Ramaka, wife of Thothmes III, King of Egypt
about 1500 B. C. Cast of an original of limestone in the Museum of
Cairo, Egypt.

Statuette of black marble, perhaps representing Antinous, the
friend of Hadrian, Roman emperor, 117-138 A. D.

Tirhakah, King of Egypt and Ethiopa, 698-672 B. C. Original
of granite in the Museum of Cairo, Egypt. He is referred to in
II Kings xix, 9, and Isaiah xxxvii, 9, as attacking Sennacherib,
King of Assyria. The inscriptions of the Assyrian king Ashur-
banipal (Sardanapalus, Hebrew Asenappar, Ezra iv, 10), 668-626
B. C., mention him, under the name Z’arqu, as king of Egypt and
Ethiopia. Manetho, who calls him 7'arkos (Tarakos), says he was
the last king of the 25th dynasty. Strabo (xvi, 1, 6) calls him
Tearkon, and describes him as one of the greatest conquerors of the
ancient world.

Head of Amenophis (Amenhotep) IV, King of Egypt about 1375
B.C. Cast. Amenophis IV is known as the “reformer” or “heretic
King,” because he introduced a sort of monotheism, consisting in the
sole worship of the sun god in the form of the solar disk. The
original, of limestone, is in the Museum of Berlin, Germany.

Head of the Queen of Amenophis IV. Cast. Original, of lime-
stone, is in the Museum of Berlin, Germany.

Statuette of the Queen of Amenophis IV. Cast. Original, of
limestone, in the Museum of Berlin, Germany.

32. In the alcove, plaster model of the Stonehenge. The Stone-
henge is a megalithic monument standing on Salisbury Plain, Wilt-
shire, England. Few of the huge stones now remain in their original
position. From the portions of the structure still extant it is as-
sumed to have been composed about as follows: In the center was a
large slab—the altar stone—15 feet long. Around this, 19 mono-
lithic pillars, over 20 feet in average height, were set in a horse-
shoe or ellipse. The open part of the horseshoe faces the sunrise
at the summer solstice. Surrounding this, and concentric with it,
was another horseshoe composed of 5 triliths, formed each of
10 monolithic pillars with their capstones. Outside this ellipse was
a circle of 30 or 40 smaller pillars. This was inclosed within
another circle of about 100 feet in diameter, formed by 30 great
monolithic pillars capped with large lintel stones. Outside of this
circle, again, was a circular earthwork, or rampart, inclosing an
area about 300 feet in diameter.

Excavations undertaken on the site of the monument brought to
light, together with some coins and pottery fragments, nearly 100
stone implements of various kinds which had been employed in
dressing the rude blocks into regular shape.

464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Some consider the structure a temple dedicated to the worship of
the sun, and assign its erection to the end of the Neolithic period on
the ground that no bronze relics were found. Analogous stone
circles, of which about 200 are known in the British Isles, were
chiefly used as tombs, and this would suggest that sepulture was at
least one of the purposes for which Stonehenge was erected. This
would also account for its situation on Salisbury Plain, where there
existed in the Bronze Age an extensive necropolis, as evidenced by
the numerous barrows in the vicinity of the Stonehenge. This
would by no means exclude its use as a temple. It may have served
for the performance of funerary rites analogous to the mortuary
temples of Egypt.

83. The fourth wall case contains Babylonian and Assyrian an-
tiquities :

On the wall of the case are casts of Assyrian bas-reliefs, repre-
senting warriors with a bull; a king slaying a lion, and a flute player
in front of a palm tree.

On the upper shelf are bisque statuettes of Sennacherib, King of
Assyria 705-681 B. C., and of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria 680-
668 B. C., and his queen; a sacrificial dish which is adorned on the
four corners with the heads of bulls, an animal which was much
venerated by the Assyro-Babylonians, and engraved on the sides with
various figures and symbols; head of a priest, and an amphora of
alabaster.

On the lower shelf are incantation bowls inscribed in the Aramaic
language found in Babylonia; iridescent glass bottles, glazed tiles;
besides :

The Chaldean Deluge Tablet, containing the cuneiform text of
the Babylonian account of the Deluge, as restored by Professor Paul
Haupt. Engraved in clay under the direction of Professor Haupt,
by Dr. R. Zehnpfund, of Rosslau, Germany. The Babylonian story
of the Deluge is contained in the eleventh tablet of the so-called
Izdubar or Gilgamesh legends, commonly known under the name
of the Babylonian Nimrod Epic. The Babylonian narrative of the
Deluge closely accords, both in matter and in language, with the
Biblical account as contained in Genesis vi-vill. Xisuthrus or
Hasisadra or Zit Napishtim, the hero of the Babylonian account,
corresponding to the Biblical Noah, is informed by a god of the
coming flood and ordered to build a ship to preserve himself, his
family and friends, and various animals. After sending out divers
birds (a dove, a swallow, and raven) he lands on the mountain
Nizir in Armenia and offers a sacrifice to the gods, after which he is
taken to live with the gods.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 465

The originals were found during the British excavations in the
valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, and are now preserved in the
British Museum in London (pl. 27).

Babylonian Votive Tablet of the Sun-god. Cast from the original
of alabaster, now in the British Museum, London. Found in 1881
in the ruins of Abu Habba, the site of ancient Sippara, which is
identified with the Biblical Sepharvaim, one of the centers of the
worship of the sun god, Shamash. The sun god is seated on a
throne in his shrine, holding in his right hand a staff and a circle,
the emblems of his authority. Above are the symbols of the sun god,
the moon god, and of Ishtar (Aashtarte). Before the shrine is an
altar, with the sun disk on it held with ropes by two attendants.
Three persons approach the god in adoration. Over them is an
inscription reading: “ Image of the sun-god, the great lord, who
dwells in the temple Ebabbara (white house) in Sippar.” The in-
scription below and on the other side of the tablet recounts the his-
tory of the temple (pl. 28).

A selection of seals. The cast of a bronze bell, now in the Berlin
Museum, merits notice because of the design running around the
cup, representing demons portrayed as wild animals of hybrid
character in an upright posture and in a threatening attitude.

On the bottom of the case: Babylonian boundary stone. Boundary
stones record grants of land to individuals by royal decree, or trans-
fer of property made by legal procedure. They are decorated
with the god or gods (in the present instance, the sun god Shamash)
who are invoked as witnesses to*the transaction, and were set up at
the boundary of the property in question as memorials of the gift
or transfer.

Torsos of the figures representing Gudea, an ancient priest-king
(patesz) as architect. The originals of black diorite, now in the Mu-
seum of the Louvre in Paris, France, were found in an ancient tem-
ple at Telloh, Babylonia, during the extensive excavations under-
taken in 1877-1881 by M. Ernest de Sarzec, the French vice consul
at Bassora. | .

Gudea (“ Speaker” or “ Prophet,” in Semitic, Nebo) reigned
about 2500 B. C. The figure is seated on a stool in a religious atti-
tude. The hands are clasped in the oriental posture of meditation
and devotion. On the knees is held a tablet with plan of a fortress
having six gates flanked by towers and walls surrounded by battle-
ments. In front of this tablet there is a graduated rule 10§ inches
long (=27 cm., i. e., a Babylonian half cubit), and at the side is the
stylus with which the architect engraved his design. The figure is
clad in a sleeveless cloak crossed over the breast and thrown back
over the shoulder. The inscription covering the figure is known as

466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

“Inscription F of Gudea.” The writing is in the early hieroglyphic
forms of the cuneiform script, and it runs not from left to right in
horizontal lines as in the later Assyro-Babylonian inscriptions, but
from above downward, beginning at the right and thence proceeding
toward the left in parallel vertical columns, the face of the charac-
ters being turned toward the right, not the left, as in Chinese. The
same arrangement is met with in the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Two Babylonian inscribed bricks.

Assyrian Bas-reliefs. Plaster cast reductions, representing: First
row, human-headed winged lion and bull, and between them Gilga-
mesh, who is identified with the Biblical Nimrod, holding a lion;
second row, religious procession; third row, King Sargon (722-705
B. C.) and suit; fourth row, heads of a king and of a eunuch, with
an offering scene in the center.

Babylonian Altar with Bas-reliefs. Cast of an original circular
altar of diorite, now in the Museum of the Louvre, Paris, which was
discovered by M. de Sarzec in the ruins of Talloh, on the site of the
ancient city of Sirpula, South Babylonia.

34, The next wall case is given over to Biblical antiquities. The
fashion of dress and ornament, as well as the form of household
utensils, is, it may be assumed, in the “ unchanging East ” essentially
the same at the day as in Bible time, and the collection shown of ob-
jects of modern life and industry in the Orient explain or illustrate
many allusions in the Scriptures. On the wall, Syrian coat, called
in Syriac abba, consisting of red cloth embroidered in white, and
worn as an outer garment.

Sling (Hebrew, Kela) from Damascus, Syria. The sling as a
weapon of war is first mentioned in Judges xx, 16. David killed
Goliath with a stone thrown from a sling (I Samuel xvii, 40). The
Israelitish army was provided with companies of slingers (II Kings
iii, 25). The sling was also employed in the wars of the Romans
against the Jews (Josephus, Wars of the Jews iii, 7, 18; iv, 1, 3).
According to the monuments the sling was both an Egyptian and an
Assyrian weapon. It consisted of a strip of leather or woven mate-
rial, wide in the middle to receive the missile, and narrowing at both
ends into a rope. Not only were smooth stones used for hurling, but
also balls made of burnt clay, of lead, and various other hard sub-
stances. The sling is still used by shepherds to drive away wild ani-
mals from their herds, as in the time of David (I Samuel xvii, 40).
(Pl. 29.)

Bird trap (Hebrew, pah) from Baghdad, Mesopotamia. The
usual method of catching birds was with the trap, which consisted
of two parts: a net strained over a frame, and a stick or spring
(Hebrew, mokesh) to support it, but so placed that it should give

PLATE 25.

Casanowicz.

Smithsonian Report 1922.

HUMAN-HEADED SPHINX, FRONT VIEW.

*MSIA AGIS ‘XNIHdS GS0VSH-NVANH

J

"9G ALW1d *ZOIMOUBSEO—"ZZ61 Woday uBUOSY}IWIS

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WG SLVde ‘ZOIMOUBSEDO—'ZZH| JOdaYy UBPIUOSY}IWS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE!28.

i Ri wt FF ge tm ee Ot
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4 PEEe

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2 ie a

BABYLONIAN VOTIVE TABLET OF THE SUN-GOD.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 29.

SLING, BIRD TRAP, DooR LOCK AND KEY.

"LVOD NIMSdSaHS

‘0€ ALVId *ZOIMOURSED—"ZZH| WoOdaYy ueRluosyyWS

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 3l.

WH tf / Wi, ,

|, NECKLACE; 2, NOSE RING AND WEDDING RING; 3, ANKLETS; 4, KOHL
WITH IMPLEMENTS FOR APPLYING IT TO THE EYES; AND 5, INKHORN.

‘SONV7] 318d1g JO SNIOOD

‘OE ALVId *ZIIMOUBSED—'ZZG| WOdeYy uBIUOSY}IWIS

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ, 467

way to the slightest touch. The bird trap is frequently compared
with the ensnaring of the heedless and the weak (Amos iii, 5;
Psalms exxiv, 7; Proverbs vii, 23; Job xviii, 9; Ecclesiastes ix, 12).
(P1..29.)

Sheepskin coat from Syria. Skins of animals were the primitive
material used for clothing (Genesis iii, 21), and were not wholly
disused at later periods. The “mantle” of the prophet Elijah (I
Kings xix, 18, 19; II Kings ii, 13) was probably the skin of a sheep
or some animal with the hair left on, wherefore he is called the
“hairy man” (II Kings i, 8). This dress was characteristic of the
office of prophet: “ Beware of false prophets, which come to you
in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly are ravening wolves” (Matthew
vii, 15; Zechariah xiii, 4). Pelisses of sheepskin still form an ordi-
nary article of dress in the East (pl. 30).

On the middle shelf, geological and agricultural specimens and
a selection of the insects of Palestine.

On the lower shelf, a collection of the precious stones of the
Bible. There are three almost identical lists of precious stones in
the Bible:

I. The description of the High Priest’s “breastplate of judg-
ment ” (hoshen ha-mishpat), in which were placed, in gold setting,
four rows of precious stones, three in each row, engraved with the
names of the twelve tribes of Israel, Exodus, xxviii, 17-20:

[The Hebrew names are given in italics. The English names are of the Revised Version;
those in parenthesis occur in the margin of the Revised Version. ]

1. Sardius (Ruby), odem. 7. Jacinth (Amber), leshem.

2. Topaz, pitdah. 8. Agate, shebo.

8. Carbuncle (Hmerald), bareqeth. 9. Amethyst, ahlamah.

4. Hmerald (Carbuncle), nofek. 10. Beryl (Chalcedony), tarshish.
5. Sapphire, sappir. 11. Onyx (Beryl), shoham.

6. Diamond (Sardonyx), yahalom. 12. Jasper, yashpeh.

II. The description of the ornaments of the King of Tyre, Ezekiel,
XXxvViil, 13:

1. Sardius (Ruby). 6. Jasper.

2. Topaz. 7. Sapphire.

8. Diamond (Sardonyx). 8. Emerald (Carbuncle).
4. Beryl. 9. Carbuncle (Emerald).
5. Onyx.

III. The description of the foundation of The Heavenly City,
Revelation, xxi, 19, 20:

1. Jasper. 7. Chrysolite.

2. Sapphire (Lapis-Lazuli). 8. Beryl.

38. Chalcedony. 9. Topaz.

4. Emerald. 10. Chrysoprase.

5. Sardonyx. 11. Jacinth (Sapphire).
6. Sardius. 12, Amethyst.

468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Besides the stones enumerated in these lists there are probably
mentioned the diamond by the Hebrew name of shamir, Jerem. xvii,
1; Ezek. 111, 9; Zach. vii, 12; amber (margin of Revised Version,
electrum), Hebrew hashmal, Ezek. i. 4; and crystal, Hebrew gerah
and gabish, properly ice, according to the view of the ancients that
crystal was ice hardened by intense cold, Ezek. i, 22; Job xxviii, 18;
Revel. iv, 6—In many cases it is very uncertain whether the English
rendering of the Hebrew names designates the same precious stones
as the nomenclature of modern mineralogy.

The engraving of signets upon hard stones was practiced at an
early period. The Israelites may have acquired the art from the
Egyptians, who are known to have made use of the lapidary’s wheel
and emery powder, and are supposed to have been acquainted with
the diamond and the method of engraving other stones by means of
it. The Assyrians and Babylonians were very skillful in engraving
on gems, many of which have been found in the ruins of their palaces
and cities.

Silver necklace (Hebrew, ‘anaqg,) Baghdad, Mesopotamia. The
custom of wearing a necklace is alluded to in Proverbs i, 9; Canticles
i, 10; iv, 9. It consisted either of a single band or chain, or of a
series of ornaments, as pearls, pieces of corals, or diamonds strung
together. Animals ridden by kings were decorated with collars
of precious materials (Judges vill, 26). (Pl. 31, fig. 1.)

Gold nose ring (Hebrew, nezem), Baghdad, Mesopotamia. The
Hebrew word nezem denotes both earring and nose ring. The latter
is meant in Genesis xxiv, 47; Isaiah ili, 21; and Proverbs xi, 32: “As
a jewel of gold in a swine’s snout, so is a fair woman which is with-
out discretion.” In modern times the rings are often of extraor-
dinary size and frequently reach to the mouth, so that they must be
removed in eating (pl. 31, fig 2).

Silver anklets (Hebrew, ‘akasim), Baghdad, Mesopotamia. Ank-
lets, as ornaments worn by women, are mentioned in Isaiah iii,
16, 18. From these passages it would seem that the tinkling prc-
duced by knocking the anklets against each other was their chief
attraction (pl. 31, fig. 3).

Kohl (Hebrew, puk) and the implements of its use for painting ot
the eyes. Baghdad, Mesopotamia. The practice of applying pig-
ments to the eyelids and eyebrows, in order to enhance the bril-
liancy of the eyes was common in the East in Bible times (Jere-
miah iv, 30; compare Proverbs vi, 25), and is still in everyday
practice. The pigment, which is a preparation of antimony, is ap-
plied to the eyelids by means of a small blunt piece of wood, ivory,
or metal, which is moistened, dipped in the mixture, and then drawn
carefully along the edges of the eye. From the Arabic name “ Kohl”

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 469

comes the term “alchohol,” the fineness of the powder suggesting

the idea of highly rectified spirits (pl. 31, fig. 4).

Lachish Tablet (the original of clay is in Constantinople). This
tablet was discovered in 1892, by Dr. F. J. Bliss, in the ruins of Tell
el Hesy, on the site of the ancient Lachish, which was one of the
capitals of the Canaanites, situated southeast of Jerusalem, between
Gaza and Eleutheropolis, conquered by Joshua (compare Joshua x,
3, 31, and 32). It was also besieged and taken by the Assyrian king,
Sennacherib, during his invasion of Judah (II Kings xviii and xix;
Isaiah xxxvi and xxxvii), in 701 B. C., and later succumbed to
Nebuchadnezzar. The tablet, which dates before the conquest of
Palestine by the Israelites, contains, in cuneiform script and in a
Semitic dialect akin to the Aramaic, a letter from the chief of the
territory adjoining Lachish, probably to the governor of Lachish,
complaining that marauders from the neighboring region are be-
setting Atim, which is probably identical with Etam, of the south
of Judah, mentioned in I Chronicles, iv, 32, and Samhi or Sam’a,
now probably represented by the large ruin of Sam’ah, situated 5
miles to the south of Etam.

Hebrew seals. The use of seals or signet rings is already men-
tioned in the Patriarchal epoch, Genesis xxxviii, 18. The seal was
either hung on a string around the neck, or worn in rings on the
finger (compare Jeremiah xxii, 24). The seal was used for signing
letters and documents, and also for sealing purses, doors, and the
like (compare I Kings xxi, 8; Job xiv, 17; Matthew xxvii, 66).
The custom of making an impression with the seal upon the forehead
of a person is alluded to in the Epistle to the Galatians vi, 17;
Revelation vii, 3.

Seal of Haggai, Son of Shebaniah. (Cast of the original of
black stone). Jerusalem. Found by Sir Charles Warren in 1867
near the Haram esh-Sherif, the mosque of Omar (on the site of
the temple). The names Haggai and Shebaniah may be connected
with the rebuilding of the Temple.

Ancient Hebrew Weight. (Cast from the original of hematite.)
Samaria. Found by Dr. Th. Chaplin. Weighs about 4 grains.
Inscribed “ quarter of a quarter of netzeg,” which may have been
a standard weight in Palestine.

Wright bead. (Cast from original of reddish yellow stone.)
Jerusalem. Obtained by Prof. T. F. Wright. Inscribed neézeg,
which may denote standard weight.

Syrian inkhorn (Hebrew, geseth ha-sofer), made of brass. Pal-
estine. The inkhorn is mentioned in Ezekiel ix, 2, as being car-
ried “by the side,” that is, fastened to the girdle of the scribe. It

553879 —24——31

470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

is still carried in this fashion in the Orient. The inkhorn con-
sists of a tube containing reed pens and a receptacle for ink.
(Pl. 31, fig. 5.)

A selection of Coins of Bible Lands. Coined money, which
originated about 700 B. C. in Lydia, did not circulate among the
Israelites previous to their return from the Babylonian captivity.

The money mentioned in the Bible before this date consisted of

precious metals, mostly silver, in the form of bars, ingots (properly
“tongue,” Joshua vii, 21), disks (Azkkar), or rings (often rep-
resented on Egyptian monuments) which may have had a fixed
valuation and weight. Generally the metal was weighed on scales
to determine its value. Thus the name of the piece of money most
frequently occurring in the Bible, the Shekel, properly denotes
“ weight.”

The first coins mentioned in the Bible after the exile are the
Adarkon and Darkemon (Ezra viii, 27; Nehemiah vii, 72), which
are identified with the Persian gold Daric. Upon the overthrow of
the Persian monarchy, Greek coins of the denominations of talents
and drachms began to circulate in Palestine. The earliest Jewish
coins are shekels and half shekels of silver, and one-sixth of shekel
of bronze, struck by Simon Maccabaeus, 143 B. C. (I Maccab. xv, 6).
Some attribute the first coinage of the shekel to Ezra. The succeed-
ing Maccabaean or Hasmonaean princes down to 37 B. C. struck
small bronze coins with Hebrew or Hebrew and Greek inscriptions.
The Idumaean or Herodian princes coined bronze money bearing
their names in Greek characters. At the same time the Roman
procurators of Judaea (since 6 B. C.) also struck bronze coins
with Greek inscriptions. The last coins struck by the Jews were
those during the revolt under Bar-Cochba (132 A. D.). Greek and
Roman money was current in Palestine in addition to the native
Hebrew coins, as seen from the New Testament. The selection in-
cludes the following coins.

Shekel. Silver. Attributed to Simon Maccabaeus. Obverse, Pot
of Manna (Exod. xvi, 33), with legend: “Shekel of Israel, year
two:” reverse, Budding rod of Aaron (Numb. xvii, 8), legend:
“Holy Jerusalem.”

Coin of John Hyrcanus (136-106 B. C.). Original of copper.
Obverse, “ Jochanan, High Priest and Prince of the Jewish Con-
federation”; reverse, Two cornucopias and a poppy head.

Widow’s Mite. Coin of Alexander Jannaeus (105-78 B. C.).
Copper (facsimile). Obverse, “ Jonathan the High Priest and the
Confederation of the Jews” within a wreath of olive; reverse, Two
cornucopias and a poppy head. It is assumed that this or a similar

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWIGZ. 471

coin is referred to by the term “ widow’s mite” in Mark xii, 42;
Luke xii, 6, though in the original it is denominated lepton, as none
but Jewish coins were permitted within the Temple precincts.

Coin of Herod Antipas. Bronze. Obverse, “ Herod, Tetrarch,”
with a palm branch; reverse, Tiberias within a wreath. Herod
Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Petrea, A. D. 4-89, is often men-
tioned in the New Testament (Matt. xiv, 1-3; Luke iii, 1, 19, etc.).
It was he who beheaded John the Baptist (Matt. xiv, 1), and to
him was Christ sent for examination by Pilate (Luke xxiii, 7). In
honor of the Emperor Tiberius he founded the city of Tiberias on
the western shore of the Sea of Gennesareth, where the coin was
struck.

Coin of Herod Philip II (died A. D. 34). Struck at Caesarea
Philippi in honor of the Eighth Roman Legion. Copper. (Obverse
“ Herod Philip,” with his portrait; reverse, the standards of the
Legion. Herod Philip is mentioned once in Luke iii, 1, as Tetrarch
of Ituraea; Caesarea Philippi was often visited by Christ (Matt.
xvi, 18; Mark viii, 27). It is now a small village called Banijas,
near Mount Hermon.

Coin of Agrippa IT (last Jewish king). Bronze. Obverse, Name
and head of the Emperor; reverse, ‘“ Money of Agrippa, struck at
Neronias ” (—Caesarea Philippi). Herod Agrippa II, the last Jew-
ish prince of the house of Herod, is mentioned (Acts xxv, 13, and
XXvl, 2, 28) as having an interview with the Apostle Paul.

Denarius, or Roman Tribute Penny. Silver. Obverse, “ Tiberius
Caesar, son of deified Augustus”; reverse, “ Pontifex Maximus”
(Chief Priest). Value about 16 cents. The denarius was the tribute
money that the Jews had to pay to the Romans, and it is very
likely that a variety of this coin was shown Christ with the question:
“Ts it lawful to give tribute to Caesar or not?” (Matt. xxi, 17.)

Stater. Antioch. Silver (facsimile). Obverse, “(Money) of
Caesar Augustus,” with a head of the Emperor; reverse: Tyche
(Fortune), as genius of the city of Antioch, with her foot on the
river god Orontes, and the words: “ Thirtieth year of the victory ”
(i. e., Actium). The stater, about equal in value to the shekel, is
mentioned in Matt. xvii, 27, as having been found by Peter in the
mouth of the fish, sufficient to pay the Temple tribute, which was
half a shekel (Exod. xxx, 13, 15), for Christ and himself.

Coin of Caesarea. Bronze. Obverse, Head of Augustus Cae-
sar. Caesarea, founded by Herod I, is frequently mentioned in the
Acts. It was the scene of the conversion of the centurion Corne-
lius (x); Philip preached the Gospel here (xxi, 8); Paul was im-
prisoned here two years before he was sent to Rome (xxiv—xxvl) ;
here also Herod Agrippa I died, 44 B. C. (xii, 19). It was the

472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

residence of the Roman Governors, and here the Jewish war against
Rome broke out.

Tetradrachm of Sidon. Silver. Obverse, Head of the city; re-
verse, “(Money of the Sidonians) Holy and inviolable,” with the
figure of Astarte. Sidon, the oldest city of Phenicia, is often men-
tioned in the Bible (Joshua, xix, 28; I Kings v, 6; Acts xxvii, 3).
It is at present represented by the town of Saida, with about 15,000
inhabitants.

Tetradrachm of Tyre. Silver. Obverse, Head of Hercules as
Baal (Lord) of the city. Tyre, next to Sidon, the oldest and most
important city of Phenicia, is often referred to in the Bible. During
the period of David and Solomon friendly relations were entertained
between Tyre and Israel (I Kings v, 15 ff.). The coast of Tyre
was visited by Christ (Matt. xv, 21; Mark vii, 24), and Paul landed
at Tyre on one of his missionary voyages (Acts xxi, 3). The mod-
ern Gur is an unimportant town with about 5,000 inhabitants.

Coin of Ashkelon. Bronze. Struck by order of Emperor Alexan-
der Severus, about A. D. 228. Ascalon, or Ashkelon, was one of the
five chief cities of the Philistines, situated 30 miles southwest of
Jerusalem (Joshua xiii, 8; I Samuel vi, 17). It was the center
of the worship of Derceto, the supposed female counterpart of
Dagon (Jud. xvi, 23; I Sam. v). It is now represented by the
village of Askalan.

Coins of the City of Damascus. Copper. Damascus, the ancient
capital of Syria, is mentioned as early as in the history of Abraham
(Genesis xiv, 15; xv, 2). Later it frequently came in contact with
Israel (II Sam. viii, 6; II Kings xvi, 9 f., etc.). In the New
Testament it is especially known from the history of the Apostle
Paul (Acts ix; xxii, 6).

Tetradrachm of the City of Babylon. Silver. Struck by Mazaios,
Governor under Alexander the Great, 331-828 B. C.

Tetradrachm of Alexander the Great (336-323 B. C.). Obverse,
head of Alexander; reverse, Zeus seated holding the eagle. Alex-
ander the Great is mentioned in I Maccabees vi, 2. It is also assumed
that he is typified under the emblem of the “ he-goat ” in Daniel viii,
5, and that his empire is meant by the “ fourth monarchy ” depicted
in Daniel ii, 40 and vii, 23 f.

Tetradrachm of Seleucus I Nicator, King of Syria, 312-280 B. C.
Silver. Obverse, Head of Seleucus; reverse, “ King Seleucus,” with
figure of Jupiter. The city of Seleucia, the principal port of
Antioch, from which Paul and Barnabas set out for Cyprus (Acts
xili, 4), was named after Seleucus I.

Coin of Antiochus IIT, the great, King of Syria, 223-183 B. C.
Silver. Obverse, Head of the King; reverse, “ King Antiochus,”

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 473

with the figure of Apollo seated on tripod. Antiochus is mentioned
in I Mace. viii, 6 ff.; Josephus, Antiquities xii, 3.

Tetradrachm of Antiochus VII Sidetes, or Euergetes, King of
Syria, 138-127 B. C. Silver. Obverse, Head of the King; reverse,
“(Money) of King Antiochus Euergetes,” with the figure of Minerva
holding Victory. Antiochus Sidetes is mentioned, I Macc. xvi, 1 ff.,
as being defeated by the sons of the High Priest Simeon.

Coin of Demetrius Soter, King of Syria 162-150 B. C. Obverse,
head of Demetrius; reverse, “ King Demetrius Soter,”’ with seated
female figure. He waged war against the Maccabees and is often
mentioned in the books of the Maccabees (I Maccabees viii, 31; x, 2,
etc.).

Tetradrachm of Ephesus. Silver. Struck 140 B. C. Ephesus,
in ancient time one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, was
especially celebrated for its temple of Diana (Acts xix, 35). It was
the place of residence of Paul (Acts xix, 1 ff.), of Timothy (1
Timothy i, 3), and of the Apostle John, who probably died there.
Ephesus was one of the seven churches referred to in the Revela-
tions (Revelations ii, 4). It was also the seat of the third general
Council (481 A. D.), and of the “ Robber Synod” (449 A. D.).

Tetradrachms of Tarsus. Silver. Struck by Satrap Datames, 250
B. C. Tarsus, the ancient capital of Cilicia, Asia Minor, was the
home of Apostle Paul (Acts ix, 11, 30; xi, 25; xxii, 3). It is still
a city of about 10,000 inhabitants. It is now accessible from Alex-
andretta by rail.

Coin of Cyprus. Bronze. Struck under Emperor Claudius (A.
D. 41-54), and the Proconsul Sergius Paulus. Cyprus, one of the
largest islands in the Mediterranean, was the birthplace of Barnab-
bas (Acts iv, 36), and often visited by Paul, while Sergius was its
proconsul (Acts xiii, 4 ff., etc.).. In the Old Testament it is referred
to by the name of Kittim (Gen. x, 4; Numb. xxiv, 24; Dan. xi, 30,
etc.).

Hemidrachms of Ephesus. Silver. Struck 200 B. C. Obverse,
Bee; reverse, Deer.

Aes (farthing) of Thessalonica. Copper. Struck 88 B. C. Ob-
verse, Head of Janus; reverse, Dioscuri. Thessalonica, formerly the
capital of Macedonia, is the modern Salonica. Two Epistles of
Paul are addressed to the Christians of this place.

Coin of Thessalonica. Copper. Struck 158 B. C. Obverse, Head
of City Nymph; reverse, Galley.

Tetradrachm of Macedonia. Silver. Struck between 156 and
146 B. C. Obverse, Head of Minerva upon a Macedonian shield;
reverse, Club of Hercules. Macedonia is often mentioned in the
New Testament. Paul visited this province on his second and

474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

third missionary voyage and founded congregations in several of its
cities (Acts xvi and xx).

Didrachms of Athens. Silver. (470 to 230 B. C.). Obverse,
Head of Athene (Minerva); reverse, Owl. Athens, the former
capital of Attica and the modern capital of Greece, was visited by
Paul, where he delivered ‘the discourse on the Areopagus (Acts xvii,
15 ff.).

Tetradrachms of Athens. Silver. (470 to 230 B. C.). Obverse,
Head of Athene (Minerva); reverse, Owl (the bird sacred to
Athene) (pl. 32).

On the bottom of the case: Goatskin water bag (Hebrew, nod,
hemeth). Palestine. Skin bottles are referred to in Genesis xxi,
14; Joshua ix, 5. Christ employs them in a comparison, “ Neither
do men put new wine into old wine skins” (Matthew ix,17). Such —
bottles are made from the whole skins of animals, generally the goat.
After the animal is killed and its feet and head removed, the rest of
the body is drawn out entire without opening the belly, and after
the skin has been tanned, the places where the legs were cut off are
sewed up; when the skin is filled it is tied about the neck Skin bot-
tles are also in use in Spain, in the City of Mexico, and by the Eski-
mos (pl. 33, fig. 3).

SYRIAN MORTAR AND PESTLE. SYRIA.

The mortar is of white marble, 8 inches high by 12 inches square;
the pestle is of wood, 14 inches long. The mortar is at present used
in Syria, particularly in the preparation of a dish called Avebe, con-
sisting of meat and wheat, which, after having been crushed in the
mortar, is rolled out, cut in diamond forms, which, sandwiched with
layers of meat, are baked in a pan. In ancient times the mortar was
used for crushing grain in general. Many stone mortars have been
found in the excavations of Gezer, a city often mentioned in the Old
Testament (Joshua x, 33; xvi, 10, etc.).

MILLSTONES (HEBREW, REHAYIM). BAGHDAD, MESOPOTAMIA.

Millstones are often referred to in the Bible, and they are still used
in grinding corn, in the same form as in ancient times. They consist
of two cylindrical stones; the lower one is firmly planted on the
ground and provided with a convex upper surface on which the con-
cave under surface of the other stone revolves. The upper stone,
which is called reed or rider, has a hole through its center into which
the grain is dropped, and through which runs a shaft to hold the
stone in place. A handle attached to the “rider” enables a person
sitting near to turn it around and grind the grain, which is fed with

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 475

the hand that is free. It was forbidden to take the mill or even the
upper stone in pledge, as taking “ the life” (that is, the means of
sustaining life), Deuteronomy xxiv, 6. Each day as much grain
as was needed was ground, and the “voice of the mill” became pro-
verbial (Jeremiah xxv, 10; Ecclesiastes xii, 4). At the time of
Christ, mills turned by asses were also employed (Matthew xviii, 6,
Revised Version, margin). At present water mills are also largely
used in Syria (pl. 33, figs. 1, 2, and pl. 34).

WOODEN DOOR LOCK AND KEY. BAGHDAD, MESOPOTAMIA.

The doors of Eastern houses, which are usually small and low,
seem early to have been provided with hinges turning in sockets and
with locks and keys in whose construction no little ingenuity was
displayed (Judges iii, 23, 25; Proverbs xxvi, 14; Canticles v, 5;
Nehemiah iii, 3). It is likely that locks and keys were made both
of iron and of wood, according to circumstances. A wooden key,
now quite generally in use, is described as consisting of a piece of
wood about a foot in length, provided at one end with a series of
pegs. It is thrust into a little opening at the side of the door and
applied to the bolt. This has a corresponding series of holes into
which the pegs of the key fit, displacing thereby another set of pegs,
by which the bolt is held in its place (pl. 29). Pair of Shepherd’s
Shoes. Made of goat skin. Syria.

35 and 86. The next two cases contain a collection of Bibles and
musical instruments of the Bible. The Museum’s collection of some
sixty-five Bibles includes manuscripts and old editions of the origi-
nal text, as well as copies of the most important ancient and modern
translations of the scriptures.

EDITIONS OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT OF THE BIBLE.

Hebrew Bible. Facsimile of the Aleppo Codex. The original
manuscript, which is assigned to Aaron ben Asher (beginning of the
tenth. century A. D.), but is probably of somewhat later origin, is
preserved in the Synagogue of Aleppo, Syria. (Pl. 35.)

Hebrew Bible without vowel points. Printed by Christopher
Plantin in Antwerp, 1573-74.

Hebrew Bible. Edited by Elias Hutter in 38 volumes. Hamburg,
1587. Hutter was Professor of Hebrew in Leipzig. The peculiarity
of this Bible consists in the fact that the roots are printed in solid
black letters, while the prefixes, suffixes, and formative letters
(called servile letters in Hebrew grammar) are in outline.

Rabbinic Bible. Edited by Joannes Buxtorf, printed by Ludwig
Koenig in Basel, Switzerland, 1618-19. The Bible contains the

476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Old Testament in two folio volumes. The Hebrew text is sur-
rounded by the Massora, the Targum, and the commentaries of Rashi,
Ibn Ezra, Kimchi, and others.

Greek New Testament. First American edition. Printed by
Isaiah Thomas, Worcester, Massachusetts, 1800. (PI. 36.)

Greek New Testament. Second American edition. Printed by S.
F. Bradford, Philadelphia, 1806.

ANCIENT VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE.

The oldest and most important version of the Old Testament,
which in turn became the parent of many other translations, is the
Greek of Alexandria, Egypt, known by the name of the Septuagint.
The name Septuagint is derived from the tradition that it was made
by a company of seventy (sometimes seventy-two) Jewish scholars,
at Alexandria, under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285-247
B. C., who desired a copy for the library he was gathering. The
truth of its origin seems to be that Alexandria became, after the
Babylonian captivity, a center of the Jewish population. As time
went on, the Jews lost command of the Hebrew language and re-
quired a translation of their sacred books into Greek. 'The men who
met this want differed very much in knowledge and skill, were of
an indeterminate number and of different periods, beginning the
work at the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus and ending it about 150
B. C. The Pantateuch is much more carefully translated than the
rest of the Bible. Books now considered apocryphal were included
in the Canon. The Septuagint was used by the Jews until the
second century of the Christian era, when they reverted to the He-
brew. It was also, no doubt, used by the Apostles and by the Church
Fathers, who refer to it under the name “Vulgata.”

Codex Vaticanus. Containing the Old and New Testament. Fac-
simile. Six volumes. Rome, 1868-1881. The Codex Vaticanus, so
called from the fact that it is preserved in the Vatican at Rome, is
the best and oldest Biblical manuscript now known. It is written .
in Greek in uncial characters (capitals), and was probably the work
of two or three scribes in Egypt during the fourth century. The
original is probably the most valuable treasure of the Vatican li-
brary. It was brought to Rome by Pope Nicholas V in 1448. The
manuscript is not quite complete; there are a few gaps in the Old
Testament, and the New Testament ends with Hebrews ix, 14.

Codex Sinaiticus. Facsimile edition, Petrograd, 4 volumes. 1862.
The Codex Sinaiticus was discovered in 1859 by Constantine Tisch-
endorf in the Convent of St. Catharine at the foot of Mount
Sinai. It was transferred to Cairo, then to Leipzig, and later to
Petrograd, where it is preserved in the Imperial Library. This

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ, 477

text was printed at Leipzig from types especially cast in imitation
of the original, and published at St. Petersburg at the expense of
Czar Alexander II. The original is on parchment, written in uncial
characters (capitals), four columns to a page, and 48 lines on a page.
It dates from the middle of the fourth century.

Codex Alexandrianus. Printed in type to represent the original
manuscript. London, 1816. This facsimile version of the Alex-
andrian or Egyptian text of the Bible appeared in 1816, in four
volumes, Vols. I-III containing the Old Testament, and Vol. IV
the New Testament. The original manuscript was presented to King
Charles I by Sir Thomas Roe, from Cyril, Lucar Patriarch of Con-
stantinople. It was transferred to the British Museum in 1753. It
is written on parchment in uncials without division of chapters,
verses, or words. Tradition places the writing of this manuscript
in the fourth century, but it is now generally assumed to date from
the fifth century.

The Washington Manuscript of Deuteronomy and Joshua.
(Facsimile). Edited by Professor Henry A. Sanders, of the Uni-
versity of Michigan. This manuscript, together with three other
Biblical manuscripts, was acquired by the late Mr. Charles L. Freer,
of Detroit, Michigan, from an Arabian dealer in Gizeh, near Cairo,
Egypt, in 1906. It consists of 102 parchment leaves, and contains
the Greek Septuagint version of Deuteronomy and Joshua, written
in fine uncial letters in two columns of thirty-one lines on each page
and is in good state of preservation. Professor Sanders, the editor
of the manuscript, would connect it with the monastery of the Vine-
dresser, which was near the third pyramid, and believes it to have
been written in the early part of the fifth century A. D. It is, there-
fore, one of the oldest and most important manuscripts of the Bible
known. It has received the name Washington Manuscript because
it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and is deposited in
the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington. (PI. 37.)

The Washington Manuscript of the Four Gospels. (Facsimile.)
Edited by Professor Henry A. Sanders, of the University of Michi-
gan. The Manuscript, together with three other Biblical manu-
scripts, was acquired by Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Michigan,
from an Arabian dealer in Egypt in 1906. It consists of 187 parch-
ment leaves, or 374 pages, and contains the four Gospels in the order
of Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark, written in one column of 30
lines on each page, and in good state of preservation. The leaves
of the manuscript were held between covers of two wooden panels
painted with the portraits of the four Evangelists in the order in
which their Gospels appear in the text, namely, Matthew and John
on the left-hand board, Luke and Mark on the right-hand board.

478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

Professor Sanders, the editor of the manuscript, would place it in
the fourth century A. D. (PI. 38.)

Ethiopic Version of the Bible. Photograph of original Bible pre-
served in the United States National Museum. This copy was ob-
tained from King Theodore, of Abyssinia, by Lord Napier, and by
him presented to General Grant. The Ethiopic version was made
in the fourth century, probably by Frumentius, the Apostle of
Ethiopia. It has 46 books in all, containing, in addition to the
Canon, a large number of Apocryphal books.

Latin Bible. Folio edition printed by Anthony Coburger in Nu-
remberg, Germany, 1478. The Latin Bible goes back to a Latin
translation made from the Septuagint in the second century, and
known as Vetus [tala or “ Old Italic.” The present version, how-
ever, is due to St. Jerome (Hieronymus), and was made by him in
Bethlehem between 383 and 407 A. D. It was for a long time the
Bible of the Western Church, and of a large part of the Eastern
Church. Though no doubt based on the Septuagint, the translation
of the Old Testament was made with reference to the original
Hebrew, with which Jerome was well acquainted. The translation is
commonly called the Vulgate, a name which was originally given to
the Septuagint. It is still in use by the Roman Catholic Church.
It was the first Bible ever printed, being produced by Gutenberg
between 1450 and 1455, and constituted the first important speci-
men of printing with metal types. This Bible—one of the twelve
Coburger Latin editions—is printed on 468 leaves in double col-
umns, with fifty-one and fifty-three lines to the column. It has no
title page, signatures, catchwords, or initials. The initial letters of
paragraphs are painted by hand.

Greek and Latin New Testament of Erasmus. Editio princeps.
Printed by Frebonius in Basel, Switzerland, 1516. The edition of
the Greek New Testament, by Erasmus, was the first ever pub-
lished, and became, with a few modifications, the received text.
Luther’s translation was based upon it. To the Greek original
Erasmus added a corrected Latin version with notes. (Pl. 39.)

Arabic Version of Saadia Gaon. In Hebrew characters. The
Pentateuch, edited by J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1893. Saadia Gaon
was born at Fayum, A. D. 892, and died in 942. His translation of
the Bible is rather a paraphrase and has a high exegetical value.

ENGLISH VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE.

The New Testament Translated by John Wycliffe, about 1380.
Printed from a contemporary manuscript by William Pickering.
London, 1848. John Wycliffe was born in Yorkshire, about 1320.
He studied at Baliol College, Oxford, and was for some time master

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TITLE PAGE OF ELIOT'S INDIAN BIBLE.

——S— rr ee

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY——CASANOWICZ. 479

of that college. He became later rector of Lutterworth, in Leices-
tershire, and was the foremost leader of the party of reform. He
died in 1384. About 1880 he undertook, with the assistance of some
of his followers, the translation of the entire Bible into English
from the Latin of the Vulgate. His translation was, after his death,
revised by one of his adherents. The present copy is assumed to
represent the first version prepared by Wycliffe himself, or at least
under his supervision.

Tyndale’s New Testament. Facsimile by F. Fry. William Tyn-
dale was born between 1484 and 1486, in Gloucestershire. He was
educated at Oxford and afterwards at Cambridge. He went to
Hamburg, and later joined Luther at Wiirttemberg, where he fin-
ished the translation of the New Testament into English. The first
edition was issued in 1525. His English style was very good and
was largely retained in the Authorized Version. His translation
was condemned by the English Bishops and was ordered to be
burned. Tyndale was strangled for heresy at Antwerp in 1536, and
his body burned.

The Gothic and Anglo-Saxon Gospels. With the versions of
Wycliffe and Tyndale. Arranged by Rev. Joseph Bosworth, Lon-
don, 1865. The Gothic version was made in the fourth century by
Bishop Ulfilas (born 318 A. D., died about 381). It is said to have
been a complete version with the exception of the book of Kings.
It was probably completed about 360 A. D. Only fragments are
preserved in the so-called Codex Argenteus, or “ Silver Book,” in
the library of the University of Upsala, Sweden. The Anglo-
Saxon version was begun by King Alfred, who translated the Psalms
in the ninth century. The translation now extant dates to the tenth
century.

Coverdale’s Bible. Reprint by Baxter, 1838. Miles Coverdale
was born at Coverham, in the North Riding of Yorkshire in 1488.
He died at Geneva in 1569. His Bible was issued October 4, 1535,
being the first complete Bible printed in the English language.
It was not translated from the original tongues, but was based on
the Latin version and on Luther’s Bible.

The Genevan Version. Folio edition printed at London, 1597.
This translation was made by nonconformists, who took up their
residence at Geneva. William Whittingham acted as editor, and
his assistants were Thomas Cole, Christopher Goodman, Anthony
Gilby, Thomas Sampson, and Bishop Coverdale. Some add John
Knox, John Bodleigh, and John Pullain, and state that the trans-
lators consulted Calvin and Beza. The first edition was printed at
Geneva in 1560.

480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

The Douay Version of the Bible. The Douay version was under-
taken in 1568 by the British Roman Catholic refugees at Douay,
Flanders, where a British Catholic college was established under
the direction of William Allen and Gregory Martin. In 1578 the
college, on account of political conditions, was moved to Rheims,
France, where the first edition of the translation of the New Testa-
ment was issued in 1582. In 1593 the college was reestablished at
Douay, and here the translation of the Old Testament was pub-
lished in 1609-10. The Douay version is a close translation from
the Latin Vulgate. It exercised some influence on the King James
version of 1611, and was in turn, in its later revised editions, in-
fluenced by it.

King James or Authorized Version. Folio edition, printed at
London by Robert Barker, 1613. The preparation of a new English
Bible was decided upon at a conference held at Hampton Court,
January 16 and 18, 1604. In that year King James I issued a com-
mission to fifty-four eminent divines to undertake the work. It was
not begun, however, until 1607, when seven of the original number
had died. The forty-seven survivors were divided into six com-
mittees, two sitting at Oxford, two at Cambridge, and two at West-
minster. In 1610 their work was completed and then revised by a
committee of six. Although universally known as the authorized
version, no record, either ecclesiastical or civil, has ever been found
of such authorization. The first edition was printed by Robert
Barker in 1611. j

Revised Version. Revision of the text of 1611 was early advo-
cated by men like Bishop Ellicott, Archbishop French, and Dean
Alford. Efforts were also made from time to time in the House of
Commons to have a Royal Commission appointed. In 1870 the upper
house of the Canterbury Convocation, on the motion of Bishop Wil-
berforce, took the subject in hand and instituted the proceedings
which finally secured the accomplishment of the work. In 1871 an
American committee of cooperation was organized. The New Testa-
ment was completed in 1881 and the Old Testament in 1885.

Parallel New Testament. Revised version and authorized version.
(Seaside Library.) The revised version of the New Testament ap-
peared in England May 17, 1881, and in America May 20, 1881. The
first half of the parallel Testament appeared in New York May 21,
and the second half May 23.

The American Standard Version. Edited by the American Re-
vision Committee, A. D. 1901. The American Committee of Re-
visers, cooperating with the British Committee, was organized in
1871. It consisted of thirty members, divided into Old and New
Testament groups, with Professor William Henry Green, of Prince-

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 481

ton Theological Seminary, and ex-President Woolsey, of Yale Col-
lege, as chairmen. They began work in 1872 and held for some time
one session a month in the Bible House in New York City. The
agreement between the British and American Committees was, briefly,
as follows: The British revisers were to take the suggestions of the
American Committee under special consideration and print, in an
appendix, such preferences of reading and rendering as they de-
clined to adopt, while the American revisers were not to issue an
edition of their own for fourteen years after the publication of the
British revision. The British revision was published in 1885, and,
in 1901, the restricted period having elapsed, the American Standard
Revision was issued. It contained many variations from the British,
substituting words in good American standing for those differently
used in England. It also altered the punctuation and paragraphing
of the British revision, and inserted at the top of each page brief
indications of the contents of that page, which is of value for ready
reference.

Jewish-English Version of the Old Testament. A new translation
of the Old Testament prepared during the years 1908 to 1915 by a
group of American Jewish scholars, with the aid of previous versions
and with constant consultation of Jewish authorities. It aims to
combine the spirit of Jewish tradition with the results of Biblical
scholarship, ancient, medieval, and modern. Published by the Jew-
ish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, Pa. ,

TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

Luther’s Bible. German translation, made by Martin Luther.
Edition of 1554. The New Testament appeared in 1522 and the Old
Testament, in parts, between 1523 and 1532. The complete Bible
appeared in 1534. Previous to Luther’s version there were in use
at least 10 distinct German versions, literal translations of the
Latin Bible. Luther worked from the original tongues, and yet
succeeded in giving the Bible a real German dress and a style that
would appeal to German readers. Luther’s translation was of prime
importance in bringing about the Reformation, and is also the
foundation of the German literary dialect.

German Bible. Containing the Old and the New Testament and
the Apocrypha of the Old Testament in Luther’s translation, with
numerous woodcut illustrations. The translation is preceded by an
index and explanations of the proper names occurring in the Bible,
a synopsis of the principal doctrines, and an historical and chrono-
logical list. At the head of each book and chapter is a summary of
their respective contents. Bound in vellum, richly tooled, with
ornamental brass clasps. Printed in Frankfort on the Main in 1704.

482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The Christopher Sauer Bible. The Bible printed by Christopher
Sauer in Germantown, Pa., in 1743 was the first edition of the
Scriptures published in America in a European tongue. Its issue
was announced in Bradford’s “ Weekly Mercury ” for April 1, 1742,
and in Franklin’s “ Pennsylvania Gazette” for April 31, 1741. This
German edition of the Bible follows, with a few exceptions, the ver-
sion of Luther. It contains the Old and the New Testament and
the Apocrypha, including the third and fourth Ezra and the third
Maccabees. Each chapter is preceded by a summary of its con-
tents, and references to parallel passages are noted.

Spanish Old Testament. Amsterdam, Holland, 1661 (5421). The
first edition of this translation was printed in the middle of the
sixteenth century. It bears the title: “The Bible in the Spanish
language, translated word for word from the Hebrew, examined by
the Inquisition, with the privilegium of the Duke of Ferrara.” It
is therefore generally known as the Ferrara Bible. The copies of
this translation are divided into two classes—one appropriate for
the use of the Jews, the other suited to the purposes of the Chris-
tians. The translation is extremely literal, and the translator has
indicated with an asterisk the words which are in Hebrew equivocal
or capable of different meanings.

Dutch Bible. Printed at Dort (Dordrecht), Holland, in 1741,
with illustrations and marginal comments. This version of the
Bible was ordered by the Synod of Dort (1618-19), which ap-
pointed three theologians for the translation of the Old Testament
and three for that of the New Testament, besides two revisers from
each province. The work of translation was finished in 1635.

Eliot’s Indian Bible. Facsimile reprint. Washington, D. C.,
1890. John Eliot, “the apostle of the Indians,” was born in Eng-
land in 1604 and received his education at Cambridge. In 1631 he
removed to America and settled at Roxbury, Massachusetts, as min-
ister, where he remained until his death in 1690. He became inter-
ested in the conversion of the Indians of New England, whom he
believed to be the descendants of the lost tribes of Israel, and deter-
mined to give them the Scriptures in their tribal tongue, which was
the Natick dialect. He completed the translation of the New Tes-
tament in 1661 and that of the entire Bible in 1663. It was printed
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by Samuel Green and Marmaduke
Johnson, “ ordered to be printed by the Commissioners of the United
Colonies in New England, At the Charge and with the Consent of
the Corporation in England for the Propagation of the Gospel
amongst the Indians in New England.” Eliot’s Indian Bible was
the first ever printed in America, and the entire translation is stated
to have been written with one pen. Eliot also published an Indian

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 483

grammar and a number of other works, mostly relating to his mis-
sionary labors. The Natick dialect, in which the translation of the
Bible was made, is now extinct (pl. 40).

Fiji Gospels. Printed at Vuda, Fiji Islands, 1847. The Fiji
group of islands is located in the South Pacific Ocean. It comprises
over 200 islands, of which about 80 are inhabited. Since 1874 the
Fiji Islands have been a British dependency; they have a popula-
tion of about 125,000. Christianity was introduced in the islands
by Wesleyan missionaries in 1835.

Armenian Bible. The first translation of the Bible into the Arme-
nian language was made from the Syriac version in the fifth century
by Mesrob (354441), the reputed inventor of the Armenian alpha-
bet and founder of Armenian literature, and the patriarch Sahak
(Isaac). The present translation was printed in New York in 1870.
Bound in black Morocco, richly gold tooled, with gilt edges.

The Bible in the Turkish Language. Printed in Constantinople
in 1878. Bound in black roan, richly tooled.

The New testament in the Korean Language. This is the first
issue of the Scriptures in the Korean tongue. Printed in Seoul,
Korea, in 1900.

BIBLES OF HISTORICAL INTEREST.

Biblia Pauperum (Bible of the Poor). A series of cuts (from 34
to 50) illustrating the leading events in the history of Christ, each
with representations of supposed parallels from the Old Testament,
and accompanied with explanatory texts. Thus, on the page ex-
hibited in the Museum, in the center is the transfiguration of Christ
(Matthew xvii, 1-9; Mark ix, 2-10; Luke ix, 28-36); to the left,
Abraham receiving the three angels (Genesis xviii) ; to the right;
Nebuchadnezzar and Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah (Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abed-nego) in the furnace (Daniel iii). Above are
the busts of David and Isaiah; underneath, of Malachi and Habak-
kuk; and below, the explanatory text. Such Bibles were in vogue
during the Middle Ages, until, through the invention of printing,
the complete Scriptures were made accessible to the people. This
copy is a facsimile of the edition of Hans Sporer, 1471, at Nuremberg,
Germany.

Cromwell’s Soldier’s Pocket Bible. Facsimile reprint. Compiled
by Edmund Calamy, and issued for the use of the Army of the
Commonwealth, London, 1643. It has frequently been stated that
every soldier in Cromwell’s army was provided with a pocket Bible,
and it was supposed that an especially small copy was used. In
1854 the late Mr. George Livermore of Cambridgeport, Mass., dis-
covered that the Bible which Cromwell’s soldiers carried was not

484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the whole Bible, but the soldier’s pocket Bible, which was generally
buttoned between the coat and the waistcoat next to the heart. It
consists of a number of quotations from the Geneva version (all but
two from the Old Testament) which were especially applicable to
war times. Only two copies of the original of this work are known
to exist—one in America and the other in the British Museum.
The work was reissued in 1693 under the title “The Christian
Soldier’s Penny Bible.” The only copy extant, so far as known,
is in the British Museum.

Bishop Asbury’s New Testament. With hundreds of the texts for
his sermons marked in his own handwriting. Francis Asbury (born
in Staffordshire, 1745; died in Virginia, 1816) was the first Bishop
of the Methodist Church ordained in America. He was sent as a
missionary by John Wesley in 1771, and in person organized the
work of his denomination in the entire eastern portion of the United
States, performed the first ordination in the Mississippi valley, and
in 1784 founded the first Methodist college.

The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth. Extracted textually
from the Gospels in Greek, Latin, French, and English, by Thomas
Jefferson, being the so-called Jefferson Bible. A compilation made
by Jefferson about 1819, consisting of passages from the Gospels, cut
out and pasted in a volume according to a scheme of his own. A
concordance of the texts is given in the front and the sources of the
verses in the margins; the section of the Roman law under which
Christ was tried is also cited. All of these annotations, as well as the
title-page and concordance, are in Jefferson’s own handwriting. Two
maps, one of Palestine and another of the ancient world, are pasted
in the front. Jefferson long had the preparation of this book in
mind. On January 29, 1804, he wrote from Washington to Doctor
Priestley: “I had sent to Philadelphia to get two Testaments
(Greek) of the same edition, and two English, with a design to cut
out the morsels of morality, and paste them on the leaves of a book.”
Nearly 10 years later (October 13, 1818), in writing to John Adams,
he stated that he had for his own use cut up the Gospels “ verse by
verse out of the printed book, arranging the matter which is evi-
dently his (Christ’s).” In the same letter he describes the book as
“the most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever
been offered to man.” It is said that it was Jefferson’s original idea
to have this compilation translated for use among the Indians (pls.
41 and 42).

The Two Copies of the English New Testament from which Jef-
ferson Made the Clippings for the English Version of the “ Life and
Morals of Jesus of Nazareth.” Printed in Philadelphia, 1804. Jef-
ferson refers to these New Testaments in a letter of January 29, 1804,

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 485

addressed from Washington to Doctor Priestley: “I had sent to
Philadelphia to get two Testaments (Greek) of the same edition,
and two English, with a design to cut out the morsels of morality
and paste them on the leaves of a book.”

Jewish Soldier’s Pocket Bible. Published by the Jewish Publica-
tion Society of America, Philadelphia, Pa., 1918. This volume con-
tains readings from the Holy Scriptures for Jewish soldiers and
sailors in the service of the United States, consisting mainly of pas-
sages relating to God’s creation and maintenance of the world, His
providence, and His guidance of the destinies of nations. Bound in
khaki.

Hieroglyphic Bible. Published by Joseph Avery, Plymouth;
printed by George Clark & Co., Charlestown, 1820. A number of
Hieroglyphic Bibles have been printed in America, the first being
that of Isaiah Thomas at Worcester, Mass., in 1788. Words in each
verse are represented by pictures, the whole being designed “to fa-
miliarize tender age, in a pleasing and diverting manner, with early
ideas of the Holy Scriptures.” (Pl. 48.)

Above, on the wall of the cases, is exhibited a collection of musical
instruments mentioned in the Bible. Scarcely any authentic in-
formation is preserved concerning the shape or the manner of play-
ing on the musical instruments named in the Bible. The only ancient
representation of any Hebrew musical instrument extant is that of
the hagogera, or trumpet, on the Arch of Titus at Rome. There is no
doubt but that the shofar or ram’s horn, which is still used in the
synagogue, has conserved its antique form, but it may be assumed
that the musical instruments of the Hebrews resembled those of the
Assyrians and Egyptians, some of which are sculptured on the monu-
ments, and that. the instruments still used in Palestine, Syria, and
Egypt, differ but little, if at all, from those employed in ancient
times.

MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS IN THE BIBLE.

To music a high position is assigned in the Bible. Its invention is
recorded in the opening chapters of the Scriptures (Genesis iv, 21),
and in the Revelation of St. John (v. 9; xv, 2 ff) it serves to
express the consummation of beatitude. From the earliest times
music was used as expressive of the joys and sorrows of daily life
in Israel. It was the pastime of the shepherd (I Sam., xvi, 18) ; it
formed a principal attraction of the social gatherings of youth at
the city gates (Lamentations, v, 14); it accompanied the celebra-
tion of the festivals of the harvest and vintage (Isaiah xvi, 10;
Judges xxi, 21); the victors in battle were received on their return
with “singing, dancing, and timbrels” (Exodus xv, 21; Judges xi,

553879—24——82

486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

34; I Sam., xviii, 6); it contributed to the pleasure and festivity
of the banquet (Isaiah v, 12; Amos vi, 5; II Sam., xix, 35). It was
the indispensable accompaniment of every festal occasion (Genesis
xxxi, 27; Luke, xv, 25). Above all, music constituted an important
feature of religious worship.

In earlier time only two instruments—the trumpet (hagocgera) and
the ram’s horn (shofar)—are mentioned as having been used by
divine ordinance (Numbers x, 2 ff; Levit., xxiii, 24; xxv, 9). An
extensive use of music, both vocal and instrumental, in religious serv-
ice was inaugurated under David. Under his direction 4,000 Levites
under 288 leaders were organized into a chorus and orchestra, who
in 24 divisions provided for the music of the sanctuary (I Chron.,
xxlil, 5; xxv, 7). Solomon had lutes and harps of sandalwood pre-
pared for the singers (I Kings, x, 12). Among the later kings,
Hezekiah and Josiah are especially mentioned as having given much
attention to the musical services of the Temple (II Chron., xxix, 25;
xxxv, 15). Music at service was not altogether neglected, even dur-
ing the depressed condition of the people subsequent to the cap-
tivity (Nehem., xi, 17, 22; xii, 28). And from Hebrew post-Biblical
writings it is known that it formed a prominent feature of Jewish
worship in the time of Christ.

The musical instruments mentioned in the Bible were, like those
of antiquity in general, of three kinds:

1. Wind instruments.

2. Stringed instruments, which were always played with the fin-
gers or with the plectrum, and not, like the modern violin, with a
bow.

8. Instruments of percussion, which were beaten or shaken to
produce sound.

The instruments exhibited are as follows:

I.—INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION.

(1) Round tabret (Hebrew, tof, Arabic, duff, which agrees with
the Hebrew and is the parent of the Spanish aduffa). Beirut, Syria
(where it is called rik). The tabret or timbrel was and is still one
of the most common musical instruments in the Orient. It is often
mentioned throughout the earlier history of Israel (Genesis xxxi, 27;
Judges xi, 34, etc.). It was used chiefly by women, especially in
dances and public processions (Exodus xv, 20; I Samuel xviii, 6), but
appears to have had no place in the religious services of the Taber-
nacle or Temple. According to representations on Egyptian monu-
ments, the timbrel was either round or four-sided in shape.

(2) Four-sided tabret. Morocco, Africa.

(3) Kettledrum (Arabic, naggarah). Cairo, Egypt. The kettle-
drum is used in military bands, orchestras, and in short solo pas-

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ, 487

sages. It is also employed by the Dervishes to produce excitement
in their devotions. The kettledrum is sounded with blows from a
soft-headed, elastic mallet, stick, or a leather thong.

(4) Cymbals (Hebrew, megiltayim, gilgelim). Cairo, Egypt,
Cymbals are frequently enumerated among the musical instruments
employed in the Temple (I Chronicles xv, 16, 19, 28; xvi, 5, 42;
xxv, 6; II Chronicles v, 13; xxix, 25, ete.). The cymbals were of
two kinds. One consisted of two large plates of metal with wide
flat rims and were played by being strapped to the hands and
clashed together. The others were conical, or cup-like, with thin
edges, and were played by bringing down the one sharply on the
other while held stationary, eliciting a high-pitched note. The
Hebrew names, which denote a jingling sound, can also be applied to:

(5) Castanets (Hebrew, ¢ileelim, Syrian, faggeishah). Beirut,
Syria (pl. 44).

I.—WIND INSTRUMENTS.

(1) Ram’s horn (Hebrew, shofar). The shofar, in the English
versions usually inaccurately translated trumpet, or even more in-
accurately, cornet, is first mentioned in the Bible in connection with
the giving of the law on Sinai (Exodus xix, 16; xx, 18). Its use
is ordered for the announcement of the new moon and solemn feasts
(Numbers x, 10, compare Psalms Ixxxi, 4), and the proclamation
of the year of release (Leviticus xxv, 9). New Year’s Day (the first
of the seventh month, or Z%shri) is called a “memorial day of
blowing” (Leviticus xxiii, 24; Numbers xxix, 1). The shofar also
served in religious processions (II Samuel vi, 15; I Chronicles xv,
28), and along with other musical instruments as an accompaniment
to the song of praise (Psalms xcviii, 6; cl, 3, compare Psalms xlvii,
6). But the most ancient and most frequent use of the shofar was
for military purposes, to give the signal for the rallying of the peo-
ple and for attacking and pursuing the enemy (Numbers x, 2 ff;
Joshua vi, 4; Judges iii, 27; vii, 18, 20; I Samuel xiii, 3). The
shofar is not only the sole instrument of those mentioned in the
Bible which is still employed by the Jews in their religious services
of the synagogue during the penitential month of Elul (July-
August) ; on New Year’s Day or Rosh ha-Shanah, the first of Tishri
(August-September) ; and on Atonement Day, or Yom Kippur, the
tenth of 7ishri; but is also, according to authorities on musical in-
struments, the oldest form of wind instrument known to be retained
in use. It is usually made of a ram’s horn, though the goat’s horn
is also employed (pl. 45, fig. 2).

(2) Trumpet (Hebrew, hagogerah). Morocco, Africa (where it
is called n’feer). The trumpet was the first instrument expressly
ordered in the Pentateuch. At first there were but two, made of

488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

silver (Numbers x, 1-10). Solomon increased their number to
one hundred and twenty (II Chronicles vy, 12). It was almost ex-
clusively a priestly instrument. Its primary use was for giving
signals for the people to assemble, but was appropriated to religious
services (II Kings xii, 14; IT Chronicles xiii, 12, 14). According
to the representation on the Arch of Titus, the trumpet was narrow
and straight and had at the bottom a bell-like protuberance (pl. 46).

(8) Flute or pipe (Hebrew, Aaiil). Damascus, Syria (where it
is called shubab). The pipe or flute was a favorite instrument of
the ancients. In its simplest form it was a reed, or variety of wood
in the shape of a reed, about 18 inches in length, bored throughout
evenly and pierced with holes in the sides for notes. Sometimes
two were bound together. The flute was not used in religious serv-
ices, but it is mentioned among others in the Bible as employed on
festival occasions, as also on those of mourning (I Samuel x, 5; I
Kings i, 40; Isaiah xxx, 29; Matthew ix, 23; xi, 17; Revelation xviii,
22) (pl. 45, fig. 4).

(4) Double flute. Bethlehem, Palestine. This instrument is
assumed by some to represent the swmponiah (symphony) of Daniel
ili, 5,10, 15. The English versions give dulcimer, though the mar-
gin of the Revised Version gives bagpipe. Swmponiah is supposed
by some to be a translation of the Hebrew ’ugab, but the latter pos-
sibly represents pan pipes (pl. 45, fig. 3).

(5) Reeds or pan pipes. Cairo, Egypt. The reeds, now called
in Syria Afijwiz or Naigha, are enumerated in Daniel iii, 5, 7, 10,
15, under the name of mashrokitha (English version, flute), among
the instruments of the Babylonians. Some consider them the Hebrew
‘ugab (Genesis iv, 21). They were known to the Greeks under the
name of syrinx (Latin jistula) (pl. 45, fig. 3).

(6) Bagpipe. Tunis, Africa, where it is called zaida. Supposed
by some to represent the Hebrew ‘uwgad, one of the first musical in-
struments mentioned in the Bible (Genesis iv, 21); others consider
‘ugab to mean a sort of a syrinx. The Authorized Version renders
it by “ organ,” the Revised by “pipe.” The bagpipe originated in
the East, was known to the Greeks and Romans, was popular
throughout the middle ages, and is still used in many eastern
countries, and among the country people of Poland, Italy, the south
of France, and in Scotland and Ireland (pl. 47).

III, STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.
(Not represented by specimens.)

The stringed instruments mentioned in the Bible are:
(1) Harp. The Hebrew word kinnor which is adopted for harp,
occurs in the opening chapters of the Bible (Genesis iv, 21). It

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 489

was the especial instrument of David (I Samuel xvi, 23). Later it
was one of the important instruments of the temple orchestra (I
Chronciles xv, 16; II Chronicles xxix, 25). The exiles hung their
harps on the willows by the waters of Babylon (Psalms cxxxvii, 2).
To judge from representations on Egyptian monuments and Jewish
coins of the second century B. C., the kinnor resembled the Greek
kithara more than the modern trigonal harp, and as a matter
of fact the Hebrew kinnor is usually rendered kithara by the
Septuagint, the oldest Greek version of the Old Testament. Jewish
coins show lyres with three, five, and six strings. A similar in-
strument was also in use among the Assyrians. In its smaller form
it could easily be carried about in processions, as the representations
on the monuments, both Egyptian and Assyrian, show.

(2) Psaltery (Hebrew, nedel). The psaltery, or lute, is often
mentioned in the Bible together with the harp, though it seems to
have been less used than the latter. It is likely that the psaltery
resembled what is now known in the East as the tamboora, or guitar,
an instrument which also figures largely on the Egyptian and
Assyrian monuments. In its present shape the psaltery is thus de-
scribed: “ In its most complete and perfect form, this instrument is
3 feet 9 inches long, has ten strings of fine wire and 47 stops. It
is played with a plectrum, and is often inlaid with mother-of-pearl
and valuable woods. It is oftener, however, of smaller size and less
costly materials.” (Van Lennep, Bible Lands, p. 612.) The church
father Jerome states that the nebel, whose name became nadla and
nablium in Greek and Latin, had the form of the Greek letter A,
that is, was a triangular pointed harp.

On the bottom of one case is a collection of Turkish and Persian
glazed and enameled tiles.

37. Contains a collection of pottery from various localities.

38. In the alcove, Round Altar of the Twelve Gods. Cast from
an original of marble in the Museum of the Capitol, Rome. The
twelve gods, with their attributes, represented in relief, are, in order
from right to left, as follows: 1. Zeus, with scepter and thunder-
bolt; 2. Hera; 3. Athene, with lance, helmet, and aegis; 4. Heracles,
with lion’s skin, club, and bow; 5. Apollo, with bow and quiver; 6.
Artemis, with bow; 7. Ares, with shield and helmet; 8. Perhaps
Aphrodite; 9. Probably Demeter, with scepter and torch; 10.
Hermes, with cap, wand, wings, and ram; 11. Poseidon, with trident;
12. Hephaestus (Vulcan), with hammer.

39-48. The last five wall cases are given over to Greco-Roman
sculptures

Above, on the wall of the cases, are votive reliefs, sepulchral
stelae, and reduced casts in frames of the Pergamon altar reliefs.

490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

These reliefs belong to the altar of Zeus Soter (the Savior), which
was probably erected by King Eumenes II (197-159 B. C.) on the
Acropolis of Pergamon, Asia Minor. The altar is considered one
of the most magnificent and most characteristic monuments of the
Hellenistic age. It was raised upon a platform about 16 feet high
and nearly square, measuring about 123 feet 7 inches by 113 feet
6 inches. One side of the platform was pierced by a broad staircase
leading up to the altar, which stood in the center, surrounded, except
at the head of the staircase, by an Ionic colonade. The platform
was encircled by a band of sculptures in high relief, about 7 feet
6 inches high and probably about 400 feet long, representing the
battle between the gods and the titans, or giants, the serpent-legged
sons of Gaia (Earth), symbolizing the struggle between order and
the unorganized natural forces, which were at work within the bosom
of the earth at the creation of the world. The ruins of the altar
and its decorations of marble were discovered and excavated by
the Germans during the years 1878-1880, under the superintendence
of the architect, Carl Humann. The fragments of over 350 feet of
the relief, which have been brought to light in these excavations, are
now in the Museum of Berlin. The following seven groups from
the battle are represented :

(1) Zeus group. Zeus battling with three giants.

(2) Athene group. The warlike daughter of Zeus is assisted in her
fight with a young winged giant by Erichthonios, her foster child,
and Nike (Victory). Between them Gaia emerges from the ground
raising her hand in supplication for mercy for her sons.

(3) Demeter and Persephone group with torch and sword and as-
sisted by a dog fighting three giants.

(4) Hecate and Artemis group. Hecate, the goddess of night and
the underworld, is armed with shield, sword, and flaming torch,
while Artemis (Diana), the goddess of the moon and the chase, is
equipped with the bow. Both are assisted by dogs.

(5) Helios group. Helios, the sun god, is leading his four-horse
chariot over the battle field. In front rides Eos (Aurora, dawn),
sword in hand, on horseback, while behind is another of the at-
tendants (Hours) on Helios, in flowing garment with torch.

(6) The snake vase group. A goddess seizes the shield of a giant
with her left hand while her right hand holds a vase encircled
by snakes, which she is about to hurl at him. One snake is already
coiling over him. At the left another winged goddess is about to
drive a sword into the neck of a snake-legged giant, whom she holds
by the hair of his head.

(7) Cybele group. Cybele, the “ Great Mother of the Gods,” en-
ters the contest riding on her lion. At her side hovers the eagle of
Zeus. She is in the act of drawing an arrow from her quiver.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz.

PLATE 41.

=

She
Life andl Mer o
of
12 515 of Nautrt
Extrpcler lertiuall
from DE Gos pet s
un
Oreck, LIL

—

TITLE PAGE OF JEFFERSON’S NEW TESTAMENT.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 42.

‘5. Mais ils insistoient encore} 5 Amd they were the more fierce,
|plus fortemeat., en disant : J] |Saying, He stirreth up the people
sonléve le peuple - >? eee 7 7}
eoute latent ae a enscignant par | teaching throughout all Jewry, be- ’
ce, yan 2 : . .
depuis la Bulilée tiwieis ginning from Galilee to this place.
< : a a5, =" = ven 3 ;
[ 15. Alors Pilate lui dit: N’enz | 13 Then said Pilate unto him, ft.22 TM
fiends pas combien de choses /Hearest thou net how manyy .¢ i
Is déposent coutfe toi ? things they witness against thee?! h
=| aud Pilate entendit*jarler. 6 When Pilate heard of Galilee, 1. 24.5
{de la Gakilée ye il demanda si ‘ ts }
Jésus éwit-Galiléen jhe asked whether the man were
Lea Ayant appris qu’il éoit de lal @ Galilean. u
juridiction 3d Heérode , il le ren-| 7 And as soon as he knew that
Hehe 4 cane qui étoit aussi) he belonged unto Herod’s juris-
8 Ohaad Herod eievidis Pal diction, he sent him to Herod,
F < saa ee ?
en ent une grande joie; car il y} WHO himself also was at Jerusa-
avoit Jong-tems qvil souhaitoit lem at that time.
+ Pale parce qu’il voit oui-] 8 And when Herod saw Jesus,
eaucoup de choses de lui ;}he was exceeding glad: for he
et il espéroit qu'il Jui verroit faire was desirous to sce him of a long
ace moma: bis |season, because he had heard ma-
a. wi hi donc p usieurs ques- . s *
tions, mais Jésus-Christ ne lus ny things of him ; and he hoped
répondit rien, to have seen some miracle done
10. Et les principaux Sacrifiea- by him.
iteurs ct les Scribes éiieot-1a, qui) 9 Then he questioned with hin,
i! decnsoient avec la plus prance) in many words; but he answer-
véhémence. | hi thi ;
11. Mais Hérode , avec les gens ed im nothing. - :
de Ja garde, Ie traita avec me=; 10 And the chief priests and :
pris ;.et pour se moquer de iui ,| scribes stood, and vehemently ac-
a I, bh éclatant >|.cused him. %
¢ wa i i. e . .
} 12. En ce meme jour, Pilate et 1 And Herod, with chad
flérode devinrent amis, car au war, set him at nought, an mock-
| pargy a ils &olent cnnemis. ed dim, and arrayed him in @ gor-
1 13. Alors Pilate ayant assemble geous. robe, and sent him again
les principaux Sacrificatenrs , et Pilate gel
les Magistrats , et le peuple, lear| to Fl :

| 12 And the same day Pilate and |

se

dit:
| 14. Vous m/’aver_ presenté cet | Herod were made friends toge-
, homme comme soulevant le peu- 4 ther: for before they were at en-
iogd en votre presence jene ai | mity between themselves. ” .
rouvé coupable Wancen des cxie | 15 And Pilate, when he had call-
més dont vous Paccusez ; ed together the chief priests, and«

19, Ni Hérode non plus ; car je | the rulers, and the people,
rous at renvoyés a tui. ef on net 14 Said ‘unto them, Ye have
soit Oene Pa fh ee ba Up brought this man unto me, a3 one?

16. Ainsi, apres.l'avoir faitcha- | that perverteth the people: ‘and,
tier, jete relacherai, behold, I, having examined Aim

before you, have found no fault in?
this man, touching those things
| whereof ye accuse him:
| 15 No, nor yet Herod: for I sent
| you to him; and, lo, nothing wor-
thy of death is done unto him:

16 I will, therefore, chastise him, i
and release Aim. : B |
ee ae cee
e '. O be “v- “i
platehdi cam snaprats s0fhiast of larbulects ie

$e gestemal , of ? rehonse Le 9
nae Capac, BUS ond ge

.

PAGE FROM JEFFERSON'S NEW TESTAMENT.

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PLATE 44.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz, PLATE 45.

WIND INSTRUMENTS.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz.

TRUMPET.

PLATE 47.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz.

BAGPIPE.

*SSYNLdIINIS NVWOY-O0SYS) AHL SO LYVd DNIMOHS

‘8p ALVI1d *ZOIMOUBSYD—'ZZG| JWoday uBlUOSY}IWS

Smithson’an Report 1922,—Casanowicz. PLATE

‘ge See he ~

yon Fy

HITTITE WINGED DIVINITY, OR DEMON, WITH HEAD OF GRIFFIN.

49.

a Ss _

‘ASVHO NOI] ALILLIH

‘OG 3LV1d *‘ZOIMQUBSBD—ZZH| WOdey uR|UOSYIIWS

PLATE 5l.

Casanowicz.

Smithsonian Report 1922.

HITTITE GoD OF CHASE HOLDING HARES.

PLATE 52.

Smithsonian Report 1922,—Casanowicz.

THE HITTITE GOD TESHUB WITH THUNDERBOLT AND HAMMER.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 53.

Cate oe
aA %
Se

HITTITE WARRIOR WITH AX AND Sworp.

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Casanowicz. PLATE 55.

HITTITE KING WITH SCEPTER AND SPEAR.

Smithsonian Report 1922.— Casanowicz. PLATE 56.

5

CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

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OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 491

Beneath the lion is seen the prostrate form of a giant. Cybele is
preceded by a female attendant with sword, and further to the
front, by the rude and powerful form of a Cabdirus (a deity of the
subterranean fire, etc.). He carries his attribute, the hammer, which
he is aiming at the most monstrous form of the whole frieze; a
giant who has not only the legs of a serpent, but the hump and ears
of a buffalo. He has thrown his huge bulk on his enemy, who drives
his sword up to the hilt into the monster’s body.

On the shelves are ranged 65 reduced casts of statues and busts
representing the Greco-Roman pantheon from Zeus (Jupiter), the
“Father of Gods and Men,” to the shepherd god Pan with nymphs,
muses, satyrs, etc. There is also among these sculptures a reduced
cast of the Moses of Michelangelo, the marble original of which is
in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, representing Moses
seated, the right hand holding the Tables of the Law and clutching
the long beard, while the left arm is pressed close to the body.

The cases also hold facsimiles of some of the finest Tanagra terra-
cotta figurines representing Greek mythological subjects, a small col-
lection of electrotyped Greek cameos, casts of Greek bowls (pl. 48,
showing a section of the exhibit). At the end of the last case is:

A “ Classical Bouquet.” An album containing hand-painted illus-
trations of the principal monuments of Greece and a few of Crete.
The illustrations are explained by appropriate quotations from the
ancient Greek authors in the original language, accompanied by
translations in French, and from some modern authors. To this are
added flowers culled from the spots which the illustrations represent.
The album was conceived and executed with the aid of native artists
from Greece by Miss Elizabeth B. Contaxaki, of the Isle of Crete,
as a contribution for the Universal Exposition at Paris, France, in
1855, and by her presented to the Smithsonian Institution through
Mr. Charles S. Spence and the Hon. Lewis Cass, Secretary of State.
Bound in blue velvet, richly embroidered in silver, with floral de-
signs, crown, wreath, and meanders, and inclosed in a carved wooden
case.

On the wall over the cases are displayed, from north to south:

(1) A selection from the Hittite reliefs (see above, p. 457) found
in Senjirli, Northern Syria. They represent—

1. Two goats leaping at one another.

2. Winged divinity, or demon, with head of griffin (pl. 49).

3. Lion chase, with the winged sun disk, the emblem of divinity
(pl. 50).

4, Guitar player.

5. Lion-headed god of the chase, holding hares (pl. 51).

492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

6. The storm god Teshub (corresponding to Addad of the As-
syrians and Hadad of the Syrians), holding in one uplifted hand
the thunderbolt, in the other an ax or hammer (pl. 52).

7. Warrior with ax and sword (pl. 53).

8. Winged sphinx with head of griffin.

9. Warrior with shield.

10. Winged human-headed sphinx (pl. 54).

11. Figure holding mirror; and

12. King in long robe with scepter and spear (pl. 55).

(ii) Four slabs from the frieze of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece
(see under No. 52).

(ii) Reliefs from Harpy Tomb at Xanthos. The originals of
white marble are in the British Museum, London. The monument
from which these reliefs were taken was discovered in 1838 at
Xanthos, in Lycia, Asia Minor. It is assigned to the sixth century
B. C., and consists of a solid rectangular block of limestone, 17 feet
high and 8 feet 4 inches square, surmounted by a low cornice and a
flat top. Below the cornice is a frieze, about 3 feet 3 inches in
height, surrounding the four sides of the monument, leaving only a
small opening on the west side, through which the remains of the
dead were passed into a chamber cut in the rock. The name “ Harpy
Tomb ” is derived from the flying figures at the corners, each of which
has the head, breast, and arms of a maiden, the claws, wings, and
tail of a bird, and an oval body. Each is carrying a small human
figure and represents the transport of souls to the lower world.

44, In the alcove, next to the case:

Head of David by Michelangelo. Cast made from the original
statue of marble in the Academia at Florence, Italy. The statue is
of colossal dimensions, known as the “ giant,” representing David
holding the sling in his left hand and a pebble in his right hand
(I Samuel xvii, 40), and is considered as one of the masterpieces of
Michelangelo.

On the wall, Eleusian Relief. Cast of an original of Parian marble
which was found in 1859 at Eleusis, Greece, and which is considered
to be a work of the fifth century B. C. Now in the National Museum
of Athens. The relief represents Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone
(Proserpina), goddesses of agriculture, dispatching Triptolemus, a
mythical youth of Eleusis, to spread the blessings of agriculture
among men. In the center stands Triptolemus, his right hand up-
lifted to receive some object from Persephone, whom he faces. She
bears in her left hand a long scepter, the right hand probably held
ears of grain which she was giving him. Behind him stands
Demeter, holding in her left hand a torch and with the right she is
presumably placing a wreath or crown upon his head.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ, 493

Ranged on bases at the south end of the hall are some of the large
sculptures.

45. “The Fates.” Original, of marble, in the British Museum,
London. The two female figures formed part of the decoration of
the eastern pediment of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece. They are
commonly interpreted to represent, with a third female figure which
was seated at their head, the three Fates (in Greek, mozraz; in Latin,
parcae), who rule the destinies of men and all things. Their names
in Greco-Roman mythology are: Clotho, the spinner of the thread
of life, usually with a spindle; Lachesis, the disposer of lots, who
determines its length, with a globe or scroll, on which she writes the
destiny ; and Atropos, the inevitable, who cuts it off, with shears or
scales.

46. The Laocoon Group. Cast of an original of Greek marble,
now in the Museum of the Vatican, Rome, which was found in 1506,
among the ruins of the palace of Titus, on the Esquiline, Rome.
The group depicts the death, during the Trojan War, of Laocoon and
his two sons, as described chiefly by Virgil in the Aeneid. Pliny
(Natural History, xxxvi, 5), who saw the original work in the palace
of Titus, ascribes its execution to Agesander, Polydorus, and Atheno-
dorus, Rhodian artists, who probably lived in the time of Titus (d.
80 A. D.).

47. Corinthian Capital. Cast from the capital (partly restored)
of a marble column of the temple of Castor, also known as the tem-
ple of Jupiter Stator, in the Forum in Rome. This temple, of which
only three columns and the base remain standing, was originally
erected in 496 B. C.; rebuilt in 117 B. C.; and again rebulit under
Trojan (98-117 A. D.) or Hadrian (117-188 A. D.). It is con-
sidered to have been the most beautiful example of Roman archi-
tecture, and the capitals of its columns the most finished and elegant
of the Corinthian order as developed by the Romans. The basis of
the capital is a cylindrical core, which expands slightly toward the
top so as to become bell-shaped. Around the lower part of the core
are two rows of eight conventionalized acanthus leaves, based on the
plant of the Acanthus spinosus. From these rise eight principal
stalks which combine to form four pairs of volutes, one under each
corner of the abacus, while smaller stalks, branching from the first,
cover the rest of the upper part of the core. Between the angle and
center volutes rise tendrils from which foliage is carried along the
cavetto molding of the abacus. The abacus is on the plan of a square
whose sides have been hollowed out and the corners truncated. From
the middle of the abacus springs out, on each face, an eight-petaled
rosette.

494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The cast was used as a model for the carving of the capitals of the
columns placed at the southern (main) entrance of the Natural His-
tory Building of the United States National Museum (pl. 56).

48, “The Falling Gladiator.” Original cast of a marble statue by
Dr. William Riemer (1816-1879).

49. Egyptian Lion. Original of red granite in the British Mu-
seum, London. It is inscribed with the name of Tutankhamon, a
king of the eighteenth dynasty, about the middle of the 14th century
B. C., who dedicated it to Amenophis ITI.

50. Hermes, from the Island of Andros. Cast of an original of
marble now in the National Museum of Athens, Greece, found in
1833 on the Island of Andros. It probably dates from the 4th cen-
tury B. C. Hermes was originally the protecting deity of crops,
flocks, and roads. His usual functions were those of a messenger of
Zeus and leader of souls to the lower world. He was also the god of
eloquence, inventor of the lyre, and patron of merchants and crafti-
ness. The Romans identified him with Mercury. He is here ap-
parently represented in his quality as conductor of souls. Around
the tree trunk is coiled a serpent, symbolic of the connection between
the upper and the lower world, and in one of his hands he probably
held the wand (caduceus). Other attributes with which he is fre-
quently represented are the winged cap (petasus) and the winged
sandals (¢alaria).

51. Ogam Stone. (Reproduction.) From Aglish, County Kerry,
Ireland. The Ogam characters are on the two upright corners.
They read from the top—arimocpo and maqrmag@a. The first is
probably a proper name, while Maqi or Maqa means “the son of.”
The inscription is imperfect. It has been rendered Apilogdo, the
son or grandson of some unnamed person, but various interpreta-
tions have been given.

Ogam characters form a written alphabet for the Gaelic language,
in use in parts of Ireland, Wales, and the Highlands of Scotland
during the prehistoric period and continuing into the early cen-
turies of the Christian era. They consist of shorter or longer par-
allel marks on a corner or stem line made in different directions
and in groups of different numbers. They can be translated into
Roman letters. Marks representing consonants are from 3 to 5
inches long; those from the corner to the left, at right angles, and
in groups of 1, 2, 8, 4, and 5 marks stand, respectively, for B, L,
F, S, N; the same to the right stand for H, D, T, C, Q; those cross-
ing the corner at an angle of 45 degrees, for .M, G, Ng, St, R;
while the vowels are shorter lines or dots, and stand for A, O, E,
U, I. The cross stands for P, or the diphthong AE.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ,. 495

52. The Parthenon. Model of wood. The Parthenon (“ maiden’s
chamber”) was the temple of Athene Parthenos (“maiden god-
dess”’), the tutelary divinity of the city of Athens. It was erected
in the middle of the fifth century, B. C., by the architects Ictinus
and Callicrates under the direction of the sculptor Phidias, and
stood on the summit of the Acropolis of Athens. By reason of the
perfection of its proportions and the nobility of its sculptural deco-
rations, the Parthenon is considered the most perfect monument
of Greek architecture and art. It measured at the platform 228
by 101 feet, while its height was 65 feet, and was surrounded on
three sides by a Doric colonnade. It was wholly built of Pentelic
marble, and all its parts were joined and adjusted without cement.
On the 92 metopes of the architrave were sculptured the battle of
the gods with the giants, the contests of the Greeks with the Amazons
and Centaurs, and, presumably, the conquest of Troy and the victory
of the Greeks over the Persians. In the two pediments (gable
roofs) were colossal groups representing, respectively, the birth of
Athene, and the dispute between Poseidon (Neptune) and Athene
for the possession of Attica, while on the frieze, which ran around
the entire building to a length of 522 feet 10 inches, was depicted,
in relief, the procession which took place during the Panathenaea,
the chief festival of the goddess. Inside the temple stood the statue
of Athene, made of gold and ivory, ascribed to Phidias, which, with
its pedestal, rose to a height of 38 feet.

After having served in turn as a Greek temple, Christian church,
and Mohammedan mosque, the central part of the Parthenon was
destroyed by a powder explosion during the siege of Athens by the
Venetians in 1687. It remains standing as a ruin with many of its
columns in place, conveying a good idea of its original proportions,
Most of the sculptures from the Parthenon are now in the British
Museum—the so-called Elgin marbles.

The floor space in the hall is occupied by two rows of alternating
double slope-top cases with upright center (called “American,”
cases) and flat-top cases, one extending through the middle, the
other being on the window side.

Beginning at the north end with the middle (east side) row:

53. Containing the finer and older Greek and Italian pottery (see
above, p. 440), ranging from the seventh to the fourth century B. C.
(plas).

54. Bronzes, necklaces, and lamps from Italy.

55. Greek and Italian pottery (smaller vessels). Bronze objects
used for personal ornament; Fibulae, rings, pins, mirrors, torques,
bracelets, wristlets, anklets, and figurines of man and animals.
Mostly from Italy and Switzerland.

496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

The fibulae, or safety pins, occur from the earliest civilization of
the Bronze Age to the latest Roman times and even later in Anglo-
Saxon and Scandinavian examples. They were usually made of
bronze, though in the more elaborate and ornamented forms they
were sometimes of gold. They vary greatly in size, the large bronze
specimens being six inches, or even more, in length. The earliest
fibulae are simple safety pins made of a single wire, sharpened at one
end, twisted in a spiral, or circular curve about the middle, in order
to give it a spring, and at the other end so bent as to form a catch
and shield for the point. To this simple pin succeeds the fibulae with
an arch or bow. From this developed the boat-type, in which the
bow is so curved and shaped as to resemble a boat. The shield and
bow are often decorated with designs, in relief or incised, and
pendants.

56. Collection of necklaces, figurines of gods, mummied hand of a
woman, and mummied cat from Egypt.

57. Large bronze vessels: Amphoras, pails (situlae), bowls, pitch-
ers. Collection of terra-cotta figurines (see above, p. 443), and
Roman-Etruscan bronze domestic utensils, as pans, cups, ladles,
strainers, a steelyard; also masks and stamps.

58. Collection of ancient coins, seals, and bronzes. The coins
were for the most part ploughed up by the natives in the region be-
tween Antiochia and the Euphrates in Syria, while the bronze fig-
urines were found near the site of Carchemish, the ancient capital of
the Hittites, modern Jerabis on the Euphrates, Syria.

59. Small bronze and pottery vessels. Small bronzes used in the
toilet and dress, as razors, strigils, buttons, awls, bodkins, and
needles; also a collection of surgical instruments, mostly from
Italy.

60. Relics of the Stone Age from Germany.

61. Large bronze vessels; a bronze helmet; bronze heads and
statuettes; bronze celts, swords, spearheads, knives, sickles, together
with the stone molds for casting various bronze implements from
various localities.

The term “celt” is used in archeology to describe implements of
chisel-form, such as axes, hatchets, adzes, and chisels, which were
used as cutting-tools or as weapons. The word is generally derived
from the Low Latin eeltis, a chisel. The bronze celts vary in size
from one inch to one foot in length. The following four principal
forms are distinguished in the development of the bronze celts:

1. Flat celts, the earliest and simplest form, approximating in
shape the polished stone celts of the Neolithic period. They were
probably hafted by the butt end being driven into a handle of wood,
in the same manner as many stone celts have been mounted.

OLD WORLD ARCHEOLOGY—CASANOWICZ. 497

2. Flanged celts, having projecting edges produced by beating up
the edges of the blade, or in the original casting. Such axes could
be fixed more firmly in a cleft stick, and to prevent the blade from
being driven too far into the handle it was sometimes provided,
about midway, with a rise or stop ridge.

3. Winged celts, in which the flanges are extended so as to almost
form wings. In some the enlarged flanges are hammered over, so
as to form a kind of semicircular socket, with the part of the celt
between them thinner, thus providing a deep groove on either side
of the blade for the prongs of the handle. To this variety the name
of “palstave” is given, a word derived from the Icelandic. The
handle was at first secured by binding and later by the addition of
loops at the sides of the celt, through which a cord passed behind the
angle of the haft.

4, Socketed celts. Evolved from the flanged celts when core
casting was introduced. In this form the handle is imbedded in
the blade, while in the first three the blade was imbedded in the
handle.

62. Stone implements from East Africa (see above, p. 484).

63. Antiquities from Troy (Hissarlik) and Armenia (see above,
pp. 433 and 439).

64. Stone implements from South Africa (see above, p. 435).

65. Stone implements from Egypt and Palestine (see above, pp.
434 and 433).

66. Wooden model of a Swiss lake dwelling, with a selection from
the agricultural and textile products of the lake dwellers. The
model is provided with a glass plate representing the water. A wash
of color administered to its lower side gives it a blue tint common
to the lakes of Switzerland. Figurines of men, women, and chil-
dren are shown pursuing the vocations of daily life (see above,
p. 422).

67. Prehistoric antiquities from Japan and Korea (see above,
p. 433).

68. Stone implements from Australasia (see above, p. 435).

69. Prehistoric antiquities from India and Cambodia (see above,
p. 482).

In the outer row of cases, on the west side of the hall, beginning at
the north end are:

70. Italian pottery, chiefly black ware and Arretine ware (see
above, p. 442).

71. Prehistoric antiquities from Turkestan (see above, p. 440).

72 and 73. Two upright or special cases, containing prehistoric
antiquities, stone implements, osseous remains and bone implements,

498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

spindle whorls, terra-cotta lamps, glassware, etc., from Italy (see
above, p. 428).

74, A small collection of Jewish and Egyptian objects.

75. Stone implements and osseous material of the Paleolithic pe-
riod of the Stone Age from England and Ireland (see above, p. 424).

76. Prehistoric antiquities from Russia (see above, p. 480).

77. Remains of the Neolithic period of the Stone Age in Great
Britain.

78. Collection of Brandon flints (see above, p. 425).

79. Stone implements and osseous material of the Paleolithic
period of the Stone Age from France (see above, p. 426).

80. Selected casts of art works of the Stone Age (see above, p. 427).

81. Remains of the Neolithic period of the Stone Age from France.

82. Mesvinian and Strepyan artifacts from Belgium (see above,
p. 429).

83. Remains of the Stone Age from Belgium.

84. Collection of animal bones, charred grains, etc., from the
Swiss lake dwellings (see above, p. 423).

85. Pottery, stone, bone, and horn implements from the Swiss lake
dwellings.

86. Stone implements and shells from the Danish kitchen middens
(see above, p. 481).

87. Stone and bone implements and osseous material from Den-
mark, Sweden, and Norway.

THE SHAKE RELIGION OF PUGET SOUND.

By T. T. WATERMAN.

[With 2 plates. ]

A discussion of the Indian groups about Puget Sound would not be
complete without a mention of their present form of religion. It
consists of a curious sort of Christianity, with a liberal admixture
of the primitive religion of this area. It is called the Shake Religion
or Shaker Religion, because the believers are visited by shaking or
quivering spells. Invented about 1881, this religion is still flourish-
ing and spreading at the present time. The presence of the “ shak-
ing” phenomena demands explanation, since there are analogous
elements in other religious movements. The question at once arises,
as to whence they derived this practice. Shakerism is at present the
most important fact in the life of these people.

It may well be explained that there are in America two religious
groups going by the name “ Shakers.” One is a Christian group,
small in numbers but somewhat widely distributed in the Eastern
States, who are called “ Shakers ” for convenience, their self-chosen
name being Believers in Christ’s Second Coming. Their theology
seems to be of a more or less orthodox Christian sort, the sect having
originated in England in 1772. They practice dancing, however, as a
religious observance, and hold to the principle of celibacy, which is
followed by the entire body of believers without exception. Among
converts to this form of belief there is no marrying or giving in
marriage. They moreover carry out remorselessly the idea of com-
munity in property. It is obvious, I think, that doctrines such as
these will not have any widespread vogue for some time to come.
The fame of the group, however, and their nickname, “ Shaker,”
has spread abroad quite widely. VF

Another group of people, a group many thousand miles away and
of an entirely different character, has meanwhile arisen, and have
also had thrust upon them the name of “ Shakers.” This second
group is made up of the native Indians living in the region of Puget
Sound. In 1881, or 1882, they invented for themselves a “ new ” form
of religion. This system of belief has had a checkered and interest-
ing career, and its followers now number thousands, and are organ-

499

500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ized into a “ Shaker” church. There is no connection between the
two organizations of Shakers, and they have nothing at all in com-
mon, except the name.

The Shaker, or “shake ” religion of Puget Sound is therefore one
of the world’s “ new ” religions, in the usual sense in which religions
are new. That is, it is a quaint and curious recombination of old
elements.

A variety of ideas and practices may easily be recognized out of
which this “new ” form of belief has been patched together. The
substratum back of this western Shakerism is the primitive heathen-
ism of the Puget Sound Indians. These primitive beliefs and prac-
tices are what lend color and vitality to the whole, and result in some
curious, picturesque, and wonderfully edifying performances. The
history of the Shaker system is briefly this, that on the top of this
old “ Shamanism,” or medicine-performances of the native Indian,
there have been added, first, Roman Catholic ideas and institutions,
and then evangelical Protestantism, derived largely from the Con-
gregational sources. To see the various doctrines and practices de-
rived from such origins, lying down together like the lion and the
lamb in the bosom of one Redskin, is to me the most entertaining and
instructive spectacle in the world.

The religion was invented and established by the Indians; but I
know of more than one “ white” convert. When an observer looks
at this “ Shakerism ” he no longer feels so baffled by the quaint and
heterogeneous combinations met with in the “ great” religions, such
as Islam, Lamaism, or Christianity. In the case of this Indian
religion the combination and fusion of utterly dissimilar ideas has
gone on before our eyes. I think we will have to recognize the adroit-
ness of the Indian who combined in one ritual, elements of the
Catholic mass and the Congregational prayer-meeting, to say noth-
ing of heathen charms and incantations, older probably than either
of the others.

The successful concocting of these elements was the work of one
individual Indian, named John Slocum, now deceased, “ our poor
brother, John Slocum,” as the Shaker preachers always call him in
their sermons.

It is impossible not to notice that Shakerism was “in the air”
among the Indians of that region, before it was invented by Slocum.
Anyone who is interested in the various efforts at combining Prot-
estantism and Catholicism by these Indians will find the facts in two
entertaining works. These are Zhe Ghost Dance Religion, by James
Mooney (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology,
Fourteenth Annual Report, Part 2, Chapter 8); and Myron Eells,
Ten Years at Skokomish Maas. Congregational Sunday-School

SHAKE RELIGION—WATERMAN. 501

and Publishing Society, 1886, especially Chapters 22-27). I know
of nothing unusual about Slocum, the founder of the religion, ex-
cept that he “died” in a spell of illness, and “later came to life,” when
they were making preparations for the funeral. This happened
at a moment of crisis both in his own inner experience and in the
history of his people. The combination of circumstances put the
blend over, converts were made, the disciples increased and multi-
plied, the system expanded, and the institution is thriving and
spreading to this day. The last piece of news I had concerning it
was that two Apostles had gone from the Shahaptian tribe, known
as the Yakima, of eastern Washington, who have had the religion
for years, and had established a congregation among the Lutuami
at Klamath Lake reservation in southern Oregon. The Shakers now
have a bishop of their own (an Indian named Peter Heek, of
Chehalis), licensed ministers, and all the paraphernalia of salva-
tion. The religion has spread north and south many hundreds of
miles from its original home.

The Catholic background of the faith may be illustrated by a
brief description of the ceremonial objects which are employed. Il-
lumination by candles is sine gua non. An altar covered with a white
cloth is rigged up, with a cross, hand-bells, and religious pictures of
Mary, the Saviour, the Sacred Heart, and so on. The principal
functionaries in the ceremonies wear white cassocks. The church
service consists first of a sermon, which serves to quiet everybody
down and induce a feeling of solemnity. The leader then turns
to one of the worshippers who stand facing him, and says, “ Pray !”
The member called on delivers an extemporaneous prayer which,
like the sermon, is in the native Indian language. At the close of
his devotions he repeats, the others following his words, in a deep
chorus:

“Tn the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, it is
well.” :

In the Nusqually dialect spoken on Puget Sound the native tvords
are as follows, as nearly as I can write them in the ordinary sym-
bols of English: “Tu wa’ Iks nas kuma’ns tihl ta’mnas, tihl Santu
Splay, tlob mas i’ sta.” The term Santu Splay (Holy Ghost) is of
course the French Saint Esprit. This phrase (in the name of the
Father, etc.) was the very first element of Christianity to reach the
Indians of the Northwest. It came to them, passing from tribe to
tribe, and was used by them as a new and powerful “ medicine,” long
before the first missionary came to them. Every member of the
Shaker congregation in turn (every convert, that is) leads in prayer
or singing, or both. At the close of each petition, the well-remem-

55379—24—33

502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

bered chant rolls forth, “in the name of the Father,” deep toned,
thrilling with fervor, and a thing moving even to a neutral observer.
At the end of the terminal prayer, a deacon or assistant grasps two
of the bells and begins to shake them, as Indians do a rattle, one
in each hand, in a pounding rhythm. The bell used by the Shakers
is not the soft, tinkling bell of the Catholic ritual, silver toned
and sweet in a distant chancel, but a substantial dinner bell, its
note a brazen clangor that can be heard half a mile. The progress
of this deacon around the premises, in a sort of crow-hop, followed in
Indian file by the devotees, is accompanied therefore by a consid-
erable din. Meanwhile, a song mounts up.in time to the clang of the
bells, and as each dancer passes the altar he (or she) revolves once.
This exercise or parade is repeated as often as necessary or conveni-
ent. The worshippers often in going by the altar pass their hands
through the flame of one of the candles, trying to purify themselves
by driving away sin. At the close of the dance or parade, every
worshiper shakes hands, or touches hands, with every other wor-
shipper and with every spectator, sometimes blessing his vis-a-vis with
the sign of the cross. In all these performances, rhythm is very
strongly marked, the subject making many voluntary gestures, which
pass in some cases into the tremor or shaking spell which has given
the sect its name.

Already the curious mixture of acts, symbols, and ideas is, I think,
apparent. The mixture is even more conspicuous, however, in the
performances by which these people set about curing disease. The
sick or ailing person (man, woman, or child) is put in a chair or a
bed, and the operators gather about. A general situation appro-
priate for a cure is brought about by arranging candles, crosses, and
religious pictures, and by singing and praying. The assumption
on the part of the believers is that sickness is produced by sin, sin
being something that can be bodily removed from a person by
manipulation. When the patient, for example, is in the proper
frame of mind, they pass their hands over his body, gradually work-
ing the sinfulness to his extremities and then gathering it in their
hands and “ throwing it away.” The pantomime is often very clever
and convincing. On occasion they may vary proceedings by passing
a lighted candle along the patient’s limbs, to burn away the sin.
It is conspicuous that the “ shaking ” exercise, in its most noticeable
form, usually seizes the persons who are curing the sick. I have
observed some “ shaking” during the course of the Sunday service in
church, though a large part of the movements seemed to be volun-
tary, by way of inviting a shaking spell or trying to induce one.
The people who treat the sick, however, very often have the shaking
visitation to such a degree that they are completely lifted out of

SHAKE RELIGION—-WATERMAN. 503

themselves, becoming suffused with religious emotion, and ringing
the bells in a perfect fury, and not seldom losing their senses. A
Saturday evening meeting is often called in the church for the pur-
pose of curing sick people, and the excitement at that time mounts
much higher than it does in the Sunday services.

A good deal more might be said about the outward manifestations
of this religion, but I want especially to speak of the presence
in what I have already said of a primitive or shamanistic element,
which has come down directly from their aboriginal life and which
to me is the interesting thing in the system. The idea of “ brushing
off sin” from a sick person in order to effect a cure is obviously a
direct survival of the old shamanistic way of curing through taking
out the disease, or the “pain,” as a tangible object. Especially on
the northwest coast, heathen shamans always operate with rattles
and dances and songs, making a furious disturbance, and finally
removing the “ pain” from the person with their hands. It is well
known that shamans and sucking doctors, not only in this region
but far and wide among the world’s primitive tribes, are able to
remove the pain from a patient and show it to him afterwards;
palming some small object, such as a claw or a quartz crystal, and
appearing to draw it from the tissues. On the northwest coast it has
been the custom through many centuries to regard illness as due to
objects or substances within the patient, usually invisible to all but
the “ doctor,” which the medicine man is able to draw out. The
pantomime used in the Shaker operations itself is probably part of
this primitive style of operation.

I can not resist the inclination to cite here a passage from Swan-
ton’s Haida Texts (Bulletin 29 of the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy) concerning a famous shaman called Te!aawu’nk! This man
once felt inwardly that the l/and-otters were coming to get him, to
cure one of their number who was “sick.” The incident which fol-
lows illustrates exactly the idea current. among these Indians in
former days as to the cause and cure of sickness, whether in land
otters or in humans.

When he came back from this adventure he saw that the land-otter people

were coming to get him... He told his nephews that they were coming to
get him that night... At midnight they came by sea and got him... They
came in and took him out... They got him for the son of the chief among
the land-otter people who was sick... He took his drum...and they

started off with him. They had him lie on his face in the bottom of the
canoe. They did the same thing to his nephew. After they had gone along
for some time they said that the bottom of the canoe was foul, and they
landed to clean it. This meant their fur had become wet. The cleaning of
the canoe was done by their twisting about. Then they got in again, put
them on the bottom, and started off. After they had gone along for a while
longer something touched their heads. This, they felt, was the kelp under

504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN 1NSTITUTION, 1922.

which the otters were diving with them. After they had gone along for a
while longer they said they were near the town...

When he entered [the house] he saw many shamans gathered in the
house. He plainly saw a bone spear on the surface of the body of the sick
otter. Just before this, some persons had gone hunting from the town where
Te!aawu’nk! lived. They speared a white land-otter with a spear. The
creature that carried it away was sick here...

He began at once to act like a shaman. After he had danced around the
fire for a while he pulled out the spear, and the sick otter stopped moaning.
After he had acted for a while he pushed it back into the same place...
After he had danced around the fire a while, he pulled out the spear. He
pushed it in again. He pulled it out, and stopped performing. He put it in
again, and the otter began again to suffer. He now performed again, and he
pulled out the spear for the last time. The chief’s son was saved.

The corresponding performance of our own people has been
briefly described by Eells (Smithsonian Report for 1887) :

There were two fires. .. and the doctor was between them on his knees
on the gravel. He was stripped to the waist, having only pantaloons and boots
on, and faced the woman. He had a small tub of water... He worked up

to the woman and, as near as I could see, placed his mouth on her chest or
shoulders and sucked very strongly and then blew out of his mouth with all
his force, making a great noise, sometimes blowing into the air, always re-
maining on his knees.

On another occasion the “ doctor ” put his hands in water, having
warmed them a little, and then placed them on the woman’s side,
her dress having been opened and partly taken down for the pur-
pose, and he acted as if he were trying to draw out something. This
was done a second time, when he plunged into water, placed his
mouth next to them and blew suddenly and powerfully a few
timed Fn PspsSe

It is perfectly plain, I think, where the Shaker idea of curing
sickness by taking something away from the patient took its origin.
The “ Shaker ” apostles were in fact called “ blowers,” or Shipupu-
‘ema by the Yakima east of the Cascades, evidently because they
utilized the type of performance just described. The notion that
it is sin which is to be removed is of course an infiltration into the
Indian’s point of view of Christian preachments.

It is noteworthy that in the very region on Puget Sound in which
the Shaker religion evolved, the principal religious performance,
which is known as the “Spirit Canoe” or Sbrtetda’q ceremonial,
was a tribal observance whose purpose was to heal the sick. This
has been described by Haeberlin in the American Anthropologist
(n. s. vol. 20) and by Dorsey in the Bulletin of the Free Museum of
the University of Pennsylvania (vol. 3). The existence of this old
healing ceremonial accounts, I think, for the religious fervor that
attends the healing of the sick by the Shakers. It is an old tribal
tradition with them that treating the sick is a proper occasion for

SHAKE RELIGION—-WATERMAN. 505

religious fervor, the best and most appropriate occasion for spiritual
manifestations. The details of the old “ Spirit Canoe ” performance
do not matter for our present purpose. It is, however, a very pic-
turesque and wonderful ceremonial indeed, and the point was brought
conspicuously to my attention that for generations there have been
“ shaking ” phenomena connected with the performances.

The principal part of this performance, for example, was a scene,
acted out in pantomine, where certain medicine men went to the
underworld to recover the “soul” of a sick man taken there by the
“ ghosts.” The shamans went (in imagination) on a long journey,
to the village of the dead people. When they got there and began
prowling around among the houses looking for the missing soul the
sick man always fell into an ague. When the soul was found and
brought back to this world, the next problem was to put 2 into the
patient again. They brought it “ from below” in a cloth, gathered
around the patient, and made motions as if putting it into him. If
it started to float away they would seize it and bring it back. Finally
it would take fast hold and the patient was forthwith pronounced
cured. During this process the shamans would shake and tremble in
every limb. Here we see, therefore, in ancient times, almost the exact
counterpart of the modern Shaker exercise; the patient helpless,
with the operators gathered around him all shaking and quivering.
Nowadays they are, of course, trying to get the sin owt, instead of
putting a soul zm. The ideas have shifted, but the performance re-
mains the same.

I may illustrate this point further by saying that in the old
days there were several spirit-powers, the possession of which was
accompanied by a similar shaking seizure. For example, there were
also in use certain long cedar poles, called te’ stid which musicians
up-ended and used for drumming against the roof-boards of the
house, as an accompaniment to the songs. Certain people possessed
a kind of supernatural power or “ spirit-help ” known as Tsotsotob.
A man who had this power could announce, “ Now my power will
come into those drumming poles.” Then the poles would begin of
themselves to quiver, so that the man holding them was thrown
into a tremble. Another “ power” was called skudi’lite. People
who “owned” this spirit, made objects of cedar, like a board, as shown
in plate 1, figure 2, with hand-holds at the sides. These objects
were held in the hands of the performers, and very often “ power ”
entered them, causing them to quiver and move about. This like-
wise threw the person holding them into a tremor. A certain
skudi’lite-object like the one shown in the sketch once moved all
about a room, the performer trembling and unable to remain in
his place. It dragged him through the fire; it dragged him out of

506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the house. With all his might he held back, straining and resist-
ing, and finally two white men came to his assistance; but it
dragged all three into the river! Specimens of these objects are in
the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, in New
York City, and in certain other of the great museums. There is
not the slightest doubt but that the quivering and shaking mani- .
fested in connection with them goes back a considerable distance
into the days before the white occupation. The Indians say that
the wooden object became “possessed” and shook the performer,
while we would, of course, assume that the performer fell into a
shaking seizure, such as occurs in many religious exercises among
other races and in other parts of the world, his shaking agitating,
in turn, the object he carried. It seems to me that in these old
performances and these ancient objects we have the background
upon which the present day motor disturbances developed, which
give the Shaker group its name. I know educated Indians who
have seen these old spirit-objects come to life, and cause the person
holding them to tremble like a leaf.

One other point occurs to me in connection with this Shaker re-
ligion, which makes one think of the story of some of the world’s
great religions. I spoke above of “Shaker” organizations, with
church buildings, which. have now spread among the Yakima and
the Lutuami, and other tribes far removed from Puget Sound. John
Slocum had his “inspiration,” the religion started, and the first
meetings were held on the shore of one of the numerous inlets of
Puget Sound called “Big Skookum,” not far from Olympia. On
the north side of that inlet, where the water races by at a change of
the tide, is where Slocum lived and “died” and came back to earth
from the heavenly regions with a message for his people. It was
the Indians there who got his message first, and began to shake, and
organized the church. These very Indians, however, have now
stopped shaking. They no longer have any particular faith in
“shake-help,” and have ceased to hold meetings. The very people
among whom the movement started were therefore the first to fall
away. This makes one think of the curious history of Christianity,
a religious system originating in western Asia but associated in its
later history with Furope. Asia has never been Christian in any
considerable part since the early days of Christian history. The
case of Buddhism is also in line; Buddhism being, of course, a prod-
uct of Hindustan, originating there, and being borne afar from that
country as a center. But only for a relatively short time was Bud-
dhism actually associated with the land of its birth. Buddhists
are nowadays to be found by millions in China, in Japan, in Burma,
in Siam, in Cambodia, in Tibet; but in the valley where it started

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Waterman. PLATE |.

2. A SKUDI'LITC OR CEREMONIAL OBJECT OF
CEDAR WOoD, WHICH IS HELD IN THE PER-
FORMER’S HANDS. AT TIMES IT BECOMES
FILLED WITH “‘POWER”’ ACCORDING TO THE
BELIEF, AND MAKES HIM QUIVER AND MAY

1. POLE FOR DRUM- EveEN DRAG Him ABouT. THE DoTs REP-
MING ON THE ROOF RESENT THE SONGS REVEALED TO THE INDI-
BOARDS. VIDUAL BY THE SPIRITS.

Courtesy Museum of American Indian, Heye Foundation.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Waterman. PLATE 2.

A GROUP OF THE PUGET SOUND “‘SHAKERS”’ AT TOLT, WASH., GIVING
A “‘BLESSING.”

SHAKE RELIGION—WATERMAN. 507

not one Buddhist is to be seen, save perhaps pilgrims, two or three
in a year. Thus the history of two of the world’s greatest religions
is reproduced in miniature among the simple Indians of our own
Northwest. ;

The shaking which thus appears in both the old and the new
religions of Puget Sound has been explained psychologically. I
do not recall the details, but it is something about nervous tension
and rhythmic discharges, resulting in one movement repeated over
and over again until it becomes a tremor. I have remarked already
that it is by no means new in the study of religion; quite the con-
trary. Various saints, dervishes, marabouts, diviners, deacons, and
elders in various religious exercises and of various races show it.
The Tarantism of the Middle Ages (Saint Vitus’s dance) was evi-
dently something of the same sort. I can do no better, I think, than
to quote a passage from Davenport’s Primitive Traits in Religious
Revivals, describing what happened to our own civilized moun-
taineers in the Cumberland region in 1842; the place, I believe,
where the Cumberland Presbyterian Church took its origin. He
gives on page 78 of his work an account of the following quaint and
curious behavior:

Next to the “falling” exercise, the most notable and characteristic Ken-

tucky performance was the “ jerks.” The unhappy victim shook in every joint.
Sometimes the head was thrown from side to side with great rapidity.
Peter Cartwright declared that he had seen more than five hundred persons
jerking at once in his congregation. And Lorenzo Dow, writing of a time some
years later, when the epidemic again broke out in this section, remarks that on
Sunday at Knoxville, the governor being present, about one hundred and fifty
had the jerking exercise. In 1800 no one was proof against it, saint or sinner,
white or black, except, as Lorenzo Dow naively remarks, those who wished
to get it to philosophize upon it and the most godly.

One final word about these Shakers will not be out of place. The
Congregationalists and Presbyterians, under whose influence they
fell, took a strong stand against drinking, gambling, horse-racing,
lying, swearing, and smoking tobacco. Whatever may be said
about the relative rank of these failings, certain it is that to the
Shakers avoidance of them is an essential part of religion. No
Shaker will swear, no Shaker will drink. The one virtue of non-
indulgence in alcohol has served to make the members of the Shaker
church the most prosperous of the Indians. Outwardly their homes
are clean and cheerful and inwardly they are filled with a kindly
feeling, which can not be mistaken, for it actually radiates from their
faces. It makes them, to my way of thinking, more closely resem-
ble the Christian of our ideals than is the case with any people I
have ever seen, Indian, white, or otherwise.

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THE EXCAVATIONS AT ASKALON.
By Prof. J. Garstang, D. Se.

[With 3 plates. ]
Introductory Note.

Askalon (Hebrew Ashkelon) was one of five cities of the Philistines on the
southern coast of Palestine, 30 miles southwest of Jerusalem (Joshua xiii, 3;
i Samuel vi, 17). In Egyptian texts it occurs as Askarumi among the cities
revolting against Rameses II and Mereptah, while in Assyrian inscriptions it
is frequently mentioned under the name of Iskaluna or Askaluna. Askalon
was the center of the worship of the fish goddess Derketo, to whom fishes
were sacred. Herod, who, according to tradition, was born in Askalon, adorned
it with baths, fountains, and public buildings. But the most flourishing period
which Askalon experienced was under Roman control, when it became a center
of Hellenic culture. Under the Arabs, who called it “the bride of Syria,”
Askalon was a frequent object of struggle. It was taken during the Crusades
by the Christians in 1154, retaken by Saladin in 1187, dismantled and then
rebuilt by Richard Coeur de Leon in 1192, and finally demolished in 1270. ft
is now represented by the village of Askalan.

The object of this brief report is to give a résumé of the work done
and the results obtained during the two seasons of excavation at
Askalon, 1921-22, without entering into a discussion of detail or of
theories. Further evidence, both direct and comparative, will be
forthcoming, it is to be anticipated, as a result of the present year’s
work now about to commence, so that the fuller discussion can only
be profitably undertaken at a later stage, after maturer study, with
all the facts in view.

The work done resolves itself readily into three parts:

I. General survey and exploration of the site.

II. Excavation of the area and substructures of the public build-
ing now revealed as Herod’s Cloisters (formerly called shortly the
“ Tycheion ”) , with the adjacent “ Basilica ” and the later theater and
mosque.

III. Search for traces of the Philistines and other early settlers.

1 Reprinted by permission from Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund,
July, 1922.

509

510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

I. The general survey began with the preparation of a surface
chart to a scale of 1: 2000, here reproduced for ready reference from
the Quarterly Statement of April, 1921, on a scale of about 1: 5000.
Plans of visible and excavated buildings are being prepared to a
scale of 1: 200, and details to 1: 100. The visible superficial remains
include the great rampart of semicircular form abutting upon the
sea, crowned with medieval masoned walls, in which there are evi-
dent traces of repair and destruction consistent with the Chronicles
of the Crusades. The date of the underlying earthen ramparts has
not yet been ascertained. They seem to be much older, and may well
belong to the period of the migrations which brought the Philistines
or to the Hyksos Period. (PI. 2, fig. 1.)

The inclosure, with its ramparts of beaten earth, is indeed
comparable with the great camps of more regular form which have
been indicated at Tell el-Yahudieh on the Egyptian frontier, near
Homs in Syria, and further east in the Merv Oasis, Turkestan.
The camp near Homs was associated in some way with the Hittites,
and the ramparts defending the southern approaches to the Hittite
capital at Boghaz Keui in Asia Minor are of similar appearance and
character, though they have been reinforced at some date by a
revetment of stone. ,

The knoll rising by the sea within this area was apparently the
oldest and the most defensible portion of the inclosure from the
beginning down at any rate to early Roman times. While we have
not yet traced the foundations of the citadel such as Rameses II
assailed—according to contemporary Egyptian pictures—there can
remain little doubt that it crowned this knoll, and that the develop-
ment of the city was by marked stages of expansion, of which the
terraces roughly perpetuate the outline, until in Hellenistic times it
inclosed the whole knoll. Thereafter, with the rapid prosperity
heralded by the Roman freedom, it spread out over the more level
ground within the broad circuit of the ramparts and over the
northern knoll as well. For this reason there is nothing visible
upon the surface of pre-Roman date; but of this and later periods
there are abundant traces. Nearly every field contains fragments
of columns or bases or capitals, and the nature and date of the various
buildings can be sometimes guessed from the distribution of these
remains. There is a fine group of granite columns lying at the
junction of the cross roads (field 151). Local accounts indicate
that they belonged to the “temple of Jupiter” which was revealed
last century.

The site of the Bir Ibrahim, the Well of Abraham, spoken of by
many writers from Origen and Eusebius, is practically certain, and

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Garstang. PLATE 2.

Pn

2. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL.

7 SlVile

‘SNOILVAVOX4 AHL 4O LNAWSONSWWOD SHL ‘WIHvds| YI

‘Buvjsuwg—'ZZ6| Woday uvluosy}yws

EXCAVATIONS AT ASKALON—GARSTANG. 511

it is indicated in the Plan by the circular depression No. 88 (pl. 3)
in field 80. Here we have examined the surface, but the re-
mains are fragmentary and clearly of medieval date. At this age,
our authority states, broad steps descended to a chamber, and on
all four sides of this chamber were springs of water gushing out
from stone conduits. Excavations in field 61 have shown that as
early as Hellenistic times the Well of Ibrahim was an important
focus of interest in the town, for an avenue of columns has been
found heading directly toward it. The suggestion is still preserved
by the modern lane at this point. It is in fact interesting to
speculate how possibly it perpetuates the memory and part of the
site of the more ancient Sacred Lake, which was still extant at the
time of Diodorus Siculus.

The apsidal Byzantine church in fields 5, 24 (described in the
Quarterly Statement for January, 1921), and the remains of Crusad-
ers’ buildings in field 86 and at point IX (on the northern knoll)
are the most conspicuous surface landmarks within the ramparts.
Four small columns are still standing, apparently as they were
placed, near survey point VII inside the eastern wall, south of the
Bab el-Kuds (or Jerusalem Gate) ; doubtless they indicate a small
church of Crusaders’ date, but the excavation has not yet reached
this spot. The exploration of the site as a whole, for a kilometer at
least beyond the radius of the ramparts, has been pursued continu-
ously in search of traces of early interments which would have
thrown light swiftly upon the object of our quest. But while tombs
of Roman date are plentiful and those of Hellenistic age (¢. 300 B. C.)
not uncommon, no trace has been found of any burials—whether by
cremation or by inhumation—of an earlier date, except upon the
central knoll. It can only be inferred—subject to further results—
that the burials of Philistine and earlier date took place in the
ground outside the central acropolis since occupied by the Roman *
city and hence most difficult of access.

It only remains to say, as regards the site as a whole, that
numerous soundings have been made and trenches cut, here, there
and everywhere, to ascertain the broad outline of topographical
development as described above. The site is large, as the map
shows, and it has not yet been possible in all cases to synthesize
the results. |

Il. Fields 61, 67, and 52—In this area, as already indicated
(Quarterly Statement, January, 1921), there were indications of an
important public building, evidenced by the architectural caryatid
statues adorned with the mural crown, and by the foundations partly

512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

excavated in 1921. There was already the suggestion of a theater,
constructed upon the outline of an apsidal building, and of the Well
of Peace, which it inclosed, as described by Antoninus Martyr.

Consequently the excavation of this building has been continued
to its full extent both north and south. The stoutly built apse of
a basilica or “ Curia” in the south of field 61, seems to have been
the main feature of early Roman date. To this Herod the Great
added sumptuous marble colonnades and cloisters as a sort of fore-
court and main entrance. The whole overlay and completely re-
placed the previous avenue of columns heading for the Bir Ibrahim.
When the apsidal basilica was ruined, at any rate on or about the
fourth or fifth century; its form suggested the convenient hemi-
spherical foundation for a theater which was then constructed.
The fallen statue of Peace, which with the great statue of Victory
Over the World had flanked the entrance to the Basilica, and the
presence of a well, gave rise perhaps to the account which Antoninus —
Martyr recorded in the sixth century of a Well of Peace surrounded
by steps in the form of a theater. But it is possible to suppose that
he was referring to the Well of Abraham, and that the identifica-
tion or the description has become confused. After the theater had
been razed the still rounded contour suggested to the new Arab
population the méhrab for their great mosque. A close study of the
floor levels and constructive changes over the whole area seems to in-
dicate that the last stage saw one of the famous mosques of Askalon
rising upon this historic position. Probably, as will be seen from the
quotations below, it was called the Mosque of Omar.

When using the term “basilica” in connection with this apsidal
structure and Herod’s Cloisters it should be observed that a close
study of the evidence and comparison with other buildings of
similar kind, like those of Samaria and Gerasa, may make it possible
to advance our results a step further and to identify the original
apsidal structure as the “ Bouleuterion” or meeting place of the
senate, corresponding to the council chamber of our own cities.
Herod’s Cloisters would form the decorative approach, the whole
arrangement corresponding to classical precedent such as Vetruvius
and others described. The “ Bouleuterion” normally adjoined the
agora. The preservation of the tiers of seats in the reconstruction
of the apse bears out this interpretation, which seems to be confirmed
by the discovery of the tablets recording decisions of the senate or
boulé in the adjoining cloister. (Palestine Exploration Fund,
Quarterly Statement for January, 1922.)

The apse of a basilica (by which was meant the exchange and
lawcourt) was in fact usually inclosed in the architectural area, and
the whole was roofed. The design in the present case shows an

EXCAVATIONS AT ASKALON—GARSTANG. 533

open court added as a decorative approach and inclosing an agora
in the front of the council chamber. It remains for further in-
vestigation to show whether this identification is borne out in detail.

The following references (gleaned from Mr. Phythian Adams,
History of Askalon, Quarterly Statement, April, 1921) will now be
read in their full significance:

Josephus, c. 20 B. C. “ For the people of Askalon Herod built
* * * colonnades that were admirable for their workmanship
and size.”

Antoninus, A. D. 560. “* * * <A Well of Peace, built after the
manner of a theater, in which you descend by steps egress to the
water.”

Biladhtri, A. D. 685. “ The Greeks raided and destroyed Askalon
and its mosque. The Caliph Abd el-Melik rebuilt the city, fortified
it, and rebuilt the mosque also.”

Mukaddasi, A. D. 985. “ The Great Mosque stands in the Market
of the Clothes Merchants and is paved throughout with marble.”

Nasis, A. D. 1049. “An Arch that was ancient * * * and had
been part of a mosque * * * built of mighty stones.”

Ibn Batitah, A. D. 1355. “A beautiful mosque at Askalon, built
by one of the Caliphs as the inscription over the gate still shows.
To the south of this is a large mosque called the Mosque of Omar,
of which nothing now remains but its walls; but there are many fine
marble columns, some standing and some fallen down. 'To the south
of Askalon are the Wells of Abraham. You descend to these by
broad steps leading to a chamber. On all four sides of the chamber
are springs of water gushing out from the stone conduits.”

It remains to add a description of Herod’s marble cloisters, already
famous, as we have seen, in their day, and later the substructure
and foundations apparently of the Mosque of Omar. The length
of the colonnade was 87 meters. The cloister was about 5 meters
in width, so that the whole building was more than 90 meters or
100 yards long in exterior measurement. The columns were 76 cms.
in diameter; the bases were of Attic design well proportioned, and
the capitals were Corinthian, of fine 1st century style and work-
manship. Each column was raised, after the Syrian style of the
period, on its separate pedestal, giving a total height of about 11
diameters. There is room for 32 columns on each wing and eight
such at each face. The material was a white-grey marble, probably
Greek in origin: some of the special columns were veined. (PI. 2,
fig. 2.) The main entrance to the north seems to have been open.
That to the south led directly into the apse of the Senate House
between the pair of fine statues, Peace and Victory, standing upon
the World, borne on the shoulders of Atlas. There appears to have

514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

been a similar entrance in the middle of each side. The walls were
lined with marble and alabaster, with tracery windows, and oc-
casional niches and shrines of the same material; in these were
statues and statuettes and commemorative inscriptions. Portions
of a giant statue, presumed to be that of Herod, another of Apollo,
and fragments of others have been recovered. More beautiful are
a small statutette of a kneeling Venus (like the prototype now in
the Louvre) and one of a draped woman leaning sideways and
backwards, supporting possibly some weight. Numerous other frag-
ments of sculpture and decorative art have been recovered and re-
main for study. It may be added that the fragments of Arab
faience found over the surface of this aréa prove to include some of
the earliest and most valuable examples of that art.

The last stages in the history of this historical spot are sad to
relate. The Crusaders made use of the columns, bases, and capitals
to build their fortified walls, and later the Turks used Askalon as a
stone quarry. The signs of vandalism are only too apparent—traces
of the saw that cut up statues and pedestals for marble slabs, or,
worse, to burn for lime. This wanton destruction had been going on
for generations down to living memory, so that what remains is only
a fractional indication of one of the really great monuments of
antiquity.

Ill. Zhe Search for the Philistines.—Reference has already been
made to the search for Philistine tombs or interments in the areas
around the ramparts, and the difficulty of penetrating to the Philis-
tine levels between the acropolis and the ramparts has become now
self-evident. In field 177 a determined effort was made, however,
to cut down (somewhat ruthlessly) through the foundations of Arab,
Byzantine, and Roman buildings, to the underlying levels, in the
hope of disclosing some architectural remains of the Philistine
Period. In this respect, however, the result was disappointing, and
the effort showed plainly that this method of “frontal attack”
within the walls of Askalon would prove in any case less satisfactory
and probably less fruitful than some more studied plan. The great
trench of 40 meters by 10 was dug, narrowing as it descended to a
depth of 8 meters—as deeply as was safe—only to arrive with great
difficulty at the pre-Hellenistic stratum. The making and remak-
ing of foundations had also so disturbed the stratifications that
evidence of position derived from this section could not be relied
on without comparison. In other positions, however, very success-
ful cuttings have been made in the face of the mound, giving reliable
stratifications. That on the northern scarp in field 163 which Mr.
Phythian Adams supervised in 1920 has already been described by
him in the Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1921. It gave a clear picture of
the superposition and cleavage of the several and successive great

EXCAVATIONS AT ASKALON—GARSTANG. 515

periods, notably the pre-Philistine, the Philistine, the Hellenistic,
the Graeco-Roman, Byzantine, and Arab. Having been able by
direct evidence to recognize these, levels, the fragments of pottery
and other objects found in them became the first criteria by which
to test and establish results of other similar soundings. Thus
armed, we cut down half of the field numbered 19, which fronts
the sea, to the bottom, nearly to sea level. This cutting was done
_ with deliberation and method, and was again entrusted to Mr.
Phythian Adams, who is still studying the results in the light
of previous and other evidence. He will in due course publish his
detailed report and scientific conclusions. Broadly it may be said
that the affinities to the pre-Philistine settlers are recognizable, with
a distribution centering (upon present evidence) in Cyprus and
ranging through Syria as far as Egypt. The Philistine affinities
are, however, unknown. The distinctive pottery fragments, &c.,
are numerous and are carefully noted for future reference. They
are not of a known Egyptian character, nor are they Cypriote or
Hittite or Cretan. They are in some ways similar in general char-
acter to sub-Mycenaean or Late Minoan wares (Class L. M., III 5),
but this resemblance only confirms their date. The finger of prob-
ability must point to some unexplored spot in the Northeastern
Mediterranean, presumably upon or near the coast of Asia Minor
for their source or inspiration, some spot which the culture of the
Aegean would affect but did not dominate.

In this absence of comparative material—which was in fact to
have been anticipated—no certain conclusion can as yet be indicated.
When one considers, moreover, the records of the great migration
which heralded the arrival of the Philistines upon the threshold of
Egypt in the reign of Rameses III, and takes into account the
episodes of the movement, the long, struggling, adventurous journey
around the coast, it would not be surprising to find little or nothing
in the earliest strata of Philistine occupation to represent the cul-
ture of their homeland, unless it were their arms which they would
not relinquish and which were not subject to ordinary accidents.
It is the contact reestablished after settlement, and the coming of
fresh settlers of their kind, that would leave more common traces.
Consequently it is possible that our earliest material is not the most
distinctive. If, however, tombs of the early Philistines can be
found with some good examples of their armour, we shall add
greatly to the essential element of our evidence. We can also pro-
ceed at once to determine by soundings the area of Philistine occu-
pation in successive centuries as indicated by the distribution of
their remains already identified, and in the course of this investi-
gation over a more extended field we may hope for some new material

516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

clues which may be recognized and followed up with increasing
prospect of success.

Nore.—The above careful report of the expert in charge of excavat-
ing the important seaport of Askalon is suggestive of the thorough-
going work carried on by the oldest society doing field work in Pales-
tme. In spite of annoying changes in local conditions in the East,
costs, and disappointments, the Fund continues digging the ground
and publishing results which are important for Christian and Jewish
students of the Sacred Scriptures.

The Palestine Exploration Fund has an American office at 8 Col-
lege Lane, Haverford, Pennsylvania.

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING.

By F. H. NEWELL,
Consulting Engineer, Reclamation Service.

[With 10 plates.]

The home is the foundation of all that is best in the State. Its
preservation and the perpetuation of its ideals are duties for the
Nation; there can be none higher than to furnish opportunities for
homes for self-reliant citizens, particularly those of the pioneer type,
whose past achievements stand out on the pages of American history.
Even yet the pioneer period has not wholly passed; the pioneers are
the people who are putting to use the undeveloped natural resources ;
they are making farms and homes in areas which otherwise would be
waste and desolate. Modern science is helping these pioneers; it is”
extending their opportunities and lightening their labors. Notable
in this connection, affording one of the best examples of scientific in-
vestigation followed by practical application of the results, are the
works designed and built by the Reclamation Service. These, while
in part monumental in character, are only a means to an end; that
end is the creation of opportunities for small, self-supporting farm
homes such as will add to the strength of the Nation.

This ideal, namely that the Nation, to insure its own life, should
provide opportunities for homes for its citizens, is by no means new.
It is as old as history, so far at least as it pertains to the settlement
of soldier citizens, particularly following wars of conquest. It has
been adopted by the United States as a part of its policy in the dis-
posal of public lands. After the Civil War in particular the Nation
encouraged the settlement of the men, who had preserved its life, on
the vast extent of vacant plow lands beyond the Mississippi. Such
lands, readily tillable, have now disappeared. They have all been
taken up, but there remain millions of acres of unused lands which
have good soil, much of it still in public ownership and open to
entry and settlement. Some obstacle—either lack of water, or ex-
cess of it—is preventing the continuation of home making on these
lands.

55379—24—— 34 517

518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

As illustrating the extent and location of these remaining vacant
public lands, the accompanying plate 1 is given. On this the va-
cant land, aggregating 189,000,000 acres, is indicated by the solid
black spots. It is only a few years ago when a similar map would
have shown these black areas covering three-fourths of the country
west: of the Mississippi. Large portions of these vacant lands, par-
ticularly those which embrace the high mountain areas, in all 132,-
000,000 acres, have been withdrawn from entry and converted into
national forests, smaller areas, or 5,800,000 acres, have been desig-

MILLIONS OF ACRES
40 50 60 70 80 90
PRIVATE

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Fic. 1.—Relative area of each of the Western States; also the area of vacant public
lands (in solid black); of national forests (in crosshatch) ; of national parks (in
crossbar) ; Indian reservations (in diagonal); and in white the remainder of the
State—this being in private or corporate ownership.

nated as national parks, and some parts have been reclaimed by
irrigation. The relative extent of vacant and reserved land is
shown in figure i.

The nation is calling science and engineering to its aid in im-
proving portions of these vacant or waste lands, so that the areas
having fertile soil may be utilized in providing opportunities for
homes similar to those enjoyed in the past in the great Mississippi
Valley, where nature has so lavishly provided the easily tilled
farming lands.

The conception that not merely the vacant lands of the nation,
but also its funds should be utilized in providing opportunities for

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL. 519

homes was early championed by Theodore Roosevelt. At his earnest
solicitation these ideals were embodied in a reclamation act, signed
by him on June 17, 1902. This was a vital part of his conservation
policy. It was closely joined to forest protection and use; it linked
up with his broad conception of conservation in its wider aspects,
including the health and life of the people.

Twenty years have elapsed since the reclamation act was signed—
years crowded with events which have modified somewhat the at-
titude of the thinking men of the country toward many of the
factors of home making. Population, industry, and wealth have
increased in the cities, and in proportion the number of rural homes
has correspondingly decreased, yet there is still insistent demand
for opportunities for homes in the country. With the shift of popu-
lation in the opposite direction, these needs for rural homes have
become still more important.

The policy of home making, made so prominent by Roosevelt,
still maintains its place in popular esteem, despite the fact that dur-
ing 1921 and 1922 there prevailed a sentiment that agriculture as
an industry had been somewhat overdone, that the area of culti-
vated land should be limited and the number of farmers reduced.
These two conceptions of too much agriculture as a business and
too few farm homes are not incompatible. It is quite possible to
regard agriculture from a purely money-making or industrial stand-
point, and to decree that the less profitable areas should be aban-
doned and the less successful farmers go into some other occupation.
Nevertheless, when farming is considered as a mode of life—one
which is primarily for the production of man rather than of money—
there are strong reasons for encouraging it, notably in the remoter
parts of the country where the population is sparse, and where,
by the application of scientific research, comfortable and prosperous
homes may be created in what was once a wilderness—particularly
if these homes can. be made available to the rehabilitated ex-service
men, who may find a. home, under a new enviroment, similar to that
shown on plate 2, figure 1. Here is a beginning of one of these
homes, typical of thousands of others. It requires little argument
to convince the observer that the young man who has served his
country, and who, after restoration to health, is able to procure
and develop a home like this becomes one of the best of stabilizing
influences in governmental affairs.

The rapid changes which take place in a new farm of this kind
are shown on plate 2, figure 2, where there is given a view of a small
farm home, taken six years after the desert was watered. Here
the small, but comfortable house is shown, overshadowed by the
tree growth which has been made possible by the water-supply com-

020 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

ing from the distant reservoir. With abundant sunshine and plenty
of water, the previously barren landscape is transformed.

There is a decided advantage in establishing new or pioneer homes
in an unpopulated or sparsely settled area, such as that reclaimed
from the desert. In such a new country it is necessary to experi-
ment and to adopt new methods of farming and of home making, de-
vised to meet new conditions, but, as an offset to these disadvantages,
it is not necessary to pull down old institutions, to overcome rooted
prejudices, and to unlearn many things which have been obstacles
to success in older countries. There is no undertaking more difficult,
in connection with settlement and home making, than to try to
locate successfully new people in an old, partly settled community
where discouragement has prevailed. There the infiltering popula-
tion is discouraged by the tales of woe of the “ oldest inhabitants.”
The true melting pot of Americanism is found in the newly re-
claimed or cultivated lands where all men are beginners and all are
forced to work with a certain degree of equality, and where health,
strength, and ability count for more than previous social position.

The works by which the country has been transformed and condi-
tions which have been created making possible these homes for new-
comers have been frequently pictured. The great reservoirs, canals,
and various structures of the Reclamation Service are fairly well
known, but the really important things from the standpoint of home
making and its bearing upon political geography and upon the Na-
tion’s life have not been as well described.

It is generally agreed that the visible works have been built with
a high degree of skill and economy. The important point to be con-
sidered is therefore as to whether or not these expensive works are
being fully utilized in the production of opportunities for useful
citizens. Unless this result has been attained, the works, no matter
how picturesque, fail of their object. It is therefore of interest to
all citizens to ascertain at the expiration of 20 years of effort some-
thing as to the real conditions of homes and of the people, and also
of the reclaimed land itself, pointing out to what degree the results
of scientific research have actually been made available for the
benefit of mankind.

There is no doubt but that great benefits have come to the State
and Nation as the result of the expenditures made; nor can there be
any question as to the rapidity of the transformation of the West,
or desert country, when after a decade of effort there are brought
about visible results greater than those attained by generations of
men in older countries. This rapid change is illustrated by plate 3.
The upper portion of plate 3, figure 1, shows a vast extent of vacant
public land in the condition in which it has remained for thousands
of years. Immediately below this is a view (pl. 3, fig. 2) of the

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Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 2.

[is =|

I. NEWLY ESTABLISHED HOME OF AN EX-SERVICE MAN ON RECLAIMED
LAND.

2. RAPID TRANSFORMATION OF THE DESERT; HOME AND VEGETATION SIX YEARS
FROM THE SAGE BUSH.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 3:

|. THE DESERT IN ITS NATURAL CONDITION, TYPICAL OF MILLIONS OF
ACRES OF PUBLIC LAND.

2. THE SAME DESERT LAND RECLAIMED AND PUT TO USE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 4.

1. THE NEw HoME BEING STARTED.

2. THE NEW HOME WELL ESTABLISHED.

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL. 521

same kind of land converted into cultivated fields, changed almost
overnight by the bringing in of water. This desert land, which in
its original condition was valueless, has been made highly productive
to a point where 20 or 40 acres are adequate for the support of a
family.

The present physical conditions may be summed up in the state-
ment that at the end of 1922 about 1,200,000 acres of reclaimed land
had been cropped, with a gross crop value for that year of over
$50,000,000. In addition to this, several millions of dollars were
returned to the farmers through the sale of dairy products, live
stock, pigs, and poultry. The total value of the crop raised on the
reclaimed lands since the Government reclamation began, not count-
ing the products from older areas, to which surplus water has been
furnished from storage reservoirs, amounted to over $500,000,000.
This gross crop return has come from an expenditure, in round num-
bers, of about $130,000,000, of which one-tenth has come back to be
used over again and of which all will come back in time.

- The most valuable results, however, are not measured in terms
of money but in the homes produced, such, for example, as are
illustrated on plate 4 in figure 1, on which is shown the waste land
to which the house timbers have been hauled. Below this (pl. 4,
fig. 2) is a view after the land has been transformed, the small
house erected, and the young orchard started in vigorous growth.
In a few years it will be impossible to see the building because of the
rapid growth of the trees.

The number of individual farmers who have built their homes
and who have advanced to a point where they have executed con-
tracts for the repayment of the cost of water is upwards of 25,000.
In addition there are many thousands of other farm units to which
water is being brought, and which have not yet reached a point
where a contract for repayment has been made, so that in counting
the areas supplied outside of strictly reclamation lands, there are
upwards of 380,000 farms dependent directly upon the works built
under the terms of the reclamation law. Mere numbers, however
mean little in this connection. We may assume that each pioneer
family is composed of at least five persons—the father, mother,
and two or three children or near relatives, all helping to a greater
or less degree in the work on the farm; the younger or weaker
members are attending to the poultry, and so on up, according to the
strength, to the more vigorous man of the family doing the heavy
work of plowing and putting in the crops. Thus we have a popula-
tion of, say, 150,000 people, which if gathered in one locality would
make a good-sized American city. This number of people is located
in 25 or more separate areas, within which have grown up many

522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

small towns in which is gathered a population equaling or exceed-
ing that on the farms. These latter are engaged in local business,
in buying and selling supplies both from and to the farms, and in
transporting these. The social and political effect of this rural
population is far greater than it would be if all in one locality.

These reclaimed areas have a peculiar significance and value to
all industries, because they are in the midst of vast areas of graz-
ing lands surrounding them on all sides, stretching for hundreds
of miles over desert and mountains. The irrigated lands are real
oases in this desert or vast extent of land with sparse vegetation
furnishing some grazing which when obtainable depends upon the
erratic rainfall. The cattle on these open ranges may increase
rapidly throughout a series of relatively wet years, then in time
of normal drought the cattle and sheep are unable to find
sustenance; many herds would be completely wiped out were it
not for the hay and grain obtainable at these artificial oases of
reclaimed lands.

In the same way, the mines, especially of low-grade ores, and
_ the other natural resources, become more easily available and more
profitable to work because of the existence of local food supplies
from the irrigated lands. The ultimate conservation and best use
of the timber, grass, and minerals is thus bound up in the existence
of these tilled areas. More than this, however, and most important
of all, is the fact that these lands are furnishing homes and are
bringing into the thinly settled arid States and maintaining there
a permanent and prosperous population—one which tends to stabilize
all Government and business institutions.

The example of the United States as a federal whole in embark-
ing on work of this kind is one which stimulates the individual
States to action, also many corporations and individuals, at home
and abroad. The works and resulting homes have, therefore, a large
significance not only to the citizens of our own country but to those
of other lands; for in nearly every large country of the world are
vast tracts of arid and semiarid lands which may be used ultimately
for homes for the people as the population increases and as neces-
sity is found to provide room for growth.

All of this tends toward the establishment and maintenance of
world peace, in the sense that some of these nations may expand inter-
nationally and be relieved in part from the temptation of intrusion
upon their neighbors, since they have within their own borders lands
to be conquered—not from other men but from nature herself. This
conquest is often a real warfare with nature, for in the early stages
of pioneering it seemed as though every unusual or exceptional
occurrence took place: Unprecedented floods, or droughts; plant dis-

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL,. 523

eases; plagues of insects; hopping, running, jumping things of the
field—grasshoppers, rats, and rabbits—everything to discourage and
drive away the venturesome settler; and yet, when these difficulties
are overcome and a hardy citizenship is established on the land,
there is probably no part of the country where a greater reward for
toil and thrift is to be found than on these reclaimed lands.

While there is a certain similarity in the investigations to be made
and plans to be prepared and structures to be built, yet each locality
offers its peculiar problems—not merely in engineering, but more
than this in climatic, cultural, human and economic relations. The
reclaimed areas of the United States vary in conditions from those
somewhat tropical in character, with all-the-year-around crops, and
consequent insect and plant pests, to those of the snowy North,
where the short, hot summer renders possible only a single quick-
growing hay, grain, or vegetable crop. Then follows the long win-
ter which may be turned to advantage in the feeding of domestic
animals.

The conservation and distribution of the water, upon which rest all
land values in the arid regions, are subject to certain climatic and
topographic limitations peculiar to each project. At one extreme
are the erratic rivers of the Southwest, in whose broad, bowlder-
strewn channels water can be found only at intervals of months, or
even years. When it does occur, it may come in great cloudbursts
carrying destruction. Here, the use of the dry lands is dependent
upon water storage capacious enough to hold these floods. The
other extremes are the steadily flowing rivers which come from the
high mountains; here the amount of water is in a general way pro-
portional to the sun’s heat falling upon the snowbanks in the moun-
tains; the regularly recurring floods of each spring vary within rela-
tively narrow limits. Under such conditions the minimum storage
may be required and other works can be built in accordance with the
regular régime of the streams.

After all, the success of the undertaking is measured in terms of
human relations. The making of opportunities for homes is in itself
largely mechanical, and the engineering construction can not be
said to be a success unless these opportunities for home-making are
utilized and fully enjoyed. To have such utilization and enjoy-
ment there must be an adaptation or a making over of a considerable
number of people. The newcomers, transplanted to these new sur-
roundings must be able and willing to adapt themselves to new
ways; they must drop the methods which they learned in humid
regions; their ultimate success will be measured by the quickness
with which they are able to appreciate the new ways of doing things
and of putting these to use.

024 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

In most of the discussions concerning the reclamation and settle-
ment of waste lands and the building of homes upon these, most at-
tention has been given to the mechanical side of the work. This is
most picturesque and affords opportunities for more precise state-
ments as regards methods and results of scientific investigation and
of application of results of costs and of values; hence it is that most
thought has been given to the large and picturesque structures, such
as high dams, tunnels, and canals winding through rough country,
but the real interest is in the human relations, in the kind of people
who have come to inhabit the waste lands, and who, individually and
collectively, must dig out from the soil the products in the way of
crops which not merely support the family, but afford the materials
which enter into trade and commerce, and which when sold will pay
tor the cost of the works.

A full review of the success of reclamation should embrace all the
factors of home making and should give maximum amount of atten-
tion to the human side of the question. The fact that these matters
of “ life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness” can not be weighed and
measured with the same degree of accuracy as can the materials for
construction and the forces of nature renders such a review of the
broad subject of reclamation and settlement less easy and attractive.
And yet, after all, the conclusions on the human side afford the
“acid test ” of success.

The full extent of this success as just indicated is hardly suscepti-
ble of statistical treatment; the power of the imagination is required
to fill in the most important matters—that is the moral or spiritual
aspect of the case, in the stabilization of the family, and the stimu-
lation to better citizenship which results from the ownership of
a piece of land and the development of a home on it. Such devel-
opment is indicated by plate 5, figure 1. In the foreground is the
irrigating canal bringing water to the thirsty land, beyond it the
tent first occupied by the home maker. Next to this is the cheap
house, built of thin boards, standing in a desolate land, but in a
land which becomes quickly transformed through the application
of the water. The result of a few years of effort is illustrated in
plate 5, figure 2, by the house improved and sheltered by the
rapidly growing trees, surrounded by attractive shrubbery, as well
as by productive fields.

In the paragraphs that follow an attempt is made to review
briefly the steps taken in reclamation for homemaking, beginning
with the preliminary research, continued through topographic and
hydrographic surveys; followed by the planning and execution of
the work; the development of the waste places—and last but not
least the dealing with the human, social, and economic forces—which

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL. 525

must be successfully utilized to produce the desired result, namely
the creation of prosperous and contented homes.

Research.—The thinking people of the country are becoming
more and more impressed with the importance of thorough investi-
gations to find out in advance of large action whether certain as-
sumed facts are true, or what other facts should be learned in order
to make a success of the undertaking. This is relatively a recent
attitude on the part of the public; and in the memory of men now
living there is a recollection of the extreme difficulty in securing
popular support and legislative authority for any kind of investi-
gation of national resources and opportunities. It is now almost
impossible to realize the great difficulties encountered by pioneers
among the scientists such as Maj. John Wesley Powell, in his efforts
to induce Congress to investigate the extent to which the waste lands
of the country might be utilized. He did succeed, however, after
years of patient perserverence, and in 1888 was authorized by Con-
gress to begin the work upon which has been founded the great
national policy of reclamation and home-making. Methods of
measurement of streams were devised under him; surveys were
made of possible reservoir sites; and vast quantities of data were
acquired concerning the mountain masses from which came the
streams, and also of the lower-lying desert lands which might be
irrigated by conserving and distributing the erratic floods which
came from the mountains and foothills. This was the first great
step of research in this line; it was followed by the more mechanical
details of preparing plans and specifications for works to fit the
conditions discovered by these surveys and examinations.

Application of research—The facts acquired would have had
little more than purely scientific value and the investigations of
lands and waters would probably have been brought to an early con-
clusion had it not been possible to secure practical application of
the results to the needs of mankind in the way of producing oppor-
tunities for small farms and homes.

This practical application of the facts obtained from research was
due largely to the persistent following of the vision of human and
national needs and benefits held by the late Francis G. Newlands
and Theodore Roosevelt. Through their aid and that of other far-
sighted men there was placed on the statute books the reclamation
act of June 17, 1902, which set aside funds obtained from the sale
and disposal of public lands to be used in the construction of works
for the reclamation of arid and semiarid land; also, incidentally,
of the drainage of such of these lands as needed relief from excess
water.

526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

Building the works.—The operation of building the great struc-
tures has great popular fascination, and the work itself is susceptible
of pictorial illustration; views of some of the more notable of these
works have already been printed in earlier Smithsonian publica-
tions; + but at this time reference is made to some of the more notable
advances in ways and means of overcoming obstacles. The planning
and building of works of reclamation afford opportunities for a
wide display of ingenuity. While the main lines of the various
larger structures are to a certain extent standardized, there arises
on each undertaking and in each locality new conditions which must
be met. The way in which these difficulties are overcome is of
interest—not only to the American engineer and constructor, but to
citizens of every country who hope to see similar works built to over-
come the natural obstacles of his land and to permit a larger use
of the natural resources. Some of these ingenious ways are illus-
trated in plate 6, which, in the upper part, shows the irrigating
canal carried in reinforced concrete flume along steep and crumbling
hillsides, and conforming to the irregularities of the topography. In
plate 6, figure 2, is shown a similar flume which has entered a deep
depression. Here an inverted siphon or concrete box has been built
to conduct the water down one side and up the other into the con-
tinuation of the flume.

The attempts made to utilize the fertile, but dry, lands of the coun-
try for farming and home-making have often been futile where the
difficulties of obtaining water have not been successfully overcome.
Plate 7 illustrates by contrasting pictures the results which have fol-
lowed the attempts to settle a dry country with and without a water
supply. In plate 7, figure 1, is shown a view, typical of millions of
acres of good, level plow lands which are highly productive when the
rains occur; these erratic rains, however, can not be predicted; they
occur often at the wrong time. Attempts made to settle such lands
have resulted in hardship and losses. Throughout the western part
of the Great Plains region of the United States are to be seen thou-
sands of settlers’ shacks with one door, one window, and a stovepipe,
similar to that shown in plate 7, figure 1. Here the family, if it
actually attempted to make a home, has been alternately frozen by
the winter winds or burned by the scorching summer suns, where
the thermometer is over a hundred in the shade and no shade is
available.

In contrast to this are the similar dry lands, so located, however,
that if they could be provided with water, as shown in plate 7, fig-
ure 2, the settler’s home is soon surrounded by vegetation; the pros-
perity resulting from crop production has enabled improvement of

1 See articles on reclamation in Smithsonian Reports for 1903, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1915,
and 1919,

Smithsonian Report 1922.— Newell. PLATE 5.

5

2. A FEW YEARS LATER; THE SHELTERED HOME.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell PLATE 6.

|. IRRIGATING CANAL IN REINFORCED CONCRETE FLUME.

136

2. WATER IN IRRIGATING CANAL CONDUCTED ACROSS DEPRESSION BY
INVERTED SIPHON.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 7.

nok eae i Pa ee eke
| ee ae eS es gee

|. THE HOMESTEAD “‘SHACK” OF THE DRY FARMER ON THE HIGH PLAINS OF
THE WEST.

2. THE HOMESTEAD MADE PossIBLE WHERE WATER IS AVAILABLE.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 8.

2. IRRIGATED PORTIONS OF THE NEWLANDS PROJECT, NEVADA.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE 9.

<a <<

|. SILT TRAP AT HEAD OF CANAL AT LAGUNA DAM ON COLORADO RIVER.

2. STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE PIPES.

Smithsonian Report 1922.—Newell. PLATE IO.

|. EXCAVATION BY DRAG LINE.

2. CLEANING AN IRRIGATING DITCH WHILE IN OPERATION.

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING——-NEWELL. 527

the house and the procurement of the comforts necessary for a
family.

Cost and value of works.—The cost of works of reclamation must
necessarily be limited by their ultimate productive value, and must
be kept within such limit if reclamation is to be continued indefi-
nitely. This value is determined by the ability of the landowners to
produce and market crops at a profit. Thus the problem of the prac-
ticable cost of reclamation is one not merely of climate and soil, but,
more than this, of the human factors of transportation, markets,
skill, and thrift. At the present time the limit of cost, taking the
country at large, may be stated as being approximately $100 an acre
of land actually benefited. This is merely a convenient unit for
measuring the relative cost of such enterprises and is by no means
fixed nor is it an infallible guide.

The cost of reclamation as actually developed has been larger
than anticipated. It was assumed in a general way when the re-
clamation act was passed in 1902 that considerable results could be
had at, say, $30 per acre. Ten years later the limit was put at about
$60 an acre, and 20 years after at about $90 per acre. Under excep-
tional conditions, such as those of southern California, and with
high-grade fruits, a cost of several hundred dollars an acre is prac-
ticable, while on the other extreme, in Montana, $50 an acre may be
a large sum. In the case of drainage alone $20 to $30 an acre may
be considered as a fair standard. That is to say, for the ordinary
farmer it would be unwise to incur expenditures above those which
have been quoted, but they serve merely as an indication as to
what may be expected or as a basis for discussion.

In considering the allowable cost or possible value of reclamation
works, it must be borne in mind that the land to be reclaimed has
in itself practically no value because it has no dependable produc-
tivity until certain obstacles have been removed by reclamation.
The land is worth only the cost of reclamation plus the other pro-
ductive improvements put upon it. If these improvements consist
merely of an expensive house, barn, or other equipment, not abso-
lutely necessary for adding to the production of the soil, the ex-
penditures on these partly used improvements can not be considered
as adding to the real value of the land. Because of failure to dis-
tinguish between real productive values and those things which are
desirable but not productive, there has been much disappointment
in the outcome of investments of this kind.

Geographical changes.—The work of reclamation brings about
notable changes in the commercial and political geography of a
region. It alters to a certain degree the topography of a country
and its cultural condition by the building of large reservoirs or

528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

artificial lakes and streams, but the largest changes are those which
arise from converting a barren and almost uninhabited country into
one densely populated and with villages or towns at short inter-
vals, with trees, bird and game refuges around the lakes. The settle-
ments are connected by highways and railroads; they are supplied
with electric power, utilized not only in lighting but often in cook-
ing and heating. The settlers have many of the conveniences which
are possible in a new community in which cooperation has been
highly developed.

The social or political changes are profound in that there is
brought in a population attached to the soil, differing widely from
the nomadic herdsmen who have previously been in possession, or
the mining population which comes and goes with the discovery
and exhaustion of local ore deposits. The shifting population is
replaced by the most permanent known in history—that is, the tillers
of the soil who are establishing homes for themselves and future
generations.

Soil studies——The works of reclamation, applying water to the
soil or taking water from it, when followed by the necessary culti-
vation, result in far-reaching changes in the structure and pro-
ductivity of the soil. It is now recognized, more than in earlier
years, that the soil, or that portion which is being tilled, is not
in a stable or fixed condition, but necessarly undergoes changes
which are not merely mechanical or limited by the amount of
water applied or abstracted. Irrigation and drainage result neces-
sarily in bringing not only water into and out of the soil, but also in
pumping, in and out, air and various gases. Many of these soil
changes result in biological developments as well as chemical and
physical alterations. In one sense the soil is in a continual state
of change, either for better or worse, as far as plant growth is
concerned.

Taking an extreme case of soil change, there may be noted that
of the apparently sandy soil on portions of the Newlands project, in
Nevada. While this has the structure of a loose sand, and has been
thus classified, it has been found by experience that under irriga-
tion it becomes hard and impermeable to water, so that after a few
years cultivation is no longer practicable. The application, how-
ever, of certain crude chemicals, such as alum, from natural deposits
not far distant, tends to increase the permeability of the soil and
bring it back to a cultivable condition. These changes in soil have
been discussed by Carl S. Scofield.?

2 The Alkali Problem in Irrigation, by Carl S. Scofield, Annual Report of the Smith-
sonian Institution for 1921.

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL. 529

Other examples might be given, but it is sufficient here to empha-
size the fact that soil surveys made prior to reclamation, while
indicating the condition which prevailed at that time, must be
interpreted in the light of past experience; also assumptions must
be made as to what probably may take place under conditions as yet
not wholly known. The soil can undoubtedly be greatly improved
with proper handling, and, on the other hand, it is easily possible
to destroy the value of the soil, as has been done on 10 to 15 per
cent of the lands which have been reclaimed at large cost.

The changes which take place in the soil and in the character of
the vegetation under irrigation may be illustrated by plate 8, which
gives, in the upper part, a view across what is known as the “ Forty-
Mile Desert,” a sandy and forbidding area on the old overland trail
between Utah and California. Over this trail thousands of gold
seekers have passed; many of their beasts of burden and some of
the seekers themselves died of thirst on this trail. The transforma-
tion which has taken place is illustrated in plate 8, figure 2. This
is not merely a change in cultural conditions; much of this so-called
“sand” has been altered in texture by the application of water;
some of the soil has been changed so completely as to be now almost.
untillable; but careful research, followed by the application of
results of this scientific inquiry, are showing that these soil changes
may be anticipated and met in such a way as to result in the main-
tenance of soil fertility.

New devices.——The problems of extension of reclamation and of
home making are dependent for their solution, not only upon the
careful observation and study of the facts available but also upon
the development of new methods, particularly those applicable to
changing conditions of soil, and the resultant effect upon the plants.
The ultimate success of reclamation rests upon continually meeting
and successfully overcoming the new problems of water conserva-
tion, its distribution, and the prevention of excessive use of water,
resulting in alkali, or soil deterioration, and in working out feasible
programs of crop or crop rotation.

Many of these problems are those related to soil erosion, the carry-
ing in suspense and deposition of the fine mud or dirt washed from
the land.. Some of the river waters—notably the Colorado River
of the West—are so heavily charged by the silt brought down by the
river that the irrigating ditches become clogged with the sediment.
Plate 9, Figure 1, illustrates one of the ingenious devices utilized to
overcome this difficulty. Here the water of the river in its lower
course at Laguna Dam above Yuma, Ariz., instead of being taken
directly into the canal is held for a short time in a pool; the heavy
material sinks in the quiet water, and the relatively clear water from

530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

the top of the pool is allowed to flow into the head of the irrigating
canal; then when the pool, or forebay, is partially filled by the silt
or mud the large gates shown at the right of the picture in plate 9,
figure 1, are raised and the mud is washed downstream in a few
minutes; then the gates can be lowered and the mud in the water is
allowed to settle.

Another engineering device, growing out of the necessity of con-
veying water through or across rough country, is illustrated in plate
9, figure 2, where is shown the iron skeleton or reinforcement of
concrete pipes, upward of 7 feet or more in diameter. These can
be built across depressions or around irregular hill slopes, and when
completed carry large volumes of water under moderate pressure,
and in localities where it would appear almost impracticable to build
canals.

Another kind of difficulty which has given great concern in the
past, but which has been overcome in reclamation work, has been
the development of a machine which could excavate canals in soft.
or wet ground or in places where men and animals could hardly
work. Such machines are illustrated in plate 10. A drag-line exca-
vator, mounted on what is known as a caterpillar truck, is shown in
plate 10, figure 1. This machine may be said to carry its own rails
and to lay these down and pick them up again as the machine pro-
ceeds. Thus it can move through wet lands, where a horse would
be mired, and can dig ditches under conditions which in the past
have been considered almost impossible.

Still another application of science and ingenuity, overcoming
obstacles which have long interfered with reclamation work, is shown
in the cleaning out and maintaining of canals for irrigation or drain-
age while these are in use. For many years it was considered neces-
sary, in order to clean an irrigation canal, to turn out the water and
let the bottom of the ditch become dry, so that horse-drawn machines
could be used. In countries where weeds and aquatic plants grow
rapidly this turning out of water during the irrigation season has
resulted in serious inconvenience and loss. Now, however, the prob-
lem has been solved (as shown by pl. 10, fig. 2) by a machine which
traverses the banks of the canal and reaches down, digging up the
weeds and dirt, depositing the material on the side, and without
interfering with the flow of the water.

The conclusion of the matter is this: That the vision of benefits to
the individual citizens and to the country as a whole has been shown
by 20 years of experience to be a true vision. The ideals of the
advocates of reclamation and home making have been realized in
part; much more can be done with corresponding benefits to all parts
of the Nation by increasing the stability of governmental and busi-

NATIONAL EFFORTS AT HOME MAKING—NEWELL. 531

ness institutions, as well as increasing the supply of food and of raw
materials. Nature has furnished lavishly the raw materials with
which to work. Scientific research and engineering skill have still
a large field of endeavor in utilizing these; but, more than all that,
the human problems, those of the selection of settlers, ways of culti-
vation of the soil, the maintenance and increase of its fertility, the
proper selection and rotation of crops, marketing, cooperative buying
and selling, and particularly the social relations, should be the sub-
ject of the same kind of scientific research and-of practical applica-
tion of results as has been found essential in handling the engineering
or material side of the problem.

Inspiration to greater work in all parts of the world comes from
the realization that the dreams of the founders of the national recla-
mation movement have come true; that permanent communities have
been established in places which 20 years ago were waste and deso-
late; that a high type of civilization has been extended. The imagi-
nation is stimulated to the point of attempting still greater achieve-
ments in the realization of those things which make for the increase
of human knowledge and permanent prosperity.

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He ng 9d, blaoda @aojpalos. Luiooe, pric lsalaothing, on fi phe
‘ » spailana. Lnoiny MLS f iy hava ff » dog.ageaT: pik apine. ig, os
1 ‘eaiweeningn, aul aq art. gi dablagzea. baso% qaadi eal ans
ae |
SOUS OPE: A FN Ti obclopgg, onl): tophla i
| ‘mand, sence rte om, sad ‘ve sheace Hy Hb ALOE, eAo Tg 08 ngage ;
palaon teqogen odf to 2ehauokiad to. arsgabodt, ted) doiteniig
ound pettbeasangeto >» Inanemried isd? ; ond osteo sted daectoront
2b bea ofan: A HPN one wengg OS, thidw,2opnl¢.oi bodaildas tg
qieaati ag I) bbasrKe 9 od, ans GIR siliziato, ort. gided : i Las!
swoidom natnary Uiewae fig rit.) aahicn Ser iogg. 9619 and beg ralocaida at s |
en ear! ash ot soleus doidy, eaqisdt: gens to, noi smilnet, ona
' Athi (Teva. Sponge ga | box. 3 bola eed. |

IDEALS OF THE TELEPHONE SERVICE:

A TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.

By JoHN J. CARTY,

Vice president, American Telephone & Telegraph Co. and retiring president,
Telephone Pioneers of America.

This is the ninth annual meeting of the Telephone Pioneers of
America, although our association is now entering its twelfth year.
On account of the war, during three years no annual meetings were
held. The Pioneers were then engaged in the great struggle to save
civilization.

The membership of our association is made up not only from
those who took part in the first development of the telephone but
also from those who have been in the telephone service for a period
of 21 years. We have in the service tens of thousands of zealous
men and women doing pioneer work now, but because they lack in
years, though not in achievement, they have not been enrolled. We
and they are looking forward to the day of their formal admission.
To these our fellow workers we extend our greetings and our appre-
ciations. In their hands lies not only the future of our society but
the future of our art.

Our first meeting took place 11 years ago at Boston, the birth-
place of the telephone. At that meeting the inventor of the tele-
phone, Alexander Graham Bell, was present and delivered to us an
address which must always be memorable in the history of our
society. To-day we recall with peculiar sadness these words which
he then spoke to us:

This is a great day for me, the first meeting of the Telephone Pioneers of
America and of the world. It gives me great pleasure to meet with you all
to-day, and yet there is a feeling of sadness about it. I am the first telephone
pioneer, and my memory goes back to the very beginning, and I miss the faces
I remember so well, the faces of the old pioneers, who I wish were here to-day.

* * %* JT feel it a little presumptuous on my part to try to speak of the tele-
phone to telephone men. You have all gone so far beyond me. Why, the little

1 Presidential address delivered at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Telephone Pioneers
of America at Cleveland, Ohio, September 29, 1922. Reprinted by permission.

503879—24——35 533

584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

telephone system that I look back upon, what is it compared to the mighty
system that goes through the whole extent of our country to-day? It is to
you that this great telephone development is due, and I feel that it behooves
me to speak very modestly of the little beginning that led to this great end.
I can not tell you anything about the telephone. I can not speak to you about
undulating current, intermittent current, and pulsatory current. I belong to
the past; you belong to the present.

Here stand revealed those lovable qualities of the great pioneer—
generosity and modesty—which endeared him to us all. It is true,
indeed, that he belonged to the past, though then he still belonged
to the present. Now he belongs to the ages.

Alexander Graham Bell died on Wednesday, August 2, at the age
of 75, at his summer home in Nova Scotia, near Baddeck. He was
buried on August 4, at sunset, on the summit of a mountain over-
looking the Bras d’Or Lakes. As a tribute to his memory telephone
service was suspended for one minute throughout the United States
and Canada during the simple ceremony.

The manifold activities of his life, devoted to the service of man-
kind, would require volumes to portray. The medals and other
honors which he received from learned societies, his honorary degrees
from universities at home and abroad, and special recognition by
governments, all testify to the esteem in which he was held. His
scientific researches in the field of heredity and eugenics, his experi-
ments in aeronautics, his work in improving the phonograph and
in teaching the dumb to talk, and his invention of the photophone,
reveal the scope of his mind. This record alone is enough to insure
his fame, but his discovery of the method of transmitting articulate
speech by electricity and his invention of the apparatus to. do this
have placed his name among the immortals.

Doctor Bell was born March 8, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland.
He went to Canada in 1870, and the next year, at. the age of 24, he
removed to Boston. After introducing into New England schools
improved methods of teaching deaf mutes to speak, he was appointed
professor of vocal physiology in Boston University.

In his spare time he conducted experimental researches in elec-
trical wave transmission. He was assisted financially in these ex-
periments by two gentlemen of Boston, Thomas Sanders and
Gardiner Greene Hubbard. By the summer of 1874 he had worked
out his theory that the transmission of speech by electricity could
be accomplished by producing “electrical undulations similar in
form to the vibrations of the air” which accompany the original
words or sounds. In spite of great difficulties and discouragements,
he succeeded in reducing his theory to practical form, when, at Bos-
ton, in the summer of 1875, he invented a telephone which faintly
transmitted parts of words and even entire words.

IDEALS OF TELEPHONE SERVICE—CARTY. 535

Mr. Thomas A. Watson, Bell’s assistant, relates that it was on
March 10, 1876, over a line extending between two rooms in a
building at No. 5 Exeter Place, Boston, that the first complete
sentence was ever spoken and heard through the electrical tele-
phone. It was spoken by Bell and heard by Watson, who recorded
it in his notebook at the time. It consisted of these words: “ Mr.
Watson, come here; I want you.” Thus the telephone was born.

After completing his fundamental invention, Bell, in a remark-
able document, predicted with amazing foresight the telephone
system of the future. He also invented the photophone, which was
the first method of transmitting speech by electricity without wires,
and the induction balance and the telephone probe for which he
was awarded the honorary degree of doctor of medicine by the
University of Heidelberg. To his successors in the laboratories in
which he was the original worker he left the further conduct of
telephone research and development.

Turning to other departments of science, he displayed his remark-
able intellectual gifts by the fruitful researches which he conducted.
In his work on behalf of the deaf, which he continued to the end, is
revealed a dominant motive in his life.

To Bell was accorded a privilege so often denied to those who
have advanced the world by their discoveries—he lived to see the
triumph of his great idea. When the first sentence was transmitted
the public regarded the telephone as a scientific toy. Then the tele-
phone plant of the entire world could be carried in the arms of a
child. To-day vast telephone systems of intercommunication have
been developed, extending the spoken word among the peoples of
the nations.

The advances of the telephone art made by the successors of Bell
were always a source of great satisfaction to him. Some of these,
epoch making in their nature, gave him special gratification.

On January 25, 1915, the transcontinental line, spanning Bell’s
adopted country from ocean to ocean, was, in the presence of dig-
nitaries of State and Nation dedicated to the public service. This
was a day of triumph for Bell, for, using a reproduction of the
original instrument, he once again spoke the memorable words,
“Mr. Watson, come here; I want you.” But this time Bell was at
New York, and Watson, who heard him with perfect ease, was 3,000
miles away, in San Francisco.

Another advance attained the greatest distance over which the
transmission of speech had ever been achieved. arly in the morn-
ing of September 30, 1915, words were spoken through a radio tele-
phone at Arlington, Va., to the Hawaiian Islands, where they were
plainly heard, But, as if to proclaim the telephonic conquest of

536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

time as well as space, the words reached these distant islands of the
Pacific when it was there still the evening of September 29.

There yet remained to be realized that prophetic dream of the
telephone pioneers—the bridging of the Atlantic by the human voice.
But the day of its fulfillment was not far off, for on October 21,
1915, during the dark days of the war, speech was for the first time
in history successfully transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. This
was accomplished by the radio telephone, which carried the words
spoken at Arlington to the Eiffel Tower at Paris.

The last memorable telephone development destined to occur in
the life of Bell will always be associated with a great historic occa-
sion. At the burial of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington, on No-
vember 11, 1921, the voice of President Harding, by means of the
new loud speaking amplifiers, was easily heard by the great concourse
of 100,000 people about him, even by those in the most distant parts
of the vast cemetery. Corresponding multitudes numbered by tens
of thousands, at New York and San Francisco, heard over the wires
every word spoken by their Chief Magistrate as clearly as though
in his actual presence. These distant multitudes heard also the
invocation of the chaplain, the music and the hymns, and the words
of the commitment service used by the bishop at the grave. They
joined with each other and with those at the cemetery in the singing
of the hymns, and they united with the President in reciting the
Lord’s Prayer, with which he closed his address. They heard in
amazement the salvos of artillery fired at the grave, and even
those on the shores of the Pacific caught the loud reverberations
thrown back by the Virginia hills. At the end, in profound silence
and with heads bowed in sorrow, they listened to the plaintive notes
of the trumpet sounding the soldier’s last farewell.

On that day the achievements of science imparted a mystical power
to the most solemn national ceremony in the history of America.
This ceremony, its deep significance so enriched by the art of Bell, we
can now believe contained an exalted sanction of the greatest of all
the achievements of his life.

These are but some of the advances which have been made in the
first half century of the telephone art, which is now drawing to a
close. They belong to the golden age of communications, which has
achieved the extension of the spoken word throughout both space
and time.

But this golden age has not yet ended, and when we contemplate
the possibilities of the future we discover that it has only just begun.
It is to the future that we must now turn our minds and direct our
endeavors. It is true that we Pioneers belong to the past, but it is
equally true that we belong to the present. As individuals, we must

IDEALS OF TELEPHONE SERVICE—CARTY. 537

all pass away, as did the first Pioneer, but our association, the Tele-
phone Pioneers of America, will continue to live. The greatest work
which our society can do is to exemplify the ideals of our service
and to transmit to its future members the splendid traditions of our
art. It should be our purpose to encourage and to sustain among
the men and women of the telephone system their ever-increasing
zeal for the public service.

While it is beyond my power to put into words these ideals of our
service, they already exist within your hearts and mine, where we all
can feel, though I can not express, their potency. These feelings,
which form the mainspring of our actions, do not arise from mere
wishful thinking, nor do they spring from an idealism which is dis-
connected from reality. ‘They rest upon a solid basis of achievement
and represent the practical purpose of that great telephone system
of intercommunication which bears the name of our first pioneer.

It is interesting to note that the biologists were the first to appre-
ciate the peculiar importance of electrical communications in the
social organism, and to Herbert Spencer, writing more than 50 years
ago, we are indebted for some analogies which have not yet been sufii-
ciently studied either by the biologist or the engineer. In tracing
the analogy between the telegraph system of his day and the nervous
system of the animal organism, Spencer expressed the view that prob-
ably when the then rudimentary telegraph systems were more fully
developed, other analogies would be traceable. This development
has already been provided by the telephone art, and national tele-
phone networks have now become a vital part of the social organism.
I believe that the study of these networks from the standpoint of
biology is destined to yield important results, and, indeed, that an
investigation of the remarkable developments of the automatic ma-
chinery used in modern telephone switchboards might even throw
light on the mechanism of the mind itself.

Scientists have long been studying the theory that man has ad-
vanced to his present high estate by upward progress in the bio-
logical scale from a microscopic speck of protoplasm forming the
biological cell or unit of life. They have pictured him as composed
of countless millions of these living creatures forming an organic
entity marvelously designed, each cell performing its allotted part
in that exquisite division of labor which characterizes this biological
state.

We commonly compare a nation to a complex living organism.
“We speak of the body politic, of the functions of its several parts,
of its growth, and of its diseases, as though it were a creature. But
we usually employ these expressions as metaphors, little suspecting,”
as Spencer says, “ how close is the analogy, and how far it will bear

538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922,

carrying out. So completely, however, is a society organized upon
the same system as an individual being, that we may almost say that
there is something more than analogy between them.” _

Each cell has its allotted and specialized work to do. Each cell
must be fed, and live, and grow. Sustenance must be obtained, pre-
pared, and assimilated, and the waste removed. The physiological
mechanisms for doing these things, and many other things besides,
have their striking counterparts in the structure of organized
society, and furnish instructive material for the philosophic student.
But to us of the telephone art, the most marvelous thing of all is the
nervous system, that inconceivably complex communication network
by which the activities of both individual and society are regulated
and without which paralysis and death would result.

We are told that the cells which compose the nervous system are
the latest to appear in the upward march of the organism, and that
the degree of their complexity and the extent of their differentiation
furnish a criterion for determining the stage of progress which has
been attained. Because of the high function, almost spiritual in its
nature, performed by these nerve cells, they have been called the
noble cells. I have long felt and often expressed the feeling that
because of this the workers in the telephone art are engaged in a high
calling, building up the noble cells which constitute the nervous
system of the Nation.

As in the animal body, these cells were the latest to appear, so in
the structure of organized society the highest form of electrical com-
munication, the telephone, is the latest to appear—it comes only at
the stage of higher development. And again, as in the animal body,
the stage of development of the nervous system is an index of its
place in the evolutionary series, so I believe it will be found in any
social organism that the degree of development reached by its tele-
phone system will be an important indication of the progress which
it has made in attaining coordination and solidarity.

The use of the spoken word to convey ideas distinguishes man from
all other created things. The extension of the spoken word by means
of electrical systems of intercommunication serves to connect the
nervous system of each unit of society with all of the others, thus
providing an indispensable element in the structure of that incon-
ceivably great and powerful organism which many biologists feel is
to be the ultimate outcome of the stupendous evolution which society
is undergoing.

That such an organism, thus so magnificently conceived, would be
the outcome of the higher evolution of man, I have long believed;
but its form and the nature of its functioning I could not imagine.
But the great work of Trotter, who has studied the gregarious

IDEALS OF TELEPHONE SERVICE—CARTY. 589

instinct in the lower animals and in man, permits us to contemplate
this evolutionary entity from a new point of view. He has pointed
out that nature, having failed in her giant organisms, in which so
many individual cells were crowded into such animals as her giant
lizards and the mammoth and the mastodon, was to try a new method
which was to dispense with gross physical aggregations of cells
combined into one body. He points out that the flock, the herd, the
pack, the swarm—new organizations—were to be devised by nature,
and to flourish and range throughout the world, and that in one of
these new organizations, human society, the individual man is still
to be regarded as the unit, but not constrained as is the cell in the
animal body, but free to move about, the mind alone being incorpo-
rated into the new unit by the marvelous power of intercommunica-
* tion. He shows that the power of these organisms depends on the
capacity for intercommunication among their members, and that this
power expands until the limits of this intercommunication are
reached.

How fundamental electrical communication systems are in the tre-
mendous evolution of the human race which is now being mani-
fested in the organization of society, and how vital to the welfare
of mankind is the daily- work of telephone men and women every-
where is being made more and more apparent by the discoveries
of the new school of biologists.

Speaking always of communication in its broadest meaning,? but
emphasizing the importance of speech, Trotter says: “ The capacity
for free intercommunication between individuals of the species has
meant so much in the evolution of man, and will certainly come in
the future to mean so incalculably more, that it can not be regarded
as anything less than a master element in the shaping of his destiny.”

And again, in speaking of human society as a gregarious unit, he
says: “The ultimate and singular source of inexhaustible moral
power in a gregarious unit is the perfection of communion amongst
its individual members.”

As long as intercommunication was limited, he tells us, the full
possibilities of nature’s new experiment were concealed. But at
length appeared man, a creature endowed with speech, in whom this
capacity for intercommunication could develop indefinitely. “At
once a power of a new magnitude was manifest. Puny as were his
individuals, man’s capacity for communication soon made him master
of the world. * * * In his very flesh and bones is the impulse
towards closer and closer union in larger and larger fellowships.

2In this should be included all methods of communication based upon speech, such as
newspapers, books, and letters, depending upon mechanical transportation ; and telegrams,
depending upon electrical transmission.

540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1922.

To-day he is fighting his way towards that goal, fighting for the
perfect union which Nature has so long foreshadowed, in which there
shall be a complete communion of its members, unobstructed by
egoism or hatred, by harshness or arrogance or the wolfish lust for
blood. That perfect unit will be a new creature, recognizable as a
single entity; to its million-minded power and knowledge no bar-
rier will be insurmountable, no gulf impassable, no task too great.” *

Here we have portrayed the forward march of humanity toiling
ever onward to attain its goal. The realization that their wonderful
art is destined to play such an important part in this final attain-
ment opens up a never-ending source of power and inspiration for
telephone men and women everywhere. It adds new dignity to their
calling. Already, as we have seen, the human voice has been carried
with the speed of light across the Atlantic Ocean, and across our’
continent, and far out into the Pacific, but still greater things are to
come.

It is the mission of the Pioneers and their successors, and their
associates among all the nations, to build up a telephone system ex-
tending to every part of the world, connecting together all the
peoples of the earth. I believe that the art which was founded by
Alexander Graham Bell, our first Pioneer, will provide the means for
transmitting throughout the earth a great voice proclaiming the
dawn of a new era, in which will be realized that grandest of all
our earthly aspirations—the brotherhood of man.

2 Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War.—W. Trotter.

INDEX.

ee Page.
Abbot, Dr. Charles Greeley, assistant secretary of the Institution. .... Ill, XI, X11, 87, 108
(How deep is the ocean?) ........-aegtidenses seat 275

(The architecture of atoms and a universe built of
ALOIS) Bos ersicac i sco sod see de Sate See 157
(Who will promote science?)..........-.--..------ 137
tt Dia Les ee tere 8 3 55 ce eos wen ee 6 hola ene icone 4, 9, 10, 16, 30
PAEEUINIE Se EV OR DGB yous she pr hse oe Pe ec Go Rar S ths Gale. Sane ete 51
PATEL SIVA MD WL Tne ee Phan ONC ANY Wak UR ki os ioe Os Sls a ae tole ae XI, XII
Administrative assistant 'to the secretary... 2.260... 060s le cece tence sine ene xu, 41
ee Soanencee Alpes na: £2 SSSA, Reet hee 5 Ota eh oe ee 115
SUM Neen ALUHe MeaaIeAN CARING) 6 oS oi bb eke wc soa eu ee oe yaa sede we merge 167
Age of the earth, The (Chamberlin and others)........-.......-.-.---------- 241
Agriculture, Secretary of (member of the Institution)...................-.--- XI
PuRCeeTELE It Se MRtROIIG Ol oo vc og ogo on tye So md ves gis ane 9, 15, 26
Alaska Hnpineerineg Commission... 2... eee eee eee YE RR NEMS. Gy 37
miskia, Pxtomolopical expedition toil: sb. 262 ee Lak. oP ae Ee 10
een manTN CR ERPEN USL I SIERE. © ERS Se sc alae sss Sa bd a 6 eae xu, 10, 16, 37
bic pis Bie. fies. Be! Sel, nd co oe ell erat kt ee xm, 22, 104, 105
Allotments for printing................- Sess Aes) dw 3 25 diol cianen mail Oe gee 14
PONT RMN MRS <2" NES 2 ake ig rch dan eel swt hog Se ach wo pe nu Se RS 26
munericam: Historical Association réepotis.. 05.22... 2.2... ee oe oe 13, 119, 125
Aamencnin Miseuni of Natural History 3.552. 6. + 2c as fe be cee coals ste aoe are 55
mimes, Joseph: S$? (Ac¢ronatitic teséarch).. 2... . >. -.-4-- 2-2, ete ae ces arate) a
Spee. bth Car. BRINE S Sees Sate Tc oe Nabe Aen ec es eta 37
PATIO GT ROM PTAC MOATIORS hy. 3) atresia aperte pe eeyeLs = <iagaicia osu isin ake nets Sete eo 10
Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory...........-..-- 13, 22, 92, 104, 108, 119, 124
wi sery, BUreaOb LoDo loec el desns sleet 5.8 x and SS Sead ale caaa 94
RSISMORIG, Rs aig > og ona in mg ead 92
Animals in the collection, National Zoological Park. ..........-----...------ 95
Annual rings of trees, Some aspects of the use of the, in climatic study (Douglass) 223
Anthropological collections, National Museum. ...........--..-------------- 29
TERn PPO ied UCIOE GION WY ASNT GGOR once on wenn Seige Sinisa ein a gs op 29

Archeology, The collections of Old World, in the United States National Museum
(UT) | ae or) le Perey SENE AED peo plate. 415
Arcos, Duchess de (Virginia Woodbury Lowery Brunetti)..................-- 48
Tsai ye ect i, anna, Dal 22 eae! WN RT| Free cla ae 38
Art works acquired during the year, National Gallery of Art............ cae 43
Reunion, THe Sxesvariols at (adrstang) is o.oo oooh lo mnae cee mie 509
Assistant secretary of the Institution..................-------...-- III, XI, x11, 87, 107
Ate ft MG MAHMAObUPOres. 8250-055 fe abate WAGE BO oe cece mroine 30
TMEV ACL COMME LOIN 2 ASEM oa kn ewe mee sails chase cans ehaeus XUl,,1, G22, lee
SERBIA: Bic SEs accra cee 13, 22, 92, 104, 108, 119, 124
Pe alee DT? Mh Fa Re) rt ne ae Le ah 105
SPREE a ates 3 tain bis taint Aa ca 105

542 INDEX.

Page.
Astrophyszical Observatory (library) 2.2. 2227. 2522 Ee Be BITE ES 115
Personnel .... spu. louse. Pee E, DO. Le COG 108
proposed solar radiation stations. ............-.-.. 107
publications. £ B. Wte do nn es ops ete ath. 13, 124
TOPOR so acceso nee eRe Se Mien ieee eer ran 104
solar radiation work, Opinions of the............. 106
work ob thie: years: Pio 7. ea. See 104
Atchison,' Joseph Anthonyya! ss bs ssa get ineiewabie. Bin SRA Sie Re 45
Atoms, The architecture of and a universe built of atoms (Abbot). ........... 157
Attorney General of the United States (member of the Institution). .......... XI
MMBUIAIAH OX POULUGR 2... ...25 a Sees ee ert ee ee toe ote ee sn med en tae aes oeee 9,16
RE ee eee eee ee eee. Sanh n osnesce canes sens sae 4,127
mvery, RoberbiStanton ss: 222s is32 32 2 GP ELSON. Br. SD 128
myers, Mrs,. Daisy. Fitehugh.\.22 224% S17 Od NOW AG hess we de cele Te 1 49
ie
BACON TING, ViNvINIA POLO. 2 oo 9a '64 0 ~ t)5 ate tee ee ne ete eee 4,127
TREO Si leah ofa ds von cdnittm nase trn ha keeam ata ag AE sea be 20, 71, 72
PATO T SEA ke Pin Pd om ear a kimi ep mdse Bin Se + by <i tg opie ee eee ale eee 92
Diairdrnanie Lacy Soils. 2s. Coo. ek eee hans pik eee oO ee ee 4,127
Det Memprial Committee: 230. doc Aan one cae he's nea FOR Sp ce see 12
Baird. Spencer Pullerton....23. 6.1. ipo. - dst cia - Po aa nee a, eae SERIE eee 12
Baker, A. B., assistant superintendent, National Zoological Park.............. XII
EAPC EMAE, AEG EW ab id deri Gigs op dw ml te ee 116
RM itt ce ee cn ha oe 0 sv soc stad = tiny ale oko © Cael hme el 94
He Tg STS | reall Sg Ee a SS CE Sb en a A NE bhai ee oe 12, 37
DaMeIGE, Lh, oe. GeO. oan dk OER A ee ee xu, 7, 8,38
BATOMAA cHky. Ey «mis ich ata epateid o-w 0 Rhemele SOR blake Mee tke Se ees emiener eee 92
TROT, IB ATIGE Do ca on x a.0.o nm naman aesnmwin angie res eee dealer 92
Beaver canal, Observations on a Montana (Berry).........------------++---- 297
CCl AWAILER. cot once tote de cick se ble tcl Soe tals Ge pias Ci elas once re ie eee ero 45
Bell, Pe. Alexander Graham (Regent). .:.....2.-.vode.> oh sens leeene ee -- 2,115, 131
Bell, Alexander Graham, A tribute to the memory of—
ideals of the telephone service (Carty) . ~~. vac cnn dee Cache dnaecce sche en 535
GM. dors TLAIMWOM oo as satd.c Sica leueteisiere st oio, nae eainae oes 5 ia aici ls RS ae eee 40
PRCA Wee aoe cts nae aes Coes ee oie biG hos nok CaN aik an ee ro Ril cre eo oe xu
Benjamin, Dr. Marcus, editor, National Museum..............-.-.---.-.---- xu, 123
EU Ne. cia Scheie Sales Miele ai ae ae ae Ae eee ee le ee 34
Berry, S. Stillman (Observations on a Montana beaver canal)..........-.....- 297
Biological collections, National Museum. ........ 2... 0. eis o-oo oo tn wie sine ene 30
Biological exploration in the Dominican Republic.............-.-.----.----- 10
BIGGAR DULVCY, Ws Ganecccs cote cra cde sees bess wa'snaen's x's den ope eis 92
Bishop, Carl Whiting, associate curator, Freer Gallery of Art............-- xu, 18, 54
PSIMIPA WIR OUEY oo J ona 2 Se eas heim eas sone a. bale clo nie del ahh cate oie Store ele ae 49
Soimatete TOA Wa) FA ol ake ee ee a Ae ee 51
OGIMMIGLO ETON. LiGscs os cic esemiewisies cision cle ee oe ee ee 63
MPRA MONE, OS. . ocak so cane ace sh eh ue sacs semen eee Ene aie 49
BAGH, PANE clean ac aa cone s mee ape ce ne oh aes anise oie ane a aan 104, 105
HGHHOE TURD 2 cic ce aaa tanec dcnee tet’ 2 uk ce eam eRe oe ee 31
TES OG N REL De caon yn, > eecam elege Sevag serene oie ok aie als cere ee aies Scie rere earn See en 38
Doluinica: Gkpediuon to, the Orient... ooo. cs peepee = <<=-ca bene saeeme 9
Brockett, Paul, assistant librarian of the Institution...............-.-...-- xu, 118

Brookings, Robert 6. (URGG6it).. 2 -c.--2seen'- us nerete teases ume aeeee eRe x1, 2, 131

INDEX. 543

Page.
Brown, Ernest W. (The age of the earth from the point of view of astronomy
[Abarat Wan <4!+ 24 -an totes aoisecdt tres komeeeht tases dt beebee'l lagi. aa! 269
Bryant, H. S., chief of correspondence and documents, National Museum... . XII
Buchtien. Wr Ott... 2.52.00 +9 6eneasiinie anne eee ease Lente iat dees 30
Building and installation, Freer Gallery of Art...............----.-----eeeee 53
Buildings and equipment, National Museum....-.........------.---+-+-2-+-- 28
Bundy, John, superintendent, Freer Gallery of Art................-.--...-- xl
Saree, Harry: Haq)... - Sedeni-wastdiatew Suet Wily as pie oe cece ere ene 10
Seeum, Hon, Holm O. . 2: rsigsndzesycatient ess begs SOs a Lath 31
PSO A UOUBUS. 3 -/20 56 2's peace os sreiocisewicitnacissieisinis puclpiclc pices amie PaO ree 116
unuell, I), I,,:i8...5...yetwesesvdddngs thn wisees ee Se See say 4s. 20, 70
Buttles, Misses Janet. R.and Mary:..2 1. 2.052. ..- cnimnddberabind wht iG ace 49
C.
Cambrian geology and paleontology......-..-...--s---5---mtldand ene! 13
Campbell Art, COg..44 4972014 -<3.tn-nod abana douse ts.. Md cnsll.cnad 33
Canadian Rockies, Geological explorations in the..............--2---2+.--2-. 6
Gameme Institution. of Washington...------>-0--ere<++--nas500e-dn Seed .t 37
Carty, John J. (Ideals of the telephone service—A tribute to the memory of
Mlexander Graham Bel). nooo. we cc elec a cuepernueine cine Heh ER SIN = ER 533
Casanowicz, I. M. (The collections of Old World archeology in the United
Pointer att) DI TSEU 2 oe ies sf os we cies Kn ener a Pip niet a nec one ae te eee 415
Caterpillar, The tent (Snodgrass). ....-- <2 ---eriensniee---PEMIEL 4d Hh Ge 329
SRIRIRED INTE OMAN 2 mde tesco ee eA esl pt nob e-xis® ovis o REOTE Hok oe 4,127
Chamberlin, T. C. (The age of the earth from the geological standpoint)...... 241
GharoAoanyan, Pit houses, Two (Judd)....-..-------sie de-ssehas! Lansd ee. ue 399
(@hancellor of the Institution. <4-i- s4.4sued,-be deweisits -ageadiertisgen Jo-mobuad x1, 44
(hemical types, Loeb collection of............i.4-- yaollte dasmitaY. caotunl 15, 26
Ghemist ‘Club'of New York.......4.4> sch qeidhiieduee Laocucioidl. -cidaell wae 15, 26
Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology............----2..-+-.2---20-- xir, 19, 29, 75
Chiefelerk, International, Exchanges... 11) ts 43 seu «ouwt).-.ch 4. .Urek gee xII
Meno ere teri OU RES VHS AUiOM <2. oe a 5 oo mm <pacs,<yepaiain..+,.~.00)5.000,<c0.nre.0.00 RE xi
Chief Justice of the United States (Regent and member of the Institution)... x1,
1, 2, 44, 131
uapereneartaer ay 1h | OMEN) cos coe eh s cages ws on eens eae Cee aeS Onem aes bar]
SS TE aged Dealer oom dela coee ieetman ales. (Milam mmnned tee Ma yater fein Va S xu, 116
MRE RNREE OLE M eon 20s toss toe eet op tog t a ope an coe oh eee 16, 36
ois ye! rahe) endl alcg tall dogpile tlie esa a gia at de ean AARNE ets RE hop x
Clarke, John M. (The age of the earth from the paleontological viewpoint)..... 261
Sareea aCe AE CE TEISELE VS) con on wo oso oo a so od aye oe ee a 187
Pe en EPEC RPE, CNANG. on. <so ance nan cee cs ange sacs aoa enema 53
Collections, Bureau of American Ethnology.......-...--.---+----+--0---ee--2-> 74
Urine, InHtIOHaE MTUECITN .) cic. oc cece oss cs mane'y «ap ook e bia ee ee 29
PETAG ETO POLOG CO aaa os i ee ies i ta 29
biological......... bn did a hace aul Sie ee a 30
SOCIOMICR ea anor. + 9 ain coin, sae k cae Rana 31
Fog Le ag FRE Ra me i OER Yo DRE a 33
TESCOLICR a San on phils sno/a wigs ie a 2 sient oe a wi 34
mineral and mechanical technology............ .. 32
ENN la eral iara Shahin a ah asthe Ae EA edie ae ae 32
WOFE OH. GOD. eae reailion Joc Mer aut wal 35
Ji Le del 64 sade get et Meta 7 ie aR aaa ESP BN ee AE PRR RN rc "TO nS RR 44
Commerce, Secretary of (member of the Institution) .................--..--. xI

544 INDEX.

Page
Commerce;/U.s8. DepartmoentGi:! 00) 23 J SS Eh TS TE cl 33
Compton, Karl Taylor (Recent discoveries and theories relating to the structure
of matter) CUTS. 2a) AE EEE YL ANY POUEES Co RA ok 145
Consolidated fund of the Institution?: .....-..--+-....ses2eeese tte et 3
conditiogd GE) ¢1) X9A7.4, s PObMNEISAL SE Be 127
Coolidge, Calvin, Vice President of the United States (Chancellor and member
of the Institution)... .2%2k A Re BT Joa x1, 1, 2, 40,131
Cosmos Club... ........... pessbtacostesstaresttenostesice ors é Beene see eA 49
Coville Drew Wes vive £0 689.8 1 eee Pe he eee eS =2a4 i: POR FO XI
Gtocker;s..Mirscow svt 2. 3! fe. 2 Seek ee ek ee hee as 48
Curator, Freer Gallery of Art....... bancscdenebeastene este sd Sct ee xu, 54
Guratorsof the. National Museum..«.: .....22..22-L PE AGS. 7 LE eee xu
D.
Dall, Dr... William. Healey... .< 224004225242 4220 0S POR, BRR ee Be x11, 116
Daugherty, Harry M., Attorney General (member of the Institution). ........ XI
Daughters of the American Revolution, National Society, report. ......-..-.-- 125
Davies, Lomer& Co... ccc ce Sees sccecevs desc CO Dee 77
Davis, James John, Secretary of Labor (member of the Institution)..........- XI
De" Forest, Robert. Wai. o.. osc s eee dus ctcccce cc cease te Bey See 48
Denby, Edwin, Secretary of the Navy (member of the Institution)..........-- xI
UC is a Le? | i mere errrerrErrrrrrrer rye i Ue) i 6 bce xu
Wensmore, Miss Frances... .... 0.05. .0ss0. 05ers RIOR) ST PRE a 20, 65
ews, Bev,. F.. Ward) d. csc ewsccanucs ccnbacscsazcttrclera ct sseeeee aeeeeee 44
Director, Astrophysical: Observatory. 2 {02 028. 882 LS RE xu, 108
Director, National Gallery-of Art. ..::222.22:s22Uh O04. SR xu, 34, 48, 51, 52
Distribution of publications, Bureau of American Ethnology...........-.----- 73
Distributions, National.Gallery of- Art: ....... 0. 42 SETUP SI TE ae 48
Dominican Republic, Biological exploration in the. .............-.....----- 10
Dorsey, Harry W., chief clerk of the Institution....................-222...-. XI
Douglass, Prof. A. E. (Some aspects of the use of the annual rings of trees in
CLIMATIC SEU Y,) oo sano pain ce rcrsratenc ere ere tere tore terete ta es Lhe ee Se 223
Duane, William (The radioactive point of view [of the age of the earth])....-- 271
Pee Wert CP EIRAI GF oe nie aan de oe Keane sve mk cet ee ea ee 116
E.
Farth; The age ofthe (Chamberlain and others)... ... 2... - ono we sen rape mee 241
Kast, E. M. (Two decades of genetic progress).........-....-.--2---«e------ 285
Editorial work and publications, Bureau of American Ethnology. .......-.-... 72
Editors of the Institution and branches. ..............-- XI, xu, 14, 72, 123, 124, 125
Pu SWOkion glib Goines, ie tee eset eter dees pee ee ee ene a 16, 31
Piston, Represeutativye Jcobn A. (Regent)... .... ~c-s¢c-e0ceee’cecheaens 2, 24, 131
Matomolopical expedition to; Alasla: <0 oS. 25 ae. 2b ae ie nh ee 10
Mate bisnments the Smithsonian... s-..c echt esc ace cis CooL eee eee 1
Pannolpry, the Burdau of Ambfican.)- oo) oo. cap ee ee deme cceek xu, 1, 6, 19, 36,427
CONeCCHONS: eee coe ek peer eee eee 74
editorial work and publications. ....-..---- 72
PURI: ( 25 9 1671): pelle Ss See ae mR apa 73
TIWEREY.. o 6 ce En eee hie ae Pe Ree 115
PIOMerby << eee ae ee eee ee emels 75
jee its! Ais) ee he ane oo, 8 13, 119, 124

GIStTIDNTION Ol. oy cance ee 73

INDEX. 545

x Page.

Ethnology, the Bureau of American, report...................-20.2-.02220--- 55

special researches. se he205. 2208 .skotarus : 65

staff. (2). ceeet deel ie Ei eeiominnlion tas XII

ye yaetor S * 228 oe) S08 sage! elhene3 on! shacottemiomalen 89

eeeanees, aMtormamonal. © 685i). ee eerie ood. cee edd ec xu, 1, 6, 20
foreign depositories of United States governmental

MEPICTIR 8 io 8 oi. ds ns 9230 ns eases see eee 79

foreign exchange agencies... ........5<....s2-2.-bs 82

interparliamentary exchange of official journals...... 81

POPOL se seep wes S's ysis a5.3 ay ns 39 as 44'S a's awe AER 76

rules governing the transmission of exchanges........ 85

Executive committee, Board of Regents, report......................-------- 127

EepeditionyAmataalians fs . «ads -bao-eeatlaliect So eesbaotateegus..@.0 ik 9,16

Gtamieah, (a, tae Oriente oe cane ecg sc snan a connate tulsa 9

Gntomolonical, to Alaska. 22 6d... o5445s2+-s060ceere nnd alee 10

Explorations and field work, National Museum......-........-....-22-.-2-..-- 36

Expiorations, researches and (Smithsonian)...................-.--22+------- 6

F,

Fall, Albert Bacon, Secretary of the Interior (member of the Institution) .. _- - XI

Lo) et LS Re Sp ie eae eas a A ey Nr ent PETE Nhe re res ee hE. a> 25

Fewkes, Dr. J. Walter, chief, Bureau of American Higanelony . x, 14,16, 19, 29, 75

(The use of idols in Hopi worship). ............-...-- 377

Field work, explorations and, National Museum........................---- ae 36

BATATCES OL UIOPULCELULLGOM A= et ss oo eae the Se ae PPE SARE eee RES + 9 oir so eee 8 al Fa

mere Uae Settee Ofc cer Se eee re Phe C2 o Sar eee reese et) ee ee 36, 92

Peeing, Mie tee ularts. tos Sue LS Oe enV Sees eres eyes ree ee 48

pero tie t sirinpine teiatde- ts. o Ss Sh ete ee Vee tet toe at coo o teenies 12

emer sates, CANCE ELUTE IPEE VT 2 8a fo eS Ae Oe ee els fo 2d ee eee ee! Oe 187

Foreign depositories of United States governmental documents..............-- 79

Pie PECAN NEON eal re nn Seat os OST e ete e le ce eh eta ete enee 82

MN ea rg fc A De en ee ne Corie Me A ow on Oo oe oe en ee Cee 38

Legler ED ASRS A 5 ni itll fled ky el agian. Libel bene mesh: pe sepia ite 33

[ERS 27s SIE II gol IE ala lh Pn ih Melle Ped ide rc pert 56

Fowle, F. E., jr., aid, Astrophysical Observatory. --..................-- xm, 104, 105

1 DEES EOE Top RA ie 2 he ele et pede eb eed ete dyte! cigs 5

Uo Se ee eb ke had ing bt LAI k | Seah ee eee agen eae Peed fy A 128, 134

Chemnmtriice: 24 hk Stee oats at's £4 Xm secs nS» aoe See ae ee 5

rer eaery ot ata Aah ke hae ne Ss 28ST ee xu, 1, 18, 53

building and duet aliation: PEP eye ergs Medei! | 53

eolipeiitin ante a eas aet hs ss25 2. one nos. keer 53

peiponiielsrsisistrs kt ssoisee Sie eee ee 54

almey 3 * spiracles recess Weer coe eee eee 118

CO SIDS LST At Doe k LSPS eR PER OR eter et x

Peps AION eMC CSe Se eRer cet esccs isc ek eee sake ess ieee h ae ¢ 51

ene an Only” Sse ety See? Sen eeene Ltpewnem: obras s too nen eeeb ties 48

G.

Sipatoee 5 (FOURS 434 Kies noew es creovantvicrs Mw acu das thas seas as ecteodeate ete 61

Gamaria, Praheisce Gonzales... 0. csecseciscussisdsdessdcesressecreatiilhe 45

GEA CADIS cia dewaamek are savaceseas ed aw ereganne oa:9 oe OS A 48

Garstang,.Prof..J. (The excavations at Askalon)...........0<00) 00M... ec 0 509

Gatschoet Draw... Se: sss eh Jeon Jaca. Jcebootarieq ie ober ss 60

546 INDEX.

Page
General considerations, Secretary’s report.......-...-..-202.2.22.222022-222---- 2
Genetic progress, Two decades of (Hast)....... 20.2.2... 2 2. e eee eee eee eee 285
Geological collections, National Museum.................-2----------5.2----- 31
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies.....................-------- 6
Géolbpical:Survey., (U8... 2.0008. cee Cle ed yess sn cn SO 8, 36
Gesellschaft fiir Wissenschaften zu Gottingen..................------2-.------ 114
Gat, Dosim ot vite sence esac canssnasncncdds 3-1 SO RIOR Sooo eae oe 51
Ge leyig Dien dea cnntanancca nace POI GR. SAOsT OAR DIO Ss Fret ee 8
Gifts and bequests, National Gallery of Art......................2----------- 43
a) Die Tener in. fi. ais oo dadecdacandonanaarscenwna soe eetn ices st caae see xu, 73
Gilmore, C: Weusitedive ie 2 FOLOTITS 22 BALI IY ORBIT oe oi herria tate xu, 8
Goddard; Prof: Robert: EL anon. oo 3TQIOt a E18 DINO, OOP ae 12
Goldsmith, J. S., superintendent of buildings and labor, National Museum.... xm
Grant, Mrs. ...8.., Jo. cserecsviedssweeees ses ed TOT OB] OF JAORORIOR = LT. 17, 43
Giant, Walter Mot. Mies. 2fd25d335 $5555 5 RAE PRO OO 18, 45
Graphic Arts, Collections in the division of.................2..2222-.22.-222-5 33
@ray, Hon. ‘George (Regent). 2.250. 2252 os OOS) Oe x1, 2, 130, 131, 182
ere NPS. SSS ty ete Salvia dock ae ole wate pete tuna aye cata Seen 37
Greene, Representative Frank L. (Regent).. weir ate ccs ian ERD ere
Guest, Grace Dunham, assistant curator, Brean Gollary: of chai: n3ge. O28a. xu, 18, 54
ie rte see ae ees ee ee oe See ais Sa cen esha can danqusend eee 20,71
Gunnell Vaonard:- «. - aust iall - eesinsae.k - bs edo tl Daido. salle oh. al xu, 112
H.
Age DOP IENETIC ents Beeps he ASS BEDI os Liles & Leones os < see ee ee 4
pe | TE eas nee os Se a eS ee aE ee TO ey 34
PSU 6 ae res See Fm rye seen peeend cree * NT 31
Haminltoni hand Jeti. Aree 6 et cd ek ee bee eee ee 4,127
Haney, Thorman Peis. Lac0e ck eS eC. Oe ss hee Been TE eee 25
Harding, Warren G., Prosdent: of the United States (member of the In-
AiTEWHON c= See SUE SOU. SA Eee Oh eee XxI
1, 27, 34
Harriman, Alaska expedition, reports on the........-. SYN 24 3 POPES Se 13, 119
Are sty, MIS PIS fic ose mn erence cn <ooeseBeet ee eee ce keke eee Ckeeeee 44, 48
arrinetion,. Jobn Ps... 5.1.25.) «= sweater peetobewededel> hte =n x1, 20, 64, 65
res Mite. cook eee es tec ieee meee wee eee ee ce be en ee 60
Bae PWV OE bess <hr Bee eet eat ak 3 oes hee See eee oe Eee 116
1 CRA ae 9 eet es ae ees ee eee ree See en Pepe 72
PARDO SE 602 Dh. ons sp ccbne abise eda cba ke ck simi itv an StS aeanlce elk tee creel 38
Hagley, Dr CNarleg cc. canes bene chen abbeti nt S vie Biscue wart al de bes eee bieee 10
Pa TUIRE ATOM: oo ok 23 \s's aw cia oe ates Mele ie ae oo ack beets oe ee 44
WIE, BRED Wa ccw roca Sees: oot penne s ono sss aos as beeen ea ean Tee 54
Tesnarcon, Jobn 5. GReGent) «i. -40n.oc<skese stapes te ieee x1, 2,37, 130, 131, 133
Papen, OsT Gunes onigticn btn = <5 -'4ec ta ene os owe oe on one op eee eee 4,127
12 CET Sh Ree eee yee ene ere ere ee. 16, 31
Re wibi nee wis .taGe cos akn cb eceae’ come Gee Wie the ee nee ee ee xu, 20, 61
Hall, J. H., property clerk of the Institution: ~..54- ... 405 Giweeieneee ser are xI
Historical collections, National: Museumisct? ico. se ese ee oe eee eee 34
1F Friel alts) el '<o6) Daas Wels ae eS a... SS Oe eae nl CRMAREE ery. ed 9
Wied ge, Wane ne saccades sans54 50s onasinrdys ss94 555 ou GSEeMD SEMROMA ey ae 37
Mpdgking tnnd, peneral. ..« +2... 1—._cde eae nenode ess ess s'5>c05e Kegan 4,127
ADOCCLAC... on ses oo ond peda d, deat Meee eT +. b Joes oe 4
Hollister, Ned, superintendent, National Zoological Park............-.-- xu, 14, 103

INDEX. 547

Page.
Holmes, Dr. William H., director, National Gallery of Art............. xu, 34, 51, 52
Home making, National efforts at (Newell)...............22........2200-20-0-- 517
Hoover, Herbert Clark, Secretary of Commerce (member of the Institution). -. XI
Hopi worship, The use of idols in (Fewkes)............-.-...-22------+------ 377
Hopkins, Mrs. Charlotte Everett Wise (Mrs. Archibald Hopkins).........-.... 49
Pear el MRM e Sf Geet hese stilettos sh.eenwrs sees oo ri xu, 116
Movenwoep National Monument: -::22....- 2-222 eee eee cette e oe eee eet 19, 60
seven p tense area ( Abbot): 22222 .+') PTI Oe oe eo eee. aes 275
Oar Pinel ain O)m cia er soothe ack ole cor ce TS DOSES ORY BS ie XII
6 APRESS RS Ce co ap he a rr ee De 9,16, 30
PereeaR LE: Os SNe eee re ome ee ee oo isn ow ow nin a aineecaucaizascmngean xm
bnrokelManliWees aes 2 iSeries sce. os cs salecweccecccectioancewcace 34
Ppiigs aleawer ey: PUGH. ts ne oe sre a = cin econ whe cect eneencandas 50
RAR Pea Pee ae oe aM, ae a inns Ss a oe ec edeleeedes sepa 18
TIME ee Pee R MESES 2 Pree Te oe ooo is wn nn on ans lalead ode name 4,127
Hughes, Charles Evans, Secretary of State (member of the Institution)........ xI
PEN DDPOVR Weeds Cl Gee ANC ClOWUN Yen ee oes one. see ee ec adccsetcceeeneces 187
aneritor, Dard): 2 2S REORR IIe: OUST Ee oo ic cen oe cee enceeen dune scklen 33
I.
Midis in Hoprwerebipi(fewkasjouX ladon’... ee ee ek Le 377
Illustrations, Bureau of American Ethnology.............---.--------+------- 73
Madina, Pecretary.of State for (British)...0wytos.. <<. 2.5 csc sescnenkecsdacine dee 15, 118
Interior, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)................-.-....- xI
Fetermational. Astronomical Union........-.....-4.... 0th. CoA Jere, 107
International catalogue of scientific literature, regional bureau for the United
BOIS ts aces ~ oe nocimerergeaitennncderoiecns® pind ORIEL) MOR) UR xu, 1, 6, 23, 127
POPON oi 3 acetate a rao tne raie.5 Joon Pe MEO Eo ek Se 109
DET We dc ics 0.2: ne | a ee keen. |! xt, 1, 6, 20
foreign depositories of United States governmental
GOGUIN OO ares Be on os Stila ae See ae 79
foreign Gxchange SFONCION. .. . ... 2.5 <waclheen saan ton 82
interparliamentary exchange of official journals. ...... 81
TOPOL ink sy atienansunieccscscassceve te tieor eons 76
rules governing the transmission of exchanges......... 85
Interparliamentary exchange of official documents................-..----+-.-- 81
J.
ag@uneon, Talo Cros. 2 2 ok ey ls do. edad tek eal 45, 49
Johnson, Representative Albert (Regent)...........--..-.-2-. ee eeeeeeeeesee XI, 2
Tite, rel, epee ipl al heal mm keith aie oe ep Pe EN AAP Pod BRS Sepak ae ted hy x, 30, 38
(Two Chaco Canyon Pit houses)... ..,-0-.2525 222s 302%. sewer. 399
K.
msined y, Maty Prete Mists ts 5565 cacncs ced cada ds 2 eagle ae 70
Saline, Bilsworthie eee ey ites. c 533s sveasstec sc teed ed ssaedes eee Se 17, 37
Knowles, W. A., property clerk, National Museum.....................---.--- xu
kramer, A’... cseeeeoe kes stay a eT eee Ce at ee Be ee ee 105
L.
Pear OMLIG , NNAOMt Ei, oe Se ES DRM lia» Siete sod x Bac kine nls © alte x11, 20, 62, 63, 68
DV AENG, Wis dioas 2a Maca meerete Ue Ie OR CARI. gausscl eins c nu oa CRORE Es eo eae 21, 89
eae, Samuel Elenite eel: J7; Soa heleahen. Lance coe a snciebece vince ae 115
Mawreuce, Mir, Fernie) wae esOniUk Shes. 2.6 oa ean pede reaces ce ecoee sec cte as 35

DT ee COIR ng Mile al 5 ais. o' 6 w 54. o'Snss «Wk ange > §13 5 isis we'd wi miles ele arens mare wate 92

548 INDEX.

Page.
Les collection, Isaac... 2... 354: tvs sousttalh. lon abesh «eto. 2h oeptltin. off. 16, 31
Leary, Ella, librarian, Bureau of American Bihaploeg ote o lento -ocisas xu, 73
Leavy, SOHGD DM: Bice ot sth te sectineces dn ste} te etadacoalhe baal seadec tt. 24
Leoture on the Gallery, iMlustrated .... .... dsas! aril : sj slide te meee cdl! oc tdlene 51
Toguher. Dr. ViCtOr.. /anrtteny tibia ditaceh - ax Be \ seal Se doaeeet abe Oe 26
DON aig eee ais vide de span ee een do ee 33
Wee, NUBMOTICE Vo. ee cnc yan tncccocs unre shpat x, 26
Library of Congress, Smithsonian deposit in..................----22e--2--e-e 15,115
Libraries of the Institution and branches............--. 222. -2eeeeceeesceee es 1,14
accessions, summary of............... 118
Astrophysical Observatory library.... 115
Catalogwing...-....:-+-s0700hdeeeed 114
employees library. .0<i% . «<i -«<naie< 115

Ethnology, Bureau of American, li-
DIST Y oop cows de he ne enaee aa 73, 115
Freer Gallery of Art library......... 118
International exchanges library...... 114
Main library, Smithsonian........... 113
National Gallery of Art library...... uk by
National Museum library......... eerie |
National Zoological Park library... . 118
office dibrarys2iteiné Jo. ugoiutl agent 115
report. ates Sul} Jat alge in waaiaiae2 113
technological library................. 117
Hosns, National Gallery of Art....................g0iwtl leoumnoveA lenott 44
Lodge, John Ellerton, curator, Freer Gallery of Arti iicoice tn ssepdstes tw xu, 51, 54
Lodge; Senator Henry Cabot (Regent)... eee ecm nee nn cee meae Bab x1, 2
Boeb: collection of chemical types... 5... << -cinsinncenoectian, 6.4 EH 15, 26, 27
Le bk ain en en ign, AS mst 26
LorentipiDgcand: Mas. dbat®. hota: le. astisiiceaob..acirao.«... 9c See 40

M.

Mann. Dr: Willlamgat leinitio- tn casedasecesctianteieeemial. oo. 16, 21, 30, 56, 88
ee er CAN ARM, TE oo a on ig uci con abcwceius oe MIUIME Oct a ee 51
Matter, structure of, Recent discoveries and theories relating tothe (Compton).. 145
Meron, .tr. Wiltnt Fe... . 2) v atopseoet. tlds Aic Galanin aan eni al xu, 116
peonmek, Senator Medill (Repent)... 02.05.2020 eee Xt, 2,00
McFadden collection, National Gallery of Art...................... pe ees 48
MeKmley,:Taeut. Ashley C: + \ £22232 252 82 22h i2e222 fii eer ages 70
MeMatighlin, James....<.22035202252.2222:()00a ee) DA ave alonemagit x 72
MeeWestheee, WIN oso. ca tcdet cect coyeeasesceateres seeceencen th eeeies sae nee 93
Mieans, James: ..:22522:33222:3532i2.. {seemed AE myaedopadt owT)) > 115
Rewer er mames Fo clot! IA) | lms See pcre Care ty 37S kek See Oe eee 115
Moser, F aiap Aliswartin 2/005. se fos eta ie) oo ee ee 115
Medici Soctety of America (Inic.).5i22ifiififieciii sie ee eee 33
Moener, Arioe WolLisi sto arer sees fost ehs sates rae eaks ceca deeen ae Revere 48
Meetings, congresses, and receptions, National Museum..................... 39
bE LCE ia 27 8 he Reine ahah ia td aR fig hte RE ee eked ona vialdntenehaentient =... 51
Mellon, Andrew W., Secretary of the Treasury (member of the Institution).... x1, 33
Meteor atine lristitiigon....2, 2252822000 2 ee eo) ee ee xI
Minted, Werencregree ats. STS ee Demet tt nee ee ee ee ee xu, 3, 14, 39
ESET, CUR es nots orl re ee ee eee ee ee ee eee 38

_ INDEX. 549

Page.
Michelson, Dr. ‘Truman... 2... 2.2 22 soccer A A, EOL xu, 20, 63
Miller, Charles Townsend Abercrombie...............1].....-..--------2--- 44
Mriioe sr. Gormit.S., jlo gs cne css eens tacd st bores eee caw agensscden pais
Mineral and medisnical jechnoldaee collections in the divisions of, National
1 a ee i ne: |. ls. | ae ee ine 32
Miscogean, J phi. CAGMSRS EEA ELE CREE SER REE TEL Cty ONS oc Ua amine 61
Cu ERR TR SPE ea Ch ca Sie Soro pS e igen naw perch Aare he pela, Yoke? = 116
Brrr, “horeek MG WANG. = cei cu vee angananex nsaanas sess 2 eee em HoveT Lad a€ 44
Wetoien,, Carl Wes coe c ccc s ese oe SRT BPI TO) DAS tO. Viteiotoer xm
MMOONGY , JAMES. 2000.2 cua asc tcsauetarspesectitesabitecetcsatetesaanane 24, 62,75
Moore, Al Woes cc esac sce Sscckssatstsaasadss des PID, Amoi as 22, 106, 108
Moore, Charles. - =.=. 45.22 o¢22<200 US Bmore da einolio Wanorte i) Ad 51
Morvan, J. Paerpont.--.<22::2s2c22.:222252525 ister c.. eee eee a 48
Mulford biological exploration of the Amazon Basin. ....-............. 21, 36, 88, 89
Reationd-Co:,.H. Ks caceccecsssssecihsahscesstetsgsyisssso see QO me 21, 36, 88
Multiple-charge rocket, development of...........----.----------------e-eee 12
EN RE aN fe wine wise Nate cin, whi oP Be cians oat cates Sarees encase 73
Museum of the American Indian (Heye Foundation)......................... 37
L072 Lose ie lage pal lira ie Paes sia’ars ni See ee e's ie aha oa 92
LR." al ep a af adit ge ea alee ne Ne, apap ey exe 20, 68, 70
N.
Nebonst Aesdemy of Design) fei: fs 224 rear BOR bak leroy. 44
National efforts at home making (Newell): =................00.--0-0ecccceee 517
Wawonal Gallery of Art Commission ....... 5.36605... 6. ee ei vec wee wsia'e 18, 51, 133
Watwonal Gallery of Art:...........-.. Sons. «cf Josuuo.! scited aves xu, 6,17, 127
art works acquired during the year................... 43
Gate buss Suid as cae soo ee cd ew ese ee 48
Gitte sid heyuemMe ee 2s... 0s «6 sa eo os ce PIB 3 43
Hughes alcove, Rev. Bruce...............J.tsielhs 50
lecture on the Gallery, illustrated..........-....2.... 51
MOU Vinee esis Rote deee ska scecds kes ees 117
Ea ne ee Coe Seen enn ee eer meyexes «(Ei 44
McFadden collection. .........4..:..-Lastel. amet 3 48
National Portrait ‘collection... .:............-Loted.. 47
PURHORMONHS: 25555542 255 a.5 0 2k5 ski ebeuts sane eee 50°
Ranger fund,.Henry,Ward.. .\.:10.a4..ta vouw da’ islet: 49°
POPOL Aso. t cal. .0-..2.-... stn el shenlel ani 42
Wational Geographic Spciety.. 4.5.0... 6 2. n so. ne nen cena n use See Dee 30, 38, 55
National herbarium, United! States: 2c0.0. sabe. sc swan. ok bcd. ods ue nleedios 9
contributions from the... ...............-- 119
MefGidnal Muse0m Jone cc sind sess ass] Diuel) comet xu, 1, 6,15, 37, 116, 127
Sqllechone. 2... 4<..s022000--0 3 man B20. esha 29
PON ees dS dla dayne bc hie oka ea 40,115
PHDLERHONE).\.... on.0s-6 02 Adelwnsiwr sas 13, 17, 40, 119, 123
TOPOL Ss 55 ss ncha 5 cir aaiersrrdneawsre = te SEER OD q ao ea: Bah 26
panrterbad ! 006 Ms Sec sowcas sodute hatin salt Jo lsctouard sr9de 17,41
Natjonn. PorttareGlecson fd WS Sb he cccasoan eS ode tld. 47
Mista BOOIORIGRINE AE. 2282 SiS. 3 ODE. aoa DER wth lawns xy) 1;.6; 21; 127
secessionists. o: Jo-ael ewes. bein edi Joie 88
alterations of boundaries... . .............. Ub elseutiewle .t 102
animals in the collection. ......-...-2-......-.-.-0- 95
SUSAR EORD aco a ea nitemnie Wau neweee sss «tate as 103

55379—24——36

550 INDEX.

Page.
National Zoological Park, improvements. .-.-..........-.---seecwerb ail aee 102
TIDYATY -<.-.se +s Shem PERO Ree atta. 118
FOOT oii es ui 5 based te eee eee. 88
statement of the collection. ..............2........ 101
Bipermtendent:s: -2 tir fe ne ee ee xu, 14, 108
NIGEL: Fos Shoe decinene tvecceetouse eee ee 101
Mavy Deparunent, U6. nt sem cesccesveacesse s+ s+ == deed Del LoeeOM ae 37
Navy, Secretary of the (member of the Institution). ....................... XI
MUNG ae 2 oe he Ss g's tebe wane seater eacmate ereecee eres. eee ee 24
Netameongarch Laboratory, director... .0..----ics--cve-cs--ceesecaee oe 105
Newell, F. H. (Nationa: efforts at home making).....................2......- 517
Wow York Botanical Garden. 20.0 oo eo eee cc ee eee 37
Werhen; Miss Florence EB. . . ..-. .<snaihnepyuride se u)- bp seed aise Laeeebaie: I 45
Mecon relics Gertrude Mo... oss oas wc vcwies oc sac noe edcnuaded eel ee 45
O.
Qeean, How deepisthe? (Abbot)... 225 x ketiek one Ae ee eae <tr oes 275
Old World archeology, The collections of, in the United States National Museum
ROOT WET, oo a nin oo a aa x ie mam nin 0 a As SRE y BINS eu bas Gee 415
Olmstead, Arthur J., photographer, National Museum....................-..- xu
RRNA Tats CURA ao near Sino mn 5's NE TE nts Ed wld crore arate 93
Qsient, botanical’ expedition to the. «...{c200..0 201... ogi tn werk & 9
FP.
Padgett, Representative Lemuel P. (Regent).............-.-.2.2.22222..-- x1, 2
Paleontological field work in the United States. ......................2.-... T
Merke, Dawn eee. s ee lees codec oc SOD, fo oe ae: 5, 128
Parmeleo, Jamies. 0.0: 22-6 52222.24. ss eeopal bee stg) 2 17,51
Partello,. Dwight T--... 2225. 2... ert we coda coda 22 2s s2t2sie2! 30
Pénnell,. Dr. I. W_.......5..botermudii ,ginlian) add. ao.etteel 2... cee 17, 30
Nii 55 chai 535 aa te ee Seed ook NG te ees 37
WEE, Gh ences Caeser ne cbsaadeasdeasvesetas eaN thm OGOnnol cite a. Meneame XII
Pemning, Gen) John J- 22. -1...225...c0noalion meh Oaua. : 2 ger222 sites. 34
Pate, Marshal... 2... 2245-2 =. SGUUSIEEE SieIO. FEUOEUES 8 2 TIES 2 34
Sh TaN R ERT MN 4! 5) : Sila ep eet bhp. 68
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.).........0.0.0.-.-.--.---------- 37
Bmiuppine glands, Mora, ofthe .. ..52- aoc esemns- SOQ. on aheclnenkade 12
PRIM DENACAD OMY. «2... nner cene ncn smc gmemsennven ts SEK OE ED Ae 55
Photosynthesis and the possible use of solar energy (Spoehr)..............-... 175
Trot, Hey, Fi... a. cccr-n 2M RDM ROOM GG UES «oe beans gimmie pena aly 107
Pat: Houses, Two' Chaco Canyon (Judd). ... 0.02... .-..s0ccemecenss MOORE 399
Ment Gndusiry, 0. 8, Buroats of. Woche rors nwran ns CORE SEES 37
SESE COSI LOA Ecc: aia spocaeqcney stot oveta one aed far tn ph coach hopin cect natal oe 34
Polygraipiic,Co,’(Berne, Switzerland)...-............... 2. abbteniidat oi 52205 33
Manre tund,. Lawcy. Ty and, Geeta We ooo sone min acini eicnmensmicgeeeem RE Bae £ 4,127
Postmaster General of the United States (member of the Institution)... ....-- xI
FRO L Mag «Tie WW. <= <psrcicuciny sya nipninne sensei boimscictonahakenenionte losses ae ae a ee ae 24, 61
PEACE ELSE ROTI. occa os — aw cae ee nese se ance penca Suan eee oes 48, 51
President of the United States (member of the Institution..)............. x1 1527 34
Ernting, allotments for.............Afabdsed Ie aaaretla. eens 14

Proceedings of the board of Regents of the Institution. ................--.-..- 131

INDEX. 551

Page.
Publications of the Institution and branches...........---- 1, 13, 17, 22, 40, 50, 72, 73
FEPORUE Hoe eee ee Pete ee terae 119
fej io 2) gitar ley OAR aE Ara 123
R.

Ranger bequest; Henry Ward - « 2.2.02. SUP0E I BROS eS 17, 18, 44
fais SE pe ee Oe 49
Rathbun, Dry Richards o262. 9 2 Be) BGP SOL TG EO Tene 42
' Ravenel, W. deC., administrative assistant to the secretary. .....-.......-.- xu, 41
Redfield, Edward -W...::.-.~ =.= fO9RRAIES JRMOM EO TOUAL OED FIT ME ot 51
Regents of the Institution, board of.-.........---.. 2.20. eee eee eee eee eee pig]
annual meetings: <0. ts SO 131
executive committee, report....-......... 127
permanent committee, report...........-. 132
preceadinmeyT lis Of ACORN UOIN AD? ows. 13]
Reid fand. Addison: T..-<.2..cdncn stn eeee chet nee ete 6 4,127

Reinhard, Edward J. (The life history and habits of the solitary wasp, Phil-
GICNE AGGORUA) 5 FRE oe es see er Oe kt 263
Religion, The Shake, of Puget Sound (Waterman)......-.-..... ee ea RR TA 499
Research in Tropical America, the Institute for..............-.--.-22...-.-- 11
fosoarches and-exploratigna.! 40.962 VOeId BE Te oes cee eee 6
quhees And + iM eae ce. 2 eee aes tte eee ee TOR ee, NOUR S 4,127
Rhoades, Katherine Nash, associate, Freer Gallery of Art...............-..--- XII
michrmonG, Dr Charles W «2: rr... 2st 20 OR ee te ee RS xr, 116
eueway, Lin, eberts..., 2 ~7.24 7. Soe oe Se re oe Sees ee eee XII
REN WO, deve Phaeton She chee tek pete temas nade sais hon Le Sd 7h ee 116
BRAY thir Crcncnrs oh YRS OR TR, OSL DOR IMO TR, ETE BOUT CROWDER DD) 2A ade a 68
fuverview:Collere, Aumtralia..» + <....5% 65.046. 04 tet beet cee ce nee ee aes 107
Rocket, development of the multiple-charge................----.-------+---- 12
Brabling. John Asc. ttkeewd-eie tice tethietsscisscsenring 5, 22, 23, 31, 104, 107
Rep nine Cieb, NWaseineton At. 24 58 Det KGL t GL inet ke ce te eee ome eee ee 31
BCI ARES © FUL ee wale oan oe tae ny aie been tie ek eke Rees sate sie tile she EINE Be 116
reese: rsd -aiepen Secu aey oes 22 nos so x VER BO) IANO ARE, OER oe iS aisioe XII
Deepal p ur otR et dass tok cost cs str sR OR eee 114
Rules governing the transmission of exchanges...........--------------+----- 82
Mabey lhe. Eby PES oan etek cays Reye's hee bbats rst cae OF Ree A eee 36, 37
1 oo STE (ed NE RS Ss nes eh Rael PN ek th a eo yar tes fr tetany Mtg Ha” 31

Ss.

parvedar; Fneleepu bie Olotandley 0s, ee eae ae oeniteneee eee 309
Breer) Wet Cree Tense as ee os oh at aes oe a ets tut eee 4,127
ae NRL. 1) a: Cede ane iy: 4. alate Remade lpr ceca ae i Aina A oh eet beet 32
RE TIEUULR WVU eee Ne ene eae so Oe SE eee, Rei 116
SAP TIEUWR ReN Ne LE0 hil (Ropes hehe a ep ele SR Aol Ae lal lhe aa eee Meal Meats Ath oie Bia XII
PaeOn Gr oempmUnmAmesnAT PhS eet st tte oeee cea ee we 6 55
SUCLETH F177, al Dispos C1 2 Le) A a he ee) 2) ea a 94
Seipnien, ‘Withwa promimie: | CAO). ou nice nsec ce wajase «Seer s aceepe epee 137
Scudder, N. P., assistant librarian, National Museum............-...------- xi0, Lue
Searles, Stanley, editor, Bureau of American Ethnology.........-..--.-- KU, 72,124

Secretary of State (member of the Institution)...............-..---.---------- XI

552 INDEX.

Secretary of the Institution... ......... -... ssioxswet Jods senidsigbiuck odd: kn veolies xy,
xur, 15, 25, 31, 44, 48, 51, 52, 54, 75, 87,
103, 108, 112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 125, 131

RODOIU stan = pea wig oe = Pale nee eee ae Sear elie x 1
Secretary of the Tresaury (member of the Institution)....................- x1, 102
Sectional libraries, Smithsonian Institution................-...-2-.--2------- 116
RIONLOF, SAMCN Ras 23 2s eh eee cere la eit cle PeeR NE ree olen ee a 26
Shake religion of Puget Sound, The (Waterman).............-.:2-..2--2---2. 499
moannon, warl V....'. .... .syaaavenn acktcat sembeies. oebeertenemdha - be eens 39
Shoemaker, C. W., chief clerk, international exchanges... ........-.-.----2: xm
Bmsthson furid.- 5225.25.22. etl los feta be deaeck saokbian! ott ee 4,127
Pemiitea. (tS - coo. it cs. < wees eee cd on cae sn be cena 1, 26
Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication................ 14, 125
SNNUAl SEDGL na ieiara-beonatieg--<-+---+--~--daeccanseraee 120
contributions to knowledg@anjijsaacua-=--------- See c nn ncecsenes 13
I on ope anagrams ee abo meer: ce en re 127
Library <o4ilo=-add 4o-etited ‘baa-vreteidl sAll- od°> - -h-bwer it. Bey 1,14
miscellaneous collections. ..... 240.22 sss--90+ crs 02-ceeeseeed 13,119
physical tables. .....-/~necmete yi} duvasesdonath ky cadadte etl sax 119
Snoderass, R..E. (The tent caterpillar); 12.2 :sst. «<ig- wissnsd-hepiee ade 329
Solar energy, Photosynthesis and the possible use of (Spoehr)...........-..-- 175
Solan radiation stations, proposed ..... -. << .<cerees-recr ees eerneeseccer eee 107
work, opinions O6tho, «,t(-013 42545)- -apicigonsa «sends sreenbbeod 6 106
Gowarpy, Arthurde C.. ....-......---seageens---p555+ =< eee) ool ee 16, 36
Special researches, Bureau of American Ethnology .........--------.--+----- 65
PCE ENT a ai og a ining = Sepa nl thins 9 op os ene ps nee RSed eee eee 26
Spoehr, H. A. (Photosynthesis and the possible use of solar energy).......-.-- 175
Springer, Dr. Frank... 2 ..<..--0s--202-s-2+2520>>27s-ethereet sealio) aee 16, 36
Squier, Mai. Gen. George Owen... ..... -casepsnclepistnm ack bs ghosneolsval« i
MineArGheMmIeAbOO . oo... ecw seen ae ceccneshssvecpeetnnses he gelok vad 3h
Standards, Bureau of, director .......---.-..-------.-- = decpebastisiel- den? cen 105
MCG RA ene ieln nc ncn bs eta emes sure bee ces a Soeu Sess te 16,37
(The Republic of Salvador)... .....-...-.<2<-+5v--5-9E shew 309
Stanley, Senator A. Owsley (Regent)..........---------------esebesé ede x1, 2,131
State, Secretary of (member of the Institution). ........-.---.---.s.ee-- eens xI
tees Cl. ts. LIB DGSTIAICHS OF «3 oc u pawns cs 5055 dag cee lms deve es eae ee eS 35
RMR? UT TAO os ath eile sem ile Asie lbs 0 pw a6 nin Ma oot a xu, 14
SLT IS Spsg B Yet Cri a eran grein Sk tr gi tau i er ap ie ae Wis A A 94
SO, EME EEE AR oon ox pins Se eas aie RAR awn ols Kem nis w aie ket alee oe eee ea 30
Structure of matter, Recent discoveries and theories relating tothe (Compton)... 145
URINE, PMGERO oo abn rie pee ee eases oil toss on Seen re 44
Sulgrave Institution of Great Britain and the United States..................- 17, 44
Superintendent, National Zoological Park. ............-...--.---------4-+4 xu, 103
CAMERAS Gilt cin w bik oie sme ee ak ao eis thas icin ek Bniis 2g Se ee 4,116
RSA EO I OT, NOMEY EW choc cits ie she Ria ca oei Six Bae cid mse ei et oe ee cae xu, 20, 60, 61
qT:
PPG ROMOIGS Decor e soo ccc eee tet ee oe keen oe ee 48
Taft, William Howard, Chief Justice of the United States (Regent and member
OURS P oe TPL UTLIROMT Yes on a in tw ne inte re a x1, 1, 2, 44, 131
Telephone service, Ideals of the—A tribute to the memory of Alexander Graham
"221 Lig | bg je eas alata ape siete eb apak ldey geet hel dys y ep spl lie eed) spot orph oy Bc 533

Tent caterpillar, The (Snodgrass).........-.-- ase nine sa one OR ey oe ee 329

INDEX. 553

Page.
Textiles, collections in the division of, National Museum.................2.2. 82
CE SE DE les 0 ee, | er 105
Treasury, Secretary of the (member of the Institution)....................... XI
Trees, annual rings of, in climatic study, Some aspects of the use of the (Doug-

2) EES SSR OCIA P ET | re 223
Gippnciunrd award. oo se a a mni isan SRE ONCE 2 3. 2. ce eee 49
Tropical America, The Institute for research in. ......2....--.........------ 11
fare: WV... P., eotior.or the instituigges ..o2)) 5... 35 RUMPAR oc. eee x1, 14, 125
Gackerman, Mr. and Mrs. Waltersticgthv: sl)-t2 Jasmioiele ..........2 2.0022 44

U.
ODN eh USS RR US EYL | A Ee ea ee 38
Dime AN) UOMO WORKS. 9265 fe ee. 5 Si coe Soke s we. inte ew cee acate 45
mE ers BTR ee ae ery OI ee. i a eee Re Me Ue TA el Ns. aoe sets 45
V.
PE ee eo ke a amas toes eo Se see ce etek Bei we coves k oe sacle 34
Vers Nationg) Pabrary, bangkok... 6). ond otinicil ss akaee acco es saeeacee sce 114
Vice President of the United States (Chancellor and regent of the Institution).. _x1,
1, 2, 40, 131
W.
Walcott, Dr. Charles D., Secretary of the Institution. .....................-- XI,

xu, 15, 25, 31, 44, 48, 51, 52, 54, 75, 87, 103,
108, 112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 125, 131

OR erent Se ete renee eel ie eye ah ete alate a OVENS cle: wc, 0 Sacra ee 1

NPT PIN bry She a G7 a Wal Pee D heehee es pe aN pe 2 erp eth a a ee ran 9 Slee 15, 31, 116
Walcott research fund, Charles D. and Mary Vaux.........................- 4,127
oS OSE CEM Sts doy sy SS et Be) Senor ee ey Sa RAN GOD eck EN RR Sa, ce 54
Wallace, Henry Cantwell, Secretary of Agriculture (member of the Institution) . XI
War, Secretary of (member of the Institution)... ..............0..00.000020000% XI
Wilk art COUOCIION s «o's 2 oo 5 oo vs sie aces sefeldaciscels ae sues 15, 16, 26, 29, 35, 40
SE eS EET ee nc SRDS 20 5 a 2 ge RW ea 15, 26
Ca ls 1 VEE PSH GALI SPH Ou (010 lp ee em Peer tis OL 38 SO A Bc 29, 40
WN SImen ye Vit GOP CUR ANS ete an He ops trees lec eee ae oie scleleig nia wind 30, 34
LST GET ios AER ee eee eh TR I Ry aU Re Oe 30, 34
Wasp, solitary, Philanthus gibbosus, The life history and habitsofthe (Reinhard). 263
we TET Looked OSES 2 ee an ih ed era ca 19, 56, 67, 68, 75
(The Shake religion of Puget Sound)..................- 499

Weeks, John Wingate, Secretary of War (member of the Institution). ........ XI
LRG TEE Hoe Td Sens EE a a yO 70
a reCtns (PPR Mette ee oe at co AU hah bo SO ete’ XII
Mv Gana ner meerwam qonmeides. oc ce os beeen eee ce 131
Ne MPR 11 on 5 Ge A a x1, 2, 48, 130, 131
LS es Coles 2 OS ig Sl SE Serer a a a Re Se 10
Wy trees Bramopmiaenice, | (ADDO). 22. cao nl soko cec i occa sceckcadecueee 137
Wood, Gen. Leonard, Governor General of the Philippines... ............... 12
(US EM URRETIS o 0 0p 21 OI io CAE I eR Ee ae cen cee 16, 30

Work, Herbert, Postmaster General (member of the Institution)............. XI
(OSE ERSTE TTT Sh 28g Slat ORGINAL a SA NE 32

554 INDEX.

Page.

Moological; Park; National... sovosed! asst 10 ED ek i. tes xn, 1, 6, 21,127
DCCOBSIONG rere ccncyot-1~ force coe eee EL. 88
alterations of boundaries. -......0..20..00050.00..2. 102
aTiimaleimithe: collection 2.2 6212.00 ie Meet AU 95
Baa Tage bana TG ag A ect cept oncnntnttaret nan ritaap me 103
RETO V GUAR a aaron marr errricbertns a bce SREY 102
library. .....21 dcueat wh.sinties! is. 22th 4 118
POPOL 56. oeen s BOR UI Baal. OBIS. IRS ae 88
statement of the collection. -...........2.220.2..022. 101
aripeminigndont: | qsod asset - 6.222 -lcnacntreee xu, 14, 103
WISULOTE= 62. So 2a, cis Sm a ed wer Se 101

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