ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30 BO (Publication 2879) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON 1927 as oe em ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PURTICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT y $1.75 PER COPY (Bound) LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, SUBMITTING THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1926 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, November 18, 1926. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1926. I have the honor to be, Very respectfully, your obedient servant, C. D. Watcort, Secretary. Tit CONTENTS Page. Het AOr Gmelin ls a ee ee ie _ Xi ‘The: Smithsonian’ Mstitunion. olan se sits nee ye Sete eS eo Saher 1 her estaplishment === ese OE a eng Se aR ees 1 The Board of Regents Ses 22 let Nib yen ie 2 eee Bera ee ey 2 General considerations = 4—4 = ee ES LE ee ye BESTT ER Y1G GS farted nae Se ene ta SEU Fok a ed Sieh he) ee BY 5 Researches’and explorations! 222% Siu sey) At bees ieee 8 Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies____--_-__--__- 8 Collecting fossil footprints: in Arizonal2 tees se pee Bae 9 Biological collecting in western China__~-_-__-_--___-____---_- 10 Study of the crustacean fauna of South America____------_-~-~ 11 Anthropological studies in southern Asia, Java, Australia, and South Aare Os SUR ae aE TS A AEE ee 12 Archeological studies -in--Mississippi_——-—-.-..=.--.---. 2222 15 Smithsonian “Pa iO Cages tee SO kh as YR ee ee Oa 16 Smithsonian exhibit at the Sesquicentennial_______________-____---- 18 Publications. "2 ee. Sel eRe Sie ee eS OA ed 19° SN a fo ea Vy a I Ge Es ST PU VES Ee AE TD al INGTON AL? MES Gury ee 2 REL PETE Rte ES ELISE Dey Pry ee 22 NatonaleGalleryOf cA Tha) ene eh oe SEP Ck 24 Hreer Gallery Of Ag ta Sh nd a BI TE ee ae 25 Bureauo. American Hthnology =~ =~ ee ee ee a 26 international lH xchangese <3 Ueeeek Or ES a Se eee ee fe 28 Nationals Zoological Parikr 22 2300. be CEU aie SOE a Sik Pe 29 ASLLOPHYSical- Observatory oes: = tht Eee Ta ets SE OTE th Sy oo 3 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature____________________-__-_ 31 TO KEKCA OS COPA pes Bh ee nh Pd SS Ba ap 1 SE oA YD ESE Se ge SS pees 32 Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum_________-_~_ 34 2. -Report, on-the National Gallery. of Arte s- Vout wus wrth 50 3. Report, on the Freer Gallery of ‘Artus_.o {Wu te 61 4. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology____________-_ 63 5. Report on the International Exchanges___________________ 18 6. Report on the National Zoological Park_______ EAL. See 91 7. Report on the Astrophysical Observatory_________________ 108 8. Report on the International Catalogue of Scientific DOr ey Pel epee — See See ee Oe ee ee Semen an euey PORE eee ct 119 SPE VOLEO Uy Pes ORI yee es ee oe 2? LOS VEpPOLl (OM | PUDMCATONS 2s. 1 She a 131 VI CONTENTS GENERAL APPENDIX Mhewnew, Outlook in «COSMoOsOny Dydd CONS a= ae eae ee eee Influences of sun rays on plants and animals, by C. G. Abbot__--__-_----- Onithe evolutionvot theistans, DyiC.. GaAbDOls=—- === ee eee Excursions on the planets, by Lucien Rudaux—___-_________________-_- High frequency rays of cosmic origin, by R. A. Millikan______________- The present status of radio atmospheric disturbances, by L. W. Austin_- Ole T Ayu HavIN CWE ON EMAL V CU ee ce ee es Bee Scientific work of the Maud expedition, 1922-1925, by H. U. Sverdrup___- iMherromancer ot, carpon by Atthury DD.) Wattles a= a eee The cause of earthquakes; especially those of the eastern United States, Dye Walliampelerbert ob bse 2 seo pee ees 2 a ee ee ee ithe locssob Ohineg.. by George. DAaTNOUR2 = 222s eee A visit to the gem districts of Ceylon and Burma, by Frank D. Adams__- The history of organic evolution, by John M. Coulter____________--____ Barro Colorado Island Biological Station, by Alfred O. Gross___--------- Geography and evolution in the pocket gophers of California, by Joseph CUTE T Gk hE a Se pel a a el a eg ak ae How beavers build their houses, by Vernon Bailey_______--_-_--_----.-- The mosquito-fish (Gambusia), and its relation to malaria, by David ASU SUITS eh TLR TD ge LE ak Sa ee hs Sb Dee ee al The effect of aluminum sulphate on rhododendrons and other acid-soil plants oby,Hrederick: Vi. Cowles cee ots le oe 2 ae ae a Eastern Brazil through an agrostologist’s spectacles, by Agnes Chase___- Our heritage from the American Indians, by W. E. Safford____________- The parasite element of natural control of injurious insects and its control YAMS cy plo OR EVO Warde 2 22 ONS ee a ee ge Hracrant pucteriies: by Austin He Clark= 22 sees 2 Se ae hesritualpulliight; by Cow. Bishopia22. 0) 22 as eee eee ee The bronzes of Hsin-Chéng Hsien, by C. W. Bishop________-__-__- The Katcina altars in Hopi worship, by J. Walter Fewkes___-__________ Omaha bow and arrow makers, by Francis La Flesche_________________ The National Park of Switzerland, by G. Edith Bland___________________ Samuel Slater and the oldest cotton machinery in America, by Frederick Pen oe wt0n 2... eee SA te 2 oe ahh OP a ee = reventive medicine: by Mark i), Boyd its 42. eee Maltiom:’ Bateson, by !T.. Fi. Morgans auntie. ne te loa eee Euakamerlingh Onnes; by. (vA. dtreeti~ 2 te ple os eee ee ye LIST OF PLATES Sun Rays (Abbot): Plates tose eee see Evolution of Stars (Abbot) : Plates Gate. 2 he eee Excursions on the Planets (Rudaux) : PlALeS) 11 Aer ee 0s Tene ee Loess of China (Barbour) : LEA ESy ekg LS ola ee a Gem Districts of Ceylon and Burma (Adams) : et aCS i = One eee ee ee Barro Colorado Island (Gross) : elaiesil— Gs Slee Sees Pocket Gophers (Grinnell) : Beavers’ Houses (Bailey) : Jel C2) 2s el 9S Sc i A pee Mosquito Fish (Jordan) : Biantesenl Aue See ens te Acid-soil Plants (Coville) : PiAtes) el lee eo Wastern Brazil (Ohase) : Plates) dO ease oe oo Page Heritage from American Indians (Safford) : Plates. Aeon 2 eae ee Fragrant Butterflies (Clark) : j Sel o's Riot a I ahi cata ee Ritual Bullfight (Bishop) : Plates Saou hao ie ele Bronzes of Hsin-Chéng Hsien (Bishop) : 1 Eg ES) Wel HOM Ie’ Meee ame belega gan ECan a Hopi Katcina Altars (Mewkes) : Paes Pel ae ee 1 2) Ea yA Aaa ge Ae Bistends= S2e 2 = ea Omaha Bow and Arrow Makers (La Flesche) : IPTates) dae ee ee ee Swiss National Park (Bland): LCOS Slt eae ee Oldest Cotton Machinery (Lew- ton) : Plates oe == ees oS VII 468 469 470 474 494 504 yeeath ‘ Phare } ae ; ! a BRR ees ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONTAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1926. SUBJECTS 1. Annual report of the secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1926, with statistics of exchanges, etc. 2. Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a state- ment of the Smithsonian fund, and receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1926. 3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1926. 4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Insti- tution, teachers, and, others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1926. IX 208387—27T———2 ' pe ke on ALOE SE r THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION June 30, 1926 Presiding officer ex officio—Catvin Cooniper, President of the United States. Chancellor.—Witt1aAM Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States. Members of the Institution: CALVIN CooLipar, President of the United States. CHarLes G. Dawes, Vice President of the United States. Witt1aM Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States. FRANK B. Kettoae, Secretary of State. ANDREW W. MELton, Secretary of the Treasury. Dwieut Fury Davis, Secretary of War. Joun G. Sargent, Attorney General. Harry S. New, Postmaster General. Curtis D. Wi~pur, Secretary of the Navy. Hupert Work, Secretary of the Interior. Wiuu1amM M. Jarpine, Secretary of Agriculture. HERBERT CLARK Hoover, Secretary of Commerce. JAMES JOHN Dayis, Secretary of Labor. Regents of the Institution: Witt1amM Howarp Tart, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. CHARLES G. DAWES, Vice President of the United States. REED Smoot, Member of the Senate. GEORGE WHARTON PrEpPPER, Member of the Senate. WoopsripcE N. Ferris, Member of the Senate. ALBERT JOHNSON, Member of the House of Representatives. R. WALTON Moore, Member of the House of Representatives. WALTER H. Newton, Member of the House of Representatives. CHARLES F, CHOATE, Jr., citizen of Massachusetts. Henry WHITE, citizen of Washington, D. C. Rosert §. BRooKines, citizen of Missouri. IRWIN B. LAUGHLIN, citizen of Pennsylvania. FRrepDERIC A, DELANO, citizen of Washington, D. C. DwicHt W. Morrow, citizen of New Jersey. Executive committee —HENRY WHITE, FrRepERIC A. DELANO, R. WALTON Moore. Secretary of the Institution—CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Assistant Secretary.—C. G. ABBOT, Assistant Secretary.—ALEXANDER WETMORE. Chief Clerk.—Harry W. Dorsey. Accounting and disbursing agent.—N. W. Dorsey. Editor.—W. P. TRuE. Librarian.—WILL1AM L. Corsin. Appointment clerk.—JAMES G. TRAYLOR. Property clerk.—J. H. Hitt, xI XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 NATIONAL MUSEUM Keeper ex officio —CHARLES D. WAtcort, Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. Assistant Secretary (in charge).—ALEXANDER WETMORE. Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—W. DE C. RAVENEL. Head curators.—WA.tTER HoucH, LEONHARD STEJNEGER, GEORGE P. MERRILL. Curators.—PAUL BartscH, R. 8S. Basster, T. T. BeLtotr, Austin H. CLarkK, Ff, W. CiLarKE, F. V. Covitte, W. H. DALL, CHARLES W. GILMORE, WALTER Hovueu, L. O. HowaArp, ALES HrpLticKa, Nem M. Jupp, H. W. Kriecer, F'rep- ERICK L. LEWTON, GEORGE P. MERRILL, GERRIT S. MILLER, jr., CArL W. Mit- MAN, RopertT Ripeway, WaALpo L. SCHMITT, LEONHARD STEJNEGER. Associate curators.—J. M. ALpRIcH, W. R. Maxon, CHARLES W. RicHMonpD, J. N. Rosg, PAuL C. STANDLEY, DAVID WHITE. Chief of correspondence and documents.—H. S. BRYAN’. Disbursing agent.—N. W. Dorsey. Superintendent of buildings and labor.—J. 8S. GoLpsMITH. Hditor—Marcus BENJAMIN. Photographer.—ARTHUR J. OLMSTED. Property clerk.—W. A. KNOWLES. Engineer.—C. R. DENMARK. Shipper.—L. Ki. PErry. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Director.—WILLIAM H. HouMEs. FREER GALLERY OF ART Curator.—JOHN ELLERTON Loner. Associate curator.—CarL WHITING BISHOP. Assistant curaior.—GRACE DUNHAM GUEST. Associate.—KATHARINE NASH RHOADES. Superintendent.—JOHN BUNDY. BUREAU OF AMERICAN BTHNOLOGY Chief.—J. WALTER FEWKES. Hthnologists—JOHN P. Harrineton, J. N. B. Hewitt, Francts LA FLEScHE, TRUMAN MICHELSON, JOHN R. SWANTON. Editor.—StTANLEY SEARLES. Librarian.—ELuaA LEARY. Illustrator.—DeE LANCEY GILL. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES Assistant secretary (in charge).—C. G. ABBOT. Chief clerk.—C. W. SHOEMAKER. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Director.—WILLIAM M. MANN. Assistant director.—A. B. BAKER. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Director.—C. G. ABBOT. Research assistant.—¥. E. Fow es, Jr. Research assistant.—L, B, ALDRICH. REGIONAL BUREAU FOR THE UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Assistant in charge-—Lronarp C. GUNNELL. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CuHar.tes D. Watcotr FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1926 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the customary annual report showing the activities and condition of the Smith- sonian Institution and the Government bureaus under its adminis- trative charge during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926. The first 833 pages of the report contain an account of the affairs of the Institution, and in Appendixes 1 to 10 are given more detailed sum- maries of the operations of the United States National Museum, the National Gallery of Art, the Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the International Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture, the Smithsonian Library, and of the publications issued under the direction of the Institution. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION THE ESTABLISHMENT The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of America, “ to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith- sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without authority to administer the trust directly, and therefore con- stituted an “establishment” whose statutory members are “the President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive departments.” 1 2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 THE BOARD OF REGENTS The affairs of the Institution are administered by a Board of Regents whose membership consists of “the Vice President, the Chief Justice, three Members of the Senate, and three Members of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons other than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of them of the same State.” One of the Regents is elected chancellor by the board; in the past the selection has fallen upon the Vice President or the Chief Justice; and a suitable person is chosen by the Regents as secretary of the Institution, who is also secretary of the Board of Regents and the executive officer directly in charge of the Institution’s activities. The following changes occurred in the personnel of the board during the year: The Hon. George Gray, of Delaware, died August 7, 1925, and Mr. Dwight W. Morrow, of New Jersey, was appointed a citizen Regent on January 7, 1926, to fill the vacancy thus created. The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as iol- lows: William H. Taft, Chief Justice of the United States, chan- cellor; Charles G. Dawes, Vice President of the United States; members from the Senate—Reed Smoot, George Wharton Pepper, Woodbridge N. Ferris; members from the House of Representa- tives—Albert Johnson, R. Walton Moore, Walter H. Newton; citizen members—Charles F. Choate, jr., Massachusetts; Henry White, Washington, D. C.; Robert S. Brookings, Missouri; Irwin Bb. Laughlin, Pennsylvania; Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C.; and Dwight W. Morrow, New Jersey. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The Smithsonian Institution is a private establishment given to the American people by a philanthropic English gentleman for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. Out of its private investigations and collections grew up activities of immense public value. They have been the foundation of nine prominent Govern- ment bureaus. Of these, seven are still, by direction of Congress, administered by the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the public and for these public bureaus Congressional appropriations are made. ‘These appropriations are strictly limited to these special objects. It was out of investigations made by the Smith- sonian Institution, not out of any Government initiative, that these valuable public bureaus, including the Weather Bureau and the Fish Commission, grew up. Similarly, it is logical to suppose that out of the free activities of the Smithsonian Institu- tion great public benefits would arise in future if it had means * REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 3 appropriate to its position as the national research institution. But in these days of high wages, high salaries, and high prices, the small income from the Smithsonian endowment, $65,000 annually—only as much in a year as the Carnegie Institution has for research in two weeks—is quite insufficient to make any considerable showing. This is what the Smithsonian Institution does: 1. It carries on original scientific investigations by its own staff. 2. It prints large memoirs and smaller original papers, publishes useful tables and formulas, and reprints informing articles on scien- tific progress suitable for the intelligent general reader, and dis- tributes these free to scientific and learned societies throughout the world. 3. It answers by mail an average of 8,000 inquiries on scientific subjects annually, gratis. 4. It gives occasional lectures and courses of lectures by eminent scientists. _5. It confers medals of honor on eminent discoverers. 6. It subsidizes, if funds can be secured, approved researches by outside workers. 7. It procures foreign diplomatic and learned recognition and assistance for expeditions going abroad. 8. It fosters scientific development of schools, museums, and insti- tutions throughout the world by cooperation in the loan of research men, in the free distribution of over a million specimens, and in giv- ing its advice and its publications. 9. It is the headquarters of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Until 1924 it was the headquarters and meet- ing place of the National Academy of Sciences. 10. It is the official channel of exchange of scientific intelligence between the United States and the world. 11. It contributes continually to the Library of Congress a large flow of foreign periodical and occasional scientific literature, which has now accumulated to over 500,000 volumes. 12. It administers seven public governmental bureaus besides the reer Gallery. 18. It disburses annually funds from four sources: (a) The income of its endowment, $65,000. (6) Sums intrusted by private individuals for special objects. Average five years—$70,000. (c) The income of the Freer bequest. Average five years— $190,000. (d) Congressional appropriations for seven public bureaus— $850,000. What the Smithsonian desires to do and be-—The Smithsonian In- stitution, ward of the American Nation, desires to bring out the hid- 4. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 den treasures of knowledge from the great collections under its care; to prosecute vigorously for the ultimate benefit of mankind its re- searches in astronomy, physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology, meteorology, and the life sciences; to publish amply, both for the specialist and the general reader; to answer generously those who seek its information. The Smithsonian Institution desires to con- tinue worthy of being, as it must forever be, the national institution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. With these objects, it is unfitting that the endowment of the Smithsonian Insti- tution should be inadequate and so far inferior to the endowments of first-rank private institutions having no national status. In the report for 1925 I called attention to the fact that a sub- stantial addition to the Institution’s resources was imperative. The support of the few major researches at present carried on through gifts for specific investigations is becoming more and more precari- ous and the publications of the Institution are reduced to one-third ot their former number. To meet this situation, a direct effort was determined upon to increase the permanent endowment, and one step mentioned last year was an agreement made with the William T. De Van Corporation, of New York, to issue the Smithsonian Scientific Series, a series of illustrated popular science books to be written by members of the staff, describing in attractive form the activities of the Institution and the bureaus under its direction in many branches of science. The method at first proposed of pub- lishing the series was found to be impractical, and toward the close of the past fiscal year a new method was evolved which it is believed will be more successful. It was further noted in last year’s report that another project for imcreasing the Institution’s resources was under consideration but had not been definitely entered into by the close of the year. This project has since taken shape, and in November, 1925, the Board of Regents announced publicly that the Institution would go before the American public to raise an addition of $10,000,000 to its endowment fund. Since that time the officials of the Institution have been engaged in laying the necessary groundwork for such a campaign, and it is expected that the actual raising of money will begin during the coming autumn. The official announcement of the Board of Regents called attention to the totally inadequate present income of the Smithsonian, outlined briefly its past achievements and world-wide reputation, and mentioned the many important projects in the realm of pure science which it was equipped to undertake but had not the means for. The announcement concluded as follows: Current history proves that nations climb to higher standards of living on the ladder of science. It was Pasteur who claimed that “science is the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 5 soul of prosperity of nations and the living source of all progress. What really leads us forward are a few scientific discoveries and their application.” It is the recognition of this fact and of the part which the Smithsonian is called upon to play in contributing to the prosperity of the nation which leads the Board of Regents to turn to the people of the country for an addition of $10,000,000 to the Institution’s endowment. A number of major expeditions in the interests of science went out during the year under Smithsonian direction, through funds provided by friends of the Institution for these special projects. There should be mentioned particularly the Smithsonian-Chrysler expedition to East Africa for the purpose of obtaining live wild ani- mals for the National Zoological Park; the National Geographic So- ciety Solar Radiation Expedition Cooperating with the Smithsonian Institution, to equip and maintain for a period of years a solar radia- tion station in the Eastern Hemisphere to cooperate with the two now operated by the Smithsonian; Dr. AleS Hrdlitka’s anthropological expedition to southern Asia, Java, Australia, and South Africa, which covered over 50,000 miles, under the joint auspices of the Insti- tution and the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences; and the first award of the Smithsonian’s Walter Rathbone Bacon Traveling Schol- arship, under which Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, of the National Museum, conducted an extensive survey of the crustacean fauna of South America. All of these expeditions are briefly described elsewhere in this report. FINANCES The permanent investments of the Institution consist of the follow- ing: Deposited in the Treasury of the United States_______._________ $1, 000, 000. 00 CONSOLIDATED FUND Miscellaneous securities, etc., either purchased or acquired by ott SCOSG Or. Value, at, date ,acguineg—. 2. 2=- =. 25 — 7 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund, stock (gift) ; 218, 186. 50 11, 520. 00 The sums invested for each specific fund or securities, etc., acquired by gift are described as follows: 2 United G@onsolie Walcott Fund ee tae Y dated fund peneeren Total PROUIEVETTEN es opens ns oe ee ee $14, 000. 00 | $34, 690.87 |...._____-_- $48, 690. 87 WAteinig Purdy Bacon Tul. 2- sone acer een eee 62s DVDs OO RS. eto cd b 62, 272. 93 TARY es ulran perat sks EE eed A OE 2 Oe PS2S/OO Cas art. eH 1, 528. 09 Chamberlain fusd sett og Tp be tS el tite ee 90;(000:,00)| 2 ne ta 35, 000. 00 PPR DEMIR se ee oe siege sgl ne Oe EO OD io) ae carey co ee Na 500. 00 LS LENCE TE i ST SIS (ETH (6 Ce a ae ae eee Na 2, 500. 00 DOO DO eae cee =o 3, 000. 60 ATONE TELGE EL VRieIET atone en Pe A ene et nr nn 6 oe i Be L, QBghasry ee ese 1, 223. 33 6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 United 7 Walcott Fund States Paige ean Total Treasury fund Hodgkins fund: Goneralies he Wit Aline Rel ae ate a $116;000;.00) | $379275./00) || eo $153, 275. 00 Smeckicne ss cami te eke a freee eae TOO BO0SU0 5] Sea 2ak he mers Sere ore 100, 000. 00 Bruce:Hughesdund!. Jb2: - yates Wise dS 0b ee ee ee 13):839,90),|-> 22-22? 13, 839. 90 ING OONIS EGG Dy LLM rae ag ane ES Be fash ae ae gale De SOLO OOM sees 2 ee 3, 519. 00 Lucy T. and George W. Poore fund --__.._...--_--- 26, 670.00 | 18, 586,42 |.....______- 45, 206. 42 Addisons ReidMnundeee = asses) s- e aeeee 11, 000. 00 1209-016 | see 2 Lod 18, 299. 16 PUN GSS LUT: 4S Sees OE Ly phe ee eg Se a 590. 00 fay Ace | mee Se 947, 34 George: Sanford tond ee see. ee eee 1, 100. 00 C752, [22 A 1, 775, 72 Smithson fund 262 2! savas es Se 2 727, 640. 00 Lj AOSH 74 ae 888s 729, 108. 74 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund_-}_..-.--...-.--|------------ $11, 520. 00 11, 520, 00 Total telat feeb ea Se We en Loe aE 1, 000, 000, 00 | 218,186.50 | 11, 520,00 1, 229, 706. 50 The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts from the following donors: American Association for the Advancement of Science, for botanical ex- plorations in Jamaica. Mr. Oakes Ames, for botanical explorations in Costa Rica. Mrs. Laura Welsh Casey, for expenses in connection with Casey collection of Coleoptera. Mr. Walter Chrysler, for expedition to Africa to collect animals, ete. for the National Zoological Park. Mr. BE. W. Marland, for Missouri Historical Society, for study of the language of the Osage Indians. National Academy of Sciences, for paleontological researches. New York Botanical Garden, for botanical explorations in Jamaica. Mr. John A. Roebling, for solar researches, ete. Mr. Washington A. Roebling, for purchase of minerals, ete. Mr. Charles T. Simpson, for work on West Indian shells. Dr. Frank Springer, for publication of “American Silurian Crinoids.” Mr. B. H. Swales, for purchase of specimens. University of Pennsylvania, department of botany, for botanical explorations in Jamaica. The Institution has also received contributions from the following friends for the funds as listed below: Endowment campaign expense fund: Dr. Charles G. Abbot, Mr. Robert S. Brookings, Mr. Frederic A. Delano, Hon. Andrew W. Mellon, Dr. Charles D. Walcott, and the Hon. Henry White. Endowment fund: Mr. John Baker, Mr. H. E. Bouwknegt, Miss Elizabeth W. C. Campbell, Mr. J. M. Chadwell, Mr. L. French, Mr. Leo Henle, Mr. Sol. Isler, Mr. William F. Kemble, Mr. D. Kinnear, Mr. George G. Marshall, Mr. Harold M. Mayo, Master Orrin F. Nash, Mr. John H. Powers, Mr. Henry S. Ritter, Dr. Rudolf Ruedemann, Dr. Charles 8. Schuchert, Mrs. Hleanor H. Wheelwright, Mr. George McLane Wood, and Mr. F. R. Wulsin. Smithsonian Scientific Series: Mr. Wyllys W. Baird, Mrs. Elizabeth B. Blos- som, Hope Natural Gas Co., Mr. William W. Laird, Mr. James H. Lockhart, Peoples Natural Gas Co., Philadelphia Company and Affiliated Corporations, and Mr. George M. Reynolds. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7 The Institution wishes to express its gratitude to Mr. John Poole for his deep interest and help in connection with the endowment fund campaign and also to the following gentlemen who, through him, ex- tended very welcome aid to the same: Mr. Byron S. Adams, Mr. Thomas P. Bones, Mr. Alexander Brit- ton, Mr. Charles I. Corby, Mr. John Dolph, Mr. T. C. Dulin, Mr. William John Eynon, Mr. W. T. Galliher, Julius Garfinckel & Co., Mr. Fred. S. Gichner, Mr. William F. Ham, Mr. Morton J. Luchs, H. L. Rust Co., Mr. James Sharp, Mr. H. C. Sheridan, and Mr. George I. Walker. Freer Gallery of Avt—The invested funds of the Freer bequest are classified as follows: Court and crounds fundies ao ee a $278, 825. 50 Court and grounds; ‘maintenance fund.—-— 8.8. 2252 oe et 69, 683. 75 CRETE ICG Fes ELH 0g (ACN a SEES A EE Se 278, 825. 50 1 E-LEsS VEOH Gi wh peel a2 Ne et a tec taal oe) tee mth ya Dignan abedg Dep wees aie. Eee 2, 842, 080. 19 Reeth OMe feper Chee ae a aE SEL hs AAA TO CAE ERED EE Le 350, 261. 25 eh MO ee og = Rs PN ee a a oe a Ce Nase Sees 3, 819, 676. 19 The practice of depositing on time, in local trust companies and banks, such revenues as may be spared temporarily, has been con- tinued during the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to $1,748.21. The income during the year for current expenses, consisting of interest on permanent investments and other miscellaneous sources, amounted to $61,171.52. Revenues and princi- pal of funds for specific purposes, except the Freer bequest, amounted to $166,214.79. Revenues on account of Freer bequest amounted to $255,354.66, amount received from sale of stocks and bonds $988,510, aggregating a total of $1,471,016.97. The disbursements, described more fully in the annual report of the executive committee, were classed as follows: General objects of the Institution, $60,782.56; for specific purposes (except the Freer bequest) , $181,647.45; and expenditures pertaining to the Charles L. Freer bequest, $1,265,884.31. The balance on hand on June 30, 1926, was $134,889.40. The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smith- sonian Institution for the fiscal year 1926: ntemniaional Micha nes: sail pi Robe bBo Pele nies Shp Lewes ey ee 2 $46, 260 AUTEN CEP TOWRA OL AAD ALO) Vote ipso haste elm eee Ce ly Ng me oD 57, 160 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature___.__.__-______-_-_--_- 8, 000 Astrophysical, Observateryee 22 ee 2 es Oi Si OMe ee te AE 31, 180 AGGITIONALSASSIStAn tiIseCnetarypen 22. te ral ye al pe pO le 6, 000 National Museum: PIPE eh hUON sa as, ns ey ee ee a $21, 800 Heatineandelichting= te 2 hes cet Lie coe ol ide: yo aah, 77, 560 Preservation of collections..2.-8.22 222-2040 441, 082 8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 National Museum—Continued. Buildings Tena 53s leon ee ele ec I ee ed $12, 000 EG Oe eee tie ete et pe aes eee aE Ws ea ae 1, 500 D BTOYS| fete ch IAs oer ieee REIT ER En whe SI 8 perce SO Gree Oa 450 ———_—_$554, 392 NEON AAG AMET yO fe TT see SAE SEE ie BT we DS Ee SE 21, 028 NationalZovlogical, Park. cra) (geri dR eee Ed ene eed) 3 157, 000 Printing tang winning 2.5 Fs Peek BE SES OE yb eee AP ee 90, 000 ANG (ce) eerste 8 RS Neen rece Nae VOG ee (A ee TG acre eee tye ae I 971, 020 RESEARCHES AND EXPLORATIONS Field expeditions play an important part in the work of a research institution. The Smithsonian, although handicapped particularly in this phase of its work by inadequate income, sends out or partici- pates in many such expeditions each year. It is often found advan- tageous to cooperate in field work with other institutions, thus divid- ing the expense and enabling the participating institutions to share the collections and other benefits resulting from the expedition. The Smithsonian’s explorations cover biology, anthropology, geology, and astrophysics, and in addition to furnishing important new facts in these sciences, the material brought back by the explorers has done much toward building up the collections of the National Museum and filling in gaps in the scientific study series. During the past year the Institution has engaged in about the usual number of field expeditions. These have conducted scientific exploration or field work in many States of the United States, Canada, Haiti, several regions in South America, Europe, southern Asia, Java, Australia, South Africa, and China. Some of these are described in the reports of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, appended hereto, and a few of the others will be mentioned briefly here in order to show the character and diversity of the Institution’s field work. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN 'THE CANADIAN ROCKIES Your secretary continued during the 1925 field season his geological field work in the Canadian Rockies, starting from Lake Louise Sta- tion in Alberta on July 9 with a pack train bearing the camp outfit. The season was unusually unfavorable, forest-fire smoke interfering with photography and the large number of snow squalls making field work extremely difficult. Regarding the progress of the geo- logical work, I wrote at the close of the season: Only eight camps were made while on the trail. It was more through good fortune than favorable conditions that a fine series of fossils from critical horizons in the great lower Paleozoic section north of Bow Valley was dis- covered and collected. These fossils increase our knowledge of the history and life of the Cordilleran Sea of this time and afford the data for comparison with REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9 life and conditions in the Appalachian Trough and the great upper Mississippi embayment of Upper Cambrian time. In the interval between the snow storms of September 5 and 9 several new fossil zones were found in the Lower Ordovician rocks of the Johnston-Wild Flower Canyon Pass section, and also in the Upper Cambrian west of Badger Pass. The latter find enabled Doctor Walcott to identify the Arctomys forma- tion of the Glacier Lake section and to clear up the uncertainty as to the posi- tion of the strata hitherto referred to the lower portion of the Bosworth formation. * * * * * * * This year probably completes the field work in the Canadian Rockies. A few of the problems encountered have been cleared up in the past nine years, but many remain to be studied by young, well-trained men with strong hearts, vigorous muscles, and the high purpose of the research student seeking to dis- cover the truth regarding the development of the North American Continent and of the life of the waters in which the miles in thickness of sands, clay, and limey muds accumulated during a period of several million years of lower Paleozoic time. Your secretary was engaged at the close of the year, during such times as he was able to spare from administrative duties, in preparing for publication the geological results of many seasons of work in the Canadian Rockies. This summary of the Canadian work will appear as one of his series on Cambrian Geology and Paleontology in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. COLLECTING FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS IN ARIZONA Through a cooperative arrangement with the National Park Serv- ice, Mr. C. W. Gilmore, curator of vertebrate paleontology in the National Museum, visited the Grand Canyon during the past field season for the double purpose of preparing a permanent exhibit of fossil footprints in the rock along the Hermit Trail, and of making for the National Museum a collection of these footprints to send back to Washington. Mr. Gilmore succeeded in both of these projects, and in his preliminary report on the work, he writes: A series of slabs, some 1,700 pounds in weight, carrying good examples of the various kinds of imprints occurring there, were collected and shipped to the Museum. The tracks occur in the Coconino sandstone in Hermit Basin, on the trail down to Hermit Camp, and from 900 to 1,080 feet below the rim of the canyon. Their excellent preservation and variety of kind, coupled with their great antiquity, make this collection of more than usual interest. Pre- liminary study of the tracks has demonstrated that they represent not only a new Ichnite fauna but probably the best preserved and most extensive series of Permian footprints known anywhere in the world. It was found that the natural conditions were most favorable for the prepara- tion of an exhibit of fossil tracks in situ. The rather steep slope of the sandstone on whose surfaces the tracks are impressed stands at an inclination of 30° facing toward the Hermit Trail, over which in the course of the year hundreds of tourists travel on mule back in making their pilgrimage to the bottom of the Grand Canyon. The upper layers of the sandstone cleared off in large sheets, thus uncovering whatever tracks and trails there were to be 10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 found beneath. The work of preparing this exhibit consisted, therefore, of removing the overburden of loose dirt and broken rock, then quarrying off the loose upper laminae until a solid and continuous face covered with footprints was reached. This was done, and a smooth surface 8 feet wide and 25 feet long was carefully uncovered. At the side of the slab leading up from the trail a series of stone steps was laid in order to facilitate examination by those interested in the footprints eovering its surface. Although this slab constituted the main exhibit, other large surfaces were similarly uncovered, so that in all there are several hun- dred square feet of rock surface showing imprints of feet, thus forming a permanent exhibit of the various tracks and trails to be found here. The great antiquity of these footprints is clearly demonstrated at this locality, for it is evident that since the day when those animals impressed their feet in what at that time was moist sand more than 1,000 feet of rock-making ma- terials were piled up in successive strata above them, and this does not take into account many hundreds of feet more that have been eroded off the present top of the canyon wall. The great length of time necessary for the cutting away or erosion of the rock to form the deep canyon and the even longer time necessary for the original deposition of this great vertical mass of stone when translated into terms of years, if that were possible, would be so stupendous as to be almost beyond human comprehension. BIOLOGICAL COLLECTING IN WESTERN CHINA The collecting of biological material for the National Museum was coutinued in the Province of Szechwan, western China, by the Rev. David C. Graham. Various trips which he had proposed to take had to be abandoned because of the presence of numerous bandits in certain areas, and his work was greatly handicapped by civil-war conditions in that part of China. Nevertheless, Mr. Graham suc- ceeded in making large collections of valuable biological material for the Museum. While still undecided as to his summer’s plans for collecting, Mr, Graham received notification that all foreigners were requested to ga together to Kiating, with a heavy military escort for safety. Re- garding his activities after this, a brief account prepared from Mr. Graham’s letters reads in part as follows: The party reached Kiating on July 7, and having gone thus far, Mr. Graham decided to try for Washan Mountain, and had actually started, when on the 12th a messenger arrived with a letter saying conditions were getting worse down the river, that many British subjects were leaving Szechwan, and that all foreigners might be ordered to leave, also advising that he abandon his plan to visit Washan. He notes: “It is a keen disappointment, but it seems unwise to go on, so to-morrow I’ll go back toward Mount Omei and spend the summer as profitably as I can.” On July 14 he received a letter stating that conditions were improving and that the foreign community withdrew its request that he should not attempt the trip to Washan. He thereupon again headed for that mountain, and on July 23 reached the summit, which he says is the highest point in central Szechwan. On every side “it is a sheer cliff several thousand feet high, with only one road to the top and back * * * The road REPORT OF THE SECRETARY it made a few circles, and soon I found myself walking along the edge across the top of that cliff, with only a foot or more of dirt and some small bushes between me and the precipice. Later the road leads a long way on the edge of a narrow ridge, on each side a sheer precipice of thousands of feet. In one spot the path is about 3 feet wide, and I think a little less. It took all the grit I had to cross that place, and I’d hate to attempt it in rainy weather when the rocks are slippery. There is one place where there is no place to get a foothold, and the precipice is bridged by poles placed side by side; under the bridge is a chasm that one does not like to look at. To cap the climax, near the top are long ladders. It is practically perpendicular at these points, and without the ladders no one could reach the top.” z * * * * s s In preparing for his return journey, Mr. Graham decided to pack his sum- mer’s accumulation of specimens and mail them from the village of Shin Kai Si, to reduce the danger of loss from robbers. Over 70 parcels were packed and mailed from this place, after which he set out for Kiating, where he was to try and arrange for the safe transport of the Suifu foreigners from Kiating to Suifu. Mr. Graham’s return from Kiating to Suifu was filled with exciting inci- dents, due to war, brigands, and lack of food. He writes: “With over 100,000 troops engaged in civil war in the Province, with bands of robbers everywhere, and with the serious complications between China and the foreign powers, it may be considered a victory to have carried through the collecting trip and to have secured more specimens than were collected in any previous year.” STUDY OF THE CRUSTACEAN FAUNA OF SOUTH AMERICA During the past year the first award was made of the Walter Rathbone Bacon scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution, created by the will of Virginia Purdy Bacon for the study of the fauna of countries other than the United States. The award was made to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator of marine invertebrates in the Na- tional Museum, for the purpose of undertaking a comprehensive study of the crustaceans of South America. He began work at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where museum collections were examined and some preliminary collecting done. The following extract is taken from a preliminary account of his work prepared at the National Museum: On September 17, accompanied by Doctor Luderwaldt, Doctor Schmitt started for S&o0 Sebastiao, arriving the next morning after a most uncomfort- able night on a small boat. The collecting here was good and many varieties of crustacea were obtained. Night collecting yielded valuable tow-net hauls. Upon this island several species of fresh-water shrimps were obtained. Doctor Schmitt is of the impression that these shrimps can travel considerable distances overland through the woods should their parent stream go dry. He states that tiny Euphausids produce a magnificent phosphorescence at night in the waters around the island. He returned to Santos September 28, where several cases of specimens were prepared for shipment to Washington. Passing down the coast, collections were made at Sao Francisco Island, then at Castro where several fresh-water streams were visited. Here, amongst 12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 other things, two species of an anomuran crab of the genus Aeglea were obtained. These Doctor Schmitt considered a great find, as they are rather rare in collections and there has been some uncertainty as to their status. He left Castro October 21 and traveled by auto over the mountains to Blumenau. Here he met Fritz Schmitt, son-in-law of Fritz Miiller, the celebrated naturalist, visited Miiller’s former home, and saw the very simple microscopes with which he did such excellent work. He returned to Sio Francisco October 27, when several cases of specimens were packed for shipment to Washington. The weather and tides being favorable, some excellent collections of shrimps and amphipods were made at this station, and he says “ I’ve extended the ranges of a number of species, and surely found a couple of new ones here.” He arrived off Itajahy at 8 p. m. November 2, after a cold, rainy trip, and early the next morning anchored off Florianopolis. Some tow-net hauls and shore collecting here produced excellent results. Owing to the many unavoidable delays, Doctor Schmitt has not been able to progress as rapidly as he had hoped, but the ground has been as thoroughly worked as possible, and several cases of specimens have already been received at the Museum. His collections at this time comprise several thousand speci- mens and consist chiefly of Crustacea, Coelenterates, Porifera, Echinoderms, Annelids, Bryozoa, and Fishes. ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDIES IN SOUTHERN ASIA, JAVA, AUSTRALIA, AND SOUTH AFRICA The most far-reaching expedition of the year was that undertaken by Dr. Ale’ Hrdlitka in the interests of physical anthropology, which covered some 50,000 miles through Europe, India, Ceylon, Java, Australia, and South Africa. The primary purpose of the expedition, under the joint auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, was to make a thor- ough survey of the subject of ancient man and fossil apes in these regions. Doctor Hrdlitka’s work began in the region of the Siwalik Hills of northern India, which he regards, as the result of his survey, as the richest and most promising region in the world in remains of fossil anthropoid apes. The following extracts from Doctor Hrdlitka’s first published account of his trip will give an impression of the vast amount of territory covered and of the importance and interest of the work: From Simla Doctor Hrdlitka proceeded to the Tibetan border to observe the types of the Tibetans who made their homes in Darjeeling or its vicinity, or come there from over the mountains, and who occasionally show types that resemble most closely the American Indian. At Darjeeling, with generous help from the Government, it was possible in a short time to see large numbers of the native population, consisting of mongoloid tribes who have overflowed into the northernmost parts of India, and a good many Tibetans. There is seen amongst these Tibetans, Chinese admixture—for the Chinese have been lords of Tibet for a long time—yet frequently true American Indian types are also to be found, so true that if they were transplanted into America nobody REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13 could possibly take them for anything but Indian. They—men, women and children—resemble the Indians in behavior, in dress, and even in the intona- tions of their language. * * * * * * * From Calcutta the journey led to Madras, where Doctor Hrdlitka wished to inspect the collections, and to see what could be learned of traces of the Negrito in the Indian population. One of the biggest problems in anthropology is the presence of the Negrito in the Philippines, the Andamans, and else- where in the far southeast. He is there—a clear but enigmatic type, without connection now in any direction. His nearest relatives are apparently the pygmies of Central Africa, but a great unbridged space has till now separated the two. The problem is, How did the Negrito get to his present homes? If he extended from Africa, he must have left traces of his passing in Arabia and India, from which, however, there has hitherto come no clear evidence of his presence. Such traces, so far at least as the Indian coast lands are concerned, Doctor Hrdlitka became satisfied do exist. They occur in Parganas (northwest of Calcutta), in at least one area along the eastern coast, here and there among the Dravidians, and along larger parts of the western coast, more especially in the Malabar Hills. This brings unmistakable traces of the Negrito a long way farther to the westward and so much nearer to Africa, making his derivation from that continent so much the more probable. A great collection of paleolithic implements is preserved in the museum at Madras. These implements are similar to those of other parts of India. They are all of one general class, so that there can hardly be a question as to their contemporary origin in the different parts of India, their connection with people of the same race, and belonging to the same, though perhaps a long, cultural period. They do not show great variety. They resemble some of the paleolithic implements of western Europe, but on the whole can not be associated with any one of the Huropean cultural periods. In certain parts of India, such as the Santal country north of Calcutta, such implements have been collected in thousands. In other parts, especially near Madras, they are partly on the surface soil, partly from 1 to 4 or 5 feet and even deeper below the surface. In places they occur in the alluvium of the rivers and occasionally in the “laterite,” a talus-like débris resulting from the disinte- gration of older rocks. In short, there are plentiful paleolithic implements over large portions of the country, but as yet they do not definitely indicate a man of geological antiquity. With regard to the bulk of the present population of India, Doctor Hrdlitka believes he can say with confidence that it is mainly composed of three ethnic elements—the Mediterranean, the Semitic, and in certain parts the “ Hamitic” or North African. The “Aryans” show everywhere either the Semitic or the Mediterranean type. There was seen nothing that could be referred to the types of central or northern Europe: It would seem therefore that the Aryans came from Persia and Asia Minor rather than from or through what is now European Russia. * * * * * * * The visit to Java was made chiefly for the purpose of inspecting the site of the Pithecanthropus, but Doctor Hrdlitka also desired to satisfy himself as to any possible cultural traces of early man, and as to the present population. As a result of the generous assistance given by the authorities, he was able to see the natives in practically the whole of the island and especially to examine that important region which gave the precious remains of the Pithe- 14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 canthropus—the valley of the Bengawan or Solo River, a fairly large river, beginning in the south of the island and running north and then east to Surabaya. Here exists a veritable treasure house for anthropology and paleontology where nothing has been done since the Selenka expedition of 1910, which was the only one since the work of Doctor Dubois in 1891-1893. The lower deposits along the river are full of the fossil bones of Tertiary and Quaternary mammals, but among them at any time may be remains of greater value. Many of the fossils fall out of exposed strata every year and lie in the mud, where the natives occasionally gather them and take them to their homes. ok * * * a * * The data obtained in Australia, supplemented by those on the Tasmanian material in the College of Surgeons, London, throw a very interesting and, to some extent, new light on the moot questions of both the Australian and the Tasmanian aborigines. According to these observations, the Australian aborigines deserve truly to be classed as one of the more fundamental races of mankind, and yet it is a race which shows close connections with our own ancestral stock—not with the negroes or Melanesians (except through admix- ture), but with the old white people of postglacial times. They carry, however, some admixtures of the Melanesian blacks, which is more pronounced in some places than in others. * * * * * * * The two main objects of the visit to South Africa were the investigation on the spot of the important find of the Rhodesian skull and of the recent dis- covery of the skull of a fossil anthropoid ape at Taungs, which had been reported as being possibly a direct link in the line of man’s ascent. * * * * * * * The discovery in 1921 at Broken Hill in southern Rhodesia of the skull of the so-called “‘ Rhodesian man” was an event of much scientific importance. The find, moreover, is still enigmatic. The skull shows a man so primitive in many of its features that nothing like it has been seen before. The visit to the Broken Hill mine, in which the skull was discovered, proved a good dem- onstration of the necessity of a prompt following up by scientific men of each such accidental discovery. The impracticability of such a following up in this case has resulted in a number of errors and uncertainties on important aspects of the case, some of which have already misled students of the finds. It was possible to clear up some of the mooted points, but others remain obscure and can be definitely decided only by further discoveries. As one of the results of the present visit, it was possible to save and bring for study a collection of bones of animals from the cave, the lower recesses of which gave the Rhodesian skull, and also two additional mineralized human bones belonging to two individuals, all of which, to facilitate the study of the whole subject, were deposited with the earlier relics in the British Museum. The mine is by no means exhausted; and since the interest of everybody on the spot is now fully aroused to these matters, there is hope that more of value may yet be given to science from this locality. * * * * * * * Doctor Hrdlitka has returned deeply impressed with the opportunities for and the need of anthropological research offered by all these distant parts of the world and the openings everywhere for American cooperation. The story of man’s origin, differentiation, spread, and struggle for survival is evidently greater, far greater, than ordinarily conceived, and a vast amount of work remains for its satisfactory solution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15 ARCHEOLOGICAL STUDIES IN MISSISSIPPI Mr. Henry B. Collins, jr., assistant curator of ethnology in the National Museum, was detailed during the summer of 1925 to the Bureau of American Ethnology to conduct an archeological explora- tion of the region in Mississippi formerly occupied by the Choctaw Indians. In describing the scope of the work, Mr. Collins says: The region selected for investigation was the eastern part of the State, the former center of the Choctaw Tribe. Here are found not only the village sites known to have been occupied by the Choctaw within historic times, but also a number of prehistoric mounds similar to those found throughout the Missis- sippi Valley and in other parts of the South and Hast, denoting a still earlier occupancy of this region by either the Choctaw themselves or by related tribes. At the time of first contact with Europeans, the Choctaw were the most numerous of all the southern Indians. They are also generally regarded as a basie type, culturally and physically, of the great Muskhogean linguistic stock. In any consideration of the ethnic problems of the South, therefore, the Choctaw must assume a place of importance, but as yet very little work has been done among them. It was decided. therefore, that operations for the summer should be confined to definitely known Choctaw territory, devoting part of the time to exploration of historic village sites and part to the excavation of prehistoric mounds in an attempt to establish as far as possible the relation of the two. From Jackson, Miss., Mr. Collins made a thorough reconnaissance of the ancient mounds in some nine counties of the State. The most important mound examined was the famous Nanih Waiya, which is regarded by the Choctaw as the place of their origin. This large, well-preserved earthwork plays an important part in the legendary history of the Choctaw. The first mounds to be excavated by Mr. Collins were a group of eight near Crandall, in Clarke County. These proved to be burial mounds, and numerous skeletons were found in them, some of them showing evidences of cremation. The next mound opened, near the town of Increase, was of a different type and much larger. Although containing no skeletons and but a few artifacts, the mound proved of unusual interest because of a peculiar stratification encountered. Regarding this stratification and the relationships of the mound, Mr. Collins writes: This stratification consisted of a series of brilliantly colored sand layers, yellow, brown, orange, blue-gray, and pure white, from which, at the center of the mound, there suddenly arose a dome-shaped structure of compact yellow clay. This clay dome and the succession of colored sand strata probably had a ceremonial significance, haying been placed on the floor of what had very likely been a temple, the site of which was later covered over with a mound of earth, on the top of which, still later, there probably stood a temple or council house. Colored sand strata in much the same arrangement have also been found in the effigy mounds of Wisconsin. Within this small inner mound or clay dome was found a rectangular ornament of sheet copper and silver inclosing a core of wood. Both copper 16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 192 and silver are shown by analysis to be native American, probably from the Lake Superior region. Silver and copper ornaments practically identical to this have been found in small numbers in Florida, Tennessee, Ohio, and Michigan, Thin, flaked knives, struck with a single blow from flint cores, were found both in the mound and in the adjoining field. ‘These are identical in every respect with the flaked knives from Flint Ridge in Ohio which, while abundant in the Ohio mounds, are rarely found in other localities. With the most significant features of the McRae mound so strongly suggest- ing northern influence, we must conclude that the builders of this Mississippi mound maintained at least a close trade relationship with the northern tribes. While undoubtedly the many mounds and various other earthworks of North America were built by Indian tribes of diverse stocks, there are certain resemblances between even the most distant of them which suggest a contact something more than sporadic. Another group of seven small mounds near Hiwannee, Wayne County, proved to be similar in contents and construction to the burial mounds near Crandall. Upon completing their study, Mr. Collins examined the cemetery of the historic Choctaw village of Coosha, near Lockhart, Lauderdale County. This was found to be compara- tively recent, dating probably from the first 30 years of the nineteenth century, and the burials indicated that the Choctaw had by then lost most of their native culture and adopted the ways of the whites. Mr. Collins concluded his season’s work with a series of measure- ments and observations on 58 adult Choctaw living at Philadelphia, Miss. SMITHSONIAN RADIO TALKS The Institution continued to make use of radio broadcasting as an effective means of carrying out its purpose—the increase and dif- fusion of knowledge. The Smithsonian talks on scientific subjects continued to increase in popularity as indicated by the interest shown in them by magazine editors, news writers, and others. The talks were given on a regular weekly schedule from Station WRC, of the Radio Corporation of America, Washington, D. C., beginning October 1, 1925, and continuing until May 20, 1926. Thirty-two talks were given in all, of which 14 were presented by members of the staff of the Institution and its branches, and the other 18 by representatives of the Department of the Interior, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Commerce, and Harvard College Observatory, speaking under the auspices of the Institution. 'Through the cooperation of Prof. J. McKeen Cattell, many of the talks have been published with illustrations in the Scientific Monthly. Through a system of exchanges, seven of the Smithsonian talks were sent to Station WBZ, of Springfield, Mass., for rebroadcasting there under the auspices of a series similar to that of the Smith- sonian, and certain of the talks from the New England series, which. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY té is under the direction of Dr. Edward Wigglesworth, were rebroad- cast in Washington. A number of talks on astronomy, given from Station WEEI, Boston, under the auspices of the Harvard College Observatory, were also rebroadcast from Washington as part of the Smithsonian series, through the courtesy of Prof. Harlow Shapley and Station WEEI. A second series of talks of a somewhat different nature, entitled “Radio Nature Talks from the National Zoological Park,” was inaugurated during the year. This series is described in detail in the report on the National Zoological Park, which forms Appendix 6 of this report. The direction of both of these series under the auspices of the Institution was in the hands of Mr. Austin H. Clark, curator of echinoderms in the National Museum. A list of the talks in the regular Smithsonian series follows: August 5, 1925: Butterflies. Mr. Austin H. Clark, National Museum (given from Station WBZ). October 1, 1925: Flies. Dr. J. M. Aldrich, National Museum. October 8, 1925. Our Lighthouse Service. Hon. George R. Putnam, Director of Lighthouses. October 15, 1925: Plant Lice and Scale Insects. Mr. Harold Morrison, Bureau of Hntomology. October 22, 1925: Earthquakes, Commander N. H. Heck, Coast and Geodetic Survey. October 29, 1925: Our Alaskan Fisheries. Hon. Henry O’Malley, Commis- sioner of Fisheries. November 5, 1925: The Work of the Bureau of Standards. Dr. George K. Burgess, director, Bureau of Standards. November 12, 1925: Turtles. Miss Doris M. Cochran, National Museum. November 19, 1925: Studying the Sun in Chile. Mr. L. B. Aldrich, Astro- physical Observatory. November 26, 1925: Comets. Prof. Edward 8. King, Harvard College Observa- tory (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). December 3, 1925: The Ups and Downs of the Earth. Maj. William Bowie, Coast and Geodetic Survey. December 10, 1925: The Story of Time Keeping. Mr. Carl W. Mitman, National Museum. December 17, 1925: The Numbers, Motions, and Sizes of the Stars. Dr. William J. Luyten, Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). December 24, 1925: How the Insects Spend the Winter. Mr. S. A. Rohwer, Bureau of Entomology. January 7, 1926: How Men Learned to Fly. Mr. Paul E. Garber, National Museum. January 14, 1926: New Stars and Variables. Dr. Annie J. Cannon, Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). January 21, 1926: The American Sword. Mr. T. T. Belote, National Museum. January 28, 1926: Measuring the Universe. Prof. Harlow Shapley, director, Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. William M. Sweets). February 11, 1926: Archeology in the Southern States. Mr. Henry B. Collins, jr., National Museum. 18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 February 18, 1926: Our Ancient Seas. Dr. Charles E. Resser, National Museum. February 25, 1926: Some Aspects of the Development of Printing. Mr. R. P. Tolman, National Museum. March 4, 1926: Birds from the Rocks. Mr. Charles W. Gilmore, National Museum. March 11, 1926: Household Pests. Dr. HE. A. Back, Bureau of Entomology. March 25, 1926: Some Aspects of Northwest Coast Indian Art. Mr. Herbert W. Krieger, National Museum. April 1, 1926: Bug versus Bug. Mr. R. A. Cushman, Bureau of Entomology. April 8, 1926: Eclipses. Mr. Leon Campbell, Harvard College Observatory ‘read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). : April 15, 1926: Spring Flowers. Dr. Hdgar T. Wherry, Bureau of Chemistry. April 22, 1926: What Are the Stars? Prof. Harlow Shapley, director, Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). April 29, 1926: How Fossils got into the Rocks. Dr. Wendell P. Woodring, Geological Survey. May 6, 1926: Spiders. Mr. Clarence R. Shoemaker, National Museum. May 138, 1926: Crabs, Lobsters, and Their Relatives. Dr. Waldo lL. Schmitt, National Museum. May 20, 1926: Bright Stars and Constellations. Dr. William J. Luyten, Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). SMITHSONIAN EXHIBIT AT THE SESQUICENTENNIAL Since 1855 the Smithsonian Institution has taken advantage of nearly every prominent exposition to be held in this country and many abroad to advance, through its carefully planned exhibits, the increase and diffusion of knowledge. The Institution has taken part in 33 expositions, and in addition to thus reaching millions of people through its scientific exhibits, there has resulted the further advantage of bringing to the National Museum a large amount of exhibition materia] at the close of certain of these expositions. In fact, the Museum received its greatest stimulus when it was still in the formative stage, as a result of the Centennial Exposition in 1876, from which over 40 carloads of valuable material were received as gifts from foreign governments and other exhibitors. With the funds available for the purpose, the Institution has endeavored at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia to represent in its exhibit as many as possible of the varied scientific activities under its direction. In anthropology, biology, geology, and arts and industries, the exhibits are taken from the National Museum. Anthropology exhibits include nine models in miniature of Indian village groups—Iroquois, Sioux, Pawnee, Wichita, Chippewa, Seminole, Navaho, and Pujunan. A particularly edu- cational exhibit portrays the evolution from simple beginnings to modern form of objects of household use, such as the lamp, the cup, knife, fork and spoon, the hammer. saw, and drill, and the ax. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19 The arts and crafts of the American Indian are represented by life- size models of Zufi potters, Navaho silversmiths, and Navaho blanket weavers at work at their tasks. The work in biology is typified by a mounted group of the interesting Bighorn, or Rocky Mountain sheep, shown in lifelike poses, which has proved to be a most attractive exhibit. Both educational and interesting are the geological exhibits, which include a series illustrating how rock is weathered to form soil; the gems and precious stones which occur in America and the minerals in which they are found; a number of interesting fossil forms such as fossil turtles, a giant fossil fish which had swallowed another fish, both being preserved in the rock, fossil plants from the coal measures of Pennsylvania, and fossil algae or seaweed, among the earliest known forms of hfe on the earth. The vast collection of American historical material in the National Museum is represented in the Institution’s Sesquicentennial exhibit by a selected series of arms, insignia, uniforms, medals, and decora- tions, and by models of Columbus’ ships, of the Mayflower, and of the Constitution. Mechanical technology is represented by a very complete exhibit showing the development of the steam engine and of the steamboat. The progress in photography is illustrated by ex- amples of this art from the days of the first daguerreotype to the finest modern work, and this graphic arts exhibit also includes ex- amples of etching, intaglio engraving, the halftone process, and other methods of artistic expression and reproduction. The Institution’s work in astrophysics, especially on the study of the variation of the sun’s heat, is represented by the instruments used in this investigation—the bolometer, an instrument so sensitive that it will measure a change in temperature of one-millionth of a degree centigrade; the pyrheliometer, which measures the heat received on the earth from the sun; and the pyranometer and the melikeron, devices which permit the determination of the heat lost in passing through the earth’s atmosphere. The Smithsonian exhibit contains also a complete set of its publi- cations and those of the bureaus under its direction, numbering in all nearly 900 volumes, which illustrate one of the Institution’s principal means of diffusing knowledge. The entire exhibit was brought together and arranged in Philadelphia under the direction to Mr. W. de C. Ravenel, administrative assistant to the secretary. PUBLICATIONS The 11 series of publications issued under the direction of the Institution form its chief means of accomplishing “the diffusion of knowledge among men,” one of its primary functions. These 20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 publications, all on scientific subjects with the exception of the cata- logues of the National Gallery of Art, are distributed for the most part free to libraries, learned societies and institutions, and special- ists throughout the world. For the general reader interested in keeping up with the march of scientific progress, the Institution presents in the Smithsonian Annual Reports a series of carefully selected articles, some specially prepared, some reprinted, covering as far as possible recent advances and interesting developments in all branches of science. During the past year 88 volumes and pamphlets have been pub- lished by the Institution and the Government bureaus unders its administrative charge. There were distributed 168,932 publications, which included 96,804 volumes and separates of the National Museum series, 35,671 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Annual Reports, 20,222 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Collections, 12,993 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and smaller numbers of the various other series. Among the eight papers to appear in the Smithsonian Miscellane- ous Collections there may be mentioned as of special interest one entitled ““ An introduction to the morphology and classification of the foraminifera,” by Joseph A. Cushman, which has proved of great value to petroleum geologists; “ Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon,” by Charles W. Gilmore, describing a large and valuable series of fossil tracks of extinct creatures collected for the National Museum by Mr. Gilmore; and “Music of the Tule Indians of Panama,” by Frances Densmore, a paper which describes for the first time the songs and instrumental music of the so-called “ white In- dians ” of the Isthmus of Darien, Panama. Allotments for printing—The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian report to Congress and the various publications of the Government bureaus under the administration of the Institution were practically used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the coming year ending June 30, 1927, totals $90,000, allotted as follows: Annual Report to the Congress of the Board of Regents of the Smith- Sonian ;institwtions See ees ale hl aye EEE hes les era pie egy Ee $12, 500 TNS ERO risa MEE CU ee et ee eee 42,500 Bureau occAmericannnthnolopy oo 2 be ee eee 25, 600 National Gallery jOtpattos ce Cee 2 ee ee eee 1, 200 International Dxchanzes= sts 220i bicd UG oD ae eee 300 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature___.___________________ 100 National: Zoological ‘Parka ox.) et teh i eels ede ee eee 300 Astrophysical Observatory ses se) Eee eo ee eee 500 Annual Report of the American Historical Association____---___-_-~ 7, 00° REPORT OF THE SECRETARY mt Committee on printing and publication.—All manuscripts submit- ted to the Institution for publication, both papers by members of the staff and those by outside authors, are referred for consideration and recommendation to the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication. The committee also considers matters of publication policy. During the past year seven meetings were held and 96 manuscripts were considered and acted upon. The mem- bership of the committee is as follows: Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, head curator of biology, National Museum, chairman; Dr. George P. Merrill, head curator of geology, National Museum; Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief, Bureau of American Ethnology; Dr. William M. Mann, director, National Zoological Park; Mr. W. P. True, editor of the Institution, secretary; Dr. Marcus Benjamin, editor of the National Museum; and Mr. Stanley Searles, editor of the Bureau of American Ethnology. LIBRARY The most important change in personnel was the appointment of Miss Isabel L. Towner to the position of assistant librarian in the National Museum to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement and subsequent death of Mr. Newton P. Scudder. Mr. R. Webb Noyes succeeded Miss Sara Young as junior librarian. The death is regret- fully recorded of Mr. Francis H. Parsons, for 25 years assistant in charge of the Smithsonian Division of the Library of Congress. The growth of the Smithsonian library is due almost entirely to the exchange of publications of the Institution for those of learned societies and institutions throughout the world. During the year, 30,541 packages of publications came to the library direct by mail, and 7,852 through the International Exchange Service of the Insti- tution. The accessions of all publications totaled 10,125, which brings the estimate of the number of volumes, pamphlets, and charts in the Smithsonian library to 677,483, to say nothing of the many thousands of parts of volumes awaiting completion of the volumes. The sets of publications of learned societies in the Museum library were gone over and the missing numbers listed. It was found that many of these could be supplied from the duplicates in the Library of Congress, and an effort is being made to obtain the rest from other sources. The shelves of the main collection in the Museum library were arranged, a task that had not been done for years. An intensive effort was made to bring the filing of the Concilium bib- liographicum cards up to date, and much progress was made. Nearly 1,800 volumes were prepared for binding during the year. 20837—27——3 22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 NATIONAL MUSEUM During the past year the total appropriations received for the maintenance of the National Museum were $598,392, an increase of $13,600 over the previous year. This additional amount was applied to the increase of salaries, mostly through reallocation of positions by the Personnel Classification Beard, for the employment of spe- cial watchmen to allow the opening of the Arts and Industries Building on Sundays, and to the fund for printing and binding. The Museum was benefited by these increases, but they are only a small part of those needed. As pointed out in last year’s report, much more generous appropriations are needed to enable the Museum to properly reward efficient service by its employees and to maintain the collections at their greatest usefulness to thie ever- increasing public that they serve. It is also most important that representation of many natural forms that are rapidly disappearing under the spread of civilization should be secured for the benefit of future generations. In the series of Smithsonian radio talks, now an established feature of the winter program of Station WRC, the Museum con- tributed 12 speakers. Many of the talks have been published in the Scientific Monthly through the interest of its editor, Dr. J. McKeen Cattell. The total number of specimens added to the Museum collections during the year was 254,032, and more than 1,000 lots of material were received for examination and report. Three thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven objects were given to schools and other educational agencies and 387,682 specimens exchanged for other material, while many thousands of specimens were loaned to specialists for study. A detailed account of the accessions in all departments of the Museum is given in the Report of Assistant Secretary Wetmore, Appendix 1, but a few of the more noteworthy may be mentioned here. In the department of anthropology, the division of ethnology re- ceived an excellent series of ethnological and cult material from the Rev. D. C. Graham as a result of his explorations for the Smithsonian Institution in western China and eastern Tibet, and a collection of 105 artifacts obtained in Young’s Canyon, Ariz., by J. C. Clarke, transferred by the Bureau of American Ethnology. The division of physical anthropology received valuable skeletal. material of Aus- tralian aboriginals by exchange with the Adelaide Museum and through personal collection by Doctor Hrdlitka. In the department of biology, the division of insects was greatly enriched by the purchase, with private funds raised by Dr. William REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23 Schaus, of the Dognin collection of lepidoptera, which adds about 82,000 specimens, including 3,000 types, to the collection. The divi- sion of marine invertebrates received large additions through the collections of Dr. W. L. Schmitt in South America, and also benefited through the transfer from the Bureau of Fisheries of further ma- terial taken on the Albatross expedition of 1911 to Lower California, which, included many new crustaceans as well as birds and fishes. The division of birds was presented, through Dr. W. L. Abbott, with a valuable collection of birds made in Siam and the Mentawi Islands west of Sumatra by C. Boden Kloss, and through Mr. B. H. Swales and Dr. Casey A. Wood with 65 bird skins of genera and forms not previously represented in the collections. In the department of geology, the accessions have included very choice and much-needed materials. The outstanding contribution to the division of geology was a collection of approximately 5,000 specimens of ores of rarer metals, assembled by Mr. Frank L. Hess and received by transfer from the United States Geological Survey. The late Col. W. A. Roebling continued his generous contributions to the mineral collections, and other important additions were pre- sented by the United States Mint at Philadelphia, Mr. Jack Hyland, and the Government of British Guiana through Sir John Harrison. Of greatest interest for exhibition purposes was a large group of fluorite crystals presented by the Benson Fluorspar Co., of Cave-in- Rock, Ill., and thought to be the most unusual yet brought to public attention in America. The division of stratigraphic paleontology was enriched through the field explorations of its staff, which added invertebrate fossils from England, Canada, and Europe, as well as the United States. In continuation of his work of last year, Mr. C. W. Gilmore added a new series of shale and sandstone slabs containing the tracks of extinct animals to the collections of verte- brate fossils. Fossil mammal material of unusual value was collected in Florida by Dr. J. W. Gidley. The accessions in the department of arts and industries showed an increase over last year. In the section of mineral and mechanical technology, the outstanding accession was the airplane Chicago, the flagplane of the world flight. of 1924, which was transferred to the Museum by the War Department. The textile collections were en- riched by the addition of many new fabrics. Several models were installed illustrating the production of certain industrial articles, such as methyl alcohol, coke, casein, and condensed milk. Examples of etching, wood-engraving, lithograph, and other forms of graphic expression have been received by the division of graphic arts. The section of photography has received a valuable set of machines and material illustrative of the growth of the motion-picture industry. 24. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 The Loeb collection of chemical types was increased by 165 speci- mens, and the historical collection by 17,256 specimens. A number of field expeditions were participated in during the year by members of the Museum staff cooperating with private or- ganizations or with other governmental agencies. The bulk of the accessions to the collections was derived from these activities, which are described in Appendix 1. The lecture rooms and auditorium of the National Museum were used for 110 meetings covering a wide range of activities. Visitors to the Smithsonian Building totaled 110,975; to the Arts and Industries Building, 355,762; to the Natural History Building, 581,563; and to the Aircraft Building, 58,005. The Museum published 8 volumes and 49 separate papers during the year and distributed 96,804 copies of its publications. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Attention is again called in the director’s report to the urgent need of a separate building for the National Gallery, the estimated cost of which would be $8,000,000. Without such a building, and with the art works now belonging to the gallery crowded into temporary quarters in the National Museum, there has been a marked de- crease in gifts and bequests to the gallery in recent years. With a suitable building, not only would the people of America again begin to add their art treasures to the national collection in Washington, but the collections of graphic arts, ceramics, textiles, and American history, now exhibited in scattered places in the National Museum, could be shown in association with the paintings and sculpture, thereby releasing many thousand feet of floor space needed for the natural sciences. The National Gallery Commission held its fifth annual meeting on December 8, 1925. The various affairs of the gallery were con- sidered, and attention was given to the year’s accessions, to the pur- chases made through the Ranger fund, to the proposed National Portrait Gallery, and to the method to be followed in considering the acceptance of art works given or bequeathed to the gallery. The present officers and members of committees were reelected for the en- suing year. The marble statue, the “Libyan Sibyl,” by William Wetmore Story, and a marine painting, “The Sea,” by Edward Moran, were accepted by the commission as permanent additions to the gallery collections. A very generous offer was made to Congress by Mrs. John B. Henderson during the year, of a large tract of land on Sixteenth Street for a national gallery building site. Special exhibitions held in the gallery included a loan exhibition of early American portraits, miniatures, and silver; an exhibition REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 25 of portrait busts in marble and bronze, by Moses Wainer Dykaar; and an important assemblage of modern Italian art collected and exhibited under the patronage of His Majesty, the King of Italy. Hight paintings were purchased and assigned to various institu- tions during the year from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger bequest. It will be recalled that any of these paintings may be reclaimed by the National Gallery of Art during the five-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented. Accessions of art works during the year, subject to the approval of the advisory committee of the gallery commission, were 10 paint- ings to be known as the George Buchanan Coale Collection, 1819-— 1887; a portrait of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, United States Navy; two portrait busts by Moses W. Dykaar; and three paintings by Edward Moran. A number of art works were accepted as loans during the year, and several previously accepted were withdrawn. Nineteen paintings belonging to the gallery were loaned for exhibi- tion by other institutions. The gallery’s library has increased to over 1,400 volumes and pamphlets. A second number of the gallery’s catalogues of collec- tions was issued during the year. FREER GALLERY OF ART The year’s work in the preservation of the collection included work on 10 American oil paintings and the reconditioning of the ceiling of the Peacock Room, half of the latter work being com- pleted at the close of the year. The study of a considerable number of Japanese paintings, including classification and the translation of signatures, seals, and inscriptions upon them, was accomplished during the year. The collection of Near Eastern pottery also was in- tensively studied and considerably revised. - The library was increased by 500 volumes, of which 462 are in the Chinese and Japanese languages, 72 periodicals, and 142 pamph- lets. ‘There has been an increasing demand for photographs of objects in the collection, and 518 subjects are now available for purchase at cost. Over 1,400 photographs were sold during the year. Several hundred copies each of the three publications issued by the gallery—the descriptive pamphlet, gallery books, and the Synopsis of History—were also sold. The total attendance at the gallery for the year was 108,310. Of this number, several hundred came for special purposes such as to examine objects not on exhibition, and to make copies or photo- graphs of objects in the collections, and six groups varying in num- ber from 20 to 148 made appointments for special study or instruc- tion regarding: the collections. 26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 The work of the gallery’s archeological expedition in China was. practically at a standstill during the year because of the disturbed conditions in that country. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The bureau has continued to conduct ethnological researches among the American Indians and to excavate and preserve ruins of prehistoric Indian structures, in accordance with the act of Congress authorizing the work. Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, chief of the bureau, selected as a promising region for study that part of Arizona west of the Little Colorado River, an area practically unknown arche- ologically.. After a brief reconnaissance of the region, Doctor Fewkes chose for excavation a large mound near Flagstaff, Ariz., which revealed an ancient rectangular building 145 by 125 feet in size, containing nearly 40 rooms and a large kiva, or ceremonial chamber. Besides clearing and repairing the walls in order to make this interesting ruin available to tourists and to students of arche- ology, Doctor Fewkes unearthed and brought back to Washington a large collection of characteristic pottery of diversified form and color, and a number of skeletons of the former inhabitants. As a result of this work, it will be possible to draw conclusions re- garding the culture and relationships of the ancient dwellers in this little-known region. Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied during the first part of the year in transliterating, amending, and translating the Chippewa text of “ The Myth of the Daymaker.” Later he undertook the task of reclassifying and recataloguing the valuable collection of linguis- tic and historical ethnological manuscripts in the bureau archives. Dr. John R. Swanton completed his papers on the “ Social Organi- zation and Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy,” “Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians,” and “'The Culture of the Southeast,” and these works are now in course of publication. He completed the editing of a paper on the “'Trails of the Southeast,” by the late William EK. Myer. Doctor Swanton continued his work in compiling a card catalogue of the words of the Timucua language, and also his investigations on the aboriginal trail system of North America. Dr. Truman Michelson conducted researches among the Algon- quian Indians of Iowa, studying especially the festivals of the Thunder and Bear gentes of the Fox Indians. He later carried on linguistic investigations among the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Pota- watomi. In Washington, Doctor Michelson prepared for publication two papers on sacred packs of the Fox Indians. Mr. J. P. Harrington was occupied during: the year in rescuing all that could be learned of the vanishing culture of the Mission REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 27 Indians of California. Extensive excavations were made at several ruined village sites which revealed two distinct coast Indian cul- tures—an earlier and a later. Under the direction of one of the few survivors who still knows how to make the Mission Indian houses, or jacals, Mr. Harrington succeeded in building one of these structures and excellent photographs were obtained showing each step in the construction. A large amount of valuable information regarding the Mission Indians was brought together by Mr. Harrington, and this material will later be published by the bureau. Dr. Francis La Flesche was engaged during the year in classifying the personal names of the full-blood members of the Osage Tribe according to their places in the gentes of the tribe. Each name refers cryptically to the origin story of the gens to which it belongs. Nearly 2,000 names were recorded, but their translation has not been completed. Doctor La Flesche, in collaboration with Doctor Swan- ton, began a vocabulary of the Osage Tribe, some 3,000 words having been recorded with translations thus far. Miss Frances Densmore continued her studies of Indian music, collecting during the year extensive material among the Menominee of Wisconsin, and completing her manuscript on Papago music, which is now in shape for publication. Mr. Gerard Fowke con- ducted for the bureau during the period February to April, 1926, a survey and exploration of a group of aboriginal remains near Marks- ville, La. The mounds excavated and the methods of burial dis- closed differentiate this group of remains from any other known to the bureau. Mr. Fowke submitted to the chief a full report, with illustrations and map, on the work. During the last three months of the year, Mr. H. W. Krieger of the National Museum was detailed to the bureau for the purpose of studying the archeology of the Upper Columbia River Valley, and to undertake the restoration of the old Haida Indian village, Old Kasaan, a national monument in southeastern Alaska. A reconnais- sance trip along the upper Columbia River in Oregon and Washing- ton resulted in the selection of an old Indian camp site at Wahluke Ferry as the most promising station for excavation. Several hun- dred objects were unearthed, most of which had been ceremonial offerings accompanying the cremation form of burial. At Kasaan, it was found that most of the fine totem poles and all of the houses of the old village had either decayed beyond recall or had been burned in a recent fire. A few poles were scraped and the rotted wood removed. On the return trip, Mr. Krieger completed a map of archeological sites on the upper Columbia River, and undertook excavation at eight stations along the river. Mr. Henry B. Collins, jr., of the National Museum, was detailed to the bureau to carry on archeological work in Louisiana and Mis- 28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 sissippi, particular attention being given to 21 mounds on Pecan Island in Vermilion Parish, from which considerable cultural mate- rial and a number of skulls were obtained. Mr. Collins then located the sites of several historic Choctaw villages in eastern Mississippi, and secured physical measurements on 72 living Choctaw. Dr. J. W. Gidley conducted for the bureau an exploration of the fossil beds near Melbourne and Vero, Fla. Many fossil bones were collected, including some new forms, and a number of Indian mounds were visited and examined. Dr. Ale’ Hrdlicka was sent to Alaska for the purpose of studying the archeology of Seward Peninsula, in the vicinity of Nome, but this part of his work did not begin until the close of the fiscal year and the results will be reported on next year. The bureau issued one publication during the year—the Fortieth Annual Report, containing a number of papers on the Fox Indians by Dr. Truman Michelson—and a number of publications were in press or in preparation at the close of the year. There were distrib- uted 12,993 copies of bureau publications. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES The number of packages of governmental, scientific, and literary publications handled by the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year 1926 was 480,776, an increase of more than 12,000 over the preceding year. ‘These packages reached a total weight of 558,493 pounds, representing more than 10 per cent increase in weight over last year. Over 2,500 boxes were required for the ship- ment of publications to foreign exchange agencies for distribution abroad. The depository of United States governmental documents in China has been changed from the American-Chinese Publication Exchange Department in Shanghai to the Metropolitan Library in Peking. Iceland and the Dominican Republic have been added during the year to the list of depositories of partial sets of our governmental documents. Steps were taken by the exchange service, at the request of several depositories, to have the regular series of governmental documents delivered more promptly than has been customary, and several letters of appreciation of this action were received from abroad by the Smithsonian Institution. Sets of United States offi- cial documents are now sent to 101 foreign depositories, and 75 copies of the Congressional Record are exchanged for similar proceedings of foreign parliaments. In the report on the exchange service, appended hereto, is repro- duced a circular describing the service and presenting the rules under which packages are received for distribution. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 29 NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Although the number of animals in the park remains practically the same as in the previous year, the value of the collection has decreased somewhat through the loss of a number of the larger mammals which are expensive and therefore difficult to replace. Among the 150 animals presented to the park may be mentioned six specimens of the rhea, the ostrich of South America; a very interesting collection of birds and snakes from Sumatra; a three- toed sloth; an ocelot; a fine pair of Canada lynx; a Tasmanian walla- by; and four giant salamanders. One hundred and one mammals, birds and reptiles were born or hatched in the park during the year. The mammals included Rocky Mountain sheep, moufion, Alpine ibex, American bison, Indian buffalo, yak, guanaco, various deer, Javan and Japanese monkeys, raccoon, rock kangaroo, and beaver. The animals lost by death included a number that had been in the park for long periods, the longest record being that of a sloth bear, which had lived in the park for 21 years and 6 months. The total number of animals at the close of the year was 1,619, including 461 mammals, 1,042 birds, and 116 reptiles and batrachians. The number of visitors for the year was 2,512,900, slightly less than the year before, but more than in any previous year. Schools and classes visiting the park numbered 309, comprising 24,309 individuals. General improvements included grading along the new western boundary of the park near Cathedral Avenue, a large amount of needed repairing to roofs, rebuilding the roadway to and around the administration building, and putting in a new drainage system for the cages and walks on the south side of the lion house. It is gratifying to report that provision is made in the appropria- tion for the coming year for a bird house, for which there has been urgent need for several years. It is planned to begin construction in the spring of 1927. This structure will enable the officials of the park to assemble a collection of birds worthy of the National Zoologi- cal Park. Funds were made available during the past year for fur- nishing uniforms to the park policemen, making possible the main- tenance of a better standard of personal appearance. Similar pro- vision should also be made for the keepers, who are brought to a considerable extent into contact with the public. In connection with the Smithsonian series of radio talks, a new series was begun during the year entitled “ Radio Nature Talks from the National Zoological Park.” In this series, thirty-one 15-minute talks were given through station WRC, each preceded by a brief statement of current news of the park. Through the interest and financial support of Mr. Walter P. Chrysler, automobile manufacturer, an expedition was sent to Tan- 20837—27——_4 30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSLITUTION, 1926 ganyika Territory, Kast Africa, to secure for the park certain large and important African animals needed for the collection. This Smithsonian-Chrysler expedition left New York March 20, headed by Dr. W. M. Mann, director of the park, and at the close of the year a report was received of the capture of the first animals in the field by the expedition. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY A grant of $55,000 to Doctor Abbot was made during the year by the National Geographic Society for the purposes of: selecting the best site in the Eastern Hemisphere and of establishing and maintaining for about four years a third solar-observing station to cooperate with the two now operated by the Astrophysical Observatory for the measurement of solar variation. To select the best site for the new station, Doctor Abbot visited and ex- amined promising localities in Algeria, Egypt, Baluchistan, and South West Africa, finally giving preference to Brukkaros Mountain in South West Africa. Although extremely isolated, this mountain is otherwise most promising for the investigation. Two-thirds of the 314-1Inch average annual rainfall occurs in February and March, when better conditions prevail at the two American stations, and good months may be expected at Brukkaros Mountain when observ- ing weather is poorest in America. Work was begun in April on the construction of the observing tunnel, dwelling, shop, reservoir, and garage, and the expedition is expected to leave this country in the autumn. The station will be manned by Mr. W. H. Hoover, director, and Mr. F. A. Greeley, assistant. Through the continued generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling, the station maintained for five years on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., was transferred to Table Mountain, Calif., in order to obtain better sky conditions. Mr. A. F. Moore, director of the Harqua Hala station, designed and superintended all of the construction of the new sta- tion, and regular observations were begun from Table Mountain in October, 1925. The high quality of the observing conditions has amply justified making the change. Mr. Roebling felt in 1924 that his part in supporting the solar radiation work should end with June 30, 1925. Letters were addressed to the National Academy of Sciences, the Chief of the Weather Bureau, and the director of the meteorological office of the Air Ministry of Great Britain, asking whether in their opinion the im- portance of the solar observations warranted asking for increased Government appropriations to cover the support of the Montezuma station. The replies were emphatic in stating that the work was of the highest value and importance, and Congress granted the necessary increase to continue the Chilean station. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 31 The daily solar constant values have been cabled to Washington from the Montezuma station as heretofore, and since January 1, 1926, the solar constant data have been published on the daily weather map at the request of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. On that date, the Institution made public announcement that it would furnish “through the United States Weather Bureau, through either of the telegraph companies, or through the Associated Press, or Science Service, if any or all of these organizations shall request it for the use of their clients, daily or 10-day mean values of the solar constant of radiation as early and as frequently as results are available from its field stations in Chile and California.” The staff of the observatory at Washington have been largely oc- cupied during the year with a complete revision of all of the Mount Montezuma data. As a result of this extensive work, the newly derived solar constant values show a new and higher order of ac- curacy than ever reached before. A new proof of solar variability was devised by Doctor Abbot, on the basis that if the atmosphere had uniform temperature, trans- parency, and humidity, and if the pyrheliometer observations were made always at the same altitude above the horizon, the readings of the pyrheliometer would be directly proportional to the intensity of the solar rays. Testing this idea on all observations made in the months of July at Mount Wilson, from 1910 to 1920, excluding the years 1912 and 1913 as well as many individual days of unusual atmospheric conditions, Doctor Abbot plotted a full curve from the remaining observations. Then using the identical days, the mean solar constant values as heretofore published were plotted as a dotted curve. Both curves agree very closely except in 1914, when they differ by about 1 per cent. Both curves indicate a range of solar variation in July of 1910 to 1920 of over 2 per cent. With them was plotted in a double line the variation of sun-spot numbers. Even in details the agreement is quite remarkable. INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Attention is again called to the urgent need of financial support to enable the organization to resume publication. The United States is the only country sufficiently prosperous to furnish this support, and no bibliographic enterprise more worthy of assistance could be found than this great international cooperative undertaking which for so many years was the only complete bibliographic aid to students and investigators in all branches of science. More than ever before, commercial enterprises depend on scientific work, and as it is through the literature of science that all such work is announced and re- 32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 corded, every effort should be made to have these records exact, com- plete, and available. It was this field that was covered by the International Catalogue. NECROLOGY GEORGE GRAY Judge George Gray, member of the Board of Regents of the Institution for over 30 years and chairman of its executive committee for the past 10 years, died on August 7, 1925. Judge Gray was born at New Castle, Del., on May 4, 1840, and graduated from Princeton University in 1859. He studied law at Harvard and was admitted to the bar in 1863. After practicing for 16 years, he was appointed attorney general of Delaware in 1876. This office he held for six years, when he was elected United States Senator for the unexpired term (1885-1887) of Thomas F. Bayard, who had been appointed Secretary of State. Judge Gray was twice reelected to the Senate, and at the end of these two terms, he was made United States circuit judge, third judicial circuit, which office he held from 1899 to 1914. From this time until his death, Judge Gray was a member of a number of important peace commissions and international arbitra- tion commissions. Tor several years preceding his death he had served as a trustee and vice president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Through his long period of service on the Board of Regents and as chairman of the executive committee, Judge Gray had a real interest in the activities of the Institution and a thorough knowledge of its affairs, and his wise counsel will be greatly missed in the meetings of the board. FRANCIS HENRY PARSONS Francis Henry Parsons, assistant in charge of the Smithsonian Division of the Library of Congress for 25 years, died July 25, 1925. Although Mr. Parsons was an employee of the Library of Congress, his close association with the Smithsonian makes it fitting that his career be briefly reviewed here. Born January 23, 1855, in Cleveland, Ohio, Mr. Parsons was the son of Charles Henry and Sarah Rice Parsons, both of New England ancestry. In September, 1862, he came with his parents to Wash- ington, where the remainder of his life was spent. Due to delicate health, his education was acquired from private instruction, sup- plemented by extensive reading. In January, 1872, he was appointed by Commander James H. Gillis, United States Navy, as his clerk, and sailed with him on the store ship Supply from New York to Rio de Janeiro: he was mus- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 50 tered out of the Navy August 8, 1872. From 1873 to 1894 he served with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; on one of its expeditions he discovered some rare Indian pottery, which is now in the United States National Museum. While connected with the survey he was selected to assume the duties of chief of library and archives, and reorganized that branch of the service. From 1894 to 1900 he was a computer in the United States Naval Observatory. In April, 1900, Mr. Parsons was appointed assistant in charge of the Smithsonian Division of the Library of Congress, and it was here that his major life work was accomplished. ‘The division had been established in the same year to care for the valuable col- lection of the publications of institutions and societies comprising the Smithsonian deposit (dating from 1866) and the Library of Congress accessions. In the 25 years of his incumbency he saw the collection grow into a great library, perhaps unequalled anywhere for purposes of scien- tific research. Mr. Parsons brought to his task infinite care and patience, and a wide knowledge of learned societies and their meth- ods of publication, and his colleagues in the Library of Congress learned to depend upon the fullness and accuracy of his records. His contribution to the care and upbuilding of the collection, which he carried on with the constant cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution, will be a lasting memorial. Respectfully submitted. Cuarites D. Waxcort, Secretary. APPENDIX I REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the con- dition and operations of the United States National Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926. The total appropriations for the National Museum for the fiscal year amounted to $598,392, an increase of $13,600 over the previous year. The additional sums available include $7,600 for increases in salaries, of which $5,100 came through reallocations of positions by the Personne] Classification Board; $1,000 for increase in salaries of employees in the shops, and $1,500 for employment of special watch- men to allow the opening on Sunday of the Arts and Industries Building. The sum of $6,500 was added to the funds for printing and binding. ‘The appropriation for the purchase of books for the Museum library was decreased by $500, leaving only $1,500 available, an amount insufficient for the purpose in view of the present output of scientific publications. Though the increases noted have afforded a certain measure of relief, particularly in the important matter of publications, the funds available for administration above the total of the pay roll are in- adequate for the needs of the Museum. The amounts now in hand for operation are barely sufficient for routine expenditure for needed supplies when handled with the greatest possible economy, leaving only small sums available for the purchase of specimens and little or nothing for explorations. The collections of the National Museum grow steadily in size and importance through transfers from other governmental agencies, from collections or single specimens presented by outside agencies, or through participation by members of the staff in expeditions financed from outside sources. This support is fully appreciated but it should be supplemented by appropriations that will permit the development of the many opportunities that come to us to obtain new information and material through direct field investigation. Further, the Smithsonian Institution, through the National Museum, should be in a position to develop useful researches of its own in many lines. Augmented funds for the purchase of specimens are also necessary since many gaps exist in our series. Though occa- sionally a gap is filled by gift, there should be funds for making 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 35 purchases when desirable specimens are offered at reasonable prices, as there can be no question but that every opportunity should be utilized to complete the collections of the Museum. Civilized man is occupying increasing areas of the surface of the earth, and with his occupation come such vast changes from the original condition that natural conformations are destroyed and hundreds and thou- sands of species of animals and plants must disappear. Only those remain that are sufliciently adaptable to fit into the modified scheme brought about by man’s presence, and those at all sensitive to change or that require special conditions for their existence inevitably dis- appear. The next 50 years will offer the last opportunities to secure many forms of nature for preservation for the information and study of future generations, so that yearly it becomes more and more important, in fact a duty, to secure such material. Opportunities now neglected may never offer again. Certainly the National Museum of one of the greatest countries in the world should not fall behind in such matters. Another matter deserving most serious consideration is that of the status of pay of the members of the staff. When the general re- classification act went into effect on July 1, 1924, it included provision for increase in pay at regular rates in the various grades. During the present year the third survey of the efficiency of the entire staff has been made with the result that it has been found that the majority have attained an efficiency rating sufficient to warrant pro- motion. The majority still stand at the entrance salaries in their respective grades. The financial assistance already accorded the staff has been greatly appreciated but it should be supplemented now, after a lapse of three years, as indicated. It is important that pro- vision be made to make the promotions indicated to maintain the morale of the personnel. Such promotion is required especially in the many low salaried positions since these do not afford a proper living wage. Modern developments in transportation, particularly the automo- bile, have’ brought to the National Museum a greatly increased attendance, one drawn from a broader area of our country than ever before. Parking spaces near the Museum are crowded daily, except during the colder months, with cars bearing license tags from every State in the Union. The educational function of the collec- tions has thus been broadened and extended and personal contact has been established with a larger body of the public. Interest in mat- ters that pertain properly to the sphere of a museum has also in- creased, with a resultant growth in number of inquiries by mail and in amount of material forwarded for identification or for informa- tion regarding it. 36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 The radio program of the Smithsonian Institution organized two years ago has continued as a regular winter feature of the pro- gram of Station WRC, and has attained marked popularity as indicated by growing interest in the subject matter of the various talks. Thirty-two talks were given during the year from August 5, 1925, to May 29, 1926, through the medium of 30 speakers, 14 of whom were members of the Smithsonian staff, including 12 from the National Museum. Seven of these talks reached a broader audi- ence than usual as they were broadcast also from station WBZ in Springfield, Mass. ‘The subjects covered a wide range of topics from butterflies to earthquakes, and turtles to comets. The subject matter of a number has been given permanent preservation by means of publication in the pages of the Scientific Monthly through the interest of its editor, Prof. J. McKeen Cattell. As an educa- tional factor for the spread of authentic scientific information the radio has a steadily increasing importance, and is a means for the diffusion of knowledge among men wholly in accord with the aim and ideals of the Smithsonian Institution. COLLECTIONS The growth in collections housed in the National Museum, while not so extraordinary as last year, has brought rich additions to our material. The total number of specimens received amounted to 254,032, while there came to hand in addition more than 1,000 lots of material for examination and report. ‘These included approxi- mately 28,000 individual specimens in the department of biology alone. Gifts to schools and other educational agencies included 3,857 objects, while 37,682 specimens were sent out to institutions or to private individuals in exchange for other materials. Loans of many thousands of specimens were made to specialists for study. Following is a résumé of the more important accessions for the year in the various departments and divisions of the Museum: Anthropology.—Among noteworthy accessions there may be men- tioned an excellent series of ethnological and cult material acquired by the Rev. D. C. Graham in western China and eastern Tibet, during his explorations in that region for the Smithsonian Institu- tion. The specimens obtained are especially valuable in completing collections previously at hand of the Miao aborigines, a native race whose culture will be lost as they are replaced by Chinese. Maj. Edward D. W. Dworak, formerly governor of the island of Min- danao, loaned a fine collection of Moro brass work for exhibition. The Bureau of American Ethnology transferred a collection of 105 artifacts obtained in Young’s Canyon, Ariz., by J. C. Clarke, a welcome addition to the collections in American archeology. An REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 37 ancient maskette from Mexico, beautifully carved from hard stone, was presented by Dr. W. H. Holmes. Considerable additions to the collections of ancient stone implements from France, collected by members of the American School of Archeology in France, were deposited through the Archeological Society of Washington. Tn the Division of Physical Anthropology, valuable human skeletal material of Australian aboriginals was obtained by exchange with the Adelaide Museum and through personal collection by Doctor Herdlitka. There came also miscellaneous Indian skeletons from Mississippi collected by H. B. Collins, jr., and a cast of a Neander- thaloid skull presented by the Instytut Nauk Anthropologicznych of Warsaw. H The fine collection of laces gathered by the late Mrs. H. K. Porter remained on exhibition in the section devoted to art textiles through the kindness of Miss Annie May Hegeman. Biology.—Though the total of accessions in this department was smaller than last year, much of the material was of such high quality as to offset its lessened amount. The greatest single contribution was that of the Dognin collection of lepidoptera purchased by a special fund of $50,000 assembled from friends of the Institution by Dr. W. Schaus, honorary assistant curator of insects. This collection, mainly of New World forms, adds about 82,000 specimens, including 3,000 types, to the collection. The addition of this material gives the National Museum what is undoubtedly the best representation of American species in this group to be found in any museum in the world. Doctor Schaus, accompanied by Mr. J. 'T. Barnes as assistant, went personally to France to pack the collection for transfer to Washington. The Hamfelt collection of microlepidoptera, secured through the United States Department of Agriculture, is another contribution of great importance to this group. Collections obtained by Dr. W. L. Schmitt from South America form large and important additions to the division of marine invertebrates. Through the Bureau of Fisheries, further series of specimens taken on the Albatross expedition of 1911 to Lower California have been transferred to the National Museum. The ma- terial recently received includes birds, fishes, and crustaceans, with a number of type specimens. Considerable contributions have come from China and southeastern Asia, excellently supplementing earlier collections from this general region received mainly through the generosity and interest of Dr. W. L. Abbott. A valuable collection of birds collected by C. Boden Kloss in Siam and on the Mentawi Islands west of Sumatra, pre- sented by Doctor Abbott, adds material from a new field. Important 38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 collections of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans, and. mollusks, have come from Dr. H. M. Smith, fisheries advisor to the Government of Siam, while Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States Navy, detailed by the Navy Department to accompany the United States Navy eclipse expedition of 1925 to Sumatra, has returned with valuable series of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, marine invertebrates, and other material; from Rev. D. C. Graham in west- ern China have come additional collections of mammals, birds, bird skeletons, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, and insects, including particularly important series from the Wa and Omei Mountains in western Szechwan. Mr. B. H. Swales, honorary assistant curator of birds, presented 45 skins to the bird collections, a donation of importance, since all represent genera or forms not previously represented in the Museum. Among birds of especial interest may be mentioned a peculiar roller from Madagascar, Uratelornis chimaera, a flamingo Phoeniconaias minor, the only form of the family lacking in the collection, a starling Leucopsar rothschildi from the island of Bali, the streaked breasted tinamou Vhynchotus maculicollis and a dipper Cinclus schulzi from Argentina, together with a rare finch /diopsar brachyurus, long known only from the type specimen, which came to the National Museum in 1864. Mr. Swales’ donations include also a specimen in alcohol of Mesoenas variegatus, a highly peculiar form, and seven skeletons of North and South American birds. Dr. Casey A. Wood, collaborator in the division of birds, pre- sented 20 bird skins from the Fiji Islands and 2 skins and 32 alco- holic specimens from Ceylon. Geology.—The records in the department of geology show a decided increase in the number of accessions; and although the sum total of specimens received is less than last year, very choice and much-needed materials are included. In the division of geology the bulk of material received was by transfer from the United States Geological Survey, of particular note being a valuable reference collection consisting of approxi- mately 5,000 specimens of ores of the rarer metals. This collection, which was assembled by Mr. Frank L. Hess during many years of field work, comprises unquestionably the most complete series of such ores in existence. Many other suites of described material are included in these transfers. Additions to the meteorite collection were acquired chiefly through exchanges, with examples of 13 falls registered as new to the collection. The late Col. W. A. Roebling, by his generous donation of money for the purchase of minerals, was the chief contributor to the mineral collections, 11 accessions, comprising choice exhibition and study specimens, being recorded in his name. Other important additions REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 39 are nuggets of gold formerly in the numismatic collection of the United States Mint at Philadelphia; a collection of Bolivian tin minerals, in part presented and in part deposited by Mr. Jack Hyland; and a rare palladium amalgam from British Guiana pre- sented by the government of that country through Sir John Har- rison. Of outstanding importance for exhibition is a large group of fiuorite crystals thought to be the most unusual yet brought to public attention in America. This was presented by the Benzon Fluorspar Co. of Cave-in-Rock, Ill. Rare minerals from foreign countries were acquired by exchange, and 387 cut stones were added to the Isaac Lea collection of gems through the Chamberlain fund. Material of inestimable value to the study series in stratigraphic paleontology was added chiefly through field explorations by mem- bers of the staff. Invertebrate fossils from the Cambrian and Ozarkian rocks of British Columbia, from the Lower Paleozoic of Great Britain and the continent of Europe, from the Middle and Upper Paleozoic of the Central States, and from the Devonian of New York, all selected with the museum’s special needs in mind, are among the collections thus secured. Gifts and transfers added im- portant type specimens, as well as vast collections of Cenozoic fos- sils. Although purchases were necessarily few in number, a few excellent exhibition specimens were thus procured; exchanges added valuable foreign material. Notable among the accessions of vertebrate fossils is a series of shale and sandstone slabs containing tracks of extinct animals, ob- tained from the Hermit and Yaki trails in Grand Canyon National Park by Mr. C. W. Gilmore in continuation of his work of last year. The present collection considerably exceeds in number of specimens the one obtained last year, and is of unique interest in containing faunas from three distinct levels, through a geological thickness of 950 feet, and from three distinct formations. Their great age, variety, and excellent preservation, as well as unusual occurrence, are features endowing these tracks with particular value in throwing light upon the character of the animal life of the Permian period. Fossil mammal material collected in Florida by Dr. J. W. Gidley is of unusual value as evidence for consideration in working out the problem of early man in that State. Arts and industries —The aggregate collections in this department indicate a fair increase over the previous fiscal year. In the division of mineral and mechanical technology the most important accession has been the airplane Chicago, the flag plane during the round-the-world flight of 1924, which was transferred to the Museum by the War Department. The Collier trophy of the National Aeronautic Association, awarded annually for some out- standing development in aeronautics, which was presented this year 40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 to Dr. S. Albert Reed for his development of a high-speed metal propeller, has been placed on exhibition by Doctor Reed with the aeronautical exhibit. An exhibit to illustrate the modern watch industry was installed by the Elgin National Watch Co. In the textile collections 150 specimens of cotton fabrics of various types were presented by the Pacific Mills through Lawrence & Co, An interesting series of casement material of different weaves illus- trating forms of curtains was presented by the Quaker Lace Co., and the North American Lace Co. presented a set of cotton and rayon laces made by machines in imitation of types of hand-made laces. The Ford Motor Co. installed a model illustrating the process of production of methyl alcohol with specimens of the main products derived from the distillation of wood, including charcoal, briquets, tars, oils, acetate of lime, methanol and many others. Another model loaned by the same company illustrates part of a battery of by- product coke ovens. The Karolith Corporation contributed 262 specimens of articles manufactured from casein according to a basic process developed by chemists at the Mellon Institute in Pittsburgh. In the food exhibits there was installed a large model of a milk condensary, gift of the Borden Sales Co. (Inc.), designed to illus- trate the production of milk and its manufacture into a condensed product. The Kroydon Co. presented a series of 10 specimens show- ing the manufacture of golf clubs from hickory and persimmon wood. The latter wood has been found especially suitable for the heads of clubs because of its unusual density and toughness. In the division of graphic arts the most important accession for the year was a work by John Evelyn entitled “ Sculptura,” published in England in 1662, in which is given the first account of the art of mezzotint engraving. Mr. J. Frank Wilson supplied a series of etchings, wood engravings, lithographs, and paintings, many of them especially fine examples that had been on exhibition in the division many years ago, and that now come as a permanent accession. An- other important accession of specimens of engravings, proofs, tools, and materials has come from Mrs. G. F. C. Smillie, whose husband was long chief portrait engraver at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Through the cooperation of Mr. Will Hays, president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (Inc.), there has been presented to the Museum a valuable set of machines and material to illustrate the growth of the motion-picture industry. The exhibits in this industry are assuming increased importance and it is planned to make them as complete as possible. There have also come to the exhibits in photography many additions in pictorial REPORT OF THE SECRETARY | photographs from some of the foremost workers in the world in this field, including a bromide print entitled “ Damp and Cold,” by Floyd Vail, and prints by many others. The Loeb collection of chemical types, established to preserve samples of the rarer chemical compounds, has been increased by 165 specimens. The collection is broadening its usefulness through contacts with a steadily increasing circle of chemists. History——During the year 17,256 specimens were added to the historical collections, a considerable increase over last year. Addi- tions to the military and naval collections were of especial interest and value. Mrs. Beulah Hepburn Emmet presented a collection cf 131 American and foreign military and naval swords dating back to 1750, forming the collection of Dr. Alfred J. Hopkins and known by his name. There are included many fine and ornate examples of the sword-makers art. In addition to swords of the Continental Army during the Revolution, there are many showing the develop- ment of the sword in the American Army through the nineteenth century to the close of the Civil War. The set of naval swords covers a like period of naval history. A large and interesting series of relics of Gen. Philip H. Sheridan was donated by Mrs. Philip H. Sheridan. In the numismatic collections, 65 modern coins and tokens were received as a bequest from the late Col. Thomas L. Casey through Mrs. Laura Welsh Casey; 112 Chinese coins, many of them very old, were received from Rev. D. C. Graham; and 68 French coins, tokens, and paper currency of the period of the World War were presented by Capt. Charles Carey. The philatelic collections received large additions from the Post Office Department including a set of 12,314 varieties of precanceled stamps from 1895 to the present date. Transfers from the Post Office Department to this collection have included all of the new stamps, both regular and commemorative issued by the 278 govern- ments in the Universal Postal Union. Commemorative stamps of our own government have included three issues, the centenary of the arrival of Norwegians in Minnesota, the Sesquicentennial of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and the erection of a memorial to John Ericsson, inventor and engineer, builder of the Monitor. EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK The bulk of the accessions to the collections during the year came from expeditions and explorations organized under private auspices or by other governmental agencies. In biology, important field work was carried on by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator of marine invertebrates under an award of the 42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution. Doctor Schmitt collected from August, 1925, to February, 1926, at various stations on the coast of eastern South America from Brazil south to Buenos Aires, devoting his attention especially to the crus- tacean fauna, but collecting specimens in many other groups. The material secured is highly valuable and includes many species not previously in the National Museum, as well as many new to science. Rev. David C. Graham continued his zoological explorations in Szechwan, western China, and though his travel in this region was hindered to some extent by civil warfare and the activities of brig- ands, he secured highly valuable collections in various branches of natural history. During the summer he visited Mount Omei and Washan where a number of new forms were procured and extensions made in the known ranges of others. The new material procured speaks well for Mr. Graham’s skill as a collector, since the region had been visited by other naturalists who had» collected there extensively. During April and May, 1926, Dr. J. M. Aldrich visited Guatemala for the purpose of collecting important diptera needed in the study of the Museum collections. His work was financed from personal funds and by a small contribution from the Museum. He crossed from Puerto Barrios to Guatemala City, and at the request of the Guatemalan Government went also to Coban as advisory member of a party to study locust infestations and possible means for their con- trol. His specimens have included many important additions to the collections. Mr. C. T. Greene, honorary assistant custodian of diptera, visited Panama from March to May in the interests of the Federal Horticultural Board mainly in connection with studies of the fruit flies of the genus Anastropha. Mr. Greene made extensive collections of diptera which have added extensively to the Museum series. Through the cooperation of the Navy Department, Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States Navy, was detailed to the United States Naval Observatory Eclipse Expedition to Sumatra that he might, while serving as surgeon to the members of the party, have opportunity to collect zoological material. The expedition was established in the village of Kepahiang, inland from the seaport of Benkoelen, Sumatra. During the period from October to January, Doctor Kellers procured a rich collection of marine invertebrates, fresh-water crustacea, insects, fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants. Considering the time available for the work the collections made are extensive and contain many interesting forms new to the Museum. They are marked by careful preparation. The coopera- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 43 tion of the Navy Department in this matter has been greatly appreciated. Dr. Hugh M. Smith, honorary associate curator in zoology, at present fisheries adviser to the Siamese Government, through arrangement with the National Museum and with some outside assistance, has secured valuable collections from Siam that have added especially to the series of fishes, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals. The material received is especially important since there has been little previously in the Museum from this region. Preliminary examination has shown several previously unknown species, some of which have been already described. The region is one of considerable importance since it connects the Malayan region with China, from both of which we have great series of specimens. Prof. M. M. Metcalf, of Johns Hopkins University, presented to the Museum extensive series of batrachians collected during work on opalinid parasites in that group in South America. The National Geographic Society has transferred to the National Museum specimens collected by Dr. Walter Koelz during the expedi- tion of 1925 to Greenland under Capt. Donald B. MacMillan. Capt. Rk. A. Bartlett forwarded an interesting series of marine inverte- brates collected during a visit to the coast of Labrador, and Mr. J. Morgan Clements sent collections of marine invertebrates and fishes secured during travels in Polynesia. Mr. Paul C. Standley, associate curator of plants, through coopera- tion with Mr. Oakes Ames and the United Fruit Co., visited the Canal Zone and Costa Rica, making extensive collections of plants. A week was spent at the Barro Colorado Island Biological Station gathering data for a list of the plants of the island. In Costa Rica Mr. Standley visited the Canton de Dota, where are found the first paramos north of Colombia. A month in the mountains of Guana- caste and work in other upland sections as well as in the Atlantic lowlands gave important data to be utilized ultimately for a report on the flora of Central America. Dr. W. L. Abbott, through his continued interest in the National Museum, financed an expedition by Mr. Emery C. Leonard, aid in the division of plants, to northern Haiti for a period extending from November to March. The 9,000 specimens procured will supplement material previously in hand for a report on the botany of the island. Dr. AleS Hrdliéka, curator of physical anthropology, in the depart- ment of anthropology, under the joint auspices of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences and the Smithsonian Institution, made an ex- tensive journey that included areas where remains of fossil or ancient man had been discovered in southern Asia, Australia, and Africa, and returned with series of photographs, specimens, and first-hand 44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 information of great value. Mr. H. W. Krieger carried on field work among the Indians of the State of Washington, and on the coast of southeastern Alaska, through a cooperative arrangement with the Bureau of American Ethnology. Mr. H. B. Collins, jr., under the same auspices, visited a number of Indian village sites in Mississippi and Louisiana to study ancient Choctaw, Attacapa, and Muskhogean cultures. Investigations at Pueblo Bonito under the auspices of the National Geographic Society by Mr. Neil M. Judd, curator of American archeology, were continued for another season since it had not been practicable to complete the work in five years as originally con- templated. Mr. Judd left for the site of the excavations in May and will continue his work through the summer. Mr. Judd, as chairman of the Research Committee of the Archaeological Society of Wash- ington, guided researches carried on by Dr. Manuel Gamio, for the society at pre-Columbian village sites in the highlands of Guate- mala. Under grants from the O. C. Marsh and Joseph Henry endowment funds of the National Academy of Sciences, Secretary Walcott, assisted by Mrs. Walcott, continued field work in the early geological strata of Canada during the season of 1925, beginning at Lake Louise Station in Alberta on July 9. Work this year included dis- covery of new fossil deposits in the great lower Paleozoic section north of Bow Valley, and in the lower Ordovician rocks of the John- ston-Wild Flower Canyon Pass section. Results from this work have been considerable though the season was unfavorable because of forest fires, whose smoke hindered photographic work, and fre- quent snow falls that interfered with field investigations. Dr. Charles E. Resser and Dr. E. O. Ulrich were members of the Smithsonian-Princeton expedition to Europe during the summer of 1925 to study important outcrops of the lower Paleozoic beds. The route included more than 7,500 miles by automobile through Eng- land, Wales, Scotland, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Czecho- slovakia, Austria, Switzerland, and France. As a result of this work many important fossils were secured and arrangements were perfected for valuable exchanges. During August and a part of September, 1925, Dr. R. S. Bassler, in cooperation with the Tennessee Geological Survey, continued his geological studies in the central basin and highland rim areas of Tennessee. His work this season covered stratigraphic surveys of approximately 250 square miles divided among four areas. Mr. B. R. Pohl was occupied for several weeks in 1925 in critical studies of the Devonian formations in the State of New York. This work was continued in May and June, 1926, in western New York and in Ontario with resultant information that enables a more correct REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 45 idea to be formed as to the proper stratigraphic horizons for many series of fossils whose previous position had been unsatisfactorily known. Under an allotment from the Marsh fund of the National Academy of Sciences, Mr. Charles W. Gilmore visited the Grand Canyon in Arizona and in cooperation with the National Park Service con- tinued work on beds containing fossil footprints. As an outcome of this season’s investigation there are now known three distinct series of these tracks that serve to indicate the animal life of the Permian world. ‘The beds in which the tracks are found are espe- cially notable for the graphic picture that they give, through their exposure in the canyon walls, of the enormous reach of time during which vertebrated animals have had their evolution. Dr. James W. Gidley, under the auspices of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology, continued work in the vicinity of Melbourne, Fla., in investigating evidence as to early man in Florida and in study of the Pleistocene deposits in that region. In October, 1925, Doctor Gidley was detailed to examine a spring deposit in southwestern Oklahoma, where he secured a number of specimens of ethnological and geological umportance. BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT Minor repairs to the various buildings housing the Museum have kept them in good condition during the year. It was necessary to replace a space of worn-out concrete roadway, slightly more than 87 feet in length, leading from B Street to the east entrance to permit the entry of trucks with coal and other supplies. Other repair work on the Natural History Building con- sisted of the usual painting required on window frames, repairs to the concrete water table, and pointing of joints in the stone steps at the south entrance. In the Arts and Industries Building the wooden floor on the south end of the gallery of the south hall was replaced by terrazzo, a great improvement that lessens fire risk. Much paint and repair work was required for the exterior of the building. In the Smith- sonian Building the public portion of the disbursing office was remodeled to give greater security during the handling of funds on pay days. Minor repairs were required in the Freer Gallery and the aircraft building. In the heating plant the consumption of coal amounted to 3,465 tons, the excess over last year being due to the longer period of continuance of cold weather. Considerable repairs were made to the plant and more will be required annually since it has now been in 46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 operation for 17 years. The boilers were inspected by the Steamboat Inspection Service of the United States and found to be in good condition. The elevators have been regularly inspected by the build- ino inspector of the District of Columbia and certain additional safeguards installed to protect passengers as fully as possible. The total electric current produced amounted to 493,295 kilowatt-hours, manufactured at a cost of 2.82 cents per kilowatt including labor, material, interest, and depreciation on the plant. The ice plant produced 344.1 tons of ice at a cost of $3.51 per ton. The increased cost is due to a new compressor installed during the year and some other changes in the plant that will lead to increased efficiency and will reduce the expense of operation for succeeding periods. In the shops there were made during the year 11 exhibition cases and 117 storage cases and other pieces of laboratory furniture. In addition, 40 pieces of storage, laboratory, and office furniture were acquired by purchase. MEETINGS AND RECEPTIONS The lecture rooms and auditorium of the National Museum were used for 110 meetings covering a wide range of activities. Governmental agencies using the lecture and meeting rooms in- cluded the United States Tariff Commission for an exhibition of motion pictures depicting methods employed in shipping living birds, the Extension Service of the United States Department of Agriculture for an exhibition of motion pictures, and the Federal Horticultural Board for various hearings, particularly with regard to quarantine regulations for certain bulbs. Members of the Forest Service held a series of meetings during the year dealing with various phases of their work. Scientific societies that met regularly in the meeting room included the Entomological Society of Washington, the Society for Philo- sophical Inquiry, the Anthropological Society of Washington, and the American Horticultural Society. Meetings were held also by the National Parks Association, the Federation of Music Clubs of the District of Columbia, the Vivarium Society, the Wild Flower Preser- vation Society, the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia, the Art and Archaeology League of Washington, the Washington Society of Engineers, the National Soy-bean Growers’ Association, and by the Biological Society in cooperation with the Audubon Society. The School of Foreign Service of Georgetown University conducted a series of 15 lectures on the American Constitution and ideals as compared with the Communist ideals manifested in Bolshevism. The second national spelling bee, organized by the Courier-Journal, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 47 of Louisville, Ky., held June 17, was won by Miss Pauline Bell, of Clarkson, Ky. The second Industrial Conference of Women under the auspices of the United States Department of Labor, held from January 18 to 21, included at its initial session on January 18, the reading of a letter from President Coolidge and addresses by Hon. James J. Davis, Secretary of Labor; Mrs. John Jacob Rogers, Member of Congress from Massachusetts; and Mrs. Julius Kahn, Member of Congress from California. An illustrated address on the collections in the National Gallery of Art was delivered by Dr. Gertrude R. Brigham on December 5. On January 25 under the auspices of the Twentieth Century Club there was an illustrated lecture on the National Gallery of Art by Mrs. Porter R. Chandler. Educational and other organizations holding meetings in the build- ing included the Associate Alumnae of Vassar College, the depart- ment of superintendents of the National Educational Association, the Smithsonian Relief Association, the National League of Girls Clubs, the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States, Federal Post No. 824, the Girl Scouts, the Nature Study Corps of the public schools of the District of Columbia, a class in bird study from George Washington University, and a class in parasitology from Howard University. On October 21 Dr. AleS Hrdlicka gave to the staff an account of his studies of ancient man during his journey in southern Asia, Australia, and Africa. There were also several exhibits of pictures and talks for members of the staff, including one by Mr. Rollin R. Winslow, United States Consul at Surabaya, Java. On November 5 there was a iecture by M. Georges Plasse on the making of aquatints in color, illustrated by motion pictures taken in the studio of the speaker in Paris. On February 20, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, M. Henri Correvon of Geneva, Switzerland, gave an address on Alpine plants and their use in rock gardens. On June 4 Dr. Johannes Schmidt, Director of the Physiological Division, Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copenhagen, Denmark, delivered an illustrated address on Danish Oceanographic Expeditions—Kel Investigations, before a meeting held under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Washington Academy of Sciences, the Biological Society of Washington, and the Smithsonian Institution. EXHIBIT AT THE SESQUICENTENNIAL Considerable time was devoted during the year by members of the Museum staff to the preparation of material to form part of the 48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Smithsonian exhibit at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadel- phia. The anthropological exhibits include miniature models of Indian village groups, life-size models of Indian potters, silver- smiths, and weavers at work, and a series to illustrate the evolution of the lamp, cup, knife, fork, spoon, hammer, saw, drill, and ax. The chief exhibit in biology is a mounted group of the Bighorn, or Rocky Mountain sheep. Geology is represented by a series illustrat- ing the weathering of rock to form soil, a collection of gems and precious stones found in America with the minerals in which they occur, and a number of interesting fossil forms including fossil fish, turtles, plants, and algae. The Museum’s historical exhibit com- prises a series of arms, insignia, uniforms, and medals, and models of Columbus’ ships, of the Mayflower, and of the Constitution. Mechanical technology is represented by an extensive exhibit illus- trating the development of the steam engine and of the steamboat. In graphic arts are shown examples illustrating the progress in photography from the days of the daguerreotype to the present, and other forms of graphic expression. The entire Smithsonian ex- hibit was prepared and installed in Philadelphia under the direction of Mr. W. de C. Ravenel, administrative assistant to the Secretary. MISCELLANEOUS Visitors to the buildings under the National Museum show a steady annual increase, in the present year registering a total of 1,106,305. The attendance in the several buildings was recorded as follows: Smithsonian, 110,975; Arts and Industries, 355,762; Natural History, 581,563; Aircraft, 58,005. The average daily attendance, including Sunday, was approximately 2,500. The exhibition halls were closed on Christmas Day and New Year’s. The Museum published 8 volumes and 49 separate papers during the year, while its distribution of literature amounted to 96,804 copies of its books and pamphlets. Additions to the Museum library have included 1,660 volumes and 1,466 pamphlets, obtained mainly by exchange or donation. In the considerable progress made in library matters during the year, men- tion may be made of binding and of the checking of sets of periodi- cals and of the attempt to fill existing gaps in these series. Dr. Casey A. Wood, well known as an ornithologist, was given honorary appointment as collaborator in the division of birds on January 9, 1926. Doctor Wood has shown deep interest in the col- iections of that division for a number of years. Dr. H. H. Bartlett, director of the botanical garden of the Uni- versity of Michigan, who will collect specimens in Formosa and Sumatra on behalf of the National Museum and the University of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 49 Michigan, was appointed collaborator in the division of plants for two years beginning March 17, 1926. Dr. William H. Longley, of Goucher College, who is working in cooperation with the Museum, was made collaborator in the division of marine invertebrates on March 20, 1926. The honorary appointment of Dr. George Grant MacCurdy as collaborator in the department of anthropology was extended for one year beginning February 14, 1926. Earl D. Reid was promoted from clerk to aid in the division of fishes on August 1, 1926. Miss Isabel L. Towner was appointed assistant librarian of the Museum in January, 1926, succeeding the late Mr. N. P. Scudder, in charge of the Museum hbrary. Miss Hortense Hoad, aid in the division of history, resigned on January 31, 1926. Mr. Paul G. Van Natta left the service by resignation on May 6, 1926. It may be noted that turnover in the watch force has become so great that in the last year the 61 positions of guard were held by 80 persons. Dr. Brayton H. Ransom, assistant custodian of the helminthologi- eal collections of the Museum since January 5, 1905, died September 17, 1925, after a brief illness. Other deaths among members of the Museum force were those of Mr. J. H. Williams, laborer, on Septem- ber 4, 1925; Mr. Henry Gibson, laborer, November 21; Mr. Sylvester W. Baldwin, laborer, December 24; Mr. John E. Johnson, watchman, March 26, 1926; and Mr. Marston R. Carey, mail carrier, April 1. Respectfully submitted. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary. Dr. CHartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 2 REPORT ON THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the affairs of the National Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30, 1926. In the annual report of the director of the gallery for the fiscal year 1924-25 a list of the personnel of the staff was given, and the nature of their activities was briefly indicated. No noteworthy changes have been made during the present year. Reference was made to a decided falling-off in the acquirement of art works in recent years, a result attributed to the lack of available space for the accommodation of additions save of the most limited kind. The dire need of a gallery building was there explained, and the sketch plans for such a building, prepared under the direction of the Regents of the Institution, by Mr. Charles A. Platt, architect of the Freer Gallery, were discussed in some detail. The estimated cost of the structure, which when completed, would be worthy of a people who aspire to bring together in Washington a representa- tive collection of the art treasures of the world, is $8,000,000, although there appears no reason why this large expenditure, if approved by Congress, should not extend over a number of years. Such a building would not only make additions by gift and bequest possible, but would permit the assemblage, in association with the paintings and sculptures, of the collections of graphic arts, ceramics, textiles, etc., now installed for lack of gallery space, in several sepa- rate branches of the Museum. It would accommodate the National Portrait Gallery and the extensive collections of American history which now occupy nearly 80,000 feet of floor space belonging to and much needed by the natural sciences. THE GALLERY COMMISSION The fifth annual meeting of the National Gallery Commission was held in the Regents’ room of the Smithsonian Institution, December 8, 1925. The members present were: Gari Melchers, chairman; W. H. Holmes, secretary; Herbert Adams, Joseph H. Gest, John E. Lodge, Charles L. Moore, James E. Parmelee, Edward W. Redfield, Edmund C. Tarbell, and C. D. Walcott. The varied activities of the gallery were considered, and attention was given to the accessions for the year, to the Ranger fund purchases and their disposition, to the 50 ee ee ee eee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 51 problems of the proposed national portrait gallery, and to the pro- cedure to be adopted in considering acceptance of gifts and bequests of art works. After discussion of the latter topic the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the advisory committee of the National Gallery of Art Commission shall consist of the full membership of the commission; that in carrying out the functions of the advisory committee a quorum shall consist of seven members, four of whom shall be artists or museum directors. The commission considered at some length the agencies now enlisted in the promotion of the prospective gallery building, with- out developing any plan of procedure. The activities of the Ameri- can Federation of Arts and the Federation of Women’s Clubs in appealing to the American people for support of the gallery build- ing project were brought to the attention of the commission and encouragement was found in the assurance that appreciation of art is growing rapidly in all sections of the country. The expiration of the terms as members of the commission of W. K. Bixby, W. H. Holmes, and Herbert L. Pratt was announced. The secretary was directed to cast the ballot of the commission recommending to the Board of Regents the reappointment of these members for the ensuing term of four years. It was stated that Mr. A. Kingsley Porter, elected to the commission in 1921, had thus far not attended any meeting of the commission and that, in accordance with section 3 of Article V of the plan of organization of the com- mission, his membership -automatically terminated, December 8, 1925. To fill the vacancy thus created, the commission passed a resolution recommending to the Board of Regents, the appointment of Mr. John Russell Pope, architect. The appointment was declined by Mr. Pope in a letter dated January 5, 1926. The Regents’ plan provides for the election of officers and members of committees at the annual meeting, and the secretary of the com- mission was directed to cast the ballot of the commission for the reelection of the present incumbents. At 12 o’clock the commission adjourned and at 2 o’clock met in the National Gallery as the advisory committee to consider the offerings of art works for the year. The Libyan Sibyl, a statue in Carrara marble, heroic in size, by William Wetmore Story, and a marine painting, The Sea, by Edward Moran, were accepted by the com- mittee as additions to the National Gallery collections. CATALOGUE Early in the year a second and enlarged edition of the catalogue of the gallery collections was submitted to the Public Printer. Page proofs were read in November and the volume appeared in May. 52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 It contains 118 pages and 104 plates. The permanent accessions number 98 and the artists represented 228. MRS. HENDERSON’S OFFER _ Decided impetus has been given recently to the gallery’s building project by the very generous offer to Congress by Mrs. John B. Henderson of a valuable tract of land containing between 4 and 5 acres, on Meridian Hill, facing Sixteenth Street, as a gallery build- ing site. ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF ARTS AND THE FEDERATION OF WOMEN’S CLUBS The American Federation of Arts and the Federation of Women’s Clubs continued their work on behalf of the gallery, furthering its interests with propaganda and lectures, with the use of lantern slides and photographic prints. SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS HELD IN THE GALLERY Loan exhibition of early American portraits, miniatures, and silver.—The loan exhibition season was opened by a noteworthy display of early American art treasures comprising portrait paint- ings, miniatures, and silver, on view from December 5, 1925, to January 31, 1926. The exhibition, which was drawn from all avail- able sources, was conceived and assembled by the Washington loan exhibition committee, the members of which are as follows: Mrs. William C. Eustis, chairman. Mr. Frederick H. Brooke, vice chairman. Mrs. Porter R. Chandler, secretary. Mr. James Parmelee, treasurer. Mrs. William Penn Cresson. Mr. Frederic A. Delano. Mrs. Peter Goelet Gerry. Dr. William H. Holmes. Mrs. McCook Knox. Miss Leila Mechlin. Mr. C. Powell Minnigerode. Mr. Dunean Phillips. Mrs. Duncan Phillips. Mrs. Coreoran Thom. The very excellent illustrated catalogue of the exhibit was prepared by Miss Leila Mechlin and is introduced by a short historical sketch of the National Gallery. The portrait exhibit, representing nearly every portrait painter of distinction previous to the year 1840, was organized and assembled REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 53 at the cost of much exacting effort on the part of the subcommittee on portraits, the membership of which follows: Miss Leila Mechlin, chairman. Mrs. Porter R. Chandler, vice chairman. Mrs. William Penn Cresson. Mrs. W. M. Grinnell. Mrs. McCook Knox. Miss Sarah R. Lee. Mr. Lynch Luquer. Mrs. David A. Reed. The portraits, 103 in number, were shown to excellent advantage, occupying the walls of the central rooms of the gallery, and sur- rounding the exhibits of silver and miniatures, which occupied the floor spaces. A four-page résumé of the portrait art of America is given, with brief mention of the masters, and much valuable bio- graphical data regarding the painters is given in the catalogue. The collection of miniatures was of surpassing interest and was in charge of the subcommittee on miniatures, the membership of which is as follows: Miss Helen Amory Ernst, chairman. Miss Hlizabeth Allen White. Mrs. John Hill Morgan. Mrs. Minnigerode Andrews. Mrs. Rose Gouverneur Hoes. Mrs. Henry Leonard. Mrs. Orme Wilson, jr. Mrs. William Cabell Bruce. Miss Lilian Giffen. Mrs. J. Madison Taylor. Mrs. William FE. Wharton. The installation, a most exacting task, was made by Miss Ernst, and was unusually attractive and of very wide interest. The cata- logue of 208 numbers was introduced by a few interesting para- graphs on early American miniatures, by Mr, Albert Rosenthal. The collection of silver was shown to excellent advantage in six large gem cases in the central room of the gallery. Maj. Gist Blair, chairman of the subcommittee, being unable to take part in the instal- lation, the work was taken up by Mrs. John Henry Gibbons, aided by other members of the committee, which was constituted as follows: Maj. Gist Blair, chairman. Mrs. John Henry Gibbons. Mrs. Breckinridge Long. Mr. Hollis French. Mrs. Miles White, jr. Mr. Luke Vincent Lockwood. Mr. R. T. H. Halsey. 20837-—27——5 54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 The collection, numbering 255 examples of the art of early Ameri- can silversmiths, was generally regarded as one of the most interest- ing and valuable ever brought together. The catalogue was intro- duced by a four-page story of the development of the art by Miss Elizabeth B. Benton. The Dykaar exhibition —An exhibition of portrait busts in marble and bronze, with certain other pieces, by Moses Wainer Dykaar was installed in the middle room of the gallery March 5 to March 20. The exhibit made a very favorable impression and included the fol- lowing subjects. Calvin Coolidge. Carolyn Harding Votaw Mrs. Calvin Coolidge. Dr. Charles D. Walcott Warren Gamaliel Harding. Rabbi Stephen 8. Wise Dr. Alexander Graham Bell. A Young Teacher. Abraham Cahan. The Modern Woman. Eugene V. Debs. Nude Girl: Primavera Samuel Gompers. Once Upon a Time. Hudson Maxim. Satyriec Mask. Gen. George Owen Squier. An American Student. Justice Wendell P. Stafford. W. H. Holmes. A bust in marble of Abraham Cahan, well-known author and editor, and one of W. H. Holmes, director of the gallery, were pre- sented to the Smithsonian Institution by the sculptor. The Italian exhibit of paintings, sculpture, etc.—The third exhibit of the season was an important assemblage of modern Italian art, collected and exhibited under the patronage of His Majesty the King of Italy. It was assembled on the invitation of the Italy- America Society of New York City by the Italian Minister of Public instruction, the works being chosen largely under the personal super- vision of Arduino Colasanti, director general of fine arts, Italy. The collection, installed under the competent direction of Dr. Lauro de Bosis, occupied the entire central series of rooms and connecting spaces in the gallery, with a running wall space of 430 feet. This display attracted more than ordinary attention. The excellent cata- logue was prepared by the Italy-America Society and comprises 24 pages of text and 34 plates representing selections from the 290 items of the exhibit. The exhibit was opened to the public on the afternoon of March 25, with a reception given by the Secretary and Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and was closed on April 24, 1926. An especially noteworthy feature of the catalogue is the four- page “ Foreword” by Christian Brinton. His admirable character- ization of the exhibit follows: The aim of the present exhibition is to offer a balanced and comprehensive picture of current Italian artistic activity. The picture opens with the work of the great protagonists, Boldini, Mancini, and Medardo Rosso, and closes with a courageous presentation of Futurist painting and decorative art. Every REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 55 movement of consequence finds place on these walls, with special emphasis upon the work of certain painters and sculptors who have risen to prominence as the result of postwar influences. You will hence be able to adjudge the merits of what may be termed the living art of Italy. You will be able to trace in line, color, and form the artistic physiognomy of a country recently fired to new effort yet ever mindful of its heroic heritage. Very appropriately the frontispiece of the catalogue is a three- quarter photographic portrait of Vittorio Emanuele, King of Italy. THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND Since the paintings purchased during the year by the council of the National Academy of Design from the fund provided by the Henry Ward Ranger bequest are, under certain conditions, pros- pective additions to the gallery collections, the list, including the names of the institutions to which they have been assigned, may be given in this place. Since it is a provision of the Ranger bequest that paintings purchased from the fund and assigned to favored American art institutions may be reclaimed by the National Gallery during the 5-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented, it is appropriate that the death of Ben Foster, N. A., which occurred on January 28, 1926, should be noted. Title Artist igs Assignment 52. The Enchanted Pool---_. William Ritschel, N. A_..| Mar. 28,1926 | The Minneapolis Society of Fine Arts, Minneapolis, Minn. 53. From a Window-.-----_-- Carl W)- we eversso eee Pans Moe 2. eee Witte Memorial Museum, San | Antonio, Tex. DABHSpring esse le de, ere H. Bolton Jones, N. Ateis| et do___._..| Mills College, Oakland, Calif. DOs Passi eo ys Mee te E. Martin Hennings____-_- |-----do.......| Museum of Fine Arts of Hous- ton, Tex. 56 Southaven Mill_-___-___- W.Granville-Smith, N. A-|____- docwatecs Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio. 57. Circe and Anatol_____-_- Robert Reid N.. Ales. . 225/228) Gosh aie The Akron Institute, Akron, Obio. 58. Clifis of the Upper Colo- | Thomas Moran, N. A____|__-_--_-.-____- Louisville Free Publie Li- rado River, Wyoming brary, Louisville, Ky. Territory. 59. Days of Sunshine_______- WotlliamnVendt. Awe Asoo 2 soul oo Malden Public Library, Mal- den, Mass. The paintings purchased from the Ranger fund during the past fiscal year and unassigned at its close (1924-25) have subsequently been assigned as follows: 45. The Wood-Cart, by Louis Paul Dessar, N. A.; to the museum of the school of fine arts of Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 46, A Reading, by Thomas W. Dewing, N. A.; to the Cincinnati Museum Association, Cincinnati, Ohio, 56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 47. Dawn, by Dwight W. Tryon, N. A.; to the Carnegie Institution, Pittsburgh, Pa. 48. The Prodigal Son, by Horatio N. Walker, N. A.; to the Buffalo Fine Arts Academy, Albright Art Gallery, Buffalo, N. Y. 49. Storm Birds, by Armin Hansen; to the Norfolk Society of Arts, Norfolk, Va. 50. Helen, by Jerry Farnsworth; to the Isaac Delgado Museum of Art, New Orleans, La. 51. Across the Valley, by Hobart Nichols, N. A,; the Des Moines Association of Fine Arts, Des Moines, Iowa. ART WORKS ADDED DURING THE YEAR Accessions of art works by the Smithsonian Institution, subject to transfer to the National Gallery on approval of the advisory com- mittee of the Gallery Commission, are as follows: Ten paintings, to be known as the George Buchanan Coale collec- tion, 1819-1887: Portrait of Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751), attributed to Robert Feke. Portrait of Mary Hopkinson (wife of Dr. John Morgan), by Benjamin West, 1764. Portrait of Thomas McKean, Signer from Delaware, by Charles Willson Peale. Portrait of Abigail Willing Coale (Philadeiphia, 1809), by Thomas Sully. Portrait of Jan Uytenbogaert, by Jan Van Nes (or Nees (1685) ). Self Portrait, by Thomas Vivien (1657-1735). The Vintage, by A. R. Veron (1858). The Continentals, by Frank B. Mayer (1875). Sheep, by Balthasar Pauwel Ommeganck, Antwerp (1755-1826). Flora, attributed to Beechy or Verbruggen. Presented by Mrs. Mary Buchanan Redwood (Mrs. Francis T. Redwood), of Baltimore, Md. Portrait of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans, United States Navy, by August Franzen, N. A.; presented by Horatio S. Rubens, New York City. Two portrait busts in marble by Moses W. Dykaar: Abraham Cahan, author and editor; and William H. Holmes, scientist and art director; presented by the sculptor. Three paintings by Edward Moran (1829-1901): Riding Out a Gale, The Sea, and Life Saving Patrol; bequeathed to the United States National Museum by the late Mrs. Clara L. Tuckerman. Deposit. LOANS ACCEPTED BY THE GALLERY Noon, an oil painting, by Luigi Chialivi; lent by Mrs. Marietta Minnigerode Andrews, of Washington, D.C. Withdrawn before the close of the year. Portraits of Dr. William Shippen, jr., and of Thomas Lee Shippen, by Gilbert Stuart; lent by Dr. L. P. Shippen, of Washington, D. C. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 57 Six pieces of sculpture, by Moses Wainer Dykaar; lent by the sculptor. They are as follows: Calvin Coolidge, President of the United States. Mrs. Calvin Coolidge. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell. Justice W. P. Stafford. Dr. Charles D. Walcott. “The Modern Woman.” Portrait of Mrs. Sherman Flint, by Philip A. de Laszlo; lent by Mrs. Sherman Flint, of Washington, D. C. Sixteen examples of the works of old masters: Portrait of a boy, Sir Henry Raeburn. Portrait of Irish gentleman, John Hopner. Portrait of Viscountess Hatton, Sir Peter Lely. Portrait of a gentleman, Sir Godfrey Kneller. Portrait of Judith von Volbergen, P. Moreelse. Landscape (31 by 26), Richard Wilson. Landscape (21 by 16), Gainsborough. Small landseape (11 by 13) Gainsborough. Landscape (12 by 21), Constable. The Doctor’s Visit, Jan Steen. Scene in Venice (8 by 13), Guardi. Portrait of Sir Wm. Boothby, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Portrait of Mrs. Price, Sir Joshua Reynolds. Portrait of woman, Drost or Vermeer. Turkish scene, Diaz. Grand Canal Venice, Canaletto. Lent by Mrs. Marshall Langhorne, of Washington, D. C. Five paintings by Old World masters and four by American painters: Portrait of Admiral Vernon, Thomas Gainsborough. The Ford, J. B. C. Corot. Garden at Giverny, Claude Monet. Saskia as “ Minerva,” Rembrandt Van Rijn. Children on the Beach, T. Sorolla. Sunset, George Inness. Olive Trees at Corfu, John Singer Sargent. Portrait of Mrs. Samuel Miller, John Wesley Jarvis. Portrait of Sarah Cresson, Thomas Sully. Lent by Mrs. Breckinridge Long, of Washington, D. C. Portrait bust in marble of Mrs. William C. Preston, by Hiram Powers; lent by Mr. James Quentin Davis, of Durham, N. C., through Mrs. Anne Davis Thorn (Mrs. J. C. Thorn), of New York City. Portrait of Mrs. Charles Eames, by Gambadella; lent by Mrs. Alistair Gordon-Cumming. 58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Six oil paintings and a bas-relief in bronze lent by Miss Sarah Redwood Lee, of Washington, D. C., as follows: Madonna and Child, Francesco Bissolo. Portrait of Mrs. Richard Eaton, Charles Willson Peale. Spanish Interior, Juan Galves, 1598. Holy Family, attributed to Francesco Francia. Portrait, Man in a Red Coat, attributed to Thomas Hudson, master of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Portrait, Man Holding a Lily, artist unknown. Portrait, Sarah Redwood Lee (bronze bas-relief), Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Portrait bust in plaster of the Hon. Frederick H. Gillett, Speaker of the House of Representatives, by Joseph Anthony Atchison; lent by the sculptor. LOANS BY THE GALLERY Two paintings, The Georgian Chair, by Childe Hassam, and Musa Regina, by Henry Oliver Walker, were lent to the American Federation of Arts, to be sent out with paintings from other sources on an educational circuit under the auspices of the federation. Twelve paintings, mostly from the William T. Evans collection, were lent to the American Federation of Arts for exhibition in Chat- tanooga, Tenn., February 15, 1926: June (the Rose), John W. Alexander. At Nature’s Mirror, Ralph Albert Blakelock. Birch Clad Hills, Ben Foster. Portrait of Walter Shirlaw, Frank Duveneck. An Interlude, Wm. Sergeant Kendall. Moonrise at Ogunquit, Hobart Nichols. Landscape, Chauncey Ryder. November, Dwight W. Tryon. The Cup of Death, Elihu Vedder. Autumn at Arkville, Alexander Wyant. Conway Hills, F. Ballard Williams. The Island, Edward W. Redfield. Five paintings (by members of the National Academy of Design) were lent to the academy for its centennial exhibition held at the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., October 17 to November 15, 1925, and at the Grand Central Art Galleries, New York City, December 1, 1925, to January 3, 1926. These were: The Lesson, Hugo Ballin. Sunset, San Giorgio, W. Gedney Bunce. The Siren, Louis Loeb. Illusions, Henry B. Fuller. The Monarch of the Farm, Wm. Henry Howe. Three paintings, portraits of Field Marshal Haig and Marshal Joffre, by John C. Johansen, and portrait of Her Majesty Elizabeth, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 59 Queen of the Belgians, by M. Jean McLane (Mrs. J. C. Johansen), from the National Art Committee’s collection of war portraits, were lent to the Corcoran Gallery of Art to form part of a joint exhibition of the works of these artists held in that gallery during the month of January. DISTRIBUTIONS Paintings lent to the gallery have been withdrawn by their owners during the year as follows: Portrait of Francois Paul de Grasse de Rouville, Amiral Comte de Grasse, by Largilliere; portrait of Theodosius O. Fowler, by G. P. A. Healy; portrait of St. Bernard dog “ Hero,” by Benjamin West; withdrawn by Miss Silvie de Grasse Fowler. Series of 13 historical marine paintings by Edward Moran, lent by Theodore Sutro, of New York City, were withdrawn by the trustees of Mr. Sutro, Frederick C. Sutro, Basking Ridge, N. J., Victor Sutro, New York City, and Paul E. Sutro, Philadelphia, Pa., for shipment to Los Angeles, Calif., as follows: The Ocean—The Highway of All Nations; Landing of Lief Ericson; the Santa Maria, Nina, and Pinta; the Debarkation of Columbus; Midnight Mass on the Mississippi; Henry Hudson Entering New York Bay; Embarkation of the Pilgrims from Southampton; First Recognition of the American Flag; Burning of the Frigate Philadelphia; the Brig Armstrong Engaging the British Fleet; Iron versus Wood; the White Squadron’s Farewell Salute to the Body of Capt. John Ericsson; Return of the Conquerors. Noon, by Luigi Chialiva; withdrawn by Mrs. Marietta Minni- gerode Andrews. Mrs. Siddons in The Tragic Muse, copy by Rembrandt Peale of Sir Joshua Reynolds’s celebrated painting, and Milton Dictating to His Daughter, by Rembrandt Peale; withdrawn by Mrs. John Biddle Porter. Portrait of Franklin Pierce, by A. G. Powers; withdrawn by Mr Joseph Stewart. Portrait of Admiral Thomas Holding Stevens, by Robert Hinck- ley; portrait of Mrs. Thomas Holding Stevens, by an unknown artist; portrait of Hon. Eben Sage, by Chester Harding; A Ma- donna, by Honario Marinari; and A Madonna, by Carlo Mahratta; withdrawn by Mrs. Pierre C. Stevens. LIBRARY The gallery library is steadily growing from a modest beginning in 1920 to upwards of 1,400 volumes and pamphlets, acquired by gift, exchange, and purchase. Notable accessions for the year were the gift of a large number of volumes from the library of the director, 60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 and of 11 bound and 29 unbound catalogues of notable art collections, by Dr. William Schaus. PUBLICATIONS Holmes, W. H. Catalogue of Collections, II, National Gallery of Art. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1926. 8vo, pp. i-vi, 1-118, 42 plates and 38 ground plans. This is the second number of the catalogue series of the gallery which is to be issued from time to time as conditions warrant. It follows in general the form of Catalogue of Collections I, N. G. A., 1922, with additions of works received to date of printing. It contains an introduction by the director, giving a brief account of the development of the art interests of the Institution and an outline of the organization of the gallery. This is followed by a list of the art works acquired previous to November, 1925, with brief biographies of the artists. Report on the National Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30, 1925. Appendix 2, Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1925, pp. 48-56. Catalogue of an exhibition of early American paintings, miniatures, and silver, assembled by the Washington Loan Exhibition Committee, December 5, 1925- January 31, 1926, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C. Washington, 1925, pp. 1-107, plates 15, with introductions on early American portraits by Miss Leila Mechlin, Washington; early American miniatures by Mr. Albert Rosenthal, Philadelphia; and early American silver by Miss Elizabeth B. Benton, Boston. Catalogue of a collection of busts of prominent personages in marble and bronze by Moses W. Dykaar, exhibited in the central room of the National Gallery, Natural History Building, United States National Museum, March 5 to 20, 1926. Washington, D. C., 1926, pp. 1-4. Catalogue: Exhibition of modern Italian art under the patronage of His Majesty the King of Italy, organized by the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. Introduction by Arduino Colasanti, director general of fine arts, Italy; foreword by Christian Brinton. Auspices of the Italy-America Society, Grand Central Art Galleries, New York, 1926. New York, 1926, 24 pp.; 34 illustrations. Respectfully submitted. W. H. Hoitmns, Director. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 3 REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART Sir: I have the honor to submit the sixth annual report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ending June 30, 1926: THE COLLECTION The work continued during the year in the preservation of the collection includes the work upon 10 American oil paintings and the work of reconditioning the ceiling of the Peacock Room. Half of the latter work has been successfully completed at the date of this report. In the oriental section 2 Chinese panels, 3 Japanese screens, and 1 Chinese scroll have been remounted and restored. Work within the collection has included the study of a consid- erable number of Japanese paintings, involving their proper classi- fication and the translations of signatures, seals, and inscriptions found upon them. All this matter has been recorded in the folder sheets. Every object in the collection is represented by such a dossier, and the work of compilation goes forward from year to year. The collection of Near Eastern pottery has also undergone an inten- sive study and considerable revision. Changes in exhibition during the year involved 9 Japanese screens, 7 Chinese panels, 2 Chinese scrolls, and 10 Persian potteries. An addition to the collection of Chinese paintings is as follows: 26.1. Dllustration to a Buddhist siitra: The Buddha addressing Yamaraja at KuSinagara. Ink, color and gold on paper. Sung Dynasty. Additions to the library by gift and purchase include 500 volumes, of which 462 are in the Chinese and Japanese languages, 72 periodi- cals, and 142 pamphlets. A list of these accompanies this report as Appendix A (not printed). The work of photographing objects for registration continues. In the meantime an increasing demand for photographs of objects in the collection has caused a rapid development of that part of the work. Five hundred and eighteen subjects are now available for pur- chase in sizes 5 by 7, 8 by 10, or 11 by 14, at cost price; 5 subjects are issued in post-card form to be sold at 10 cents each. During the past year 1,467 photographs, 28 lantern slides, and 115 post cards have been sold. Of the publications issued by the gallery, there have been sold during the year 698 copies of the descriptive pamphlet, 20837—-27——6 61 62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 391 copies of gallery books, 449 copies of the Synopsis of History, and 3 floor plans of the building. During the past year 76 objects have been submitted for examina- tion and identification, and several Chinese and Japanese texts have been submitted for translation. Repairs to the building during the year include work on the roof, the repointing of stonework at the entrance, the resetting of a stone architrave, and many minor repairs. A full report of shopwork accompanies this report as Appendix C (not printed). ATTENDANCE The gallery has been open every day, with the exception of Mondays, Christmas Day, and New Year’s Day, from 9 until 4.30. The total attendance for the year was 108,310. The aggregate Sunday attendance was 30,372, making an average of 584; the week- day attendance amounted to 77,938, with an average of 249. Of these visitors, 342 came to the study rooms to see objects not on exhibition or to consult books in the library, 15 to make copies or photographs, 52 to examine the building or equipment, 32 to submit objects for information concerning them, 33 for general informa- tion, and 261 to examine photographs. Six groups varying in num- ber from 20 to 148 made appointments for special study or instruc- tion regarding the collections. PERSON NEL Miss Katharine N. Rhoades, associate, was granted leave of ab- sence for a year, dating from October, 1925. Mr. Herbert E. Thompson, Boston, worked on the preservation of oil paintings and the Peacock Room. Mr. Y. Kinoshita of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, worked at the gallery during the winter months on the preservation of oriental paintings. Mr. A. G. Wenley, field assistant, returned to the gallery in the spring of 1926 for a four months’ stay before resuming field work. FIELD WORK Owing to disturbed conditions in China, archeological work in the field has been practically impossible. A detailed account of the activities of the field staff is contained in Appendix B submitted herewith (not printed). Respectfully submitted. J. E. Lover, Curator. Dr. CuartEes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, APPENDIX 4 REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the researches, office work, and other activities of the Bureau of Ameri- can Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926, conducted in accordance with the act of Congress approved April 22, 1925. The act referred to contains the following item: American ethnology: For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians and the natives of Hawaii, including the excavation and preservation of archeologic remains, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including the necessary employees and the purchase of necessary books and periodicals, $57,160. In pursuance of the requirements for the excavation and preserva- tion of ruins contained in the above item, considerable work has been done in the region near Flagstaff, Ariz. Arizona shows many evidences of a prehistoric aboriginal population and is a State par- ticularly favorable to the study of prehistoric ruins. Thus far very few ruins have been excavated in northern Arizona and very scanty material has been obtained for a study of the objects illustrating the former culture of this region. Research in this line was inaugurated by the bureau in 1907 at Casa Grande and has been continued in successive years at the Mesa Verde National Park, Colo. Formerly walls of ruins were destroyed in the search for small specimens, such as pottery, and thus work of great archeological value was lost. The method adopted by some institutions of burying the walls after objects have been extract-d from the rooms, while intended as a means of preservation, is not satisfactory. The Bureau of American Ethnology, however, when the walls are not so mutilated that they can not be repaired, has endeavored to preserve them for future students. SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES The chief of the bureau has headed an expedition to determine the western extension of the pueblo area in Arizona, where com- paratively little attention had been given to the character of the sedentary life of the Indians in prehistoric times. This includes the region west of the Little Colorado River which is archeologically a terra incognita. The site chosen by the chief to be excavated is 63 64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 situated about 6 miles from Flagstaff on the National Old Trails Highway. The work was begun on May 27 and was unfinished at the close of the fiscal year. As a result of this excavation there has emerged from the ground near Elden Mountain a rectangular building measuring 145 by 125 feet, containing nearly 40 rooms and a large kiva, from a study of which a good idea can be obtained of the aboriginal architecture of this neighborhood. The building was a compact community house in places two stories high, whose upper walls, judging from the amount of stones found in the rooms, were formerly 4 or 5 feet higher than at present. No walls were visible when the work began, but since the earth has been removed, they rise to a height of 4 to 10 feet. The rooms are comparatively large and compactly united without any visible outside entrances, being formerly entered by ladders and a hatchway in the roof. No windows or lateral doorways are visible in the walls now standing. In order to protect this large building from the elements its walls have been repaired where neces- sary and their tops covered with Portland cement to prevent erosion. The most striking result of the work has been the accumulation of a large collection of characteristic pottery from the two ceme- teries which were discovered a short distance from the northern and eastern walls and which extended over a considerable area, but never very distant from the pueblo itself. A number of skeletons were found, some of which were nearly perfect, others more or less fragmentary. Several of these skeletons have been brought back for the study of specialists. They appear to have artificially de- formed skulls. There was no common orientation, although a majority were interred with heads to the east. The distinction of the kinds of pottery would naturally be re- served for a more complete report which will appear later. As a rule, however, the number of varieties was rather limited and there were very few intrusions from outside, all of which goes to show the ancient character of the ruin and the isolation of its people from others in the Southwest. The typical specimens of pottery may be grouped under a few characteristic types. Perhaps the most abun- dant is colored dull red on the exterior with glossy black interior. The exterior surface is corrugated or smooth. From its abundance this type may be known as the Flagstaff ware. It is never deco- rated with painted designs. A more striking type is white with black decorations, mainly geometrical figures, which is widely dis- tributed in Arizona. There occur also a few specimens of red ware with black interiors, which bear indubitable evidence of having been derived from the settlements on the banks of the Little Colo- rado or near Tuba City. a ee Ee Fn PR RTE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 65 The forms of the Elden Pueblo pottery are food bowls, ladles, dippers, vases, mugs, and ollas. Several very characteristic pieces of the black and white ware are effigy forms. There occur remark- able bracelets made of clamshell (Pectunculus), with incised orna- mentation, from the Pacific coast, and there are ornamented bone objects which may be mentioned among the rare specimens. Tur- quoise beads and shells, which when strung formed strands of a necklace several feet in length, were sifted out of the soil found near the necks of skeletons. There were undoubted examples of shells set with turquoise mosaics, but they were more or less dam- aged by long presence in the ground. Stone implements were ex- cavated more commonly in the rooms of the building, and there were several different forms of paint grinders, which enrich the col- lection. There is nowhere a larger or better collection from Ari- zona than that excavated from Elden Pueblo. One of the most significant discoveries at Elden Pueblo was a room called the kiva or ceremonial chamber about midway in the length of the ruin on its east side. The kiva has thus far not been described from the Flagstaff area and its existence has been denied in the ruins of this area. The kiva of Elden Pueblo is very large and rectangular in form with round corners. It is partly subterranean and has a banquette extending wholly around the wall of the room, but no pilasters; it also has a ventilator opening externally in the east wall, peculiari- ties which occur in the ruins at Marsh Pass and elsewhere in northern Arizona. It thus appears that the legend of the modern Hopi that certain of the Hopi clans formerly lived on the San Juan and its tributaries is not fanciful, but that what they recount of the southern migration of these clans before they settled on their present mesas is supported by archeological evidences in architecture as well as ceramics. Several Hopi visitors retold their legends, published by the chief many years ago, that the ruins under Mount Elden were settlements of the Hopi in their ancient migrations, and as far as it goes the archeology of Elden Pueblo supports these legends which are some- times very vague, differing somewhat in minor particulars. These legends differ in the names of the Hopi clans that lived at Elden Pueblo, but the Snake, Badger, and Patki are all mentioned as former inhabitants. The particular claim of this pueblo for popular consideration is that it is easily accessible and not far from the city of Flagstaff. It bids fair to be visited in the future by many tourists who now pass through northern Arizona to visit its attractions, such as the Grand Canyon and the great bridges, and to attend the ceremonial survivals of the ancient religious rites of the Hopi. The number 66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 of visitors to Elden Pueblo during its excavation was very large and consisted not only of a large number of residents of Flagstaff but also of tourists from distant States. Before commencing the archeological work, the chief assisted by Mr. John P. Harrington, ethnologist, cooperated with Mr. J. O. Prescott, of the Starr Piano Co., Richmond, Ind., in the recording of some of the Hopi songs. Through the kindness of the Office of In- dian Affairs, four of the older Hopi were brought from Walpi to the Grand Canyon, where 11 katcina songs were recorded. It was particularly fitting that the records were made at the Grand Canyon, as it holds such a prominent position in Hopi mythology. The chief was also assisted in the archeological work by Mr. Har- rington and by Mr. Anthony W. Wilding, stenographer. Their assistance was invaluable and did much to make the field work a success. During the past year, the bureau has had in the field a larger num- ber of investigators than in any previous year during the last decade. Field-work has been done in various parts of our country, from Alaska to Florida, and although the line of research has in some in- stances been more or less limited in its nature, the total results have brought into the office much new data regarding the Indian life and a larger number of specimens illustrative of it than has resulted from field-work in comparatively recent years. It is recognized by the chief that the time that can be devoted to rescuing data regarding the life and habits of the American Indians is more or less restricted; that is, Indian culture is rapidly fading away and is doomed in a short time to utter extinction. While this is true of ethnological data it is not necessarily true of archeologi- cal material. In fact the antiquities of our country belonging to the past of the Indian are yearly attracting more and more attention, and in order to keep pace with this interest the bureau has chosen to represent it in the field a considerable proportion of archeological problems. At the beginning of the fiscal year, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt, ethnolo- gist, took up anew the work of transliterating, amending, and trans- lating the Chippewa text of The Myth of the Daymaker, by Mr. George Gabaoosa, and also that of an Ottawa version of a portion of the Nanabozho cycle of myths by John L. Miscogeon. In October Mr. Hewitt began the work of reclassifying and re- cataloguing the linguistic, historical, and other ethnological manu- scripts in the archives of the bureau. In this work he was assisted by Miss Mae W. Tucker. The card index consists of 2,924 items, with approximately 6,150 cross-reference cards. During the fiscal year Dr. John R. Swanton, ethnologist, made final additions to his papers on the Social Organization and Social H i Fy i REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 67 Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy, Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians, and The Culture of the Southeast. These papers are now going through the press. He has also finished the scientific editing of a paper on the Trails of the Southeast, by the late William E. Myer, which, with those just men- tioned, is to appear in the Forty-second Annual Report. With the help of Miss Mae W. Tucker, stenographer, Doctor Swanton made a considerable advance in compiling a card catalogue of the words of the Timucua language previously extracted from missionary publications of the Spanish fathers Pareja and Movilla. Doctor Swanton also continued his investigations bearing on the aboriginal trail system of North America. Dr. Truman Michelson, ethnologist, continued his researches among the Algonquian Indians of Iowa, concentrating on the gens festivals of the Fox Indians, especially those of the Thunder and Bear gentes. He also revised in the field the list of Fox stems incorporated in the Fortieth Annual Report of the bureau. In August he went to Odanah, Wis., to gain further first-hand information on the Ojibwa Indians and enough material was secured to show decided dialectic differences from the western Ojibwa dialects. The social organiza- tion of the Ojibwa is relatively simple as compared with that of the Foxes, and the various gentes lack rituals peculiar to themselves, in sharp contrast with Fox customs. At Baraga and L’Anse, Mich., Doctor Michelson located one Stockbridge (Mahican) family in the vicinity, but unfortunately none spoke their native language. The Ojibwa dialect, though not identical with that spoken at Odanah, is closely allied to it. He also made a preliminary survey of the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi, finding that the various languages still per- sist and that their ethnology is better preserved than might be expected. Doctor Michelson returned to Washington on September 19, when he prepared for publication by the bureau two papers on sacred packs of the Fox Indians and their appurtenant gens festivals, one called A'peniwané‘a‘ belonging to the Thunder gens; the other Sdgima'kwiwa belonging to the Bear gens. Doctor Michelson also completed typewriting the English translation and Indian text of a Fox sacred pack belonging to the Thunder gens formerly in possession of Pyitwiya. A fuller text than this on Pyiitwiiya’s pack, written in the current syllabary, was restored phonetically, as was an Indian text on the Thunder Dance of the Bear gens, a complete version having been worked out previously, and a fuller redaction was obtained. Mr. J. P. Harrington, ethnologist, was engaged during the fiscal year in the important work of rescuing what can still be learned of the vanishing culture of the Mission Indians of California. Work 68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 was continued at ruined village sites of the Santa Ines, Ojai, and Simi Valleys and at several of these sites extensive excavations were made revealing an earlier and later coast Indian culture. Picto- graphs were discovered and photographed; also rocks which were “first people” petrified, and which figure in Indian legends still extant. Spirit footprints on the rocks, both of moccasined and bare feet, made by these “ first people ” when the earth was still soft and muddy, were found at several places and photographed. At San Marcos the bowlders on a hillside represent the warriors of a mythic battle; some are standing with the blood from wounds running down their sides, seen as stains on the rock. A curious medicine rock was also visited, the size of a man and standing erect and surrounded at least at the present time by a bunch of opuntia cactus which keeps the curious at a respectful distance. At Rincon were photographed a couple of tall bowlders which stand six feet apart. To have good luck in hunting, so that one would be able to jump successfully among the rocks in the mountains, it was the custom for Indian boys to spring from one to the other of these bowlders. They also were called “ medicine.” Mr. Harrington also discovered at Rincon the ruins of a medicine house formerly used by the island wizards for secret ceremonies. An enormous bowlder is supported on several rocks forming a nat- ural cave, still smudged on the interior by the smoke of ancient fires. In front of this chamber on the east is a circular corral or parapet 18 feet in diameter and rising to a height of 3 feet. From the top of this stone wall rafters had formerly extended to the roof of the cave chamber, and on these thatch had been placed. It is believed by the Indians that if a person comes upon this place by mistake, thunder, lightning, and rain will immediately result. The construction of a Mission Indian house by one of the few survivors who still know how to make them was next attempted under the direction of Mr. Harrington, and an excellent series of photographs was obtained, showing the house in all the successive stages of building. The jacal is slightly elliptical in shape, with the door, less than 4 feet high, at one end. Door leaves, both of woven tules and of jarilla, were constructed. The diameter of the structure is 13 feet, and it is only 7 feet high, with an unduly ample smokehole at the top. Post holes a step apart and the same distance in depth were dug with a short bar of willow, the earth being scooped out with the hand. ‘Tall and slender willow poles were selected with the greatest care from a place where the growth was thick. These poles were burnt down. Eight of them were first erected in the post holes, forming a Greek cross. Opposite pairs of poles were then arched and lashed together with yucca tyings. Only after the complete REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 69 framework of uprights had been constructed were the “latas” or horizontals lashed on at intervals of a foot apart. On these a thick thatching of deerbrush was sewed, the bottom layer being stem down but all the higher layers tip down, the inverted leaves better shed- ding the water. The sewing was done with yucca shreds, using a great needle of wood called “raton” in Spanish, which is poked through the thatch; the sewing was performed by two Indian workers, one outside and one inside. - An expedition to the Cafiada de las Uvas proved rich in discovery along several different lines. At several of the sites the old hut circles could still be traced on the surface of the ground and proved that our recently constructed house was about normal size. The old fireplaces in the center were also discovered. Special attention was given by Mr. Harrington to the site of the old rancheria of Misyahu. This place resembles a giant citadel when viewed from down canyon. A great rocky hill was completely covered with wigwams, 12 to even 20 feet in diameter. At the base of the cliff a strong flowing spring bursts forth from an otherwise dry arroyo, 75 feet below the Indian city. It was discovered that the Misyahu cemetery has unfortunately been washed away by the freshets of the arroyo. Choriy village was located, also Sikutip, a mile distant. Four large springs with pictographs traced on their rocky walls were located in the vicinity of Choriy. At Sikutip the Indian huts were formerly clustered at the southwest border of the clenega. In May Mr. Harrington proceeded to Flagstaff, Ariz., where he assisted in bringing four Hopi singers to the Grand Canyon for the purpose of recording their songs. At Flagstaff Mr. Harrington also assisted the chief in the excavation of the Elden Pueblo ruin. During the fiscal year Dr. Francis La Flesche, ethnologist, was engaged in classifying the personal names of the full-blood members of the Osage Tribe according to their places in the various gentes that comprise the tribe. Each name refers, cryptically, to the origin story of the gens to which it belongs. Thus the name Star-radiant is itself meaningless until some one who is versed in the tribal rites explains that it refers to the story of the people who, when they came from the blue sky to earth, came suddenly upon a stranger whose dignified appearance and bearing immediately struck them with awe and reverence. When the people asked “ Who art thou?” the stranger replied, “I am Star-radiant, who has brought for you from the starry regions peace and brotherly love.” This and other star names belong to the Wa-tse-tzi (people of the stars) gens, in whose keeping are the House of Refuge and the Fireplace of Peace. The meaning of the name Pi-si (Acorn) is also obscure until it is 70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 explained that it points to the story of the people of the Tsi-zhu gens and subgentes, who when they came from the sky to the earth, alighted upon seven red oak trees. The alighting of the people on the tops of the trees sent down showers of acorns, and a voice spoke, saying, “ Your little ones shall be as numerous as the acorns that fall from these trees.” About 1,991 gentile names have been recorded, covering 83 pages. The translations of the names are yet to be made. Doctor La Flesche also spent three weeks assisting Mr. De Lancey Gill, illustrator, in classifying negatives of photographs of Ponca; Omaha, and Osage Indians. A vocabulary of the Osage language has also been started by Doc- tor La Flesche and Dr. John R. Swanton. So far some 3,000 or more words have been recorded with translations. SPECIAL RESEARCHES The research in Indian music by Miss Frances Densmore during this fiscal year has been marked by the collecting and developing of extensive material among the Menominee of Wisconsin, and the com- pletion of the book on Papago music which is now ready for publica- tion. The proof of the book on The Music of the Tule Indians of Panama was read, and the text of Pawnee Music (apart from analyses) was retyped, putting it in final form. The titles of the manuscripts furnished to the bureau during the fiscal year are as follows: “ Songs connected with ceremonial games and adoption dances of the Menominee Indians,” ‘“‘ Menominee songs connected with hunting bundles, war bundles and the moccasin game,” “ Menominee songs connected with a boy’s fast, also dream songs, love songs, and flute melodies,” “ Dream dance songs of the Menominee Indians,” “Songs used in the treatment of the sick by Menominee Indians,” and “ Menominee war songs and other songs.” The Menominee Indians have been in contact with civilization for many years but retain their old customs to a remarkable degree. Miss Densmore attended a meeting of their Medicine Lodge (corre- sponding to the Chippewa Grand Medicine), at which two persons were initiated. She witnessed the ceremony for about four hours, listening to the songs, and presented tobacco which was received in a ceremonial manner. She was also present at a gathering where a lacrosse gr.me was played “in fulfilment of a dream,” and witnessed the similar playing of a “dice and bowl” game by a woman who had dreamed of the “ four spirit women in the east” and been instructed by them to play the game once each year. The songs of the Dream Dance received extended consideration, the dance having been witnessed in 1910. Among the interesting war songs were those connected with the enlistment and service of Menominee in the Civil War, with the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7 songs ‘of the charms (“fetiches”) by which they believed that they were protected. Songs of the warfare against Black Hawk were obtained, and one very old war song with the words “The Queen (of England) wants us to fight against her enemies.” Mr. Gerard Fowke, special archeologist, was engaged for three months, February to April, in making a survey and explorations of a group of aboriginal remains near Marksville, La. The works con- sisted of 3 enclosures, 20 mounds, 8 lodge sites, and several village sites, extending a distance of 2 miles along the bluff overlooking Old River and in the bottom land bordering that watercourse. Eight of the mounds are of the flat-topped, domigiliary type; the others are conical or dome-shaped, usually classed as burial mounds. Six of the last were fully excavated. Two of them contained evidence of many interments; two were house sites indicating at least three periods of construction; the remaining two yielded nothing that would show the reason for their building. All were singularly barren of contents. Only traces of bones were found in the graves. The manner of construction of these mounds and the methods of burial were of a character which differentiates them from any others that have so far been reported to the bureau. They do not seem to belong with those to the east of the Mississippi, or with those which are so numerous to the westward. A full report, with map and illustrations, has been prepared. During the months of April, May, and June, Mr. H. W. Krieger, curator of ethnology of the National Museum, was detailed to engage in field work for the Bureau of American Ethnology. He was authorized by the chief of the bureau to proceed to Walla Walla, Wash., and vicinity for the purpose of studying the archeology of the upper Columbia River Valley, thence to proceed to southeastern Alaska to undertake the restoration of Old Kasaan, a national monu- ment on Prince of Wales Island. A careful inspection was made of the various collections of archeo- logical material gathered by members of the Columbia River Archeo- logical Society at Walla Walla, Wenatchee, Quincy, and other points in the State of Washington. Accompanied by Mr. H. T. Harding, a local archeologist, who had spent over 20 years in archeological investigations along the upper Columbia, a reconnaissance was undertaken from The Dalles, in Oregon, to Wenatchee, Wash., for the purpose of plotting a map of the known archeological sites and selecting likely stations for ex- cavation. The old Indian camp site at Wahluke Ferry, located at the extreme southern extent of the big bend of the Columbia, was selected as the most promising. There were no traces of previous disturbance by curio hunters. The ruins of the old Indian camp site and the cemetery near by yielded several hundred objects, most Fy!) ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 of which had been placed in the group burials as ceremonial offer- ings accompanying the cremation form of burial. No objects were found in the more deeply-placed graves where no cremation practices had been observed. The restoration of the national monument of Old Kasaan, south- east Alaska, has long been the ambition of the chief of the bureau, but conditions at this unique old Haida village were found to be very discouraging. Rainfall reaches a total of 235 days annually at the town of Ketchikan on Revillagigedo Island near by, and the process of rotting and disintegration is practically continuous throughout the year. Many of the fine old carvings on the totem poles and memorial columns still standing are either partially or entirely obliterated, and every house in the village has either fallen into decay or was burned in the recent fire which destroyed the major portion of the village. ‘The house (“big doings”) and the totem pole erected by the former Haida chief Skay-al were among the objects consumed in this fire. Several of the house sites at Old Kasaan, Tongass, Village Island, and Cape Fox village were excavated in an attempt to determine the relative age of the settlements of extreme southeastern Alaska. But few objects were obtained which might indicate a culture older than the Hudson Bay Co. post at Fort Simpson, British Columbia, or the Russian settlement at Sitka, Alaska, on the north. The few poles worthy of restoration at Old Kasaan were scraped and rotted wood was removed. The tall alder brush was cut from the immediate vicinity of the poles. Information relative to house, totem, and place names was obtained from a few survivors of the old village still living either at Wrangell, Ketchikan, or at the recently established Indian village of New Kasaan, about 40 miles from the old abandoned village. Upon returning to the United States, the task of completing the map of archeological sites on the upper Columbia River to the Canadian border was completed. Excavation was undertaken at eight different stations along the river between Wenatchee, Wash., and the mouth of the Okanagan River. Mr. Henry B. Collins, jr., assistant curator of ethnology of the National Museum, was detailed by the bureau to carry on archeo- logical work in southern Louisiana and Mississippi, a region in which scarcely any work of this nature had previously been done. A reconnaissance of the field was begun in April, first in southern Mississippi, where a number of mounds were examined, and then along the low-lying Gulf coast of Louisiana. Many earth mounds and shell heaps were found throughout this latter region, indicating the existence there in prehistoric times of an advanced culture of fairly uniform type. Particular attention was given to the 21 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 73 mounds on Pecan Island in the lower part of Vermillion Parish. This part of Louisiana was occupied in historic times by the Atta- capa, a cannibalistic tribe of comparatively low culture. The build- ers of the Pecan Island mounds, however, were apparently not Attacapa but an earlier and more advanced people who made an excellent type of pottery and who were skilled workers in stone, shell, and bone. The presence in these Pecan Island mounds of native copper and galena, as well as slate and other kinds of stone not native to the section, indicates that at a very early date the Indians of lower Louisiana had trade relations with other tribes to the north and east. In addition to the cultural material collected, a number of undeformed skulls were obtained from Pecan Island, and these will be of particular value since skeletal material from Louisiana is scarce. Upon completion of the work in Louisiana in the latter part of June Mr. Collins proceeded to eastern Mississippi and located the sites of several of the historic Choctaw villages and secured physical measurements on 72 living Choctaw in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Miss. The latter phase of the work was in continuation of similar studies on the Choctaw begun in the summer of 1925, and was made possible by an appropriation from the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. J. W. Gidley, assistant curator of vertebrate paleontology in the National Museum, was detailed to the bureau for a continuation of work begun in the summer in conjunction with Amherst College, in exploring the fossil beds in the vicinity of Melbourne and Vero, Fla., for fossil bones and possible human remains. Mr. C. Wythe Cook, of the United States Geological Survey, aided Doctor Gidley in a determination of the geologic formation of the bed. Most of the work of this expedition was to verify the geological observations of the previous expedition and to obtain if possible more evidence on the subject. More than 100 specimens of fossil bones were added to the collection and some new forms were represented, the most important of which were fossil remains of a large extinct jaguar and teeth of an extinct species of Termarctos, a genus of bear living now in South America and having never been found before in North America. Several Indian mounds were visited and examined, a survey was taken of the Grant Mound 14 miles south of Melbourne, and a plot made of the general structure of the shell heap, burial mound, and connecting ridges. Doctor Gidley also visited some mounds near Sarasota that had been reported to the bureau, but found that they had been dug into by curio hunters. He also examined the region at Lake Thonotosassa, 14 miles northeast of Tampa. Here he secured a few Indian artifacts that had been picked 'up by Mr. Samuel Conant. Mr. Conant also guided Doctor Gidley to an ancient work- 74. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 shop which covers several acres and seemed to be a very favorable location for future investigation. Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, curator of physical anthropology in the Na- tional Museum, was detailed to the bureau and sent to Alaska in May for the purpose of studying the archeology of Seward Peninsula in the vicinity of Nome. As he did not reach the site of his work until the close of the fiscal year, a consideration of the results of his expedition is reserved until next year. EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS The editing of the publications of the bureau was continued through the year by Mr. Stanley Searles, editor, assisted by Mrs. Frances S. Nichols, editorial assistant. The status of the publica- tions is presented in the following summary: PUBLICATIONS ISSUED Fortieth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Mythical Origin of the White Buffalo Dance of the Fox Indians; The Autobiography of a Fox Indian Woman; Notes on Fox Mortuary Customs and Beliefs; Notes on the Fox Society Known as “Those Who Worship the Little Spotted Buffalo”; The Traditional Origin of the Fox Society Known as ‘“ The Singing Around Rite,” by Truman Michelson. 664 pp., 1 pl., 1 fig. PUBLICATIONS IN PRESS OR IN PREPARATION Forty-first Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Surrounding Region (Boas, assisted by Haeberlin, Roberts, and Teit) ; Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle Tennessee (Myer). Forty-second Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Social Organization and Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy; Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek Indians; The Culture of the Southeast (Swanton) ; Indian Trails of the Southeast (Myer). Bulletin 82. Archeological Observations North of the Rio Colorado (Judd). Bulletin 83. Burials of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi (Bushnell). Bulletin 84. The Language of the Kiowa Indians (Harrington). DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLICATIONS The distribution of the publications of the bureau has been con- tinued under the immediate charge of Miss Helen Munroe, assisted by Miss Emma B. Powers. Publications were distributed as follows: dReport (volumes and (separates se 522 ae Daria 2s kee 5, 729 Bulletins) and | Sepate tes ce aka Nie we ieee es el A kl ae 6, 582 Contributions 'to,‘North ‘American evnnology et ae 33 TOG UCTIONS.2 SL LG OES eee EM ee AMSA SC OAR DUE aly Aro bb raaads Miscellaneous publications: tsituvs rt ieee Dol Weert pred ean 637 12, 993 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY G5 As compared with the fiscal year ended June 30, 1925, there was an increase of 5,639 publications distributed. This was due partly to the fact that more publications were issued by the bureau than in the previous year, and partly to an increase in demand for the works. Five addresses were added to the mailing list during the year and 37 taken from the list, making a net decrease of 32. The list now stands at 1,738. ILLUSTRATIONS Mr. DeLancey Gill, illustrator, continued the preparation of the illustrations of the bureau. A summary of the work follows: Negatives of ethnologic and archeologic subjects_______-__-_-_---_-_- 34 Neraiive milms: from! Held “exposures. 2 | Seen te ae 15 Boritalinesatives! (OL indian sees sues ee See beta ee ee 5 TEVAVOT@ ETE OLAUVED Toe Dah Spe oe re eee 466 Drawines prepared, for, book illustrations ..—-—=______ 41 Illustrations prepared for engraving (Bureau American Ethnology) ---- 567 Illustrations prepared for engraving (other Smithsonian Institution Te PAPSED )aea e eS Se e ee ae S e eee Seeeee 681 DUDEN ATW Erase aTeoyor ey rely hoes Soy ee eee 635 Edition prints of colored plates examined at Government Printing Rap epee ee ce ne soins ig pee a Nate ae ean a a oe le i 17, 000 On the Ist of February, 1926, the services of a photographer were discontinued and the work was taken over by the photographer of the National Museum in cooperation with the Bureau of American Ethnology. LIBRARY The reference library has continued under the immediate care of Miss Ella Leary, librarian, assisted by Mr. Thomas Blackwell. Dur- ing the year 560 volumes were accessioned, and 200 pamphlets were received and catalogued; also 2,992 serials, chiefly the publications of learned societies, were received and recorded. Of these 155 were acquired by purchase, 207 by binding of periodicals, and the re- mainder through gift and exchange. The library now contains 26,661 volumes, 15,712 pamphlets, and several thousand unbound periodicals. During the year there were sent to the bindery 207 volumes. In addition to the use of its own library, which is becom- ing more and more valuable through exchange and by limited pur- chase, it was found necessary to draw on the Library of Congress for the loan of about 200 volumes. The purchase of books and periodi- cals has been restricted to such as relate to the bureau’s researches. Although maintained primarily as a reference library for the bu- reau staff its value is becoming better known to students not con- nected with the Smithsonian Institution who make frequent use of it. 76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 During the year the library was used also by officers of the executive departments and the Library of Congress. The library is greatly indebted to many private individuals for numerous donations of publications. Mention may be made of a collection given by Mrs. Safford, consisting of 50 books and one manuscript belonging to her husband, the late Dr. W. E. Safford. During the year the cataloguing has been carried on as new ac- cessions were acquired and good progress was made in cataloguing ethnologic and related articles in the earlier serials. The library, among other representative libraries, is cooperating with the Library of Congress in checking up the Union List of Serials of the United States and Canada, compiled by the H. W. Wilson Co. This necessitates the checking up of the entire collection of periodicals. COLLECTIONS 88232. Two plaster casts made by Mr. Egberts of an amulet sent to the bureau for identification by W. W. C. Dunlop, Codrington College, Barbados, British West Indies. 90380. Two chert rejects, four potsherds, and one small arrow point found in a gravel pit about one-half mile west of the Grand River, near Prior, Okla., and presented to the bureau by Grant Foreman. 90604. Archeological and skeletal material collected by H. B. Collins, jr., at various localities in Mississippi during 1925. (78 specimens.) 90652. Collection of 44 archeological specimens from graves at Vantage Ferry, Wash., purchased by the bureau from Harle O. Roberts. 90813. Collection of eight stone and shell implements found by Charles T. Earle on the beach at Shaws Point, Fla., and presented by him to the bureau. 91825. Collection of about 19 lots of human skeletal material collected in Florida by Dr. J. W. Gidley. 92317. Archeological specimens collected in Louisiana by Gerard Fowke. (108 specimens, ) PROPERTY Furniture and office equipment were purchased to the amount of $750. MISCELLANEOUS Clerical.—The correspondence and other clerical work of the office has been conducted by Miss May S. Clark, clerk to the chief, assisted by Mr. Anthony W. Wilding, stenographer. On May 15, Mr. Wilding accompanied the chief to the field, acting as general assistant. Miss Mae W. Tucker, stenographer, was engaged in assisting Dr. John R. Swanton in compiling a Timucua dictionary and in assisting Mr. Hewitt in reclassifying and recataloguing the manuscripts in the bureau archives. Mrs. Frances S. Nichols assisted the editor. Personnel.—Mr. James E. Connor, who received a temporary ap- pointment as minor clerk February 4 to assist in the cataloguing of i a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY TF the archives of the bureau, was dropped from the rolls June 15, there being no further need for his services. Mr. Gerard Fowke was given a temporary appointment as special archeologist in the bureau from February 9 to June 30. Mr. Albert E. Sweeney, photographer, resigned January 31. Respectfully submitted. J. Wattrr Frewxes, Chief. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 5 REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1926: The appropriation granted by Congress for the support of the service during the year was $46,260. While this amount is $3,290 less than the appropriation for the fiscal year 1925, the actual money available for the running of the service for 1926 was the same as that for 1925, the salaries of two of the personnel that were carried on the exchange roll during 1925 having been transferred to other ap- propriations. In addition to the above appropriation, an allotment of $300 for printing and binding was allowed. The repayments from departmental and other establishments aggregated $4,883.75, making the total resources available for carrying on the system of exchanges during the year, $51,443.75 The total number of packages handled in 1926 was 480,776, an increase over the number for the preceding year of 12,045. The weight of these packages was 558,493 pounds, a gain of 52,329 pounds. For statistical purposes the packages handled by the ex- change service are divided into several classes. The number and weight of the packages in these classes are given in the following table: Packages Weight Sent |Received| Sent |Receivedc Pounds | Pounds United States parliamentary documents sent abroad ----------- 193:'598)\|_ 2 nae 99: 60 LSs22 eee Publications received in return for parliamentary documents-__--|_--._----- 5; 169) 2-2 =o seeee 20, 626 United States departmental documents sent abroad_-_---------- 145 O12" |= eee 156;'836)|2 232232225 Publications received in return for departmental documents--_-__|..-------- 6; 280)\== note ee 26, 703 Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad_.-| 97,483 |_.-------- 185;\ 170) Leese Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from abroad for distribution in the United States_......-----------|---------- BY AO RE Fl Wee eee 69, 557 Totals es ooh eek ee ee en ee ae a aan ae 436, 993 43,783 | 441,607 | 116, 886 Grand totale ee et oe eee ee ee eos oe 480, 776 558, 493 78 | | ) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 79 A comparison of the figures given in the above table with those in the report for last year will show a substantial gain in the number of packages received from abroad. This is gratifying, because the packages received from abroad have always been fewer in number than those sent; although, as referred to in previous reports, this disparity is not so great as would appear, for many foreign publica- tions reach correspondents in this country direct by mail and not through exchange channels. On account of many complaints of delay in the distribution of packages sent to China through the American-Chinese publication exchange department of the Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs, shipments to that country were suspended May 18, 1925. In De- cember, 1925, all packages on hand for China were forwarded to the Zi-ka-wei Observatory near Shanghai, the director of that observa- tory, Rev. Father L. Froc, 8. J., having kindly signified his willing- ness to undertake their distribution. The Zi-ka-wei Observatory, it might be added, acted as the Smithsonian exchange agency in China before the work was taken over by the Shanghai Bureau of Foreign Affairs. The Government of the Chinese Republic recently adhered to the Brussels Exchange Conventions of 1886 and organized a Bureau of International Exchange of Publications as a department of the Ministry of Education in Peking. The first consignment of exchanges to this newly established bureau was forwarded May 4, 1926. During the year 2,521 boxes were used in forwarding exchanges to foreign agencies for distribution—an increase of 196 over the number for the preceding 12 months. Of the total number of boxes shipped abroad, 389 were for the foreign depositories of full sets of United States governmental documents and the remainder (2,132) in- cluded departmental and other publications for depositories of par- tial sets and for miscellaneous correspondents. As was stated in the report for 1925, the Smithsonian exchange service, as a rule, forwards its consignments to other countries in boxes, but sometimes the packages that accumulate for a particular country are not of sufficient bulk to warrant their transmission by freight, this latter material being mailed directly to its destination. In addition, a number of packages are forwarded by mail to remote places which can not be reached through existing exchange channels. During the year the number of packages sent abroad in this manner was 49,087. The number of boxes sent to each country is given in the table following. 80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Country pruber Country Neer Argentine Repiblic=2-.s5 sass eee 66) ||) Javelin = have ee eee or eee 1 PATIS GS = ee eae ee PIR, 73 (| DiGViS sos bene ae eee eee ee ee 6 Belginmes tosh See ee te es 60}/ Mexiceo: fo ee eee. “ae Saee 7 Bra 7a esac sae pee Pee 41 Netherland s:2222 see saseues ose 80 IBTCISHYO Oloniess-= 222. sae ee es 16°|| INew South Walest=s2---25--2-s-seeae 35 BritishtGuiang tes pea 1 ye 2. || (New Aealandt <2 seiespire ourgeyey _ genera 27 (BU garig sete ee eee tae 4°:||) NOL Wey ae ee eee ee 43 Canadal 2.4 re See ie Se 28: ||, Palestin@es-s.ce seat eae roe eee 60 @hilest a: Sherk prea A eee we 26-1 Pert sy ese a ye APE Sheep eh ESE URN 15 CB) bie}: Capone Grad ened AUS ie eee | 54 ||. Poland eas he eg sete eae 34 Colomib igs | eee ey eect 16)! (POvtgu eal aeec oe nee ten gee ee 14 GostatRice eye ee Cees 44 WL i Queenslang: 2 pepeyy es ave ve soe y a ene 16 Cups ce ste a iene ied 2 a 3 manips ees ee ee ee ae 10 @zechoslovakise eos eam ee eee ay ad UD Sab ETT LMA ied cleat Beueh Ab 9 PD agi Dig ye 67 BD YoY At Aidan De Bebe ira fre BAe LE ORE ae Ba 5) || South: Australians sere Lee ee ee 18 AO Yoaycatsb eg: ceamphaeramoanan tyre My. IGGL SCs Siena cae 46 i)|) SPAM Seek’. CUE ee Sepa ees 29 CUA Ofer aero Une EMI A nA AL me. & DZ NMSWGCEN= eee. non Skee ae seen Moe ae ree ee 91 B Of 2ss7g 9) meee be ee du ONE oh sy ele OS UT eee 2S witzerlan Guz vs 21 22 a eee ee ee ee 67 HS} 4 n6) ots Meneame cae Gu RL NAN eon PAL Shy ats em eas Cee ee RMU RE SA A Do 4 AC OREWa(o epee SLES ON SA Ee a a 207 TaSTilsrigs st esos eee emer eee | 17 ARAN CO oui Sens A elie ad ok atk 190; "Purkey 5202. sash: Bieter ey peed 44 Germany ses ee ee 372 ||. Union of South: Africas 21. _ 32-23 es oe 35 Great Britain and Ireland_-.___._.-_.-_- O14. | OTUs yo ee eee ee ee re 14 Greece oi ee hh tree ae EP esa 19" || Venezilela5 reser rica is Bt eT 9 1S Ont Bene oe sce Mae AA ae Set ere le ae 25) Viletonish- a Skat ae Leas Pe 42 ERIN Par yee ns aR eae es 46'|| Western Australia__*="-_..---- ~~ ~~ _- 18 Tndige cee ae ees al tec ea 48 ll Yugoslayiat.tasrevetoeen ee bo 14 NT: ) hemes Oe re pets Es Se ae a 92 || _———— fie) osha aca Abe EN STs te Fa Oh 79 || Hf Bo) 10 bell lye vena eles MUN Micon Scns 2, 521 FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS In last year’s report the statement was made that 18 countries had joined the exchange conventions of 1886. Notification was received through diplomatic channels that China had adhered to both con- ventions in December, 1925. It should be added that China is the first country to take this action since the question of haying a larger number of countries join those conventions was taken up at Geneva in the summer of 1924 by the committee on intellectual co- operation of the League of Nations. The depository in China has been changed from the American Chinese Publication Exchange Department in Shanghai to the Metropolitan Library in Peking. During the year depositories of partial sets have been established in Iceland and the Dominican Republic. In the former the name of the depository is National Library, Reykjavik, and in the latter, Biblioteca del Senado, Santo Domingo. Several of the depositories have asked that steps be taken to have the publications forming the regular series of governmental docu- ments delivered more promptly in order that the information con- Se hn il a ng i alan SE ae tin ei eee ee eee a ee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 81 tained therein may be available for use as soon after publication as practicable. The publications forming the full series, therefore, instead of being held three months until a sufficient number accumulates to fill a large packing box, will be shipped in small boxes at monthly intervals. Furthermore, arrangements have been made with the Public Printer to have the publications supplied either in paper covers or depart- mental binding instead of withholding them to be bound as a part of the special congressional series, this latter practice often delaying the delivery of the documents to the Institution for many months. Several letters of appreciation of this action on the part of the Institution have been received. As an example of the tone of these letters there is quoted below a portion of one received from the Library of the League of Nations at Geneva: I am very glad indeed that steps have been taken to expedite the delivery of these documents. They are of the greatest value to us, and it is important for us to get them as soon as possible after issue. The following references to certain resolutions and acts of Congress concerning the International Exchange Service are made here as a matter of record: Resolution approved March 2, 1867 (Stat. XIV, 573), setting aside 50 copies of each United States official document for exchange with foreign govern- ments through the agency of the Smithsonian Institution. Printing act approved March 2, 1901 (Stat. XX XI, 1464), increasing to 100 the number of copies of documents for the use of the Library of Congress and for international exchanges, this number being increased to 125 by act of March 3, 1925 (Stat. XLIII, 1106). Resolution approved March 4, 1909 (Stat. XXXV, 1169), setting aside 100 copies of the daily issue of the Congressional Record for exchange, through the Smithsonian Institution, to the legislative chambers of such foreign governments as may agree to send to the United States current copies of their Parliamentary Record or like publication. The act of March 3, 1925, in- creased to 125 the number of Congressional Records provided for this purpose. Tn accordance with the terms of the first Brussels convention, sets of United States official documents are forwarded through the Exchange Service to 101 foreign depositories. The governments re- ceiving these documents send to the United States, in return, copies of their own publications, which are deposited in the Library of Congress. By the terms of the second convention, copies of the daily Congressional Record are forwarded by the Institution directly by mail to foreign parliaments, those bodies sending in return copies of their own proceedings. In accordance with the latter convention, 75 copies of the Congressional Record are now being transmitted abroad, a statement concerning which will be found on a subsequent page of this report. 82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 | A list of the foreign depositories is given below: DEPOSITORIES OF FULL SETS ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne. AuUSTRIA: Bundesamt fiir Statistik, Schwarzenbergstrasse 5, Vienna I. BaveNn: Universitiits-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the State of Baden.) BavakiA: Staats-Bibliothek, Munich. BetciumM: Bibliothéque Royale, Brussels. BraziL: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Buenos Arres: Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. (Deposi- tory of the Province of Buenos Aires.) CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago. CHINA: Metropolitan Library, Pei Hai, Peking. CoLoMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José. CusBa: Secretaria de Estado (Asuntos Generales y Canje Internacional), Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague. DENMARK : Kongelige Bibliotheket, Copenhagen. ENGLAND: British Museum, London. Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Reval. FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. GERMANY: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin. Guascow: City Librarian, Mitchell Library, Glasgow. GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens. HunGary: Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest. InpIA: Imperial Library, Calcutta. Ir1saH FREE STATE: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. ITaLty: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome. JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. Lonpon: London Sehool of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the London County Council.) MANITOBA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. Mexico: Biblioteca Nacional, Mexico. NETHERLANDS: Bibliotheek van de Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal, The Hague. New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. NORTHERN IRELAND: Ministry of Finance, Belfast. Norway: Universitets-Bibliotek, Oslo. (Depository of the Government of Norway.) OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto. Paris: Préfecture de la Seine. PERU: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima. POLAND: Bibliothéque du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Warsaw. PortuGAL: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. Prussia: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7. QuEBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec, Quebec. QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. Russia: Shipments temporarily suspended. Saxony: Sichsische Landesbibliothek, Dresden—N. 6. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 83 SoutH AUSTRALIA: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide. Sparn: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Faculta- tivo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arquedlogos, Madrid. SweDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. SwITzZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. SwitTzZERLAND: Library of the League of Nations, Geneva. TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. TuRKEY: Shipments temporarily suspended. Union oF Sourtu Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. Urucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. Vicrorta: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. WURTTEMBERG: Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart. YucostaviaA: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Belgrade. DEPOSITORIBS OF PARTIAL SETS ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton. ALSACE-LORRAINE: Bibliothéque Universitaire et Régionale de Strasbourg, Strasbourg. Botivia: Ministerio de Colonizacién y Agricultura, La Paz. BreMEN: Senatskommission fiir Reichs- und Auswirtige Angelegenheiten. BritisH CoLtuMBIA: Legislative Library, Victoria. BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. BuiesRIA: Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Sofia. CryYLon: Colonial Secretary’s Office (Record Department of the Library), Colombo. Danzie: Stadtbibliothek, Free City of Danzig. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca del Senado, Santo Domingo. Hcvapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. Eeyet: Bibliothéque Royale, Cairo. FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsingfors. GUATEMALA: Secretary of the Government, Guatemala. HAtrTr: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince. HAmMBuRG: Senatskommission ftir die Reichs- und Auswiirtigen Angelegen- heiten. Hesse: Landesbibliothek, Darmstadt. Honpuras: Secretary of the Government, Tegucigalpa. IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik. JAMAICA: Colonial Secretary, Kingston. LATVIA: Bibliothéque d’Etat, Riga. Liperta: Department of State, Monrovia. Lovrgenco MARQUEZ: Government Library, Honrenee Marquez. Litgeck: President of the Senate. MADRAS, PROVINCE oF: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public Department, Madras. Matra: Minister for the Treasury, Valetta. New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton. NEWFOUNDLAND: Colonial Secretary, St. John’s. NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Nicaracua: Superintendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua. Nova Scotia: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. PANAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. 84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 PaRraGuay: Seccién Canje Internacional de Publicaciones del Ministerio de Relaciones Hixteriores, Hstrella 563, Asuncidn. PRINCE Epwarp IsLAnp: Legislative Library, Charlottetown. Rio DE JANEIRO: Bibliotheca da Assemblea Legislativa do Estado, Nictheroy. RuManiA: Academia Romana, Bucharest. Satvapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. SASKATCHEWAN: Government Library, Regina. Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS: Colonial Secretary, Singapore. THURINGIA: Rothenberg-Bibliothek, Landesuniversitiit, Jena. UNITED PROVINCES OF AGRA AND OuUDH: University of Allahabad, Allahabad. VIENNA: Biirgermeister-Amt der Stadt, Wien. INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL JOURNAL During the year the governments of 25 foreign states have entered into the immediate exchange of the Official Journal with the United States Government. The names of these states are: Aguascalientes, Anhalt, Argentine Republic, Braunschweig, Chihuahua, China, Coahuila, Colima, Dominican Republic, Durango, Dutch East Indies, Germany, Guerrero, Jalisco, Lower California Territory, Mexico, Nuevo Ledn, Oldenburg, San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, Yucatan. To the above statement I may add that the Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Bucharest, has been listed to receive a copy of the daily issue of the Congressional Record. The interparliamentary exchange of the Official Journal was entered into with the Government of Rumania in 1909, and since that time one copy of the Record has been transmitted to the Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés. The total number of copies of the daily issue of the Congressional Record now forwarded abroad through the Institution is 75. A com- plete list of the states taking part in this immediate exchange is given below, together with the names of the establishments to which the record is mailed: AGUASCALIENTES: GOobernador del Hstado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. ANHALT: Anhaltische Landesbiicherei, Dessau. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires. Cimara de Diputados, Oficina de Informacién Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires. AUSTRALIA: Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne. Austria: Bibliothek des Nationalrates, Wien I. BADEN: Universitats-Bibliothek, Heidelberg. BELGIuM: Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Représentants, Brussels. Borivia: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, La Paz. BRAUNSCHWEIG: Bibliothek des Braunschweigischen Staatsministeriums, Braunschweig. BRAZIL: Bibliotheca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. Burnos AIRES: Biblioteca del Senado de Ja Provincia de Buenos Aires, La Plata. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 85 CANADA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua. CuINnA: Metropolitan Library, Pei Hai, Peking. CoAHUILA: Periédico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, Saltillo. CoLtiIMA: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. Costa Rica: Oficina de Depdsito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José, CUBA: Biblioteca de la Camara de Representantes, Habana. Biblioteca del Senado, Habana. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bibliothéque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague. Danzic: Stadtbibliothek, Danzig. DENMARK: Rigsdagens Bureau, Copenhagen. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca del Senado, Santo Domingo. DurRANGO: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango. DutcH Hast Inpies: Volksraad van Nederlandsch-Indié, Batavia, Java. Esronra: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Reval. FRANCE: Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés, au Palais Bourbon, Paris. Bibliothéque du Sénat, au Palais du Luxembourg, Paris. GERMANY: Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7. GREAT Britain: Library of the Foreign Office, Downing Street, London, S. W. 1. GREECE: Library of Parliament, Athens. GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Oficina Internacional Centro-Americana, 8a Calle Poniente No. 1, Guatemala. GUERRERO: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo. Hartt: Secrétaire d’Ktat des Relations Dxtérieures, Port-au-Prince. Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Huncary: Bibliothek des Abgeordnetenhauses, Budapest. Inpr1a: Legislative Library, Simla. MATS: Biblioteca della Camera dei Deputati, Palazzo di Monte Citorio, Rome. Biblioteca del Senato del Regno, Palazzo Madama, Rome. JAtisco: Biblioteca del Hstado, Guadalajara. Latvia: Library of the Saeima, Riga. LirBertA: Department of State, Monrovia. Lower CALIFORNIA TERRITORY: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali, B.C. Mexico: Secretaria de la Camara de Diputados, Mexico, D. F. New SoutH WALES: Library of Parliament, Sydney. New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. Norway: Stortingets Bibliotek, Oslo. Nugrvo Lre6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterey. OLDENBURG: Oldenburgisches Staatsministerium, Oldenburg i. B. Peru: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Lima. PoLtaNnpD: Ministére des Affaires Dtrangéres, Warsaw. PorTUGAL: Bibliotheca do Congresso da Republica, Lisbon. Prussia: Bibliothek des Abgeordnetenhauses, Prinz-Albrechtstrasse 5, Berlin, Se Wot QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Department, Brisbane. 20837—27. 7 86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 RUMANIA: Bibliothéque de la Chambre des Députés, Bucharest. Ministére des Affaires Htrangéres, Bucharest. San Luis Potost: Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosi. SrvaLtoa: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan. Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. SPAIN : Biblioteca del Congreso de los Diputados, Madrid. Biblioteca del Senado, Madrid. SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque de Assemblée Fédérale Suisse, Berne. Library of the League of Nations, Geneva. Tapasco: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccidn 38a Ramo de Prenso, Yilla- hermosa. TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. Union or SouruH Arrica: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. Urucuay: Biblioteca de la Camara de Representantes, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Camara de Diputados, Congreso Nacional, Caracas. Vera Cruz: Gobernador del Estado de Vera Cruz, Departamento de Gober- nacion y Justicia, Jalapa. WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. YucaTAN: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatéin, Mérida, Yucatan. YucGosiaviA: Library of the Skupshtina, Belgrade. A complete list of the foreign exchange agencies or bureaus is given below. Those in the larger countries and many of those in the smaller countries forward to the Smithsonian Institution reciprocal contributions for distribution in the United States. Correspondents desiring to make use of any of the exchange agencies in the forward- ing of consignments to the United States should make application directly to the respective bureau. ALGERIA, via France. ANGOLA, via Portugal. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: Comisi6n Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Calle Cordoba 931, Buenos Aires. AvusTRIA: Bundesamt fiir Statistik, Schwarzenbergstrasse 5, Vienna I. AZORES, via Portugal. BreLagium: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Rue des Longs- Chariots 46, Brussels. BottviA: Oficina Nacional de Estadistica, La Paz. BrRaAziL: Servicio de Permutacdes Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. BRITISH CoLoNIES: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. BRITISH GUIANA: Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, Georgetown. BritTIsH HonpuraAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize. Butearia: Institutions Scientifiques de 8. M. le Roi de Bulgarie, Sofia. CANARY ISLANDS, via Spain. CHILE: Servicio de Canjes Internacionales, Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. CHINA: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Ministry of Educa- tion, Peking. . CoLoMBIA: Oficina de Canjes Internacionales y Reparto, Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 87 Costa Rica: Oficina de Depésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San José. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Service Tchécoslovaque des Echanges Internationaux, Biblio- théque de l’Assemblée Nationale, Prague 1-79. Danzig: Amt fiir den Internationalen Schriftenaustausch der Freien Stadt Danzig, Stadtbibliothek, Danzig. DENMARK: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen. DutcH GuIANA: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo. Ecuapor: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Quito. Eeyrt: Sent by mail. Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Reval. FINLAND: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Helsingfors. France: Service Francais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle, Paris. GERMANY: Amerika-Institut, Universititstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND: Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley, 2, 3, and 4 Arthur St., New Oxford St., London, W. C. 2. GREECE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Athens. GREENLAND, via Denmark. GUATEMALA: Instituto Nacional de Varones, Guatemala. Harti: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince. HonpurAs: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. Huneary: Service Hongrois des Echanges Internationaux, Musée National Budapest, VIII. IcELAND, via Denmark. InpIA: Superintendent of Stationery, Bombay. Iraty: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Hmanuele, Rome. JAMAICA: Institute of Jamaica, Kingston. JAPAN: Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo. JAVA, via Netherlands. KorEA: Government General, Seoul. Laty1a: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque d’Etat de Lettonie, Riga. LIBERIA: Bureau of Exchanges, Department of State, Monrovia. LITHUANIA: Sent by mail. ¢ LOURENCO MARQUEZ, via Portugal. LUxEMBURG, via Belgium. MADAGASCAR, Via France. MADETIRA, via Portugal. MozAMBIQUE, via Portugal. NETHERLANDS: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Bibliothéque de lVAcadémie Technique, Delft. NEw SoutH WatsEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. NEw ZEALAND: Dominion Museum, Wellington. NICARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. Norway: Universitets-Bibliotek, Oslo. PALESTINE: Hebrew University Library, Jerusalem. PaNAMA: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama. PARAGUAY: Secciédn Canje Internacional de Publicaciones del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. Estrella 563, Asuncion. Peru: Oficina de Reparto, Depdésito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Ministerio de Fomento, Lima. PoLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque du Ministére des Affaires Etrangéres, Warsaw. 88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 PortucaL: Seccfio de Trocas Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon. QUEENSLAND: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Sec- retary’s Department, Brisbane. RuMANIA: Bureau des Echanges Internationaux, Institut Météorologique Cen- tral, Bucharest. Russia: Academy of Sciences, Leningrad. SatvaporR: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. Sram: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok. SourtH AusTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. SPAIN: Servicio del Cambio Internacional de Publicaciones, Cuerpo Facultativo de Archiveros, Bibliotecarios y Arqueélogos, Madrid. ScmMATRA, via Netherlands. SwEDEN: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm. SwITZERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- trale Fédérale, Berne. Syria: American University of Beirut. TASMANIA: Secretary to the Premier, Hobart. TRINIDAD: Royal Victoria Institute of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain. TUNIS, via France. TURKEY: Robert College, Constantinople. Union oF SournH Arrica: Government Printing Works, Pretoria, Transvaal. Urvucuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Carfcas. Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne. Western AUSTRALIA: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth. Yucostavia: Académie Royale Serbe des Sciences et des Arts, Belgrade. RULES GOVERNING THE TRANSMISSION OF EXCHANGES For the information of any who may desire to make use of the Smithsonian system of exchanges in the forwarding of publications to foreign correspondents, there is reproduced below a revised edi- tion of a circular containing a brief description of the service and the rules under which packages are received for distribution. In effecting the world-wide distribution of its first publications, the Smith- sonian Institution established foreign agencies by means of which it was enabled to materially assist institutions and individuals of this country in the transmission of their publications abroad, and also foreign societies and indi- viduals in distributing their publications in the United States. In more recent years the Smithsonian Institution has been charged with the duty of conducting the official Hxchange Bureau of the United States Govern- ment, through which the publications authorized by Congress are exchanged for those of other governments; and by a formal treaty it acts as intermediary between the learned bodies and scientific and literary societies of this and other countries for the reception and transmission of their publications. Attention is called to the fact that this is an international and not a domestic exchange service, and that it is designed to facilitate exchanges between the United States and other countries only. As publications from domestic sources for addresses in Hawaii, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, and other territory subject to the jurisdiction of the United States do not come within the desig- nation “ international,’ they are not accepted by the Institution for trans- mission through the service. Packages prepared in accordance with the rules enumerated below will be received by the Smithsonian Institution from individuals or institutions of le : ' a 4 le REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 89 learning in the United States and forwarded to their destinations abroad through the various exchange bureaus or agencies in other countries. Many of those bureaus and agencies will likewise receive packages of publications from correspondents in their countries for distribution as gifts or exchanges to corre- spondents in the United States and its dependencies and will forward them to Washington, after which the Institution will transmit them to their destina- tions by mail free of cost to the recipients. On receipt of a consignment from a domestic source it is assigned a “ record number,” which number is, for identification purposes, placed on each package contained therein. After the packages have been recorded they are packed in boxes with publications from other senders and are forwarded by freight to the bureaus or agencies abroad which have undertaken to distribute exchanges in those countries. To Great Britain and Germany shipments are made weekly; to France and Italy, semimonthly; and to all other countries consignments are forwarded at intervals not exceeding a month. The Institution assumes no responsibility in the transmission of packages in- trusted to its care, but at all times endeavors to forward exchanges safely and as promptly as possible. Especial attention should be called in this connection to the time ordinarily required for the delivery of packages sent through the exchange service. To Great Britain and Germany, for example, where weekly shipments are made, the average time for a package to reach its destination is about six weeks. ‘To those countries to which shipments are made at semi- monthly and monthly intervals, the time of delivery is, of course, somewhat longer, depending on the distance and also whether packages are received at the Institution immediately before or after a shipment. If, therefore, advance notices are mailed by senders, mention should be made of the above facts in order that consignees may expect some delay between the receipt of notices and the arrival of packages. In cases where greater dispatch is desired, publications should be forwarded by the senders to their foreign destinations direct by mail. RULES The rules governing the Smithsonian International Exchange Service are as follows: 1. Consignments from correspondents in the United States containing pack- ages for transmission abroad should be addressed— SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, International Exchanges, Washington, D. C. and forwarded with carriage charges to Washington prepaid. Qin forwarding a consignment the sender should mail a letter to the Institution stating by what route it is being shipped, and the number of boxes or parcels comprising the shipment. A list giving the name and address of each consignee should also be furnished. It is important that this request be complied with in order that a detailed record of the contents of consign- ments may be kept in the files of the exchange office for use in answering inquiries concerning the forwarding of packages. 3. Packages should be legibly and fully addressed, using, when practicable, the language of the country to which they are to be forwarded. In order to avoid any possible dispute as to ownership, names of individuals should be omitted from packages intended for societies and other establishments. 4. Packages should be securely wrapped, using cardboard, if necessary, to protect plates from crumpling. 90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 5. Letters are not permitted in exchange packages. 6. If donors desire acknowledgments, packages may contain receipt-forms to be signed and returned by the establishment or individual addressed. Should publications be desired in exchange, a request to that effect may be printed on the receipt-form or on the package. 7. The work carried on by the International Exchange Service is not in any sense of a commercial nature, but is restricted to the transmission of publications sent as exchanges or donations. Books sold or ordered through the trade are, therefore, necessarily excluded. 8. Specimens are not accepted for distribution, except when permission has been obtained from the Institution. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Assor, Assistant Secretary, in charge of Library and Hechanges. Dr. Cuartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. § h APPENDIX 6 REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the following report on the operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926. The appropriation made by Congress under the bill for the Dis- trict of Columbia for the regular maintenance of the park was $157,000, and there was the usual allotment of $300 for printing and binding. Virtually the entire appropriation was required for maintenance, so that very little could be done in the way of per- manent improvement, and some much-needed repairs had to be deferred. While the collection of animals on exhibition has not decreased in numbers it has lost somewhat in value, as several serious gaps have occurred during the year which it has not been possible to fill. There is especial lack among the larger kinds of mammals which are expensive and, therefore, difficult to include in the present budget. ACCESSIONS Gifts——There were added to the collection by gift a total of 150 animals. The Canadian Government, through Hon. J. B. Harkin, commissioner of Dominion parks, presented a splendid male Rocky Mountain sheep as a new head to the little herd that has bred here so successfully for nine years past. Six fine specimens of rhea, the ostrich of South America, were received as a gift from Dr. Daniel Garcia Accevedo, of Montevideo, Uruguay; and a fine collection of South American snakes, includ- ing specimens of bushmaster and fer-de-lance, was presented by Dr. Vital Brazil, of Sao Paulo, Brazil. All these came from South America under the special care of Dr. W. L. Schmitt of the Na- tional Museum. Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States Navy, who accompanied the department’s solar eclipse expedition to Sumatra, brought back for the park a very interesting collection of birds and snakes, including hornbills, fruit pigeons, various other birds, and two Philippine green snakes. ‘These reached the park in excellent condition and make valuable additions to the exhibits. 91 92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Mr. Samuel Kress, of Port Limon, Costa Rica, presented a three- toed sloth and a paca; Miss Elizabeth Clayton, Pedro Miguel, Canal Zone, an ocelot; Mr. P. W. Shufeldt, Belize, British Honduras, a margay; and Mrs. G. J. Schirch, Washington, D. C., a Guatemalan deer. A nice pair of Canada lynx was received from Mr. A. L. Jones, of Juneau, Alaska. Mr. M. K. Brady, of Washington, D. C., presented four giant salamanders, a Loochoo terrapin and a leprous terrapin. A Tasmanian wallaby, a bay lynx and an alligator, that had been presented to the President, were placed in the park. Among the miscellaneous donations also were several species new to the collection. The complete list of donors and gifts is as follows: Dr. Daniel Garcia Accevedo, Montevideo, Uruguay, througik Dr. W. L. Schmitt, United States National Museum, 6 rheas. Mr. S. M. Alvis, Fisherville, Va., gray spider monkey. Dr. W. E. Balderson, Washington, D. C., water snake. Mr. Herbert Barber, Washington, D. C., little blue heron. Mr. Oscar E. Baynard, Plant City, Fla., sandhill erane. Miss Martha M. Beattie, Washington, D. C., alligator. Private P. S. Bender, United States Army, alligator. Mr. M. K. Brady, Washington, D. C., Loochoo terrapin, leprous terrapin, and four giant salamanders. Dr. Vital Brazil, Sao Paulo, Brazil, through Dr. W. L. Schmitt, United States National Museum, 22 Brazilian snakes. Mr. L. B. Brooks, Remington, Va., barn owl. Mr. Robert F. Burgess, Washington, D. C., coyote. Lieut. W. A. Burgess, Manila, P. I., Philippine heron. Mr. W. B. Byrd, jr., Washington, D. C., screech owl. Canadian Government, through Hon. J. B. Harkin, Rocky Mountain sheep. Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C., Gila monster. Miss Elizabeth Clayton, Pedro Miguel, Canal Zone, ocelot. Miss Colley, Washington, D. C., ringed turtle dove. President Coolidge, White House, alligator, rufus-bellied wallaby, and bay lynx. Miss Nellie M. Darling, Utica, N. Y., yellow-and-blue macaw. Miss Virginia Davin, Palmyra, Va., alligator. Mr. Charles F. Denley, Rockville, Md., sharp-shinned hawk. Miss Sybil J. Disney, Takoma Park, D. C., brown capuchin. Capt. John R. Edie, United States Navy, gray fox and three English pheasants. Mr. A. T. Hisenger, Washington, D. C., double-yellow-head parrot. Mr. C. L. Fagan, Rahway, N. J., two Inca terns. Mr. N. H. Field, Washington, D. C., sulphur-crested cockatoo. Miss Alice T. Flynn, Washington, D. C., grass paroquet. Mr. Charles R. Grant, jr., Washington, D. C., tortoise. Rev. H. J. Head, Hickory, N. C., banded rattlesnake. Mr. Emmett H. Heitmuller, Washington, D. C., alligator. Mr. J. Henderson, Washington, D. C., red-tailed hawk. k 4 4 4 : in REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 93 Mrs. William Herbertson, Frederick, Md., two alligators. Mr. George Hofer, Tucson, Ariz., red-shafted flicker, two Harris’ ground squirrels, and gray fox. Mrs. E. L. Hoffman, Washington. D. C., grass paroquet. Mr. W. F. Humme, Henderson, Va., two peafowls. Mr. H. M. Ingram, Addison, Va., alligator. Mr. Victor Jaffe, Somerset, Md., corn snake. Mr. A. L. Jones, Juneau, Alaska, two Canada lynxes. Mr. Neil M. Judd, Washington, D. C., prairie rattlesnake. Dr. H. C. Kellers, United States Navy, two Philippine green snakes, two hill mynahs, four bleeding-heart doves, six necklaced doves, two Malayan wreathed hornbills, two fruit pigeons. Mr. S. Kress, Port Limon, Costa Rica, paca and three-toed sloth. Messrs. Lansburgh & Bro., Washington, D. C., white-throated capuchin. Mrs. Robert E. Lee, Washington, D. C., ring-necked dove. Legation of Holland, alligator. Mr. W. B. Lovett, Washington, D. C., three bald eagles. Mr. E. B. McLean, Washington, D. C., alligator, five muscovy ducks, three Chinese geese, and Canada goose. Mrs. R. J. Mayer, Washington, D. C., hedgehog. Mr. John J. Murphy, St. Cloud, Fla., diamond rattlesnake. Miss S. M. Perry, Staunton, Va., gray fox. Dr. John C. Phillips, Washington, D. C., brant. Mr. J. H. Polkinhorn, Washington, D. C., marmoset. Mr. B. V. Roberts, Washington, D. C., Virginia rail. Mr. W. F. Roberts, Washington, D. C., Pennant’s paroquet. Mrs. Geo. J. Schirch, Washington, D. C., Guatemalan deer. Mr. Edw. S. Schmid, Washington, D. C., alligator. Mr. BE. W. Scott, Washington, D. C., great horned owl. Mr. P. W. Shufeldt, Belize, B. H., margay. Mrs. C. F. Spradling, Athens, Tenn., woodchuck, banded rattlesnake, and six western painted turtles. Dr, H. R. Street, Washington, D. C., Santo Domingo parrot. Mr. J. EH. Tylor, Washington, D. C., raccoon. Mr. Allen Underwood, two Java finches and Gouldian finch. Miss Minnie Warner, Washington, D. C., barred owl. Mr. J. R. Whipple, Washington, D. C., common canary. Mrs. N. J. Wiley, Washington, D. C., yellow-head parrot. Miss Genevieve Wimsatt, Washington, D. C., crested mynah. Mr. Charles Wilson, Washington, D. C., white-throated capuchin. Mr. W. VY. Wilson, Rockville, Md., red fox. Mr. Hiram Yoder, Tuleta, Texas, 17 turtles. Mr. Joe Zoffin, Washington, D. C., alligator. Unknown donor, bare-jawed troupial. Births —During the year 101 mammals, birds, and reptiles, born or hatched at the park, were added to the collection. Among the mammals were Rocky Mountain sheep, moufion, Alpine ibex, Ameri- can bison, Indian buffalo, yak, guanaco, various deer, Javan and Jap- anese monkeys, raccoon, rock kangaroo, beaver, and several other rodents. The birds included blue goose, white-cheeked goose, rosy- billed pochard, sacred ibis, and 6 other species; and of snakes, the 20837—27——_8 94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 fer-de-lance and Bothrops alternatus. Two eggs were produced by the pair of California condors but failed to hatch. Eachanges——From the Zoological Garden of Wellington, New Zealand, were received 4 rock-hopper penguins, 2 paradise ducks, 2 lesser rails, and 2 specimens of tuatera, a lizard-like animal that is of great interest as being the oldest type of reptile now living. The penguin, lesser rail, and paradise duck were species new to the collection. Three female sea lions were received from the Zoological Society of San Diego, Calif. Purchases.—A_single-wattled cassowary, Humboldt’s saki, Abys- sinian lynx and alligator lizard (Dracena guianensis), all new to the collection, were purchased during the year, also a black leopard, 2 prong-horns, an Australian cassowary, and a small lot of finches and other cage-birds to replenish the collections in the bird house. Deposits—Among the animals received on indefinite deposit were an orang and a pair of white fallow deer from Mr. Victor J. Evans, a chacma baboon from Mr. E. R. Grant, and a silver-black fox from the Keystone Fox Ranch. The Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, transferred to the park a number of animals taken by field agents of the bureau, including ravens, magpies, western porcupines, 2 Mexi- can pumas, and 13 white pelicans. REMOVALS Fifty-five mammals, birds, and reptiles were sent away in exchange to other zoological gardens during the year. Among these were two American bison, an elk, six Japanese deer, four fallow deer, a guanaco, a hippopotamus, an European bear, some small mammals, and a few birds and reptiles. Losses by death were mainly either of animals that had been long in the collection or of those very recently received. Among the former were a sloth bear that had lived in the park 21 years and 6 months; a cinnamon bear, 17 years; a yak, 18 years and 3 months; a sambar deer and a Bactrian camel, each 14 years and 3 months; a male Rocky Mountain sheep, 8 years and 4 months; a rhea, 16 years and 5 months. A male mona monkey, survivor of the pair, the female of which died a year earlier after having borne 10 young, had been in the collection 16 years. A male Grevy’s zebra that died October 9, 1925, was received February 11, 1913, from the United States Department of Agriculture, where it had been used for breeding purposes. Other important animals that had lived for shorter periods were a snow leopard, two sea lions, a female Rocky Mountain sheep, a female Rocky Mountain goat, a capybara, two REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 95 ostriches, and a kiwi. Loss of reptiles was large as compared with their total number, owing to the lack of quarters that afford suitable conditions for them. Post-mortem examinations were made by the pathological division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. The following list shows the results of autopsies, the cases being arranged by groups: CAUSES OF DEATH MAMMALS Marsupialia: Pneumonia, 1; gastroenteritis, 1; gastric ulcer, 1; pericar- ditis, 1; fatty degeneration of liver, 1; infection of jaw, 3. Carnivora: Enteritis, 1; gastroenteritis, 3; intestinal parasites, 2; abscess of lungs, 1; abscess of shoulder, 1; old age, 1. ; Pinnipedia: Pneumonia, 1. Rodentia: Enteritis, 1; intestinal parasites, 1; difficult parturition, 1. Primates: Pneumonia, 2; enteritis, 2; gastroenteritis, 1; intestinal para- sites, 3; degeneration of heart, 1; osteomalacia, 1; no cause found, 2. Artiodactyla: Pneumonia, 2; intestinal parasites, 1; impaction of rumen, 1; abscess of lungs, 1; cystic degeneration of liver, 2; necrosis of lip, 1; old age, 3; accident, 1. Perissodactyla: Internal hemorrhage, 1. Hdentata: Enteritis, 1. BIRDS Ratite: Abscess of leg, 1; accident, 1. Ciconiiformes: Pericarditis, 1; no cause found, 2. Anseriformes: Aspergillosis, 3; internal hemorrhage, 1. Falconiformes: Aspergillosis, 1. Gruiformes: No cause found, 1. Psittaciformes: Aspergillosis, 1; enteritis, 2; internal abscess, 1. Such animals, lost by death, as were of particular scientific inter- est, or of value for museum purposes, were transferred to the United States National Museum for preservation. These numbered 40 mammals, 44 birds, and 23 reptiles. A number of rare birds’ eggs, including two eggs of the California condor mentioned above, also were sent to the Museum. Five mammals especially needed by the Carnegie Laboratory of Embryology, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, were sent after death to that institution; and five mammals were sent to St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D. C., for special study of the brain. 96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION JUNE 30, 1926 MAMMALS MARSUPIALIA Virginia opossum (Didelphis virgini- Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus har- ABUL) ee a a Flying phalanger (Petaurus breviceps) — Brush-tailed rock wallaby (Petrogale DONIC) ae ee ee Rufous-bellied wallaby (Macropus bil- LAN Atertt)) eae Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) —----- Wombat (Phascolomys mitchelli) —--- CARNIVORA Kadiak bear (Ursus middendorji) ——-- Alaska Peninsula bear (Ursus gyas) —~ Yakutat bear (Ursus dalli) -_--_-_--- Kidder’s bear (Ursus kidderi) -------- European bear (Ursus arctos)—----~- Grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis) _------ Apache grizzly (Ursus Apache) ------ Himalayan bear (Ursus thibetanus) —- Black bear (Huarctos americanus) ~~~ Cinnamon bear (Huarctos americanus CINNEMOMAMN?): Seer eee Glacier bear (Huarctos emmonsii) —--- Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) —~--~- Polar bear (Thalarctos maritimus) ~~~ Dingo: (Canisvdingo)———— = Gray wolf (Canis nubilus)--------~~ Florida wolf (Canis floridanus) ~---~- Texas red wolf (Canis rufus) —-------- Coyote (Canis latrans)—-—--_--__—_-- Hybrid coyote (Canis latrans-rufus) —_ California coyote (Canis ochropus) ——- Black-backed jackal (Canis mcesome- 1ag) fe 2rd epee ae eye ee Rough fox (Cerdocyon cancrivorus) ~~ Red" fox” (Vulpes julva) 2222-22 Silver-black fox (Vulpes fulva)------ Huropean fox (Vulpes vulpes) ——------ Rat fox. CVuines Velompa—— eae Gray fox (Urocyon cinercoargenteus) — Bush dog (Icticyon venaticus) ~------ Cacomistle (Bassariscus astutus) —---- Panda (Ailurus fulgens) ~---------—- Raccoon (Procyon. loton) =. = Florida raccoon (Procyon lotor elu- Cus) stents _ oho’ ep eee ne eee cee Gray coatimundi (Nasua narica)—---- Kankajou (Potes flavas) — = - = Mexican kinkajou (Potos flavus az- CECUS)) 22 So a ee American badger (Tawidea tarus)—---~ Florida otter (Lutra canadensis vaga) — Palm civet (Paradogurus hermaphrodi- CUS) Se Os Se Se Ee Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ich- MEUMON) soe. Uae Ee See See ee Aard-wolf (Proteles cristatus)—------- Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta)-—--- Striped hyena (Hyena hyena) ------ ie) ms HBRORHAwWNHeRD Tt HrPob FPHNFPRNRHPNHRE bo wnwre ee ee Ree eH oTb eH bb African cheetah (Acinony# jubatus) —- ion, \CHelis seo) jae = ee Bengal tiger (Felis tigris) __-------- Manchurian tiger (felis tigris longi- Leopard .(Felis pordius))——__- === == Black leopard (Felis pardus)—------- Jaguar’ ‘(Felis anced) 222-2 2422222 Serval) (felis) serval)— 2 _ ee Ocelot (Felis: pardalis)i-—----—- == =- == Brazilian ocelot (Felis pardalis brasil- 4eneis) 20 Hees 2 Es Mexican puma (Felis azteca)_-----~- Mountain lion (Felis hippolestes) ~~~ Abyssinian caracal (Lynz _ caracal nubicd) ee ae eee oe ae Canada lynx (Lyn#z canadensis) ~—-~~-~ Northern wild cat (Lyne uinta)—----- Bay yn: (oyna Peps) ee ee Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) ~~ PINNIPEDIA California sea lion (Zalophus califor- nianws) 2222254 eee San Geronimo harbor seal (Phoca richardi&i geronimensis) —_~-----—--_—--— RODENTIA Woodehuck (Marmota monaz)_--~-~-~- Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) —- Harris’s ground squirrel (Ammosper- mophitts Rarrist) =222—— eee Honduras squirrel (Sciurus boothi@) -_ Albino squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) — American beaver (Castor canadensis) — Grasshopper mouse (Onychomys leu- cogasten) j= 22 228 Se eee Jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius) —--- African porcupine (Hystrix africeaus- tralis) 22c-he ese te ee eee Malay porcupine (Acanthion brachyu- Tree poreupine (Coendouw prehen- SAAS) ae a a ee Western porcupine (Hrethizon epixan- bei) 22 ee oe eet oe De eee eee Viscacha (Lagostomus trichodacty- TALS \ ee Se ee Central American paca (Cuniculus paca WING OUULS) ee a a Sooty agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa) — Speckled agouti (Dasyprocta punc- 1 AOD, ne ee Azara’s agouti (Dasyprocta azare) ——~ Trinidad agouti (Dasyprocta rubrata) ~ Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) -------- Capybara (Hydrocherus hydroche- Me) ea ee Se ee ear Sa LAGOMORPHA Domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cunicu- (is) ee eS eee BO eee ee eo HorDeH REPORT OF THE SECRETARY INSECTIVORA European hedgehog (Hrinaceus euro- PRIMATES Ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta)_----~- Red-fronted lemur (Lemur rufifrons) — Black lemur (Lemur macaco)—-----~-- Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)—------- Gray spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) — Mexican spider monkey (Ateles neg- lectus) 2 = see ee ee) ete White-throated capuchin (Cebus ca- DUCHIIB) = ee eee that eee Brown capuchin (Cebus fatuellus) ~~ Margarita capuchin (Cebus mar- CUP TERE)) teens eee ele oe ee ee Gelada baboon (Theropithecus ob- SCUTUS) pose ete Oe yes eo ers ay Chacma (Papio porcarius)—--.----~-_ Anubis baboon (Papio cynocephalus) — East African baboon (Papio ibeanus) — Mandrill (Pupio sphingz)_--.------_-~ Drill (Papio leucopheus) ~--.2.----4- Moor macaque (Cynopithecus maurus) — Barbary ape (Simia sylwanus) —-----~--~ Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) —-— Pig-tailed monkey (Macaca nemes- CPUC) soa h8 we career het vey hepa AS Lda Burmese macaque (Macaca andaman- Rhesus monkey (Macaca rhesus) ----~ Bonnet monkey (Macaca sinica) _----- Crab-eating macaque (Macaca irus)_-~~ Philippine macaque (Macaca syrichta) ~ Javan macaque (Macaca mordar) —-_- Black mangabey (Cercocebus ater- ATIRAE SS) aes ep te Sooty mangabey (Cercocebus fuligi- NOSUS ye Bes epg AS eg, La Le Hagenbeck’s mangabey (Cercocebus TUCO CIDE GIGS) as aso 8 ees ec ey gn bile White-collared mangabey (Cercocebus COT QMOELUS) 32 ons Sone Sesto) Green guenon (Lasiopyga calli- EIA ATBU BN) eos > ee SN a Se Bab Mona guenon (Lasiopyga mona) De Brazza’s guenon (Lasiopyga OF OSS?) 25 OE Gaye RS. een alot Lesser white-nosed guenon (Lasiopyga DCUVUSIST OR) oe of ea Ok | ri © Chimpanzee (Pan satyrus) ~--.--____ Orang-utan (Pongo pygmeus) ARTIODACTYLA Wild boar (Sus scrofa) -___________ Collared peceary (Pecari dngulatus) __ Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphi- LIT) apie a Ml hela pe cll Ae Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) — be FP NRPNER Or wnmnwmnroeortrwre Li — OrHEHHNEH | Tl aed Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) — Guanaco (Lama huwandchus) —~-------~-~- Liama (Lama glamajesa-—- == Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)—~-----~- Fallow deer (Dama dama) —---------- White fallow deer (Dama dama)_~-~-~ Axis. deer, (A wis (amis) i222 t Ls Hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus)—---~- Sambar (Rusa unicolor)--_----_---~ Barasingha (Rucervus duvaucelii) ~—-~ Burmese deer (Rucervus eldii) Japanese deer (Sika nippon) Red deer (Cervus elaphus) —-----~--~~-~ Kashmir deer (Cervus hanglu)—-----~~ Bedford deer (Cervus ranthopygus) —~ American elk (Cervus canadensis) ~~~ Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginvianus) — Guatemala deer (Odocoileus sp.)----- Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) —---~ Brocket (Mazama sartorii) -_.__------ Prong-horn (Antilocapra americana) —~ Blesbok (Damaliscus albifrons)—--_~-~ White-tailed gnu (Connochetes gnu) —- Brindled gnu (Connochetes taurinus)— Lechwe (Onotragus leche)----—-~---~ Sable antelope (Hgocerus niger) ~~~ Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) — Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) ---~ Gensbok"(Orya gazelig) 22 ees ee East African eland (Taurotragus oryr LEBINTSCONI) eee ee ee ee ee Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) — Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) Alpine ibex (Capra iber) --_______~ Aoudad (Ammotragus lervia) Rocky Mountain sheep GENSIS ene ee re ee ee Arizona mountain sheep (Ovis cana- GESTS GUAT ET) oe ee ee Mouflon (Ovis ewrop@us) ——__-__-_____ Greenland musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus ECOL Oris eee ee ee ee ee ee a ACD CHOS MLOICUS ae a ee ee Yak (Poéphagus grunniens)—~---~--~ American bison (Bison bison) _---_~~ Indian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) (Ovis cana- PERISSODACTYLA Malay tapir (Tapirus indicus) —---_~ Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) —— Baird’s tapir (Tapirella bairdii)_--__ Zebra-horse hybrid (Equus grevyi-ca- ballus) Zebra-ass hybrid (Hquus grevyi-asi- PROBOSCIDEA Abyssinian elephant (Lozodonta afri- CONDAODY OCIS no 5 coe nme Sumatran elephant (Hlephas suma- Wanus)~=ssesSses ius eee suas oe; ~J _ BRNWHE HEE RD HEE RP PROD ROR AHP W ROTH OW Row We © 98 RATIT AD South African ostrich (Struthio aus- trQlis) = ae ee ee See ee ee Somaliland ostrich (Struthio molybdo- DRGNES)), 2a ee ee Nubian ostrich (Struthio camelus) —--- Rhea (Rhea americana) ~~----------- Australian cassowary (Oasuarius daus- EF GIGS) RR eee Single-wattled cassowary (Casuwarius uniappendiculatus) —~-._--~---------- Selater’s cassowary (Casuarius phil- int) Seeks eee SPHENISCIFORMES Rock-hopper penguin (Catarrhactes pa- chyrhynchius) 2252) ee see CICONIIFORMES American white pelican (Pelecanus ery- ERGOT RU ICNOS, a ee European white pelican (Pelecanus OTLOCTOEGUIUG)) a eee ee ee a Roseate pelican (Pelecanus roseus) —--~ Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspi- TAH ATE) COLD LERS DEY ES ee eee Brown pelican (Pelecanus occiden- TTA IE) Wades la a ye ER California brown pelican (Pelecanus COU FONG U8) ee Florida cormorant (Phalacrocoraz auri- TALS [UOT ACCME) Great white heron (Ardea _ occiden- ELDER) a ea oe Great blue heron (Ardea herodias) —--~ Goliath heron (Ardea goliath) _-----~ American egret (Casmerodius egretta) — Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorar nycticoray nevius) ———_-—--_-____— Boatbill (Cochlearius cochlearius) ———~ White stork (Ciconia ciconia) _-__----- Black stork (Ciconia nigra) ---------- Marabou stork (Leptoptilus crumenif- Pie) Hf) pearance Wood ibis (Mycteria americana) —~---- Sacred ibis (Threskiornis ethiopicus) — Black-headed ibis (Threskiornis mela- MOCCDIVOUIUS yore a= ee a Australian ibis (Threskiornis stricti- GHD SS) pans Bs ee ee White ibis (Guarda atta) === = Searlet ibis (Guara rubra) ---------- ANSERIFORMES Crested screamer (Chauna cristata) ~~~ Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) —~~----- Black duck (Anas rubripes) --_------ Australian black duck (Anas supercili- ORG) See ee PA ae ee Gadwall (Chaulelasmus streperus) ~~~ Faleated duck (Hunetta falcata) _---- ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 BIRDS ww ee 1 oe bo le European widgeon (Mareca penelope) — Baldpate (Mareca americana) ~----~-~- Green-winged teal (Nettion caroli- MONUS EC) ate es 2 oS 2 See Huropean teal (Nettion crecca) —----- Baikal teal (Nettion formoswm) —_----~ Blue-winged teal (Querquedula_ dis- COTS) eae _ Se Sees Garganey (Querquedula querquedula) — Paradise duck (Casarca variegata) —-~ Shoveller (Spatula clypeata) ~~------_ Pintail) (Dafiila acutayess2. ee Bahaman pintail (Dajila bahamensis) — Wood. duck’ (Atv sponsa) 2-2 ES Mandarin duck (Dendronessa galericu- fata) ==2--22. =e eee ee Canvasback (Marila valisineria) __----~ Huropean pochard (Marila ferina)_—_-~ Redhead (Marila americana) __~-~---_- Ring-necked duck (Marila collaris) ~~~ Tufted duck (WVarila fuligula)—------~- Lesser scaup duck (Marila affinis) ---~ Greater scaup duck (Marila marila) —- Rosy-billed pochard (Metopiana pepo- 6ac@) ~~. see neh ee ee ee $18) jen ie Von ee Snow goose (Chen hyperboreus) ----_-- Greater snow goose (Chen hyperboreus NIVGUS)) — ee eee Blue goose (Chen cerulescens) —~~----~-~ White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) — American white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons gambeli) u-- 222k 2 eee Bean goose (Anser fabalis) _-_-_-_------ Pink-footed goose (Anser brachyrhyn- Chasis) 3 eee Chinese goose (Cygnopsis cygnoides) —- Bar-headed goose (Hulabeia indica) ~~~ Canada goose (Branta canadensis) _--~ Hutchins’s goose (Branta canadensis hutehinstiyis . i SoC eee White-cheeked goose (Branta canaden- Sistioccidentalis) shat! Rate Cackling goose (Branta canadensis mining) 2c Sees See Brant (Branta bernicla glaucogastra) — Barnacle goose (Branta lewcopsis) --__- Museovy duck (Cairina moschata) _-__ Pied goose (Anseranas semipalmata) — Black-bellied tree duck (Dendrocygna autunnals) See eee Eyton’s tree duck (Dendrocygna ey- toni)! Zoot 2 PP ea eee Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus)-------~-- Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator) — Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus) — Black swan (Chenopis atrata)_---_-~~ FALCONIFORMES California condor (Gymnogyps califor- MAGNUS) eee Ss Se eee Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) —---- Black vulture (Coragyps urubu) ----- _ ae OHH OH a fo wb oO Ww Ne ade hb bo o BRR ROW OAS w 10 i) Bre 1m bw i Him oo . 7 a —— REPORT OF THE SECRETARY King vulture (Sarcoramphus papa) —-- Secretary bird (Sagittarius serpen- bars) Les C ee ee EE Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus)------- African black vulture (J'orgos trache- liotus) Cinereous vulture (M#gypius mona- Wedge-tailed eagle (Uroaétus audag) - Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétos)_-_--_- White-bellied sea eagle (Cuncuma leu- covasten) ne See eee eee Bald eagle (Haliwetus leucocephalus leucocephalia) (24 SU eee ek Alaskan bald eagle (Haliwetus leuco- cephalus alascanus) —— 2 Se Se Bateleur eagle (Helotarsus ecaudatus) — Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platyp- Red-tailed hawk (Buteo borealis) _-__-~ Pigmy falcon (Poliohieragw semitorqua- Fa, FIER) | ha ae i a ta a se el eta eee a Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius) _-_- GALLIFORMES Panama Curassow (Crax panamen- Razor-billed curassow (Mitu mitu)_- Crested guan (Penelope boliviana) ——_ Mexican guan (Ortalis vetula)_-_--- Vulturine guinea fowl (Acryllium vul- LOEP VLU 1) SS St ears ar Rea Sea Ee EY Peatow!l (Pavo cristatus) —-_._._...-- Albino peafowl (Pavo cristatus)—--__ Silver pheasant (Gennewus nyctheme- WAGB Ute oes Ah art De ee Lady Ambherst’s pheasant (Chrysolo- UUs OMmbersie) Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus tor- quatus) Hungarian partridge (Perdiz perdiz) _— Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar)_— Valley quail (Lophortyr californica UGUACOLE DS | haat on AD he 8 Scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) —_ Massena quail (Cyrtonyx montezu- LOGS See SA eee ee RS eet a ee ee GRUIFORMES East Indian gallinule (Porphyrio cal- wus) Pukeko (Porphyrio stanleyi)__._____ Black-tailed moor hen (Microtribonyx ventralis) American coot .(Fulica americana) ___ Lesser rail (Hypotenidia philippen- South Island weka rail (Ocydromus TT TASTS SAAT) ie Stas ie le oan SL eT Short-winged weka (Ocydromus brach- Tp TRAE ce TEM Viget, Mees LN pS ath Leet dD Sandhill crane 1S 7 1 ete ENE i Latte lay Pate a a a ia ee Little brown crane (Megalornis cana- PERSIA). oe he a eee ee NrRwh White-necked crane (Megalornis leu- cauchen) Indian white crane (Megalornis leu- cogeranus ) Lilford’s crane (Megalornis lilfordi) —— Australian crane (Mathewsena rubi- CUR yee Se a Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) — Crowned crane (Balearica pavonina)_ Kagu (Rhynochetos jubatus)________ CHARADRIIFORMES Ruff (Philomachus pugnar)__-_______ Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) =. Yellow-wattled lapwing (Lobivanellus ING Os Wiesel sariad agit. South American stone-plover ((C@dic- nemus bistriatus vocifer) _________ Pacific gull (Gabianus pacificus)____ Great black-backed gull (Larus mari- Nuss Naehe as) __ tan by fee ives Herring gull (Larus argentatus)_____ Silver gull (Larus novehollandie) ___ Laughing gull (Larus atricilla) _.-__~ Inca tern (Noddi inca) toria) Australian crested pigeon (Ocyphaps- LODROCES) orore eyes bY oR lee Reser le Bronze-wing pigeon (Phaps_ chalcop- COT Vet SI ie rl yas elt pe A el ly Marquesan dove (Gallicolumba rubdes- CON BN OS oe ea SOO kA nary bee eal fo Bleeding-heart dove (Gallicolumba lu- RONICO) Bae aoe a eg eA 4 oles ve Wood pigeon (Columba palumbus)____ Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura) — Mexican dove (Zenaidura graysoni) __ White-fronted dove (Leptotila fulvi- ventris brachyptera)____._______. _ Necklaced dove (Spilopelia tigrina) ___ Ringed turtledove (Streptopelia — ri- Zebra dove (Geopelia Sata) —-= 4 Bar-shouldered dove (Geopelia humer- CLE) SNES SERIA ATI atin apo) Inca dove (Scardafelia AOD) > oe, Cuban ground dove (Chemepelia pas- Senna. Ofavida) 2 ee TRC Oa a BOE ek aye ee el a Superb fruit pigeon (Lamprotreron euperba)eiaeissse ks Slay al uae Bronze fruit pigeon (Iuscadivores @ne@)) 228 iepek i. beeiol font PSITTACIFORMES Kea (Nestor notabilis)_.___________ Roseate cockatoo (Kakatoe roseica- PAL ED) eae POR MORI EES Bee eae Bare-eyed cockatoo (Kakatoe gym- CC Fo) ge eat pl ps pe aie gaa Leadbeater’s toekntoo (Kakatoe lead- DECTETT enna Sa et enenrahe Seren erie reo pore White cockatoo (Kakatoe alba)_______ Sulphur-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe OGleTitG) (a2 Oe aed ie Se ce eee te 99 hoe RH bo 100 Great red-crested cockatoo (Kakatoe moluccensis)'—.- ==" = = ee Mexican green macaw (Ara mezi- CORG) PSs a2 2 Ue CN Se pr Severe macaw (Ara severa)—-_-_-___ Blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ara- PUAUIIAE)) ter oe Seu Red-and-blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara NUGCEO) ARs EA PATN Torta aay Petz’s paroquet (Hupsittula canicu- CLG SY ca a ce a ts a re Se Golden-crowned paroquet (Hupsittula GQUiED)) San ae Be as ee Weddell’s paroquet (Hupsittula wed- ellis) <2 Ne tnt SF See ot, Blue-winged parrotlet (Psittacula pas- SOPTUON SS ane ete be OS Golden paroquet (Brotogeris chryso- Tovi paroquet (Brotogeris jugularis) — Orange-winged paroquet (Brotogeris ChAtitt) .22eheeen sun \W Sie Yellow-naped parrot (Amazona au- SONALI ata) Leese se en py eee Mealy parrot (Amdazona farinosa) —--- Orange-winged parrot (Amazona ama- ZONA ase ee ee ee ee ee Blue-fronted parrot (Amazona ewstiva) — Red-crowned parrot (Amazona viri- digenalis so 4eeer l= era eee Ss Double yellow-head parrot (Amazona OT CERI) Sa gO ek Yellow-headed parrot (Amazona ochro- Cepiiala) es Oe RS Tie eee Festive parrot (Amazona festiva)_-_~ Lesser white-fronted parrot (Ama- zone albifrons nana) —---__-_=- Santo Domingo parrot (Amazona ven- tration! U— Sate oe ee Cuban parrot (Amazona leucocephala) — Maximilian’s parrot (Pionus wmazi- ATWELL CA) ATE aE SE sae eee ee ne Dusky parrot (Pionus fuscus)------_~ Blue-headed parrot (Pionus men- Meri a) sae LE Ae eee Se Black-headed caique (Pionites melano- Cephala) =s22222eeS2 Sel See Lesser vasa parrot (Coracopsis nigra) — Greater vasa parrot (Coracopsis POSG)) vee eee sb Lanne Se Red-faced love-bird (Agapornis pul- lariat) pe eee pee eg Gray-headed love-bird (Agapornis ma- dagascartensis) 2s a a ae eee Abyssinian love-bird (Agapornis ta- LICL) Fe ere me ee Blue-bonnet paroquet (Psephotus FEENULLORT ROUG) en ee ee te ee, Pennant’s paroquet (Platycercus ele- (HTL) alate ie adem ee Eig ae ret ial eps King paroquet (Aprosmictus cyanopy- OTN oe ea ee Bae De en pe Re bh 13 Oo eo ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Crimson-winged paroquet (Aprosmic- tus,.erythropterus))_2 = 4-22 ae Ring-necked paroquet (Conurus torqua- E008) = ole 2 eR eee a! es eee S18) ee ee CUS) > ee eevee se CUCULIFORMES Donaldson’s touraco (Turacus donald- 80ND) a eee ne nt Soe CORACITFORMES Giant kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) --_---- Groove-billed toucanet (Aulacorham- DIVUS I SULCOTUS)) a a ees Malayan wreathed hornbill (Rhytido- COV OST Un Gules) = ee eee ee Morepork owl (Spiloglauz noveseelan- Oe)! S222 ee eee Barred owl’ (Striz varia) —--_.------_ Florida barred owl (Striz varia al- Snowy owl (Nyctea nyctea) _-__-----~ Sereech owl (Otus asio)----___---- Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) — Eagle owl (Bubo buwbo) -2---~------_= American barn owl (TJ'yto alba pratin- cola) ~~ Shee SiGe oe ee Red-shafted flicker (Colaptes cafer col- PASSERIFORMES Cock of the rock (Rupicola rupicola)_— Silver-eared hill-tit (Mesia argentau- Red-billed hill-tit (Liothriz luteus) —--~~- Black-gorgeted laughing thrush (G@ar- rulax’ pectoralis))_—— 2 eee White-eared bulbul (Otocompsa leuco- fis SHO) eh eee Red-eared bulbul (Otocompsa jocosa)-— Black-headed bulbul (Molpastes he- morrhous yt oe ee ee ees Piping crow-shrike (Gymnorhina tibi- C@n) 2- 2222-2 Sates eee eee European raven (Corvus corar) —------ American raven (Corvus coraz sinua- tus) 22282 ste eee eee Australian crow (Corvus coronoides)_— American crow (Corvus brachyrhyn- CHOS)) 2 Sees eee American magpie SONAD): 2 a et Dc Yucatan jay (Cissilopha yucatanica) — Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata) ---_---- Green jay (Xanthoura luruosa) —_--~-- Laysan finch (Velespyza cantans)—--~ Blue honey-creeper (Cyanerpes cya- NeUS) ia aa ne Blue-winged tanager (7anagra cyanop- terG) 23 Soe oe ee HM Omeh ae ay REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Blue tanager (Thraupis cana) —-~------ Giant whydah (Diatropura progne)-- Paradise whydah (Steganura paradi- Sea) sates Ea ae Shaft-tailed whydah (Tetrenura regia) - Napoleon weaver (Pyromelana afra) —- Red-billed weaver (Quelea quelea)-—-- Buffalo weaver (Textor albirostris) —— Madagascar weaver (Foudia madagas- COTiCNsis) joes ena a a ek St. Helena waxbill (Hstrilda as- Crile eee ee Rosy-rumped waxbill (Hstrilda rhodo- PY GAD) ware re re Nutmeg finch (Munia punctulata) —--- White-headed nun (Munia maja)_---~ Black-headed nun (Munia _ atrica- DAU) es ee a a ee Chestnut-breasted finch (Munia cast- ONCItHOTOD) (22S So Java finch (Munia oryzivora) —_------- Masked grassfinch (Poéphila perso- CEL AU) ent: ela ace ep neh «+ ena OS, Boece ee Ae Black-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila COuUlmiGy o 5-2 == ee Red-faced Gouldian finch (Poéphila MiP Gottee) = = SS Diamond finch (Steganopleura gut- ALLO) i is kee Zebra finch (Teniopygia castanotis) —_ Cutthroat finch (Amadina fasciata) __- Red-headed finch (Amadina erythro- CHES OAT) A eS Se a ee eed Yellow-headed marsh-bird (Agelaius ECRETOCEDRUIUS) == 2a 2 e= Se ce Alligator (Alligator mississipiensis) _- Tuatera (Sphenodon punctata) —--_-_~ Horned toad (Phrynosoma cornutum) — Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum)_— Beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum)- Gould’s monitor (Varanus gouldii) --- Philippine monitor (Varanus_ salva- Alligator lizard (Dracena guianensis) — Rock python (Python molurus) _-_-__- Regal pytaon (Python reticulatus) —--_ Anaconda (Hunectes muwrinus)—---_-- Boa constrictor (Constrictor constric- Ui? 7) ie Oe. 2 Se AE Pee ener eee eee Cuban boa (Epicrates angulifer) _-____ Brazilian tree-boa (Hpicrates crassus) — Black snake (Coluber constrictor) ~~ Chicken snake (Hlaphe quadrivittata) — Corn snake (Hlaphe guttata)-----_--_ Pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus) — Water snake (Natriz sipedon) —--__-- Cordate pit-viper (Bothrops alterna- Fer-de-lance (Bothrops lanceolatus) ~~~ Florida rattlesnake (Crotalus adaman- Feta) i= Spe eee ee ee sey ch We!) os of Western diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus EV OD Ee RE? SA LIEN) EER oe oe ee bo 9 mee ore bo rp wee ee Wehr hte hk Australian gray jumper (Struthidea CUICT CO) 25 oe ee ee Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) ----~--_~ Shining starling (Lamprocorax metal- UTE), Oe Sees Sener ope ere Sees eee oe SR Pe Malay grackle (Gracula javana) —----- Bare-jawed troupial (Gymnomystagv melanicterus) ——.—— == See Hooded oriole (Jcterus cucullatus) --_~ Yellow-tailed oriole (Icterus mesome- DAS) Fee ee a a Purple grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) ~~~ Greenfinch (Chloris chloris) ---_--__~ European goldfinch (Oarduelis car- CALC LER) se ee ee ee oe ee Brambling (Ffringilla montifringilla) —— Yellowhammer (Hmberiza citrinella)_— House finch (Carpodacus megicanus PROUCOLES)) poe se ee ee San Lucas house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus ruberrimus) ——~.-~-_-__~ Canary (Serinus canarius)__.__.___-- Gray singing finch (Serinus leucopyg- HULLS Vi ates a ae ce a ee eee ee Gay’s finch (Phrygilus gayi) ---------~ White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia ALOTCOLLE ST) hE a ae SS Wa eed ee San Diego song sparrow (Melospiza melodia “coopert) === — ===" 2- Se Saffron finch (Sicalis flaveola)_______ Seed eater (Sporophila gutturalis) ____ Blue grosbeak (Guiraca cerulea)_--~~ Red-crested cardinal (Paroaria cucul- COt0) et Ed ee eh ae 28 REPTILES Banded rattlesnake (Crotalus horri- (Chelydra serpen- Musk turtle (Sternotherus odoratus)_— Mexican musk turtle (Kinosternon SONOTDENSE) "So a= 3 Soe ak Be a South American musk turtle (Kinos- ternon. scorpioides).————=——-— 54.8 Pennsylvania musk turtle (Kinoster- nom eubrubrum) eso St ea Wood turtle (Clemmys insculpta) —__~ Leprous terrapin (Clemmys leprosa) —~ European pond turtle (Hmys orbicu- Page)! A EY A Ek Th South American terrapin (Nicoria punctularia) 2222 2 iL ey South African turtle (Homopus areo- LLCS) oe en Ae ee ee Reeves turtle (Geoclemys reevesi) __-- Loochoo turtle (Geoemyda spengleri) — Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta)—---~ Western painted turtle (Chrysemys Wel) ae ba eee eer oe tt A Central American cooter (Pseudemys CENA he ee | eee RPE EN ALAR ot 101 © om 6 bo bo ee i 102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Gopher tortoise (Gopherus poly- African tortoise (Testudo hermanni) — 1 DLONAUS)) asco s rre eare e 2 | Angulated tortoise (Testudo an- Dunean Island tortoise (Testudo Gulitta) ee see Get “ee 1 ephippiun)” .orr i eas ses eee 1 | South African tortoise (Y'estudo sp.) 2 Indefatigable Island tortoise (Testudo Chicken turtle (Deirochelys reticu- portent) os Corie Bae ee il CORTE) LS See spre AY 9) ence aie ee 1 Albemarle Island tortoise (Testudo BATRACHIANS VIENNA) = Oa eee 2 South American tortoise (Vestudo den- Giant salamander (Megalobatrachus ticulate@) soe 1 japonicus) 222 e oS i 4 Se 2 Statement of the collection a peg am- ; an alk Birds hatras Total | chians DEF sis 0a5 4 =) 6 Wied p ae aie tel teal a elie Daas ke Ned he oe 25 69 55 149 Born and hatehed in National Zoological Park____._..--___---- 39 42 22 103 Received in OxChanger snc. orc < amet wertewe ete prey eC 2 Al Rn 4 13 4 21 d Sb ae) 0: 0212) 6 Reperapeerl ania ie aa pg NL ales Lok Oo Re ee 24 90 | 9 | 123 Transferred from other Government departments_-_____-_-----_- 10 42 1 53 Deposited 22 Cus: eae wee ee een ete oer eee Serene eM 2a 10 5 | 15 30 | 112 261 106 479 | SUMMARY Animalssonvhand juliyuly dons a faa 0 SE a ee eee 1, 620 PAC CESSI ON SHCNIEI Skt ERY Co rite eer 212 NE Ls ole hE ee Eley ln he ee 479 Total-animais handled]. twigs [0 te! Ames eo ha eee 2, 099 Deduct loss (by death, return of animals, and exchange) —__--_---______- 480 1, 619 Status of collection * Individ- Species us IMagrmimisiss 70 Us CP Ca sea Ra Pe see ETAT RPS Aes Fe ST 1s BIR Pe TO 178 461 HSV of 0 kegel NL 2 P,P doe A ae ae ee eee ulate 291 1, 042 Reptiles‘and: Datraeh iss ks ae eh ee OA A Do ee 48 116 MO tal cee Leh / mae, 2) ad Peat abet 517 1,619 Examination of the list of animals shows that the collection is now weak in large and important forms; and, taking into considera- tion, further, the fact that many of those still included are very old, it is evident that greater expenditure for new stock must be made in the near future if the park is to keep its place among the principal zoological collections of the country. VISITORS The attendance record as determined by daily estimate was slightly less than that of 1925, but exceeded the attendance of any other previous year. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 103 The attendance by months was as follows: SR ye eee: ee ee ee ne A ee ee ee ee ae ee 231, 754 SAI OES Gt SEAL AES SEITE SI SEE) EMR OEMS Ae ee a ae 357, 300 Sentenineiy eat eb ees ee 98 es ee 2 tye gl 249, 600 (QT tite ee ee Eee Se Es 8 ee es ee ee es Sener? ae 108, 000 INCh Cale) ese So Boe SEA oe ee ed ee ee es en eee! ean 138, 300 I DYES TA Oy a aot ARS RO ke ae NO RA Ee a 79, 925 SPRUE REEMA as ie aah ph a aw etn yt ea a SE eae dE de abn 68, 200 LSS GWU O EN a I a ee Rie Sy a Se 112, 825 WS WeCE SY bs cee Si OM Ey OR ig ols are glk ae Sid Bag pda be oe BY eee ee Sy 147, 950 AN| OY eA WS SES Ss eee a en ee ee ee ee ee eee ee 397, 300 INTER 72 = ape se Mbt otar en sa NAS htecerc 5 Aileen RES toy seated cies) Seat Wet Saleen saber se Retiae 343, 500 syiUnnereen seek SlAR «NDS OM INDE CLE . AG SOL hg a 2838, 250 ANG BTI TSR OO eh he ee eee ee ee eee 2, 512, 900 Schools, classes, and similar organizations, recorded among the visitors, number 309, with a total of 24,309 individuals. Schools came from points as far distant as Maine and Illinois. IMPROVEMENTS The necessity of making extensive repairs to buildings and other structures and to roads, during the year, allowed only a small expenditure to be made for new work. A new toilet building for men was constructed near the Adams Mill Road entrance to replace one which had become inadequate and unfit for use. The boundary fence of the park was rebuilt for a distance of about 1,360 feet. A new drainage system for the cages and walks on the south side of the lion house was put in and 300 feet of large pipe laid to connect it with the main sewer, the original drain being now altogether inadequate. The roadway from Adams Mill Road entrance to and around the administration building was rebuilt, with some modification to pro- vide a better grade. A large amount of repair to roofs was done during the early part of the year, the felt with which they are covered having deteriorated with age. Several of the buildings, especially the bird house, leaked badly. Grading was begun along the new western boundary of the park, near Cathedral Avenue. The highway which forms the boundary there had been excavated in connection with building operations on adjacent land, leaving for several hundred feet along the park line an abrupt bank 10 to 30 feet high. A survey of the region showed that at least 9,000 cubic yards must be cut from the bank to make a slope that would be permanent, while considerably more excavation 104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 would be required in order to make the land suitable for the purposes of the park. By cooperating with the Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks, which needed the excavated material for fill along the new Rock Creek drive, it was possible to do a considerable amount of grading at comparatively small cost to the park. It is hoped that the grading can be completed within the next year, so that the fence can be established on the new boundary line. UNIFORMS FOR POLICE A provision of the appropriation act made available the sum of $1,000 during the year for furnishing uniforms to the policemen of the park. This makes it possible to maintain a standard of per- sonal appearance that could not well be required of such employees when compelled to equip themselves. Tt is highly desirable that similar provision be made for keepers. In caring for the animals they are brought into contact with the public to a considerable extent, are often called on for information, and at times have to caution and restrain visitors. They should therefore be distinctly recognizable as belonging to the personnel of the park. BIRD HOUSE For several years past attention has been called in each successive report to the urgent need of a suitable building in which to exhibit the collection of birds. It is a great satisfaction therefore to note that the appropriation act for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1927, carries an item of $49,000 for beginning the construction of such a building, and authorizes the making of contracts for it to a total cost not exceeding $102,000. This is for the house only, and the cages, interior and exterior, which it is estimated will cost $25,000, are to be provided for in a subsequent appropriation. A scheme of arrangement for the new building was proposed by the late Mr. Howland Russell, a well known architect, and final plans on which contract may be based at the present writing are being made in the office of Mr. A. L. Harris, the municipal architect of the District of Columbia. The first appropriation is contemplated to permit necessary excavation, and construction of the foundation and walls. It is planned to begin construction in the spring of 1927 so that the entire building may be finished that year with the addi- tional appropriation for its completion estimated in the appropria- tion bill for this coming year. The completion of such a building will be hailed by all with the greatest satisfaction, for the present structure is antiquated, unfitted for modern needs, and in such bad repair that it is difficult to keep it in proper condition to house ex- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105 hibits. 'The new building will give opportunity to form a collection of living birds worthy of a national organization. The interest of the District Commissioners in its development is greatly ap- preciated. RADIO TALKS The popular appreciation of the Smithsonian series of radio talks having brought a request in March, 1925, for a second course, it was thought that the wide interest taken by the public in the National Zoological Park made that a suitable starting point for a series of nature talks. Accordingly such a series was planned and given under the title “Radio Nature Talks from the National Zoological Park.” Thirty-one talks were given between October 3 and May 22, through the cooperation of station WRC. Each opened with a brief statement of current news of the park, usually by the director, who then introduced the speaker of the evening. A 15-minute talk fol- lowed on some subject related to the work of the park. The 23 speakers who participated were mainly from the several bureaus of the Smithsonian Institution and the United States Department of Agriculture, but several others also contributed. It is expected that the series will be resumed in September. The program for the year was as follows: October 3, 1925: Introduction to the Zoo and to Doctor Mann, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. The nature and purpose of this series of talks, by Dr. William M. Mann. October 10, 1925: Zoo notes and answers to questions, by Dr. William M. Mann. The Gorilla at Home, by Mr. C. R. Aschemeier, National Museum. October 17, 1925: Zoo notes and answers to questions, by Dr. William M. Mann. Giant Tortoises, by Miss Doris M. Cochran, National Museum. October 24, 1925: Behind the cages at the Zoo, by Dr. William M. Mann. October 31, 1925: What a small boy wants to know about the Zoo; a dialogue between Master Hugh U. Clark of the Cook School and Dr. William M. Mann. November 7, 1925: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. The Musk Ox at Home, by Mr. Edward A. Preble, Biological Survey. ; November 14, 1925: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Our Autumn Birds, by Mr. Frederick C. Lincoln, Biological Survey. November 21, 1925: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. Howlers and Spider Monkeys, by Maj. Hdward A. Goldman, Biological Survey. November 28, 1925: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. The Reptiles of the District of Columbia, by Mr. Maurice K. Brady. December 5, 1925: Collecting living Animals in South America, by Dr. William M. Mann. December 12, 1925: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. Whales, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, Smithsonian Institution. December 19, 1925: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. Our Winter Birds, by Mr. Clarence R. Shoemaker, National Museum. December 26, 1925: Parrots at Home, by Dr. Alexander Wetmore, assistant secretary, Smithsonian Institution. January 9, 1926: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. The Natural History of Paradise Key, Fla., by Dr. Thomas . Snyder, Bureau of Entomology. 106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 January 16, 1926: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. The Bears of Okefinokee Swamp, by Dr. Francis Harper, secretary of the Boston Society of Natural History (read by Mr. Austin H. Clark). This talk was received in exchange through the courtesy of Mr. Thornton W. Burgess and stations WBZ at Springfield and WBZA at Boston, Mass. January 23, 1926: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. Bird Life in Kamchatka, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, Smithsonian Institution. January 30, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Bird Life in Venezuela, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, Smithsonian Institution. February 13, 1926: The Origin of the Harth, by Prof. Harlow Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory (read by Mr. Edward B. Husing of the staff of station WRC). This talk was given through the courtesy of Professor Shapley and station WEEI, Boston. February 20, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Experiences in South America, by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, National Museum. February 27, 1926: Announcement of the Smithsonian-Chrysler expedition to Tanganyika Territory, by Dr. William M. Mann. Hunting Bighorns with a Camera, by Dr. Vernon L. Kellogg, secretary, National Research Council. March 18, 1926: Zoo notes, by Dr. William M. Mann. Winter Butterflies, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, Smithsonian Institution. Farewell address by Dr. Mann. March 20, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Some Animals of Tan- ganyika Territory, by Mr. A. Brazier Howell, Biological Survey. March 27, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. The Educational Value of the Zoo, by Dr. Frank W. Ballou, superintendent of public schools, Washing- ton, D. C. April 10, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Toads, by Dr. Remington Kellogg, Biological Survey. April 17, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. My Trip to Africa for Animals, by Mr. Arthur B. Baker, acting director, National Zoological Park. April 22, 1926: Reading, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, of a letter from Dr. William M. Mann which was written on board the steamer Llanstephan Castle and posted at Marseille. May 1, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Ferns, by Dr. William R. Maxon, National Museum. May 8, 1926: Zoo notes. Our giant Moths, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, Smith- sonian Institution. May 15, 1926. Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. The American Bison, by Dr. Edward W. Nelson, Biological Survey. May 22, 1926: Reading, by Mr. Austin H. Clark, of a letter from Dr. William M. Mann which was written on board the steamer Lilanstephan Castle and posted at Aden. The Mammals of the District of Columbia, by Dr. Vernon Bailey, Biological Survey. May 29, 1926: Zoo notes, by Mr. Austin H. Clark. Birds of the Chaco of Argentina, by Dr. Alexander Wetmore, assistant secretary, Smithsonian Insti- tution. SMITHSONIAN-CHRYSLER AFRICAN EXPEDITION The absence at the park of certain large and important African animals that are usually considered essential to a zoological collection, was brought by the director to the attention of Mr. Walter P. Chrysler, automobile manufacturer. He became interested and agreed to finance an expedition to Africa to secure some of the ani- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 107 mals needed. ‘Tanganyika Territory, in eastern Africa, which seemed to afford the best conditions, was selected as the field of opera- tions and an expedition was organized and equipped which left New York March 20, in charge of Dr. W. M. Mann, director of the park. Just at the close of the year a report was received of the first opera- tions in the field and the securing of some valuable animals. Respectfully submitted. A. B. Barer, Acting Director. Dr. CHartes D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY Str: The Astrophysical Observatory was conducted under the following passage of the independent offices appropriation act ap- proved March 3, 1925: Astrophysical Observatory: For maintenance of the Astrophysical Observa- tory, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including assistants, purchase of necessary books and periodicals, apparatus, making necessary observations in high altitudes, repairs and alterations of buildings and mis- cellaneous expenses, $31,180, of which amount not to exceed $26,840 may be expended for personal services in the District of Columbia. The observatory occupies a number of frame structures within an inclosure of about 16,000 square feet south of the Smithsonian udministration building at Washington, and a cement observing sta- tion and frame cottage for observers on a plot of 10,000 square feet leased from the Carnegie Solar Observatory on Mount Wilson, Calif. Since October, 1925, the observatory building on Mount Harqua Hala, which we have occupied since 1920, has been closed because the work has been removed to Table Mountain, Calif. By the generosity of Mr. John A. Roebling, a tunnel for instruments, a dwelling for the field director, a shop, and a garage have been constructed at the new site. A dwelling for the assistant is also contemplated within Mr. Roebling’s grant. During the year the Astrophysical Observatory has assumed part of the cost of the maintenance of the observing station at Monte- zuma, Chile, which was erected in 1920, with means furnished by Mr. Roebling. The constructions there comprise a tunnel for instru- ments, a dwelling, shop, and garage, and a telephone line 12 miles to Calama. The present value of the buildings and equipment for the Astro- physical Observatory owned by the Government is estimated at $50,000. This estimate contemplates the cost required to replace the outfit for the purposes of the investigation. WORK OF THE YEAR A new station—The National Geographic Society, having become interested in our efforts to obtain an accurate series of measurements of the variation of solar radiation, made a grant in March, 1925, of 108 | REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 109 $55,000 to be expended by Dr. C. G. Abbot for the following purposes : 1. To select the best location in the Eastern Hemisphere for a solar-radiation station to cooperate with the two now operated by the Astrophysical Observatory for the measurement of solar variation. 2. To equip the station selected. 3. To send an expedition to be known as the National Geographic Society Solar-Radiation Expedition Cooperating with the Smith- sonian Institution to continue solar-radiation observations as long as the grant permits, estimated at four years. In furtherance of this project, Mr. W. H. Hoover, hitherto direc- tor of the Argentine solar-radiation observatory at La Quiaca, and Mr. F. A. Greeley, hitherto assistant at Harqua Hala and at Monte- zuma, were engaged as director and assistant for the new station. Apparatus was ordered, and Mr. Andrew Kramer, instrument maker to the Astrophysical Observatory, was transferred to construction work under the National Geographic Society’s grant. Mr. Aldrich undertook the finer work of constructing galvanometer, pyrheliom- eter, bolometer, and pyranometer parts, and of standardizing them as well as oversight over the preparations. Doctor Abbot went abroad to Algeria, Egypt, Baluchistan, and South West Africa to select the location. Preference was given to the Brukkaros Mountain in South West Africa (Jong. 17°-48’ E., lat. 25° 52’ S.). This is an isolated cup-shaped peak 5,002 feet in ele- vation, rising precipitously from a level plateau of 3,000 feet eleva- tion. The average yearly rainfall in the vicinity is 314 inches. A Hottentot reservation surrounds the mountain, and the nearest town is Berseba, 7 miles south, where there are only two white inhabitants, the others Hottentot. Supplies would come from Keetmanshoop, 60 miles distant by auto. Water in small but sufficient quantity is found on Mount Brukkaros. The construction is undertaken by the public-works department of South West Africa under Mr. A. Dryden, inspector. It is proposed to have a tunnel for instruments, a small dwelling for observers, a shop, a reservoir, and garage. Wire telephones will be installed by the Government of South West Africa and rented to the expedition. Work was begun in April and it was hoped to send the expedition in early autumn. Though so isolated, the location is in other respects very promising. The average rainfall of only 314 inches occurs as a rule one-third in February, one-third in March, and the rest scattering. Doctor Abbot was in the vicinity 12 days in March, of which 11 would have been favorable for observing. If this is characteristic of the rainy season, it promises well for the year as a whole. It is also favorable 110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 that the greatest cloudiness comes in the months of February and March, rather than December and January, as is the case in the two American stations. Good months may be expected in Africa when the poorest observing weather occurs in America. The clearness of the sky in that part of South West Africa is extraordinary, and the wind velocity is usually very low. New station at Table Mountain, Calif—Actual experience over — five years at Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., has proved less satisfactory than was expected. Although the number of days when it was possi- ble to observe averaged above 70 per cent, there were many months when most of the days were extremely hazy. Especially is this apt to occur in June, July, August, and early September, months when in former years we were accustomed to obtain excellent conditions at Mount Wilson. These unfortunate conditions required the discard- ing of many observations made at Harqua Hala. Though recently means have been found, as will be explained below, to minimize this disadvantage, yet it was very unfavorable to the morale of the ob- servers to be required to stay in so extremely isolated a spot, and yet to know that the results in some parts of the year were not as good as might have been obtained in very much more agreeable living conditions. After consulting all available records, and after having special observations made during the autumn, winter, and spring months, it was decided that Table Mountain in California (long. 117° 41’ W., lat. 84° 23’ N., alt. 7,500 feet) would be preferable at all times of the year from the point of view of the sky conditions. Its excellent status for summer was well known already, because it lies only 30 miles away and almost in sight from Mount Wilson, where the sum- mer observations of Messrs. Abbot and Aldrich for many years were reliable guides. As for comfort of the observers, Table Mountain is remarkable, for it lies near a good auto road, only four hours from Los Angeles, and is in a grove of great pine trees, forming part of the Los Angeles County Park. A store and amusement hall are with- in a mile, and many cottages are still nearer. Mr. John A. Roebling added to his generous gifts a sufficient sum to defray costs of construction of road, tunnel-shaped observatory, a cottage for director, a second cottage for assistant, a shop, garage, and other accessories. The members of the board of supervisors of Los Angeles County were exceedingly helpful and cordial, especially in their approval of the sole occupancy of a site within the park for the observatory, in constructing an auto road and water service to connect with existing roads and reservoirs at Camp McClellan, and in cooperating with the Smithsonian Institution in erecting a tele- phone line to connect with the outside world. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 1h Mr. A. F. Moore, field director at Harqua Hala and Table Moun- tain, designed and superintended all the construction, the removal from Harqua Hala, and the installation at the new site. He, him- self, did no small share of the actual labor involved. Since October, 1925, the observations have been going on regularly at Table Moun- tain. The high quality of the sky conditions has been found to amply justify the removal, and despite an unusually stormy spring in that part of the United States, the number of observing days - thus far has kept on a par with the average of five years at Harqua Hala. From the beginning of the work at the new station, the methods of observing and reduction have been put in the most complete accord with latest experience and with those employed at Montezuma. Furthermore, as it had been found that on very hazy days the bright- ness of the sky around the sun contributed an amount not negligible to the reading of the pyrheliometers, there were substituted on those instruments new vestibules of four times the former length. In this way the cone of sky, as seen from the sensitive part of the instru- ment, is cut down from a diameter of 10° to a diameter of 314°. Had this improvement been devised and made in 1920 a good many now worthless observations made at Harqua Hala might have been saved. Montezuma station.—When, in the year 1924, Mr. Roebling in- formed the Institution that he felt that his part in developing the solar radiation work should be ended with June 30, 1925, it was necessary to procure other support, or abandon the Chilean observa- tory. Accordingly, letters were prepared asking the National Academy of Sciences, the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, and the director of the meteorological office of the Air Ministry of Great Britain whether in their judgment the public value of the observations warranted asking for sufficient increase of the governmental appropriation for the Astrophysical Observatory to carry on the Montezuma station. President Michelson of the National Academy of Sciences ap- pointed a committee consisting of Dr. W. W. Campbell, chairman, Dr. R. A. Millikan, and Dr. G. N. Lewis, to consider the matter. Their report, which was unanimously adopted by the Academy, follows: NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Washington, D. C., April 30, 1924. Prof. A. A. MICHELSON, President National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C. Dear Siz: Your committee, charged with the duty of considering the proposed program of the Smithsonian Institution for measuring the heat radiations of the sun, begs to present the following report: 112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Dr. C. G. Abbot, Director of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith- sonian Institution, several years ago made the notable discovery that the intensity of the heat received by the earth from the sun varies in remarkable extent and manner. Through the last two years, beginning with February, 1922, the sun’s heat radiations to the earth have been continuously subnormal. The consequences of this deficiency in heat received can not be predicted at this time, but the general subject is undoubtedly one of great importance. We regard it as a national duty and a national opportunity that the observations be continued for a long time to come, and certainly through two complete sun- spot cycles of 11 years each. The principal stations for securing these observations have been located at points noted for their pure skies and their very great number of clear days in the year: At Mount Harqua Hala in Arizona, in the Northern Hemisphere, and at Montezuma in Chile, in the Southern Hemisphere. The observing station in Chile has been operating successfully since August, 1918, but funds are not in sight to continue its activities beyond July, 1925. For the reasons briefly stated above, this committee recommends that the National Academy of Sciences advise and request the National Government, through the Director of the Bureau of the Budget and the Appropriation Com- mittees of Congress, to make financial provision for maintaining the Smithso- nian Institution’s Observatory in Chile without interruption of service. Respectfully submitted, GILBERT N. LEWIS, R. A. MILLIKAN, W. W. CAMPBELL, Chairman. Tn transmitting it to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, President Michelson himself wrote: NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, June 5, 1924. My Dear Mr. Secretary: Your communication of April 12, 1924, and that of the assistant secretary of the Institution in regard to funds for the mainte- nance after July, 1925, of the Chilean observatory under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution were referred to a special committee of the National Academy of Sciences, and I am inclosing, for your information and such use as you may desire to make of it, a copy of the report presented by that commit- tee and approved by the academy. It will be noted that this report recommends that the National Academy of Sciences “advise and request the National Government, through the Director of the Bureau of the Budget and the Appropriation Committees of Congress, to make financial provision for maintaining the Smithsonian Institution’s observ- atory in Chile without interruption of service.’ Assuming that the Smith- sonian Institution will communicate direct with the Bureau of the Budget, the academy will take no further action unless you find that it can serve you fur- ther in the matter. The value of knowing the variations in heat available from solar radia- tion to the earth can not be overestimated. I am glad that the academy has been given this opportunity to aid in your efforts to secure funds from Congress for the purpose, and hope that your efforts in this direction will be successful. Very respectfully yours, A. A. MicHetson, President. Hon. CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ee a I ) ee he” ep ee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY bs Professor Marvin, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, replied: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, WEATHER BUREAU, Washington, April 28, 1924. Dr. CHARLES G. ABBOT, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Dear Doctor Apsot: Replying to your letter of the 12th instant, I am very glad of the opportunity of expressing my views regarding the desirability of continuing the solar radiation station at Montezuma, Chile, after July, 1925. When we remember that without the heat and light received from the sun, life on the earth would be impossible, it becomes evident that any facts that can be established relative to the sun, and especially as to the rate at which it radiates heat and light to the earth, are of fundamental importance. With reference to the work of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith- sonian Institution, I have already made the following statement in the Monthly Weather Review for March, 1920, page 150: “The solar radiation investigations conducted by Doctor Abbot constitute a monumental research of the highest possible order and command only the admiration of all. * * * The whole question of short and long period solar variability, and the terrestrial response thereto in terms of weather, is obvi- ously one of great importance to applied meteorology and to science generally. It is very necessary, therefore, that the splendid observational work done by the Astrophysical Observatory be generously supported and extended.” At this point I would like to say emphatically that I consider the systematic and continuous observation of the intensity of solar radiation to be of basic and fundamental importance, and I think it is a mistake to try to justify these observations on the ground that they will enable us to improve the forecasting of the weather from day to day. We do not know as yet what may be the ultimate practical value of the knowledge to be gained by a long series of observations, but the collection of the observations is necessary because the data constitute important facts of a fundamental, scientific character, and are pretty certain ultimately to have important practical applications to the welfare of man. The basic research is fully justified on its own merits, leaving the practi- cal application of the information gained to be developed in the future. For the determination of the law of the variability of solar radiation continu- ous observations are required for a long period of years at two or more stations as widely separated as possible. The stations of the Astrophysical Observatory at Montezuma, Chile, and on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., seem tc be admirably adapted for this observational work, and the observatory staff has the requisite skill and experience to handle the delicate apparatus required and make the necessary complicated reductions. The small sum required to maintain the station at Montezuma, now that it is equipped, will in my opinion be money well invested. Very truly yours, C. F. Marvin, Chief of Bureau. Doctor Simpson, director of the Meteorological Office of the Air Ministry of Great Britain, replied: METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE, AIR MINISTRY, ADASTRAL HOUSE, KINGSWAY, London, W. C. 2, May 14, 1924. DeEsR Doctor Appot: I have received your letter dated April 12 asking for my opinion regarding the desirability of maintaining the Montezuma solar station after July, 1925. 114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Surely on this matter there can be no two opinions. The fluctuations in the amount of radiation emitted by the sun, which you and your collaborators have demonstrated, are of such fundamental importance to astronomical, geo- physical, and meteorological science that I can not imagine scientific opinion resting satisfied unless arrangements are made for observing and recording these fluctuations. That we are not able at the moment to apply the knowl- edge gained to clearly demonstrated, practical, and economical purposes does not weigh at all with scientific opinion. If astronomical research is a fit sub- ject for the expenditure of money, the branch of astronomy concerned with the variation of solar radiation can not be allowed to suffer for want of funds. I realize that this view is open to the attack that if the work is of so much importance to the rest of the world why should America be called upon to provide all the funds. My only reply is that, in the existing state of the world, if America does not supply the funds the work will cease. This is a fact and must be recognized as such. There is still the question as to the necessity for two stations. Past experi- ence affords the best answer to this question. When you first observed the large fluctuations they were so contrary to general expectation that they could not be credited until they had been confirmed by entirely separate ob- servations, taken under largely different climatic conditions. The simultaneous observations at Montezuma and Harqua Hala have demonstrated the reality of the changes. In the future when other changes are investigated, especially the smaller day to day changes, the same desire for confirmation will be felt if only one station is in operation. I, therefore, think that it will be a great loss to science, to civilization itself, if the Montezuma station is closed before another equally good station is established to check the observations made in Arizona. Yours sincerely, G. C. Srmpson. Although disallowed by the Bureau of the Budget, the increase was favorably acted upon by the Congress. Hence from and after July 1, 1925, the salaries and part of the other expenses of Monte- zuma Observatory have been carried on the Astrophysical Observa- tory appropriation. The costs of maintenance of the solar radiation work as a whole are still supplemented to the extent of about $5,000 per annum from the income of the Hodgkins fund of the endowment of the Smithsonian Institution. As heretofore the daily solar constant values from Montezuma have been received at Washington by cable. Until December 31, 1925, they were forwarded daily to Mr. H. H. Clayton at Canton, Mass., to promote his studies of the dependence of weather on solar variation. Beginning January 1, 1926, at the request of the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, the solar constant data have been published upon the daily weather map. Also they have been furnished to Science Service, and, whenever requested, to the tele- graph companies in accordance with the following announcement: Beginning January 1, 1926, the Smithsonian Institution will furnish gratis through the United States Weather Bureau, through either of the telegraph companies, or through the Associated Press, or Science Service, if any or all of these organizations shall request it for the use of their clients, daily or 10- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 115 day mean values of the solar constant of radiation as early and as frequently as results are available from its field stations in Chile and California. In general, results are available about 24 hours after the field observations. The Institution declines, however, to furnish regularly data of this kind to in- dividuals who may request them, since this would be in the nature of dis- crimination as between citizens, and, besides, too burdensome for the Institu- tion’s staff. Hitherto the values sent out daily have been stated to be “ Pre- liminary.” Since October, 1925, they have come from Montezuma alone. Considerable time must yet elapse before the data will have accumulated at Table Mountain sufficiently to permit of the statisti- cal study requisite before daily values can be received from that station. A definitive revision of all work since 1920 is now in prog ress, and when it is done all values hitherto published, and all those hereafter to be published, will be, it is expected, in their final form. Washington work—Revision of data.—As already remarked, much of the time of the director, Doctor Abbot, of Mr. Aldrich, and of the instrument maker, Mr. Kramer, was employed in connection with the preparations for the National Geographic Society Solar- Radiation Expedition Cooperating with the Smithsonian Institu- tion. This expedition will result in a very great increase of the value of the work of the two existing stations, by confirming or correcting their indications of solar variability. The remainder of the staff at Washington, comprising Mr. F. E. Fowle and Mrs. Bond, aided lately by Miss Marsden, who is em- ployed at the cost of private funds, have been at work on a com- plete revision of all Mount Montezuma data. The reasons for this are: (1) That with improved apparatus the basis for the existing “ short method ” tables had been modified; (2) that various improve- ments of methods of reduction have been discovered; and (3) that with a longer series of observations now available it is possible both to draw better curves for the “short method,” and to more accu- rately determine the systematic corrections required to eliminate traces of error still remaining, on account of atmospheric haziness and humidity. For these purposes about 125 days were entirely remeasured and fully rereduced by Langley’s fundamental method, used with newly devised precautions for exact results. From the excellent values of atmospheric transmission coefficients resulting, combined with a newly contrived function of atmospheric brightness and humidity, from which all influences of solar variation were removed by intro- ducing for the first time the pyrheliometer reading as a factor, a new basis was laid for the “short method.” Among other very valuable improvements the corrections for those regions of the spec- trum, not daily observed, which lie in the far ultra-violet and far infra-red were redetermined. 116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 As a result of all this painstaking work, the newly derived solar constant values show in their accordance, as well as in the various internal evidences which their computations afford, that they are of a new and higher order of accuracy than ever reached before. A new proof of solar variability—Many writers having expressed doubt as to the certainty of variations of the sun, either of short or long interval, a new and simple proof has been formed by Doctor Abbot, and will be published in the Monthly Weather Review for May, 1926. It rests on the basis that if the atmosphere had uniform temperature, transparency and humidity, and if the sun was observed by means of the pyrheliometer, always at the same altitude above the horizon, then the solar constancy or variation would exhibit itself directly, without recourse to the complex obser- Fic. 1.—Solar variation confirmed by results of selected pyrheliometry. Mount Wilson data of July, 1910-1920, excluding 1912, 1915, when volcanic dust from Mount Katmai made sky conditions not comparable. Thin full curve, pyrheliometry of selected days. Dotted curve, solar constant values hitherto published. Double curve, sun-spot numbers, vations and computations associated with the bolometer. In other words, at such times the atmosphere could be regarded as a screen of unchanging influence, and the readings of the pyrheliometer would be directly proportional to the intensity of solar rays. Testing this new idea on all the observations made in the months of July at Mount Wilson, Calif., between the years 1910 and 1920, Doctor Abbot found it necessary to exclude the years 1912 and 1913 on account of the veiling effect of dust from the volcano, Mount Katmai. Many individual days were excluded also from each July, because the atmospheric conditions differed too much from the usual ones. From the remaining observations was plotted the full curve of Figure 1. Taking the identical days used in this study, the mean REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 117 solar constant values as heretofore published in Volume LV of the Annals give the dotted curve. Both curves agree very harmoniously except in 1914, when they differ by about 1 per cent. They unite to indicate a range of solar variation in July, 1910, to 1920, of over 2 per cent. Along with them is plotted in a double line the variation of sun-spot numbers. Kven in details the agreement is quite remarkable. T’rom another arrangement of the same data, Doctor Abbot found that those individual days on which the sun’s rays appeared to the pyrheliometer more intense (when observed through unchangingly transparent atmospheres), appeared to yield on the average higher solar constant values, as heretofore published. Similarly low days for the pyrheliometer were low for the solar constant. Thus is con- firmed by this new test the reality of both long and short interval solar variations. The test is not, however, as satisfactory in the latter as in the former application. As the new method has other valuable applications, it is being used also with all Montezuma and Harqua Hala observations since 1920. Personnel.—The present personnel of the Astrophysical Observa- tory is as follows: Director, Dr. C. G. ABBOT. Field director, Mr. H. B. FrReemMan. Research assistani, Mr. F. H. Fowre. Assistant, Mr. KF. A. GREELEY. Research assistant, Mr... B. AtpRicH. Assistant, Mr. BH. E. Smiru. Field director, Mr. A. F. Moore. Instrument maker, Mr. A. KRAMER. Computer, Mrs. A. M. Bonn. Summary.—tin three promising directions the work of the ob- servatory, aimed to secure accurate determinations of solar varia- bility, has been promoted. 1. The National Geographic Society has undertaken to equip and support for several years a cooperating solar radiation station at the best location available in the Eastern Hemisphere. This project is rapidly going forward, and observa- tions may begin at Mount Brukkaros, South West Africa, by October, 1926. 2. By Mr. J. A. Roebling’s generosity, the station at Mount Harqua Hala has been removed and reestablished on Table Moun- tain, Calif., 2,000 feet higher, and much more favorable for obsery- ing as well as much less isolated than Mount Harqua Hala. Improved apparatus and methods were introduced there from the beginning of observations, in October, 1925. 3. A complete revision of all Montezuma observations is well advanced. New methods of meas- urement and reduction are employed identical with those introduced at Table Mountain. The results thus far reached show greatly superior accuracy. By a new and simple test, the reality of solar variation is confirmed. At the recommendation of the National Academy of Sciences and 20837—27——_9 118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 of eminent astronomers, physicists, and meteorologists, the Congress has increased its appropriations for the Astrophysical Observatory sufficiently to enable the Smithsonian Institution to continue the two field observatories at Montezuma and Harqua Hala. Respectfully submitted. C. G. Assot, Director. Dr. Cuartes D. WaALcorrT, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 8 INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- tions of the United States Regional Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1926. Attention was called in the last annual report, as well as in a number of those preceding, to the urgent need of a suflicient sum to again set in motion the work of the central bureau of the In- ternational Catalogue in order to resume actual publication. As the United States is at present the only nation sufficiently prosperous to aid undertakings of this character it is urgently hoped that an effort be made to obtain a sufficient grant in this country to at least publish the current volumes of the catalogue after which the accumulation on hand from 1914 to date could be published, possibly as a cumulative index. é Briefly, the status of the organization is this: When the work was begun in 1901, authorized by an international conference held in London in which all of the principal countries of the world were represented, no capital fund was available but through the influence and generosity of the Royal Society sufficient credit was established to enable the central bureau to begin publication. Material for the catalogue was furnished by the various countries through regional bureaus without charge, the cost of collecting being borne, then, as now, by each participating country. At first the income from the catalogue did not meet current expenses, but in 1914, just before the beginning of the war, the actual cost of publication and receipts approximately balanced. This was a de- cidedly encouraging condition, and the many friends of the enter- prise looked forward with hope that the near future would show a sufficient income over the cost to repay the Royal Society for funds advanced. All these conditions were changed at the beginning of the war, and when printing was stopped in 1921 the Royal Society had advanced £7,500, in addition to gifts received from the British Government and the Carnegie Corporation of New York, which sum and interest is still owing the society. Should publication be re- sumed by means of a loan or gift, the large stock of completed 119 120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 sets of the catalogue, now in the hands of the central bureau in London, could be disposed of to new subscribers of the catalogue wishing to complete their records to the date of the beginning of the enterprise, and if these sets were sold for even half of their original price the receipts would be suflicient to repay the amount advanced by the Royal Society. The money needed to resume pub- lication would not be expected to include payment of these obliga- tions, but would be used solely to defray the necessary costs of printing and publishing until subscription receipts were sufficient to pay expenses. The International Catalogue was never intended to be a commer- cial enterprise, but rather the means whereby investigators and students might be supplied at cost with data necessary to keep them in touch with scientific progress throughout the world. No private undertaking publishing an index of 10,000 pages annu- ally, in editions of 1,000, could possibly assemble, classify, index, and print approximately 250,000 references, which was the average number contained in each annual issue, and afford to sell the finished work at anywhere near the price charged by the International Catalogue, for the cost of all the clerical and technical labor involved in preparing the original manuscript was borne by the regional bureaus as their contributién to the need of scientific bibliography. Material for the catalogue is collected by the various regional bureaus supported in every case by the countries they represent, this support being mainly derived through governmental grants. The work of editing and publishing the material furnished by the various regional bureaus was intrusted to a Central Bureau in London whose support was derived from the sale of the catalogue to subscribers. The subscription price was $85.00 for each annual issue containing about 10,000 pages assembled in 17 volumes varying in size to meet the requirements of the several sciences. The cost of printing and publishing alone has to be met through funds derived from the sales of the catalogue. This cost was, in 1914, approximately $35,000 which in 1922 was estimated, on account of war conditions, to have increased to more than twice this sum. However, based on the offer of a large and reliable commercial printing house in the United States it is estimated that the cost would be no greater now than it was in 1914, provided not less than 10,000 pages per year were printed and the work were distributed evenly throughout the year. Assuming this estimate to be approxi- mately correct it is believed that with a capital fund sufficient to pay for two annual issues the catalogue would again become self-support- ing, for the current income, even if less than half the edition were sold, would be sufficient to pay the running expenses of the gn ON REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 131 central bureau together with a large part of the printing cost and two years would be sufficient time to advertise and establish the enterprise on a permanent financial basis. Respectfully submitted. Lronarp C. GUNNELL, Assistant in Charge. Dr. Cuartrs D. Watcort, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX 9 REPORT ON THE LIBRARY Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- ties of the library of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926. FRANCIS HENRY PARSONS Mention should be made at the outset of the death on July 25, 1925, of Mr. Francis Henry Parsons, who had retired a few months before from the position of assistant in charge of the Smithsonian division of the Library of Congress, after 25 years of service. (A brief sketch of Mr. Parsons’ career is given under the heading Necrology on page 82 of this report.) CHANGES IN STAFF There were a number of changes in the library staff during the year. The most important was the appointment of Miss Isabel L. Towner to the position, newly classified by the Personnel Board, of assistant librarian in the National Museum, to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement, and subsequent death, of Mr. Newton P. Scudder. Miss Towner was appointed from the civil service list after reinstatement by Executive order. Her training and experi- ence fit her well for the duties of the position, for she is a graduate of Goucher College and of the New York State Library School, and has spent nearly 20 years in practical library work, chiefly in Gov- ernment and scientific libraries. Miss Sarah Young, junior librarian, resigned in October, and was succeeded by Mr. R. Webb Noyes, a graduate of Bowdoin College and for some time a student at the New York State Library School. His experience was gained chiefly in university and State libraries, especially the New York State Library, where he collaborated with Miss J. Dorcas Fellows in preparing the twelfth edition of the Decimal Classification, by Melvil Dewey. Miss Minnie Murrill, who for several years had been a cataloguer in the Museum, resigned to accept a position in the library of the University of Alabama. Her position was filled temporarily, and will be filled permanently as soon as the person chosen becomes available. 122 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 128 Miss Agnes Auth was promoted, at the close of the year, to the position of minor library assistant, one of the two new positions that were granted to the library by Congress as of July 1, 1926. Miss Auth’s former position as messenger was reclassified to that of library aid, and was filled by the appointment of Mrs. Mary Arnold Baer. The vacancy in the position of assistant messenger, occasioned by the appointment of Mr. Johni Anderson to a position elsewhere in the Institution, was filled by the transfer of Mr. William Helvestine from another Government department. At different times during the year various persons were employed temporarily. Among these were Miss Ellen D. McBryde, Miss Mary Martin, Mrs. Victoria B. Turner, Mrs. M. Landon Reed, Mrs. Mada- line Amphlett, Miss Helen Turnbull, Mr. William P. Wright, Mr. Clarence Gunther, Mr. Walter Jaeger, and Mr. Carl Haardt. EXCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS As is well known, the growth of the Smithsonian Library is due almost entirely to the exchange of publications between the Institution and its branches and other learned institutions and societies through- out the world. These publications come to the library direct, or through the International Exchange Service, which is administered by the Institution. During the past year 30,541 packages, of one or more publications each, came to the library by mail, and 7,352 through the exchange. The number of the latter was more than three times that of the year before. The special effort to complete broken sets, by listing wants and writing follow-up letters, which was begun the previous year, was continued with vigor. Exchange relations were opened with many new societies. Most of the 1,225 letters written by the library had to do with the exchange of publica- tions. MAIN LIBRARY The publications sent to the Smithsonian deposit, which is the main library of the Institution, numbered 5,088, comprising 3,649 complete volumes, 843 parts of volumes, 175 pamphlets, and 421 charts. Documents of foreign governments, more or less statistical in character, to the number of 7,305, were also sent, without being stamped or entered, to the Document Division of the Library of Congress. Many dissertations were received from the universities of Basel, Berlin, Bern, Breslau, Cornell, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswald, Halle, Heidelberg, Johns Hopkins, Kiel, Konigsberg, Liége, Lou- vain, Lund, Neuchatel, Pennsylvania, Strassbourg, Utrecht, Vene- 124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 zuela, Warsaw, and Ziirich; and from technical schools at Berlin, Charlottenburg, Geneva, Karlsruhe, and Ziirich. Fewer disserta- tions than usual came from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Instead, the library received from the universities in those countries hundreds of abstracts, each giving merely the author’s name, the subject of the paper, and a brief summary of its contents. OFFICE LIBRARY The office library, which consists chiefly of some of the more fre- quently used society publications, the aeronautical collection, the art- room collection, the employees’ library, and various books, mainly of a reference nature, in the administrative offices, was increased during the year by 243 volumes, 1 part of a volume, and 18 pamphlets. Of these, 54 were added to the aeronautical collection. It may be stated in passing that this collection, owing to its rapidly growing impor- tance, will soon be raised to the dignity of a division—the tenth by number—of the Smithsonian library and named the Langley Aero- nautical Library in memory of the third secretary of the Institution, whose researches and experiments marked the successful beginning of aeronautics in the United States. Many important books were received during the year, but the out- standing one was probably the North American Indian, volume 13, by Edward S. Curtis, presented by Mrs. E. H. Harriman. This was deposited with others of the series in the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The circulation, which showed a considerable gain over the previ- ous year, was 2,618. Of this number, 2,183 were magazines. A corresponding increase was apparent in the number of books and periodicals consulted in the reference room, those most in demand being the aeronautical collection and the transactions of the learned societies. It is gratifying to report that, after a lapse of nine years, binding was resumed for the office library. Of the 172 volumes bound, 41 belonged to the exhibition set of Smithsonian publications. The work done in connection with the general catalogue of the Smithsonian library, which is kept in the office reading room, was as follows: Wiolumes*eataloeued Late peg Wit eM re eae eee LAI LS 3, 495 Volumesi;recatalosueduis. 22 iio Maina ee Se ee ee 134 Charts } Cavallo ime dss eh le ay ew A Beye Ae ee pa aide SY bre eae ag en ee 403 TOS Eye ie aN NU SI I a, a a ee 1, 525 Libpary sor \;Congress.:eands) file@ si 4s sxe eh ee el _ a 688 INGW. BULDOFS' Paes oe TL pale ah INN ae fd ANCA Vet ae 348 REPORT OF THH SECRETARY 125 MUSEUM LIBRARY During the year the library of the National Museum was increased by 1,660 volumes and 1,466 pamphlets, making a total of 66,808 vol- umes and 104,417 pamphlets. Most of the accessions were, of course, obtained by exchange, but some were obtained by purchase and an unusually large number by gift. The largest gift was from the Library of Congress. This comprised 606 volumes and 808 parts of volumes from its collection of duplicates—some stamped Smith- sonian Deposit, others Library of Congress—and was sent to the Museum library to help complete its sets of society publications per- taining mainly to natural history. Generous gifts were also received from Secretary Walcott, who, as usual, contributed hundreds of items to the library, particularly to the section of geology and paleontol- oxy; Dr. W. H. Holmes, who gave 83 volumes and 363 pamphlets to the general collection; Dr. W. H. Dall, who added 178 titles to the section of mollusks; Dr. C. W. Richmond and Mr. J. H. Riley, who gave many books and pamphlets, some of them very rare, to the main collection, as well as to the section of birds and other sections; and Mr. N. M. Judd, who contributed 18 volumes to the section of Amer- ican archeology. Among other donors were Assistant Secretary Wetmore, Mr. A. N. Caudell, Mr. John Gallagher, Dr. O. P. Hay, Dr. A. Hrdlicka, Dr. W. R. Maxon, Dr. G. S. Miller, Mr. S. A. Rohwer, and Dr. W. Schaus. The number of sectional libraries in the Museum is now 87. These, while in a measure independent working units, are in a real sense very important parts of the general library. During the year the study of their resources and problems that was begun the year before was continued, with a view to strengthening their collections and making them more available. The sectional libraries are as follows: Administration, Mechanical Technology. Administrative assistant’s office. Medicine, American Archeology. Minerals. Anthropology. Mineral Technology. Biology. Mollusks. Birds. National Gallery of Art. Botany. Old World Archeology. Wehinoderms. Organie Chemistry. Editor’s office. Paleobotany. Hthnology. Photography. Fishes. Physical Anthropology. Foods. Property clerk’s office. Geology. Reptiles and Batrachians. Graphie Arts. Superintendent’s office. History. Taxidermy. Insects. Textiles. Invertebrate Paleontology. Mammals. Marine Invertebrates, 20837—27-———10 Vertebrate Paleontology. Wood Technology. 126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 TECHNOLOGICAL LIBRARY The technological library, located in the old Museum Building, consists chiefly of material having to do with the arts and industries, together with certain classes of the natural history collection that are little called for, or for which there is not room in the new build- ing. During the year, in addition to keeping up the current work, the assistant in charge, with the help of those who from time to time took his place, continued the reorganization that was begun the year before. About 1,500 cards were added to the shelf list. The loans were 245. It is hoped that the work of reorganizing this library can be finished in the course of the next fiscal year. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY LIBRARY 2 The library of the Astrophysical Observatory was increased by 105 volumes, 17 parts of volumes, 86 pamphlets, and 4 charts. The number of volumes bound was 124. The loans are included with those of the office library. A beginning was made in checking up the various series of astrophysical periodicals and supplying the missing numbers. This work will soon be completed. The shelf list will also be finished and an inventory taken. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY LIBRARY The activities of the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology are described in the report of the chief of that bureau, by whom the library is administered. NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY Although the library of the National Gallery of Art is adminis- tered as a sectional library of the National Museum and will prob- ably continue to be as long as the National Gallery is housed in the Natural History Building, it is usually thought of as one of the nine divisions of the Smithsonian library. As such it is given a place by itself in the annual report. Its accessions during the year were 155 volumes, 479 parts of volumes, and 180 pamphlets. It now totals 581 volumes and 665 pamphlets, a small but carefully chosen and valuable nucleus for the larger library soon to be collected. FREER GALLERY OF ART LIBRARY The library of the Freer Gallery of Art is restricted to the inter- ests represented by the collections of art objects pertaining to the arts and cultures of the Far East, India, and Persia and the nearer REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 127 East; by the life and works of James McNeil Whistler and of cer- tain other American painters whose pictures are owned by the gallery; and, further, to a very limited degree, by the Biblical manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries, which, as the posses- sion of the Freer Gallery, are known as the Washington manuscripts. During the year, 735 persons visited the library, of whom more than 100, including a number of college teachers and students, came for the purpose of serious study, many being especially interested in the facsimiles of the Biblical manuscripts. The library was increased by 500 volumes, of which 462 are in the Chinese and Japanese languages, and by 72 parts of volumes and 142 pamphlets. NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK LIBRARY While this library is still quite small, numbering about 1,500 vol- umes and pamphlets, it has been so carefully selected that it repre- sents a very valuable working collection. It increased the past year by only 9 volumes, but two of these were volumes 3 and 4 of the monumental work, A Natural History of the Ducks, by John C. Phillips. Five volumes were bound. SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS The accessions for the year, with the exception of those to the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology, may be summarized as follows: Other Library Volumes} publica- | Total tions PANTFODUVSICG OOSOLVELOLYS sao ta- eeene ens ee ae aD AE Seay ee 105 57 162 LUb(ar) CTE) A720) i e\) «| el On oS Ae ec ee Oe See ae | 500 214 714 NFTTOR IMCS HALO VOL AT te cere een ees pn SS ee Bae ie ek 155 609 764 National OULOPiCAr Parke snot 5 4 A AEE RII SORE AED. oe ed SLE 8 PRS. Ba 9 Smithsonian deposit, Library of Congress. __..................-..---_-_-- 3, 649 1, 439 5, 088 Borat SO PISA) OTC Cette ee 2 vee SM RAL es en We ee 243 19 262 United States National Museum, including the technological library_-____- 1, 660 1, 466 3, 126 Ge: eS ok SE OS Ore PRES ae eee 6, 321 3, 804 10, 125 An estimate of the number of volumes, pamphlets, and charts in the Smithsonian hbrary, including the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress, on June 30, 1926, was as follows: Waa lho tensile ic U2 tee ra espe ete le ee 8 als WEST es Oe 2 Cee 2 aL) RE eRe ee ae 514, 071 Pamphlet siss soe Soe Pio PS Ei ll Tin eh pita hE ah Be le oe 139, 525 (OVE SLAM Ae 30S oe ee ed BE Cae SC ae OS RT eS CSO eS ee STC RE 23, 887 pSpeU Lea REE EO EI pe Pa Op ee ata ee yrs ie 677, 4838 This number does not include the many thousands of parts of volumes in the library awaiting completion of the volumes. 128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 SPECIAL ACTIVITIES The regular staff, with the aid of a number of trained temporary employees, undertook many special tasks that required attention as a condition to carrying out further plans for reorganization and development. The sorting of the large accumulations of miscellaneous material in the Museum library, begun the previous year, was practically completed. In the Museum library, too, the sets of society publications were checked up and missing numbers listed. Many of these were sup- plied from the duplicates in the Library of Congress, as has been said in an earlier part of this report. It is hoped that most of the others can be obtained by exchange, either from the societies them- selves, or! from other libraries. To this end, toward the close of the year hundreds of want-letters were written; and many dupli- cates were taken out and transferred to the west stacks of the Smithsonian Building, where they were added to those from other divisions of the library and put in order. Later they will be listed and disposed of by exchange or by gift. This work of checking up and supplying numbers lacking in the various series in the library will continue to receive special attention from the staff. It should be mentioned in this connection that the six sets of the. publications of the Institution and its branches that are kept in the Smithsonian library were found upen examination to have many gaps. These it was still possible, in the main, to fill, so that the sets are now nearly complete. The shelves of the main collection in the Museum library were arranged, a task that occupied months, as they had not been arranged for a long time and were in a very confused state. This was pre- liminary to taking an inventory of the library, which will be begun as soon as the shelf list, on which much progress was made during the year, is finished. There was an intensive effort to bring the filing of the Concilium Bibliographicum cards up to date, with the result that the whole of the alphabetic set and part of the methodical set were filed. In all, 16,906 cards were filed. This work involved the rearrangement of the cards already in the cases. Many cards remain unfiled, but the outlook is hopeful, and the current cards are being filed as they come in. The two sets referred to are the only ones now being received, as the systematic set was discontinued toward the close of the year. Another activity that required no little time was the preparation of 1,793 volumes for binding, of which 1,497 were for the Museum, 172 for the office, and 124 for the Astrophysical Observatory. ‘This was more than double the number bound in any year during the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 129 previous six years, and almost as many as were bound altogether during the previous five years. When these volumes return to the shelves they will greatly improve the appearance and increase the usefulness of the library. Preliminary steps were taken toward modernizing and expanding the catalogue, a work that during the coming year will be especially emphasized, for one of the chief needs of the library now is a dic- tionary catalogue, both of the main collections and of the sectional libraries. Mention might be made, too, of the fact that the exhibition set of Smithsonian publications was packed and sent, together with the corresponding sets of the publications of the National Museum and the Bureau of American Ethnology, to Philadelphia, for exhi- bition at the Sesquicentennial. These sets, with the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, comprise nearly 900 volumes. INTERLIGRARY LENDING The library of the Smithsonian Institution is primarily for the use of those employed in the Institution and its branches, and of others who come to it from outside for the purpose of research, but it extends the privilege of borrowing from its collections to all libraries. For many years this privilege has been taken advantage of increasingly. No restrictions are placed on the loans, except that the librarian who borrows the material is expected to take the usual care of it and return it in a reasonable time. He also, of course, pays express charges both ways, for it is customary to send material and have it returned either by messenger, as in the case of Washington libraries, or by express. Some books, especially duplicates, are occasionally sent out on semipermanent charge, to be used as an aid in special research, and to be kept as long as needed, or until called for. Rare and valuable books are seldom lent, but they may always be consulted at the library. Photostat copies of parts of them may also be made if desired. The library not only lends material; it borrows it, too, and that almost daily. Some of this, especially from the Library of Con- gress, is sent to the library on semipermanent deposit, and consti- tutes a very important addition to its regular working collections. The libraries with which the Smithsonian library carries on most regularly this exchange of material are, besides the Library of Con- gress, those of the Department of Agriculture, the Geological Sur- vey, the Hygienic Laboratory, the Army Medical Museum, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Weather 130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Bureau, the Bureau of Mines, the Air Service, the National Research Gincicil the National Advisory Committee ae Aeronautics, and the principal learned societies, colleges, universities, museums, and art galleries of the East and Middle West. It also lends to public libra- ries, and sometimes borrows from them. Respectfully submitted. Wii14m L. Corsin, Librarian. Dr. Cuartes D. WatcortT, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Ay i APPENDIX 10 REPORT ON THE PUBLICATIONS Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- cations of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government bureaus under its administrative charge during the year ending June 30, 1926: The Institution proper published during the year 8 papers in the series of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 1 annual report, and pamphlet copies of the 22 articles contained in the report appendix, and 1 special publication. The Bureau of American Ethnology published 1 annual report. The United States National Museum issued 1 annual report, 2 volumes of proceedings, 3 com- plete bulletins, 1 part of a bulletin, and 3 parts of 2 volumes in the series of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, and 45 separates from the proceedings. The National Gallery of Art issued Catalogue of Collections, IT. Of these publications there were distributed during the year 168,932 copies, which included 147 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 20,222 volumes and sepa- rates of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 35,671 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian annual reports, 1,945 Smithsonian special publications, 96,804 volumes and separates of the various series of National Museum publications, 12,993 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 251 publications of the National Gallery of Art, 68 volumes of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, 48 reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 738 reports of the American Historical Association, and 65 publications presented to but not issued directly by the Smithsonian Institution or its branches. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, volume 73, 1 paper was issued; volume 77, 5 papers; volume 78, 2 papers; in all, 8 papers as follows: VOLUME 73 No. 38. Opinions Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. December 16, 1925. 40 pp. (Publ. 2880.) VOLUME 77 No. 4. An Introduction to the Morphology and Classification of the Fora- minifera. By Joseph A. Cushman. July 21, 1925. 77 pp., 16 pls. 11 text figs. (Publ. 2824.) 131 132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 No. 8. The Morphology of Insect Sense Organs and the Sensory Nervous System. By R. E. Snodgrass. February 16, 1926. 80 pp., 32 text figs. (Publ. 2831.) No. 9. Fossil Footprints from the Grand Canyon. By Charles W. Gilmore. January 30, 1926. 41 pp., 12 pls., 23 text figs. (Publ. 2832.) No. 10. An Archeological Collection from Young’s Canyon, near Flagstaff, Ariz. By J. Walter Fewkes. January 12, 1926. 15 pp., 9 pls., 3 text figs. (Publ. 2883.) No. 11. Musie of the Tule Indians of Panama. By Frances Densmore. April 16, 1926. 39 pp., 5 pls. (Publ. 2864.) VOLUME 78 No. 1. Explorations and Field Work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1925. April 8, 1926. 182 pp., 128 text figs. (Publ. 2865.) No. 2. Mexican Mosses Collected by Brother Arséne Brouard. By I. Thériot. June 15, 1926. 29 pp., 14 text figs. (Publ. 2867.) SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS Report for 1924.—The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents for 1924 was received from the Public Printer November 12, 1925. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, show- ing operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 80, 1924. xii+-535 pp., 103 pls., 43 text figs. (Publ. 2795.) The appendix contained the following papers: The origin of the solar system, by J. H. Jeans. The electrical structure of matter, by Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford. The physicist’s present conception of an atom, by R. 8. Millikan. The vacuum—there’s something in it, by W. R. Whitney. The use of radium in medicine, by Antoine Béclcre. Ylear fused quartz made in the electric furnace, by Hdward R. Berry. The drifting of the continents, by Pierre Termier, The probable solution of the climatic problem in geology, by William Ramsay. A modern menagerie; more about the National Zoological Park, by N. Hollister. Nests and nesting habits of the American eagle, by Francis H. Herrick. The breeding places of the eel, by Johs. Schmidt. Cankerworms, by R. E. Snodgrass. A botanical trip to Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, by A. 8. Hitchcock. Orchid collecting in Central America, by Paul C. Standley. Sketches from the notebook of a naturalist-traveler in Oceania during the year 1923, by Casey A. Wood. Historical tradition and oriental research, by James Henry Breasted, Shamanism of the natives of Siberia, by I. M. Casanowicz. Bgypt as a field for anthropological research, by Prof. P. H. Newberry. North American Indian dwellings, by T. T. Waterman. The nature of language, by R. L. Jones. John Mix Stanley, artist-explorer, by David I. Bushnell. Herluf Winge, by Th. Mortensen. Report for 1925.—The report of the executive committee and pro- ceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution, and the report REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 133 of the secretary, both forming parts of the annual report of the Board of Regents to Congress, were issued in pamphlet form in December, 1925. Report of the executive committee and proceedings of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1925. 11 pp. (Publ. 2835.) Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 80, 1925. 122 pp. (Publ. 2834.) The general appendix to this report, which was in press at the close of the year, contains the following papers: The spiral nebulz and the structure of space, by Carl Wirtz. Immensities of time and space, by A. Vibert Douglas. Certain aspects of high-pressure research, by P. W. Bridgman. Lightning and other high-voltage phenomena, by F. W. Peek, jr. Chemical elements and atoms, by G. Urbain. The manufacture of radium, by Camille Matignon. The chemistry of solids, by Cecil H. Desch. Terrestrial magnetism in the twentieth century, by Daniel L. Hazard. Some causes of volcanic activity, by Arthur L. Day. Geology in the service of man, by W. W. Watts. The yeasts: A chapter in microscopical science, by A. Chaston Chapman. Tropical cyclones and the dispersal of life from island to island in the Pacific, by Stephen Sargent Visher. Isolation with segregation as a factor in organic evolution, by David Starr Jordan. The biological action of light, by Leonard Hill. Animal life at high altitudes, by Maj. R. W. G. Hingston. The nest of the Indian tailor bird, by Casey A. Wood. The needs of the world as to entomology, by L. O. Howard. From an egg to an insect, by R. BH. Snodgrass. The role of vertebrates in the control of insect pests, by W. L. McAtse. Carnivorous butterflies, by Austin H. Clark. The potato of romance and of reality, by W. E. Safford. The relation of geography to timber supply, by W. B. Greeley. The historical geography of early Japan, by Carl Whiting Bishop. The excavations of the sanctuary of Tanit at Carthage, by Byron Khun de Prorok. The Smithsonian Institution. Sir Arehibald Geikie, by Sir Aubrey Strahan. Ned Hollister (1876-1924), by Wilfred H. Osgood. SPECIAL PUBLICATION North American Wild Flowers. Vol. 1. By Mary Vaux Walcott. 1926. Quarto, portfolio binding, 80 piates in color, 1 page descriptive text for each. (Not for general distribution; issued through subscriptions.) PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM The publications of the National Museum are: (a) The annual report, (>) the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 and (c) the Bulletin of the United States National Museum, which includes the contributions from the United States National Herbari- um. The editorship of these publications is vested in Dr. Marcus Benjamin. During the year ending June 30, 1926, the Museum published 1 annual report, 2 volumes of proceedings, 3 complete bulletins, 1 part of a bulletin, 2 complete volumes and 3 parts of 2 volumes in the series Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, and 45 separates from the proceedings. The issues of the bulletin were as follows: Bulletin 100. Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archipelago and Adjacent Regions. Volume 2, part 4. Silicious and Horny Sponges collected by the United States Fisheries steamer Albatross during the Philippine expedition, 1907-1910. By H. V. Wilson. Bulletin 131. The Minerals of Idaho. By Har] V. Shannon. Bulletin 132. Revision of the North American Moths of the Subfamilies Laspey- resiinae and Olethreutinae. By Carl Heinrich. Bulletin 133. Observations on the Birds of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chile. By Alexander Wetmore. Of the separate papers of the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium the following were issued: Volume 22, part 9. Studies in American Phaseolineae. By C. VY. Piper. Volume 24, part 6. A Bibliographic Study of Beauvois’ Agrostographie. By Cornelia D. Niles. With introduction and botanical notes, by Agnes Chase. Volume 24, part 7. The North American Species of Stipa. Synopsis of the South American Species of Stipa. By A. 8. Hitchcock. Of the separates from the proceedings, 4 were from volume 66, 13 from volume 67, 25 from volume 68, and 3 from volume 69. PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The editorial work of the bureau has continued under the direction of the editor, Mr. Stanley Searles. During the year one annual report was issued. Fortieth Annual Report. Accompanying papers: The Mythical Origin of the White Buffalo Dance of the Fox Indians; The Autobiography of a Fox In- dian Woman; Notes on Fox Mortuary Customs and Beliefs; Notes on the Fox Society Known as “ Those Who Worship the Little Spotted Buffalo”; The Traditional Origin of the Fox Society Known as “The Singing Around Rite,’ by Truman Michelson. 664 pp., 1 pL, 1 fig. Publications in press or in preparation are as follows: Forty-first Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Surrounding Region (Boas, assisted by Haeberlin, Roberts, and Teit); Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle Tennessee (Myer). Forty-second Annual Report. Accompanying papers: Social Organization and Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy; Religious Beliefs and Medical Praetices of the Creek Indians; The Culture of the Southeast (Swanton); Indian Trails of the Southeast (Myer). REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Lo Bulletin 82. Archeological Observations North of the Rio Colorado (Judd). Bulletin 83. Burials of the Algonquian, Siouan, and Caddoan Tribes West of the Mississippi (Bushnell). Bulletin 84. The Language of the Kiowa Indians (Harrington). REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION The annual reports of the American Historical Association are transmitted by the association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and are communicated by him to Congress as provided by the act of incorporation of the association. The annual report for 1920 and the supplemental volume to the report for 1922 were issued during the year. The annual reports for 1921 and 1922, and the supplemental volume to the report for 1923 were in press at the close of the year. REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The manuscript of the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Na- tional Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was trans- mitted to Congress, in accordance with the law, on December 15, 1925. SMITHSONIAN ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON PRINTING AND PUBLICATION The editor has continued to serve as secretary of the Smithsonian advisory committee on printing and publication, to which are re- ferred for consideration and recommendation all manuscripts offered to the Institution and its branches. Seven meetings were held during the year and 96 manuscripts acted upon. Respectfully submitted. . W. P. True, Hditor. Dr. CHartEes D. 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SA) cae Lapnarapn th EPA i See, MARS ( fl mau eh rea Ty Pay cake on bo ipeote fly hea wioan'T ‘ond to fob Lau CEES 5 Pig! saat Rr Ae depear pant, att £2 qotde 1ibacl, eigen, Nagi a cual walt ali. poxinbapes ht 22a at at bot vorrei sina * veh ines “athe eerenticds Stet “va me ee Bak 7a 4, finicors dior ws to’ om itharsnaise's Hite OP Dai Hides incl “doc? | ar oi btw: OF “Wnotted aig fires’ ai he HO Hobtunirtod wee iorvsto sha iineiiteny Le io itehaimumoost hin woe tebiatiee slapd iyhinatadt wascktonitt iors? Oaodbaorkt ae hae WOME ae ae gteg en Det 4 qinoest st airy 00 bits Marae A8 a i pagans: Races amy fay rat ‘a | a a) a Penh RHE Der RL SEU AT ERTL Cie Bhatia Py a vino, as vibeong te? - sgn A POR SP Oa bev jane i Wail om NONI PAD Ram VER ater a 4 yin é ‘ VAS One pay a hs) y Cee MeAIB rms MRR acim ANN span adh ey ny (a ett “ipl ah bhi NOS ee he are Sy AUR MRN ANAM nat A (Bp Baer ae aor hgh f ey rt Ca ane Oe ERY obs f Hk Bi f i h hey , is Muri ' iy shisha Mra hae rari ‘oh ae i teh Pe a as Seer ie Mast si ined ,M salad Ms chee evar SURREY SAGO date, MERE i BUS NY Ke CAI eae tb oo hs ay ik Wee? “OLY On Ey! hte Prec pty ree 4 Wa OED. ee bia Aer BEF a ere Ee SD SE OF Sr ac PPE LT EL, ee eel Re ha caf ayia eR oa MERCER Lee ae ML a De, Charing Miia Es ee a Ta eee ea a hun. van Finieant ok EU Si) er isa he Vitatae? vot ee tala REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1926 To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds, receipts, and disbursements of the Institution and a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the following Government bureaus in the administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution: The National Museum, the Interna- tional Exchanges, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical Observatory, the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and the National Gallery of Art; also for an additional assistant secretary and for printing and binding for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Condition of the endowment fund July 1, 1926 The sum of $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United States under act of Congress is part of a permanent endowment fund, which includes the original Smithson fund and additions accumulated by the deposit of savings and bequests from time to time. Subsequent bequests and gifts and the income therefrom, when so required, are invested in approved securities. The several specific funds so invested are now constituted and classed as follows: Consolidated fund AE TR LEn EE EL LS eon arene nis Pe me eoaetnne meOneliee Dae LMR inlA ps AeD Acai. we fae eh eel! SAN OOO Re Virose urd y acon tun Ge. oak mn ee ay penne a eee a ae G2 22.98 LETTE 1S tad Boe shred g ts 00 Flap es pu alata eta ge eo eae eS ees 1, 528. 09 CT RCD TCG OSV EW ape UG UEP Rs SES SS I A a SR, ET 35, 000. 00 TESTER FOP a. 9 bao eae EOS A te Spe a SE en eee ae 500. 00 MO ANT PRTI Or ER@TEN: Var CULE eee oc ee. oe Mt eee See ce NOR oe UP RA SR CIOS FE) aay Spe Sree) ected VAR FO AN el gt LS Sa a 37, 275. 00 ESE CCPEN IS ES 2 TIT cee ee eee een en pete ee De ere Wd NUN 13, 839. 90 DNC TRIES! TCE) 6d CY 0 EAM See I Bk IE SL SES SERS a 3, 519. 00 UC VL in GeUree uy. E OOLG, LUMO. tee hae ts oe ee ee Se 18, 586. 42 Pa AGA O 7 8 Nes 1 SST E huh UY 6 (A SR a a 7, 299. 16 TESTERS fs VU 0 Ls ne ib all at ae ee a 357. 34 EEO PERE S Dla gS oi ac C0 c(h Lag 90 fn ak 5 le ae Bt aN 675. 72 STGRU He ESfop ea ofa ae Leh gk A ge a Tae ag No MN a 1, 468. 74 Potalconkoweatem finden. ue se es ad 218, 186. 50 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott research fund_..-_-__________ 11, 520. 00 137 138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 The total amount of dividends and interest, etc., received by the Institution trom the Freer estate during the year for all purposes was $255,354.66 and the amount received from sale of Freer estate stocks and bonds was $988,510. The itemized report of the auditor, the Capital Audit Co., certi- fied public accountants, is filed in the office of the secretary. DETAILED SURVEY OF FINANCIAL OPERATIONS Parent fund ~ Balance on*hand or’ ‘in’ time’ deposits; duly: a, WO25 22.4 Ys tee $7, 062. 45 Receipts: Income, consisting of interest and receipts from mis- cellaneous sources available for general purposes__ $56, 287. 77 International exchanges, repayments to the Insti- (HUW RICO 0 piel Un Grid eet a acpi eal el a ae dk Galea 4, 888. 75 TNO Gal NEC GIG 2a, Se UY elo ee a ee A 61, 171. 52 Total’ resources for general purposes22- 2222. eee eee ae 68, 233. 97 General expenditures: Carevand: repair or buildings 22 22 ae es 8, 087. 04 Hurniture and fixtures see eee Ree eee ae ee 610. 08 General administrations 25 2s eee ee 25,.298. O1 NGF) Oh so ta ee epee ND slice eis bi esr eR eaecmyre, Beem 3, 225. 03 Publications (comprising preparation, printing, and CUTTS Reh DUES U0 0) ee NSE aE CSO he ae 15, 168. 60 Researches and explorations 2220 aes. oa ee 4, 526. 05 International exchanges: Rats ies) hikis 2a 2) es 3, 871. 95 Dabaleeenerat (exPemd Ures: pees ee ee 60, 782. 56 Balance JumersOy LODO Ls eee AES AA eek ST A A ee 7, 451. 41 Funds for specific objects, including payment and return of funds advanced for field expenses and other temporary transactions during the year Balance on hand or in time deposits July 1, 1925__-____-___________ $86, 773. 19 Receipts : ASOT Ys PUNTA a ee Ye oe ca ae on 2, 817. $0 Varcinia, Purdy, Bacon und! ~22 ees aoe oe eee 3, 849. 96 BEV (ich oO & TB 27259 G0 Wika ob mn ea a na a ln pa 87. 21 Maura: Welsh Casey funde 22 ss 2s28 Sees oe ees 5, 000. 00 Frances Lea Chamberlain fund___-______-_______ 1, 995. 00 Costa Rica’ botanical’ explorations=-22"2" 225" seas" 800. 00 Endowment campaign donations__________________ 417. 00 Endowment campaign expense fund______________- 25. 500. 00 Hindow ment: Lure: cere ens tee ea ee a ee 20. 80 Dr. W. L. Abbott Haitian botanical expedition____ 10,00 ERS NEOTEL ee ws ee we ee reat Be 178. 50 EER SD TST UTI Y ea Nh: GIULSS Go, MTN ss ra eee eee er 12, 815. 00 Caroline Henry funds =o 222 ee 70. 68 Hodgkins fund, specific — Sct) st aie ee as 6, 300. 00 dO aTL Ce Me & AD Fea (cr fi 7 Ue (0 Romeo apne nes AHERN pieaipan gt ee paeeta tenant L 788. 88 es ee f . $ , : 4 7 REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 139 Receipts—Continued. Jamaican botanical exploration-__---___--__+____ $550. 00 a Rope t-te Otoye) of heh odo MB skl Ae ST ee ee ee ee eae See ee 8, 684. 39 National Gallery of Art building plans fund___-_-~ 20, 89 North American Wild Flowers publication fund___ 29, 706.19 CAF Fe eee D112 (6 Ce seep ee ee a 500. 00 EBAleontoloviaals mesearches.- = 42, sae 1, 200. 00 huey: T.ands George; W..2oore fund=.2- 4... 2, 657, 20 AdgisonmiyReidhhinGg-eaee ees Pe ee 1, 076. 10 Ja ReKeYCC 9 10001 6 AROMA een empe ks MaMC Lev 2 7. RAUL a eae SN See 54. 78 JOnmeAS OCD UNeNNOse. oa ee 3, 696. 45 W. Ay Roebling mineral fund. -5 aa ee 1, 000. 00 Georseqkiepantordvennds. 2-2 oe ‘ 104. 76 American Silurian Crinoids Vol. fund, Springer____ 2, 000. 00 CharlestD Simpson: funds +2. 42e2--24 4 eee eee e 750. 00 Smithsonian-Chrysler expedition_________________ 40, 000, 00 Smithsonian Scientific Series fund________________ 10,300.00 SS vuretiL co Sm sID Yd (hee eae oe ee Eee 800. 00 Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott fund_______-__ 720. 00 Refund of temporary advances, etec_-_-__----_---- 6, 748. 10 Mota]: TECCUPES st ek LPT PETS OPEL ESS See a $166, 214. 79 ARO LEESIILS SuveySHOy bh eCeCe:S) ues Sb Et * IN Aas Sa Oy a ee a Ce eg Ta eg er 252,987.98 Hxpenditures: Avery fund, invested and expended___-_-____-___ 2, 038. 32 Virginia Purdy Bacon fund, expended_-___--___-- 8, 241. 97 Laura Welsh Casey fund, expended___-_-___-___- 766. 57 Chamberlain fund, for specimens, ete., expended___ 738. 42 Costa Rica botanical explorations, expended______ 800. 00 Endowment campaign expense fund, expended____ 26, 859. 28 Haitian botanical explorations, expended_________ 510. 00 Harriman trust fund, for researches and speci- TET Sy GPT CC Ole ee eee ee ee ae Jee een Cee 11, 069. 82 Hodgkins fund, specific for researches, expended__ 3, 909. 61 Bruce Hughes fund, expended__--___=--_---_____ 7. 00 Jamaican botanical explorations, expended_______ 550. 00 Morris Loeb: fund, ‘expended... oe eee 4, 380. 95 North American Wild Flowers publication fund, ex- ro erard ey BS ee ee a a 58, 146. 10 Manso TiN. OXPCNUed aaa e en ks oe eee i 14. 32 Paleontological researches, expended______-______ 505. 00 Luey T. and George W. Poore fund, invested and “epi pono fey) RAMU eet ka SEC al ee pe 2 ee 4, 377. 28 Addison T. Reid fund, invested and expended_____ 663. 00 Hocket investigation, Goddard. == 2 750. 00 John A. Roebling fund, solar research, ete., ex- pended hie sth. ANON A. AITLER Oth FO Beery 16, 188. 95 W. A. Roebling mineral fund, expended__________ 588. 84 George H. Sanford fund, invested____.._________ 60. 40 Charles T. Simpson fund, expended__--__________ 338. 38 Smithsonian-Chrysler expedition, expended_______ 39, 334. 51 Smithsonian Scientific Series, expended__________ 1, 391. 25 Swales fund, for specimens, expended_..__________ 353.21 140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Expenditures—Continued. Charles D. and Mary Vaux Walcott fund, ex- MTN LEC epee a re a Smo at Re me $111. 00 Temporary advances for field expenses, ete_____.... 3, 953. 26 Hl Woy fe MR. 01 ey 0 BF 0 By 2) = BMRA a Sg a aa dap a ce cg $181, 647. 45 Balance Juners0, 19262. 222 oe ee nascy Tlie 71, 340. 53 Charles L. Freer bequest Balance on hand or in time deposits, July 1, 1925__.___________ $78, 117.11 Receipts: Dividends, interest, and miscellaneous receipts__ $255, 354. 66 Sale of stocks’ and Dongsssese2=2nss sane le 988, 510. 00 "POtaL | MARS pte ole 2 ei 1 Sa AR Aras oe ee ai ee le ae 1, 243, 864. 66 TOGA PESOUT CES Ss state Ni GS Te AS a el Sea ns A ee) De Wd Hixpenditures: Operating expenses of the gallery, salaries, pur- chase of art objects, field expenses, and inci- (6 (2) 0110629) (se ARPS UE: 9 Aion aU $153, 934. 37 Investments in sinking fund, including interest_ 127, 602.50 Reinvestment of funds from sale of stocks and NOCRERGL Si, Seat Das Ue ue eS On ee ear ne 984, 347, 44 PPO Gall Eee G UAT CS ia see a a 1, 265, 884. 31 MS ysMEs avers vel fin y ak epucs 0 pe 4g wb fell ates ee pele Cee ee Rll aE a OE 56, 097. 46 SUMMARY Total balanceszotvall funds, duly td 192D 3 ss 171, 952. 75 Receipts during year ending June 30, 1926: Parent fund! for general expenses. 2 ee ee 61, 171. 52 Revenue and principal of funds for specific objects, except PCOr DCUMGSRM As Ae veo Den ea a ae Sey 166, 214. 79 OO IDC GTS ames es ele ee es ae 1, 243, 864. 66 PUL oy 12 MOMS sand as AN i fee elas jen lie cae scot aac Al wi dil ie eA abi 2 1, 648, 208. 72 Expenditures: General expenses of the Institution_.__._.___.___-___________ 60, 782. 56 Specific objects, except Freer bequest2_22- 222 sn 222l 2 sce 181, 647. 45 1p) eV ey oY er 0 AY 2} acer Pam eile i ch os ee Ea eho en ig ae eek it foo Lot ANd 1, 265, 884. 31 Total balances oL all funds June 0, 1020 soe ee ee 134, 889. 40 ol A) i) RS i ae Rl ESR DT ag he Se UA een PO Apri CRE 1, 648, 203. 72 All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the Institution, on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues are deposited to the credit of the same account. In some instances deposits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later are withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury. The practice of investing temporarily idle funds in time deposits has proven satisfactory. During the year the interest derived from this source, together with other similar items, has resulted in a total of $1,748.21, REPORT OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 141 The following appropriations for the Government bureaus in administrative charge of the Smithsonian Institution were made by Congress for the fiscal year 1926: Bureau: Appropriation PUCEPH atl on ale HC Am Genes: le EUS Sh ee a Na $46, 260 ey TEAVEN RHEL FOUN OBE Eh WYO) AD) La oes SN ES ae oe ne eee aes eters 57, 160 International Catalogue of Scientific Literature_______________-_- 8, 000 ASTrOp MySites RO PSEGyeil OMe ee es ee a 31, 180 IADOIMONRIOANSIStANE SeCreloitye aaa nate ie Se ee a ee 6, 000 National Museum— LEMEID ghar sp Ge yee 6 UMD a Iss 52 ee ee $21, 800 SNe eats 22 Es ee eS a 77, 560 PPEservaLlonic OL veOMer bons een tim. he ue eee ree eS 441, 082 Building) repairs einer sei. oot eee 12, 000 EONS es Ro Taek Papa 2 ties ee ts he bea 1, 500 BEY] if Vd cy meets See A aes Sepa A TE OO ee ea, SRP TIS SNS 450 ————. 554, 392 Nationale Gralleryeoh, (A tit woke wee ee ee ee ee 21, 028 NENT OO LOOT Gre dea kee we erates ee ee a ee ke 157, 000 ARS edn Pa ee 0.0 CAE) Da CRIN ccs cpm ye Pe 90, 000 "fer CUS Sem ere es es REEMA REL ER (ANE TSE OU a ORE EE SEY Coe 971, 020 Respectfully submitted. Henry Wuirr, Frepertc A. DELANO, R. Wauron Moorr, Executive Committee. eM HHP aby ued Sbipls ey cit me | itis ere Ui ey Raa PD 6 SE nn mec ani Se tail 2 ik ' Bayes vibe in GOR OF Reid hate il hala Y J Hamat Moe a yak pe ars DL dere psig user i a a ) wr peeve: ; Ls Seailedd suas eAW Fo sgial +h ake, WD ings soya ~-aeuiets SO RBOLR Yo onigoliioc (icolad ane ane esih ien “oi ULL RO Hew treba PR are da. tou: iit i sino cain a RI Sew ielect. [alte Apa ea AES oop ts emetaty Be isnt an Cisieeerashs Re ee aS Y Cah ee och diana envi genyticrit' a ‘Oa ste Hail A ciletonnm taht almiaginns AES ERRE, HI Buia ht MEY Tash Bekah antngefelhannting Le uC IQE ee tone te a lit ee ) bee eco ara see RE a woubtit be yee, tite “ sks seen ver aoa ue sherbet ihr eet ee ee “a aa a Mish whorls ae nb ind ne Godel Sigs ey = og Aa a Pes Me en is deal Mle donee Coes Poa PRAWG ED: aye is oi mae pc er lege oho beens apa ta ah Hr, si LB i WARES ae Sylulbonys Ria ccginte Pe ite hele te ALN ai ete tin Pa ray ern tm Ata ee | Fs brain ans OE CERT yl ota te {ei ak mil tai af sot: MS See . eke sciggaak: mibeddes ee 4 nh 4 Re . CHO Fee para ‘caeeem He evans anh obiacin’ of elke ty Pe MP re 0. higesliaa saben tk te pew amet aig Be) Diag ae), pa aed ae Soules ingles yd aaa be. Tn Pte A Pad en cose APPR Gate Pan ie gia Mg sinh Gonera) Karidis vit ti Preeti, Ret Ae io ‘is UE Pore Bigeye e teae Be arena A inkl bbe penne oa nalelptaa’ al ily inte Sea % (tn ae ny f a ry 8 f Ba sae Od Pewee ene leew Soe Sop mae aa, obi Joly Sa th ash salle Yack AL paynvante ate. gas fs “Ny ae an hi" the Begvenaa Tnitation, + fis the Tekaenray ink tw By eLnis Prats, sapuake HM; ate Casmated io clue ceets' ot Te RON 248 depth Bee. pinned fs eld ide Ct ee at aise ie, Wakhiira win | Ail iu a ‘erence wae ol snes fia’ Ri Pe ation, a doseage ‘terns, aE: aise, * ‘oti oth hits uiowan natiatiitory,. Dusting thw, Ske fa Laka bila: SOR, togiot hier wth pales ata: nee Me Sy tka ef #03. ON AON | PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH- SONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1926 ANNUAL MEETING DECEMBER 10, 1925 Present: The Hon. William H. Taft, Chief Justice of the United States, chancellor; the Hon. Charles G. Dawes, Vice President of the United States; Senator Reed Smoot; Senator Woodbridge N. Ferris; Representative Albert Johnson; Representative R. Walton Moore; Mr. Charles F. Choate, jr.; Mr. Henry White; Mr. Robert S. Brookings; Mr. Frederic A. Delano; and the secretary, Dr. Charles D. Walcott. APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS The secretary reported the following appointments: Ex officio, March 4, 1925, Vice President Charles G. Dawes; by the President of the Senate, March 11, 1925, Senator Woodbridge N. Ferris, of Michigan, to fill the vacancy caused by the expiration of the term of Senator A. O. Stanley; by joint resolutions of Congress, citizen regents for six years, January 7, 1925, Mr. Robert S. Brookings; February 26, 1925, Judge George Gray. DEATH OF JUDGE GRAY The secretary announced the death of the Hon. George Gray on August 7, 1925, who was first appointed as a senatorial regent on December 20, 1892, serving until the expiration of his term on March 2, 1899. He was next appointed as a citizen regent on January 14, 1901, and served until August 7, 1925. Throughout this long service, the last 10 years of which he was chairman of the executive committee, Judge Gray was an active supporter of the work of the Institution and always ready to give time and thought to its interests. He was a valued member of the board and will long be missed both personally and officially. Mr. Choate offered the following resolutions, which were adopted: Whereas the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution having learned of the death on August 7, 1925, of the Hon, George Gray, a member of the board for over 30 years, the last 10 of which he served as chairman of the executive committee: Be it therefore Resolved, That the board here place on record an expression of their pro- found sorrow at the passing away of their colleague, whose deep interest and 143 144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 wise judgment in the affairs of the Institution, to which he was always ready to devote his great learning and experience, made him a valued coworker in its behalf, and one whose loss will be keenly felt. Resolved, That while Judge Gray’s distinguished career as United States Senator, jurist, and public-spirited citizen had won for him a high and secure position on the roll of our country’s honored men, it is desired to add a tribute to his personal qualities, his never-failing courtesy, and his charm of manner, which endeared him to his colleagues on this board. Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted by the secretary to the family of our deceased associate, with the respectful sympathy of the board in the loss they have sustained. VACANCY IN THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The secretary stated that Judge Gray’s death had caused a vacancy in the membership of the executive committee, which the chancellor had filled by an ad interim appointment of Mr. Moore; and, further, that at a recent meeting of the committee Mr. White had been elected chairman. Mr. Johnson offered the following resolutions, which were adopted : Resolved, That the temporary appointment of the Hon. R. Walton Moore as a member of the executive committee be approved and made permanent. Resolved, That the election by the executive committee of Hon. Henry White as chairman be confirmed. RESOLUTION RELATIVE TO INCOME AND EXPENDITURE Mr. White, as chairman of the executive committee, submitted the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1927, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the secretary with the advice of the executive committee, with full discretion on the part of the secretary as to items. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Mr. White submitted in print the annual report of the executive committee, showing the financial condition of the Institution at the close of the fiscal year 1925. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PERMANENT COMMITTEE Solar radiation researches.—As stated previously, this work is under the direction of Dr. Charles G. Abbot, assistant secretary of the Institution and director of the Astrophysical Observatory; and his report shows satisfactory progress at the stations at Mt. Montezuma, Chile; Table Mountain, Calif.; and at Washington, D. C. The operations have been financed by an annual grant of $5,000 from the Hodgkins fund of the Institution, and through the gener- osity of Mr. John A. Roebling. National Geographic Society grant—This organization has recognized the necessity for a new solar radiation station in the Hastern Hemisphere, to cooperate with those of the Astrophysical Observatory in Chile and California, PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 145 and has generously made a grant of $55,000 to Doctor Abbot for the purpose of installing such a station. Doctor Abbot recently sailed for Europe and Africa for the purpose of selecting the best possible site for the new station. Freer sinking fund.—This fund, as has been explained, was established for the purpose of safeguarding the principal and income of the Freer Founda- tion. Under the plan of reinvesting a certain excess of the income, the fund has now reached the sum of $262,347.50. Consolidated fund.—This fund consists of bequests, gifts, and interest earn- ings, in excess of the $1,000,000 authorized by law to be deposited in the United States Treasury at 6 per cent interest. It now amounts to $218,186.50. Increase of endowment.—Under the authority of the board, the permanent committee has inaugurated a movement for increasing the endowment of the Institution. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY In presenting his printed annual report to June 30, 1925, the secretary said that since the last annual meeting of the board, 132 publications have been issued, 67 of these by the Institution proper, 62 by the National Museum, and 3 by the Bureau of American Eth- nology. During the fiscal year 1925 the Institution distributed 171,- 865 copies of its publications. 'Two papers by your secretary have summarized several seasons’ work on certain of the life forms of the Cambrian and Lower Ozarkian rocks of the Canadian Rockies; three papers by Assistant Secretary Abbot and his associates, pre- senting a résumé of 20 years’ work on the sun’s radiation and the present status of the investigation on the relation of solar radiation to weather, have attracted wide and favorable attention from meteor- ologists throughout the world; a paper by Doctor Cushman on the foraminifera, which are minute fossil forms now used in locating and defining oil strata, has been in constant demand by the oil com- panies and by universities for training the much needed young oil geologists. It was stated in the 1924 report that an effort would be made to issue two Smithsonian annual reports in order to bring them up to date. This was accomplished, the reports for 1923 and 1924 having both appeared, and the manuscript for the 1925 volume is now ready to go to the printer. The National Museum issued the usual number of proceedings, papers, and several bulletins, including the monographic work on the Spider Crabs of America, by Mary J. Rathbun, and another of the popular series on Life Histories of North American Birds, by A. C. Bent. The outstanding publication by the Bureau of American Ethnology was the Handbook of the Indians of California, by Kroeber, for which there is an increasing demand. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART COMMISSION The fifth annual meeting of the commission was held December 8, 1925. The report of the secretary of the commission for the calendar year 1925 146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 stated that additions to the collections fell short of the average of previous years, not greatly exceeding a hundred thousand dollars in estimated value, which was attributable in large part to the lack of suitable housing space. The most noteworthy accessions were: A statue of Carrara marble, entitled the Lybian Sibyl, by W. W. Story, gift of the Henry Cabot Lodge estate; and a marine painting by Edward Moran, a bequest of Mrs. Clara L. Tuckerman; also an important collection of art objects and ceramics, presented and bequeathed by the Rey. Alfred Duane Pell, of New York . The commission was of the opinion that it would be advisable to assemble at the National Gallery at intervals of five or more years all of the paintings purchased through the Ranger fund, in view of the provision that the National Gallery may reclaim any picture so purchased during the five-year period beginning 10 years after the death of the artist represented. By thus as- sembling the pictures a more intimate knowledge could be gained of them, and the wisest selection would thus be assured. Fifty-two paintings have been acquired and distributed to various institutions in accordance with the terms of Mr. Ranger’s will during the four years since the bequest became operative. Consideration was given to the matter of procedure in considering acceptance of bequests and gifts of art works, and after discussion the following resolution was adopted: “ Resolved, That the advisory committee of the National Gallery of Art Commission shall consist of the full membership of the commission; that in earrying out the functions of the advisory committee a quorum shall consist of seven members, four of whom shall be artists or museum directors.” The present officers, Mr. Gari Melchers, chairman, and Dr. W. H. Holmes, secretary, and the executive committee, were then reelected for the ensuing year. The report of the commission was accepted and Mr. Johnson submitted the following resolutions, which were adopted: Resolved, That the Board of Regents hereby approves the recommendation of the National Gallery of Art Commission that W. K. Bixby, W. H. Holmes, and H. L. Pratt be reelected as members of the commission for the ensuing term of four years, their present terms having expired. Resolved, That the board also approves the recommendation of the com- mission that John Russell Pope, architect, be elected a member of the com- mission to fill the vacancy caused by the termination of the appointment of A. Kingsley Porter. ADMINISTRATIVE APPOINTMENTS BY THE SECRETARY The secretary announced the appointment of Dr. Alexander Wetmore as assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and of Dr. William M. Mann as superintendent of the National Zoological Park. GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES UNDER THE INSTITUTION The secretary made a comprehensive statement regarding the esti- mates and appropriations for the Government branches under the administrative charge of the Institution. PROCEEDINGS OF THE REGENTS 147 INVESTMENTS OF THE FREER FUND The board adopted the following resolution as submitted by Mr. Moore: Resolved, That the permanent committee be, and it is hereby, authorized to sell any part of the stock * * * held under the will of Mr. Freer at such price as it may think desirable, after ascertaining all the facts that are avail- able, and invest the proceeds in high-grade bonds and mortgages. ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The National Geographic Society having made a grant of $55,000 to Doctor Abbot to select and install a new solar radiation station in the Eastern Hemisphere, to cooperate with those of the Astro- physical Observatory in Chile and California, Doctor Abbot sailed on October 31 via Engiand and France on this mission. Inspection of weather records show that three suitable regions remain distinct from those occupied and from each other. These are southwest Algeria, northeast Baluchistan, and South Africa. Doctor Abbot will examine these and install the new observatory in the most promising one. Having found from five years’ experience that summer conditions are unfavorable at the solar station on Mount Harqua Hala, Ariz., that station has been removed to Table Mountain, Calif., at a cost of about $10,000, defrayed by Mr. John A. Roebling. The new loca- tion has an altitude of 7,500 feet, being 2,000 feet higher than Harqua Hala, and is more accessible. Observations during the past 10 months indicate that it will prove superior to Harqua Hala. Mr. Roebling, who has given over $123,000 to promote the Smith- sonian solar investigations and the studies of world weather based thereon, has withdrawn further support, as he thinks that the time has come for others to carry on the work. FREER GALLERY OF ART Karly in October word was received from Mr. Carl W. Bishop, associate curator of the Freer Gallery and leader of its archeological expedition to China, that Governor Yen Hsi-siang, of Shansi, had given him permission to operate anywhere within the boundaries of his Province. This constitutes by far the most important forward step taken since the work began, two and a half years ago; and for the first time in history the difficult task of prosecuting archeolog- ical research in China openly and on a basis of cooperation with the Chinese authorities was begun. This is the only method from which results of full scientific value may be reasonably expected. ie bl Bye Woy Hy eae SG Be TRIAS RG a oy. ot Pain. Suh wn a Pay Pie at ar 9 Bohn ati auld 3 wt ang hatte tin’ Fen"L “aM Jo, dha. ott 38) igh blot oF A Fae ort Yo hea, % rttere, sin aut Biot add ip Birighuaeen ‘pat aM ee sb dite? zeae ate eae ana oe. AbALa a. Be Bb rdccs ask Tage, tdi be P ? ve dag Vk caiinn in. 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Buen eAO: aliens OER: ab hs | ey RE apa ol tolsigns troxg thiw dk dat sanity x "Ne ie ad yaiticnetg OF ONES 1090 AOViS etd ON “yale don7 ‘fognd satvey hkiow 1h sibite vdr haw acdingt err! altos ane ai ae Hehe ad 38, Arpaia’ wires’, py. ohldiay and, w Ligatnes SMe ahs ns as ay ‘gine at axorbto at et. mits Be as il es iis PPASE << ee on bi Fas -- i oe He Biba ES rete ls pies $s TAN “ay eaiaaAs AU pode RP aR aut “ener ete? ‘end Dow idBbaRY. ae ; Pk gece eis 19. 4% Hest bay. 12 ne reat oil toy 5 A yee | Psat ped a. ate x izived a ee a airahayod a aiden, Geties, : pid 93 Lovateatet bate wok dg f oct daour ahh vat” ne dino ald aot ‘aot bias tone Binoy tad w ‘fink out’ aongod akrow orl) sone -apolosdors. griauadeoty, Fe akeae sti ot ative noiisysqyes to: sisad 9 a0 hie Yglaeqo auint), ge ae we tet ee WMO! eid ete REI ey Aways aie dwtroenios a pect Atay. festens Bie Steger: iene a Ee et, ee bipceptaiie : isa da nay GENERAL APPENDIX TO THE SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1926 20837—27——11 149 ADVERTISEMENT The object of the Grnrrat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspondents of the Institution. It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more vemarkable and important developments in physical and biological discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geol- ogy, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not alto- gether satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origi- nal) embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discussion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1926. 150 THE NEW OUTLOOK IN COSMOGONY? By J. H. JEANS Astronomy has always stood aloof from the other sciences; her field of research is apart, her methods are entirely her own, and, most significant of all, her results have different values from those of other sciences. While these reward mankind by utilitarian gifts, new methods for the production of wealth, the increase of pleasure or the avoidance of pain, astronomy has so far given us only food for intellectual contemplation. This is preeminently true of cos- mognony, the branch of astronomy which is concerned with the prob- lem of how the astronomical bodies come to be where they are and as they are. From the practical standpoint, the outstanding difference between astronomy and the other sciences is the difference of scale. Most sciences progress by pursuing nature into the realms of the infinitely small, but for astronomy and cosmogony progress les in the direc- tion of the infinitely great, or, to be more exact, of the unthinkably great. For we now know with fair certainty that there is no in- finitely great. A number of considerations combine to show that the universe is finite, and it is just because we know this, and are beginning to discover the actual limits to the size of the universe, and to its duration in time, that the present position in astronomy and cosmogony is of quite unusual interest. These sciences stand to-day somewhat in the position in which geography found itself when the world had been circumnavigated and the limits of what remained unexplored first begun to be known. It was not until 1888 that the distance of a star was measured, -and the scale of structure of the universe revealed. In that year three astronomers, Bessel, Henderson, and Struve, independently measured the distances of three different stars. In each case the method employed was the “ parallactic”” method: the motion of the earth in its orbit causes the near stars to appear to move against the background formed by the remote stars, and from observations of the amount of this apparent motion the distances of the near stars can be deduced. But it has long been clear that the majority of 1Reprinted by permission from The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. XCVIII, No, 586, December, 1925, 151 152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 stars are much too far away for their distance to be measured in this manner, and in no event could the method tell us the distances of the most remote stars in the universe, for it can not succeed unless the star under observation is seen against a background of even more distant stars. It is only quite recently that other methods have provided a measure for sounding the furthest depths of the universe. The most fruitful of these methods depends on the special proper- ties of a certain class of stars called “Cepheid variables,” after their prototype, the star 6 Cephei. These stars do not shine with a steady light; at intervals which are always perfectly regular, but may range for different stars from a few hours to several days, they flash out to two or three times their original brightness. Just as the mariner recognizes a highthouse from amongst a crowd of other lights by the regular succession of its flashes and the nature of these flashes when they come, so the astronomer recognizes a Cepheid variable by the regularity, period, and nature of its light variations. In 1912 Miss Leavitt, of Harvard Observatory, discovered a simple relation be- tween the periods and the luminosities of the Cepheids which occur in the Smaller Magellanic Cloud; the slower the light variation of the Cepheid the more luminous it is—broadly speaking, its lumi- nosity varies inversely as a definite power of its period. More re- cently Doctor Shapley, the present director of Harvard Observa- tory, has shown that this relation, now generally known as the “ period-luminosity law,” is true of Cepheid variables in general. Whenever the astronomer detects a Cepheid variable and can meas- ure the length of its period, he can deduce the amount of light it emits. By comparing this with its apparent brightness, as observed through a terrestrial telescope, it is easy to determine its distance from us. The method is simply that of a mariner who estimates his distance from land by identifying a lighthouse, looking up its candle- power in a book of reference, and noticing its apparent brightness at the spot where he happens to be. The analogy to the parallactic method would of course be if the mariner, knowing the speed of his ship, should try to estimate his distance from land by noticing the rate at which a church spire or chimney on the coast appeared to move against a background of distant hills. This method does not demand the existence of a lighthouse of known candlepower, but would obviously be useless for a mariner far out at sea, and, as we have already noticed, it could in no case give the distance of the most remote objects visible. The discovery of the “ period-luminosity law” opened up a new world as regards exact survey of astronomical distances. It was first used by Doctor Shapley himself to determine the distances of the remarkable objects known as “globular star clusters.” These, COSMOGONY—JEANS 153 as their name implies, are closely packed groups of stars of approxi- mately globular shape; seen through a powertul telescope, they lool rather like a swarm of bees, and produce the impression of being nests or birthplaces of families of stars. Only 69 of these objects are known, and, as practically no new ones have been discovered since the time of the Herschels, it is likely that there are none left to discover. They are all rich in Cepheid variables. Doctor Shap- ley finds that the distances of these 69 clusters range from 21,000 to 216,000 light-years. In this and similar measurements the light- year is taken as the unit of distance because it is futile to express astronomical distances in terms of miles or other ordinary terrestrial standards of measurement. Light takes some eight minutes to travel from the sun to the earth, so that in one year it travels about 64,000 times the distance from the earth to the sun; this is the distance that the astronomer describes as one light-year and takes as his unit of length. We begin to realize what is meant by the distance of a star cluster being hundreds of thousands of light-years if we reflect that what our telescope shows us is not the star-cluster as it now is, but the cluster as it was when primeval man dwelt on earth. Through the long prehistoric ages, through the slow dawn of civilization, and through the rise and fall of empires and dynasties, the light which left the cluster in remote ages has been traveling toward us at the rate of 186,000 miles every second and has only just reached us. Quite recently Doctor Hubble, of Mount Wilson Observatory, has discovered Cepheid variables in certain of the spiral nebule, and so is able to estimate the distances of these nebule. The most remote of the nebule so far discussed proves to be the well-known “ Andromeda nebula” (M. 31), at a distance of 950,000 light-years; others are at comparable distances. Using a slightly different method, Doctor Shapley has estimated the distance of the star cloud N. G. C. 6822 as being about a million light-years. The two objects just mentioned are the most remote at present known. Are we to suppose that they fix the approximate limits of the universe, or must we look forward to a continual expansion of the observed size of the universe as the power of our telescopes continually increases? It is not possible to give a final answer to this question, but a considerable mass of evidence points to the former alternative as being probably the true one. Our sun is one of a group of some two or three thousand million stars which form a disk-shaped or biscuit-shaped structure girdled by the Milky Way. It has long been understood that this particular star group can not be of infinite extent. If it were, the sky would appear as a continuous blaze of light, and the gravitational force produced by this infinite mass of stars would be so intense that our sun and 154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 other stars would move with almost infinite velocities. The star field can not even be of uniform density as far as our telescopes can reach, for if it were the number of stars visible in different tele- scopes would be proportional to the cubes of their apertures. This is not in actual fact found to be the case; a 2-inch telescope has ten times the aperture of our naked eye, but does not reveal a thousand times as many stars. Thus the stars must thin out quite per- ceptibly even within the distances we can sound with a 2-inch tele- scope. By a refinement of this method it has been found possible to explore the limits of size of the star field of which our sun is a member and to estimate the number of stars it contains. This star field, although it may quite possibly be the largest single object in the universe, is by no means the whole universe. Outside it, or possibly on its outer confines, lie a variety of other objects, in particular the star clusters, all of which are much smaller, and the spiral and other nebule, the largest of which approximate to itin size. The theory of “ island universes ” which was originally propounded by Sir W. Herschel, but subsequently fell into disfavor, seems to be reinstated by recent observational work, and we now get the best picture of the universe by thinking of it as consisting of a number of subuniverses, detached from one another like islands on an ocean. We can form a rough estimate of the extreme distance of some of these islands from a consideration of the extreme faint- ness of the individual stars; but the Cepheid variables, the lght- houses on these islands, enable the astronomer to map out their positions with comparative accuracy. Our own star system is a very big island indeed, with the sun not far from its center; the big nebula in Andromeda is another big island, smaller but of com- parable size; while the star clusters and smaller nebule are islands on a smaller scale. Considerations similar to those already men- tioned, which enable astronomers to assign limits to the size of our star field, show that we must also fix limits to this ocean of island universes, and it seems probable that the limits do not he very far beyond the two most remote objects whose distances have so far been measured, namely, the spiral nebula M. 381 at 950,000 light-years, and the star cloud N. G. C. 6822 at about 1,000,000 light-years. To fix our ideas we may suppose, agevciih it is little more than a guess, that the most remote objects of all in our universe are at four times the distance of these two remote objects, and so at 4,000,- 000 light-years from us. We may now attempt to get these ideas into focus by constructing a mode] of the complete universe on the scale of a million million miles to the foot. The amount of reduction involved in such a scale is best visualized, perhaps, by COSMOGONY—JEANS $55 thinking in terms of motions rather than of distances. Light, which can circle the earth seven times in a second, would move in our model with a speed rather below that at which a blade of grass grows in the spring. On this scale the whole universe will be represented by a sphere of the size of our earth, the star cloud of which our sun is a member will be an island of about the size of Yorkshire, while the big Andromeda nebula will be rather larger than the Isle of Wight, although with very ill-defined boundaries. The whole solar system in this model can be easily covered by a grain of sand, while our earth, now shrunk to less than a ten- millionth of an inch in diameter, is hardly larger than a single molecule in this grain of sand. Such is the universe which the astronomer hands over to the cosmogonist for interpretation. The cosmogonist, accepting the universe as it is, must try to discover why it is thus and not other- wise. What the astronomer regards as a compilation of observed facts is for the cosmogonist the last link in a long chain of processes, a crosscut through the warp and the woof of cause and effect. While the astronomer is satisfied if he can see the universe as it is, the cosmogonist must ever strive to see it as it has been and as it will be. Just as one of the astronomer’s main problems is to assign limits to the universe in space, so one of the main problems for the cosmogonist is to assign similar limits in time. There must be such limits. The universe can not go on for- ever as it now is, and neither can it have existed in its present condition from all eternity. KEvery star is continually radiating energy away into space, and we have no knowledge of any appre- ciable part of this radiation coming back or of the stars replenishing their sources of energy in any way. The universe is running down like a clock which no one winds up. The sun has some ten thousand million million million square inches of surface, and every square inch is radiating away energy at a rate which represents the energy output of a 50-horsepower engine. If this energy were supplied to the sun from a power station, coal would have to be burned at the rate of about a million million million tons a minute. This makes it clear that the sun’s energy can not, as was at one time thought, originate in the combus- tion of the sun’s mass. At a later date Meyer suggested that the sun’s energy might be continually replenished by the infall of meteor- ites, while Helmholtz subsequently propounded his well-known contraction theory, according to which the energy of the sun’s radia- tion is provided by the falling in of the sun’s mass under his own gravitational attraction. Both these theories implied limits to the duration of the sun’s radiation, and both limits were far too short to accord with known facts. Meteorites could not have been falling 156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 into the sun forever, or the sun would already be of infinite mass; in actual fact it was shown that meteorites could not have been fall- ing into the sun at the requisite rate for more than about 20,000,000 years, or the sun would by now have become more massive than it actually is. Similarly as regards the Helmholtz theory—the sun can not have been contracting to the requisite extent for more than about 20,000,000 years, or it would have shrunk already to less than its present dimensions. Such periods of time are impossibly small for the sun’s life. Geologists find evidence that things have been much as they now are on our earth for periods of at least hundreds of millions of years, while physical research on the radioactive contents of certain Canadian rocks fixes their age at 1,400,000,000 years at the least, and analysis of other rocks gives confirmatory evidence. If, as is generally accepted, the sun is the parent of our earth, the sun must at least be older than the oldest of terrestrial rocks. It was at one time thought possible that radioactivity could provide our sun with energy for an almost unlimited span of radiation, but the possibility did not materialize. Sir Ernest Rutherford calculated that even if the sun started life in the most radioactive state possible, namely as a sphere of pure uranium, its radioactivity could provide for at most 5,000,000 years of radiation at the present rate. It was by now abundantly clear that the true source of the sun’s energy must be such as to provide the sun with a length of life of a different order of magnitude from anything hitherto thought of. In 1905 Ejinstein’s first theory of relativity appeared. ‘This required that an increase in the energy of any material system should be accompanied by an increase in its mass. It had for some years been recognized as a special property of electrified bodies that their mass increased pari passu with their energy; the theory of relativity now showed this to be a general property of matter in all states and conditions. The converse must of course also be true, so that a body, such as our sun, which is losing energy by radiation must also be losing mass. When the rate of loss of energy of any body is known, it is easy to calculate the corresponding rate of loss of mass; from the sun’s known rate of radiation it is found that its mass must be diminishing at the rate of about 250,000,000 tons a minute. This statement does not necessarily imply that there are fewer atoms or molecules in the sun at the end of the minute than there were at its commencement. If the sun were merely cooling down, like a red-hot cannon ball suspended in space, the heat agitation of each molecule would be less at the end of each minute than at its commencement, so that, on the average, the molecules would be moving more slowly and so have smaller mass. The aggregate of the decreases of mass of all the innumerable molecules in one le cea OT Sa Nf A ee Ee —— COSMOGONY—JEANS 157 minute would amount to exactly the 250,000,000 tons in question. The crux of the situation lies in the circumstance that at most a millionth part of the total mass of the sun is of this easily shed kind, and that if this were the only part of its mass of which the sun could dispossess itself, its radiation could not possibly last for more than a few millions of years. Suppose, however, that proc- esses are at work in the sun’s interior by which the molecules can be not merely slowed down, but actually annihilated. In such a case the whole mass of the annihilated molecule is turned into en- ergy, and the whole mass of the sun—two thousand million million million million tons—becomes available for transformation into radiation. At the present rate of radiation, represented by 250,- 000,000 tons a minute, the total mass of the sun would provide radiation for fifteen million million years. The most likely way in which mass could be compietely trans- formed into radiation would be by the positive and negative electric charges of which all matter is constructed rushing into one another and mutually annihilating one another. When the two terminals of a charged Leyden jar are brought into contact, we see a spark and hear a snap—a thunderstorm in miniature—which show that energy has been set free somewhere. In actual fact we know that the energy came from the rushing together of electric charges of opposite sign which have neutralized one another. Recent research has shown quite conclusively that a hydrogen atom consists of two electrically charged particles, one, the electron, being negatively charged, and the other, the proton, being positively charged; there is nothing else. If these two charged particles could be brought into actual contact it is fairly certain that the charges would neu- tralize one another, and, as we have no experience of uncharged electrons or protons, it may reasonably be supposed that the electron and proton would annihilate one another also. It is even more prob- able that there would be nothing left to annihilate, for it is already known that the whole mass of the electron comes from its electric charge, so that to speak of an uncharged electron is a contradiction in terms, and the same is almost certainly true of the proton. Thus, in the falling together of the electron and proton of the hydrogen atom, the whole mass of the atom ought to be transformed into radiation. It hardly seems likely that more complex atoms would annihilate themselves in a single process of the kind; more prob- ably there would be a successive falling in of electrons one at a time, so that the atom would gradually diminish its mass, and, of course, also its complexity. But the details of the process are un- important; in whatever way the annihilation of mass is achieved, the final result is the same, as also, of course, is the total amount of radiation which is set free. 20837—27——-12 158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 In 1914 Professor H. N. Russell, of Princeton, propounded a scheme of stellar evolution whose main features at least have won general acceptance. According to this scheme, all the stars are moving down the same evolutionary ladder. Some start at the top, some perhaps join in part of the way down, but all pursue the same course and all end in the same way. At the top of the ladder are stars of the very highest luminosity, radiating perhaps ten thousand times as much light and heat as our sun. Moving down the ladder, the luminosity of the stars decreases, we pass stars like Sirius radiating some forty times as much as our sun, then, well down on the ladder, our sun and stars of similar luminosity; finally, on still lower rungs, are stars so faint as to be almost invisible. No doubt there are even lower rungs occupied by stars which have become perfectly invisible, but these need not concern us here. Since the appearance of Russell’s theory, it has gradually emerged that the stars on the highest rungs are of far greater mass than those on the lowest rungs. Not only so, but all the stars on any one rung—i. e., all stars having the same luminosity—are of approxi- mately equal mass, and there is a gradual diminution of mass as we pass down the ladder. If, then, as there is no serious reason for doubting, the stars are all moving down the ladder as their evolution progresses, it follows that they must all the time be di- minishing in mass. Having reached this conclusion, it becomes natural to conjecture that the diminution of mass precisely repre- sents the output of radiation. The hypothesis becomes something more than a conjecture when it is found that it satisfies every quan- titative test which can be applied to it. Since the rate of radiation of the stars on each rung of the ladder is known, it becomes an easy matter to calculate the rate at which they would be moving down the ladder on the hypothesis that their diminution of mass is the exact equivalent of their radiation. A simple addition then gives the time which a star would take, on the same hypothesis, to pass from any one rung of the ladder to any other. . It is found, for instance, that the time from Sirius to our sun is about 6,400,000 years; from the brightest of known stars to the faintest is of the order of two hundred million million years, while from the brightest to our sun is rather over seven million mil- lion years. It is significant that these hypothetical ages for different types of stars fit in well with estimates that can be made from certain purely astronomical evidence which is wholly independent of any hypotheses as to the source of steller radiation. Unfortunately the evidence is all too technical for discussion here, but it leaves little room for doubt that the long-standing problem of the origin of stellar radiation has been solved, and that the solution is the amazingly sim- COSMOGONY—JEANS 159 ple one that the origin of a star’s heat is the star’s mass. He lives by transforming his mass into radiation; we can estimate his present age by noticing how much of him is left, and another calculation, based on the same datum tells us how much longer a life he may expect. The interval from top to bottom of the evolutionary ladder, about two hundred million million years, is the total life of a star, and stars differ one from another mainly in being merely higher or lower on the ladder, younger or older. The ages of the stars are not the same thing as the age of the universe, nor even are they necessarily comparable with that age. The stars may be likened to icebergs coming down from the North and melting as they drift into tropical waters. We can estimate the ages of the icebergs within our vision, but we can not say for how long the stream of icebergs has been drifting down from pole to equator nor for how long new icebergs will continue to form and come down to replace those that pass southward to their doom. Over the polar regions where the icebergs are born a veil of fog is drawn, and we do not know how to look behind that veil. But the problem of the ages of those stars which are now in being is a comparatively simple one, and for all practical purposes these constitute the universe for the astronomer and cosmogonist alike. To each star can be assigned a total span of life of the order of a hundred million million years followed by darkness and _ possibly ultimate extinction; to our sun we can assign a past life of about seven million million years, so that as regards time, although not as regards magnificence, the greater part of his life is yet to come. The ages which we must now attribute to our sun and the other stars are many hundreds of times longer than was, until quite re- cently, thought probable or even possible. This extension of the time scale will call for a rearrangement of ideas in many depart- ments of cosmogony and astronomy. Many of the questions involved are of a highly technical nature, but one is comparatively simple as well as of great interest. Of the various theories which have been put forward to explain the origin of our earth and the other planets, the so-called tidal theory seems (to the present writer at least) to offer enormously more advantages and to be open to far fewer objections than any of the others. According to this theory, our sun, some time in the past in his voyage through space, must have encountered a star more massive than himself traveling on a course which came so near to his own that enormous tides were raised on his surface, tides of such colossal height that the tops of the tidal waves lost all con- tact with the underlying parts and started on independent careers of their own as planets. When submitted to mathematical treat- ment this theory shows itself able to account for the main features of 160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 the arrangement of the solar system in a very gratifying way. It was, however, until quite recently, open to one very serious objection. The distances of the stars from one another are enormously great in comparison with their dimensions. If we take six cricket balls and place one each in Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North America, and South America, we have a model showing the arrangement of the six stars nearest to our sun and their distances apart relative to their dimensions. Since the stars are generally very many of their diameters apart, it must be a very rare event for their tracks to come to within a few diameters of one another, and yet the tidal theory requires an approach to within less than two diameters before planets can be born. Under the old views as to the ages of the stars it was exceedingly unlikely that a specified star such as our sun should have experienced so close an approach throughout the whole of his life, and this constituted a serious objection to the tidal theory. But the recent extension of the ages of the stars has removed this reproach; stars which have wandered about amongst other stars for millions of millions of years must be expected to have had several fairly close approaches to their neighbors. Jiven now, however, approaches of the extreme closeness necessary to give birth to planets must be counted as somewhat rare; a small proportion only of the stars in the sky are likely to be surrounded by families of planets and so to form possible abodes of life. At one time it seemed possible that cosmognony might come down from her lofty pedestal and make good for her former deficiency in the matter of utilitarian gifts by bringing the most utilitarian gift of all—the secret of obtaining free energy. Jor if the stars are inces- santly turning matter into energy, there would seem to be no reason why mankind should not learn their secret, and obtain mechanical power by annihilating small quantities of matter instead of labori- ously winning, transporting, and burning millions of tons of coal; the total consumption of coal in the British Isles produces less heat, light, and energy than could be obtained by the annihilation of an ounce of matter per day. But, so far as can at present be seen, this dream is not destined to be fulfilled. An analysis of the facts of astronomy suggests that there must be all sorts and types of matter mixed together in the stars; some only, not all, of these types are changing into energy at an appreciable rate, and these particular types, for good or for bad, are absent from our earth. They prob- ably consist of elements heavier than uranium, the heaviest element known on earth; it is even possible that the capacity for spontaneous disintegration shown by the atoms of uranium and the other radio- active elements, the heaviest of terrestrial substances, may represent the surviving vestiges of an earlier power of these same atoms to lessen their mass by throwing off radiation. INFLUENCES OF SUN RAYS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS By C. G. ABBOT [With 5 plates] The delight which we take in the lovely shapes, colors, and odors of the many species of flowering plants suggests a different emphasis on a famous argument. Hardly any work was more celebrated in its time than Dean Paley’s “ Natural Theology,” although it is little read now. The author conceives one to be wandering upon a desolate moor remote from human habitation. He chances to strike his foot upon a round object so curious as to arouse his careful attention. It is, in short, a watch, provided with the little wheels, the springs, the hands, the hour marks, and all the intricate parts that we know so well. Although there is no man in sight, nor indeed any habitation for many miles, there arises this conclusion: The plain evidence of complex contrivance for a sagacious purpose demands the previous existence of a highly intelligent contriver. The watch could not just have happened to come into being. We need not follow the logical unfolding of the theme, in which the able Dean argues from the evidences of design in the human body to the existence of an intelligent creator. Paley’s argument was indeed illustrated mainly from the animal kingdom, but, as we shall see, plants exhibit adaptations almost equally curious. Our present thought, however, is slightly different. Such con- trivances as the human eye and ear, and others which Paley refers to, are plainly suitable means to attain certain objects of utility. If they be evidences of design, the character of the Designer that seems to be suggested is the careful Parent providing necessary things for the use of His children. But a rose or a violet seems to turn our thought differently. It might well be the expression of a beauty- loving, benevolent, pleasure-providing Creator, designing not merely necessities, but delicately refined joys and pleasures, for the promo- tion of graces of character in His noblest creatures. The sun’s place in plant life is more extraordinary by far than it is in the animal economy. Growing vegetation is a laboratory where sun rays unite carbonic acid gas of the air with watery fluid brought up through the roots of the plant, building up from these two simple materials some of the most complex substances known to organic chemistry. Although consisting mainly of water, traces of the other chemical elements are dissolved in the fluid which the 161 162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 roots imbibe, sufficient to complete those complex compounds so indispensable to life. It has been estimated that a square mile of dense hardwood forest may use over 500 tons of carbonic acid gas and over 1,000,000 tons of water in a season for such chemical activities. In dry countries such prodigality with water would be, of course, impossible. This figure represents a depth of nearly 114 feet of quid water over the whole area, which is from one-third to one-sixth of the total yearly rainfall of very moist climates, and exceeds by fivefold the yearly rainfall of some of the great deserts. Only a small part of the imbibed water is retained by vegetation. The leaves have a multitude of little mouths, called stomata, which, when under the influence of light, suck in carbonic acid gas and exude oxygen and water vapor. In darkness, plants exude carbonic acid gas slowly. This seems to be an attribute of all living cells, plant as well as animal. It no doubt goes on in the light with plants also, but is obscured by the opposite reaction just mentioned. The combined area of all the stomata hardly amounts to 1 per cent of the area of the leaves, so that it is hard to see how so much material can pass through such tiny orifices. It has, indeed, been shown that if one-half the leaf area were kept wet with fresh, strong caustic potash solution, it could not absorb carbonic acid gas faster than the stomata. Brown and Escombe resolved the puzzle. They showed by lab- oratory experiments that when carbonic acid gas is admitted through a small orifice into a medium which absorbs it as fast as admitted, the amount transmitted is proportional, not to the area, but to the diameter of the orifice. For example, the same area of opening, if split up into four parts, will admit twice as much carbonic acid gas as when forming only one orifice, since the diameter of the large orifice is but twice the diameters of the four small ones. This paradox, of course, depends on a more rapid rate of flow of the gases through the smaller apertures. Nature avails herself of this strange secret by crowding stomata something like 1,000,000 to the square inch. She thus adapts her leaves to suck in their sustenance and give out the waste products almost as rapidly as if the whole leaf were one aperture, while really about 99 per cent of its surface is closed to protect the delicate cells within. Even this is not the whole story. The stomata, like mouths of animals, may be either wide open, shut, or partly open, and they go through all of these variations. It is not known exactly how they are regulated. We, at least, do not suppose that the plants use volition as men do in opening their mouths. Yet it is conceivable SUN RAYS—ABBOT 163 that, if sunlight was exceedingly bright on a hot summer day, the evaporation of water could be so great that the chemical products left behind would exceed the requirements of the plant, and kill it by overfeeding. Against such a possibility perhaps the stomata might need to be partially closed. On the other hand, if the air was very free from clouds and moisture, and a strong cool breeze blow- ing, the plant might become chilled by excessive evaporation unless the stomata were partly closed. There are, at all events, automatic devices within the leaf mechanism which attend to this needful regulation of the stomata. Beside these regulating devices, the leaves themselves, under the influence of changing sunlight, turn face toward or edge toward the sun according to the plants’ requirements. If the penetration of gases through the stomata in such profusion was a great puzzle, the ascent of the sap is, perhaps, even more ex- traordinary. For imagine a forest of gigantic Eucalyptus trees, which sometimes reach heights of 500 feet, and conceive of the en- ergy demanded to lift in a single summer hundreds of thousands of tons of water on each square mile from the ground to the leafy tops. A common vacuum pump, it is well known, can not lft water above 33 feet, so that we dismiss at once the thought that the air pressure is working for the trees. What form of energy and appli- cation of force are these which the tree commands to do this lifting? The energy is the heat of sun rays, and the forces at work are the capillary attraction and surface tension of water. By means of the capillary tubelike network of cells, which run from the roots up through the trunk of the tree, there is formed a connection between the stomata of the leaves and the water of the ground. These enor- mously numerous capillary passages are filled with fluid, partly li- quid, partly gaseous. At their orifices, which are the stomata of the leaves and twigs, the sun’s heat produces a continuous evaporation of pure water, leaving behind in the tree the traces of chemicals which the soil furnishes with the water and which yield plant food. We seldom think of the forces of capillarity and surface tension which come into play, though they are the same that raise kerosene oil in a lamp wick, and that make drops of oil spread over a wet pavement. These forces are limited in their action to distances far less than the thickness of a single sheet of tissue paper, but are ex- tremely powerful in circumstances where they are at their maximum strength. For instance, a single drop of water introduced between two flat glasses slightly inclined to each other, will run rapidly to the narrowest spaces, and will draw the two plates together so strongly as even to bruise or crush the glass. Similarly, two blocks of ice placed loosely together, and so that the water which melts from them can drain away, will be drawn together by the remaining 164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 water so closely that the two ice blocks become united into one by cohering together. ‘This process is called regelation. On the con- trary, the fluid, mercury, which does not wet glass, will, on account of surface tension escape from between two glasses, even if by doing so it must create a vacuum gehind. The rise of water and other liquids 1 in very fine tubes is a conse- quence of surface tension, which in this connection is often called capillary force. ‘The heights to which a column of liquid will rise in a tube which it wets is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube. The extreme fineness of the porous structure of the trunks, twigs, and leaves of trees, therefore, is adapted to convey the liquids imbibed by the roots to very great heights. The evaporation of water from the stomata of the leaves and twigs makes place for the continuous renewal of liquid by capillary action from below. This upward current is conveyed by the interior part of the tree stem. As it has been observed to reach great heights in dead trees, we must adopt some such physical explanation as has been given, and not invent a mysterious “life force” for the purpose, as older botanists were prone to do. The soft, live, outer part of the plant, just within the bark, has another function. It is to carry downwards to the extremities of the roots the chemical products built up im the leaves and green parts under the action of sunlight. Thus, in a live plant, as in a live animal, there is a fluid circulation. The manner of it, to be sure, is exceedingly different. Instead of the force pump, which we call the heart, there is substituted in the plant the force of capillary action, lifting the watery fluid to the tops of majestic trees. It brings, dissolved, the chemical plant foods from the ground, and so feeds the trees. ‘The return current, much less in volume, is probably maintained by still another modification of surface tension which we call osmotic pressure. This is a force, which often greatly exceeds atmospheric pressure. It is always ex- isting between watery solutions of chemical substances in different concentrations, tending to drive the more concentrated solution into the one less concentrated. Thus, the force of osmotic pressure tends to produce a uniform mixture. In a tree, it takes the more concen- trated products of solar chemistry from the laboratory of the leaves, and conveys them downward through the living layers under the bark to the roots, to nourish these, and to be laid up, beyond the in- fluence of wintry frost, for the renewal of the leaves in the spring. The reader should not conclude from what has been said that the life processes of a tree are wholly understood. On the contrary, the best informed plant physiologists admit that they are confronted by a maze of mysteries which become more bewildering with addi- tional research. They are becoming convinced that the simple proto- SUN RAYS—ABBOT 165 plasmic living cells in plants and animals have much in common. A plant, like an animal, is to be looked upon as a colony of cells. Just as in a society of bees, or of ants, some individuals are told off and become modified in structure to perform certain duties neces- sary to the life of the society as a whole, so in plants and in animals the protoplasmic cells are, as physiologists say, differentiated, some ~ for one function, some for another. By what physical agencies this is done is the mystery of hfe. ‘Thus, we have in the plant the root with a variety of cells, some for imbibing ground water, others for storing food during’ wintry cold, still others forming a protecting covering. Again in the stem are some adapted for mechanical resist- ance to pressures like those of winds, others promoting the passage of foodstutis, and still others protecting the interior from exposure. In the leaves there are the variety of special cells, adapted for the several different functions involved in nature’s solar chemistry. Finally, in the flowers and ripening fruits are other varieties of cells set apart for the many functions associated with reproduction. All of these modifications of the primordial cell work together in admirable harmony to promote hfe and growth of the cell colony which we call a plant. One may be apt to think of it as very inferior to the cell colony which we call the animal. Tor does it not lack a nervous system for communication, and also the capacity for motion? But the latest researches seem to show that the plant is not so deficient in these respects as might be supposed. What, for instance, causes a bending of the stem toward the light, and the development of rudimentary buds into growing shoots when the terminal bud is lost, if there be no communication of useful impulses through the body of a plant? What leads to the great storage of food in the root system, to prepare for the dormant period of winter, and for the uprush of the sap in spring, to cause the leaves and buds to burst forth? These are but a few of the great mysteries which, the closer they are studied, the higher they tend to raise our admira- tion. Finally, the plant kingdom has the great superiority over the animal that, like the farmer among men, it furnishes by its unique employment of solar radiation, not only the means to feed its own living cells, but all those of the animal world besides. Already, therefore, we have discovered in the plant two indis- pensable activities of the sun. The first is the mysterious combining influence of certain solar rays, which, acting in green leaves, build up the most complex life chemicals from such simple materials as carbonic acid gas of the air and weakly impregnated water from the ground. This is an action as yet inimitable in the laboratory. We have yet to learn its intricacy and causation. The second indis- pensable action of solar energy is to evaporate from the leaves and twigs enormous quantities of water. Thus are left behind, in suit- 166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 able concentration for the use of the chemistry of plants, the various needful chemicals brought up in extremely diluted form in the water imbibed by the roots. But this is not all. In producing this immense evaporation, the sun counteracts its own influence to unduly heat and scorch the delicate leaves. ‘Turning lquid water to vapor requires a very large supply of heat. So the sun-heat absorbed by the leaves is safely dissipated. Indeed, as in the human body, there is a rough uniformity of temperature preserved in plant leaves, and largely by the regulatory action of evaporation. Some plants, indeed, have automatic mechanisms which turn their parts toward the sun, or edgewise to its rays, according to requirement. ‘These plant mo- tions are well known, as we see them in the sunflower and the nastur- tium, and are, indeed, very common in the plant realm. Fourthly, the sun maintains a suitable temperature. Plant growth requires a state of temperature whose range is practically limited between 0° and 50° C. (82° and 122° F.). It is this state of affairs which the sun maintains constantly in the tropics, and through a part of the year in temperate and polar zones. Later we shall note some curious effects which temperature regulation may produce in plants. Such are the four great services of sun rays to plants, but in their response to these influences the plants exhibit a most interesting variety. Astonishing changes in growth and texture may be brought about merely by altering the temperature of environment, the dura- tion of sunlight, and the intensity and spectral quality of sun rays. Changes in the water ration, the chemistry of the soil, and the con- centration of carbonic acid gas in the air, also produce profound effects, but as these are but indirectly affected by the sun, we shall not discuss them, but turn our attention to the direct influences first mentioned. Col. Boyce Thompson has munificently established in Yonkers, New York, a laboratory splendidly equipped for the investigation of such effects, as well as for the study of plant diseases. In basement rooms there are provided cooling pipes and automatic regulators adapted to keep plants for as long as desired at definite tempera- tures and under powerful batteries of electric lamps adapted as a substitute for sun rays. The potted plants are mounted on little perambulators so that when the desired time of exposure in one temperature has elapsed, they may be removed to different tempera- ture surroundings. Instances of the curious results are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In another part of the laboratory is a glass-roofed hothouse. But the glass is not all the same. One part is tinged with violet, another SUN RAYS—ABBOT OS ae with blue green, another with yellow orange, another with red, and one is of clear glass. Thus the rays of sun and sky are modified by the absorption of the glass so that different regions of the spec- trum are most effective for the several little gardens. It is very curious to see the changes of color in a lady’s dress as she passes from garden to garden under the control of these different colored lights. These conditions change remarkably the character of the plant growth as shown by the accompanying illustrations. There is also a great movable roof which can be rolled over the hothouses. This is provided with clusters of powerful electric lamps sufficient to be a substitute for sunlight. With this apparatus, experiments in the effect of continuous and partial time illumination are performed. Some of the results are shown in the illustrations. This field has also had much attention by Doctor Garner and associ- ates of the United States Department of Agriculture. _ Everyone knows how a potato in a dark cellar in springtime sends out its white sprouts, which stretch away sometimes a yard or more toward some feeble crack of light. Here we see two things of importance. First, that the healthy green development necessary to sound growth can not take place without adequate light, and, second, that insufficient light leads to monstrous elongation of plant stems. In the solar chemistry of the leaves, their green coloring matter, called chlorophyl, seems to be indispensable. Yet it does not itself join permanently in the reactions, but rather seems to be what is called a catalyst, which in chemistry means some substance that is necessary to cause reactions to happen, but is not itself a part either of the original materials or of the end products. What must happen in plant chemistry is the joining of each molecule of carbonic acid gas with a certain number of molecules of water, and the removal from the mixture of one molecule of oxygen, leaving the compound a single stable molecule of the type called a sugar. There are many sugars and near sugars. Of these our ordinary cane-sugar molecule includes 12 atoms of carbon with 11 atoms of oxygen and 22 atoms of hydrogen. Much simpler sugarlike substances exist, but all, as we remarked above, have the general formula C,O,,H.n, where C, O, H, stand for atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and n and m stand for numbers which may run up nearly to a score. The sugars are closely allied to the starches, whose molecules have the same general relations of numbers of the three chemical constituents, but contain several or many times as many atoms as the sugars. Starches are stored up by the plants in great profusion in their roots, tubers, and fruits. They break up readily into sugars. Starches, sugars, and, in addition, cellulose, in whose molecules are also found the same general proportions of the three constituents, 168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, as in starch and sugar, compose the main part of plant substance. Some of the other chemical elements, to be sure, are necessary to healthy plants, though in very small proportions. The chemical formulae of some of these compounds are excessively complicated, and raise our admiration for plant chemistry. As plants must have light in order to grow, they strongly com- pete for it by stretching toward the sky. Where light is inadequate the stems lengthen. ‘This is called by botanists etiolation. Its effect is very marked in the comparative shapes of two pines, one growing alone on a clearing, the other in a thick wood. Another well-known effect of scarcity of light is to thin and broaden the leaves. This is taken advantage of by some tobacco growers, who by erecting semitransparent tents over their crops produce a higher grade of tobacco. It is at first sight quite surprising, but after all quite in harmony with the facts of etiolation, that plants grow tall faster in the night than in the day. Their maximum rate of growth is just after sunset, when it is apt to be over twice as rapid as in midday. There is also a curious expansion and contraction of plant stems in growing. The contraction seems to be caused by the rapid evapo- ration of water from the leaves during the daylight hours, and a resulting upward tension of the liquid in the conducting channels of the stem, which relieves the horizontal pressures to some extent. When we inquire which of the spectrum rays, and in what inten- sity, are required for plant growth and for seed formation, we find that a great gap in exact knowledge exists here. Most of the experi- ments hitherto made relate to plants of little or no commercial value, and lack exactness both as to the intensity and the quality of the rays used. It would be, indeed, diflicult and costly to employ the spectroscope to select rays for such experiments, because the use of a slit and numerous optical pieces so greatly reduces the intensity of the rays of every color. Most experimenters, therefore, have made shift to employ colored glasses to give certain rough separations of color. These experiments indicate that the blue and violet and ultra-violet rays are the most important for plant growth. Deep red rays also are very active to promote photosynthesis, but the green rays lying between these spectral regions seem to behave as darkness to the plant. It is greatly to be hoped that more exact measurements of wave length and intensity may soon be associated with studies of the growth and fruiting of the valuable food crops and the favorite flowers. It will be necessary to use very large and costly apparatus in such an investigation, because not more than 10 per cent of the intensity of sun rays may be expected to remain after the rays have Se ge eS eee ee LS Ce te SUN RAYS—ABBOT 169 been collected and accurately selected by the optical spectroscopic train. It may be that specific functions like flower bearing, seed de- veloping, leaf growing, and stem expansion may be found to require different and very special qualities and intensities of rays for opti- mum conditions. The experiment is fascinating, for perhaps new and remarkable varieties of the most useful plants may be developed by controlling their radiation supply. With the higher plants, it must be sunshine or death. With man and the higher animals, it must be sunshine or sickness. 'To be sure, there is nothing in the life of man or animals like the photosynthesis of the food of all plants and all animals which goes on in green leaves. That is unique with plants. But child humanity in dusky cities, shut in by smoke and dust from receiving the ultra-violet rays of the sun and sky, is afflicted by rickets and other ills which yield to the healing influence of exposure of the body to full sun rays in the manner that nature intended. The outstanding exponent of this solar therapy is Doctor Rollier of Switzerland, who has maintained a sanitarium for sun treatments since 1903. Of later years, he has been imitated in other countries. One would hardly think of sun rays as dangerous, but the patients of Doctor Rollier commence their treatments on the first day with only 20 minutes exposure, and of the feet alone. From this gentle begin- ning there is a gradual progress to the stage of complete exposure of the person for hours. Naturally there accompanies this course a gradual darkening of the skin. The patients become brown and hardy looking. Skin sores disappear. Two principal diseases successfully treated by solar therapy are rickets and surgical tuberculosis. Rickets, as everyone knows, is a sort of lack of stamina, apt to invade the whole body of children. A weak digestion, a poor appetite, emaciation, profuse night sweat- ing, weakness of the limbs, tenderness of the bones, enlargements of the wrists and ends of the ribs, bow legs, curvature of the spine, misshapen head, contracted chest—all these deformities and miseries may come in the early years of the poor little patient. The layman is apt to think of tuberculosis as a disease of the lungs, but essentially the same malady attacks many other parts of the body. Glands of the neck, skin, bones, joints, mucous membranes, intestines, and liver are commonly infected by the tubercle-bacillus. In cases of superficial tuberculosis, recognizing how the germs may pass from one part to another in the blood stream, the surgeon is frequently called in to excise the infected part before it does its fatal mischief in a less accessible organ of the body. ‘This gives rise to the term surgical tuberculosis. It appears to be definitely proved that ultra-violet rays of less than 3,200 Angstréms in wave length are the active agents in the 170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 cure of rickets by ray therapy. As the ozone of the higher air cuts off solar radiation at about 2,900 Angstréms, it leaves but a narrow band of solar rays available. Not only in rickets but in certain superficial skin diseases, physicians have used with advantage the quartz-mercury vapor are light, which is rich in ultra-violet rays of these and shorter wave lengths. Recent experiments in poultry raising at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station are exceed- ingly instructive in this line, though it would be rash to carry over the results unquestioned to human pathology. In the summer of 1924, about 250 one-week old chicks were sepa- rated into six groups for different treatments. Those of Group 1 ran about in the open sunlight as they pleased, but came indoors to eat. The remaining five groups lived in a glass-roofed greenhouse. Groups 2 and 3, however, in addition to the light which reached them from sun and sky, were exposed for 20 minutes each day to the rays of a quartz mercury vapor lamp, rich in the ultra-violet. The remaining three groups had only the sun’s light as it came through their glass-roofed house. All the groups had the usual regular food, composed of chick grain, dry mash, sour milk, and rock grit, and had access to fresh water and sand bath. Groups, 3 and 4 were given, in addition to the regular diet, chopped alfalfa and grass, and Group 6 had, in addition to the regular diet, a small ration of cod-liver oil. What was the result? Groups 1, 2, 3, which had either full sun- hight or glass transmitted sunlight plus ultra-violet rays, all thrived. Groups 4 and 5 began to act less vigorously than these other's by the end of the fourth week. They ate with less appetite and scratched less. Chickens of Group 6, which had the cod-lver oil, although they did not relish this medicine, yet thrived better than Groups 4 and 5, but not as well as Groups 1, 2, 3. These differences became more and more marked. The chickens of Groups 4 and 5 developed weak legs. They remained smaller in size. Their plumage looked rough. By the end of the ninth week, the fowls of Groups 1, 2, 3, all having developed normally, were about double the weight of the spindling chicks of Groups 4 and 5. The chicks of the first three groups had their bones well set and full sized, while the bones of Groups 4 and 5 were small, curved and weak. Chickens of Group 6 were intermediate in their development. Fifteen deaths occurred in groups 4 and 5, and only one in Groups 1, 2, 3. Why this difference? Evidently it was solely due to some defi- ciency in radiation. Figure 1 shows graphically what the differ- ence was. A narrow band of rays in the extreme ultra-violet-—far beyond the extreme limit visible to the eye, and exactly in the region, by the way, where the ozone of the upper air begins to work absorption on solar rays—this little group of feeble sun rays SUN RAYS—ABBOT 171 was cut off by the glass cover of the greenhouse. These indispensable rays were supplied in sufficient measure by the daily 20 minute exposures to the mercury vapor are. The want of them was partly made up to Group 6 by the medicine of cod-liver oil. Groups 4 and 5, lacking both the saving medicine and the rays, languished. It is astonishing to remember that this very group of rays, thus proved so indispensable to the development of growing creatures, just misses being cut off from sun rays by the trace of ozone which exists in our upper atmosphere. So near, apparently, as this is the world to lacking a condition favorable to life, that if the ozone band, which cuts off the spectrum of the sun and stars completely at 2,900 Angstréms of wave length, had extended to 3,200 Ang- stréms in full force, the mischief would have been done. And yet the solar spectrum has little energy there but runs on through the visible and infra-red regions in great strength to 20,000 Angstréms. z——Light transmitted by Glass— _(Groups4, Sand 6)— — — a osm = SuMight (Group 1) <—— —Mercury Arc in Quartz _ _(Groups 2 and 3) Wave-lengths in Micvons 97 0.6 Infra-red Spectral Colors Red Yellow Biue Vitra- Oronge Green Volet Violet Fie. 1.—Spectral colors arranged according to wave length, showing spectral limits of the light received by groups of chickens Another astonishing thing has lately been discovered. Doctors Steenbock and Daniels, experimenting with rats in the years 1922 and after, were testing the value of butter fat and cod-liver oil for the prevention or cure of rickets. Their experiments also involved the use of ultra-violet light. Some of the animals having been radiated upon and others not, they were confined in cages in com- mon. The doctors were surprised to find that both sets of rats grew alike, except in one instance where some nonirradiated animals began to grow only when, after five weeks, irradiated rats were for the first time put into their cage. It seemed as if the irradiated rats were able to supply to the nonirradiated ones something that hitherto they had lacked. On trying various experiments, it was found that irradiating the air, or touching nonirradiated rats with their irradiated brethren did not give the magic curative influence. The effect was indirect, not a consequence of direct action on the outside of the body. Finally the secret appeared. Some bodily excretions of the irradiated ani- mals were eaten by the others and preduced the extraordinary result. 172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 Various articles of diet were then tried in irradiated and non- irradiated condition. It was proved that many, but not all, grains, fats, and oils, when shined upon by ultra-violet rays receive and hold curative properties adapted to conquer the disease of rickets. Cod- liver oil, then, is by no means alone as a carrier of the curative agent. Some modification takes place in many other kinds of foods, if irradiated, which makes them effective to cure rickets by indirect ray-therapy, fully as effectively as by the direct application of the rays to the skin of the patient himself. The irradiated oil may indeed be boiled with strong alkali and reduced to a soap and still retain its curative property unimpaired. It appears that while there are several rare chemical substances in cod-liver oil which possess this curative virtue when irradiated, the most active of them is one named cholesterol. While this sub- stance does not occur in plant foods, there are certain somewhat similar chemicals in the grains which are named phytosterols, and some of these have simiJar value against rickets. Not only in rickets, but in some allied disorders, this new discovery may prove of high medical value. As regards light therapy and rickets, the conclusions so far arrived at are these: (1) Exposure of an animal to light of wave length less than about 3,200 Angstréms will cure rickets and also prevent its occurrence on a diet, that normally will produce rickets. (2) Cod-liver oil will act just like ultra-violet light in curing and preventing rickets. (3) Some other substances have a slight curative value in rickets, but most other oils—such as cottonseed oil—have no antirachitic value. (4) These oils without antirachitic value can most of them be made antirachitic by exposing them to ultra-violet light. (5) A large number of solid food materials also become anti- rachitic on exposure to ultra-violet light. (6) Cholesterol—a practically universal constituent of animal cells—becomes activated by ultra-violet light. So also does phytos- terol which is a constituent of plant cells, so that presumably food materials are made antirachitic by activating the cholesterol and phytosterol in them. (7) Since the human tissues contain cholesterol, the skin on ab- sorbing ultra-violet light has its cholesterol activated, and this acti- vated cholesterol, being absorbed into the blood, acts just like cod-liver oil absorbed from the intestines in promoting bone formation. SUN RAYS—ABBOT 173 The striking results obtained in the treatment of surgical tuber- culosis by Doctor Rollier at his Swiss solar sanitarium are indicated by the following table: Results of light treatment in surgical tuberculosis (Rollier) Cured Improved Per cent Per cent Skin tuberculosis 81. 25 18.75 Bone and toint. =. .2-5=-2- 75. 98 7. 80 Glandular_..__-.- 89. 80 5. 20 Peritonitis---..- 80. 30 8. 20 Uenito-urinary_- 77. 80 22. 20 Tare Tie ge el ee ee ee ee ae er oe ae 52, 94 33. 00 Total mortality 0.9 per cent. X-ray photographs, after the light treatment, give striking evi- dence of the effect upon bone formation. According to Rollier, finger bones that have entirely disappeared may be so completely recalcified as to be indistinguishable, in radiographs, from normal tissue, and adults seem to be as easily affected as children. This means that, for early cases at least, the disease can be checked, and motion preserved in the affected joint, the gradual establish- ment of motion going hand in hand with the healing process. Rollier insists on the fact that the benefit is always proportional to the degree of pigmentation. Without knowing accurately which wave lengths are responsible for pigmentation, and which are most beneficial in the treatment of tuberculosis, it is not possible to be very sure in this matter, and here as in plant physiology an alliance between the doctor of medicine and physicists, expert in isolating rays and exactly measuring radiation intensities, would be of great advantage. The subject of the influence of sun rays on plants and animals has only recently come to the fore. Doubtless the future holds in store for us here, as in other lines, highly wonderful and inspir- ing revelations of the importance of sun rays in the welfare of man. Haw Ya hy png Ay Ki Iie mith p's mh win: ean 18 | Sod[puBo JOO] LO ¢ “It 141 o}eUl I 2 I I *O0I ‘OUBID 9 TO SK L alwid yoqqV—'9Z6| ‘Wodey uvjuosyiWS Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Abbot PLATE 2 THE EVENING PRIMROSE IS A TYPICAL “ LONG-DAY PLANT ’’ The specimen on the right, exposed to a 10-hour day, is unable to develop flowering stems. nae on the left, exposed to the full length of a Washington summer day is nearly ready to flower Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Abbot PLATE 3 THE KLONDIKE COSMOS IS A TYPICAL ‘‘ SHORT-DAY PLANT ”’ The specimens on the right, exposed to full-length Washington summer days, were unable to flower. Those on the left, exposed to an 8-hour day, flowered at a height of a few inches WOOL OY} Ul poov[d Wey. S2AVO| 991] 10 OM} Bultveq sued [[VUIs 91am puB ‘SkVp gE WOOL YYSIT 9Y4 UT udeq eavy AoUL, “ABP AMoY-fZ AOA UI UOTJEUTUIMI[I Jo SIMoY FZ PUB “BT “LT “ZI “2 “G AJOATPOOdSOI PAATIOI SJULTq ATaYyILNS LHOI7] TWIOIILYY YSGNMQ WOOY LHDIT LNVLSNOD AHL NI NMOUF) SLNVId SONLLAT] 40 SSIYaS V7 Nt. tee eae | AO ge HNOH 61 Ludy YNOH ZI unoH § b ALV1d 1oqqv—'9Z6| ‘WWodey uBlUOsSU IWS SoATS (f eSNOY) SABI oN[G PUB JO[OLA OY} YO ZUQIND Jey} pu ‘Yo Ind AjaiUe SI It UayYM pu po} Wy] oY} Ul esUBYO 9]}II[ AIOA ST ao} JBYI SMOYS 9INQoId OY, }Us1TUns pue aseq, “SUOIOTUNIT[ [TM 9ZG 07 A[UO s}iUIsUBIy JI—U9—IF OT} JO J 910 PUB ‘ONT “Jo[OIA “JOTOLA-B1A[N 9Y4 Jo TR “SUBI] JI—onTq oY} JO Jed pUB JoTOTA-vAY[N at JO [[e YO syno F ‘SuOAO MATT TUT YF} ATWO S}IUISUBIY PUB JOTOTA-t IN S,SUTMIOD SI ¢ ‘suoOIOTUT OFSITMSUB.LY TOIT “SSBIS F|—-98—-4) S,SUTUIOD SIZ ‘SUOLOLUMIT [IU ZTE 01 Sy1UIS A-BI[N 9Y) UNM 4L US SULMdAOD UI posn a oO synod ¢ NUIT [IM [2p 02s ] no yor * 11] OTM “Sse[s asNOYUeIS St | ano SASNOH SSV1H) 1WHLOAdS 4O SSIYSS NI NMOUYS SLNV1d JO S3IYas G aLlvid yoqqy—'9z6| ‘YWodey ueRIUOSyUyIWS ee cate yb i MWh 7 ON THE EVOLUTION OF THE STARS? By C. G. ABBot a [With 6 plates] 1. There are 92 chemical elements, beginning with hydrogen ana ending with uranium. Oxygen is the eighth, iron the twenty-sixth, silver the forty-seventh, gold the seventy-ninth, and radium the eighty-eighth. Nearly all of them are found on the earth, and a great many of them in the sun and stars. There are many ways of identi- fying them on the earth, but only one way in the sun and stars. The spectroscope reveals the signs of the chemical elements in the light of the heavenly bodies. The spectrum is a band of beauty. Its colors blend from violet through indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, to red most charmingly. But in the spectrum of light from the sun, or from the stars, one sees the band of color shot across with many dark lines. It is these lines which tell the chemical story. Here are the lines of green color that iron gives when heated in the electric arc. Here are the dark lines that are produced when light shines through iron vapor. Here are those very lines in the spectrum of the sun. Hence, there is iron in the sun. The proof is just as plain as that which tells us that ages ago a queer-toed animal walked in the mud of Massachusetts, for we have found fossils of his tracks. In such ways the spectroscope has told us that all of the stars are composed of the same chemical elements as our earth. This is the first conclusion in our study of stellar evolution. The chemical com- position of all parts of the universe, however distant, is the same. 2. The atoms of the 92 chemical elements are made up of two and only two ingredients. These fundamentals are called the protons and the electrons. The protons are unit positive electrical charges. The electrons are unit negative charges exactly equal but opposite in nature to the protons. In a single atom of hydrogen there are one proton and one electron. In a single atom of oxygen there are 16 of each, and in heavier atoms many more. This is the way they are arranged: The protons and 1 Lecture delivered at Columbia University, July 15, 1926. 175 176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 part of the electrons form a central nucleus about which gyrate the remaining electrons at tremendous speeds, and in characteristic orbits. The nucleus is like the sun, controlling its family of planets— electrons. So we may say that astronomy begins within the atoms. As all things are made of atoms, and all atoms are made of electric charges, we see that what we call matter, the substance of the earth, the stars, and all that in them is, is after all electricity. Consider a hydrogen atom. It is just one proton with one electron revolving about it, comparable to the earth with its one moon. The two units of electricity attract one another very power- fully because they are so very close together. If the motion that holds them apart could be stopped, the electron would fall in upon the proton. What would result? Apparently annihilation. Simi- larly, all of the chemical atoms—that is, the whole universe—if de- prived of all the inner atomic motions, would apparently be an- nihilated. In place of the universe would be a void. If the process were reversed, a void, separated into positive and negative unit electrical charges, and endowed with immense energy of motions in characteristic orbits, would become a universe. That would be the primary step in evolution itself. 3. How did that primary step take place? Science does not pre- tend to know. The Hebrew scripture says: “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. * * * And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.” In this there is nothing which contradicts what science has dis- closed. The Zuni Indians had also an account of creation: Awonawilona, the Maker and Container of all, existed before the beginning of time in the darkness which knew no beginning. Then he projected his thinking into the void of night and evolved fogs of increase—mists potent with growth. He took upon himself the form and person of the Sun, the Father of men, who thus came to be, and by whose light and brightening the cloud mists became thickened with water, and thus was made the world-holding sea. By the heat of his rays there was formed thereon green scums, which increasing apace, became “The Four-fold containing Mother— earth,” and the “All-containing Father—sky,” parents of all that is. 4. Our study of stellar evolution can not begin at the beginning. Existing processes do not help us to form a conception of how the void became the atoms. We have to assume that the atoms in tre- mendous numbers came into being in some unknown way. That is our starting point. EVOLUTION OF STARS—-ABBOT 177 5. The telescope with its photographic plate shows us that the vast spaces of the universe hold cloudhke matter called nebulae. Some of these clouds are bright, some dark. ‘The star, Theta Orionis, near the base of Orion’s sword is really nebulous. It is involved in the great nebula of Orion. The Pleiades stars are also surrounded by nebulosity. In fact, nearly every one of the irregular nebulae is associated with a bright star. Hubble has suggested that it is these stars which cause the nebulae to glow. This view is the more probable because many of the nebulae do not glow. Thus in the Milky Way are many dark patches devoid of faint stars, apparently because a cloudy veil of nebulous matter lies between us and the starry background. atin wets * : , | Fees OGL G Re Soa | Pr th Lae 0 Bee aeen eee aie ee oe TS Ta TS See ee A Se COR RE cm OREN Ne in WH | aes ee ee | AIEEE TE a a ee I: aay | Pe TIMI EEE Ht RAPT Pe PT Ee Ae en eee ee Pe HUNT ETE eee mT Pe PEED eI a , @ , B Ly Bl ‘8 ; B a ig Ber € 3LV1d joa ‘9761 ‘J4odaYy UBIUOSY}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Abbot PLATE 4 1. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 3115) 2. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 5866) WITH BAND OF DARK MATTER ON EQUATOR Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Abbot 1. REGULAR SHAPED NEBULA (N. G. C. 4594) wiTH RING OF DARK MATTER SURROUNDING EQUATOR 2. SPIRAL NEBULA (N. G. C. 891) SEEN EDGE ON (LOL ‘W) YOPVIAL VSYA NI VINSAN AvuldS *% IN) IOILVNSA SANVO NI VINSAN AvuldS *] 9 ALV1d EXCURSIONS ON THE PLANETS? By Lucien RupDAUX [With 10 plates]? May we some day be asked to leave this modest planetary globe upon whose surface we now pass our lives? We will not stop to discuss the pros and cons of such an eventuality but suppose the question has been answered affirmatively. In other words, some dweller on our earth is to set foot upon other worlds. Upon such a voyage will the reader be conducted. To simplify matters we will abstain from any scientific speculations as to the actual itin- erary of such a voyage. Let us disdain all ordinary methods of journeying, too slow for our purpose, because of the immense dis- tances to be traversed. We will suppose ourselves—as our imagi- nation can allow us—transplanted in the twinkling of an eye to the various neighboring worlds—the moon and the planets of the solar system, the “earths of the heavens,” as they have been expressively called by Camille Flammarion. Can we, by any chance, describe the scenes we will see except as pure phantasies? Yes. Within certain limits, we can approach the subject and reply positively to some of the questions which will be asked in the contemplation of the heavens. If, despite the per- fection of the methods of research in modern astronomy, there yet remain many unsolved problems relating to an intimate knowledge of the celestial worlds, nevertheless we do have at present precise data which make possible a visualization of the general physical conditions on each of them. That we may keep on ground where we are surest of not going astray, we will try to indicate simply the essential differences in the aspects of nature which meet the eye of the human voyager. Let us start on the moon. We know that its surface is broken by thousands of rings, or craters, of various depths, numerous moun- tains, and vast plains improperly called seas. This general view is so well known that we need not dwell upon it. But we must consider how all this would appear to a voyager landing upon the Translated by permission from La Nature, June 19, 1926. * Halftone reproductions of drawings by the author. 185 186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 ground—that is, what manner of landscape would greet his wonder- ing eye. The very accurate data which astronomers possess as to the struc- ture of the lunar terrain greatly facilitates this problem. For geometry enables us to put easily into actual perspective all the details which the telescope allows us to see in relief under an oblique illumination. Remember, in passing, that the shadows are sharply delineated and that they may be seen to elongate as the sun rises or sets for different regions of the lunar surface. This enables ‘us to calculate exactly the heights of the various parts of this surface. It is astonishing, despite these exact data, what phantastic repre- sentations have been drawn of the landscapes of this lunar world. Numerous astronomical treatises have represented them as embel- lished with mountains and peaks made of jagged sugar loafs, at the feet of which are heaped numerous small vatlike formations having the appearance of volcanic molehills. Actually the lunar mountains have profiles comparable in their steepness to our own terrestrial mountains. The great majority of the circular formations are of such size that we would be unable to see their whole extent in a single glance. It would be necessary to turn around in order to see their cir- cular walls which would appear like a long chain of more or less irreg- ular mountains. For some of them, if we were at their center, their ramparts would be so far distant as to be invisible, lost below our horizon. We must further remember that on the moon, because of the greater curvature of its globe, relative to the stature of man, the horizon is closer, and therefore objects disappear behind it at a shorter range. Only those craters which are very small and numerous and whose diameters are of the order of a kilometer may be wholly seen from one place. We should in no way compare them with the ordinary volcano whose crater is a cavity at the top of an elevated cone. The lunar craters, despite this name with which they are often designated, are comparable to excavations whose bottom levels are very much below the surrounding lunar surface above which the exterior surrounding walls rise very little. As to the extended gray plains, erroneously called seas, their great smooth surfaces must present a remarkably monotonous aspect broken here and there by immense fissures whose gigantic propor- tions have no parallel upon our earth. We can reproduce the contour of any given region on the moon since we have comparatively precise measures. Though such views can not lay claim to an absolute fidelity, they are probably nearly true. They contain a certain dose of imagination indispensable to fill the gaps in our knowledge of the minuter details. They, how- ever, can show us in an expressive fashion the general character of these extra-terrestrial regions. EXCURSIONS ON THE PLANETS—RUDAUX 187 But it is not the contour, the general outline of these moonscapes, which strikes the human eye with astonishment; it is the atmospheric conditions. We know that this globe, if not totally without an atmosphere, at least possesses none which we can detect. Conse- quently, since there is no air to scatter the light coming from the sun, this orb of day is enthroned in a black sky, dotted with stars as if at night. Moreover, a harsh light marks every detail, near or distant, with the same dry and insistent sharpness. How different is this view from those on our earth where the different distances merge harmoniously in blending vapors. It is surely in this man- ner that the eye will be most surprised, even though it is the eye of the most rabid impressionistic artist. Let the eye be that of an astronomer and his marvelling will be without end. Here our atmosphere interposes a serious obstacle to his contemplation of the heavens; it obstructs greatly the light coming from the stars, troubles their images, and even limits their visibility. It is, indeed, a real veil placed before his eyes. Upon the moon this veil is absent and the heavens shine in striking majesty. If the eyes are not dazzled by the blinding rays coming without hindrance directly from the sun, the unfathomable space will appear riddled with stars, more countless than on the earth, and these myriads of stars will show no scintillation. What a wonderful richness and what facility for observation would be the lot of the fortunate astronomer inhabiting the moon. Further, because of this same lack of an atmosphere, the rising and setting of the sun would offer appear- ances entirely unknown on the earth. At sunrise there would first appear the radiant glory of the sun’s corona; next those gigantic rose-colored flames, the protuberances, will rise above the horizon. On the earth these phenomena are visible to the unaided eye only during the short duration of a solar eclipse. Stretching far up- wards, like a great extension of the corona, will be seen the immense spindle-shaped zodiacal light, a phenomenon about which our ideas are still somewhat confused because of the difficulties in the way of its observation from the earth. This grand spectacle, of which Plate 1 is a very unsatisfactory replica, we can leisurely admire. For the rotation of the moon takes the same length of time as its revolutions about the earth—for which reason she always turns the same face toward us. This rotation time is twenty-seven times less rapid than that of the earth. The appar- ent movement of the heavens is of course slowed down in the same proportion and the stars will appear to rise and set with a majestic slowness. ‘Though the sky itself seems almest motionless, there is one celestial body which will appear to be at rest—our own earth. This is really not quite true, since, because of the unequal movement of the moon in its eccentric orbit, the terrestrial globe appears to oscil- 188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 late about a mean position. The sun and the stars appear to file slowly back of it, while all the time we can see it rotating upon its own axis and changing phase, like our moon, with the varying position of the sun from which it receives its illumination. The position in the sky where the earth will be seen changes with the position of the observer. From the central region of the lunar disk visible from the earth, it is enthroned in the lunar zenith. At the periphery, it will be seen on the horizon. (Pls.3and4.) In each position, it will have an aspect thirteen times greater than that of our moon. At the time it is full it will shine with intense brilliancy. Let us now leave this strange world, so near to us—only 384,000 kilometers (239,000 miles) distant. It is the excursion outside of the earth about which we can foretell the most. The facts we pos- sess about the other planets of the solar system are fewer, and to avoid pure phantasy we must limit ourselves to more general con- siderations. Let us remember that with regard to the worlds which we are to consider, though the facts relative to the appearances in the sky are exact, coming from mathematical deductions of measures, further than that we can offer only details which seem reasonable. We can not, for instance, say: Behold a landscape of the planet Mars! but, rather, a landscape which is theoretically possible on the planet Mars; or, better yet, what we conceive should be certain landscapes upon that planet. The “fixed stars” are so distant that their relative positions appear the same from whatever planet they are observed. There- fore, for each of these worlds the starry firmament would be the same as ours. However, from each one the other planets are seen with differing brightness, there are different moons, and, finally, the sun appears of very different size (pl. 5). Thus from Mercury, the planet closest to the sun, this central star appears enormous, in such proportions as Plate 5 indicates. Further, this great size varies notably because the orbit of Mercury is very eccentric. The apparent diameter of Mercury’s sun indi- cated (relative to that seen from the earth) is that when Mercury is in perihelion; that is, when it is nearest to the sun. What man- ner of landscape is lighted by this colossal furnace the heat of which we are certainly not so constituted as to be able to bear, especially since it stays immovable in the sky? For Mercury revolves about the sun, always turning the same side toward it. In order to enjoy the freshness of night we would have to travel around into the opposite hemisphere. Our knowledge about this planet is insignificant. Probably its surface has high mountains, but we can not estimate the importance of its atmosphere. Let us not delay upon this inhospitable world, EXCURSIONS ON THE PLANETS—RUDAUX 189 because of the great heat of the sun, but travel to Venus, farther off from the sun. Seen from Mercury, Venus at certain times would appear a truly blinding star. Again we have reached ’a planet about which we know very little. It appears from without of a brilliant whiteness, but we can detect no detail upon it probably because its thick cloudy atmosphere hides its soil from our eyes. Some astronomers believe that this atmos- phere is very rich in water vapor, others that it contains none! At any rate the density of its atmosphere is very great, almost double that of ours. Upon the surface of Venus, covered with this dense atmosphere, diffusing the intense light from the enormous sun as seen from there, a sort of luminous and troubled fog must singularly limit the range of vision, doubtless preventing the enjoyment of any extended landscape. What are these landscapes? In lieu of any- thing better, let us suppose there exists here a surface with some land but much water. Through the dense atmosphere, the stars are either only slightly or not at all visible. If the sun can be observed at set- ting, the phenomena of refraction will be noted as on the earth but much more in evidence, modifying strangely the appearance of the solar disk. (PI. 6, fig. 2.) ‘Farther away than the earth from the sun, upon the planet Mars, we should feel more at home. Day and night are scarcely longer than on the earth. Through an atmosphere very similar. to ours although less dense, the stars will appear in splendor, enriched with two small moons. ‘The smaller of these not only will appear to move with great speed but in an opposite direction from the apparent movement of the stars; indeed it revolves about Mars faster than the latter rotates upon its Aig At certain epochs, either in the morning or evening, the earth will be visible as morning or evening star, re- spetetrety. br illiant in the dawn or evening Ae the latter of ae duration because of the rarity of the Martian so uae The sky will appear darker during the daytime and the sun, a third smaller than from the earth, will illumine less brilliantly the doubtless more monotonous landscape. The most reliable observations indicate a ground with very little relief, probably almost everywhere level, cut here and there with immense swamps. Incontestably in every respect we should feel the most at home on this planet. But let us pursue our journey toward the giant planets. Upon them—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—we would no longer find ourselves upon solid ground, at least in the literal sense of the word. For it is very probable that these worlds are yet fluid, at any rate in a condition which would not admit of a solid surface: Tt would be impossible to find a landing place. Because of this cir- cumstance, we will suppose ourselves changed into immaterial beings though still retaining our organs of sight. If Jupiter should possess 20837—27——_14. 190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 a surface of any kind, it would appear of great extent to us because of the colossal dimensions of its globe. Wouldwe be able to see the heavens through the thick and dense atmosphere whose storminess we can observe from our earth? Let us suppose so, and then we would see the sun as a very small disk shining with hght twenty-five times fainter than as seen from the earth. That would be very meager for a sky so heavily clouded. Jupiter’s globe turns upon its axis once in nine hours and fifty minutes. The succession of day and night is therefore very rapid; only five hours elapse between the rising and setting of the diminutive appearing sun which passes rapidly across its sky. | Jupiter has nine moons but only five are visually of any importance nor can all be seen at the same time. Their apparent size, reckoned from their actual size and distance from Jupiter, shows them to be comparable to our moon. They are of greatly diminished bright- ness since the sun illumines them much less intensely. Suppose we now quit Jupiter to stop a moment, say, upon the nearest of its moons. From it the appearance of Jupiter will be immense because of the nearness of the giant globe as seen from this first satellite. Jupiter would indeed look like a formidable moon, one hundred times greater in diameter than our own, ten thousand times greater in extent of surface. Along with this same order of grandeur of ideas, an even more astonishing spectacle awaits the traveler who sets foot upon the satellites of Saturn, the nearest one especially. Situated in the plane of Saturn’s ring, this ring would appear only as a bright bar crossing the enormous globe of Saturn, but excessively distorted in dimensions by perspective, the whole system presenting very dif- ferent aspects than as seen from the earth. Add to this the eclipse of a portion of Saturn by the shadow of the rings (pl. 9), the phases of the enormous globe changing with the direction of the light from the sun, and we will still have only a partial conception of the views that would be presented to our eyes. If it were possible to land upon Saturn—and here the same doubt arises as in the case of Jupiter—the sky would have an aspect equally strange. From dif- ferent points of the globe, this sky, dotted with numerous moons, would be traversed by the luminous ring in varied aspects. At the Equator it would appear as a luminous thread passing through the zenith from one horizon to the other. At higher and higher lati- tudes toward the poles, it would appear as an arch, deformed some- what by perspective, and according to the season, which here are terrestrial years long, it would be cut by the shadow of Saturn itself. And further, depending upon the relative diameter of Saturn and the annular system and because of the marked polar flattening of the former, beyond latitudes 65° 11’, north or south, this marvel- EXCURSIONS ON THE PLANETS—RUDAUX 191 ous celestial arch would cease to be visible so that the polar inhabi- tants of Saturn must be completely ignorant of its existence. We are now very far away from the sun which will appear in the sky of Saturn only as a small disk ten times smaller in diameter and shining with one hundred times less light. For us earth dwellers that would be a melancholy illumination. But what would we say if there were possibilities of going yet farther off toward the planets Uranus and Neptune, where our sun would be reduced in grandeur to the appearance of a bright star shining with respectively four hundred and nine hundred times less ight than we receive on the earth. oF _ aes xa, ai Ti yok dh ip mb saaqas Hin doistar sed) ee Us, aa "3 *odocteH eat ollemts ear et pe 1 4 + fi mm 4 . leih eam een % ] oss, aie. tele ». devil ae ie era FAO “dlige Ctees sort) bigow, Me fy - me Leavbersad bipow: aie eo aad ani Kol Liste ase ff : wovitcoques dtive-gainide miaddyind miosone te Ra vould, oF a _ ee . eo ae gs ace ees t- ae a 4 pple fF.) POT SERSRT RELSSEL Ge eaiitib Bey RS PRES ee OAS HLINSZ SHL NI GaLVNLIS HLYVA 3HL Ad GSLVNIWATT] ayy OOIW| AHL NOdf ASINNNS SNOIDSY IWYLNAD AHL ‘YOLVNOA AHL LY GSLYNLIS S30V1d VW WOY¥4 NSS :N | 3LV1d XNBPNY—'9zZ6l ‘Wodey ueRluosyyWws YSLVYD YVNN] TIVWS V SO 1VOIdAL xnepny—’9z6| ‘Wodey uPlUOSY}!IWS G ALlVid Joyienb isi1y ey Jo yoody *q 1ST] [RoeVIpoz oy} Uodn pue vUO.00 SU JO ZU poyeurummy Auerytiaq sy. Aq pepunodins ‘eqo[s Imo :,,yjIve Mou,, Jo qoody *p 11 AG GALVNINATI] 3YY SLINWNS SSOHAM NIVLNNOIW SHL Ad GIH ‘NOZIHOH SHL HLVANSG ATIVLNOZINOH DNOTY SSAOIW NOS AHL ‘AMS SHL NI LSSY LV SYVaAddy HLYva AHL HONOHLIVY “NOO|| SHL SO SNOIDSY YV1IO0d NYAHLNOG AHL WOY4 NAS SASVHd SII GONV HLYVS AHL ey} wodn poqoofoid st ‘otoydsourjze € ALV1d xnepny—'9z6| ‘Wodey uBluosyyIws Joyrenb ysey oy Jo yoody *p « UMvo [[NJ,, og} Jo ood” 2 NOO| S3HL 4O SNOIDSY YV1I0d NYSHLNOS AHL WOYS4 NSAS SASWHd Sl] ONV HLYVS SHL b 3LV1d xnepny—9z6| ‘Wodey ueBluOsY}}WS W3LSAS YVIOS AHL 4O SLANV1d SNOINVA 3HL WON N33S SV NNS AHL 4O 3ZIS LNSYVddy SHL NI NOILVINVA SHL | agdJdaf e/ ap Tif SNUAN 4p dT juan ap AA ; : ° . SNUBS], © Af ASNISAOp{ FP PUSTLO ap tin’ : ° JIPLUN SY apr SICYW PROTA © pate xnepny—9z6l ‘Wodey ueluosyyWws Smithsonian Report, 1925.—Rudaux PLATE 6 1. THE PROBABLE CHARACTER OF THE SURFACE OF VENUS 2. THE SOLAR DISK DEFORMED BY ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION: (A) UPON THE EARTH; (B) UPON VENUS AMS SL] NI ANIHS ‘YVLS DNINSAQ NV 3yXIT ‘HLYVS SHL GNV SNOOIW TIVWS OML SLI “ONINSZAQ 4O SN AHL NI N3AS SUYVI LANV1d AHL NOdf 3dVOSGNYV7] V 43O YSLOVYVHD AIGVEOUd AHL 1 31V1d xnepny—'9Z6| ‘Wodey uBiuosyuyWS Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Rudaux PLATE 8 1. THE COMPARATIVE DIAMETERS OF OUR MOON AND THE SATELLITES OF MARS 2. THE MOONS OF JUPITER Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Rudaux PLATE 9 THE PLANET SATURN SEEN FROM ITS FIRST SATELLITE YOLVNOZ AHL WOH (8) -30NLILV] HSIH V WOU Naas (Vv) :-asO715 SLI SO SLYVd LNAYSS5SIGQ WOU NAS SI NYNLVS 3AO DNIY AHL MOH Ol AaLvV1d xnepny—'9z6l ‘Woday ueiuosyyiWsS HIGH FREQUENCY RAYS OF COSMIC ORIGIN? By R. A. MILLIKAN Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics, California Institute of Technology INTRODUCTION BY C. G. ABBOT The paper of Professor Millikan which follows may be compared with the work of Réntgen, published in the Smithsonian Report of 1897. Some years after his discovery of X rays, it was proved that, like light and Hertzian or radio rays, they consist of ether vibrations of the transverse type. X rays, however, lie in the range of wave lengths from fifty to five thousand times shorter than those which produce the sensation of yellow light in the eye. Now comes Professor Millikan with the most definite proof thus far obtained of a new type of rays also of the nature, as he thinks, of transversely vibrating waves, but whose wave lengths are of the order of two thousand times less than those of the shortest wave X rays. Rontgen’s X rays could penetrate flesh and thereby became a powerful aid in surgery and medicine. They could also penetrate many metals opaque to ordinary light. But the X rays are stopped by rather thin sheets of lead, so that X-ray photographers are accustomed to protect their sensitive plates by lead wrappers. Rdntgen, however, distinguished between different degrees of penetration in the rays he was able to produce. He introduced (one does not exactly know why) the term “ hard” to designate more penetrating and “ soft” to designate less penetrating X rays. After the measurements of X-ray wave lengths had been accomplished, some years later, the “hard” rays were found to differ in being shorter wave lengths than “ soft” ones. It is not surprising then that rays of two thousand times less wave length should be very “hard.”* Professor Millikan, indeed, finds that these new rays will penetrate the equivalent of 6 feet of lead, the most impenetrable of common metals for ordinary X rays. Still more noteworthy is the fact that the new rays do not appear to be engendered on this earth, but rather to fly about in every direction through the universe beyond our atmosphere. It is suggested by -Professor Millikan that they arise from the destruction of transmutation of atoms in those fiery laboratories, the stars. Such features make the subject of the new rays one of extraordinary interest and perhaps of great developmental possibilities. Readers will be interested to recognize in these new rays a very great addi- tion to the gamut of the spectrum described so well by the late Prof. E. F. Nichols in his paper in the Smithsonian Report for 1923. Our friends will also take pleasure in the thought that the Smithsonian Institution, by its support of the work of Langley in the infra-red, of Shumann in the ultra- violet, and by its articles in which the progress of knowledge of the extension 1 Reprinted by permission from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 12, No. 1, January, 1926. Read before the Academy Nov. 9, 1925. 193 194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 of the spectrum is described from time to time, has played a worthy part in the enormous development to which the following paper by Professor Millikan is so notable a continuation. It was as early as 1903 that the British physicists, McLennan and Burton? and Rutherford and Cooke ® noticed that the rate of leakage of an electric charge from an electroscope within an air-tight metal chamber could be reduced as much as 30 per cent by inclosing the chamber within a completely encircling metal shield or box with walls several centimeters thick. This meant that the loss of charge of the inclosed electroscope was not due to imperfectly insulating supports, but must rather be due to some highly penetrating rays, like the gamma rays of radium, which could pass through metal walls as much as a centimeter thick and ionize the gas inside. In view of this property of passing through relatively thick metal walls in measurable quantity, the radiation thus investigated was called the “ penetrating radiation ” of the atmosphere, and was at first quite naturally attributed to radioactive materials in the earth or air, and this is in fact the origin of the greater part of it. But in 1910 and 1911 it was found that it did not decrease as rapidly with altitude as it should upon this hypothesis. The first significant report upon this point was made by the Swiss physicist, Gockel,* who took an inclosed electroscope up in a balloon with him to a height of 18,000 feet and reported that he found the “ penetrating radiation ” about as large at this altitude as at the earth’s surface, and this despite the fact that according to Eve’s® calculation it ought to have fallen to half its surface value in going up 250 feet. In 1911, 1912, 1918, and 1914 two physicists, Hess,° a Swiss, and Kolhorster,’? a German, repeated these balloon measurements of Gockel’s, the latter going to a height of 9 kilometers, or 5.6 miles, and reported that they found this radiation decreasing a trifle for the first mile or so and then increasing until it reached a value at 9 kilometers, according to Kolhérster’s measurements, eight times as great as at the surface. This seemed to indicate that the penetrating rays came from outside the earth, and were, therefore, of some sort of cosmic origin. If so it was computed ® that in order to fit the Hess and Kolhoérster data the rays had to have an absorption coef- ficient of 0.57 per meter of water and an ionizing power within a closed vessel sent to the top of our atmosphere of at least 500 ions per cubic centimeter per second in place of the 10 or 12 ions found 2McLennan and Burton, Physic. Rey., 16, 184, 1903. 8 Rutherford and Cooke, ibid., 16, 183, 1903. 4Gockel, Physik Zeit., 11, 280, 1910. 5 ive, Phil. Mag., 21, 26, 1911. 6 Hess, Physik Zeit., 12, 998, 1911, and 138, 1084, 1912. 7 Kolhorster, ibid., 14, 1158, 1918, and D. Physik Ges., July 30, 1914. 81). v. Schweidler, Elster u. Geitel Fest schrift, p. 415, 1915. HIGH FREQUENCY RAYS—MILLIKAN 195 in ordinary electroscopes at the surface. The war put a stop the world over to further studies of this sort, but as soon as we could get the proper instruments built after the war in the newly equipped Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics, I. S. Bowen and myself went to Kelly Field, near San Antonio, Tex., as with four little record- ing electroscopes which we succeeded in the spring of 1922 in sending up in sounding balloons to almost twice the heights which had previ- ously been attained. The highest flight reached the altitude of 15.5 kilometers, or nearly 10 miles. These instruments were interesting in that, though they were built of steel to hold 300 cubic centimeters of air at 150 pounds pressure, and were provided each with a recording barometer, thermometer, and electroscope, also with two different sets of moving photographic films and the necessary driving mechanism, the total weight of the whole instrument was yet but 190 grams, or about 7 ounces. The altitudes were determined not only from the now well-established law of ascent of balloons, but also by direct, two theodolite observa- tions which Maj. William R. Blair of the United States Signal Corps kindly sent Lieutenant McNeil to Kelly Field for the express pur- pose of making for us. In these experiments we expected, if the results previously re- ported were correct, to find very large rates of discharge; for our instruments went up to such heights that 88 per cent of the atmos- phere had been left beneath them, and only 12 per cent was left to cut down, by its absorption, the intensity of the hypothetical rays entering from outside. In other words, our electroscopes should have been exposed to radiations approaching in intensity those existing at the very top of our atmosphere. We actually failed to find any- thing like the computed rates of discharge. Our experiments were in agreement with those of the European observers in that our electroscopes showed a somewhat higher rate of discharge at high altitudes than at the surface, but at the same time they proved conclusively that a radiation of the assumed properties did not exist, our observed rates of discharge being not more than one-fourth the computed amounts. Since the origin of the “ penetrating rays” was still uncertain, Dr. Russell Otis and myself in the summer of 1923 went to the top of Pike’s Peak for the sake of making absorption experiments upon this radiation at the highest altitude to which we could carry large quantities of absorbing materials. For if the rays were not of cosmic origin they did not need to be more penetrating than are the gamma rays from radioactive materials, while if they were of cosmic origin the sounding balloon experiments of Bowen and myself had shown that they must be very much harder (more penetrating) than any- 196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 body had thus far assumed. What was needed was absorption experiments to determine just what sort of rays they actually were. We carried 300 pounds of lead and a 6 by 6 by 6 foot tank of water to the top of the peak and obtained as the net result of these absorp- tion experiments the definite proof that the rays found at the top of Pike’s Peak were predominantly of the hardness of ordinary gamma rays, and further that they were very largely, if not entirely, of local origin, since local conditions, such as a heavy snow storm and bliz- zard, which occurred while we were there, varied their intensity nearly as much inside a screen of 4.8 centimeters of lead as outside. Kolhorster had by this time, after the brief publication of our Kelly Field data, and as a result, also, of new experiments made subse- quently to them in crevasses and holes in glaciers in the Alps, reduced his estimated absorption coefficients ®° from 0.57 to 0.25, a change he regards as within the limits of his experimental uncertainties, but a change which made the assumed rays so hard as to be no longer irreconcilable with our sounding balloon observations. But we found that our Pike’s Peak observations were not yet compatible with his now (1923) assumed characteristics of rays of cosmic origin, viz., rays which produce 2 ions per second per cubic centimeter at the earth’s surface, and have a coeflicient of 0.25 per meter of water. For while in going from the altitude of Pasadena to that of Pike’s Peak the number of ions observed with the unshielded electroscope in- creased from 11.6 to 22.2, an increase of 10.6 ions, the number of ions observed through the Shield of 4.8 centimeters of lead increased but from 9.37 to 11.6, an increase of only 2.23 ions. But radiation of the characteristics assumed above would have caused by itself, inside our lead screen, an increase of 3.34 ions, even if none of the large increase in radiation shown by the unshielded observations got through the lead shield—a supposition which we believed to be contrary to fact. In a word, our Pike’s Peak observations showed that if rays of cosmic origin existed at all they must be of different characteristics from any as yet suggested, and they further showed most interestingly that a very copious soft radiation of unknown origin existed at the altitude of Pike’s Peak. Accordingly, Mr. Harvey Cameron and myself planned some new experiments for the summer of 1925 which were designed: (1) To settle definitely the question of the existence or non- existence of a small, very penetrating radiation of cosmic origin—a radiation so hard as to be uninfluenced by, and hence unobservable with the aid of, such screens as we had taken to Pike’s Peak—and, (2) To throw light on the cause of the variation with altitude of the radiation of gamma-ray hardness which our absorption experi- ® Kolhorster, Sitz.-Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 34, 366, 23. HIGH FREQUENCY RAYS—MILLIKAN 197 ments on Pike’s Peak showed to be more than twice as copious there as at Pasadena. The only possible absorbing material obtainable in the immense quantities needed, and of homogeneous and nonradioactive constitu- tion, were the waters of very deep snow-fed lakes—snow-fed be- cause the results of underwater experiments which we had previously carried on near Pasadena had been vitiated by our discovery that the waters were appreciably radioactive. We felt that there was much uncertainty as to how much this cause might have affected the Huropean observations in and about glaciers. Further, our Pike’s Peak experiments had demonstrated that if any of the penetrating rays were of cosmic origin the ionization due to them in our electro- scope at sea level had to be much less than the 2 ions, assumed above, out of the 11.6 observed, the experimental error being, say, half an ion. No crucial tests could, therefore, possibly be made unless we could find very deep, nonradioactive lakes at very high altitudes where cosmic rays, if they existed, had two or three times the ionizing effect to be expected from them at sea level. We needed at least three ions due to cosmic rays, to vary with absorbing materials, if we were to obtain unambiguous evidence. We chose for the first experiments Muir Lake (11,800 feet high), just under the brow of Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the United States, a beautiful snow-fed lake hundreds of feet deep and some 2,000 feet in diameter. Here we worked for the last 10 days in August, sinking our electroscopes to various depths down to 67 feet. Our experiments brought to light altogether unambiguously a radia- tion of such extraordinary penetrating power that the electroscope readings kept decreasing down to a depth of 50 feet below the sur- face. The atmosphere above the lake was equivalent in absorbing power to 23 feet of water, so that here were rays so penetrating that, if they came from outside the atmosphere, they had the power of passing through 50+-23—73 feet of water, or the equivalent of 6 feet of lead, before being completely absorbed. The most penetrating X rays that we produce in our hospitals can not go through half an inch of lead. Here were rays at least a hundred times more pene- trating than these, and having an absorption coefficient but one twenty-fifth, instead of “about one-tenth of that of the hardest known gamma rays.” ® How unambiguous was the experimental evidence may be seen from the fact that with the aid of a new electroscope of high sensi- tivity the change in ions per cubic centimeter per second in going from the surface of Muir Lake to the depth of 15 meters (50 feet) ® Kolhorster, Sitz.-Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 34, 366, 23. 198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 was from 13.9 ions to 3.8 ions, or a decrease to about a fourth value. The largest decrease below a surface reading reported by Kolhorster due to sinking electroscopes in water ® was 2.1 ions, or a decrease of perhaps 20 per cent, so that we have here obtained an altogether new precision of measurement and unambiguity of evidence. To obtain definite evidence as to whether these very hard rays were of cosmic origin, coming in wholly from above and using the at- mosphere merely as an absorbing blanket, we next went to another very deep snow-fed lake, Lake Arrowhead in the San Bernardino Mountains, 300 miles farther south and 6,700 feet lower in altitude, where the Arrowhead Development Co. kindly put all their facili- ties at our disposal. The atmosphere between the two altitudes has an absorbing power equivalent to about 6 feet of water. Within the limits of observational error, every reading in Arrowhead Lake cor- responded to a reading 6 feet farther down in Muir Lake, thus show- ing that the rays do come in definitely from above, and that their origin is entirely outside the layer of atmosphere between the levels of the two lakes. Analysis of our absorption curves shows that the rays are not ho- mogeneous but are hardened as they go through the atmosphere, just as XM rays are hardened by being filtered through a lead screen. Our hardest observed rays have an absorption coeticient of 0.18 per meter of water and the softest which get down to Muir Lake a coefficient of 0.3 per meter. The sounding balloon experiments of Bowen and myself make it improbable that they become very much softer than this at the top of the atmosphere, since otherwise we should have obtained larger readings in our very high flight. Observations carried on day and night for four consecutive days on Pike’s Peak at an altitude of 14,100 feet; and for two consecutive days on Mount Whitney at an altitude of 13,500 feet reveal no pref- erential direction in the heavens from which the rays come. Within the limits of our uncertainty of measurements, then, these rays shoot through space equally in all directions. When absorption coefficients are reduced to wave length by a formula? of probable, though not yet certain, validity our hardest observed rays have the wave length 0.00038 A, and those of longer wave length go up to nearly twice this value, i. e., we find a spectrum about an octave in width in a frequency een iki two thousand times higher than that of the mean X ray (1 A), or as far above X rays as X rays are above light. The shortest wave length just computed corresponds to a frequency ten million times higher than that of visible light. When these extraordinary high-frequency rays strike the earth, according to the now well-established Compton effect, they should 20 N, Ahmad, Proc. Roy. Soc., A109, 206, 1925. HIGH FREQUENCY RAYS—MILLIKAN 199 be transformed partially into soft rays of just about the hardness of the soft rays which we have actually observed on Pike’s Peak and Mount Whitney. The reason these soft rays were more plentiful on the mountain peaks than at Pasadena would then be found simply in the fact that there are about three times as many of the hard rays to be transformed at the altitudes of the peaks as at that of Pasadena. This seems to be the solution of the second of our summer’s problems. We can draw some fairly reliable conclusions of a general sort as to the origin of these very penetrating and very high-frequency rays. The most penetrating rays that we have known anything about thus far, the gamma rays of radium and thorium, are produced only by nuclear transformations within atoms. In other words, they are produced by the change of one atom over into another atom, or by the creation of a new type of atom. It is scarcely possible, then, to avoid the conclusion that these still more penetrating rays which we have here been studying are produced similarly by nuclear transformations of some sort. But these transformations must be enormously more energetic than are those taking place in any radio- active changes that we know anything about. For, according to our present knowledge, the frequency of any emitted ray is proportional to the energy of the subatomic change giving birth to it. We can scarcely avoid the conclusion, then, that nuclear changes having an energy value perhaps fifty times as great as the energy changes involved in observed radioactive processes are taking place all through space, and that signals of these changes are being sent to us in these high frequency rays. The energy of the nuclear change that corresponds to the forma- tion of helium out of hydrogen is known, and from it we have com- puted the corresponding frequency and found it to correspond closely to the highest frequency rays which we have observed this summer. The computed frequencies of these cosmic rays also correspond closely to the energy involved in the simple capture of an electron by a positive nucleus. Thus, the highest speed B ray emitted by thorium leaves its mother atom with a speed which is equivalent to the energy acquired by the fall of an electron through 7,540,000 volts.11_ This electron in order to get out of the mother atom was obliged to move against the pull upon it of the positive nucleus, and in this act it gained a potential energy the equivalent of a fall through 4,400,000 volts.12 If this same electron had reversed its path and plunged into the nucleus it should have generated in so doing a 12,000,000-volt ray (7,540,000-+-4,400,000). The cosmic rays “4 Report of Committee on X Rays and Radioactivity of National Research Council, 1925, p. 92. “ Report of Committee on X Rays and Radioactivity of National Research Council, 1925, p. 68. 200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 with which we have been dealing have frequencies which make them the equivalent of from 12 to 30 million volt rays. It is not improb- able that the capture of an electron by the nucleus of a ight atom involves a higher energy than its capture by a heavy one, so that such captures as are here discussed constitute, perhaps, the most plausible hypothesis as to the origin of these rays. Is it possible to imagine such a phenomenon going on all through space? The difficulty is not so insuperable, in view of the trans- parency even of large amounts of matter for these hard rays combined with Hubbell’s recent proof +* at the Mount Wilson Observatory that some of the spiral nebulae are at least 1,000,000 light-years away. The centers at which these nuclear changes are taking place would then only have to occur at extraordinarily widely scattered intervals to produce the intensity of the radiation observed at Muir Lake. The only alternative hypothesis to that above presented of high- frequency rays transvering space in all directions, might seem to be to assume that the observed rays are generated in the upper layers of the atmosphere by electrons shooting through space in all direc- tions with practically the speed of light. This hypothesis might help some in interpreting the mysterious fact of the maintenance of the earth’s negative charge, but it meets with insuperable obstacles, I think, in explaining quantitatively the variation with altitude of the ionization in closed vessels. In any case, in its most important aspect, this hypothesis is very much like the one presented above, for it, too, fills space with rays of one sort or another traveling in all directions with the speed of light. From some such conception as this there now seems to be no escape. And yet it is a conception which is almost too powerful a stimulus to the imagination. Pro- fessor MacMillan of Chicago will wish to see in it evidence for the condensation into matter out somewhere in space of the light and heat continually being radiated into space by the sun and stars,’* an altogether permissible speculation. Unfortunately the psychics will of course be explaining all kinds of telepathies with the aid of these cosmic rays. But, be that as it may, the simple experimental facts, as shown by the foregoing work, are: (1) That these extraordinary penetrating rays exist; (2) That their mass absorption coefficient may be as high as 0.18 per meter of water; (3) That they are not homogeneous, but are distributed through a spectral region far up above X-ray frequencies—probably one thousand times the mean frequencies of X rays; 18 Hubbell, Pop. Astron., 33, pp. 252—255, 1925. 44 MacMillan, Science, 62, 122, 1925. HIGH FREQUENCY RAYS—MILLIKAN 201 (4) That these hard rays stimulate, upon striking matter, softer rays of about the hardness predicted by the theory of the Compton effect ; (5) That these rays come into the earth with equal intensity day and night and at all hours of the day or night, and with practically the same intensity in all directions. Mr. I. 8. Bowen, Dr. Russell Otis, Mr. G. Harvey Cameron and myself, all of whom have participated in this investigation and have received invaluable aid from the instrument maker, Mr. Julius Pear- son, will publish full details of this work elsewhere. sotkoa Hoticay, 2a avs dus lpoerei Sayer. bard Rodeo >ideth bo? wera niyo % rg Romp sec1 bls. ; war's he } i . 5- “ ies bseptiereotint lenponditinn: dines ob odast: DATOS ty EE af d rie ; TOR; e ab hi itt ve mio. {ip ia bee deg} : wistonigoaih [Le gi elie acoder Sitte bie noronse yee ts IX eee eit Meoanch, 2G. stoweodd r ad bre heiiieittcormt aidtoat. fo baegindss a oy ried enous to I Stt wens austin casas ndardnonmtianiveds mort bis olderslas 7sth be Es; % nlemamds Thy: | PS oral ea meld ripen auld fo-alictoh Lik plank or ze H vi hens —y a 7 7. § e } PP J? $ : i ¢ eal. t 7 ; YE ae * r; 23h ¥ : . f try Ot the aK 4 j “2 ( = t wf z ¢ 4 ; anal »? wcudite 4 : rs Sg we * ’ 7 4 a TORR is nf ‘ 4 : ; : ; t’ i : THE PRESENT STATUS OF RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES? By L. W. AUSTIN Laboratory for Special Radio Transmission Research? Our knowledge concerning atmospheric disturbances is still very meager. The observed facts may be catalogued as follows: (1) In general, atmospherics are stronger at the longer wave lengths. (2) Except for the effects of local storms, they are nearly always stronger in the afternoon and night, while for the higher frequencies this increase in strength is confined usually to the night alone. (38) They are stronger in summer than in winter, (4) in the south than in the north, and (5) on the land than on the ocean. (6) A large proportion of them appear to be directive; that is, to come from definite regions, or centers, as mountain ranges, rain areas, or thun- derstorms. It is also reasonably certain that (7) at least most of the long-wave disturbances travel along the earth with a practically vertical wave front,’ like the signals; (8) that a considerable portion are oscillatory in character, though a certain portion are nonoscilla- tory and give rise to shock oscillations in the antenna at all wave lengths; and (9) that disturbances sometimes occur simultaneously at stations thousands of miles apart.* The crigin of the ordinary rumbling disturbances (grinders) has been the subject of many conjectures. Eccles ® believed at one time that he had found the source of this type of disturbance, as far as England was concerned, in distant thunderstorms, especially in Western Africa. “DeGroot ® has suggested that the grinders are due to the bombardment of the upper atmosphere by electrons from the sun or charged cosmic dust. The idea that this type of disturbance 1Presented at the annual meeting of the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Elec- tricity of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, D..C., Apr. 30, 1925. Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. S. Department of Com- merce. Reprinted by permission from Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. 16; No. 2, Jan. 19, 1926. 2 Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the American Section of the Inter- national Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy. 3 Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 11: 101. 1921. £M. Baumler, Jahrb. d. Drabtlosen Teleg., 19: 325. 1922. This matter of simultaneous crashes needs further investigation since a certain number of such coincidences may eyi- dently occur by chance. 5 Electrician (London), 69: 75. 1912. SPrOC., 1. uBies Won Oise h e- bo b< 203 204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 comes in some way from above has also been held by Weagant.’ Mosler,® while ascribing the disturbances to thunderstorms, concluded in contradiction to the ideas of Eccles, that thunderstorms could give rise to atmospherics only over a radius of about 60 miles. This limitation in distance was very probably due to insensitive appara- tus. A very systematic study of thunderstorms and atmospherics, undertaken by the British Meteorological Office and the Admiralty, has apparently settled the fact that thunderstorms can be located with modern apparatus up to about 1,500 miles.® There is still much difference of opinion as to the proportion of atmospherics which is due to thunderstorms. Professor Appleton, at a symposium *° on atmospheric ionization and radiotelegraphy, November 28, 1924, expressed the opinion that practically all atmos- pheric disturbances might be produced by thunderstorms somewhere in the world. It is undoubtedly true that thunderstorms produce many atmos- pherics, but it is not by any means certain that the lightning flashes themselves are always the actual sources. There is a widely pre- vailing idea among radio operators that the lightning fiash often produces only a harmless click in the telephone receivers. I have made some observations during thunderstorms, using a coupled cir- cuit with rectifying vacuum tube and galvanometer, which indi- cated that lightning flashes, even within 3 or 4 miles, were not as powerful in their effects on the receiving apparatus as many of the disturbances which occurred when no flashes were apparent. This comparatively feeble effect of the flashes is difficult to understand if the current rise at the beginning of the flash is as steep as is often assumed. but would be understandable if the lightning discharge curves were of the form and duration of the atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton and Watt (figs. 1-5). On the other hand, it is quite possible that the small deflections from the light- ning flashes were due to a paralysis of the detector tube, a phenom- enon which often occurs when the tube is exposed to very high elec- tromotive forces. It must, therefore, be concluded that the connec- tion between lightning and atmospherics is still not clear, and val- uable work can be done by anyone who will watch the lightning and listen to the atmospheric crashes from thunderstorms in the neighbor- hood.*? At the London Physical Society symposium already mentioned, Prof. C. 'T. R. Wilson discussed the probability of there being dis- METOC. Te othe Wea pes DO ts LOL: 8 Wlektrot. Zeits., 1134. 1912. ® World Power, 3: 20. 1925. 10 Proc. Phys. Soc., London, 37: 2D-50D (appendix). 1925. Jt appears that for wave lengths below 1,000 meters, when thunderstorms are within a few miles, the visible discharges produce most of the strong disturbance crashes, RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES—AUSTIN 205 charges of thunderclouds to the upper conducting region of the atmosphere. His calculations indicated that thunderclouds of com- mon electric moment might very readily discharge to a conducting layer at a height of 60 or 80 kilometers, since the electric force required to produce discharge decreases even more rapidly with the height than the electric force of the thundercloud. Discharges of this kind, probably nonluminous, may possibly furnish the explana- tion of the strong atmospherics heard from thunderclouds when no flashes are visible. Mr. Watson Watt, in analyzing the records of European * direc- tion-finding stations, concluded that in only about 35 per cent of r-- Ss ise Sec, cmap (4) (5) Fies. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.—Atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton and Watt the cases could thunderstorms be identified as the sources of atmos- pheric disturbances, though in about 75 per cent of the cases the indentified sources were rain areas of some kind. Captain Bureau * of the French Meteorological Office has recently published papers in which he shows that many of the atmospheric disturbances in France are closely connected with the advance of meteorological cold fronts and that the atmospherics are accentuated when these air movements come in contact with mountain ranges. For the determination of the direction from which atmospheric disturbances come, Mr. Watt ** has invented an automatic recording 2 Nature, 110: 680. 1922. 18C-R, Acad. Sci., 176: 556 and 1623. 1924: L’Onde Blectrique, 3: 385. 1924. 4 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 102: 460. 1923. Phil. Mag., 45: 1010. 1923. 206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 apparatus in which a radiocompass coil, tuned to about 30,000 meters, is rotated slowly and continuously by clockwork, the atmos- pheric crashes being recorded on a drum attached to the coil. It should be said in this connection that it has been very common in Europe to estimate the strength of atmospherics by the number of disturbances occurring in a given time. This method, of course, would hardly seem to be applicable to our Washington summer conditions, or to the conditions during the disturbance season in the tropics where often in the afternoons and evenings the noise in the telephones forms an almost continuous rumbling through which no signal can be heard unless it is strong enough to rise above the background of disturbing sounds. If, indeed, there is a physical difference between the atmospherics, crashes, grinders, etc., it is not at all certain that what is being measured in Europe by the counting method is the same thing that is being measured in America, either by direct estimates of the average disturbance strength, or by measuring the strength of signal which can be read through the disturbances. On the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States, except for occasional local thunderstorms, very little certain connection has been noticed between the direction of the atmospheric disturbances and rain areas. On the Atlantic coast, the main disturbances seem to come roughly from the Southwest, but it seems uncertain whether the sources are in the Allegheny Mountains or much farther re- moved, perhaps in Yucatan. Experiments reported by the Navy Department in New Orleans have indicated the more southerly origin. Unfortunately, very few triangulation experiments have been made in America for fixing the exact positions of sources of atmos- pherics. In most cases, therefore, the direction is all that is known. Observations made at Madison, Wisconsin, by Professor Terry of the University of Wisconsin, covering the last two years, show conditions in the Middle West which are similar to those described by the con- tinental European observers; that is, there is no single prevailing direction of the atmospherics, but a more or less definite connection with thunderstorms and other rain areas. This absence of any pre- vailing southerly source of atmospherics in the central portion of the country casts doubt on the Mexican origin of those observed in the Atlantic coast region, since the distance from Yucatan to Madison, Wisconsin, is about the same as from Yucatan to Washington. On the Pacific coast of the United States it is pretty well estab- lished that at least at San Francisco and San Diego the sources of disturbances are largely local, lying in the mountain ranges not far from the coast. These centers seem to be permanently fixed, resulting in very constant directional conditions. RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES—AUSTIN 207 It seems to be pretty well settled, in all parts of the world where observations have been made, that there is a very definite connection between the intensity of the disturbances and the position of the sun. In the Northern Hemisphere during the winter when the sun is far in the south, the disturbances are generally moderate even as far south as Panama, within 9° of the equator. But as the sun comes north in the spring, there is often a rapid and, sometimes, very sudden increase in strength, and it is reported that stations close to the Iquator experience two disturbance maxima, corresponding to the two periods when the sun is nearly overhead. In addition to the study of the sources of the disturbances, the question of their wave form is of much importance. Messrs. ‘Watt and Appleton* in England, working under the Radio Research Board, have made some investigations of this problem, making use of the cathode-ray oscillograph (Braun tube). In their work the atmospheric disturbance, after being received on an aperiodic antenna and amplified by an aperiodic resistance-coupled amplifier, was impressed on one pair of plates of the oscillograph, while a source of 60-cycle current was connected to the other pair of plates for the purpose of drawing out the spot of light into a line on the fluorescent screen. The resulting movement of the spot of light could not be photographed, but could be observed and sketched with some accuracy. Five typical curves are shown in the figures. Most of these appear to be aperiodic, though some are feebly oscillatory. In Figure 3 it is seen that there are minute oscillations superposed on the main curve. It will be noted that the period of main oscilla- tion is, in all cases, of audio frequency; and Eckersley ** has pointed out recently that the relatively prolonged impulses of Watt and Ap- pleton can not account for the observed intensity of the atmos- pherics, ordinarily experienced in radio reception. He suggests that possibly the ripples, such as are shown in Figure 38, may be the actual atmospheric waves. Mr. Watt in the symposium cited accepts this view and adds that more recent experiments in Egypt and elsewhere in the Tropics show that there the fine ripple structure is much more common and of much greater amplitude than in England. Profes- sor Appleton, on the other hand, holds that the low-frequency wave forms shown in the figures are capable of producing the observed dis- turbances at all wave lengths by shock excitation. In conclusion, the differences of opinion mentioned in this paper show that there is still much to be done before the sources of the disturbances are identified with certainty. While many of the at- 45 Proc. Roy. Soe., A, 103: 84. 1923. 16 Wleetrician (London), 93: 150. 1924. 208 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 mospherics undoubtedly come from thunderstorms, many appear to come from regions where no such storms are occurring. It is also believed that even in thunderstorms some of the heaviest disturb- ances do not come from the lightning itself, but the nature of these nonluminous sources of such great power is still a matter of conjecture. COLD LIGHT? ’ By E. Newron Harvey, Pu. D. Professor of Physiology, Princeton University Man may well pride himself upon the development of heat, light, and electricity. Modern comfort is dependent on them. Few would welcome their disappearance despite the present tendency to decry the complexity of a mechanical age. But let us not forget that living creatures have long possessed methods of producing heat, light, and electricity quite different from those of the furnace, the lamp, or the dynamo. Mammals and birds maintain their body temperature continually above that of their surroundings. They possess eternal fires and effi- cient thermoregulation, which makes them independent of cold. Fireflies and other luminous animals have flashed their lights for countless ages, while electric fish can generate currents strong enough to ring a bell or light an incandescent lamp. We speak of the production of light by living things as biolumi- nescence, and few subjects touch as diverse fields of inquiry or interest as many investigators. It appeals to the morphologist, the physi- ologist, the chemist, the physicist, the philosopher, and the illuminat- ing engineer. Those who have seen the brilliant flashes of innumer- able fireflies, filling the fields on a midsummer night, or the sea a vivid sheet of flame when disturbed by some passing ship, can not but marvel at the display. Slow is the imagination which will not inquire how and why this light is emitted, or whether we may not some day successfully develop a “cold light,” modeled on nature’s plan. It is possible in the space at my disposal to state only the general facts of bioluminescence and discuss some recent experiments bearing on the physical chemistry of the process. While fireflies have been known for centuries to all people, it is about 50 years since we have recognized the cause of certain other phosphorescences of liv- ing things. The glowing of dead fish or the glowing of meat in refrigerators. or the glowing of wood were definitely proved to be due to living organisms in 1875 when it was shown that these lumi- nescences were of plant or animal origin. 1 Reprinted by permission from Princeton Alumni Weekly, Vol. XXVI, No. 33, June 2, 1926. Appeared also in Scientia, May, 1927. 209 210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 In 1810 a paper was presented to the Royal Society of London by a man named McCartney, setting forth the causes of the light or phosphorescence of the sea. He goes over some of the older theories which had been advanced to account for the phenomenon. Some had thought that the light was due to “ putrefaction,” because it had been known that dead matter might become luminous. Others thought that the light of the sea was electric, because it was excited by “ friction.” Others thought that it was “ phosphoric,” that the element phosphorus was present in the sea, which phosphoresced as it does on a match. Others thought that the sea imbibed light which it afterwards gave off, much as will a phosphorescent mineral like calcium sulphide. Finally McCartney decided that the phosphorescence of the sea was due to animals living in it, and this is the correct explanation. Every phosphorescence of the sea is due to one or another form, usually microscopic, but many visible to the naked eye. I think few people realize how many luminescent organisms there are. If we examine the different groups of animals, we find that at least 40 different orders contain one or more forms producing light, and at least two groups of plants are luminescent. The two plants which produce light are the fungi and the bacteria. All the phosphores- cence of wood is due to fungi, and all the phosphorescence of dead meat or fish in refrigerators, and other dead matter is due to bacteria. These luminous bacteria are very widespread and grow readily on an appropriate culture medium. Not only bacteria and fungi, but sponges, jellyfish, comb jellies, hydroids, sea pens, minute organisms in the water known as dino- flagellates and radiolaria, many kinds of marine worms and earth- worms, centipedes, brittle stars, several mollusks, many kinds of shrimp and crabs, and many kinds of cuttlefish or squid as well as true fish produce light. The number of luminescent species runs into the tens of thousands. In some squid (Watasenia) the ends of the tentacles contain luminous organs, and as the squid swims through the water, it waves these tentacles around and flashes them much as the firefly does. This form is found in Japan and is called “ hotaru ika,” or firefly squid. Another kind of squid (Heteroteuthis) from the Italian coast, throws out luminous secretion into the sea water. It lives in the depths of the sea, in perpetual darkness. The luminous secretion is manufactured in a gland corresponding to the ink sac that in surface squid produces the ink. According to the direction of evolu- tion this gland has produced the blackest known fluid in cuttlefish, or a fluid not only transparent but one shining with its own light in Heteroteuthis. It is startling enough to see a cuttlefish surround COLD LIGHT—-HARVEY 211 itself with a black mass of ink; imagine one’s surprise at the dis- charge of a cloud of “ fire ” that glows in the sea water for some time. What is the use of this remarkable power? Perhaps to frighten or blind predacious animals while the squid makes good its escape. It is not known with certainty. Many fish produce a light of their own, apart from the light of luminous bacteria growing on the dead fish. The living fish contain organs which in themselves are light-producing, especially forms liv- ing in the deep sea. These organs are arranged in rows on the sides or bottom of the fish, giving it the appearance of a ship with all its port holes illuminated. Sometimes the organ is dangled on the end of a long stalk projecting from the head of the fish, a Diogenes of the deep in search of an honest meal. Some of these luminous organs are exceedingly interesting from a structural standpoint because they are veritable lanterns. ‘They have been carefully studied by Prof. Ulric Dahlgren °94, who has con- tributed much to our knowledge of the histology of luminous animals. In many ways they resemble the eye because they have a lens, except that the lens in the case of the luminous organ is used for directing the light, whereas in the eye it is used for receiving the light and converging it on to the retina. The more complicated of these lumi- nous organs have not only a lens, they have also a layer of cells which contain a shiny material, and this shiny material makes the layer act as a reflector, so that when the light is produced in the middle of the organ, that which comes back against the reflector is shot forward and out through the lens, and all the light is directed and concentrated ina beam. Not only does the organ have reflectors, it has also opaque screens, in order to protect the tissues of the ani- mals from any light which may pass out the side and possibly injure cells around the luminous organ. Light—strong light, at least—is destructive to living tissue, and where we have an organ in the animal producing a light of its own, we have, practically, a very strong light, and we find in most cases the organs or tissues pro- tected by some kind of a screen. There may also be present color screens, which allow only certain wave lengths to pass, and so give the light a definite color. These have been described in luminous cuttlefish from the depths of the ocean. One species has at least three colored luminous organs—a blue, a violet, and a reddish organ. An insect from South America has not only white luminous organs, but also red ones, and these red lights, so it is said, are very conveniently situated at the tail of the insect, and the white lights at the head. It is know locally as the “ automobile bug.” Two luminous fishes found in the Dutch East Indies, in the Banda Sea, are of great interest, because they have developed a luminous 212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 organ designed for the support of luminous bacteria. The organ is large, just under the eye, and the bacteria are of a special kind which will not grow on ordinary culture media or on the outside of the fish. They are spoken of as symbiotic luminous bacteria and present only another case of a mutual benefit partnership between two different organisms. The fish have the benefit of the light while the bacteria are supplied with free board and lodging. A very rich system of blood capillaries brings food and oxygen so necessary for the lumi- nescence of these bacteria. It is characteristic of luminous bacteria that their light is shining day and night continually, as long as they are alive, while other luminous forms only light when they are stimulated. We observe this in the phosphorescence of the sea, which only occurs when the water is agitated by wind or the ship’s propeller or movement of oars. Consequently these fish have had to develop a screen to cut off the light, and we find a fold of black pigmented skin, like an eyelid, that can be drawn up over the lumi- nous organ and so obscure its light. Hence the name of the fish, Photoblepharon, or “ light eyelid.” The fishermen of Banda cut off these luminous organs, remove the screen, and impale them on hooks for bait. The light will shine steadily for a night’s fishing. But Photoblepharon itself swims about in the sea turning its great lumi- nous organ on and off like many another fish that manufactures its own light material without relying on the kind assistance of lumi- nous bacteria. Only a careful microscopic examination reveals the true nature of the luminescence of Photoblepharon. One can not be too careful in investigating the light production of a new form. I remember once while collecting luminous beetles in Cuba I was astonished to find a luminous frog. As fish are the highest creatures which can produce light, a frog with luminous organs would be a rare find indeed. My hopes were short-lived, however, for closer examination revealed that the animal had just finished a hearty meal of fireflies, whose light was shining through the belly with considerable intensity. Some cases of luminosity are on record in connection with man himself. Before the days of aseptic and antiseptic surgery, wounds frequently became infected with luminous bacteria and glowed at night. The surgeons of that time believed that luminous wounds were more apt to heal properly than nonluminous ones. Perhaps there is some truth in this view. Luminous bacteria are harmless nonpathogenic forms and it is possible that such forms might crowd out pathogenic bacteria striving to gain the ascendency on the wound. In the older literature there is a case of luminous sweat and several cases of human urine, luminous when voided. If these observations are really true, and so far as I know they have not been confirmed COLD LIGHT—-HARVEY 213 in recent times, we may be dealing with luminous bacteria or there may be secreted some easily oxidizable substance that luminesces dur- ing its oxidation. Several such bodies are known in organic chemistry. To the student of evolution, luminous animals offer a great field, but a field in which relatively little is known. Almost everyone is interested in the use of luminescence to the luminous animals, and unfortunately we can say in only a very few cases what the use of the light is. Who, for instance, would venture to suggest the use of light to a luminous bacterium, an organism which is perhaps one twenty-five-thousandth of an inch in diameter and which has not the nervous reactions of a higher form; or the use of the light to an animal which occurs living at the surface of the sea, and which also has no nervous system, a one-cell form, blown hither and thither by the wind? Apparently, in such cases as this, we must believe that the light is merely fortuitous, that it accompanies merely some of the organic chemical changes which go on in the animal. It is a chance phe- nomenon. On the other hand, it would seem likely that deep sea fishes and squid—and it is chiefly these forms which have the lantern, complicated in structure—must use their light as a searchlight for seeing things in a region where we know light does not penetrate. On the other hand, a great many species are known which do not live continually in dark places and many luminous forms do not move around at all, the sea pens, for instance. They are almost all luminous, a colony of animals that live in the mud or sand at the ‘bottom of the sea at a depth of perhaps 50 feet where there is plenty of light. As they do not move about from one place to another it has been suggested that they may use the light as a warning. If a predacious fish comes along, the minute the sea pen is disturbed by the fish, the hight is flashed on. That warns the fish and scares him away. But this is a mere conjecture and I think no one has seen it take place. It has been thought also that animal light may be used as a lure, that certain forms use their lights to attract other forms on which they prey. Whether that is true or not, is also a conjecture. Finally, it certainly seems that in some forms the light is used to attract the opposite sex in mating. That is the case with the firefly. Each species of firefly has a light which shines in a certain definite way, and if one is an expert, he can go into the field and point out the different species of fireflies by the interval between flashes and the time of the flashes. The male and female of each species are brought together by signaling in that way. The chemical nature of animal luminescence is the subject I have studied most closely. Whenever I mention that I am interested in luminescence, I am always asked one question—whether the light is 20837—27——-15 914 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 phosphorus or not. It is easy to answer in the negative, that the light has nothing to do with the element phosphorus, which is too poisonous to be found in living cells. On the other hand, the light has a very great. resemblance to the luminescence of phosphorus. In the first place, it is an oxidation, and if we remove the oxygen from any luminous animal, the light will disappear completely, and if we again readmit oxygen, the light will return. This is a very interesting experiment, and a very old one. In fact, it is one of the first experiments that was ever made on luminous forms, by Robert Boyle, in 1667. Boyle at that time was experimenting with his air pump, and, among other things, he placed a little piece of “shining wood” or phosphorescent wood under the receiver of his air pump. He found that when he exhausted the air, the light disappeared, and when he readmitted air, the light returned. Of course, he did not know that it was oxygen in the air which was responsible for the effect, but nevertheless I think we can credit him with the discovery that the luminescence of living things requires the presence of free oxygen. The second chemical fact is also rather an old one. It was dis- covered by Spallanzani, an Italian, in 1794, that all luminescence re- quired water, and he showed that he could take any luminescent ani- mal, and dry it and the light would disappear, but that if he kept this dried material and at some later time moistened it again, the light would reappear. So, like the experiment with oxygen, we have another perfectly reversible process, showing that luminous animals require water in order to luminesce. This experiment also shows that luminescence is not a function of living cells in the same sense that the contraction of a muscle or propagation of a nerve impulse is a function of living cells. If a muscle is dried quickly, its form or constituents are not changed, but if put in water again, although it will look like the original muscle, no contraction will result on stimulation. The muscle has lost its contracting power by drying, and a nerve also loses its conducting power after drying. Therefore, we have in these tissues loss of a living function, but we do not observe loss of the power of lumines- ence on drying the luminescent organ of an animal. Since water and oxygen are necessary, it is likely that some mate- rial produced by the cells of the animal is oxidized, and this material is called, to use a general term, the photogen, but to use a more spe- cific term, it is called luciferin. In fact, not only one material, but two materials are found to be necessary in order to get light, in addition to water and oxygen. This is the third discovery in connection with the chemistry of luminescence, made by a Frenchman, Dubois, in 1887. He found that a luminous extract of an animal could be separated into two parts, COLD LIGHT—HARVEY 215 one containing luciferin, which will oxidize with the production of light, and the other part containing a catalyst or enzyme which accel- erates the oxidation of luciferin. The two substances could be separated by a difference in their properties, luciferase being de- stroyed on heating, while luciferin was not. We can obtain the two substances in solution in water, and they can be precipitated by vari- ous reagents. They can be purified and experimented with like any other bodies, although we do not yet know what is their exact struc- ture. Chemically, luciferin is probably to be placed among the pro- teins, among the simplest members of the proteins, the peptones or proteoses; luciferase is related to the albumins. The question as to whether we shall ever be able to reproduce living light becomes the question whether we shall ever be able to synthesize the proteins. Personally I think that will come in the future. We now synthesize fats, sugars, and some of the polypeptids, which are simple proteins. It is only a matter of time for synthesis of the more complicated compounds of which luciferin is a member. Finally we may ask what happens when luciferin is oxidized. Does it go to carbon dioxide like other foodstuffs in our body? Sugar and fat are oxidized to water and carbon dioxide. Can we place the luminescent oxidation in the same category? I think we can not. Experiment has shown that no carbon dioxide is produced from the luminescence of an animal, and I believe the change that does occur is a very simple change. Although the reaction can be only par- tially written we can at least name the material which is oxidized, and for convenience I have called this oxidation product, oxy-luci- ferin, a similar nomenclature to the one which is used for the red pig- ment of blood. The red pigment of our blood, hemoglobin, when shaken with air, becomes oxy-hemoglobin. If we place oxy-hemo- globin under an air pump, and exhaust all the air, it returns to re- duced hemoglobin or hemoglobin proper. This process is reversible and will go either one way or the other, depending upon the amount of oxygen present. Luciferin behaves in a somewhat similar way. We can allow the luciferin to become completely oxidized and then by proper methods reduce the oxy-luciferin again and recover our luciferin. The methods for doing this are not quite so simple as the method for re- ducing oxy-hemoglobin, for one can not put it under an air pump and get reduction, but there are many other means of reducing oxy- luciferin, and I think this occurs in the luminous animal. When a firefly flashes, it oxidizes the luciferin to oxy-luciferin. When it is resting, in the dark between the flashes, the oxy-luciferin is reduced back to luciferin, and the firefly is ready for another flash. I do not wish to say that all the luciferin in the firefly becomes oxidized in one flash, but part of it does, and in the time between 216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 flashes, part is reduced. A reversible process occurs, and you will note that this is an extraordinary process from the chemical stand- point. Here is an animal with a lamp which burns an oil, and after that oil has been burned, the oil is reformed, and it is ready to be re- burned. We have the process of oxidation and reduction simply going back and forth according to the amount of oxygen which is present. Not only from the physical but from the chemical stand- point the firefly is highly economical. Like the Pheenix of old, luci- ferin is recreated from its ashes to pass through the cycle of another life. It is possible to devise a lamp in which luciferin is burned continu- ously over and over again. In one region luciferin is oxidized to oxy-luciferin with luminescence; in another the oxy-luciferin is re- duced to luciferin again. To be sure the light is weak, and practical difficulties appear in the “ poisoning ” of necessary catalysts, but the principle remains. Perhaps we may look to an application of this principle for the future development of new means of illumination. Apparently mysterious and often unusual in color, the light of living creatures is not essentially different from that of any ordinary light, except in its mode of production. We express this difference when we say that animal light is “cold light” or a luminescence. Electric ight is a “hot light” or an incandescence. Every sub- stance, no matter of what material, of any color or texture, whether it burns or not, emits light when its temperature is raised above a certain point (about 525° C). The first light at this low temperature is red, then yellow appears at a higher temperature, then white light at the 5,000° of our sun. The higher the temperature the brighter the light. This means of producing light is so universal and so easy that it is no wonder we have adopted it. Practically every illuminant in use to-day is patterned after the sun and stars. We heat an incan- descent lamp filament to the highest temperature possible without volatilizing the filament. It is not possible to attain the temperature of the sun, but 2,000° is attained, and a high percentage of the electri- eal energy which heats the filament is radiated. Unfortunately most of this radiation is heat, and only about 2 per cent is visible light. If the 98 per cent useless radiation could be eliminated, a 2-horse- power engine might run the dynamo to supply our lights that now require 100 horsepower. Incandescence is a wasteful way of produc- ing light because it is impossible to separate the heat radiation from the visible light radiation. Luminescence, or cold light, on the other hand, consists of nothing but visible light. The spectrum of a firefly lies wholly in the visible region with no infra-red or ultra-violet. As far as radiation goes it is all light or 100 per cent efficient, and this is the basis for the state- ment that fireflies are so efficient. s.r Oe COLD LIGHT—-HARVEY 217 Most persons do not realize that this radiant luminous efficiency tells us nothing regarding the efficiency of a firefly as a light pro- ducing machine. When the most efficient incandescent lamp, a tung- sten nitrogen-filled Mazda, glows, coal is being burned in some power house. Every ton of coal represents so much energy, but of this energy only one-half of 1 per cent, a well-known figure, appears as visible light. To compare a luminous animal with a commercial light we must ask what fraction of the energy of its fuel (food) appears as light. No one has determined this for the firefly, and the investigation would present special difficulties because the firefly flashes, and flash- ing lights can not be measured easily. We are forced to fall back on luminous bacteria which emit a steady light, despite the fact that they are the smallest luminescent creatures. I have studied such a bacterium, a cylindrical rod measuring 1.1p wide? and 2.2, long, with a volume of 0.000,000,000,017 cubic centimeter. Perhaps I may be pardoned if the technical details of such an efficiency determination are briefly outlined. Visible light is a form of energy and can be evaluated in a common energy unit—the calorie. We must measure the light produced by a single bacterium and express this in calories per second. Food represents the source of an organism’s energy, the energy input, and when burned liberates a maximum amount of energy, also measured in calories. We must measure the food utilized by the bacterium and express the energy input in calories per second. Then, light emitted in calories divided by food oxidized in calories, gives us the over-all efficiency of a bac- terium. The light measurements themselves present no particular difficul- ties. We can make an emulsion of luminous bacteria in sea water, many billions of them, count the number of bacteria per cubic centi- meter, measure the amount of light emitted by 1 cubic centimeter measure the absorption of light by bacteria in front of others, and calculate the amount of light in lumens which each bacterium would emit in all directions, provided there were no absorption. As one candle emits 47 lumens, the candle power of the smallest light in the world is easily obtained. The general scheme of investigating the energy input is as follows: Metabolism experiments in animals show that for a liter of oxygen consumed a certain number of gram-calories is produced by oxidation of the foodstuffs. A gram of tallow oxidized by a guinea pig lib- erates the same amount of heat and consumes the same amount of oxygen during combustion to CO, and H,O, as if it had been burned 21n—0.001 millimeter—one twenty-five-thousandth of an inch. * The light of the bacteria is actually measured in light units. One lumen==0.0015 watt or 0.00036 calorie. 218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 in a candle. This was one of Lavoisier’s great contributions to science. A bacterium could obtain no more energy in burning its foodstuffs than a guinea pig or any other organism. Knowing the oxygen consumption of an animal and its food, we can calculate its heat production, and this “method of indirect calo- rimetry ” gives results in surprising agreement with direct measure- ment of heat production in a calorimeter. Applying this method to luminous bacteria, which were fed upon 60 per cent glycerin and 40 per cent peptone, each liter of oxygen consumed should produce 4,840 gram-calories or 3.4 gram-calories per milligram of oxygen con- sumed. We have only to measure the oxygen consumed by the bac- teria to find how much energy is supplied by the food during lumi- nescence. Converting energy from milligrams of oxygen utilized and lumens of light emitted into the same units, calories, the over-all efficiency of a bacterium turns out to be 0.16 per cent. ‘This tells us the percentage of the energy necessary to run a bacterium which appears as light. It does not give us a true picture of the efficiency of the light-produc- ing reaction, for much of the oxygen consumed is used by bacteria for processes which have nothing to do with luminescence. It can be shown by other experiments that certainly only one-sixth of the oxygen is used in luminescence, and probably much less than this. Using the figure, one-sixth, brings the efficiency of the bacterium to nearly 1 per cent, a figure twice as great as that for over-all efficiency of the best incandescent lamp. While the extravagant claims for total efficiency of luminous ani- mals are not confirmed by my investigations, nevertheless the value, which I regard as a minimum value, is sufficiently high to warrant further inquiry into the process by which animal light is produced. We usually find that living creatures have developed very economical ways of doing things, and one would like to know what the total efficiency of luminous animals, far brighter than luminous bacteria, might be, if we could separate completely the light-producing process from the other energy-consuming processes of the animal. Such creatures as I have described offer problems of fascinating interest. The chief appeal is to the intellect, a study in pure science, in a field whose boundaries touch biology, physics, and chemistry. Advance will be made when the ever-widening waves of knowledge in each science meet and reinforce each other. Cooperation between the sciences is sure to bring more and more fruitful discoveries. I have endeavored to point out some of the interlocking connections in the field of light. Princeton is fortunate in having research on this important subject well under way in five fundamental sciences and a future program which we hope may be carried out with an adequate endowment for pure scientific research. SCIENTIFIC WORK OF THE “MAUD” EXPEDITION, 1922-1925 + By H. U. Sverprvup, in charge of the scientific work of the expedition Capt. Roald Amundsen’s ship J/aud left Norway in July, 1918, with the intention of following the Siberian coast to the vicinity of the New Siberian Islands, penetrating into the drift ice, and, if possible, being carried across the Arctic Sea to the vicinity of Spitzbergen. However, on account of unfavorable ice conditions, it was necessary for the expedition to winter three times on the Siberian coast and, in 1921, to go to Seattle for repairs and replen- ishment of provisions. The Maud left Seattle again on June 3, 1922, in order to resume her task in the Arctic. The main object was, as previously, to make scientific observations of interest in various branches of geophysics. We could not expect to contribute to the geographical knowledge of the Arctic region, because it was improbable that the drift should carry us across the great unknown area within the Arctic Sea. To Captain Amundsen, however, the exploration of this unknown area had always been a fascinating task. Therefore, after having organ- ized and equipped the drift expedition in the best way possible, he resolved to leave the ship and try to fly across the Arctic Sea. 1 - ia |. oe @ r] i 1 < ; E : ed ie) p Pa 12) 1 5 OS El bo} [It now appears that the same conclusion was reached a year earlier, by still another investigator. After the present paper had been sent to the printer, a colleague directed my attention to a paper by W. R. G. Atkins entitled ‘‘ The hydrogen ion concentration of the soil in relation to the flower colour of Hydrangea hortensis W., and the availability of iron,” published in June, 1923, in the Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, vol. 17, new series, pp. 201 to 210. The author concluded that in acid soils the house hydrangea produces blue flowers, and in alkaline soils pink flowers, and that the cause of the blue coloration is the presence, in the flower, of an unusual amount of iron, dissolved from the soil by reason of the acidity of the soil solution, absorbed by the plant in excess of its ordinary iron requirements, and therefore present in the state of “inorganic” iron, the direct effect of which is to turn the pink coloring matter of the flower blue. 3i8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 ’ lime in the form of calcium sulphate. Repeated tests show that after the application of aluminum sulphate to a soil of this type, the first leachings contain only a trace of aluminum but an abundance of calcium sulphate. The change in the soil reaction from neutrality or alkalinity to acidity is doubtless due at first to the acidity of the aluminum sulphate itself, but the continuation of the acid reaction is due apparently to the fact that the calcium and other substances that could neutralize soil acidity arising from aluminum salts or other causes, have been removed by the treatment described. The resulting condition is substantially that which occurs in a peat soil, the particular characteristic of which is acidity caused by the pres- ence of organic substances. In the two lots of plants illustrated in Plate 4 the soil of the healthy plant at the right, seven weeks after the last application of aluminum sulphate, had an acidity of 10 on the Wherry scale,®° while the soil of the untreated and sickly plant at the left was neutral. To summarize the matter, the application of aluminum sulphate may be regarded as an effective and rather inexpensive means of changing the reaction of a soil from neutral or alkaline to acid. APPLICATION OF THE EXPERIMENTS The aluminum-sulphate experiments described in this paper have not yet been extended by the writer to large plants growing in the deeper soils of outdoor plantings. For such situations amounts of aluminum sulphate up to a pound per square yard may be applied advantageously and safely if the soil is a loam of the ordinary fertile type, the application being repeated if the soil is not made acid by the first application. In applying ground aluminum sulphate to an outdoor bed the material should be distributed evenly over the ground, and mixed into the surface soil with a rake. The bed should then be watered thoroughly with as much as 2 to 3 inches of water in order to dissolve the sulphate and carry it deeply into the soil. The water should be so applied that it will not run off the surface but will sink through the bed past the roots, and leach out underneath. For greenhouse experiments 1 part of aluminum sulphate to 200 parts of soil, by bulk, may be taken as a standard experimental mixture. Persons desiring to experiment with sickly outdoor rhododendrons or other acid-soil plants are advised to apply the aluminum sulphate to only a portion of a planting, always leaving another portion un- treated for comparison. If a soil is already sufficiently acid, the application of aluminum sulphate is useless. ° Bdgar T. Wherry, 1922, “ Soil acidity—its nature, measurement, and relation to plant distribution,” published in the Smithsonian Report for 1920, pp. 247 to 268. Also, by the same author, “ Soil reaction in relation to horticulture,” published in May, 1926, as Bulletin 4 of the American Horticultural Society. ACID-SOIL PLANTS—COVILLE 379 Outdoor experiments with aluminum sulphate should not be tried in mixed plantings unless it is known that all the plants are suited to a strongly acid soil, because the ordinary plants of horticulture, which require a soil with a neutral or alkaline reaction, are likely to be severely injured, or killed, by the aluminum sulphate. Crude aluminum sulphate, such as was used in these experiments, is commonly known in the trade as sulphate of alumina. It is em- ployed extensively in the chemical industries and is not expensive. In large quantities it can be purchased at about $30 a ton. Experiments that have been in progress for several years have shown that soil acidity is required not only for rhododendrons, frank- linias, and blueberries, but for azaleas, kalmias, heather, trailing- arbutus, wintergreen, and practically all the plants of the heath family, besides pink ladyslipper, sweet ladies-tresses, and many other orchids, and numerous other plants of ornamental horticulture that are commonly regarded as difficult of cultivation, such as bunch- berry, vernal iris, birdsfoot violet, painted trillium, galax, pitcher- plant, and Venus flytrap. There is every reason to expect that these other plants also can be made to thrive in ordinary soils through the use of aluminum sulphate, provided the soil does not contain too much clay, for a heavy clay soil is unsuited, for other reasons, to most acid-soil plants even after it has been acidified. A knowledge of the usefulness of aluminum sulphate in the culture of acid-soil plants is likely to be of importance at the present time when the importation of these plants has been greatly curtailed through the plant-quarantine laws, and nurserymen are now trying to grow the needed plants inside the United States. Before the aluminum-sul- plate treatment is applied extensively to ericaceous plantings, how- ever, it remains to be determined whether the treatment if long con- tinued may not lead to the development of unforeseen difficulties, such as the formation of compounds of sulphur injurious to erica- ceous plants. For the present the aluminum-sulphate treatment should be regarded as experimental. NATURALLY ACID SOILS PREFERABLE Readers of this publication are especially asked not to conclude from these experiments that the best way to grow rhododendrons and other acid-soil plants is to put them in a neutral or alkaline soil and then apply aluminum sulphate. The best way to grow such plants is to remove the neutral or alkaline soil and put in its place a bed of naturally acid soil, such as sand mixed with peat, rotting wood, or half-rotted oak leaves. (PI. 13.) Detailed directions for the preparation and maintenance of such acid soils are given in other 380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 publications. The following restatement, however, will be useful here: In nature acid nourishment is provided by the accumulation, on the surface of the ground, of a layer of bhalf-rotted leaves, twigs, and rootlets. Such an accumulation when it occurs in a sphagnum bog is called bog peat, or simply peat. On well-drained sandy or gravelly soils it is called upland peat. Under good conditions upland peat is laced into a tenacious mat, a few inches in thickness, by the roots of the ericaceous plants that accompany it, and this mat persists year after year, continually renewing itself through each year’s leaf-fall and the penetration of new roots into the decaying mass. Upland peat is normally brown, but is often blackened by ground fires. On limestone soils or on soils which for any reason have an alkaline chemical reaction upland peat does not form. The lime and other alkaline substances in the soil greatly hasten the decomposition of the leaves. Each year’s leaf-fall is decomposed, much of it passing in liquid form into the underlying soil, prior to the leaf-fall of the following year. Fully decomposed leaves form a true leafmold, black in color and neutral or alkaline in reaction, in which rhododendrons and other acid-soil plants will not grow. In soils derived from granite, sandstone, sand, and gravel, acid conditions are usually maintained with little difficulty by the addition of upland peat, half-rotted oak leaves, or decayed wood or bark. Sawdust and spent tanbark are acid materials useful as mulch for acid-soil plants. They should be applied experimentally at first, however, to test the safety and suitability of the particular kind that is available. Some kinds of sawdust, notably redcedar and pitch pine, contain, when fresh substances that are directly injurious. Other kinds, such as basswood, maple, and birch, are free from these substances. In general it is best to use sawdust that is weathered and somewhat decayed. When an attempt is to be made to grow rhododendrons or other acid-soil plants in a place in which the soil is neutral or alkaline, such as a limestone soil, the bottom land of a river valley, the ordinary fertile garden, or a, prairie or arid-region soil, it is necessary to prepare holes or trenches and make up a special soil mixture. This should consist of 1 part of clean sand to 1 or 2, or even 4 parts of upland peat or its equivalent. To keep earthworms from bringing up the underlying soil the bottom of the hole should be lined with a 2-inch layer of soft-coal cinders. The depth of the peat and sand mixture need not be more than 8 to 12 inches. If the materials for the mixture are available in quantity a bed may be laid down over the whole surface of the ground. A permanent mulch of oak leaves will help maintain a proper degree of moisture and by decomposition will add to the peat supply. In choosing peat for the eulture of acid-soil plants two mistakes should be avoided. First, certain swamps contain a deposit that looks like peat but is neutral or alkaline in chemical reaction. 'The soil of such swamps, to. which the name muck should be applied, is well suited to the culture of onions, celery, and lettuce, but altogether unsuited to the culture of rhododendrons and other acid-soil plants." Second, the much decomposed peat in the sub- merged lower layers of deep bogs, such as is used for fuel in Wurope, or the lighter kinds for stable bedding, is not suitable, by itself, for acid-soil plants. It is many years, often centuries, old and although it may furnish the needed 7For a further discussion of the opposing characteristics and uses of peat and muck, see “The agricultural use of acid peats,’’ published in January, 1925, in the Journal of the American Peat Society, vol. 18, pp. 5 to 7, pls. 1 to 4. ACID-SOIL PLANTS—COVILLE 3881 acidity it is deficient in plant food. When such a peat is used, nourishment for the plant must be supplied in some other component of the soil mixture. A very light peat of this kind, imported from Burope, consisting chiefly of brown fragments of sphagnum moss, is much used in the United States as a mulch, as an ingredient of potting mixtures, and in cutting beds, for acid-soil plants. It is well suited to these purposes, but being deficient in plant food it should not be used alone, or with sand only, as a potting soil. A sharp distinction should be made between half-rotted oak leaves and the ordinary compost of leaves with manure, garden soil, and garden trash. Such a compost is neutral or alkaline in reaction and should not be used on acid-soil plants. Sugar maple, elm, and linden leaves rot rapidly and so soon reach the alkaline stage that they also are not desirable for application to an acid-soil planting. Oak leaves, especially red oak leaves, rot slowly, and in two or three years, if the pile is turned over several times, make a good substitute for upland peat.* No manure, lime, or wood ashes should be applied to rhododendrons or other plants that require an acid soil, for all these substances tend to neutralize the necessary acidity. Cottonseed meal, ground soybeans, and spent malt, all of which contain a large amount of nitrogen in organic and acid form, are excellent fertilizers for acid-soil plants. Experiments made by the writer in the spring of 1926 show that skimmed milk and buttermilk are useful as fer- tilizers for acid-soil plants.” Undoubtedly the partially dried forms of these products now marketed for poultry feed are also serviceable as fertilizer for such plants. The warning should be given, however, that skimmed milk con- tains about ten times as much lime as cottonseed meal and that the possible cumulative effect of repeated applications may require remedial measures, such as the application of aluminum sulphate to remove the excess lime. In very sandy soils for which so little peat is available that the plants suffer for nourishment the following special acid fertilizer devised for blueberries and eranberries will probably do well for rhododendrons, applied at the rate of an eighth to a fourth of a pound per square yard.” Pounds CottGnsesdimeéali_oligil .2ecl “saulclues.o LoBOb ale IU Boones 10 aN RPM Te icEe HCI: RENO RRel fatale el omaec Neate Ruel re a eh L EN mere oe 4 SSRI RAN Ta RN on OC AS Ie aR a Ne PE 2 Hard water, which is alkaline in reaction, will ultimately injure an acid- soil planting. Rainwater or some other water that is neutral or even acid in reaction should be used if practicable. If only alkaline water is available for sprinkling purposes it can be made neutral or slightly acid by dissolving in it a suitable amount of aluminum sulphate. The proper amount can be determined by adding to a teaspoonful of the treated water in a white dish a fraction of a drop of the dye known as bromthymol blue. If the amount of aluminum sulphate added to the water was just sufficient to make it neutral, its color under this test will be green; if it has become acid, yellow; if it is still alkaline, blue. : Ornamental plants vary in the degree of soil acidity or alkalinity to which they are best adapted. The preparation of authentic lists of species on this 8 For a more extended discussion of the decay of leaves and its relation to acid soils see “ The formation of leafmold,” Smithsonian Report for 1918, pp. 353 to 8438. ®*“ Buttermilk as a fertilizer for blueberries,’ Science, yol. 64, pp. 94 to 96, July 23, 1926. For a discussion of fertilizer experiments see pp. 19 and 20 of ‘ Directions for blue- berry culture, 1921,” Bull. 974, U. S, Department of Agriculture, 24 pp. and 29 pls. 20837—27———26 382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 basis will necessarily be a slow procedure, the outcome of careful experi- mentation, but fortunately a general though not infallible guide to the need of soil acidity for a particular species is already in existence in such well- known works on gardening as Nicholson’s Illustrated Dictionary of Garden- ing and Bairey’s Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. European gardeners have learned from long and cumulative experience that certain plants thrive best when supplied with peat, and this knowledge has been handed down to us in garden literature, and in garden practice when conducted intelligently, but never apparently with any suggestion that the essential quality of the peat was its acidity. The statement in any reliable work on gardening that a particular species requires peat may be taken as good evidence that this species is an acid-soil plant. In very many cases, however, especially in American works, even this evidence is lacking. Fortunately there has been published very recently (May, 1926) by Dr. Edgar T. Wherry a paper that contains lists of plants classified according to the degree of soil acidity at which they thrive best.* ” CONCLUSION If, contrary to the advice in the preceding paragraphs, a planting of acid-soil plants has been made in a nonacid bed, the plants can probably be saved by proper applications of aluminum sulphate. If an acid-soil bed has become neutral as a result of the use of hard water, or by reason of the excessive decomposition of the peat or the leaves originally placed in the bed, or from any other cause, treat- ment with aluminum sulphate will probably prove beneficial. If the cost of preparation of an acid-soil bed is prohibitive, in a locality in which the necessary materials are not easily available, then the acid-soil plants may be tried in an ordinary fertile neutral soil after it has been acidified by means of aluminum sulphate. 1 Soil reaction in relation to horticulture,’ 1926, Bull. 4, American Horticultural Society, 14 pp. 122 Much of the information contained in the eight preceding paragraphs has been used for several years past, under the title ‘‘ Experiments in rhododendron culture,” to answer letters of inquiry on this subject addressed to the United States Department of Agri- culture. It was published in 1923, so far as the experiments up to that date permitted, on pages 336 to 341 of L. H. Bailey’s ‘The cultivated evergreens,” under the heading “ Acid soils for certain broad-leaved evergreens.” OZIS [VINVVN “wey, o9M sydeisojoyd 9} eAoJoq ysnf{ UO ynd pus of Ai JO ZULIOAOD WIG] B OF OND SI [Ios 9} JO SsouoqIGAM OY, “4Ued Jed 0¢z ynoqe ‘oyeydIns TINUIUIN[S YIM poyeedy Aydt oy} ye Juvid ayy -4u00 Jod Og InogR JajouIVIP UL posvosoUl pey ‘ayeyd[ns wnysousvur YIM poyeedy ‘aypprum oy} Ur juBld oy SY} Mo13 Ou opeM peYy yoy oy) 4B que[d ot ‘TZ6T “6% ouNL UO ‘uOyR} seM YdeAs0,0Yd 9Yy OYA “Sod ssvps ul ‘TZ61 ‘Og yore, WO [IOS UepAes 9[J4o} ABUTp1o Ue UT Yes a1OM SyURTd vert) aL SHLNO|A] SSYHL YOS ASNFISGMVLVD NOYGNAGOGOHY 4O LNAWLVaYL ALVHdINS-WOANIWAIY | 3LW1d aI[JAOO—'9Z61 “Wodey uBjuosyzyWS aZIS [RINIVN + ‘“YIAOIZ JUVIINXN] opeu sey OLE o8vd UO paqldosop sv ‘ayeVYyd[Ns MANUIUINTS YIM 9d1M4 pozeaty ‘YOST oY} Je yuUB[d oq} ‘ALOIS Jnq BAITS st ‘ayeqyd[ns UWINISOUSBUL YIM 9DUO Pavol) ‘O[PPIU ayy Ul QUT oYQ ‘sy_UOU OT 9YY JO PUD aq} O10Joq PoIp ‘[IOS UspAes O[1}10j AIvUIpPJO UB UT “JJo] ey} 4B YoU ssels oY} Ul 4yuRld eyL SHLNOI QL HOA ASNSISEMVLVYO NOYGNSCGOGOHY JO LNAWLVSYL ALVHdINS-WNNNIWNNIY 6 ALV1d a||IAOD—9Z6| ‘Wodey uBIUOSY}IWS €1 9°Id U! poye.jsny[l {los puws-pue-jeod prow oy ur yueld oy3 sv poos se ysourye ‘Y{MOIZ JuLTANXNT opera ‘1z6T “2z ABI WO 1078M JO SiajatITyW0 d1qQno OT Ur ayeydins WINUTMANTY JO WeIS PATYI-oU0 PoATooor pey I yey} 4ydeoxo yuoMyveI] PUB AJOJSTY UT Joq}0 oY) 04 AB[TUNTS ‘Vystt ayy ye jued oy, ‘zz6r ‘g¢ eunr uo paydess “0,0 svat JI WOYM Y4MO1F OU OpRUT PRY ‘o.1N4[LO UOPUapOpoYy.! 0} poyIMs you st yorpM ‘ammqxtuL UspIVs o[1}10J BUY “TZ6T ‘g ABIL UO payjod “yor ay} ye quel eq, YvVaA ASANO 404 WNWIXVIA) NOYGNSGOGOHY Jo INAWLVSY | SLVHdINS-WANINAIY ake eee Se egos ee ‘he a ei ones Ce Lvl B|[|AOO—'9Z61 ‘Hodey uejuosy}WS 9ZIS [BINIUN “ATYOIS PUB JUBUSES [IS SUM “QJor oN 9e YuRTd payReTjUN oy} sTIYM ‘YIMOIS AYITBey PUB DATO UT sem JuURId sIy} ‘UdyR] seM Ydeis0joyd oy} ay ‘C26l ‘TE Jsnsny UO ‘UreIS Jey Joyjour ‘Zz6I “2% ATE UO puw “QysII oy} ye yuRTd oy} 07 pordde sea ojeydins uMuruMye Jo ureIs B Jey ‘Zz6I ‘eg euNnL AO *SUOIPUIPOPOYL 0 SNOLIMLUT ST YO ‘[IOS UoplVsS ofI4doy ATBUTPIO UB UT pozjod o19M Ao] Uo ‘TZ6T ‘¢ ABI 104)8 APoIs ouOdDaq PUR po}VUseIs py sjuLld osey} YO, ALVHdINS WONINNIY HLIAA LNAWLVSYL HOSNOYHL NOYGNAGOGOHY ATHIIS V SO NOILVLIOSNSSY b 31V1d a|||AOO—9Z6| ‘Wodey uBRiUOsYyIWS 38 ot} Ul UMOIS dOM YOM ‘g 918 useq pey il . ‘ d oy} jd osoy,L “ATH9 I-G UL “EZ6L “ES pu IPOPOYeT JO SVUBL IOS aTILYS4 AYVNIGHO NI SHYV3A SBSYHL YSLlaVY GVSQ YO ATHOIS SNOYGNAGOGOHY G ALV1d 3||!AOO—'9Z61 ‘Hodey uB!UOSU]IWS azIs [eInjeu YAjJy-9u0 ynoqy ‘pordde ueeq pey oyvyd[ns wnuruMNyY ou yeyy Ydeoxe ‘IOs sUTRS oY} A[JOBXE UI 9JOM YOY ‘G e4e[q UI syuR[d oy] JO UOMI!puod ATYoIS oy} YAIM ATdivys sjsv1qUOd MOT4Ip -u0d AYARey Tey, “eVyd[ns wMUrUINyR YIM plow opeUL [IOS Uopses o[1JJo} V UI SIBEA BOI] IOJ BUIMOIZ Used peY ‘FZ6T ‘ZI ArenIgeg peydeisojoyd ‘syue,d ssey,L, SLVHdINS WOANIWNIY HLIM GIOW 3GVIAJ 110S AYVNIGHO NI SYVAA SSYHL NMOYS) SNOYGNAGOGOHY AHLIVSH 9 3ALV1d B}||AOO— 9761 ‘Hodey uelUOSU}IWS Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 7 INJURIOUS EFFECT OF ORDINARY RICH SOIL ON FRANKLINIA At the left is a typical healthy young plant of franklinia grown in a standard acid soil. The plant at the right which, at the beginning of the year, was a healthy well rooted young cut- ting like the other, had been for five months in a fertile but neutral garden soil. In this soil it had become sickly and on July 26, 1923, when the photograph was taken, it was nearly dead About one-third natural size Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 8 RESUSCITATION OF A SICKLY FRANKLINIA THROUGH TREATMENT WITH ALUMINUM SULPHATE The plant at the left was almost dead from five months’ contact with an ordinary fertile but neutral garden soil. The plant at the right was in the same soil for the first eight weeks and became sickly like the other. It was then given an application of aluminum sulphate, which changed the soil reaction from neutral to acid. After three months’ contact with the acid soil the plant had recovered its health and resumed normal growth ,as shown in the illustration A bout one-third natural size Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 9 ALUMINUM-SULPHATE TREATMENT OF THE BLUEBERRY FOR SEVEN MONTHS Both the plants shown in this illustration were small healthy seedlings of the same size on February 4, 1924, when they were potted in a fertile but neutral garden soil known to be injurious to blueberry plants. The plant at the left was given a heavy application of alumi- num sulphate. On September 9, when the two plants were photographed, the beneficial effect of the aluminum sulphate was conspicuous. Two-thirds natural size Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 10 ALUMINUM-SULPHATE TREATMENT OF THE BLUEBERRY FOR THREE SEASONS The plant at the left has been in an ordinary rich garden soil for three seasons. It is small, pallid, and half dead. The plant at the right, healthy and ready to bear fruit the coming year, isin the same soil as the other, except that it received each year, at the time of repotting, an application of aluminum sulphate, which changed the soil reaction from neutral to acid About one-third natural size Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 11 ——— BLUEBERRY PLANT RESUSCITATED WITH ALUMINUM SULPHATE On March 31, 1926, this plant was in a sickly dwarfed condition after two years in an ordi- nary fertile but neutral soil, and it was getting worse. Aluminum sulphate was applied Six months later, when the photograph was taken, the plant had recovered its health completely and had nearly doubled in height. About three-fourths natural size OZIS [BIN}LU YANOJ-9u0 ynOqy ‘ayeyd[ns uNuUruINy]e jo osn oy} INoOYIM ‘pues puB yeod Jo [10s plow AT[BINjeU B UI UMOIZ syueid uO [8 peonpoid 919M SIOMOT on[| d4y ‘eyeydyns wimuruin ; L ‘Sdemoy yurd poonpodd 4joy oy} 4B yURTd oY} OANYXTUL PlovuUoU siyy UT “pues pue ‘oINUeUT * yo VAONVYGAH ASNOH SHL JO LNAWLVAYL ALVHdINS-NONINNIY ol 3LV1d B||IAOD—'9Z6L ‘HodeYy uvBlUOSYUyIWIS Smithsonian Report, 1926.—Coville PLATE 13 STIMULATING EFFECT OF A NATURALLY ACID SOIL ON A RHODODENDRON In early May healthy seedlings of Rhododendron marimum were set in 2-inch pots in an ordi- nary fertile garden soil composed of equal parts, by bulk, of loam, well-rotted cow manure, and sand. Other similar plants were potted in 2 parts of upland peat tol ofsand. In June of the following year, when the photograph was made, the plant at the left, in the neutral garden soil, had made no growth, while the plant at the right, in the strongly acid peat soil, had made normal and luxuriant growth. It is better, whenever practicable, to give acid- soil plants a naturally acid soil than to put them in a neutral soil and then acidify it artifi- cially with aluminum sulphate. Natural size EASTERN BRAZIL THROUGH AN AGROSTOLOGIST’S SPECTACLES By Acnes CuHaAse, United States Department of Agriculture [With 9 plates] The flora of eastern Brazil is of especial interest to the student of tropical North American plants. Except for a limited amount of botanical exploration in Jamaica and in Santo Domingo before the revolution at the close of the eighteenth century, but few botan- ical collections were made in the Tropics of North America until after an important scientific expedition to Brazil had made known much of the flora and fauna of eastern Brazil and part of the valley of the Amazon. Brazil, the West Indies, and Panama have many species of plants in common. In working on a family of plants of the North American Tropics, therefore (in my case, grasses) it is necessary to have a fairly detailed knowledge of the family as found in Brazil. The Brazilian expedition referred to in the preceding paragraph was sent by Francis I of Austria as an honorary escort to his daughter Leopoldina on her voyage to Brazil to marry the crown prince of Portugal and Brazil, the man later known as the “ Liber- ator,” Pedro I of Brazil. This Francis was a grandson of Maria Theresa and he was the grandfather of Maximilian, the short- lived “emperor” of Mexico and of the late Francis Joseph of Austria. Francis I was a patron of science and an opportunist in politics. In 1810 he gave his daughter Marie Louise to Napoleon, then at the height of his power; and in 1817, Napoleon being out of power, he gave his younger daughter Leopoldina to the royal family that had fled before Napoleon from Portugal to Brazil. Poor Leopoldina seems to have been as reluctant a bride as was Marie Louise. She delayed her departure so long that some of the eager scientists of the honorary escort set sail without her. Mar- tius, the Bavarian leader of the scientific expedition, together with Spix, Mikan, and others set out for Brazil and arrived at Rio de Janeiro in July, 1817, while Leopoldina did not arrive until Novem- ber. She lived but eight years longer. Dom Pedro, the last em- peror of Brazil, was her son. Pohl, Natterer, and Schott of Vienna, Raddi of Tuscany, and other botanists and zoologists accompanied the bride or followed, so that 383. 384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 young Brazil for a time swarmed with naturalists. Publication of their results began to appear as early as 1823 when Raddi’s Agrosto- graphia Brasiliensis, a little volume of 58 pages, the earliest work on South American grasses, was published. Except Pohl, who went as far as Goyaz, most of the naturalists remained in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro or traveled short distances southward, but Martius and Spix, after a few months about Rio de Janeiro, went to Sao Paulo and from there made their way north- ward through Minas Geraes and Bahia to the city of Bahia. From there they went by boat to Ilheos and returned by land, then trav- ersed Bahia, Piauhy, and Maranhao to the north coast, crossing Rio Sao Francisco at Joazeiro. They then traveled up the Amazon to some distance beyond Teffe (or Ega). The Amazon and other parts of Brazil have since been explored by Germans, Swedes, Swiss, English, Brazilians, and in recent years by Americans, and the United States National Herbarium has, by exchange, come in for a share of the plants collected, but there was no United States National Herbarium at the time of Martius and but little since has been collected, at least of grasses, in the region he traversed in the interior; wherefore the grasses of that region were known to us only (or chiefly) from the specimens preserved in the herbaria at Brussels, Munich, and Vienna. I reached Rio de Janeiro late November 1, 1924. The entrance to the bay has been described many times, and we are all familiar with pictures of it, but the reality is almost overwhelming. As we neared Sugar Loaf with peaks in all directions I had the sensation of sailing into the tops of a mountain chain on a flood. The following afternoon I spent on Corcovado. As I clambered along a narrow trail on a steep slope I seemed to be following Raddi’s footsteps, for I collected several of his species of grasses described from this mountain. In spite of the dense population in the lowlands the mountains about Rio de Janeiro have not been spoiled for the botanist. Except for the invasion in places of Melinis minutiflora, called capim gordura (molasses grass by us), an African species early introduced into Brazil, the steep jungly slopes, I imagine, are not greatly changed from what they were a hundred years ago. As elsewhere in the Serra do Mar (the coast range) there are great bare slopes and knobs of dark granite or gneiss. st! Rio de Janeiro is very healthful now. In the last three years a great hill in the city has been cut down, letting the sea air across to the back, and a tidal marsh is being filled with the material removed. The city is built in and out of the hollows between the hills, only a relatively few houses, mostly hotels for foreigners, being in the hills. EASTERN BRAZIL—-CHASE 385 It is wonderfully lovely with trees and gardens, and everywhere hills for background. Four days after my arrival I ieft for Pernambuco in order to reach that region before the dry season was much advanced. (Ships from the United States do not stop at any Brazilian port north of Rio de Janeiro.) Pernambuco, or Recife as the city is commonly called, lies on flat ground built up by coral reefs and mangroves (both Rhizophora and Avicennia). Extensive mangrove marshes sur- round the city and Rio Capiberibe flows slowly through it. The city is cut into by tidal lagoons into which the mangroves are advancing. Recife is full of beautiful trees and flowering shrubs, royal palms, mangroves, caju (or cashew, Anacardiwm occidentale), breadfruit (Artocarpus ineisa) and its next of kin, Jackfruit (A. integrifolia), Carica papaya, and coconut palms being the most conspicuous. The surrounding region is densely populated. Wooded hills which at a distance showed no signs of being inhabited turned out to be full of huts and goats and children. In little clearings were patches of maize and beans, and a few banana trees and sometimes oranges. Vetiveria was planted about many of the huts. This is one of the oil grasses introduced from the East Indies. In the West Indies, the roots are used to scent clothing and to keep moths away, but here the grass is used to thatch huts. The caju is everywhere, a beautiful wide-spreading tree bearing multitudes of fragrant small maroon flowers, buzzing with bees, and fruit in all stages of develop- ment. These trees are a blessing to a blistering botanist. Whenever I sat down in their grateful shade to write up my notes and arrange the plants there was an excited squeaking in the tree above. I could see nothing through the dense foliage, and could not guess what sort of creature was worried by my invasion. I was told that it was the marmoset; then by patient and quiet watching I caught glimpses of little gray faces and bright eyes peering down with an expression of the most intense interest. The low land is even more thickly settled than the hills, mud huts occupying little peninsulas in the mangrove marshes, the bit of land swarming with naked children, and the mud with fiddler crabs. The margins of fresh-water streams, ditches, and ponds are occupied by washerwomen while their children swarm in the water like tadpoles. The Brazilian lavandera is a worker of miracles. She washes clothes in muddy water, spreads them along the dusty roadside, and then brings them home glistening white. Loads of capim da planta, Panicum barbinode (Para grass, we eall it) are continually being carried cityward on the backs of horses, less commonly in carts. This grass, which is the universal 386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 hay in Pernambuco, occupies practically all the low land. It is cut by hand. The wet meadows and stream borders offered the best botanizing. Here were great paspalums and panicums higher than my head, tangled with aroids, ferns, and brush. I was surprised to find a bog that quaked even more than do Maine bogs. This was about half a mile long, and billowed under my feet in a way that made me gasp. I wanted to see something of the sertao, the interior arid region. I had letters to missionaries in Recife, and from them I secured much helpful information. Here and elsewhere I found the mis- sionaries to be the best sources of information. They travel every- where, and like the botanists do it on a limited amount of money, and can direct one anywhere and give information about baggage and the numerous details that are so troublesome to a stranger unpre- pared for them. Bello Jardim, 186 kilometers to the west in the Serra da Genipapo, at an altitude of 600 to 650 meters, was chosen as representative of the sertao. At about 50 kilometers west the arid region begins, and the land becomes higher and drier as we go.. Giant agaves, at the end of blooming, were falling or ready to fall. Agave seems to be cultivated to some extent for rope making. This plant after flower- ing assures a second crop of offspring by producing leafy shoots all along the horizontal old flowering branches, these ready to take root as soon as the parent stem falls to the ground. The hills are covered with scrub or low trees, the “ caatinga,” con- sisting of Mimosa, Acacia, thorny shrubs, and semiarborescent cactus, except where it has been cleared for planting. Ground is cleared by burning, and cotton, sugar cane, castor plants, mandiocca, or tobacco are planted, sometimes here and there among the shrubs or tussocks of sedge that refused to burn down. ‘There seemed to be little or no cultivation. Mandiocca, or cassava, from which the staple food farinha is made, was the only clean crop seen, except small patches of tobacco. There are no plows or other agricultural imple- ments, planting and cutting being done with heavy hoes and large knives. When a field becomes overgrown with weeds or brush it is abandoned and a new place is burned. Land, I was told, is very cheap. The result is that cultivated spots are scattered, hit or miss, through the scrub, which is overgrazed by cattle, horses, donkeys, sheep, and goats, till only inedible shrubs and herbs, Jatropha, Cap- paris, and the like flourish. The poor skinny animals eat everything bare except where a bit of soii is protected by thorny or bitter shrubs. I searched such spots for remnants of the original ground-cover, but most of the poor little refugees were introduced weeds. Bermuda grass (Capriola EASTERN BRAZIL—CHASE 387 dactylon) clings to earth even when reduced to mats no larger than a 5-cent piece. If given the least chance it would cover the desolate earth; not a thing for the agrostologist to rejoice over, but it would benefit the poor animals. The bare ground is eroded more or less, but is held by the shrubs, except in the little villages where powdery dust fills the air. When the rains come the water runs off at once carrying the surface soil with it. No forage crops are grown in the sertaéo except for little patches of Para grass here and there along a stream. In November the dry season had only begun, yet every edible plant in the sertéo seemed to have been consumed, and there were some eight months more to endure before the rains. A large thrifty looking milkweed (Ascle- pias), a low temptingly green herb growing in dense patches, and scattered plants of Capparis were not even nibbled. Palatable plants, overgrazed and not allowed to seed, have been exterminated and only such inedible herbs remain. The shrubs were mostly leafless, but many were in bloom, glowing patches of yellow of Chamaefistula and Cassia being conspicuous. A species of Ruellia with lovely mauve flowers was common in the scrub. Garanhuns, 850 meters high in the sertaéo, 271 kilometers to the southwest of Recife at the end of the railroad, is much less barren and more progressive, with fairly good sugar-cane fields and with bullock carts in common use. From Garanhuns, accompanied by two missionaries, Mrs. Thompson and Miss Kilgore, I visited Paulo Affonso Falls in the Rio Sao Francisco, difficult of access until recently and not heretofore visited by a botanist. We made the trip, some 200 kilometers, by automobile over a newly cut road, leaving at dawn. About an hour from Garanhuns we dipped into the valley of a small river with fairly dense woods, then, reaching the hills again, the country became drier and drier. We were now in the true sertaéo in the basin of Rio Sao Francisco. The country was less desolate than that about Bello Jardim. Though the grasses and herbs were dead and bleached, many of the shrubs and small trees composing the caatinga were in gorgeous bloom, some leafless, some with brilliant green glossy foliage. Cashews and other large trees were met with here and there, and in two places where the road dipped to lower altitude were rather thick groves of trees hung with a Zillandsia like our Spanish moss. Small birds of astonishing colors—green, yellow, and raspberry pink in the same flock—flew up in an explosion of color. Doves, much like our ground dove of Florida, were common; also parokeets and the red, white, and blue (slate blue) “ gallo das campinhas,” seen before at Bello Jardim. This “cock of the fields” is a handsome bird about the size of our cardinal. 388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 We reached Pedra, about 25 kilometers from the falls, just before sunset. There is a thread factory here, with light and power trans- mitted by a turbine station at the falls, both the property of the Gouveia family. Permission was secured from the factory manager to visit the falls, and a little after dark we set out. As we sped along, the headlights showing cactus and the pale gray stems of leafless shrubs, I waited breathlessly for the plunge into tropical forest. Finally we saw lights ahead and were met by a little crowd of men and boys. (The factory manager had telephoned that we were coming.) The automobile could go no farther; they would take us and our baggage on a tiny trolley on a narrow track. A man ran behind and pushed the car. The new moon had set but there was enough starlight to see that we were crossing deep places. We could hear the roar of the falls and, alighting after a ride of about half a kilometer on the trolley, we could see a wild turmoil of tossing waters. We clambered about a little to get a starlight view of the falls while Antonio, who had pushed the trolley car and who was our devoted friend till we left, hung our hammocks in an empty house and carried in our baggage. How could there be such mighty falls and such spray without verdure? Morning would reveal some dripping cliffs, I was sure, with trees and the climbing bamboos and tropical grasses I had been looking forward to.” But at early dawn I left my hammock to view the greatest waterfall and the most lifeless desert I have ever seen. At this time, early in the dry season, the falls were about 81 meters high. (Niagara is about 49 meters high.) In the rainy season in this region (June and July), and again in the rainy season at the headwaters of Rio Sao Francisco in Minas Geraes (December to February) the river is much higher, sometimes 15 meters or more above its present level below the falls. The Paulo Affonso is not one straight fall, as is Niagara, but is, rather, a stupendous cascade. The power plant and a few small houses are on an island cut off from the mainland by two rocky channels, one of which was dry at this season. These channels are bridged by a trolley line about two and one-half feet wide, with planks down the middle for crossing on foot. At the falls a high island of dark rock (Secret Island) divides the river, the main falls being the left branch (looking down stream). The right branch (on the Bahia side of the island) can not be seen from the left bank. At the top of the main falls the river is divided by a great mass of rock, forming two falls which pour toward each other. Below this the waters pour in three divisions into a great plunge basin, into which also pour the waters of a lovely twin falls and, a short distance farther, of the great Bahia Falls, which sub- divide Secret Island. At the base of the Bahia Falls all the waters come together in the wildest turmoil, creamy brown, and explode EASTERN BRAZIL—-CHASE 389 against both rock walls. From here the whole mass falls into a second plunge basin, with spray which shoots up in spires, rising higher than the top of this lower fall, and obscuring all but the summit, as in Horseshoe falls at Niagara. There is a deep vibrating roar with a high continuous clashing above it, like endlessly shatter- ing glass. The river below is the wildest clash of waters, the bed slanting downward probably 15 to 20 meters to a sharp turn where the end of the island and the high wall of the left bank approach, forming a whirlpool and cutting far into the wall. At the head of this recess, several meters up the cliff, is an enormous cave and down the side falls the water of the stream crossed by the trolley. The cave is about 150 meters in depth with a lofty ceiling at the entrance. The floor toward the back is covered thick with manure from bat roosts. In front of it are piles of driftwood. The river here makes a sharp turn to the right. Following the wall to the south, the falls called Agua de Venta on the Bahia side of Secret Island can be seen. I never saw any region so nearly devoid of vegetation. It is astonishing how the cliffs can keep so dry and bare with so much mist rising from the falls. The perpendicular wall of the canyoa was dark-brown rock, smooth and polished. In clefts were a few small trees and shrubs and an entire-leaved fern. On the opposite cliff (the face of Secret Island) is a vertical zone of verdure where the spray waters it, with scrub and cactus and bare rock on either side. JI explored the channels crossed by the trolley and then struck up river. All was bare rock, smooth and polished or black and cindery, without even a lichen, and hot to the touch in the blazing sun. Back from the river in a desert of loose dry sand was sparse scrub, the shrubs mostly leafless but some in bloom. A woody Bignoniaceous vine (a species of Arrabidaea) clambering over a low tree bore gorgeous yard-long sprays of large rose-purple flowers. Parrots flew screaming and hawks and vultures wheeled and soared. Doves were common, as everywhere in the more arid sertao. From Garanhuns I went to Maceio, Alagoas, and took a Brazilian boat for Bahia. The boat left at night, so I had a day in the low, wooded, sandy region back of the mangrove zone. The city of Bahia is on the inside of a small peninsula between the bay and ocean. Towns in Brazil, like plants with us, have frequently an official and a common name. The city of Pernambuco is called Recife (for the reefs which form a breakwater) ; Bahia is Sao Sal- vador, and the bay is Bahia dos Todos Santos; but both the city and the bay, as well as the State, are called Bahia. The peninsula is a succession of hills and hollows, and my field book began to fill rapidly. This was what I had expected of Brazil. 390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 I had the good fortune to be the guest of a family of American missionaries, the Andersons, whose veranda and lawn I spread with plant driers. Mr. Anderson knows more about Brazil than anyone I met, and gave me information that saved endless time and worry. One of the Martius localities I wanted to visit was Joazeiro, on Rio Sao Francisco. At Pedra I was not far from there. A narrow- gauge railroad runs from Piranhas, on the Rio Sao Francisco, about 50 kilometers below the Paulo Affonso falls, to Jatoba, about as far above them. The river above and below is navigable. But the journey from Pedra to Joazeiro, around the great bend to the north, would have taken over two weeks. From Bahia to Joazeiro, 575 kilometers, a shorter distance than from Washington to Pittsburgh, took two days each way, the train stopping overnight at Santa Luzia. After half a day’s ride it seemed to be the journey to Bello Jardim over again, the same dry scrub land, the same sorry agri- culture and miserable animals. The second day was still worse, and my heart sank as we neared Joazeiro. This old city is an important center of trade in hides, dried fish, and bark for tanning. The produce from the upper river is here shipped overland to Bahia. Noisome stacks of hides towered far above one’s head at the railway station, and piles of bark bordered the track. Water for household use is carried from the muddy river by women and children and in kegs on the backs of donkeys, a con- tinual stream of water-carriers coming and going. ‘The water is filtered through large earthen pots into tall graceful water jars. The region is as desolate as Yuma, Arizona. It is obvious that long-continued overgrazing has changed the character of the country. There is nothing to hold the rains and the overflow from the river. The soil is alluvial and ought to support a good growth of plants. The few trees, not tall, but sturdy, seem to thrive, but the ground is absolutely bare in large patches, deeply gullied and in same places exposing very coarse gravel, the latter, because it does not blow, forming low flat hillocks. A hundred years ago when Martius was there it must have been beautiful semiarid scrub and alluvial savanna, for the plants he collected there are those of brushy savannas. While botanizing some ten kilometers to the west I saw an excellent demonstration of wind erosion. Hearing a roaring like fire I looked to see what it was. At some distance was a whirlwind which came with a cloud of red dust so thick it obscured the brush as it went by, less than 100 meters from me. In the river margin was a large colony of Echinochloa polystachya, a gigantic relative of our barnyard grass. This, I was told, is eagerly eaten by cattle, but while feeding on it they are sometimes attacked by piranhas, the blood-thirsty fish which makes bathing EASTERN BRAZIL—-CHASE 391 in the river risky. I saw this fish only on the table, where it is excellent eating. I made a day’s trip to the Rio Salitre about 45 kilometers to the west. The scrub (or caatinga) is much denser and near the river are trees, but the earth is badly eroded. I found some interesting grasses here, one known as Paspalum denticulatum var. ciliatwm (but a good species), which is very rarely represented in herbaria and which I found nowhere else, being abundant in low wet ground. ‘At Joazeiro there is a Horto Florestal, about what we would call an agricultural experiment station. It looked very promising with fine mango and orange trees, plantations of Eucalyptus, and some good Duroc-Jersey and Poland China swine for breeding. From the train I saw a stretch of promising sandy savanna at Parafuso, a few miles north of Bahia. Returning there I had one of the richest days of my entire stay in Brazil. I found several little-known grasses I had been hoping for and many more I knew in the herbarium but had never seen growing. I made a trip across the bay to the little town of Cachoeira at the head of navigation of Rio Paragassti. If the Bay of Rio de Janeiro were not so famous for its beauty we would hear more of Bahia. The bay and its steep surrounding hills, with mangrove marshes filling the indentations, is indescribably lovely. A giant aroid (Montrichardia arborescens—what Beebe calls “muckamucka”) grew in the water at the base of the hills as we entered the wide mouth of Rio Paragassi. I hired a man with a dug-out canoe to take me out to a dense growth of this in the river between Cachoeira and Sao Felix, to get an enormously tall grass (Panicum rivulare) growing in it. I spent a day in the dry region about Feira Santa Anna and another walking back from Serra to Cachoeira, about fifteen kilo- meters. A little stream full of rapids and falls kept me company much of the way. Here I found Hymenachne condensata, the type of which I had seen in Raddi’s herbarium at Pisa and which was represented in the United States National Herbarium by a single fragmentary specimen. I afterwards found it plentiful in a single locality west of Rio de Janeiro. I had two more good days in marshes and sandy savannas be- tween Alagoinhas and Matto de Sao Joao, about 125 kilometers northwest of Bahia, and sailed on January 6 for Rio de Janeiro. I reached Rio de Janeiro a second time January 9, midsummer. The next day, in company with Dr. Horace Williams, the chief of the geological survey, I visited Pao de Assucar. The summit is reached by an aérial trolley, the first section of which runs from the base to Morro de Urca, the second from the other end of Morro 392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1926 de Urca to the summit. This enormous block of dark brown granite is 380 meters high. The perpendicular west side is bare for more than half its height. Toward the summit small bromeliads and grasses cling to the rock, the aggressive intruder, capim gordura, being the most abundant. The clouds that hang around this isolated peak supply moisture for a surprisingly dense vegetation. The sum- mit is fairly covered with vegetation, a dense colony of Paspalum coryphaeum, masses of a sterile bamboo, Olyra micrantha, the largest of the olyras, reaching a height of three to four meters, a beautiful large-flowered bean (Phaseolus grandiflorus) and tall composites, occupy the summit and the rocks just below, while trees and vines form dense thickets on the eastern face, extending nearly to the very summit. From the summit there is a wide view out to sea, over the city, and up the bay. This island-dotted sheet of opalescent water, with the blue peaks of the Serra do Mar rising beyond it, is enchanting. The most striking peak is called Dedo de Deus, the finger of God, from the resemblance to the uplifted forefinger of a closed hand, so common a feature in images of Christ. I had letters to officials at the Jardim Botanico and received many courtesies from them. Miss Maria Bandeira, educated in England and the daughter of a prominent physician at Rio de Janeiro, who is working on mosses at the Jardim, was a delightful companion on my first full day on Corcovado. We took an early train (cog-road) to the summit and walked down to Paineiras, no great distance, the collecting being so good. At the summit, 720 meters altitude, the pretty little international, Poa annua, greeted me, as it did at sea level the first minute I set foot on European soil two years before. Corcovado is the “type locality” for a large number of grasses, and from Paspalum obtusifolium Raddi (now referred to Awonopus) and P. corcovadense Raddi at the summit, to Olyra glaberrima Raddi at 480 meters, they still lived where they were discovered over a cen- tury ago, as well as many since described by Nees and by Hackel from this beautiful mountain. I spent several more days on Cor- covado, along the Aqueduct Trail, beloved of Martius, and up and down the jungly slopes or rocky cliffs. At this time the quaresma (a species of 7’ibouchina) was in bloom, and masses of richest rose-purple glowed on the slopes. These gor- geous trees are called guaresma, which means Lent, because the trees bloom during the lenten season. But I saw different species of it, trees and shrubs, in bloom in various places until May. At this time the city was aglow with Cassia fistula, its pendent clusters of golden flowers a foot long. Through the kindness of Dr. Campos Porto, Miss Bandeira and I were able to visit Itatiaia, the great mountain that rises where the EASTERN BRAZIL—-CHASE 393 States of Rio de Janeiro, Sio Paulo, and Minas Geraes touch. The journey from Rio de Janeiro, to Bariio Homem de Mello (Campo Bello—the nomeclature of Brazilian towns being like that of plants, with numerous changes of names and consequent synonyms) was through jungle-clad mountains and across rocky streams. From Bario Homem de Mello we started on horseback toward the towering mountain mass to the north, our collecting outfit following on a pack horse. We had charming views of Rio Campo Bello far down the narrow valley below and could hear its tumbling waters. The slopes were mostly forested with different species of palms, especially a very slender one that grows in clumps, suggesting gigantic clumps of sugarcane. We reached the Florestal on Monte Serrat about 4 o’clock. From Monte Serrat (816 meters altitude) to the sum- mit of the mountain and for some miles beyond on the Minas Geraes side the country is a Federal reserve under the charge of the Jardim Botanico. The Florestal is a sort of forest station and ex- periment station combined, where scientific work is carried on under the direction of Dr. Paulo Campos Porto. The station is a long low building, with pleasant living rooms, a laboratory, library, and dark room, surrounded by gardens. There are great groves of Araucaria brasiliensis, beautiful against a background of blue moun- tains or white mist. From the Florestal there is a vast outlook up the mountains and down over a sea of lower hills. The next morning we left shortly after 8 o’clock with two pack animals bearing camping and collecting outfits. It had rained dur- ing the night and masses of white mist hung between the mountains, the nearby araucarias outlined against them. The trail was difficult, up over stones and through deep mud or across streams. It was necessarily slow going so I did not have to give much attention to the horse, but could keep my eyes on the forested slopes above and below, with their palms, tree ferns and great masses of hanging bamboo, and on the trail border where Panicum, Ichnanthus and a silvery Paspalum promised rich ¢ollecting on the way back. Once we saw down the steep slope below a dark brown monkey up a palm tree so slender that it swayed under his weight, and a second run- ning up the trunk. They looked at us and chattered—then one climbed down, while the upper one spread his little arms and sprang from the tree, sailing down (it must have been forty or fifty feet) into the top of another palm.